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THEOLOGICAL  UBl^KY 


ANDdVJJR-ffiRl^RP 

IHEOLOSICAmBRARy 


THEOLOGICAL  UBKARY 


J 


The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 


VOLUME    FOUR 
Gland— Diocesan 


.-^ 


THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN   INTERNATIONAL   WORK   OF   REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,    DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND   HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC   CHURCH 


EDITED  BY 

CHARLES  G.  HERBERMANN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

EDWARD  A.  PACE,  Ph.D,  D.D.        CONDE  B.  PALLBN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

THOMAS  J    SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN   J.  WYNNE,  S.J. 

ASSISTE3D  BY  NUMEROUS  COLLABORATORS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  IV 


'irt 


View  ]|K>rR 
THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  PRESS,  INC. 


Niha  Ohatat,  November  1,  1908 
REMY  LAPORT,  S.T.D. 

CBNaOB 


Imprimaiur 

*JOHN  CARDINAL  FARLEY 

ABCHDISHOP  OF  NBW  TO&K 


Copyright,  1908 
By  Robert  Applbton  Company 

Copyright,  191S 
By  the  encyclopedia  PRESS,  INC. 

The  articfos  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  hy  copyright.     All  rights^  includ- 
ing the  right  of  translation   and  reproduction,   are  reserved. 


^hksswork  and  aiNDiNO  av  j.  m.  lvon  co.,  albanv.  m.  v..  u.  a.  a. 


m 


Contributors  to  the  Fourth  Volume 


ABRAHAM,  LADISLAUS»  LL.D.,  Meubeb  of 
Agab^bmt  of  Science  at  Cbacow,  Professor  of 
Canon  Law,  Royal  Univsbsity,  Lkmberg, 
GaulciAi  Auatbia:  Cjrril  and  Methodius. 

AHERNE,  CORNELIUS,  Profbsbor  of  New  Teota- 

liENT  EXKGBBIB^  RbcTOR,  8t.  JoSEPH's  COL- 
LEGE, Mill  Hill>  IiONpon:  Colosaians,  Epistle  to 
^e;  Commentaries  on  the  Bible;  Corinthians, 
'^'^^i  to  the. 


AIKEN,  CHARLES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Afol- 
oaBncs,  Catbouo  Unitersitt  of  America, 
Washinqton:  Confucianism. 

ALSTON,  G.  CYPRIAN,  O.S.B.,  Downside  Abbey, 
Bath,  England:  Cluny;  Convent;  Convent 
Sdiools  (Great  Britain);  Cort>ie,  Monastery  of; 
Corvey;  Crutched  Fri^ire;  ,  Deusdedit,  Saint; 
Dinooth. 

ALVARADO,  THOMAS  CANON,  Cuenca,  Ecua- 
dor: Cuenca. 

ANGER,  HENRY,  LiTr.B.,  B.Sc.,  New  York: 
Delacroix,  Ferdinand. 

ARENDZEN,  J.  P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  B.A.,  Professor 
of  Holy  Scripture,  St.  Edmund's  College, 
Ware,  England:  Cosmogony;  Demetrius  (Syrian 
Kings);  Demiurge. 

ASTRAIN,  ANTONIO,  SJ.,  BLu>Rn>:  Congiegatio 
de  Auxiius. 

AVEUNG,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  Chelsea,  London: 
Condition;  Deism. 

BALESTRI,  GIUSEPPE,  O.S.A.,  Professor  Emeri- 
Tus  OF  Sacred  Scripture,  College  of  St. 
Monica,  Rome:  Cyrus  and  John. 

BANDELIER,  AD.  F.,  Hispanic  Society  of  Amer- 
ica, New  York:  Clavu»ro;  Cobo;  Cogolludo 
Colombia;  Columbus,  Christopher;  Gondamme 
Oopacavana;  Cordova,  Juan  de;  Coronado, 
CoroneL  Juan;  Qfa\Aa\  Costa  Rica;  Davila 
Ftulilla. 

BARNES,  ARTHUR  STAPYLTON,  MA.  (Oxon. 
and  Cantab.),  Cambridge,  England:  Counsels. 

BAtMGARTEN,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  PAUL  MARIA, 
J.U.D.,  S.T.D.,  Domestic  Prelate,  Rome:  De 
Rossi. 

BAUMSTARK,  ANTON,  S.T.D.,  Teacher  in  the 

CaTROUC  OTMNAaiUM  OF  SaABACH,  BaDEN,  GER- 
MANY: Cosmas. 

BEOCARI,  CAMILLO,  SJ.,  Postulator  General 
OF  THE  Society  of  Jbsub,  Rome:  Confessor. 

BECHTEL,  F.,  SJ.,  Professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Louis  Universtty,  St. 
Louis:  Oordier;  Core,  Dathan,  and  Abiron; 
Comelius  (Centurion). 


BENIGNI,  U.,  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory, Pont.  Collbgio  Urbano  di  Propaganda, 
Rome:  Codex  Vaticanus;  CoUe  di  Val  d'Elsa; 
Comacchio;  Como;  Concordia;  Converzano; 
Consa;  Cortona;  Cosenza;  (k>trone;  Cosza* 
Lusi;  Crema;  Cremona;  Cuneo;  Demecracyt 
Christian;  Diaoo. 

BIHL,  MICHAEL,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Ecclbsuoti- 
CAL  History,  Collegio  San  Bonaventura, 
C^UARAccHi,  NEAR  FLORENCE:  Colctte;  Conoep- 
tionists;  David  of  Augsburg. 

BOEYNAEMS,  LIBERT  H.,  C.SS.CC.,  Titular 
Bishop  of  Zeugma,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands:  Damien. 

BOOTHMAN,  C.  T.,  Kingstown,  Ireland:  Digby, 
Kenelm;  Digby,  Sir  Kenelm. 

BOUDINHON,  AUGUSTE-MARIE,  D.D.,  D.C.L., 
Director,  "Canonibte  Contemporain",  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law,  Institut  Cathouque, 
Paris:  Desertion;  Desservants. 

BOWDEN^  SEBASTIaA,  The  Oratory,  London: 
Dalgaims. 

BRAUN,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Luxemburg:  Dalmatic. 

BREHIER,  LOUIS  RENE,  Professor  of  Ancient 
AND  Medieval  History,  University  of  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, Puy-db-D6me,  France:  Gom- 
mines;  Crusades;  Dandolo. 

BROCK,  HENRY  M.,  S  J.,  Professor  of  Physics, 
Holy  Cross  College,  Worcester,  Massachu- 
setts: Coriolis;  Curiey;  Danti,  Ignazio;  Daubrte; 
Denza;  Desains. 

BURTON,  EDWIN,  D.D.,  St.  Edmund's  Coujsge, 
Ware,  England:  Clement,  Csesar;  Clenock; 
Clerk;  Clifton;  Codrington;  Colet;  Constable, 
Cuthbert;  Cordell;  Cuthbert,  Saint;  Daniel 
John;  Darrell ;  Davenport,  Christopher;  De  Lisle, 
Digby,  George. 

BURTSELL,  Very  Rev.  Mgr.  RICHARD  L.,  Ph.D., 
S.T.D.,  Rondout,  New  York:  Consanguinity; 
Crime;  Defender  of  the  Matrimonial  Tie. 

RUTIN,  R.,  S.M.,  S.T.L.,  Ph.D.,  Jefferson  College, 
Convent,  Louisiana:  Cleophas;  Contant  de  la 
Molette;  Crelier. 

CABROL,  FERNAND,  O.S.B  Abbot  of  St. 
Michael's,  Farnborougb,  England:  Oomplin; 
Cross  and  Crucifix  (Part  II.  Representations  as 
Objects  of  Devotion). 

CAMM,  BEDE,  O.8.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Erdingtov 
Abbey,  Birmingham,  England:  ditherow: 
Davies;  Dean,  William;  Dingley. 

CAMP]^LL,  NOEL  JOSEPH,  SJ.,  B.A.  (Oxow.), 
Beaumont  College,  Old  Windsor,  Berks^ 
England:  Covenanters. 


CONTHIBUTOKS  TO  TJllO   FOUHTH  VOLUME 


CAMPBELL,  THOMAS  J.,  SJ.,  St.  Maky's  Col-    DE  SMEDT,  CH.,  S.J.,  Bbubsbls:   Criticism,  Hit- 
LEGE,  Montreal:  Crasset;  Croiset.  torical. 

CANDIDE,  F.,  O^M.Cap.,  Lector  in  Philosopht,     DEVAS,    FRANCIS    CHARLES,    SJ.,    Classical 
Capuchin  Monastery,  Ristigouche,  Province  Master,    Stonyhurst   College,    Blackburn 

OF  Quebec:  Cochem,  Martin  of.  England:  Devas.  ' 

CAPES,  FLORENCE  MARY,  London:  Colomba  of    DEVLIN,  WILIJAM,  S  J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Rieti;  Coluxnba,  Saints.  Maryland:  Cremation. .  ^ 

CARMICHAEL,    MONTGOMERY,    British    Vice    MONNfi^N^^E^SA,  k.b.^L.BRARiANTOT 
Consul,  Leghorn:  Clerks  Regular  of  the  Mother  ^  ^ 

of  God  of  Lucca. 

CASSIDY,  JOHN  JOSEPH,  S  J.,  Woodstock  Col- 
lege, Maryland:  Conimbrioenses. 

CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  O.S.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Prior  of 
St.  Thomas's  Abbey,  Erdington,  Birmingham, 
England:  Clementines;  Qement  I;  Cornelius, 
Pope;  Cyprian  of  Carthage;  Cyril  of  Al^xandria^; 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem;  Demetrius,  Samt;  Didaiche; 
Didascalia  Apostolorum;  Didymus  the  Blind. 


ISLATURE  OF  QuEBEc:  DenoHville. 

DONOVAN,  STEPHEN  M.,  0.FJI.,  Franciscan 
Monastery,  Washington:  dare  of  Montefalco; 
Clare  of  Rimini:  Ooelde:  Oohnan,  Walter;  Con- 
rad of  Asooli;  Conrad  of  Offida;  Conrad  of  Pia- 
cenza;  Conrad  of  Saxony;  Conry;  Conversi; 
Cozea;  Crib;  Crispin  of  Viterbo;  Crown,  Francis- 
can; Cunegundes;  Darnel  and  Companions; 
Ddlino;  Delphine;  Didacus. 

DOWLING,  AUSTIN,  Providence,  Rho»b  JsUnd: 
Conclave. 
CHARLES,  BROTHER,  C.S.C.,  Professor  of  Eng-    ._.„._ 

USH,  SCHOLASnCATE  OF  THE  CONGREGATION  OF      DOWLING,   M.    P.,    8  J.,    KaISBAS   OtTY,   MISSOURI : 


THE  Cross  of  Jesus,  Rimouski,  Canada:  Cross 
of  Jesus,  Brothers  of  the. 

CLEARY,  GREGORY,  O.Fjyi.,  J.U.L.,  Pbqfessqr 
OF  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Isi- 
dore's College,  Rome:  Commissariat  of  the 
Holy  Land;  Custos. 


Creighton  Univeraity. 

DRISCOLL,  JABIES  F.,  D.D.,  President  of  ftr.  Jo- 
seph's Seminary,  Dunwoodis,  New  York: 
Dan. 

DRISCOLL.  JAMES  H.,  S.T.D.,  D.CX.,  House's 
Point,  New  York:  Contumacy. 


CLEARY,  HENRY  W.,  Editor,  "New  Zealand 

TABLirr",  DuNEDiN,  New  Zealand:  Cooktown;    DRISCOLL,  JOHN  THOMAS,  A.  M.,  S.T.L.,  Fonda, 


DaUey. 

CLIFFORD,  C0RNELIU5*,  Sbton  Hall  Collhoe, 
South  Orange,  New  Jersey:  Craigie;  Crashaw. 

COFFEY,  PETER,  Ph.D.,  S.T.L.,  Professor  .of 
Philosophy.  St.  Patrick's  College,  May- 
nooth:  Deauction;  Dialectic. 

COLEMAN,  AMBROSE,  O.P.,  M.R.IA.,  St.  Sav- 
iour's  Priory,  Dublin:  Crolly. 

COLEMAN,  CARYL,  B.A.,  Pblham  Manor,  New 
York:  Cosmati  Mosaic, 

CORBETT,  JOHN,  SJ.,  Assoclite  Editor,  "The 
Messenger",  New  York:  Comoldi;  David, 
King. 

COUDERT,  ANTOINE,  O.M.I.,  Archbishop  of 
Colombo,  Ceylon:  Colombo. 

COURSON,  OOMTESSE  ROGER  db,  Paris:  Com- 
mune, Martyrs  of  the  Paris. 

CURLEY,  CHARLES  F.,  A.B.,  LL.D.,  Wilmington, 
Delaware:  Delaware. 

CUTHBERT,  FATHER,  O.S.F.C.,  Hassocks,  Sus- 
sex, England:  Definitors  (in  Religious  Orders). 

D'ALTON,  E.  a.,  M.R.I.A..  Aihbnry,  Ireland: 
Clynn;  Cogitosus;  Creagn;  Culdees;  Dease. 

DELAMARRE,  LOUIS  N.,  Ph.D.,  iNerniucroR  in 
French,  College  of  the  Ctty  of  New  York: 
Coppte;  Comeille,  Pierre;  Dareftte  de  la  Cha- 
vanne;  Deschamps,  Eustaiche;  Didot. 

DELANY,  JOSEPH  F.,  New  York:  Correction; 
Death;   Decalogue;   Despair;   Detraotioii. 

MJLAUNAY,  JOHN  BAPTIST  STEPHEN,  C.S.C., 
Lrrr.B.,  Ph.D.,  Notre  Dame  UniversftIt,  In- 
diana; d^manees;  Cochin,  Jacques;  Oochin, 
Pierre;  Coll^  de  France. 


New  York:  Deity. 

D'SOUZA,  A.  X.,  Bombay,  India:  Cuncc^im,  Martyrs 
of. 

DUBRAY,  C.  A.,  S.T.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Phil- 
osophy, Marii^  College,  Washington;  Clich- 
tove;  Colonna,  Egidio;  Dhuoda. 

DUNFORD,  DAVID,  Diocesan  Inspector  of 
Schools,  Hoddesdon,  Herts,  England:  Cu 
rate;  Dcuan;  Decree. 

DUNN,  JOSEPH,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Celtic  Lan- 
guages and  Literature,  Catholic  University 
OF  America,  Washington:  Oiescimbeni. 

DURET,  AUGUSTE,  D.D.,  Prefect  Apoefrouc  of 
the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  Cairo,  Egypt:  Delta  of 
the  NUe. 

EDMONDS,  COLUMBA,  O.S.B.,  Fort  Augustus, 
Scotland:  Coemgen;  Ooiumba,  Saint;  Cblum- 
ba,  Saint,  Abbot  of  lona;  Columbanus. 

ENGELHARDT,  ZEPHYRIN,  O.F.M.,  Watson- 
viLLE,  Caufornia:  Deymann;  Diego  y  Moreno. 

ENNIS,  A.  T.,  Co;^coRDiA,  Kansas:  Cooc9cdia 
(U.SjV.). 

ENRIGHT,  SISTER  M.  AUGUSTINE,  St.  Joseph's 
Academy,  Springfield,  Illinois:  DaU^ia.    , 

FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  SJ..  PiioFESsoR  of 
Church  History  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Louis 
University,  St.  Louis:  Cleric;  College  (in 
CuionLaw);  Collegiate;  Commissary  Apostolic; 
Competency;  Conference;  Confraternity;  Con- 
grua;  Conservator;  Constitutions;  Papal;  Cura- 
tor; Cure  of  Souls;  CuBBores  Apostolici;  Cus- 
tom; Definitor  (in  Canon  Law);  Dels^tion; 
Denunciation;  De  Smet;  Devolution;  Dimis- 
sorial  Letters. 


OONTKIBirrOBS  TO  THE  FOUttTU   VOLUME 


FENLON,  JOHN  F.,  S.S.,  S.T.D.,  PasaiDBNT  of  St. 

AlTflfllN'B  GOLLBOB,  BBOOKUkND,  D.  C,  PROFES- 
SOR OF  Sacred  Scrifturb,  St.  Mart's  Semi- 
nary, Bai/timorb:  Cbdex  Alexandrinus;  Codex 
Amistfaius:  Codex  Bene;  Cod^  Ephmmi  B*- 
scriptus;  Codex  Sinaiticus';  ConoordaiioeB  of  the 
Bible;  Creeoens. 

FISCHER,   JOSEPH,    SJ.,    Profbmor   or  Obo- 

GRAFHT  AND  HlBIORT,  StBIXA  MAnPTINA  Coi/- 
LEGB,  FBLDKIRCH,  AUSTRIA:   OaTUB. 

FISHER,  J.  H.J  SJ.,  Woodstock  Collbob,  Mary- 
land: Cursmg;  Delrio. 

FITA  Y  COLOMER,  FIDEL,  S  J.,  Mbmbbr  of  the 

ROTAL  AOADBMT   OF  HlSTORT,   MaDRIO:    CoOl^ 

postela. 

F0RTE8CUE,  ADRIAN,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  Letchworth, 
Herts,  England:  Collect;  CommuRion-^Anti- 
I^on;  Coneelebration;  Coniteor;  Constanti- 
nople, Rite  of;  Cowl;  Densinger. 

FOURNET,  PIERRE  AUGUSTS,  S.S.,  Profbssor 

OF    BeLLBS-LbTTRBS,    CoLL^B    DB    MOMTRiAL, 

Montreal:  Colin,  Fr6d4ric;  Cuoq. 

FOX,  JAMES  J.,  S.T.D.,  B.A.,  Professor  of  Philos- 
ophy, St.  Thomas's  College,  Washinctton: 
Cruelty  to  Animals. 

FOX,  WILLIAM,  B.S.,  M.E.,  Associate  Profbssor 
OF  Physics,  College  of  the  City  of  Nbw  York: 
Gierke. 

FUENTES,  VENTURA,  A.B.,  M.D.,  Instructor, 
CoLLEGB  OF  THB  CiTY  OF  Nbw  Yorx:  Crus; 
Cuba:  Cueva;  De  Soto;  Dias  del  Castillo;  Dias 
de  Soils. 

CANS,  LEO,  J.C.D.,  Sr.  Cloud,  Minnesota:  Com- 
promiee. 

GARDNER,  EDMUND  GARRETT,  M.A.  (Cam- 
bridgb),  London:  Colonna,  Vittoria;  Dante 
Alighien. 

GAYNOR,  H.  A.,  S  J.,  Woodstock  College,  Mary- 
land: Concubinage. 

GERARD,  JOHN,  SJ.,  F.L.S.,  London:  Coleridge; 
^igbyy  Bir  Everard. 

GEUDENS,  FRANCIS  MARTIN,  O.Pr.™.,  Abbot 
TrruLAR  OF  Barunos,  Corpus  Christi  PiaoRY, 
Mancbbstbr,  England:  Comillon. 

GIETMANN,  GERARD,  8. J.,  Teacher  or  Classkai 
Languages  and  iEsTHETics,  St.  Ignatius  Col- 
lege, Valkenburg,  Holland:  Coruelisz;  Cor- 
nelius, Peter. 

GIGOT,  FRANCIS  E.,  S.T.D  Professor  of  Sacred 
Scripture,  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie, 
Nbw  Youl:  Daniel;  Daniel,  Book  of. 

GILLET,  LOUIS,  Paris:  aovio;  Delaroche. 

OILLUT^MTTH,  FREDERICK  ERNEST,  Bruges: 
Common  life,  Brethren  of  the. 

GODINHO,  JOHN,  Dabul,  Bombay,  India:  DamSo. 

GOLUBOVICH,  GIROLAMO,  OJ.M.,  Florence, 
Italy:  Dardel. 


GORY,  JAMES  L.,  CovmoioN,  Kentucky: 
ington. 


Cov- 


▼ii 


GOYAU,  GEORGES,  Associatb  Editor,  ''Rbvub 
BBS  Dbux  Mondbb",  Paris:  Clermont;  Gom- 
pagnie  du  Saint-Saoreiiient;  Concordat  en  1801; 
GoBfltantine,  Diooeseof ;  Coutanoef ;  Digne;  Dijon. 

GRATTAN-FLOOD,  W.  H.,  M.R.IA.,  Mus.D.. 
Rmbmount.  Ennboorthy,  Irbland:  dement  of 
Iremnd;  Counan.  Saints;  Gonal;  Conan;  Cro- 
nan;  Dalton;  Darerca;  Deioolua;  Diarmakl; 
Dichu. 

GRUPP,  GEORG,  Maihingbn  near  Mabxtoffin- 
GEN,  Bavaria:  Gonstantine  the  Great  (Historical 
Appreciation). 

GUASCO,  ALEXANDRE,  LL.D.,  Secretary  Gen- 
eral OF  THE  SOCIBTY  FOR  THB  PROPAGATION  OF 

THB  Faith,  Paris:  Corsica. 

QULDNER,  B^  S  J.,  St.  JosBPH'ii  Golubgb,  Pbila* 
dblpbia:  Coffin,  Robert;  Contsen;  OonvBfsbn. 

GURDON,  EDMUND.  O.  Cart.,  Barcelona,  Spain: 
Contemplative  Uw;  DeBys  the  Carthusian. 

HAGEN,  JOHN  G.,  SJ.,  Vatican  Observatory, 
Rome:  Copemieus, 

HANDLEY,M.L.,  Madison,  New  Jbrsey:  Ooustou; 
Coysevox;  I^mti,  Vincenso;  Decker. 

HANNA,  EDWARD  J.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Thb- 
OLOGY.  Br.  Bernard's  SEMncABY,  Rochester, 
New  York:  Contrition. 

HARTIG,  OTTO,  Assistant  Librarian  of  the 
Royal  and  City  Library.  Munich:  Cosa;  Cos- 
mas  Indicopleustes;  DdMe;  Dias;  Dieuil. 

HARTY,  JOHN  M.,  D.D.,  PRonDSsoR  of  Moral 
Theology  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Patrick's  Col- 
lege, Maynooth:   Definition,  Theological. 

HASSETT,  MAURICE  M.,  S.TJ>.,  Harrisbubo, 
Pennsylvania:  Coliseum. 

HAVEY,  FRANCIS  P.,  S.S.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 

HOMILETICS     AND      PASTORAL     THEOLOGY,      St. 

John's  Sbminary,  Bbiohton,  MAssACHusBm; 
Clement  of  Alexandria. 

HEALY,   Most  Rbvbrbnd  JOHN,   D.D.,   LL.D., 

M.R.I.A.,  ^NATOR  OF  THB  ROYAL  UNIVERSITY 

OF  Ireland,  Archbishop  of  Tuam:  Qonard; 
Qonfert;  Clonmacnoise;  Cork,  School  of ;  Deny, 
School  of. 

HEALY,  PAT  .tICK  J.,  S.T.D.,  Assistant  Pbofbs- 
aoR  OF  Church  History,  Cathouc  University 
OF  America,  Washington:  Combefis;  Commo- 
dus;  Decius. 

HBCKMANN,  FERDINAND,  O.FJI.,  Teacher  of 
Latin  and  Greek,  Mount  St.  Sbpulchrb  Mon- 
astery, Washington:  Cord,  Confraternities  of 

the. 

HENRY,  H.  T.,  LrrT.D.,  Rbctor  of  Roman  Catho* 
Lie  High  School  for  Boys,  Professor  of  Eno- 
ush  Litbraturb  and  of  GRBGOiOAN  Chant,  St. 
Charles's  Sbminary,  Overbrook,  Pbnnsyi#» 
vania:  Congregational  Singing;  Dies  Ine. 

HERBERMANN,  CHARLES  G.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
Professor  of  Latin  Language  and  Litera« 
TUBE,  College  of  the  CrrY  of  New  York  :  Con- 
stanthie  the  Great  (First  Part);  Dance  of  Death 
fFirst  Part) 

HERRERA,  FELICIANO,  Comayagua,  Honduras: 

Coma3ragua. 


OONTHIBUTORB  TO  THE  FOURTH  VOLUBfE 


HTND,  GEORGE  ELPHBGE,  CSJa^GuufOfeoAN-'    LAURBNTIUS,   JOSEPH,   S.   J.,    Professor   of 


/  91UKB1  Wal«»:  Giiirk;dayt6d;  iieai^nt,  iohn; 
Coeni^;   0>le;   Ooleittan;   Oc^urtenav;   Crea^; 
Cuthbert,  Abbot  of  Weaimouth ;  Cuthbert,  Arcn- 
,  bishop  of  C^terbmy.  ^  ,  ,  .  .    . 

HINOJOS'Aj.EDTJ^DO  db,  MifiBfbBit  of  TBt  I^an- 
isH  Academy,  Professor  OTf  History,  XJkxvbr- 
siTY  OF  Madrid:  Coimbra;  Coria;  Cruisade,  Bull 
of  the;  Cuenca  (Spain). 

HOfiBER,  ICARL,  Ph.D.,  Editor,  "  VoucajsEmmd'' 
AND  "Die  Akademischen  MonatsqlAtTkr'V 
(Cologne:  Dillingen. 

HOLWECK,  FREDERICK  G.i  St.  Louis:  cilmar; 
Deo  Gratias ;  De  Prof undia  ;•  Deus  io  A4i  utorium. 

HOUOK,  GEORCHE)  F.,  Doueshc  PiiELiai*B,'Dioo-» 
BSAN  Chancellor,  ClbVelaKd,  Ohio:  Cleve- 
land. 

HOWIJETT,  J.  A.,  O.S.B.,  M.A.j  SvufotMi  Ewqland: 
Desert  (in  the  Bible). 

HOWLETT,  WILLIAM  JOSEPH,  Pueblo,  CJolo- 
BADo:  Denvfr. 

HUNT,  LEIGH,  Professor  of  Art,  College  of  thb 
,CiTY  of  Nfiw  York:  Cleei,  Jan  vaa;  Cleef,  Jbost 
van;  Qeef,  Martin  van :  uouet;  Corneille,  Jean- 
Baptiste;  Comeille,  Michel  (2);  pousin;  Cri- 
velli;  D^r. 

HUNTER»BLAIR,.D.  O^  Bart.,  O.SJB.,  M.A.,  Ox- 
ford, Enolahd:  Qnoyiand.      .  . 

HURTH,  PBT«R  JOSEPH,  C^.C,  S.T-D.,  Bibho* 
OF  Dacca,  IifDiA:  Daeea. 

JENNER,  HENRY,  F.S.A.,  Assistant  Librarian, 
British  Museum:  Creed,  Litufgieal  Use  of.     ' 

JOUVE,  ODORIC-M.,  O.F.M.,  Candiac,  Canada: 
Denis,  Joseph. 

KELLY;  G.  B.,  SJ.,  Woodstock  College,  Mary- 
land: Coster;  Cbton. 

KELLY,  LEO  A.,  Ph.B.,  Rocbsstbr,  New  York 
Coleti;  Conoordiit  (Second  Part);  Deusdedit 
Pope. 

KENT,  W.  H.,  O.S.C.,  Bayswater,  London:  Demon, 
Demoniacs;  Demonology;  Devil;  Devil-Wor- 
shippers. 

KERZE,  FRANCIS  L.,  Clevbland,  Ohio:  De- 
harbe. ' 

KIRSCH,  Mgr.  J.  P.,  PlROFBSSOR  OF  Patroloot  and 
Chbsstian  Aaoh^boloqy,  University  of  Fri- 
DOURO,  Switzerland:  Cieiua;.  Onrad  of  Maiv 
burg;  Damber^r;  Darras;  David  Scotus;  Dela- 
tores;  Desiderius  of  Cahors;  Deusdedit,  Car- 
dinal; Diekamp;  Dietrich  von  Nieheim. 

KNOWLES,  JOSEPH  ALPHONSUS.  0.S  A.,  Presi- 
dent OF  TH«  CA'tttOLlC  YOUNO  UXS'^  SOODSTY, 

Cork:  OdrdXkel,  Gregorio. 

KEMPOTIC,  M.  P*,  Kanras  Om,  Kaivsas:  Oioatiai 

Dalmatia. 

JCURTH.  GOPEFROTD,  Director,  Bbwjian  His- 
torical iNSTrruTE,  LifeoE:  Clotilda;  Clovis. 

LAUCHERT,  FRIEDRICH,  Ph.  D^  AMatrnt:  Die- 
ringer. 


Canon  Law,  St.  laNAriua  College,  Vasken- 
BUBO,  Holland:  Diocesan  Ohanoery. 

rf  •  •  ' 

tl£  BARS,  JEAN»  B  A.,  Lnr.D.,  Member  of  the 
Aauanc  Soaayrr,'  PABas:  Daguesaeau. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  UNivERsmr  of 
France,  Professor  of  the  CA'nK>uc  Institute 
of  Paris: 'OaudianusMamertus;  Commodianus; 
Consentius;  Dacier. 

LENHART,  JOHN  M.,  O  J£.Caf.)  Lector  or  Phil. 
osopHY,  St.  Fidelis  Monastisry,  Victoria, 
Kansas:  Coocaleo;  Comboni. 

LmSRT,  P,  PROSPER,  8.T.B.,  Librarian.  St. 
Bernard's  Seminary,  Rochester,  New  Yorki 
De  La  Croix,  Charles. 

UNDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  G.,  B.8c.,  Ph.D.,  Editor- 
in-Cbief,  ''La  Nouvbllb  £Wncb",  Quebec: 
Denaut. 

LINS»  JOSEPH,  Freiburg,  Gsbmany:  Cologne; 
Csan^d;  Culm;  Damaraland. 

UONNET,  JOSEPH,  Licentiate  of  Letters,  Ed- 
itor, ''JBrupEs  Reuoieusbb"«  Paris:  Daniel^ 
Charles. 

LOUGHLIN,  Mgr.  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Philadel- 
phia:  Clement  IIj  III;  IV;  VIII;  IX;  X;  XI; 
,  J^I;   Clericis  Laioos;.  Colonna  (Family);   Con- 
gregationalism; Conwell;  Corcoran,  James. 

LUCAS,  GEORGE  J-,  S.TJ>., 
sylvania:  Creed. 


Blossburg,  Pbnn< 


LUEBBERMANN,  BONIFACE,  Professor  of  Sa- 
cR¥o  Scripture,  Mt.  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  El- 
LENORA,  Ohiq:  Diepcnbrock. 

LUZIO,  SALVATORE,  D.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.U.D.,  Pro- 
FEssoR  OF  Canon  Law,  St.  Patrick's  College, 
Maynooth:  Dc^gradation;  Deposition;  Dero- 
gation. 

MAAS,  a.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector  of  WoonarrocK  Collegb» 
Maryland:  Communicatio  Idiomatum;  Co- 
ninck;   Correctories;    Deluge;    Deuteronomy, 

MacCAFFREY,  JAMES,  S.T.L.,  St.  Patrick's  Col- 
lege, Maynooth:  Goglier;  Coelchu;  Colgan; 
Gomgall;  Cormao  MacOuilenan  *  Curry;  Deny, 
^iooese  of. 

MACPHERSON,  EWAN,  NeW  York:  Dahomey. 

McDOSAliD,  MICHAEL,  WfisTPofeT,  Ireland; 
Croagh  Patrick. 

McDonald,  Walter,  d.d.,  prefect  of  the 

Dunboynb    Establishment,    Maynooth   Col- 
lege: Congruism. 

McMAHON,  ARTHUR  L.,  O  J.,  8r.  Dominic's  Pri- 
ory, San  Francisco:  Dedication,  Feast  of  the; 
Didon. 

MAERE,  R.,  DJ).,  Professor  of  CHmanAN  Alt- 
CHJBOLOGY,  University  of  Lou  vain:  Diaconi- 
cum;  Didron. 

MAGINNIS,  CHARLES  DONAGH,  F.A.IA.,  Bos- 
ton: Deli'Orme.' 

MAGNIER,  JOHN,  G.SS.R»  Rome:  Qement  Mary 

Hofbausy;  Bechamps,  Victoi»;  Desurtnont. 

fDeoeaaed 


Tiii 


OONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  FOURTH  VOLUME 


.^4AH£R,  MICHAEL,  &J,,  L11T.D.,  MA.,  Drbctob  MUELLER,  AJDOLF,  S J^  Dirbgtor  ofths  Privasic 

OF  Studibs  and  Profbssor  of  PEDAoboxca.  St.  .  AarRONOMXCAL  Observatort  on  thiq  Janicu- 

Mart'b  Hai^l,  SroNTHtiRST,  Blackburn,  £no-  lum,  Provessor  of  Astronomy  at  thb  Greoor- 

land:  Conscioufiness;  Determinism.  ian  Observatory,  Rome:  davius. 


MANN,  HORACE  K.,  HBADMAffFSR,  St.  CtTTHBBRT's 

Grammar  School,  NsW€AflTUD-oN«TYNB|  Eng- 
land: Conon;  ConstantiDe,  Pope. 

MARIQUE,  PIERRE  JOSEPH,  TtrroR  in  French, 
CoLLBOB  OF  THB  CiTY  OF  Nsw  YoRK :  Conscienoe, 
Hendrik;   Dechamps,  Adolphe;  Delille. 

MARUOCHI,  ORAZIO,  Professor  of  Christian 
Archeology,  Director  of  the  Christian  Mu- 
seum AT  THE  Lateran,  Rome:  Cross  and  Cruci- 
fix (Part  I.  ArchiBologf). 

MEEHAN,  THOMAS  F„  New  York:  Congresses 
(Part  III);  Corcoran,  Michael;  Cosgrove;  Cosin; 
Croke;  Cummingps;  Da  Ponte;  Day,  Sit  John; 
Denman;  Detroit^ 

MEIER,  GABRIEL,  O.S.B.,  Einsiedeln,  Switzer- 
land: Cosmas  and  Damian;  Crispina;  Crispin 
and  Crispinian;  Cyprian,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Toulon; 
Qyprian,  Saint,  ana  Justina. 

MELODY,  JOHN  WEBSTER,  AM.,  S.T.D.,  Asso- 
ciate Professor  qf  Moral  Theology,  Catho- 
lic University  of  America,  Washington: 
Commandments  of  the  Church;  Continence; 
Covarruvias;  Cresoonius. 

MERSHMAN,  FRANCIS,  O.S.B.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OF  Moral  Theology,  Canon  Law,  and  Litt/rgy, 
St.  John's  UNiVERsrrY,  College ville,  Minne- 
sota: Corbinian;  Corpus  Christi;  Deer,  Abbey 
of;  Diario  Romano. 

MING,  JOHN  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Ethics,  St. 
Ignatius  College,  Cleveland,  Ohio:  Concu- 
piscence. 

MOLLOY,  JOSEPH  VINCENT,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Somer- 
SET,  Ohio:  Dead  Sea;  Decapolis. 

MONTEIRO  d'AGUIAR,  Joseph,  Secretary  of 
TQE  Episcopal  Curia,  Cochin,  India:  Cochin, 
Diocese  of. 

MOONEY,  JAMES,  United  States  Ethnologist, 
Washington:  Oosur  d'Al^ne  Indians;  Cree; 
Creeks;  Delaware  Indians. 

MOONEY,  JOSEPH  F.,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  Prothono- 
tary  Apostouc,  Vxcar^General  of  thb  Arob- 
DIOCE8E  OF  New  York:  Consultors,  Diocesan; 
Corrigan,  Michael. 

KORAN,  PATRICK  FRANCIS,  Cardinal,  Arch- 
bishop  of  Sydney,  Primate  of  Australia: 
Cullen. 

MORICE,  A.  G.,  O.M.I.,  ^.  Boniface,  Maniioba: 
Demen;  JHn4s. 

MORRISON,  ROBERT  STEWART,  Denver,  Colo- 
rado: Colorado. 

MORRISROE,  PATRICK,  Dban  and  PROFBaaoR  of 
Liturgy,  St.  Patrick's  College,  Maynooth: 
CblouTB,  Liturgical;  Commemoration;  Oom- 
munion-Bench;  Conmiunion  of  Children;  Com- 
mimion  of  the  Sick;  Credence;  Crosier;  Cnxis- 
Bearer;  Cruet;  Dedicatibn;  Desecration. 

MOYES,  JAMES  CANON,  Wbotminbtee,  Lomoni 
Clovesho. 


MULHANE,  L.  W.,  Mt.  Vernon,  Ohio:  Columbui, 
Diocese  of. 

BfURPHY,  JOHN  F.  X.,  8 J.,  Woodstock  Goludqb. 
Maryland:  Clerks  Regiuar:  Clerics  Rogular  ot 
Our  Saviour;  Daniel,  Gabriel. 

MUTEL,  GUSTAVE,  Seoul^  Corba:  Corea. 

MYERS,  EDWARD,  UJi.  (Cambridge),  Pbovessor 
OF  Dogmatic  Theology  and  of  Patrology,  St. 
EDBfUND'sCoLLEGE,  Ware,  England:  Convoca- 
tion of  the  English  Clergy. 

NYS,  DESIRE,  S.T3.,  Ph.D.,  President,  Stui- 

NAIRE  LtON  Xin,  UnIVERSTTY  OF  LOUVAIN!   COS- 

mology. 

ODANIEL,  VICTOR  F.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Professor  of 
Dogmatic  Theology,  Dominican  House  of 
Studies,  Washington:  Connolly. 

OEOTREICH,  THOMAS,  0.S3.,  Professor  of 
Church  History  and  Sacred  ScRipruRE,  Mary- 
help  Abbey,  Belmont,  North  Carolina: 
DamasusH;  Delfau. 

OJETTI,  BENEDETTO,  S  J.,  Consultor  S.C.P.F., 
CoNsui/roR  S.C.C,  Consultor  of  the  Commis- 
sion ON  THE  Codification  of  Canon  Law,  Gre- 
gorian University,  Rome:  Concordat;  Courts, 
Ecclesiastical. 

O'NEILL,  JAMES  D.,  AM.,  S.T.D.,  Highland  Park, 
Illinois:  Qandestinity;  Coneursus;  Consent. 

CRIORDAN,  JOHN,  Cloyne,  County  Cork: 
Cloyne. 

OSUNA,  MANUEL  GARCU,  S.TJ).,  Cqrdova, 
Spain:  Cordova  (Spain). 

OTT,  MICHAEL,  0.S3.,  Ph  J).,  Professor  of  the 
History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  Univer- 
stty,  College ville,  Minnesota:  Commenda- 
tory Abbot;  Gommendone;  Conrad  of  Hoch- 
stadt;  Conrad  of  Leonberg;  Conrad  of  Urach; 
Conrad  of  Utrecht;  Constance;  Corker;  Cor- 
tese;  Constant;  Couturier;  Cracow,  Diocese  of; 
Dalbeqg;  Diemoth;  Diether  of  Isenbuig. 

OITEN,  JOSEPH,  Ptttsburgh,  Pennsylvania: 
Clemens  non  Papa;  Colonna,  Giovanni;  Coun- 
terpoint; Coussemaker;  Croce;  Depr^. 

PACfi,  EDWARD  A.,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Psychology,  Cathouc  Universtty  of  America, 
Washington:  Colosne,  University  of;  Copen- 
hagen, University  of ;  Comaro. 

PAPI,  HECTOR,  SJ.,  Ph.D.,  B.C.L.,  S.TJ).,  Pro- 
FESSOR  OF  Canon  Law,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Consistory. 

PETIT,  L.,  A  A.,  Constantinople:  Delcus. 

PETRIDES,  S.,  AA.,  Constantinople:  Claudi- 
opolis  (2);  Clasomenie;  Cocussus;  Cokmia;  Cob- 
uion;  OoIosscb;  Comana;  Coracesium;  Corfu; 
Corinth;  Corydallus;  Cotenna;  Cotiieum; 
Croia;  Curium;  Cuss;  Cyfoistra;  Cydades; 
Qydonia;  Cyme;  Cyprus;  GynotB;  Danaba; 
Dansata;  Dardanus;  Danus;  Dauiia;  Derbe; 
Dibon. 


TKEOlOGUlUmKi 


The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 


VOLUME    FOUR 
Gland— Diocesan 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Olandestinity  (In  Canon  Law). — Strictly  speak- 
ing, clandestinity  sdgnifies  a  matrimonial  impediment 
introduced  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIV,  c.  i) 
to  invalidate  marriages  contracted  at  variance  with 
the  exigencies  of  the  decree  "Tametsi",  commonly  bo 
called  because  the  first  word  of  the  Latin  text  is 
iametsi.  The  decree  reads:  "Those  who  attempt  to 
contract  matrimony  otherwise  than  in  the  preseoioe  of 
the  parish  priest  or  of  another  priest  with  leave  of  the 
parish  priest  or  of  the  ordinary,  and  before  two  or 
three  witnesses,  the  Holy  Synod  renders  altogether 
incapable  of  such  a  contract,  and  declares  such  con- 
tracts null  and  void."  The  Council  of  Trent  did  not 
transmit  any  historical  record  of  this  question.  While 
upholding  the  validity  of  clandestine  marriages  "as 
long  as  the  Chureh  does  not  annul  them '',  the  council 
asserts  that  "  for  weighty  reasons  the  holy  Chureh  of 
God  always  abhorred  and  prohibited  them".  (Sess. 
XXIV,  De  reformatione  matrimonii).  That  this  sen- 
tence strikes  the  keynote  of  unending  antipathy  on  the 
part  of  the  Chureh  towards  clandestine  marriages  can 
be  gathered  by  a  brief  review  of  the  historical  attitude 
of  the  Church.  In  the  fifth  chapter  of  his  Epistle 
to  Polycarp,  St.  Ignatius  intimates  how  men  and 
women  about  to  marry  should  enter  wedlock  with  the 
bishop's  consent,  so  that  their  marriage  may  be  in  the 
Lord  (Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  I,  100).  Tertullian 
writes  that  matrimonial  unions  contracted  without 
the  intervention  of  ecclesiastical  authority  are  liable 
to  be  jud^  tantamount  to  fornication  and  adultery 
(De  pudicitiA,  iv,  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  II,  987).  In  another 
passage  he  extols  the  hap]:Hnes8  of  that  union  which  is 
cemented  by  the  Chureh,  confirmed  by  oblation, 
sealed  with  blessing,  which  angeb  proclaim,  and  which 
the  Father  in  heaven  ratifies  (Ad  uxorem,  in  Migne, 
P.  L.,  II,  9).  The  thirteenth  canon  of  the  so-called 
Fourth  Oouncil  of  Carthage  requires  parties  contract- 
ing marriage  to  be  presented  to  a  priest  of  the  Chureh 
bjT  their  parents  or  bridal  attendants  in  order  to  re- 
ceive the  blessing  of  the  Chureh  (Hefele,  History  of 
the  Councils,  II,  412).  Whatever  may  be  the  age 
of  this  canon,  the  custom  therein  enjomed  had  pre- 
viously won  the  approval  of  St.  Ambrose,  who  earn- 
estly sought  to  have  all  marriages  sanctified  by  the 
priestly  pall  and  benediction  (Epistle  xix  to  Vigilius, 
m  Migne,  P.  L.,  XVI,  984).  The  Code  of  Justinian 
bears  evidence  to  the  influence  which  this  imperial 
legislator  wielded  to  secure  the  public  celebration  of 
marriage  according  to  some  legitimate  form  ("  Novel- 
las", or  New  Constitutions,  xxii,  Ixiv,  cxvii). 

In  the  ninth  century  the  Emperor  Basil  gave  the 
force  of  written  law  to  a  widely  observed  custom  of 
having  a  priest  assist  at  marriages  to  bless  and  crown 
the  married  parties.  Not  long  after,  Leo  the  Philoso- 
pher declared  that  marriages  celebrated  without  a 
Sriest's  blessing  were  worthless.  The  replies  of  Pope 
richdas  I  (863)  to  the  Bulgarians,  the  Pseudo-Iaidor- 
ian  Decretals,  as  well  as  the  "  Deoretum"  of  Burchard 
IV.— 1 


and  that  of  Gratian  embody  ample  evidence  to  prove 
that ,  during  the  ninth  century  and  thereof  t^nr,  the  pubiis 
celebration  of  nuptials  was  prescribed  and  clandestine 
marriage  condemned.  Thoujgh  Gratian  alleges  forged 
decretals  to  show  the  prohibition  of  clandestine  mar* 
riages,  it  must  be  granted  that  he  faitlifuUy  records 
the  usage  of  his  age  concerning  the  validitv  of  such 
marria^.  T^hough  Alexander  III  (1159-1181) 
maintained  the  vaSdity  of  clandestine  marriage  when 
no  other  impediment  intervened,  he  obliged  parties 
contracting  such  marriages  to  undergo  penanoe^  and 
suspended  for  three  years  any  priest  assisting  thereat. 
(Wems,  Jus  Decretalium,  IV,  title  III,  no.  516.) 
Another  step  in  advance  was  made  when  Iimocent 
III,  in  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215),  inaugu- 
rated the  proclamation  of  the  banns. 

Finally,  a  turning-point  in  the  history  of  this  ques* 
tion  was  reached  when  the  Council  of  Trent  enacted 
the  "  Tametsi ''  as  a  measure  destined  to  check  abuses 
and  to  safeguard  the  sacredness  of  the  marriage  con- 
tract. The  principal  elements  of  this  decree  pertained 
to  the  sentence  of  nullification  affecting  marriages  of 
Christians  failing  to  ent<er  wedlock  in  tne  presence  of 
the  parish  priest  or  his  legitimate  representative  and 
in  that  of  two  or  more  witnesses;  to  the  ways  and 
means  of  publishing  the  decree;  and  to  the  penalty 
awaiting  transgressors  thereof.  A  succinct  comment 
concermng  th^  points  will  elucidate  the  purport  of 
the  decree.  In  the  first  place,  to  attain  tne  desired 
end  more  effectually,  the  Council  of  Trent  decreed 
a  singular  method  of  promulgation.  It  ordered  that 
the  decree  should  be  published  in  every  parish,  and 
that  it  should  take  effect  only  after  thirty  davs  from 
its  publication.  When  a  parish  comprised  many 
churehes,  publication  in  the  parochial  chmt^h  was 
sufficient .  The  term  *  'parochial  chureh  "  comprehends 
missions  attended  by  priests  on  whom  the  faithful  de- 
pend for  the  ministrations  of  religion  (Cong,  of  the 
Inquisition,  14  November,  1883).  Publication  of  the 
decree  in  churehes  situated  in  sudi  missions  had  the 
force  of  law.  A  new  publication  was  not  necessary 
when  a  newly-organized  parish  results  from  the  disK 
memberment  of  a  parish  wherein  the  law  already  ob- 
tained. On  the  contrary,  if  a  mrish  subject  to  the 
law  should  be  united  to  one  hitherto  exempt,  the 
former  would  remain  bound  by  the  law  and  the  latter 
retain  its  immunity  (Cong,  of  Inquis.,  14  Dec.,  1859). 

For  obvious  reasons,  the  vernacular  should  be  used 
in  publishing  the  decree.  The  use  of  Latin  would, 
according  to  the  principles  of  canon  law,  render  the 
act  illicit  but  not  mvalia  (Gasparri,  Tractatus  Oanon- 
icus  de  Matrimonio,  11,  v,  119).  The  publication 
would  be  worthless  unless  the  decree  were  made 
known  to  the  faithful  as  a  Tridentine  law  or  as  an 
ordinance  emanating  from  the  Holy  See.  While  one 
publication  sufficed  to  induce  oblipation,  the  council 
suggested  repeated  publication  during  the  first  year  of 
tenure.    This  publication  might  be  made  whenever 

1 


OLANDESTlHrfy 


OLAKDESTINITT 


a  congregation  assembled  in  church.  The  decree 
was  sometimes  published  in  a  parish  to  bind  parish- 
ioners speaking  one  language  to  the  exclusion  of  those 
using  a  different  tongue.  Sometimes  the  law  was 
intended  to  oblige  none  but  Catholics  residii^  within 
the  parish  lines.  In  a  parish  entirely  Catholic, 
wherein  heretics  settled  after  the  law  was  duly  pro- 
mulgated, the  obligation  applied  to  all,  Catholics  and 
heretics.  In  such  cases  tne  "Tametsi''  declared 
null  heretical  marriages  or  clandestine  mixed  marriages 
(Pius  Vin,  25  March,  1880).  In  a, non-Catholic 
district  containing  only  a  few  Catholic  parishes,  the 
marriage  of  a  Protestant  with  another  Protestant,  or 
the  clandestine  marriage  of  a  Protestant  with  a  Cath- 
olic, would  be  valid  although  the  number  of  Catholics 
in  the  neighbourhood  shoiud  so  increase  as  to  warrant 
the  actuaTpublication  of  the  decree  (Pius  VII  to  Na- 
poleon I,  27  June,  1805:  Cong,  of  Inquisition,  24  No- 
vember and  29  November,  1852).  Finally,  popula- 
tions once  lately  Catholic  in  whose  parishes  the  decree 
was  published  might  be  supplantea  by  non-Catholics. 
Though  canonists  are  not  unanimous  in  their  verdict 
regarding  the  application  of  the  law  in  such  conditions, 
Gasparri,  among  others,  holds  that  in  such  cases  the 
law  would  not  bind  non-Catholics.  For  this  was, 
says  he,  the  case  when  Benedict  XIV  issued  his  Dec- 
laration, for  Holland  (Gasparri,  op.  cit.,  II,  v,  202). 

After  these  general  considerations  concerning  the 
promulgation  of  this  decree,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to 
note  where  the  decree  was  actually  published.  In  the 
United  States  this  law  was  published  in  the  province 
of  New  Orleans;  in  the  province  of  San  Francisco, 
together  with  Utah,  except  that  part  bordermg  the 
Colorado  River;  in  the  province  of  Santa  F^  except 
the  northern  part  of  Colorado;  in  the  Diocese  of  In- 
dianapolis; in  St.  Louis,  St.  Genevieve,  St.  Charles 
(Missouri),  St.  Ferdinand,  Kaskaskia,  French  Village, 
and  Prairie  du  Rodier.  In  Europe,  the  decree  was 
published  in  Italy  and  adjacent  islands;  in  the  eccle- 
siastical province  of  the  Upper  Rhine;  in  Ireland, 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Austria,  German  Empire 
(Pius  X,  18  January,  1906),  Poland,  Belgium,  Rotter- 
dam, Geneva  (Zitelli,  Apparatus  Juris  Eccles.,  I,  428), 
and  Malta  (Cong.  Inc^uis.,  18  March,  1884).  It  is 
no  easy  matter  to  give  accurate  specifications  for 
regions  outside  Europe  and  the  United  States  (Lehm- 
kuhl,  Theologia  Moralis,  II,  563).  The  decree  was 
not  published  in  England,  Scotland,  Norway,  Sweden, 
Denmark  (Zitelli,  op.  cit.,  I,  430).  In  some  localities 
circimistances  paved  the  w^  towards  a  partial  pro- 
mulgation of  the  decree  (Zitelli,  op.  cit.,  I,  437). 
Furuiennore,  althou^  the  decree  might  have  been 
promulgated,  the  action  of  legitimate  authority  could 
limit  its  binding  force.  Tlius  Benedict  XIV  termi- 
nated the  controversy  concerning  the  marriages  of  her- 
etics in  Holland.  The  fact  that  many  Dutch  Catholics 
had  abjured  their  faith  paved  the  way  for  questioning 
the  application  of  the  decree  already  promulgated 
in  that  country.  To  solve  this  difficulty  Benedict 
XIV  ruled  that  henceforth  heretical  or  mixed  mar- 
riages, clandestinely  contracted,  would  be  valid, 
provided  no  other  impedim^ii  intervened.  This 
declaration  was  subsequently  extended  to  other 
localities  in  which  the  Tridentine  decree  was  not  pro- 
mulgated until  heretics  had  organized  their  own  con- 
gregations in  sudi  places.  In  this  way  the  declara- 
tion of  Benedict  XIV  found  application  in  Canada, 
Trinidad,  the  dioceses  of  the  United  States  with  the 
exception  of  the  San  Francisco  province,  the  German 
Empire,  Bcdgium,  Russian  Poland,  the  Malabar 
Coast,  the  Uoromandel  Coast,  Constantinople  and 
suburbs,  Diocese  of  Warsaw,  Archdiocese  of  Bombay, 
Diocese  of  Culm,  Duchy  of  Cleves,  Pondicherry, 
Maastricht,  and  the  suburb  of  St.  Peter  near  Maastricht. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  here  the  wa^r  in  which  the 
term  heretic  is  to  be  understood  in  this  declaration. 
It  comprehended  individuals  baptized  in  the  Catholic 


Church,  but  who  subseauently  adopted  the  tenets  of 
some  sect ;  Catholics  wno  had  reacned  theyears  of  dis- 
cretion and  had  been  alienated  from  their  Faith  by  the 
influence  of  Protestants  whose  religion  they  thereafter 
professed ;  apostates  who  allied  themselves  with  some 
sect:  heretics  professing  no  religion  whatever  (Gas- 
parri, op.  cit.,  11,  V,  208).  Whenever  the  recjuirements 
of  this  decree  were  reduced  to  practice  owing  to  legit>- 
imate  tisage,  no  furtherpromulgation  was  necessary  to 
render  the  measure  effective  (Cong,  of  Holy  Office, 
I  May,  1887).  The  decree  once  published  m  any 
parish,  could  be  set  aside  by  revocation  on  the  part 
of  the  Holy  See.  It  could  also  be  abrogated  by  con- 
trary usage  or  desuetude.  Thus,  Pius  VII,  in  a  letter 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  8  October,  1803,  decided 
that  marriages  contracted  before  a  Protestant  min- 
ister are  valid  where  the  Tridentine  decree  has  lapsed 
into  desuetude.  In  like  maimer,  the  Congregation 
of  the  Holy  Office  decided  that  the  "Tametsi^'  had 
passed  into  desuetude  in  Japan  (11  March,  1806).  At 
the  same  time  the  Holy  See  repeatedly  declared  that 
the  "Tametsi**  did  not  lose  its  binding  force  in  a 
given  place  because  heretics  residing  there  declined 
to  observe  it,  no  matter  how  long  they  refused  to 
abide  by  its  requirements  (Cong,  of  Holy  Office, 
6  July,  1892). 

Regarding  the  subjects  of  this  law,  it  is  necessary 
to  note  that  the  decree  invalidating  clandestine  mar- 
riages was  both  local  and  personal  (Cong,  of  Holy 
Office,  14  December,  1859).  In  its  local  application 
the  law  comprehended  all  who  contracted  marriage 
in  any  place  where  the  decree  had  been  duly  promul- 
gatea,  whether  they  were  residents,  aliens,  travellers, 
transients,  or  persons  having  no  fixed  abode,  because 
those  who  come  from  an  exempt  territory  are  obliged 
to  recognize  and  observe  universal  laws.  Moreover, 
since  jurists  claim  that  territory  governs  contracts, 
it  fellows  that  residents,  aliens,  travellers,  transients, 
and  those  without  fixed  abode,  must  observe  laws 
circumscribing  contracts  in  the  place  where  such  con- 
tracts are  made.  A  decision  of  the  Holy  Office,  dated 
25  January,  1900,  gave  new  weight  to  this  accepted 
axiom  of  canonists.  On  account  of  the  personal  ele- 
ment embodied  in  this  decree,  the  obligation  of  ob- 
serving it  applied  to  those  thereunto  subjected  where- 
ever  they  might  chance  to  be.  For  this  reason  parties 
having  a  domicile  or  c}uasi-domicile  in  a  aistrict 
where  the  law  held  remamed  liable  to  its  obligation 
as  often  as  they  betook  themselves  to  an  exempt 
territory  to  evade  the  law.  Those  whose  sole  or 
whose  chief  object  in  such  case  was  to  enter  wedlock, 
were  ronsidered  guilty  of  evading  the  law.  However, 
where  one  of  the  contracting  parties  had  acquired  a 
domicile  or  quasi-domicile  m  an  exempt  territory, 
their  marriage,  if  contracted  there,  would  be  valid 
because  the  privilege  enjoyed  by  one  was  here  com- 
mimicable  to  the  other  (Benedict  XIV,  De  Synodo, 
VI,  vi). 

The  better  to  complete  this  explanation,  a  word 
concerning  the  terms  domicile  ana  quasi-domicile  is 
necessary.  An  ecclesiastical  domicile  involves  two 
elements,  namely,  residence  in  a  particular  parish 
and  an  intention  of  abiding  there  for  the  greater  part 
of  a  year.  This  intention  is  eauged  by  external  acta 
whose  manifestatk>n  marks  the  actual  acquisition  of 
a  domicile  which  is  retained  thereafter  notwithstand- 
ing i>rotracted  absence,  provided  the  intention  of  re- 
turning perseveres.  In  like  manner  residence  in  a 
parish  and  an  intention  of  dwelling  there  during  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  year  denote  the  elements 
giving  consistency  to  a  quasi-domicile.  Hence,  an 
mdividual  may  be  domiciled  in  one  parish  and  accjuire 
a  quasi-domicile  in  another.  Six  months'  sojourn 
in  tne  same  parish  entitled  parties  to  invite  the  pastor 
of  that  parish  to  assist  at  their  nuptials.  Neverthe- 
less, in  answer  to  a  petition  made  oy  the  Fathers  of 
the  'Hiird  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  the  Holy  See 


OLANDBSTINITT 


OI«Un>XSXXRITT 


(22  May,  1886)  granted  for  the  Uuitcd  States  to 
parties  moving  from  a  parish  where  the  ''Tametsi" 
obtained  to  another  parish  and  residing  there  for  a 
full  month)  the  privilege  of  a  quasi-domiciie  so  far  as 
the  matrimonial  contract  was  concerned.  Nor 
would  the  privilege  be  forfeited  in  case  the  contract- 
ing parties  Eiiould  pass  thirty  days  in  such  a  place  in 
Older  to  enter  wedlock  there  (Putzer,  Commentarium 
in  Facultates  Apostolicas,  no.  49).  Although  the 
decree  involved  a  personal  element,  clandestine  mar- 
riages were  valid  as  often  as  the  observance  of  the 
law  was  ph^^ically  or  morally  impossible,  provided 
such  impossibility  was  general  and  continued  for  a 
month  (Cong,  of  Inquis.,  1  July,  1863;  14  November, 
1883).  Parties  whose  circumstances  led  them  to 
profit  by  this  interpretation  of  the  law  were  obliged 
to  seek  the  nuptial  blessing  at  their  earliest  conven- 
ience, and  to  see  that  their  marriage  was  entered  in 
the  proper  register  (Cong,  of  Inquis.,  14  November, 
1883). 

To  the  pastor  of  either  contracting  party  belonged 
the  right  of  officiating  at  their  nuptials.  Vicars  ap- 
pointed to  exercise  the  functions  of  pastor  with  the 
rullnefis  of  the  pastoral  ministry  ejijoyed  the  same 
right  so  long  as  they  held  office  (Cong,  of  Inquis.,  7 
Sept . ,  1898).  The  noman  pontiff  alone  could  counter- 
act the  exercise  of  this  pastoral  prerogative.  The 
presence  of  the  pastor  in  the  capacity  of  wntness  satis- 
fied the  requirements  of  the  Tridentine  decree  even 
though  he  was  not  formally  invited  for  that  purpose 
(Cong,  of  Inquis.,  17  Nov.,  1835).  The  consent  of 
those  about  to  many  had  to  be  signified  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  pastor  and  other  witnesses  required  by  the 
decree.  Since  the  sovereign  pontiff  enioys  univensal 
jurisdiction  in  the  Church,  he  could  vaiialy  assist  at 
any  marriage  whatever.  Cardinals  had  no  longer  the 
right  of  assisting  at  marriages  in  their  titular  churches. 
L^tes  of  the  Holy  See  were  qualified  to  assist  at 
marriagBB  contracted  within  the  confines  of  their  lega- 
tion. Bishops  might  minister  at  marriages  in  any 
portion  of  tneir  respective  dioceses.  According  to 
Gasparri  (op.  cit.,  II,  v,  154),  an  archbishop  might  ex- 
ercise this  nght  for  the  subjects  of  his  suffragans  pro- 
vided be  visited  their  dioceses  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  canon  law.  To  a  vicar-general  was  accorded 
the  right  of  officiating  at  any  marriage  in  the  diocese. 
Those  in  whom  this  ri^t  was  vested  yfeie  at  liberty 
to  dele^te  another  pnest  to  act  in  their  stead.  Such 
delegation  might  be  special  or  eeneral.  As  often  as  the 
delegation  was  special,  little  danger  of  invalidity  was 
feared.  On  the  contrary,  when  general  jurisdiction  is 
transmitt^  to  delegates,  the  Holy  See  questions,  not 
so  much  validity,  as  legitimacy  of  action.  Hence, 
the  Consregation  of  the  Cbuncu  (20  July,  1889)  re^ 
proved  the  conduct  of  those  parish  priests  who  habit- 
ually interchange  tlie  faculty  of  assisting  at  the 
marrii^M  of  their  respective  subjects,  because  such 
method  tended  to  render  the  ''Tametsi^'  ineffectual 
80  far  as  the  presence  of  the  parish  priest  is  concerned. 
At  the  same  time  this  Congregation  (18  March,  1893) 
and  th^  Congreeation  of  the  Inquisition  (9  November, 
1898)  approved  ^Jieral  delegation  witliin  judicious 
limits.  Notification  of  his  commission  to  assist  at 
nuptials  had  to  be  given  directly  to  the  delegate,  either 
by  the  individual  authorizing  him  to  act  or  by  a  mes- 
senger specially  chosen  for  this  purpose  (Sanchez, 
De  Matnmonio,  disp.  xxvi,  no.  8).  The  commission 
might  be  granted  orally  or  in  writing.  No  priest 
w<Hild  be  justified  in  presuming  permission  to  assist  at 
marriages.  So  strict  wa:^  t  his  rule  that  a  pastor  had  no 
power  to  ratify  marriages  whose  invalidity  was  super- 
mduoed  in  this  way.  In  like  manner,  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Inquisition  (7  SepteJtnber,  1898)  decided 
that  the  ordinary  faculties  granted  by  bishops  to 
prie0t4s,  empowering  them  to  adminster  the  sacra- 
ments, did  not  quaufy  them  to  assist  at  marriages. 
Sanchei  (op.  vit.,  clb»p.  xxxv,  no.  20)  claims  tlmt  Utni 


iiutiiicatiou  would  be  sufficient  to  justify  a  priest  to 
assist  at  nuptials. 

Besides  the  parish  priest,  at  least  two  witnesses 
were  required  for  the  vahdity  of  a  marriage  contract. 
The  use  of  reason  and  the  possibiUty  of  actually  testi- 
fying render  any  individual  capable  of  exercising  tlus 
particular  function  (Benedict  XIV,  De  Synodo,  xxiii. 
no.  6).  The  simultaneous  presence  of  the  pastor  ana 
witnesses  was  necessaiy  to  comply  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  "Tametsi"  (Sanchez,  op.  cit.,  disp.  xU, 
no.  3).  Parish  priests  or  others  officiating  at  mar- 
riages without  the  necessary  number  of  witnesses,  or 
witnesses  assisting  without  the  pastor,  rendered  them- 
selves, together  with  the  contracting  parties,  liable 
to  severe  punishment  at  the  hands  of  the  bishop. 
Moreover,  a  parish  priest,  or  any  other  priest,  whether 
regular  or  secular,  assisting  without  the  pastor's  con- 
sent at  nuptiab  of  parties  belonging  to  his  parish  was 
suspended  from  pnestly  functions  until  absolved  by 
the  bishop  of  the  pastor  whose  rights  had  been  disre- 
garded. 

New  Legislation  on  Clandestine  Marriage.— 
Through  the  decree  "Ne  Temere,'*  issued  2  Au^^ist, 
1907,  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  thepontifical  commission  for  the  new  canoni- 
cal code,  important  modifications  have  been  made  re- 
garding the  form  of  betrothal  and  of  marriage.  This 
decree  was  issued  to  render  easier  for  the  universal 
Church  the  substantial  form  of  matrimony,  to  pre- 
vent more  efficiently  the  too  numerous,  hasty,  afid 
clandestine  marriages,  and  to  make  it  easier  for 
ecclesiastical  courts  to  decide  as  to  the  existence  or 
non-existence  of  a  previous  engagement  to  marry 
(see  EspousALsJ.  With  the  exception  in  regard  to 
Germany  noted  below,  this  legislation  went  into 
effect  at  Easter  (19  April),  1908,  and  is  thenceforth 
binding  on  all  Catholics  throu^out  the  world,  any 
contrary  law  or  custom  being  totally  abolisheci 
According  to  this  decree,  marriages  of  Catholics  are 
henceforth  null  unless  celebrated  before  a  duly  quali- 
fied priest  (or  the  bishop  of  the  diocese)  and  at  least 
two  witnesses.  The  same  is  true  of  marriages  in  wliich 
either  of  the  parties  is  or  has  been  a  Catholic.  The  law, 
however,  doe^  not  bind  those  who  are  not  and  never 
have  been  Catholics.  Priests  charged  with  the  care  of 
souls  in  the  territory  where  a  marriage  is  contracted, 
or  any  approved  priest  whom  one  chai^^d  with  the 
care  of  souls  or  whom  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  dele- 
gates, are  qualified  io  assist  at  nuptials.  Marriages 
contracted  m  a  parish,  district,  or  diocese,  other  than 
the  one  to  whicn  tlie  contracting  parties  belong,  are 
valid  so  long  as  the  pastor  of  the  pliacc  or  his  delegate 
assists  at  such  marriages.  However,  priests  are  for- 
bidden to  assist  at  such  marriages  unless  one  of  two 
conditions  is  verified.  Either,  one  of  the  parties  must 
have  resided  a  month  in  the  territory  where  tlie 
marriage  occurs,  or  else,  one  of  the  parties  must  have 
obtained  the  permission  of  the  priest  or  bishop 
under  whose  jurisdiction  such  a  party  resides.  In 
cases  of  serious  necessity  such  permission  is  not  re- 
quired. 

The  following  conditions  are  enjoined  by  the  decree 
"Ne  Teinere",  not  for  the  validity  of  the  marriages  of 
Cathohcs,  but  to  bring  them  into  complete  conformity 
with  the  demands  of  riglit  order.  Marriages  ought 
to  be  celebrated  in  the  parish  of  the  bride.  If  the  con- 
tracting parties  wish  to  many  elsewhere,  they  must 
ask  the  pastor  of  the  place,  or  some  priest  authorized 
by  him  or  by  the  bishop,  to  assist  at  the  marriage, 
and  one  of  the  parties  must  have  resided  there  for  a 
month.  Wlien  parties  find  tins  procedure  incon- 
venient, one  of  them  must  obtain  permission  from  his 
or  her  parish  priest  or  bishop  to  contract  marriage 
elsewhere.  In  such  cases  the  parties  will  be  obliged 
to  give  the  necessary  assurance  regarding  their  free- 
dom to  marry,  and  to  comply  with  the  usual  condi- 
tions   for   receiving   tlie   »^}irmment    of  Matrimony. 


CLARENDON 


CLASS 


When  parties  have  no  fixed  abode  and  arc  travelling 
throughout  the  country,  they  can  enter  we<^lock  only 
before  a  priest  authorized  by  the  bishop  to  assist  at 
their  marriage. 

The  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Council  declared 
(11  February,  1908)  that  the  dispensations  granted 
in  the  Bull  "  Provida  "  of  18  Januanr,  1906,  for  Ger- 
many will  still  remain  in  force.  According  to  this 
Bull,  while  Catholic  marriages  in  Germany  were 
made  subject  to  the  decree  "Tametsi",  mixed  mar-  * 
riages  and  those  of  Protestants  among  themselves 
were  exempted.  (See  Marriage;  Parish  Priest; 
Domicile,) 

Cantmtif  tt  Drer^n  Sacrotaneii  ^mmeniri  Cimeiln  Triden- 
tini  {Uome,  1893);  Derrdum,  "  jVe  Trmtrt'*  (2  August,  19Q7); 
GaspahjUp  TractatuJi  Canonic u*  dt  JJadrimirttw  {Var'ia^  1^4); 
WtiiNiH  JuJ  DtcreialiuTit  Utomi;.  11*04),  IV';  OjtiTTi,  Synopsis 
Return  MoTQlium  t>i  JhHh  FutUi^rii  tProfOn  ltt04>j  XtTBLU, 
Ap-ptmitut  JurtJt  Keciaio^iia  cTlouie,  19CKi);  StfiTifp  Eiemmiit 
of  kcciwioMiicai  Law  {^Je■|p  York,  1887}^  I;  DucKEJ^E^St  Chry- 
han  Wormkip  (London,  1004);  pEtJUi  De  imped,  ei  diap.  mairim. 
(4tli  ed.,  I^uviLUi,  ia&3);  Joder,  ytjrmulmrt  m^irxmcmial 
(4th  Pd.,  Pitrifl,  XmiYr  BA»»]BEr,  De  la  dandratinUr  dan$ 
It  mitrtaae  (Psria^  1003|;LAtinENTZUis.  fn*l  it  nf  nm  &j  fnri9  ktI  , 
(froihurf,  1903)  443-51;  Tau.-jton.  Tkn  Law  of  the  Church 
(Londob,  1906).  Fof  ft  ec^mtnenmry  on  the  decree  '*  Ne 
Teiuere."  aeo  McNrciK >!:,*,»  in  Arrutr.  hcdfjiiaBtic^  Retfitw 
(Philadclphm.  Fcbruikry,  1&08);  O'Nkill,  i6iJ- (April.  igogJ, 
und   CnosTN,  Tfie  Xett^  Mnlrimojiial  Leffi*tatioii  (Rump,  J 908). 

J.  D.  O'Neill, 

Olarandon,  CoNsrinmoNs  of.  See  Thomas 
Beckbt,  Saint. 

Glare  of  Assisi,  Saint,  cofoundress  of  the  Order 
of  Poor  Ladies,  or  Clai-es,  and  first  Abbess  of  San 
Damiano;  b.  at  Assist,  16  July,  1194;  d.  there  11 
Au^st,  1253.  She  was  the  eldest  daughter  of  Fa- 
vonno  Scifi,  Count  of  Sasso-Rosso,  the  wealthy  rep- 
resentative of  an  ancient  Roman  family,  who  owned 
a  large  palace  in  Assisi  and  a  castle  on  the  slope  of 
Mount  Subasio.  Such  at  least  is  the  traditional  ac- 
count. Her  mother,  Bl.  Ortolana,  belonged  to  the 
noble  family  of  Fiumi  and  was  conspicuous  for  her 
zeal  and  piety.  From  her  earliest  years  Clare  seems 
to  have  been  endowed  with  the  rarest  virtues.  As 
a  child  she  was  most  devoted  to  prayer  and  to  prac- 
tices of  mortification,  and  as  she  passed  into  giri- 
hood  her  distaste  for  the  world  and  her  yearning 
for  a  more  spiritual  life  increased.  She  was  eighteen 
years  of  age  when  St.  Francis  came  to  preach  the 
Lenten  course  in  the  church  of  San  Giorsio  at  Assisi. 
The  inspired  words  of  the  Poverello  kindled  a  flame 
in  the  heart  of  Clare;  she  sought  him  out  secretly 
and  begged  him  to  help  her  that  she  too  might 
live  "after  the  manner  of  the  holy  Gospel",  St. 
Francis,  who  at  once  recognized  in  Clare  one  of 
those  chosen  souls  destined  by  God  for  great  thin^. 
and  who  also,  doubtless,  foresaw  that  many  woma 
follow  her  example,  promised  to  assist  her.  On 
Palm  Sunday  Clare,  arrayed  in  all  her  finery,  at- 
tended high  Mass  at  the  cathedral,  but  when  the 
others  pressed  forward  to  the  altar-rail  to  receive  a 
branch  of  palm,  she  remained  in  her  place  as  if  rapt 
in  a  dream.  All  eyes  were  upon  the  young  girl  as  the 
bishop  descended  from  the  sanctuary  and  placed  the 
palm  in  her  hand.  That  was  the  last  time  the  world 
oeheld  Clare.  On  the  night  of  the  same  day  she 
secretly  left  her  father's  house,  by  St.  Francis's  advice, 
and,  accompanied  by  her  aunt  Bianca  and  another 
companion,  proceeded  to  the  humble  chapel  of  the 
Porziuncula,  where  St.  Francis  and  his  disciples  met 
her  with  lights  in  their  hands.  Clare  then  laid  aside 
her  rich  dress,  and  St.  Francis,  having  cut  off  her 
hair,  clothed  her  in  a  rough  tunic  and  a  thick  veil,  and 
in  this  way  the  young  heroine  vowed  herself  to  the 
service  of  Jesus  Christ.    This  was  20  March,  1212. 

Clare  was  placed  by  St.  Francis  provisionally  with 
the  Benedictme  nuns  of  San  Paolo,  near  Bastia,  but 
her  father,  who  had  expected  her  to  make  a  splendid 
marriage,  and  who  was  furious  at  her  secret  flight,  on 
discovering  her  retreat,  did  his  utmost  to  dissuade 


Clare  from  her  heroic  proposals,  and  even  tried  to 
drag  her  home  by  force.  But  Clare  held  her  own  with 
a  firmness  above  her  years,  and  Count  Favorino  was 
finally  obUged  to  leave  her  in  peace.  A  few  days 
later  St.  Francis,  in  order  to  secure  Clare  the  greater 
solitude  she  desired,  transferred  her  to  Sant'  Angelo 
in  Panzo,  another  monastery  of  the  Benedictine  nuns, 
on  one  of  the  flanks  of  Subasio.  Here,  some  sixteen 
days  after  her  own  flight,  Clare  was  joined  by  her 
younger  sister  Agnes,  whom  she  was  instrumental  in 
deHvering  from  the  persecution  of  their  infuriated 
relatives.  (See  Aones,  Saint,  op  Assisi.)  Clare 
and  her  sister  remained  with  the  nuns  at  Sant'  Angelo 
until  they  and  the  other  fugitives  from  the  world  who 
had  followed  them  were  established  by  St.  Francis  in 
a  rude  dwelling 
adjoinins  the  poor 
chapel  of  San  Da- 
miano, situated 
outside  the  town, 
which  he  had  to  a 
ereat  extent  re- 
built with  his  own 
hands,  and  which 
he  now  obtained 
from  the  Benedic- 
tines as  a  perman- 
ent abode  for  his 
spiritual  daugh- 
ters. Thus  was 
founded  the  first 
community  of  the 
Order  of  Poor 
Ladies,  or  of  Poor 
Clares,  as  this 
secona  order  of 
St.  Francis  came 
to  be  called. 

The  history  of 
the  Poor  Cfares 
wiU  be  dealt  with 
in  a  separate  ar- 
ticle. Here  it  suf- 
fices to  note  that  we  may  distinguish,  during  the  lifetime 
of  St.  Clare,  three  stages  in  the  complicated  eariy  his- 
tory of  the  new  order.  In  the  bediming  St.  Clare  and 
her  companions  had  no  written  rule  to  follow  beyond 
a  very  short  formula  vita  given  them  by  St.  Francis,  and 
which  maybe  found  among  his  works.  (See  "  Opus- 
cula S.  P.  Francisci",  ed.  Quaracchi,  1904, 75, and  "The 
Writings  of  St.  Francis",  ed.  Robinson,  Philadelphia, 
1906,  77.)  Some  years  later,  apparently  in  1219, 
during  St.  Francis'^s  absence  in  the  East,  Cardinal 
Ugolino,then  protector  of  the  order,  afterwards  Greg- 
ory IX,  drew  up'  a  written  rule  for  the  Clares  at 
Monticelli,  taking  as  a  basis  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
retaining  the  fundamental  points  of  the  latter  and 
adding  some  special  constitutions.  This  new  rule, 
which,  in  effect  if  not  in  intention,  took  away  from 
the  Clares  the  Franciscan  character  of  absolute 
poverty  so  dear  to  the  heart  of  St.  Francis  and  made 
them  for  all  practical  purposes  a  congre^tion  of  Bene- 
dictines, was  approved  by  Honorius  III  (Bull,  "Sa- 
crosancta",  9  Dec,  1219).  When  Clare  found  that 
the  new  rule,  though  strict  enough  in  other  respects, 
allowed  the  holding  of  property  in  common,  she 
courageously  and  successfully  resisted  the  innova- 
tions of  Ugolino  as  being  entirely  opposed  to  the 
intentions  of  St.  Francis.  The  latter  nad  forbidden 
the  Poor  Ladies,  just  as  he  had  forbidden  his  friars, 
to  possess  any  worldly  goods  even  in  common.  Own- 
ing nothing,  they  were  to  depend  entirely  upon  what 
the  Friars  Minor  could  beg  for  them.  This  complete 
renunciation  of  all  property  was  however  regardwl  by 
Ugolino  as  unpractical  for  cloistered  women.  When, 
therefore,  in  1228,  he  came  to  Assisi  for  the  canoniza- 
tion of  St.  Francis  (having  meanwhile  ascended  the 


Tomb  and  Reucs  or  St.  Clarb 
AT  AsaiBX 


OLABE 


OLAU; 


pontifical  throne  as  Gregory  IX),  he  visited  St.  Clare 
at  San  Damiano  and  pressed  her  to  so  far  deviate 
from  the  practice  of  poverty,  which  had  up  to  this 
time  obtamed  at  San  Damiano,  as  to  accept  some 
provision  for  the  unforeseen  wants  of  the  conununity. 
But  Clare  firmly  refused.  Gregory,  thinking  that  her 
refusal  might  be  due  to  fear  ci  violating  the  vow  of 
strict  poverty  she  had  taken,  offered  to  absolve  her 
from  it.  "Holy  Father,  I  crave  for  absolution  from 
my  sins",  replied  Clare,  "but  I  desiro  not  to  be  ab- 
solved from  tne  obligation  of  following  Jesus  Christ". 

The  heroic  unworldliness  of  Clare  filled  the  pope 
with  admiration,  as  his  letters  to  her,  still  extant, 
bear  eloquent  witness,  and  he  so  far  gave  way  to  her 
views  as  to  ^nt  her  on  17  September,  1228,  the 
celebrated  PnvUegium  Paupertatis  which  some  i^^id 
in  the  hght  of  a  corrective  of  the  Rule  of  1219.  The 
original  autograph  copy  of  this  uniaue  "privilege" — 
the  first  one  of  Its  kind  ever  sought  tor,  or  ever  issued 
by  the  Holy  See — ^ispreserved  in  the  arohive  at  Santa 
Chiara  in  Assisi.  The  text  is  as  follows:  "Gregory 
Bishop  Servant  of  the  Servants  of  God.  To  our  be- 
loved daughters  in  Christ  Clare  and  the  other  hand- 
maids of  Christ,  dweUing  together  at  the  Church  of 
San  Damiano  in  the  Diocese  of  Assisi.  Health 
and  Apostolic  benediction.  It  is  evident  that  the 
desire  of  consecrating  yourselves  to  God  alone  has 
led  you  to  abandon  every  wish  for  temporal  things. 
Wherefore,  after  having  sold  all  your  goods  and  hav- 
ing distributed  them  amon^  the  poor,  you  propose  to 
have  absolutely  no  possessions,  m  order  to  follow  in 
all  things  the  example  of  Him  Who  became  poor  and 
Who  is  the  way,  tne  truth,  and  the  life.  Neither 
does  the  want  of  necessary  things  deter  you  from  such 
a  proposal,  for  the  left'  arm  of  your  Celestial  Spouse  is 
b^ieath  your  head  to  sustain  the  infirmity  of  your 
body,  wmch,  according  to  the  order  of  charity,  you 
have  subjected  to  the  law  of  the  spirit.  Finally, 
He  who  feeds  the  birds  of  the  air.  ana  who  ^ves  the 
lilies  of  the  field  their  raiment  ana  their  nourishment, 
will  not  leave  you  in  want  of  clothing  or  of  food  until 
He  shall  come  Himself  to  minister  to  you  in  eternity, 
when,  namely,  the  right  hand  of  Iiis  Consolations 
shall  embrace  you  in  the  plenitude  of  the  Beatific 
Vimon.  Since,  therefore,  you  have  asked  for  it,  we 
confirm  by  Apostolic  favour  your  resolution  of  the 
loftiest  poverty  and  by  the  authority  of  these  present 
lettere  ^nt  that  you  may  not  be  constrained  by  any- 
one to  receive  possessions.  To  no  one,  therefore,  be  it 
allowed  to  infnnge  upon  this  pa^  of  our  concession 
or  to  oppose.,  it  with  rash  temerity.  But  if  anyone 
shall  presume  to  attempt  this,  be  it  known  to  him 
that  he  shall  incur  the  wrath  of  Almighty  God  and 
his  Blessed  Apostles,  Peter  and  Paul.  Given  at  Peru- 
gia on  the  fifteenth  of  the  Kalends  of  October  in  the 
second  year  of  our  Pontificate." 

That  St.  Clare  may  have  solicited  a  "privilege" 
similar  to  the  foregoing  at  an  earlier  date  and  ob- 
tained it  vivd  voce,  is  not  improbable.  Certain  it  is, 
that  after  the  death  of  Gregonr  IX  Clare  had  once 
more  to  contend  for  the  principle  of  absolute  poverty 
prescribed  by  St.  Francis,  for  Innocent  IV  would  fain 
nave  given  the  Clares  a  new  and  mitigated  rule,  and 
the  firmness  with  which  she  held  to  her  way  won  over 
the  pope.  Finally,  two  days  before  her  death,  Inno- 
oent,  no  doubt  at  the  reiterated  request  of  the  dying 
abbess,  solemnly  confirmed  the  definitive  Rule  of  the 
Clares  (Bull,  "  Solet  Annuere  ",  9  August,  1253),  and 
thus  secured  to  them  the  precious  treasure  of  poverty 
which  Ciare,  in  imitation  of  St.  Francis,  had  taken  for 
her  portion  from  the  beginning  of  her  conversion. 
The  author  of  this  latter  rule,  which  is  laigely  an 
adaptation,  mtdoHs  miUandiSf  of  the  rule  which  St. 
Fruicis  composed  for  the  Friars  Minor  in  1223,  seems 
to  have  been  Cardinal  Rainaldo,  Bishop  of  Ostia,  and 
protector  of  the  order,  afterwards  Alexander  IV, 
though  it  is  most  likely  tliat  St.  Clare  herself  had  a 


hand  in  its  compilation.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  can 
no  longer  be  maintained  that  St.  Francis  was  in  any 
sense  the  author  of  this  formal  Rule  of  the  Clares;  he 
only  gave  to  St.  Clare  and  her  companions  at  the 
outset  of  their  religious  life  the  brief  formula  vivendi 
already  mentioned. 

St.  Clare,  who  in  1215  had,  much  against  her  will, 
been  made  superior  at  San  Damiano  by  St.  Francis, 
continued  to  rule  there  as  abbess  until  her  death,  in 
1253,  nearly  forty  years  later.  There  is  no  good 
reason  to  brieve  that  she  ever  once  went  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  San  Damiano  during  all  that  time.  It 
need  not,  therefore,  be  wondered  at  if  so  compara- 
tively few  details  of  St.  Clarets  life  in  the  cloister, 
"hidden  with  Christ  in  God",  have  come  down  to  us. 
We  know  that  she  became  a  living  copy  of  the  poverty, 
the  humility,  and  the  mortification  of  St.  Francis; 
that  she  had  a  special  devotion  to  the  Holy  Eucharist, 
and  that  in  order  to  increase  her  love  for  uhrist  cruci- 
fied she  learned  by  heart  the  Ofiice  of  the  Passion 
composed  by  St.  Francis,  and  that  during  the  time 
that*  remained  to  her  after  her  devotional  exereises 
she  engaged  in  manual  labour.  Needless  to  add,  that 
under  St.  Clare's  guidance  the  community  of  San  Da- 
miano became  the  sanctuary  of  eyeiy  virtue,  a  very 
nursery  of  saints.  Clare  had  the  consolation  not  only 
of  seeing  her  younger  sister  Beatrix,  her  mother  Orto- 
lana,  and  her  faithful  aunt  Bianca  follow  Aenes  into 
the  order,  but  also  of  witnessing  the  foundation  of 
monasteries  of  Clares  far  and  wide  throughout  Europe. 
It  would  be  difficult,  moreover,  to  estimate  how  much 
the  silent  influence  of  the  pntle  abbess  did  towards 
euiding  the  women  of  medieval  Ttaly  to  higher  aims. 
In  particular,  Clare  threw  around  poverty  that  irre- 
sistible charm  which  only  women  can  communicate 
to  reli^ous  or  civic  heroism,  and  she  became  a  most 
efficacious  coadjutrix  of  St.  Francis  in  promoting  that 
spirit  of  unworldliness  which  in  the  counsels  of  God, 
''was  to  bring  about  a  restoration  of  discipline  in  the 
Church  and  of  morals  and  civilization  in  the  peoples 
of  Western  Europe".  Not  the  least  important  part 
of  Clare's  work  was  the  aid  and  encouragement  she 

Save  St.  Francis.  It  was  to  her  he  turned  when  in 
oubt,  and  it  was  she  who  urged  him  to  continue  his 
mission  to  the  people  at  a  time  when  he  thoueht  his 
vocation  lay  ratner  m  a  life  of  contemplation.  When, 
in  an  attack  of  blindness  and  illness,  St.  Francis  came 
for  the  If^t  time  to  visit  San  Damiano,  Clare  erected 
a  little  wattle  hut  for  him  in  an  olive  grove  close  to  the 
monastery,  and  it  was  here  that  he  composed  his  glori- 
ous "  Canticle  of  the  Sun  ".  After  St.  Francis's  death, 
the  procession  which  accompanied  his  remains  from 
the  Forziuncula  to  the  town  stopped  on  the  way  at 
San  Damiano  in  order  that  Clare  and  her  daughters 
might  venerate  the  pierced  hands  and  feet  of  him  who 
had  formed  them  to  the  love  of  Christ  crucified — ^a 
pathetic  scene  which  Giotto  has  commemorated  in 
one  of  his  loveliest  frescoes.  So  far,  however,  as  Clare 
was  concerned,  St.  Francis  was  always  living,  and 
nothing  is,  perhaps,  more  striking  in  her  after-life  than 
her  unswerving  loyalty  to  the  ideals  of  the  PovereUo, 
and  the  jealous  care  with  which  she  clung  to  his  rule 
and  teaching. 

When,  in  1234,  the  army  of  Frederick  II  was  devas- 
tating the  valley  of  Spoleto,  the  soldiers,  preparatory 
to  an  assault  upon  Assisi,  scaled  the  walls  of  San 
Damiano  by  nignt,  spreading  terror  amone  the  com- 
munity. Qare,  calmly  rising  from  her  sick  bed,  and 
taking  the  ciborium  from  the  little  chapel  adjoining 
her  cell,  proceeded  to  face  the  invaders  at  an  open 
window  against  which  they  had  already  placed  a  lad- 
der. It  is  related  that,  as  she  raised  the  Blessed  Sac- 
rament on  high,  the  soldiers  who  were  about  to  enter 
the  monastery  fell  backward  as  if  dazzled,  and  the 
others  who  were  ready  to  follow  them  took  flight.  It 
is  witli  reference  to  this  incident  that  St.  Clare  is 
generally  rej)re8ented   in   art  bearing  a  ciborium. 


GLAUS 


6 


CLA&E 


When,  some  time  later,  a  larger  force  returned  to 
•torm  Assisi,  headed  by  the  General  Vitale  di  Aversa 
who  had  not  been  present  at  the  first  attack.  Clare, 
gathering  her  daughters  about  her,  knelt  with  them 
m  earnest  prayer  that  the  town  might  be  spared. 
Presently  a  furious  storm  arose,  scattering  the  tents 
of  the  soldiers  in  every  direction,  and  causing  such  a 
panic  that  they  again  took  refuse  in  flight.  The 
gratitude  of  the  Assisians,  who  with  one  accord  at- 
tributed their  deliverance  to  Clare's  intercession,  in- 
creased their  love  for  the  ''Seraphic  Mother".  Clare 
had  long  been  enshrined  in  the  hearts  of  the  people, 
and  their  veneration  became  more  apparent  as, 
wasted  by  illness  and  austerities,  she  drew  towards 
her  end.  Brave  and  cheerful  to  the  last,  in  spite  of 
her  long  and  painful  infirmities,  Clare  caused  herself 
to  be  raised  in  t>ed  and,  thus  reclining,  says  her  con- 
temporary biographer,  "she  spun  the  finest  thread 
for  tne  purpose  of  having  it  woven  into  the  most  deli- 
cate material  from  whidi  she  afterwards  made  more 
than  one  hundred  corporals,  and,  enclosing  them  in  a 
silken  burse,  ordered  tnem  to  be  given  to  the  churches 
in  the  plain  and  on  the  mountains  of  Assisi".  When 
at  length  she  felt  the  day  of  her  death  approaching, 
Clare,  calling  her'sorrowme  religious  around  her^  re- 
minded them  of  the  many  benefits  they  had  received 
from  God  and  exhorted  them  to  persevere  faithfully 
in  the  observance  of  evangelical  poverty.  Pope  In- 
nocent IV  came  from  Perugia  to  visit  the  djring  saint, 
who  had  already  received  the  last  sacraments  from 
the  hands  of  Cardinal  Rainaldo.  Her  own  sister,  St. 
Agnes,  had  returned  from  Florence  to  console  Clare  in 
her  last  illness;  Leo,  Angelo,  and  Juniper,  three  of  the 
early  companions  of  St.  rrancis,  were  also  present  at 
the  saint's  death-bed,  and  at  St.  Clare's  request  read 
aloud  the  Passion  of  Our  Lord  according  to  St.  John, 
even  as  they  had  done  twenty-seven  years  before, 
when  Francis  lay  dying  at  the  Porziuncula.  At 
length  before  dawn  on  11  August,  1253,  the  holy  foun- 
dress of  the  Poor  Ladies  passed  peacefully  away  amid 
scenes  which  her  contemporary  biographer  has  re- 
corded with  touching  simplicity.  The  pope,  with  his 
court,  came  to  San  Damiano  for  the  saint's  funeral, 
which  partook  rather  of  the  nature  of  a  triumphal 
procession. 

The  Clares  desired  to  retain  the  body  of  their  foun- 
dress among  them  at  San  Damiano,  out  the  magis- 
trates of  Assisi  interfered  and  took  measures  to  secure 
for  the  town  the  venerated  remains  of  her  whose 
prayers,  as  they  all  believed,  had  on  two  occasions 
saved  it  from  destruction.  Clare's  miracles  too  were 
talked  of  far  and  wide.  It  was  not  safe,  the  Assisians 
urged,  to  leave  Clare's  body  in  a  lonely  spot  without 
the  walls:  it  was  only  rignt,  too,  that  Clare,  "the 
chief  rival  of  the  Blessed  Francis  in  the  observance  of 
Gospel  perfection",  should  also  have  a  church  in  As- 
sisi Duilt  in  her  honour.  Meanwhile,  Clare's  remains 
were  placed  in  the  chapel  of  San  Giorgio,  where  St. 
Francis's  preaching  had  first  touched  her  young 
heart,  and  where  hifi  own  body  had  likewise  been  in- 
terred pending  the  erection  of  the  Basilica  of  San 
Francesco.  'Two  years  later,  26  September,  1255. 
Clare  was  solemnly  canonized  by  Alexander  IV,  and 
not  long  afterwards  the  building  of  the  church  of 
Santa  Chiara,  in  honour  of  Assisi 's  second  great  saint, 
was  begun  under  the  direction  of  Filippo  Campello, 
one  of  the  foremost  architects  of  tlie  time.  On  3  Oc- 
tober, 1260,  Clare's  remains  were  transferred  from  the 
chapel  of  San  Giorgio  and  buried  deep  down  in  the 
earth,  under  the  high  altar  in  the  new  church,  far  out 
of  si^t  and  reach.  After  having  remained  hidden 
for  SIX  centuries — ^like  the  remains  of  St.  Francis — 
and  after  much  search  had  been  made,  Clare's  tomb 
was  found  in  1850,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  Assisians. 
On  23  September  in  that  year  the  coffin  was  un- 
earthed and  opened;  the  flesh  and  clothing  of  the 
saint  had  been  reduced  to  dust,  but  the  skeleton  was 


in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation.  Finally,  on  the 
20th  of  September,  1872,  the  saint's  bones  were  trans- 
ferred, with  much  pomp,  by  Archbishop  Pecci.  after- 
wards Leo  XIII,  to  the  shrine,  in  the  crypt  at  Santa 
Chiara,  erected  to  receive  them,  and  where  they  may 
now  be  seen.  The  feast  of  St.  Clare  is  celebrated 
throughout  the  Church  on  12  August;  the  feast  of  her 
first  translation  is  kept  in  the  order  on  3  October,  and 
that  of  the  finding  ot  her  body  on  23  September. 

The  sources  of  the  nistory  of  St.  Clare  at  our  disposal  are  few 
in  number.  They  inelude  (1)  a  TestamerU  attributed  to  the 
saint  and  some  charming  LtUen  wntten  by  her  to  Blessed 
Agnes.  Princess  of  Bohemia;  (2)  the  Rtde  of  the  Clares,  and 
a  certain  number  of  early  Pontifical  BvXU  rdatino  to  Oie  Order; 
(3)  a  contemporary  Biography,  written  in  1266  by  order  of 
Alexander  IV.  This  life,  which  is  now  ^eneraUy  ascribed  to 
Thomas  of  Celano.  is  the  source  from  which  StTtSare's  subse- 
quent bioeraphera  hare  deri\'«d  most  of  their  ihformation.  It 
was  published  by  Surius  in  Be  Probatie  Sanctorwn  hieloriie  (Co- 
logne, 1573),  IV, 609-26;  by  SsDuuusin  bia  Historia  Seraphiea 
(Antwerp,  1613),  526-44;  and  by  the  Bollandistb  in  the  Ada 
SS..  Aug..  II  (12  Aug.),  754-68,  with  a  Comment.  Praviue  by 
(TrpKh  (pp.  739-54).  A  new  critical  edition  of  this  early 
life,  according  to  the  Assisi  MS.  338,  is  in  course  of  prep- 
aration by  Paor.  Penaccbi  (Assisi,  1908).  Many  early 
vernacular  versions  of  this  biography  were  made,  and  some  of 
these  have  recently  been  re<^ted,  v.  g.  tTusroFANz,  La  Leo- 
oenda  di  S.  Chiara  (Assisi,  1872);  Schoutbns,  Legende  dor 
Glorioeer  Maghet  Sinte  Clara  (Hoogstraeten,  1904):  GomN,Xfa 
vie  et  ISgendcde  Madame  Saincte  Claire  (Paris,  1906).  An  En^lsh 
translation,  based  on  the  text  of  the  BolUndists,  is  g^ven  by 
FiBOB  in  The  Princess  of  Poverty  (EvanaviUe,  Indiana,  1900). 
The  Biogra^y  of  St.  Clare,  by  Giusbppb  da  Madrid,  which  ap- 
peated  in  172/,  was  published  in  Italian  at  Rome  in  1832.  and 
m  French  at  Paris  in  1880.  More  recent  lives  of  the  saint  are 
those  by  Vinc.  Locatblu,  Vita  di  S.  Chiara  d' Assisi  (Naples, 
1854);  Dehors,  Vie  de  Ste  Claire  (Paris,  1856).  new  German 
Ir.  by  ScMMiD  (Ratisbon.  1906);  Tommaso  Locatblli.  Viia  di 
S.  Chiara  (Assisi,  1882);  Richard,  Ste  Claire  d" Assise  (Paris, 
1895),  ItAlian  version  by  Pbnacchi  (1900);  CHlfcRANci,  Ste 
Claire  ff  Assise  (Paris,  1902).  The  Privxleffium  Paupertatis, 
Testament  of  the  saint,  and  Rule  of  tfie  Clares  are  printed  in  the 


SeraphicCB  Leffislationia  Textus  Oriqinales  ((^uanuxhi,  1897)^ 
aad  the  Bulls  bearing  upon  the  begmninsa  of  the  order  in  the 
Bullarium  Franciscanum,  ed.  Sbarauba-Eubbl  (Rome,  1759- 
1898),  passim.  On  the  vexed  question  of  the  origin  and  evolu- 
tion of  the  Rule  of  the  Clares,  see  Lbicpp,  Anf&nffe  des  Clarisseti' 
ordens  in  Bribobr,  Zeitschrift  f.  Kirchenoeechichte  (Gotha. 
1892).  XIII,  181  sq.;  ibid.,  XXIII  (1903),  626-29,  and  XXIV 
(1904),  321-23;  Lbmmbns,  Ani&nqe,  etc.  in  Rdmisehe  Quartal- 
schrifl  (1902).  XVI,  93  sq.,  and  Waubb,  EnUtehung  und  Aus- 
breiiung  des  Klarissenordens,  etc.  /Leipzig,  1906),  533-40  oq .  See 
also  Chron.  XXI V  gencralium  In  Analecta  Franciscana  (Qua- 
racchi,  1897),  III,  175.  182-84;  Barth.  Pis.,  Liber  Conformita- 
twn  in  Analecta  Francis.  (Quaracchi,  1906).  IV,  351-^7;  Wad- 
ding, Annales  Minorum,  I,  ad  an.  1212,  and  III,  ad  an.  1258; 
Sbaralea.  iSupp/emen/um  (1806),  195;  Cristopani.  iS<ortade<fa 
Chiesa  e  Chiostro  di  San  Damiano  (3d  ed.,  Assbii,  1882),  passim; 
Clart,  Lives  of  the  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St. 
Francis  (Taunton,  1886),  II,  557-78;  Bonav.  di  Sorrbmto,  La 
Gloriosa  S,  Chiara  (2d  ed.,  Naplee,  1895);  CLARtsaxa-GoLLB- 
TiNKS,  Histoire  de  I  ordre  de  Ste  Claire  (Lyons,  1906).  passim ; 
OozzA-LuST.  Chiara  di  Assisi  secundc  alcune  nuove  acoperte  e 
documenti  (Rome,  1895) ;  Robinson.  InverUarium omnium doeu" 
mentorum  qui  tn  monasterio  S.  ClanB  Assisii  asservaniur  in 
Archiv.  Francis.  Hist.  (1908).  II. 

Paschal  Robinson. 

Glare  of  Montefalco,  Saint,  b.  at  Montefalco 
about  1268;  d.  there,  18  August,  1308.  Much  dispute 
has  existed  as  to  whether  St.  Clare  of  Monteraico 
was  a  Franciscan  or  an  Augustinian;  and  while 
Wadding,  with  Franciscan  biographers  of  the  saint, 
contends  that  she  was  a  member  of  the  Third  Order 
of  St.  Francis,  Augustinian  writers,  whom  the  Bollan- 
dist*  seem  to  favour,  hold  that  she  belonged  to  their 
order.  It  seems,  however,  more  probable  to  say 
that  St.  Clare,  when  she  was  still  a  very  young  girl, 
embraced  the  rule  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis 
(secular),  together  with  her  older  sister  and  a  number 
of  other  pious  young  maidens,  who  wore  the  habit 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  and  followed  that 
particular  mode  of  life  in  community  which  their 
piety  and  fervour  suggested.  When  later,  however, 
they  became  desirous  of  entering  the  religious  state 
in  its  strict  sense,  and  of  professing  the  tiiree  vows 
of  religion,  they  petitioned  the  Bishop  of  Spoleto 
for  an  approved  rule  of  life ;  and,  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis  (regular)  not  being  then  in  existence  as  a^ 
approved  religious  institute,  the  btslioi)  imposed 
upon  them  in   1290  the  rule  of  the  TnirC  Order 


CLABB 


0LAUDIANU8 


(regular)  of  St.  Augustine.  From  her  very  child- 
ho^,  St.  Clare  gave  evidence  of  the  exalted  sanctity 
to  which  she  was  one  day  to  attain,  and  which  made 
her  the  recipient  of  so  many  signal  favours  from  God. 
Upon  the  death  of  her  older  sister  in  1295,  Clare  was 
chosen  to  succeed  her  in  the  office  of  abbess  of  the 
community  at  Santa  Croce;  but  it  was  only  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  command  of  the  Bishop  of  Spoleto  that 
she  could  be  prevailed  upon  to  accept  this  new 
dignity.  Kind  and  indulgent  towards  others,  she 
treated  herself  with  the  most  unrelenting  severity, 
multiplying  her  fasts,  vigils,  and  other  austerities  to 
such  an  extent  tliat  at  one  time  her  life  was  even 
feared  for.  To  these  acts  of  penance  she  added  the 
practice  of  the  most  profound  humilitv  and  the  most 
perfect  charity,  while  the  suffering  of  her  Redeemer 
formed  the  continual  subject  of  her  meditation. 
Shortly  aft^r  the  death  of  St.  Clare,  inquiry  into  her 
virtues  and  the  miracles  wrought  through  her  inter- 
cession  was  instituted,  preparatory  t^  her  canoniza- 
tion. It  was  not,  however,  until  several  centuries 
later  that  she  was  canonized  by  Pope  Leo  XIII  in 
1881. 

Wadding,  Armalea  Minorum.  VI,  140:  XIV.  519,  and 
passim;  Ada  SS.,  August,  III,  664-88;  Leo,  Lttea  of  the 
Saints  and  Bleaned  of  the  Three  Ordere  of  St.  Francia  (Taoaton. 
1886),  111,  22>26. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

dare  of  Bimini,  Blessed  (Chiara  Agolanti),  of 
the  order  of  Poor  Clares,  b.  at  Rimini  in  1282;  d. 
there  10  February,  1346.  Deprived  at  an  early  age 
of  the  support  and  guidance  of  her  parents  and  of  her 
pious  husband,  Clare  soon  fell  a  prey  to  the  dangers 
to  which  her  youth  and  beauty  exposed  her,  and  b^bm 
to  lead  a  life  of  sinful  dissipation.  As  she  was  one  day 
assisting  at  Mass  in  the  church  of  the  Friars  Minor, 
she  seemed  to  hear  a  mysterious  voice  that  bade  her 
say  a  Pater  and  an  Ave  at  least  once  with  fervour  cmd 
attention.  Clare  obeyed  the  command,  not  knowing 
whence  it  came,  and  then  began  to  reflect  upon  her 
life.  Putting  on  the  habit  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  she  resolved  to  expiate  her  sins  by  a  life  of 
penance,  and  she  soon  became  a  model  of  everv  virtue, 
out  more  especially  of  cliarity  towards  the  aestitute 
and  afflicted.  When  the  Poor  Clares  were  compelled 
to  leave  Regno  on  account  of  the  prevailing  wars,  it 
was  mainly  through  the  charitable  exertions  of  Clare 
that  they  were  able  to  obtain  a  convent  and  means  of 
sustenance  at  Rimini.  Later,  Clare  herself  entered 
the  order  of  Poor  Clares,  alon^  with  several  other 
pious  women,  and  became  supenoress  of  the  convent 
of  Our  Lady  of  the  Angels  at  Rimini.  She  woriced 
numerous  miracles  and  towards  the  ^  close  of  her  life 
was  favoured  in  an  extraordinary  tnanner  with  the 
gift  of  contemplation.  Her  body  now  reposes  in  the 
cathedral  of  Kimini.  In  1784  the  cult  of  Blessed 
Clare  was  approved  by  Pius  VI,  who  permitted  her 
feast  to  be  celebrated  in  the  city  and  Diocese  of 
Rimini  on  the  tenth  of  February. 

WA.DDISO,  Annate*  Minorum  aeti  hutloria  trium  ordinum  a 
9.  Fnmei»c0  inatUulorum  (Rome,  1731-36).  Lro,  Livea  of 
Uu  Sainte  andtBleeeed  of  the  Three  Ordere  of  St.  Fronde  (Taun- 
ton. 1885),  I,  235-238. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

OlaroB,  Poor  (Clarissinbb).    See  Poor  Clares. 

Clark,  B.  T.    See  Aden,  Vicariate  Apobtouc  of. 

Olark,  WiLUAM,  En^ish  priest,  date  of  birth  un- 
known, executed  at  Wmchester,  29  Nov.,  1603.  He 
was  educated  at  Douai  College,  which  he  entered  6  Au- 
^st,  1587.  Passin)^  to  the  English  College  at  Rome 
in  1589,  he  wan  ordained  priest  and  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  April,  1592.  Active  in  the  disputes  between 
the  seculars  and  the  Jesuits  on  the  appointment  of 
Blackweil  as  archpriest,  he  was  one  of  the  thirty- 
three  priests  who  signed  the  appeal  against  Black- 
wpll  da(o<l  from  Wisboach  Cystic,  1?  Novfmber,  1600, 


Consequently  he  was  included  in  the  attack  which 
Father  Persons  made  against  thp  characters  of  his  op- 
ponents. When  Clement  VIII  declared  in  favour  of 
the  appellant  cler^  (5  October,  1602)  and  restored  to 
them  their  faculties,  ac  attempt  was  made,  but  in 
vain,  to  exclude  Clark  from  participation  in  the  privi- 
lege. At  this  time  he  was  m  the  Clink  prison.  On 
Low  Sunday  he  was  discovered  preparing  to  say  Mass 
in  the  prison  and  was  placed  in  still  closer  confine- 
ment. Shortly  after  this  he  became  connected  with 
the  mysterious  conspiracy  known  as  the  "Bye  Plot". 
He  was  committed  to  the  Gatehouse,  Westminster, 
thence  to  the  Tower,  and  finally  to  the  Castle  at  Win- 
chester. Nothing  was  proved  again£(t  him  in  relation 
to  the  plot  save  various  practitees  in  favour  of  Cath- 
olic interests;  nevertheless  he  was  condemned  to  death 
15  November,  and  executed  a  fortnight  later.  He 
protested  that  his  death  was  a  kind  of  martyrdom. 
He  is  the  author  of  "A  Replie  unto  a  certain  Libell 
latelie  set  foorth  by  Fa.  Parsons",  etc.  (1603,  s.  1.). 
Butler,  Menwira  (London.  1822),  II,  81.  82;  Folet. 
Records  S.  J.  (London,  1877).  I,  28,  29.  35;  Douay  Diariea 
(London,  1878),  216,  225,  298;  Dodd,  Church  Hietory  (Bnw- 
aels,  1737),  II.  387;  Idem.  Church  Histmy  (ed.  Tiernkt,  1839). 
Ill,  cxHv,  clvii,  clxxxi;  IV,  xxxv  sqq.;  GiLLcyw,  BiSbi.  Dui.  Bng, 
Cath.  (London.  1885).  I. 

G.  E.  Hind. 
OlassiCB.    See  Literature.  Classical. 

Olaadia  (KXavSk),  a  Christian  woman  of  Rome, 
whose  greeting  to  Timothy  St.  Paul  conveys  with 
those  ofEubuIus,  Pudens,  Linus,  "and  all  the  breth- 
ren" (II  Tim.,  iv,  21).  Evidently,  Claudia  was  quite 
prominent  in  the  Roman  communitv.  The  Linus 
mentioned  in  the  text  is  identified  by  St.  Irenseus 
(Adv.hsr.,III,iii,3)  with  the  successor  of  St.  Peter 
as  Bishop  of  Rome;  and  in  the  "  Apost.  Const.",  VII, 
46,  he  is  caUed  the  son  of  Claudia,  Mpot  6  KXavdias, 
which  seems  to  imply  that  Claudia  was  at  least  as  well 
known  as  Linus.  It  has  been  attempted  to  prove 
that  she  was  the  wife  of  Pudens,  mentioned  by  St. 
Paul;  and,  further,  to  identify  her  with  Claudia 
Rufina,  the  wife  of  Aulus  Pudens  who  was  the  friend 
of  Martial  (Martial,  Epigr.,  IV,  13;  XI,  64).  Ac- 
cording to  this  theory  Claudia  would  be  a  lady 
of  British  birth,  probably  the  daughter  of  King 
Ck>^dubnus.  Unfortunately  there  is  not  sufficient 
evidence  to  make  this  identification  more  than  pos- 
sibly true. 

Acta  SS..  May,  IV.  254;  Alvord  in  Smith,  Diet,  of  the  BiUe 
and  nia  referenors;  LiORTroor,  Apoet.  Fathere:  Clem., 


I.  29,  76-79. 


W.  S.  Rbilly. 


OUndianas  Mamertus  (the  name  Ecdicius  is  un- 
authorized) a  Gallo-Roman  theologian  and  the  brother 
of  St.  Mamertus,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  d.  about  473. 
Descended  probably  from  one  of  the  leading  families 
of  the  country,  Claudianus  Mamertus  relinquished  his 
worldly  coods  and  embraced  the  monastic  life.  He 
assisted  his  brother  in  the  discharge  of  his  functions, 
and  Sidonius  Apollinaris  describes  him  as  directing 
the  psalm-singing  of  the  chanters,  who  were  formed 
into  groups  and  chanted  alternate  verses,  whilst  the 
bishop  was  at  the  altar  celebrating  the  sacred  myste- 
ries. "Psalmorum  hie  modulator  et  phonascus  ante 
altaria  fratre  gratulante  instructas  docuit  sonare 
classes'*  (Epist.,  IV,  xi,  6 ;  V,  13-15).  This  passage 
LB  of  importance  in  the  history  of  liturgical  chant.  In 
the  same  epigram,  which  constitutes  the  epitaph  of 
Claudianus  Ikiamertus,  Sidonius  also  informs  us  that 
this  distinguished  scholar  composed  a  lectionary,  that 
is,  a  collection  of  readings  from  Sacred  Scripture  to 
be  made  on  the  occasion  of  certain  celebrations 
during  the  year. 

According  to  the  same  writer,  Claudianus  *' pierced 
the  sects  with  the  power  of  eloouence  ",  an  allusion  to 
a  prose  treatise  entitled  *'0n  the  State  of  the  Soul", 
or  "On  the  Substance  of  the  Soul".    Written  between 


OLAUDIOPOUS 


8 


CLAVIOKBO 


468  and  472,  this  work  was  destined  to  combat  the 
ideas  of  Faustus,  Bishop  of  Reii  (Riez,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Basses-Alpes),  particularly  his  thesis  on  the 
corporeity  of  the  soul.  Plato,  whom  he  perhaps 
read  in  Greek,  Porphyry,  and  especially  Plotinus  and 
St.  Augustine  furnished  Claudianus  with  arguments. 
But  his  method  was  decidedly  peripatetic  and  fore- 
tokened Scholasticism.  Even  his  language  had  the 
same  characteristics  as  that  of  some  of  the  medieval 
philosophers:  hence  Claudianus  used  many  abstract 
adverbs  in  ter  (essentialiterf  accidenler,  etc.;  forty 
according  to  La  Broise).  On  the  other  hand  he  re- 
vived obsolete  words  and,  in  a  letter  to  Sapaudus  of 
Vienne,  a  rhetorician,  sanctioned  the  imitation  of 
Nsvius,  Plautus,  Varro,  and  Gracchus.  Undoubtedly 
his  only  acc^uaintance  with  these  authors  was  througn 
the  quotations  used  by  grammarians  and  the  adoption 
of  their  style  by  Apuleius,  whose  works  he  eagerly 
studied.  Of  course  this  tendency  to  copy  his  pre- 
decessors led  Claudianus  to  acquire  an  entirely  arti- 
ficial mode  of  expression  which  Sidonius,  in  wishing 
to  compliment,  called  a  modem  antique  (Epist.,  lV7 
iii,  3).  Besides  the  treatise  and  the  letter  to  Sa- 
paudus, both  of  which  are  of  value  in  the  study  of  the 
progress  of  culture  in  Gaul,  we  have  a  letter  from 
Ulaudianus  to  Sidonius  A(]^llinaris,  found  among  the 
letters  of  the  latter  (IV,  S).  Some  poetry  has  also 
been  ascribed  to  him,  althou^  erroneously.  For  in- 
stance, he  has  been  credited  with  the  "  Pange,  lingua' ^ 
which  is  by  Venantius  Fortunatus  (Carm.,  if,  ii); 
"Contra  vanos  poetas  ad  collegam",  a  poem  recom- 
mending the  choice  of  Christian  subjects  and  written 
by  Paulinus  of  Nola  (Carm.,  xxii);  two  short 
Latin  poems  in  honour  of  Christ,  one  by  Claudius 
Claudianus  (Birt  ed.,  p.  330:  Koch  ed.,  p.  248)  and 
the  other  by  Merobaudus  (Vollmer  ed.,  p.  19),  and  two 
other  Greek  poems  on  the  same  subject,  believed  to 
be  the  work  of  Claudius  Claudianus. 

Two  facts  assign  Claudianus  Mamertus  a  place  in 
the  history  of  thought:  he  took  part  in  the  reaction 
against  Semipelagianism,  which  took  place  in  Gaul 
towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  century  and  he  was  the 
.  precursor  of  Scholasticism,  forestalling  the  system  of 
Koscellinus  and  Abelard.  The  logical  method 
pursued  by  Claudianus  commanded  the  esteem  and 
mvestigation  of  Berengarius  of  Tours,  Nicholas  of 
Clairvaux,  secretary  to  St.  Bernard,  and  Richard  de 
Fournival. 

Sidonius  Apolunaris.  Epiattdtg,  IV,  iii,  xi,  V,  ii;  Gbn- 
NADius,  De  Viris  iUuatrifnia,  83;  R.  db  la  BnoiSB,  Mamerli 
Claitdiani  vita  eiusque  dodrina  de  aniind  hominis  (Paris,  1890); 
the  best  edition  is  by  Enoblbskcht  in  the  Cor^pua  acriplorum 
eceleatasticorum  laiinorum  of  the  Academy  of  Vienna  (Vienna, 
1887);  for  supplementary  information  cf.  Cmbvaubr,  Riper' 
toire  dea  amircea  historiquea  du  moyeit'dge,  Bio4f3fUooraphie 
(Ptois,  1«05).  II.  2977. 

Paul  Lejay. 


Olaudiopolis,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor.  It 
was  a  city  in  Cilicia  Tracheia  or  Byzantine  Isauria. 
The  old  name  is  perhaps  Kardabounda;  under 
Claudius  it  became  a  Roman  colony,  Colonia  Julia 
Augusta  Felix  Ninica  Claudiopolis.  None  of  its 
coins  are  known.  It  was  situated  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  central  Calycadnus  valley,  before  the  river 
enters  the  narrow  gorge  which  conducts  it  to  the 
coast  lands.  Leake  (Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Asia 
Minor,  107  sq.)  has  identified  it  with  Miit,  the  chief 
village  of  a  caza  in  the  vilayet  of  Adana,  a  view  which 
has  since  been  confirmed  by  epigraphical  evidence 
(Hogarth,  Supplem.  Papers,  Royal  Geogr.  Society, 
1893,  III,  651).  It  was  a  suffragan  of  Seleuceia. 
Only  six  bishopa  are  mentioned  by  I^quien  (11^  1027) ; 
the  first,  i£desius,  was  present  at  Nicsea  m  325; 
the  last,  John,  was  present  at  Constantinople  in  533, 
and  is  probably  identical  with  the  prelate  who  was 
a  friend  of  Severus  in  508-11  (Brooks,  Tlie  Sixth 
Book  of  the  Select  Letters  of  Severus,  II,  4,  7,  11). 
In  the  tenth  century  Claudiopolis  is  meutioped  by 


Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  (Them.,  xxxvi),  as 
one  of  the  ten  cities  of  Isaurian  Decapolis.  It  figures 
still  in  the  "Notitia  episcopatuum"  in  the  twelfth 
or  thirteenth  century.  MAt  has  about  900  inhabi- 
tants, and  exhibits  vast  ruins. 

Ramsat,  Asia  Minor^  jmssim;  Ruob  in  Pauly-Wissowa, 
Real'Eneyk.,  Ill,  2662;  Hkadlam,  Ecd.  Sites  in  Isouria.  in 
Soc.  VCR  Tus  Promotion  or  Hbi^knic  Stuoiks.  Supjumm. 
Papers,  1,  22  sq.;  Cuinet,  Turquie  d^Asie,  II.  78. 

S.   PUTRID  E& 

^  Claudiopolis,  a  titular  see  of  Bith3mia,  in  Asia 
Minor.  Strabo  (XII,  4, 7)  mentions  a  to'WTi,  Bithyiiiura 
(Claudiopolis),  celebrated  for  its  pastures  and  cheese. 
According  to  Pausanias  (VIII,  9)  it  was  founded  by 
Arcadians  from  Mantinea.  As  is  shown  by  its  coins, 
it  was  commonly  called  Claudiopolis  after  Claudius. 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  Antinous,  the  favourite  of 
Hadrian,  who  was  very  generous  to  the  city;  after- 
wards his  name  was  added  to  that  of  Claudius  on  the 
coins  of  the  city.  Theodosius  II  (408-50)  made  it 
the  capital  of  a  new  province,  formed  at  the  expense 
of  Bithynia  and  Paphlagonia,  and  called  by  him 
Honorias  in  honourt>t  the  Emperor  Honorius.  Claudi- 
opolis was  the  religious  metropolis  of  the  province 
(so  in  all  "  Notitiae  episcopatuum  ").  Lequien  (1, 567) 
mentions  twenty  titulars  of  the  see  to  the  thirteenth 
century;  tlie  first  is  St.  Autonomus,  said  to  have  suf- 
fered martyrdom  under  Diocletian;  we  may  add 
Ignatius,  a  friend  and  correspondc»it  of  Photius. 
The  Turkish  name  for  Claudiopolis  is  Bolou  or  Boli. 
It  is  now  the  chief  town  of  a  sanjak  in  the  vilayet  of 
Castamouni,  with  10,000  inhabitants  (700  Greeks, 
400  Armenians,  few  Catholics).  The  town  is  on  the 
Filias  Sou  (River  Billieus).  There  are  no  important 
ruins,  but  many  ancient  fragments  of  friezes,  cornices, 
funeral  cippi,  and  stelsB. 

Tbxiisr,  Asie  Mineure,  149:  Perrot,  Galaiie  el  Bithunie,  42- 
45;  CoiNET,  Turquie  d'Asie,  IV,  508  sq.;  Smith,  Did.  of  Gr.  and 
Rom.  Oeogr.  (London,  1878),  s.  v.  Buhynium. 

S.    P^TRIDES. 

Olaudiua,  Apolunaris.  See  Apolunaris  Clau- 
dius, Saint. 

Olavigoro,  Francisco  Saverio,  b.  at  Vera  Cruz, 
Mexico,  0  September,  1731;  d.  at  Bologna,  Italy, 
2  April,  1787.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus.  Father  Jos6  Rafael  Campoi, 
S.  J.,  at  the  CJollege  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  in 
Mexico,  directed  his  attention  to  the  valuable  collec- 
tion of  documents  on  Mexican  history  and  antiqui- 
ties deposited  there  by  Siguenza  y  Gongora,  and  he 
became  an  enthusiastic  investigator  in  these  fields. 
Wlien  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Mexico  in  1767, 
Father  Clavigefo  went  to  Bologna,  where  he  founded 
a  literary  academy  and  pursued  diligently  his  docu- 
mentary studies  in  Mexican  aboriginal  history.  He 
compiled  there  his  "Historia  antica  del  Messico" 
(CJesena,  1780),  in  opposition  to  the  worics  of  De 
Pauw,  Raynal,  and  Rooertson.  While  the  "Historia 
antica"  is  the  principal  work  of  Clavigero,  be  had 
already  published  in  Mexico  several  writings  of  minor 
importance.  After  his  death  there  appeared  "  Storia 
della  CaUfomia",  less  appreciated  but  still  not  to  be 
neglected  by  students. 

The  "Ancient  History  of  Mexico"  made  consider- 
able impression  and  met  with  great  favour.  Follow- 
ing the  book  of  the  Cavaliere  Boturini  he  included 
a  Est  of  sources,  paying  particular  attention  to  the  In- 
dian pictographs,  on  tissue  and  other  substances,  form- 
ing part  of  the  Boturini  collection,  and  increasing  the 
list  by  specimens  then  extant  in  various  parts  of 
Europe.  The  catalogue  of  Indian  writers  is  also  taken 
from  Boturini,  as  (Jlavigero  is  careful  to  state.  While 
materially  enlarged  since  then  and  though  much  ad- 
ditional information  has  been  gained,  his  catalogue 
always  remains  of  value.  Finally  he  added  a  history 
of  the  conquest  of  Mexico.    While  other  Jesuit  wri- 


CLAVniS 


9' 


CLAVUS 


t^TK  on  America,  who  wrote  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
order,  hke  Molina  for  instance,  maintained  in  their 
books  an  attitude  of  dignified  impartiality,  Clavi^ero 
has  not  been  able  to  conceal  his  resentment  against 
the  Spaniards  for  that  measure.  He  does  not  allude 
to  it,  but  criticizes  the  conquerons  harshly,  extolling 
at  the  same  time,  beyond  measure,  the  character  ana 
culture  of  the  Indians.  The  writings  of  De  Pauw, 
Adair,  and  Robertson  are  severely  criticized.  The 
two  former  have,  in  their  hypercritical  tendencies, 
gone  entirely  too  far  in  denymg  to  the  Indians  of 
Mexico  a  certain  kind  and  degree  of  polity,  but  Rob- 
ertson was  much  more  moderate,  hence  nearer  the 
truth,  and  more  reliable  than  Clavigero  himself.  The 
latter  is  an  unsafe  guide  in  American  ethnology,  on  ac- 
count of  his  exaggeration  of  the  aboriginal  culture  of 
the  Mexican  sedentary  tribes.  But  the  systematic  ar- 
rangement of  his  work,  his  style,  and  the  sentimental 
interest  taken  in  the  conquered  peoples  ensured  to 
his  book  a  popular  sympathy  that  for  a  long  time  con- 
trolled the  opinions  of  students  as  well  as  of  general 
readers.  The  "  Storia  antica  del  Messico ''  was  trans- 
lated into  £nglish  by  CuUen  (Londonr,  1787);  there  is 
a  German  translation  of  the  English  version  (Leipzig, 
1789);  Spanish  editions  (London,  1826;  Mexico,  1844 
and  1853). 

BKBxaTAiN  DK  SouzA,  BQAioUca  hUpano-americana  Beplatirio' 
nal  (Mexioo,  1816  and  1883);  Diccianario  univeraal  de  liiatoria 
y  Oeografia  (Mezioo.  1853). 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

GlaviUB,  Christopher  (Christoph  Clau),  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  whose  most  important 
achievement  related  to  the  reform  of  the  calendar 
under  Qregoiy  XIII;  b.  at  Bamben;,  Bavaria,  1538; 
d.  at  Rome,  12  February,  1612.  The  German  form 
of  his  name  was  latinized  into  ''Clavius".  He 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1555  and  his  especial 
talent  for  mathematical  research  showed  itself  even 
in  his  preliminary  studies  at  Coimbra.  Called  to 
Rome  by  his  superiors  as  teacher  of  this  branch  of 
science  at  the  well-known  Collegium  Romanum,  he 
was  engaged  tminterruptedly  there  until  his  death. 
The  greatest  scholars  of  his  time,  such  men  as  Tycho 
Brah^,  Johann  Kepler,  Galileo  Galilei,  and  Giovanni 
Antonio  Magini,  esteemed  him  highly.  He  was  called 
the  ** Euclid  of  the  sixteenth  century";  and.  even  his 
scientific  opponents,  like  Scaliger,  said  openly  that 
they  would  rather  be  censured  by  a  Gavius  than 
praised  by  another  man.  There  has,  however,  been 
no  lack  of  persistent  disparagement  of  Catholic 
scholars  even  down  to  our  own  times;  and  therefore 
much  that  is  inexact,  false,  and  mythical  has  been 
put  into  circulation  about  Clavius,  as  for  example 
that  he  was  originally  named  "Schllissel"  (davie, 
"  key  "),  that  he  was  appointed  a  cardinal,  that  he  met 
his  aeath  by  the  thrust  of  a  mad  bull,  etc.  His  rela- 
tions with  Galilei,  with  whom  he  remained  on  friendly 
terms  untfl  his  death,  have  also  been  often  misrepre- 
sented. The  best  evidence  of  the  actual  achieve- 
ments of  the  mat  man  is  presented  by  his  numerous 
writing^,  whiSi  at  the  end  of  his  life  he  reissued  at 
Mainz  in  five  huge  folio  volumes  in  a  collective  edi- 
tion under  the  titie,  "Christophori  Clavii  e  3<>cietate 
Jesu  opera  mathematica,  quinque  tomis  distributa". 
The  fint  contains  the  Euclidean  geometry  and  the 
"Spheric''  of  Theodosius  (Sphsericorum  Libri  III); 
the  second,  the  practical  geometry  and  algebra;  the 
third  is  composed  of  a  complete  commentary  upon 
•the  ''SphflBra''  of  Joannes  de  Sacro  Bosoo  (John  Holy- 
wood),  and  a  dissertation  upon  the  astrolabe;  the 
fourth  contains  what  was  up  to  that  time  the  most 
detailed  and  copious  discussion  of  gnomonics,  i.  e.  the 
art  of  constructing  all  possible  sun-dials;  finally,  the 
fifth  contains  the  oest  and  most  fundamental  exposi- 
tion of  the  reform  of  the  calendar  accomplished  under 
Gregory  XIII. 

Many  of  these  writings  had  already  appeared  in 


numerous  previous  editions,  especially  the  "Oom- 
mentarius  in  Sphscram  Joannis  de  Sacro  Bosco" 
(Rome,  1570,  1575,  1581,  1585,  1606;  Venice,  1596, 
1601,  1602,  1603,  1607;  Lyons,  1600,  1608,  etc.); 
likewise  the  "EucHdis  Elementorum  Libri  XV" 
(Rome,  1574,  1589,  1591,  1603,  1605;  Frankfort. 
1612).  After  his  death  also  these  were  republished 
in  1617, 1627, 1654, 1663, 1717,  at  Coloene,  Frankfort, 
and  Amsterdam,  and  Were  eveil  translated  into  Chi- 
nese. In  his  "Geometria  Practica"  (1604)  Clavius 
states  among  other  thines  a  method  of  dividing  a 
measuring  scale  into  subdivisions  of  any  desired 
smallness,  which  is  far  more  complete  than  that  given 
by  Nonius  and  must  be  considered  as  the  precursor  of 
the  measuring  instrument  named  after  Vernier,  to 
which  perhaps  the  name  Clavius  ought  accordingly  to 
be  given.  The  chief  merit  of  CHavius,  however,  ues  in 
the  profound  exposition  and  masteriy  defence  of  the 
Gregorian  calendar  reform,  the  execution  and  final 
victoiy  of  which  are  due  chiefly  to  him.  Cf .  "  Roman! 
calendarii  a  Gregorio  XIII  restituti  explicatio"  (Rome, 
1603);  "Novi  calendarii  Romani  apologia  (ad versus 
M.  Msestlinum  in  Tubin^ensi  Academic  mathemati- 
cum) "  (Rome,  1588).  Distinguished  pupils  of  Clavius 
were  Grienberger  and  Blancanus,  both  priests  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus. 

SoMMERVoasL,  Btbl.  de  {a  e.  de  J.  (Bniasela,  1891),  IT,  col. 
1212;  Lalandb,  Bibliog,  aatron.  (1803);  Dblambrs.  HiM&ire 
de  I'aetronomie  modeme  (Park,  1821);  Wolf,  GeackidUe  der 
Aetronomie  (Munich,  1877);  Bttlletin  a9tr<m.  (Paris,  1905),  mq.; 
Retnie  dee  Quealione  ScierUifigueB  (Loavain,  1908),  series  III, 
XIII,  324-331. 

Adolf  MOller. 

OlavuB,  Claudius  (or  Nicholas  Niger),  the  latin- 
ized form  of  the  name  of  the  old  Danish  cartographer 
Claudius  Clausson  Swart,  b.  in  the  village  of  Sailing, 
on  the  Island  of  FOnen,  14  September,  1388;  date  of 
death  unknown.  He  was  the  first  oian  to  make  a 
map  of  North- Western  Europe,  which,  moreover, 
included  the  first  ,map  of  Greenland.  He  was  appar- 
ently an  ecclesiastic.  In  the  course  of  his  frequent 
joumesrs  he  went  to  Italy,  where  in  1424  he  aroused 
much  interest  among  the  Humanists  of  Rome  by 
announcing  that  in  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Sorde, 
near  Roeskilde,  he  had  seen  three  lar^  volumes  which 
contained  the  "Ten  Decades"  of  Livv;  according  to 
his  own  statement  he  had  read  the  titks  of  the  chap- 
ters (decern  Livii  decade$t  guarum  capita  ipse  legisset)^ 
Through  his  intercourse  with  the  Humanists  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  maps  and  descriptions  of 
Ptolemy,  and  was  thus  led  to  supplement  the  work  of 
Ptolemy  by  adding  to  it  a  chart  and  description  of  the 
North- West  country.  Clavus  first  turned  his  knowl- 
edge of  Scandinavia  and  Greenland  to  account  in  the 
geographical  drawing  and  description  which  has  been 
preserved  in  the  Ptolemy  MS.  of  1427  of  Cardmal 
Filiaster.  The  manuscript  is  now  in  the  public  library 
of  Nancy.  Descriptions  of  it  have  been  repeatedly 
given  by  Waitz,  Nordenskjold,  Storm,  ana  others. 
The  facsimile  of  Clavus  s  map  and  his  description  of 
the  parts  contained,  which  were  published  by  Norden- 
skidld  and  Storm,  show  that  he  aave  Greenland  and 
Iceland  the  correct  geographical  position,  namely, 
west  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula. 

Far  more  important,  however,  for  the  history  of 
cartography  is  the  second  map  and  description  of 
North-western  Europe  and  Greenland  that  Clavus 
produced.  As  yet,  unfortunately,  the  original  of  this 
work  has  not  been  found,  nor  does  anv  copy  contain 
both  the  map  and  the  description.  This  second  map 
has  been  preserved  in  the  works  of  the  German  car- 
tographers. Donnus  Nicholas  Germanus  and  Henricus 
Martellus  Germanus,  who  lived  at  Florence  in  the 
second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Until  recently, 
the  descriptive  text  belonging  to  the  map  has  only 
been  known  by  the  citations  of  SchQner  and  Friedlieb 
(Irenicus) ;  the  complete  text  was  not  known  until^  it 
was  foimd  by  Bjftmbo  in  two  codices  in  the  imperial 


OLATTOK 


10 


CLXBF 


library  at  Vienna.  Bjornbo's  discovery  Is  especially 
important  as  it  is  now  certain  that  Claudius  Clavus 
was  actually  in  Greenland  and  that  ht  claims  to  have 
pushed  his  journey  along  the  west  coast  as  far  as 
70°  10  N.  lat.  Ajaother  fact  that  lends  importance 
to  this  discoveiv  is  that  an  explanation  has  at  last 
been  found  for  tne  incomprehensible  names  on  the  old 
maps  of  Greenland.  Local  names  in  Greenland  and 
Iceland,  so  entirely  different  from  those  that  appear 
in  the  Icelandic  sa^as,  for  a  long  time  served  the 
defenders  of  the  Zem  as  an  argument  that  the  map  of 
Greenland  was  the  work  of  the  elder  Zeno.  It  is  now 
clear  from  the  list  of  names  given  by  Gavus  that  the 
Icelandic  names  on  the  map  are  not  the  real  designa- 
tions of  the  places,  but  merely  the  names  of  Runic 
characters.  In  the  same  manner,  when  he  came  to 
Greenland,  Claudius  Clavus  used  the  successive  words 
of  the  first  stanza  of  an  old  Danish  folk^ng,  the 
scene  of  which  is  laid  in  Greenland,  to  designate  the 
headlands  and  rivers  that  seemed  to  him  most  worthy 
of  note  as  he  sailed  from  the  north-east  coast  of 
Greenland  around  the  southern  end,  and  up  the  west 
coast.  In  the  linguistic  form  of  the  words  the  dialect 
of  the  Island  of  FUnen  is  still  evident.  The  discovery 
also  makes  clear  how  the  younger  Zeno  was  able  to 
add  to  the  forged  story  of  a  journey  made  in  1558  a 
comparatively  correct  map  of  the  northern  countries, 
and  how  he  came  to  make  use  of  the  lines  beginning: — 
ThcBT  boer  eeynh  manh  ij  eyn  Groenenlandz  aa^*  etc., 
which  run  in  English:- - 

There  lives  a  man  on  Greenland's  stream. 

And  Spieldebodh  doth  he  be  named; 

More  has  he  of  white  herrings 

Than  he  has  pork  that  is  fat. 

From  the  north  drives  the  sand  anew. 

The  second  map  of  Clavus  exercised  a  great  in- 
fluence on  the  development  of  cartography.  As 
Clavus  in  drawing  his  map  of  North- Western  Europe 
and  Greenland  made  use  of  all  the  authorities  to  be 
had  in  his  time,  e.  g.  Ptolemy's  jwrtcianos  (marine 
maps)  and  itineraries,  so  the  map-makers  of  succeed- 
ing centuries  adopted  his  map,  either  directly  or 
indirectly:  thus,  m  the  fifteenth  century,  Donnus 
Nicholas  Germanus  and  Henricus  Martellus;  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  WaldaeemOller,  Nicold  Zeno,  Rus- 
oelli,  Moletius,  Ramusio,  Mercator,  Ortelius;  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  Hondius,  Blaeu,  and  others;  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  Homann  and  his  suocessons. 
It  is  evident  that  scarcely  any  other  map  has 
exerted  so  permanent  an  influence  as  the  map  of 
Greenland  bv  Claudius  Clavus,  *'  the  first  cartographer 
of  America  . 

Storm,  Den  dtmtikt  Oeograf  Clauditu  ClavuM  eUer  Nieotatts 
Niger  (Stockholm,  1891);  Bjornbo  and  Peterbbn.  Fyenboen 
ClaudiuM  Clausaim  Swart  (Copenhagen,  1904);  Fischer.  Die 
kartogretphiwche  DargMlung  der  RrUtUckunQen  der  Normcmnen 
in  Afnerika  in  Proceedings  of  the  Jntemat.  Amer,  Congress 
of  190U  (Stuttgart,  1906). 

Joseph  Fischer. 

Olayton,  James,  priest,  confessor  of  the  faith,  b. 
at  Sheffield,  England,  date  of  birth  not  known;  d.  a 
prisoner  in  Derby  gaol,  22  July,  1588.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  sho^naker,  and,  bemg  apprenticed  to  a 
blackffloiith  for  seven  years,  spent  his  leiBure  hours  in 
educating  himself,  giving  special  attention  to  the 
study  of  Latin.  His  studies  led  him  to  embrace  the 
Catholic  religion,  and  he  was  sent  to  the  English  Col- 
lege at  Reims  (1582).  where  he  was  ordained  priest 
in  1585,  and  immediately  returned  to  England  to 
labour  in  his  native  county.  Four  years  later,  while 
visiting  the  Catholic  prisoners  in  Derby  gaol,  he  was 
apprehended  and  condemned  to  death  for  exercising 
his  priestly  office.  His  brothers  pleaded  for  lus  par- 
don and  his  execution  was  delayed,  though  he  was 
still  kept  a  prisoner.  Prison  life  brought  on  a  sick- 
\  of  whion  he  died. 


B'oLET,  Reeordji  S.  J.  (I^ndon,  Koehampinn.  1875-1879), 
III.  47,  230,  802;  Douay  Diariee,  ed.  Knox  (London,  1878). 
12,  29.  184,  186,  200,  205,  262.  296;  Ely,  Certain  Brief  Nolee, 
etc.  (PatiB.  1603),  206. 

G.  E.  Hind. 

Olazomenn,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor.  The  city 
had  been  first  founded  on  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Ionian  Sea  (now  Gulf  of  Smvma),  about  15  miles 
from  Smyrna:  it  was  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  the 
Ionian  Confeoeration,  and  reached  the  acme  of  its  im- 
portance under  the  Lydian  kings.  After  the  death  of 
Croesus  its  inhabitant,  through  fear  of  the  Persians, 
took  refuge  on  the  island  opposite  their  town  (to-day 
St.  John's  Isle),  which  was  joined  to  the  mainland  by 
Alexander  the  Great ;  the  pier  has  been  restored  and  is 
yet  used  as  means  of  communication  between  the 
modem  Vouria  and  the  island,  on  which  there  is  now 
an  important  quarantine  hospital.  Clazomenie  is  the 
birthplace  of  the  philosophers  Hermotimus  and  An- 
axagoras.  The  see  was  a  suffragan  of  Ephesus.  Le- 
quien  (I,  729)  mentions  two  bishops:  Eusebius,  pre- 
sent  at  Ephesus  and  Chalcedon,  in  431  and  451;  and 
Macarius,  at  the  Eighth  (Ecumenical  Council,  in  869. 
When  Smyrna  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  metropolis 
(perhaps  as  early  as  the  sixth  century)  Clazomense 
was  attached  to  it,  as  is  shown  by  Parthey's  "  Noti- 
tisB '',  3  and  10.  In  1387  it  was  given  again  to  Ephe- 
sus bv  a  synodal  act  of  the  patriarch  Nilus  (Miklosich 
and  MUller,  "Acta  Patriarchatus  Constantinopol. ", 
II,  103).  After  this  date  there  is  no  aoparent  trace 
of  its  history;  nothing  remains  of  the  city  except  the 
ancient  pier. 

Labarn.  De  r^bue  Claaomenxcrum  (1875);  Smith,  Diet,  of  Or. 
and  Ram.  Geogr.  (London,  1878),  I.  631-32. 

S.   PUTRID l». 

Glean  and  Uncldan.—The  distinction  between 
legal  or  ceremonial,  as  opposed  to  moral,  cleanness 
and  uncleanness  which  stands  out  so  prominently  in 
the  Mosaic  legislation  (q.  v.). 

0l6ef,  Ja^t  van,  a  Flemish  painter,  b.  in  Guelder- 
land  in  1646;  d.  at  Ghent,  18  December,  1716.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Luigi  Primo  (Gentile)  and  Gaspard  de 
Craeyer.  When  Craey er  died ,  Cleef  was  commissioned 
to  complete  his  master's  work  in  the  churches  and 
to  finisn  the  cartoons  for  the  tapestry  ordered  by 
Louis  XIV.  The  churches  and  convents  in  Flanders 
and  Brabant  are  rich  in  his  paintings. 

He  was  a  splendid  draughtsman,  a  good  colourist, 
celebrated  for  his  management  of  drapery  and  for  his 
charming  portrayal  of  children's  heads  and  the  at- 
tractive faces  of  his  women.  In  a  school  pre-eminent 
in  portraiture  Jan  held  a  high  place.  He  accoro- 
plisned  a  vast  amount  of  work,  aU  showing  the  influ- 
ence of  his  masters  and  tending  more  to  Italian  tlian 
Flemish  methods.  His  favourite  subjects  were  Scrip- 
tural and  religious,  and  liis  treatment  of  them  was 
simple  and  broad.  His  masterpiece,  ''Nuns  Giving 
Aid  during  the  Plague",  in  the  convent  of  the  Black 
Nuns,  at  Ghent,  rivals  the  work  of  Van  Dyck. 

For  bibliography,  see  Clkef,  Joost  van. 

Leigh  Httnt. 

Oloef,  Joost  van  (Jorse  van  Cleve),  the  "Mad- 
man", a  Flemish  painter,  b.  in  Antwerp  c.  1520;  died 
c.  1556.  He  was  one  of  twenty  van  Cleef s  who 
painted  in  Antwerp,  but  whether  the  well-known 
Henry,  Martin,  and  William  (the  younger)  were  kin 
of  his  cannot  be  determined.  Of  his  father,  William 
(the  elder),  we  know  only  that  he  was  a  member  of  ' 
the  Antw^erp  Academy,  which  body  Joost  joined. 
Joost  was  a  brilliant  and  Imninous  colourist, 
rivalling,  in  this  respect,  the  Italians,  whose  methods 
he  followed.  Severitv  and  hardness  of  outline  some- 
what marred  his  otherwise  fine  draughtsmanship. 
Portraiture  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  represented 
by  Joost  van  Cleef;  and  Kugler  places  him,  artisti* 


OLIEF 


11 


OUbftSNOBT 


caily,  between  Holbein  and  Antonio  Mono,  his  "  Por- 
trait of  a  Man  "  in  Munich  (Pinakothek)  being  long  at- 
tributed to  Holbein.  He  painted  in  France,  England, 
and  Germany.  The  celebrated  portrait  painter  of 
Cologne,  Bruvn,  was  his  pupil.  Imagining  himself 
'inap^reciated,  he  went  to  Spain  and  was  presented 
\o  rmlip  II  by  Moro,  the  court  painter. 

Because  Henry  VIII,  according  to  English  author- 
ities, chose  Titian's-  pictures  in  preference  to  his,  van 
Cleef  became  infuriated,  and  his  frenzy  later  devel- 
oped into  permanent  insanity.  The  French  contend 
tnat  it  was  Philip,  in  Spain,  who  gave  Titian  the 
preference.  The  most  distressing  feature  of  Joost's 
uisanity  was  that  he  retouched  and  ruined  his  fin- 
ished pictures  whenever  he  could  sain  access  to  them, 
and  his  family  finally  had  to  place  him  under  restraint. 
Beautiful  altar-pieces  by  van  Cleef  are  found  in  manv 
Flemish  churches,  notably  "The  Last  Judgment 
(Ghent).  Perhap  the  most  celebrated  of  his  works 
is  the  "fiacchus  (Amsterdam),  whose  younf  face  is 
crowned  with  prematurelv  grey  hair.  "A  Virgin" 
(Middlebuig)  is  noteworthy  as  havin^g  a  charming 
landscape  for  the  background,  a  combination  rare  in 
those  days.  Other  works  are  "  Portrait  of  the  Painter 
and  his  Wife",  at  Windsor  Castle;  "Portrait  of  a 
Young  Man",  at  Berlin;  and  "Portrait  of  a  Man",  at 
Munich. 

Blanc,  Hut.  dea  peintrea  de  Untiea  let  iceUa  {icale  Flamande) 
(Pte.ris,  1877);  Wactsbs,  Hi»tory  of  Ftemish  Painting  (London, 
1886):  Dkscbamps,  Lt  via  des  Peinirea  Flamanda,  AUetnanda 
et  HoUandoia  (Paris.  1753);  BCboer,  Triaora  d'etH  en  Angle- 
terre  (Bnu»els,  i860);  Biographie  NcUionaU  de  Belgique  (Brus- 
sdB.  1885);  Reinach,  Story  ef  AH  throuQfunU  the  Agea,  tr.  Siic- 
MONM  (New  York,  1004). 

LdOH  Hunt. 


Oloef,  Martin  van,  Flemish  painter,  b.  at  Ant- 
werp in  1520;  d.  in  1570;  was  the  son  of  the  painter 
William  (the  youn^^r  William)  and  was  throughout 
his  life  closely  associated  with  his  brother  Henry,  who 
exert^  great  influence  over  his  artistic  career.  Des* 
champs  asserts  that  Martin  and  Joost  were  brothers, 
but  the  majority  of  writers  on  Flemish  art  agree  that 
Joost  was  the  son  of  the  elder  William.  Martin  stud- 
ied under  Franz  Floris,  'Hhe  incomparable  Floris", 
and  at  first  exhibited  a  strong  predilection  for  land* 
scape  woik.  Later  on,  however,  persuaded  by  Henry, 
he  devoted  himself  whoUy  to  figure-painting.  His- 
torical subjects  were  his  favourites,  but  ne  also  achieved 
great  success  in  genre  painting.  The  latter  has  been 
stigmatized  as  vulgar  and  6U^[gestive,  but  while  coarse, 
and  reflecting  the  peasant  life  of  the  Flemings,  it  dif- 
fered but  b'ttle  in  tnis  respect  from  the  canvases  of  the 
great  Dutchmen.  After  a  few  early  attempts  in  large 
compositions  after  the  Italian  manner  of  Floris,  he 
painted  small  pictures  only,  and  these  with  great 
spirit  and  thorough  techmc.  His  work  is  delicate 
and  refined  in  treatment,  harmonious  in  colour,  and 
excellent  in  draughtsmanship. 

Martin  van  Cleef  painted  in  the  landscapes  the 
figures  of  many  eminent  contemporaries,  GiUes  and 
Franz  Floris  among  them,  and  he  continually  collabor- 
ated with  his  brother  Henry  in  that  way.  Hennr 
reciprocated  and  added  to  Martin's  figure-pieces  lanci- 
scape  backgrounds  charming  in  colour  and  design,  and 
harmonizipg  well  with  the  rest  of  the  picture.  On 
many  of  his  works  Martin  painted,  as  a  mark,  a  small 
ape — playing  thus  on  his  name — and  in  consequence  is 
frequently  called  the  "Master  of  the  Ape".  He  was 
admitted  to  the  Antwerp  Academy,  and  in  1551 
broame  a  member  of  the  St.  Luke's  Guild  of  Artists. 
He  never  travelled  from  his  native  Flanders,  and  died 
of  gout  at  the  age  of  fifty,  leaving  four  sons — all  of 
them  painters. 

For  bibliognphy,  see  CLXKr,  Joost  van. 

Leiqb  Hunt. 

OlemangeB,  or  Clamanoxs,  Matrieu-Nicolas 
PoiLLSviLLAiN  DE,  a  French  Humanist  and  theo- 


logiiin,  b.  in  (  nafni):i«;ne  alxiut  1360;  d.  at  Paris 
between  14:}4  and  M40.  He  made  hi«  studies  in  the 
College  of  Navarre  at  Paris,  and  in  1380  received  the 
degree  of  Licentiate,  later  on  that  of  Master  of  Arts. 
He  studied  theology  under  Gerson  and  Pierre 
d^Ailljr,  and  receivedthe  degree  of  Bachelor  of  The- 
ology in  1393.  He  had  begun  to  lecture  at  the  uni- 
versity in  1391  and  was  appointed  its  rector  in  1393, 
a  position  he  filled  until  1395.  The  Church  was  then 
agitated  by  the  Western  Schism,  and  three  methods 
were  proposed  to  re-establish  peace:  compromise,  con- 
cession, and  a  general  council.  From  1380  to  1394 
the  University  of  Paris  advocated  a  general  council. 
In  1394  another  tendencry  was  manifest;  i.  e.  both 
Boniface  IX  and  Clement  VII  were  held  responsible  for 
the  continuance  of  the  schism,  and  their  resignations 
decreed  to  be  the  means  of  obtainingjpeace.  To 
this  end  a  letter  was  written  to  King  Charles  VI  by 
three  of  the  most  learned  masters  of  the  university, 
Pierre  d'Ailly,  Gilles  des  Champs,  and  Cl^manges. 
The  two  first  prepared  the  content,  to  which  C16- 
manges  gave  a  Ciceronian  elegance  of  form.  The  letter 
was  unsuccessful,  and  the  university  was  ordered  to 
abstain  from  further  discussion.  Cl^manges,  forced 
to  resign  the  rectorship  of  the  university,  then  be- 
came canon  and  dean  of  Saint-CIodoald  (1395),  and 
later  on  canon  and  treasurer  of  Langres.  Tlie  anti- 
pope  Benedict  XIII,  who  admired  his  Latin  style, 
took  him  for  his  secretarv  in  1397,  and  he  remainea  at 
Avignon  until  1408,  when  he  abandoned  Benedict 
because  of  the  tatter's  coi^ict  with  Charles  VI. 
Cl^manges  now  retired  to  the  Carthusian  monastery 
of  Valfonds  and  later  to  Fontaine-du-Bosc.  In  these 
two  retreats  he  wrote  his  best  treatises,  "De  Fructu 
eremi"  (dedicated  to  Pierre  d'Ailly)^  "De  Fructu 
rerum  adyersarum",  "De  novis  festivitatibus  non 
instituendis'^  and  "De  studio  theologico",  in  which 
latter  work  he  exhibits  his  dislike  for  the  Scholastic 
method  in  philosophy.  In  1412  he  returned  to 
Langres,  ana  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Bayeux. 
His  voice  was  heard  successively  at  the  Council  of 
Constance  (1414),  and  at  Chartres  (1421).  where  he 
defended  the  "liberties"  of  the  Gallican  Church.  In 
1425  he  was  teaching  rhetoric  and  theology  in  the 
College  of  Navarre,  where,  most  probably,  he  died. 
Cl^manees  is  also  credited  with  the  authorship  of  the 
work  "De  comipto  Ecclesiaj  statu",  first  emted  by 
Cordatus  (possibly  Hutten)  in  1513,  a  violent  attack 
on  the  morality  and  discipline  of  the  contemporary 
Church;  hence  he  is  sometimes  considered  a  Reformer 
of  the  type  of  Wyclif  and  Hus.  Schubert,  however, 
in  his  book  "1st  Nicolaus  von  Cl^manges  der  Ver- 
fasser  des  Buches  De  comipto  Ecclesi®  statu?" 
(Groesenhain,  1882;  Leipzig,  1888)  has  shown  that, 
although  a  contemporary,  C16manges  was  not  the 
author  of  the  book.  His  works  were  edited  in  two 
volumes  by  J.  Lydius,  a  Protestant  minister  of 
Frankfort  (Leyden,  1613).  His  letters  are  in 
d'Achery  (below)  I,  473  sqq. 

d'Achikry,  Spicilegiutn  (Faris,  1666).  VII,  praef.  ^7; 
J)vnti,Nouv.Md.  dea auteuraecd^a. ^Xll,  78;  Mi^vrt, Nieolaa da 
Clhnanges,  aa  vie  el  sea  icrite  (Strasburg,  1846):  Deniflk  bt 
Chatelain,  ChaHtdarium  Univ,  Paris.  (1894)  III,  736;  FfeBirr, 
La  faculty  de  thMogie  de  Paria,  IV,  276-296;  VoioT,  Die 
Wiederbelebuno  dea  daaaiaehen  Altertuma,  II.  349-356; 
Creightov,  A  Hiatory  of  the  Papacy  (London,  1882),  1; 
Pastor,  Hvatory  of  the  Popea,  I ;  Salembier,  Le  grand  achiame 
d'Oceident  (Pans.  1902). 

J.  B.  Delaunat. 

Olemencet,  Charles,  Benedictine  historian,  b.  at 
Painblanc,  in  the  department  of  Cdte-d'Or,  France. 
1703'  d.  at  Paris,  5  August,  1778.  Cl^mencet  en- 
tered the  Congregation  of  Saint-Maur  at  an  early  age; 
for  a  short  time  he  was  lector  of  rhetoric  at  Pont-le- 
Vov,  but,  on  account  of  his  great  abilities,  was  soon 
called  to  Paris.  Here  he  took  part  in  almost  all  of  the 
important  literary  labours  of  his  congregation,  show- 
ing a  marked  preference  for  historical  research.    At 


OLEMEirS 


12 


OLKMKNt 


first  his  superiors  commissioned  him  to  edit  the 
"Bibliotheca"  (Myriobiblion)  of  Photius.  Cl^men- 
cet  soon  retired  from  this  task  and  devoted  all  his 
powers  to  a  chronological  work  for  which  Dantine, 
another  member  of  the  congregation,  had  made  the 
preparatory  studies.  This  chronolo^,  Cl^mencet's 
principal  work,  had  the  very  prolix  title:  "L'art  de 
verifier  les  dates  ou  faits  historiques  des  chartes,  des 
chroniques,  et  anciens  monuments  depuis  la  nais- 
sance  de  J^us-Christ,  par  le  moyen  d'lme  table 
chronologique,  oil  Ton  trouve  les  ann^  de  J^us- 
Christ  et  de  TEre  d'Espagne,  les  Indictions,  le  C^cle 
pascal,  les  P&ques  de  chaque  ann6e,  les  Cydes  solaires 
et  lunaires.  Avec  un  Calendrier  perp^tuel,  THistoire 
abr^e  des  conciles,  des  papes,  des  empereurs  ro- 
mains,  grecs,  frangais,  allemands  et  turcs;  des  Rois 
de  France,  d'Espsine  et  d'Angleterre,  d'Ecosse,  de 
Lombardie,  de  Sicile,  de  Jerusalem,  etc.,  des  Dues  de 
Bourgoene,  de  Normandie,  de  Bretwie;  des  Comtes 
de  Toulouse,  de  Champi^e  et  de  Blois  par  des  re- 
ligieux  b^nddictins  de  la  conp^ation  de  Saint- 
Maur"  (Paris,  1750).  The  work  was  compiled  with 
extraordinary  industry,  and  contains,  as  the  titie 
shows,  a  lai^e  amount  of  historical  material.  In  its 
judgment  of  persons  and  facts,  however,  it  betrayed 
a  strong  bias  to  Jansenism  and  Gallicanism,  and  was, 
consequently,  frequently  attacked,  one  opponent 
in  particular  being  the  Jesuit  Patouillet.  The  asser- 
tion was  made,  and  not  without  reason,  that  the  title 
ought  to  read:  '^L'art  de  verifier  les  dates  et  falsifier 
les  faits". 

Cl&nencet  also  wrote  volimies  X  and  XI,  issued  at 
Paris,  1756  and  1759,  of  the  monumental  work  "His- 
toire  litt^raire  de  la  France*'.  The  volumes  prepared 
by  Cl^mencet  are  a  rich  collection  of  authorities,  and 
are  of  importance  not  only  for  the  literary  history  of 
France  but  also  for  the  history  of  the  development 
of  all  the  nations  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  intended 
that  he  should  edit  volume  XII  of  the  "Histoire  lit- 
t^ire",  preparing  for  it  the  life  of  St.  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux,  but  he  gave  up  the  undertaJcine  and  wrote 
instead  an  independent  work  entitled:  "Histoire  des 
vies  et  ^rits  de  Saint-Bernard  et  de  Pierre  le  V6n6r- 
able"  (Paris,  1773).  His  strong  predilection  for 
Jansenism  is  shown  in  two  of  his  writings,  namely: 
"Histoire  g^n^rale  de  Port-Royal  depuis  la  r^forme 
de  cette  abbaye  jusqu'^  son  enti&«  destruction 
(10  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1755-1757),  and  "Conferences 
de  la  M^re  Ang^lique  de  Saint-Jean,  Abbesse  de  Port- 
Royal"  (3  vols.,  Utrecht.  1760).  Of  the  former  of 
these  two  works  only  the  first  half  could  be  published, 
as  the  second  part  contained  too  strong  a  defence  of 
Jansenism.  On  account  of  his  leaning  to  Jansenism, 
Cl^mencet  was  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Jesuits.  He 
attacked  them  in  several  exceedingly  sharp  pamph- 
lets and  worked  for  the  suppression  of  the  society. 
Among  his  literary  labours  should  also  be  mentioned 
his  share  in  an  excellent  edition  of  the  works  of  St. 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus.  Prudentius  Maranus,  an- 
other member  of  the  Congregation  of  Saint-Maur,  had 
begun  the  task.  Cl^mencet  issued  the  first  volimie 
under  the  title:  "Gregorii  Theologi  opera  quae  extant 
omnia"  (Paris,  1778).  This  edition  is  still  valuable 
and  far  surpasses  all  the  earlier  editions. 

Tasmn,  Htttoire  liUiraire  de  la  Congriffolion  de  Saint-Maur, 
II,  .374-«3:  DB  Lama,  BiblioUihiue  dea  fenvaina  de  la  Conffr^- 
gatum  de  Sawt-Maur,  599-610. 

Patricius  Schlager. 

Olemena,  Franz  Jacob,  a  German  Catholic  phil- 
osopher, b.  4  October,  1815,  at  Coblenz;  d.  24  Febru- 
ary, 18jB2,  at  Rome.  After  spending  some  time  in  an 
educational  institution  at  Metz,  he  entered,  at  the  age 
of  sixteen,  the  Jesuit  College  of  Fribouig,  Switzer- 
land, attended  the  Gymnasium  at  Coblenz,  and  thence 
passed  to  the  University  of  Bonn.  In  1835  he  ma- 
triculated at  the  University  of  Berlin,  where  he  de- 


voted s)>ecial  attention  to  the  study  of  phOosophy 
and  received  the  doctorate  in  philosophy  (1839).  At 
the  end  of  a  literary  journey  through  Germany  and 
Italy,  he  became,  in  1843,  mstructor  in  philosophy 
at  the  University  of  Bonn,  and  taught  there  witK 
great  success  until  1856.  In  1848  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Frankfort  Parliament,  and  attended, 
at  Mainz,  the  first  General  Congress  of  German  Catho- 
lics, at  which  he  suggested  the'foimdation  of  the 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society  in  Germany.  In  1856 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in  the 
Academy  of  Miinster.  So  great  was  his  popularity 
as  a  teacher  at  Bonn  that,  when  he  removed  to  Mon- 
ster, he  was  followed  by  some  seventy  students.  The 
attendance  at  his  lectures  in  the  Westph^an  capittd 
was  an  extraordinarily  lai^ge  one;  but  ms  health  failed 
after  a  few  years.  In  1^1,  upon  the  advice  of  hia 
physicians,  he  sought  relief  in  a  southern  climate;  he 
died  at  Rome  in  tne  beginning  of  the  following  year 
and  was  buried  at  the  Qes\X, 

Clemens  was  a  layman  of  sound  Catholic  principles, 
who  ably  defended  the  Church  even  on  tneolcMrical 

aucstions.  He  published  his  first  great  work,  **Gior- 
ano  Bruno  und  Nikolaus  von  Cusa'',  in  1847,  at 
Bonn.  He  also  wrote  in  defence  of  the  Holy  Coat 
of  Trier, "  Der  heilige  Rock  zu  Trier  und  die  protest- 
antische  Kritik  "  (1845),  against  Gildemeister  and  von 
Sybel.  His  other  principal  writing  were  connected 
with  two  controversies  in  which  he  became  involved. 
His  book,  "Die  speculative  Theolo^e  A.  GOnthers" 
f Cologne,  1853),  a  clear  demonstration  of  the  oontra- 
oiction  between  Catholic  doctrine  and  the  views  of 
Giinther,  elicited  answers  from  Professors  Baltzer 
and  Knoodt,  to  which  Clemens  replied.  His  "De 
Scholasticorum  sententii,  philosopniam  esse  theo- 
logiiB  ancillam,  commentatio''  (Mtlnster,  1856) 
treated  of  the  subordinate  position  which  philosophy 
should  occupy  in  regard  to  theology.  It  brought  nim 
into  conflict  with  Professor  Kuhn  of  TQbin^en,  against 
whom  he  published,  in  defence  of  his  position:  "Die 
Wahrheit  etc."  (MOnster,  1860)  and  "Uber  das 
Verhfiltniss  etc."  (Mainz,  1860). 

DerKalKolik  (1862),  I,  257-80;  lAi.  Handweieer  (1862), 
88-89;  St5cu  in  A%  deut.  Biog.  (Leipsig,  1876),  IV,  315-17; 
DuUin  Rev.  (1862-63).  LII,  417-18.    * 

N.  A.  Weber. 

OlemenB  non  Papa  (Jacques  Clement),  repre- 
sentative of  the  Flemish  or  Netherland  School  of  music 
of  the  sixteenth  century;  d.  1558.  All  that  is  known 
with  reasonable  certainty  of  his  Ufe  is  that  he  pre- 
ceded Nicolas  <]rombert  (1495-1570)  as  choirmaster 
at  the  court  of  Charles  V.  An  indication  of  his  fame 
is  his  nickname  non  Papa,  given  to  distinguish  him 
from  the  contemporaneous  Pope  Clement  VII  (1523- 
34).  While  his  style  is  always  npble  and  fluent,  he 
shows  the  fault  of  nis  time  and  school  of  elaborating 
contrapuntal  forms  at  the  expense  of  a  clear  and  dis- 
tinct declamation  of  the  text.  Clemens  was,  never- 
theless, one  of  the  chief  forerunners  of  Palestrina  and 
Orlandus  Lassus.  who  alone  were  able  to  overshadow 
him.  Some  of  nis  more  important  works  are:  ten 
masses,  one  for  six,  five  for  five,  and  four  for  four 
voices,  published  by  Petrus  Phalesius  at  Louvain 
(1555-80),  a  large  number  of  motets,  and  four  vol- 
umes of  "Souter  Liedekens",  that  is  psalms  set  to 
familiar  Netherland  melodies,  published  by  Tylmann 
Susato  at  Antwerp  (1556-57). 

Ambros,  (7e8efk.  der  Mueik  (Leipxis,  1881);  RnitANN.  Band- 
bueh  der  Munhgetehiehte  (Leipsic,  19(>7). 

Joseph  Ottsn. 

Olemena  PradentiaB.  See  Prudentius,  Mabcus 
Aurexjus  (Xeioens. 

Olement  I,  Saint,  Pope  (called  Clemens  Roikanus 
to  distinguish  him  from  the  Alexandrian),  is  the  fiist 
of  the  successors  of  St.  Peter  of  whom  anything 
definite  is  known,  and  he  is  the  first  of  the  "Apostolic 


OLSMXirT 


13 


OLEIUNT 


Fathers".  His  feast  is  celebrated  23  November. 
He  has  left  one  gpenuine  writing,  a  letter  to  the 
Church  of  Corinthi  and  many  others  have  been  at- 
tributed to  him. 

I.  Ths  Fourth  Popb. — ^Acoordins  to  Tertullian, 
writing  c.  190,  the  Roman  Church  claimed  that 
Clement  was  ordained  by  St.  Peter  (De  Praeecript., 
xxzii),  and  St.  Jerome  tells  us  that  in  his  time  ''most 
of  the  Latins"  held  that  Clement  was  the  immediate 
successor  of  the  Apostle  (De  viris  illustr.,  xv).  St. 
Jerome  himself  in  several  other  places  follows  this 
opinion,  but  here  he  correctly  states  that  Clement 
was  the  fourth  pope.  The  early  evidence  shows 
great  variety.  The  most  ancient  list  of  popes  is  one 
made  by  Hegesippus  in  the  time  of  Pope  Anicetus, 
c.  160  (Hamack  ascribes  it  to  an  unknown  author 
under  Soter,  c.  170),  cited  by  St.  Epiphanius  (Heer., 
xxvii,  6).  It  seems  to  have  been  used  by  St.  Irenaeus 
(HflBT.,  Ill,  iii),  by  Julius  Africanus,  who  composed  a 

chionography  in 
222,  by  the  third- 
or  fourth-century 
author  of  a  Latin 
poem  againstMar- 
cion,  and  by  Hip- 
polytus,  whose 
chronology  ex- 
tends to  234  and 
is  probably  found 
in  the  ''Liberian 
Catalogue"  of 
364.  That  cata- 
logue was  itself 
aoopted  in  the 
''liber  Pontifio- 
alis".  Eusebiusin 
his  chronicle  and 
history  used  Afri- 
canus ;  inthe  latter 
he  slightly  cor- 
rected the  dates. 
St.  Jerome's 
chronicle  is  a 


Clement  I,  Sistxks  Chapbl,  Romk 
Tuscan  School  (Ideal) 


translation  of  Eusebius's,  and  is  our  principal  means 
for  restoring  the  lost  Qreek  of  the  latter;  the  Armenian 
version  and  Coptic  epitomes  of  it  are  not  to  be  de- 
pended on.    The  vaneties  of  order  are  as  follows: 

(1)  linus,  Cletus,  Clemens  (Hegesippus,  ap.  Epipha- 

nium,  Canon  of  Mass). 
Linus,  Anencletus,  Clemens  (Irenaeus,  Africanus 

ap.  Eusebium). 
Linus,  Anacletus,  Clemens  (Jerome). 

(2)  Linus,  Cletus,  Anacletus,  Clemens  (Poem  against 

Marcion). 

(3)  Linus,  Clemens,  Cletus,  Anacletus  [Hippolytus 

(7),  "Liberian  Catal.";  "Liber.  Pont.'*]. 

(4)  Linus,  Clemens^  Anacletus  (Optatus,  Augustine). 
At  the  present  tune  no  critic  doubts  that  Cletus, 

Anacletus,  Anencletus,  are  the  same  person.  Ana- 
cletus is  a  Latin  error;  Cletus  is  a  shortened  (and 
more  (}hristian)  form  of  Anencletus.  Li^tfoot 
thought  that  the  transposition  of  Clement  in  the 
"LiMrian  Catalo^e"  was  a  mere  accident,  like  the 
similar  error  "Amoetus,  Pius"  for  "Pius,  Anicetus", 
further  on  in  the  same  list.  But  it  ma;^  have  been  a 
deliberate  alteration  by  Hippolytus,  on  the  ground  of 
(lie  tradition  mentioned  by  TertuUian.  St.  Ireneus 
rill,  ill)  tells  us  that  dement  "saw  the  blessed 
Apostles  and  conversed  with  them,  and  had  yet 
ringing  in  his  ears  the  preaching  of  the  Apostles  and 
had  their  tradition  before  his  eyes,  and  not  he  only, 
for  many  were  then  surviving  who  had  been  taught 
bv  the  Apostles".  Similarly  Epiphanius  tells  us 
(trom  Hegesimius)  that  Clement  was  a  contemporaxy 
of  Peter  and  Paul.  Now  Linus  and  Cletus  had  each 
twelve  years  attributed  to  them  in  the  list.  If  Hip- 
polytus found  Cletus  doubled  by  an  error  (Cletus 


XII,  Anacletus  XII),  the  accession  of  Clement  would 
i^pear  to  be  thirty-six  years  after  the  death  of  the 
Apostles.  As  this  would  make  it  almost  impossible 
for  Clement  to  have  been  their  contemporary,  it  may 
have  caused  Hippolytus  to  shift  him  to  an  earlier 
position.  Further,  St.  Epiphanius  says  (loc.  cit.): 
"Whether  he  received  episcopal  orcunation  from 
Peter  in  the  life-time  of  tne  ApoNitles,  and  declined 
the  office,  for  he  says  in  one  of  his  epistles  '  I  retire, 
I  depart,  let  the  people  of  Qod  be  in  peace',  (for  we 
have  found  this  set  down  in  certain  Memoirs),  or 
whether  he  was  appointed  by  the  Bishop  Cletus  alter 
he  had  succeeded  the  Apostles,  we  do  not  clearly 
know."  The  "Memoirs"  were  certainly  those  oS 
Hegesippus.  It  seems  unlikely  that  he  is  appealed 
to  only  for  the  quotation  from  the  Epistle,  c.  liv^ 
probably  Epiphanius  means  that  Hegesippus  stated 
that  Clement  had  been  ordained  by  Peter  and  de- 
clined to  be  bishop,  but  twenty-four  years  later 
reallv  exercised  the  office  for  nine  years.  Epiphanius 
could  not  reconcile  these  two  facts;  Hippolytus  seems 
to  have  rejected  the  latter. 

Chronoloay. — ^The  date  intended  by  Hegesippus 
is  not  hard  to  restore.  Epiphanius  implies  that  he 
placed  the  martyrdom  of  tne  Apostles  in  the  twelfth 
year  of  Nero.  Africanus  calciuated  the  fourteenth 
year  (for  he  had  attributed  one  year  too  little  to  the 
rei^  of  Caligula  and  Claudius),  and  added  the  im- 
perial date  for  the  accession  of  each  pope;  but  hav- 
ing two  years  too  few  up  to  Anicetus  he  could  not 
get  the  intervals  to  tally  with  the  years  of  episcopate 
siven  by  Hegesippus.  He  had  a  parallel  difficulty 
m  his  list  of  tne  Alexandrian  bishops. 


4/Hm»ii« 

(from         Interral 
EoMblnii) 

BMl4atwA.D. 

Linus 

.12 

Nero  14 12 

Nero  12 66 

aetus 

.12 

Titus  2 12 

VfBp.  10 78 

aemen» 

.  0 

Dom.  12 (7) 

Dom.  10 90 

EuaristUB 

.   8 

Traian  2 99 

Alexander . . .  . 
SixtUB 

.10 
.10 

Tnuan  12.  ....10 

Trajan  10 107 

Hadrian  1 ..  .117 

Teleephonu . . . 

.11 

Hadrian  12. .  (10) 

Hadrian  11... 137 

Hyginus 

.  4 

Anton.  1 4 

Anton.  1 138 

Kbi. 

.16 

Anton.  5 15 

Anton.  5 142 

Anicetus 

Anton.  20 

Anton.  20 167 

If  we  start,  as  Hegesippus  intended,  with  Nero  12 
(see  last  colunm),  the  sum  of  his  years  brings  us  right 
for  the  last  three  popes.  But  Africanus  has  started 
two  years  wrong,  and  in  order  to  get  right  at  Hyginus 
he  has  to  allow  one  year  too  little  to  each  of  the  pre- 
ceding popes,  Sixtus  and  Teleephorus.  But  there  is 
one  inharmonious  date,  Trajan  2,  which  gives  seven 
and  ten  years  to  Clement  and  Euaristus  instead  of 
nine  and  eight.  Evidently  he  felt  bound  to  insert  a 
traditioniJ  date;  and  in  fact  we  see  that  Trajan  2 
was  the  date  intended  by  Hegesippus.  Now  we 
know  that  Hegesippus  spoke  about  Clement's  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Apostles,  and  said  nothing  about 
any  other  pope  until  Telesphorus,  "who  was  a  glo- 
rious martyr^'.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  to  find 
that  Africanus  had,  besides  the  lengthis  of  episcopate, 
two  fixed  dates  from  Hegesippus,  those  of  the  death 
of  Clement  in  the  second  year  of  Trajan,'  and  of  the 
martyrdom  of  Telesphorus  in  the  first  year  of  An- 
toninus Pius.  We  may  take  it,  therefore,  that  about 
160  the  death  of  St.  Clement  was  believed  to  have 
been  in  09. 

Identity. — Origen  identifies  Po^  Clement  with 
St.  Paul  s  fellow-labourer,  Phil.,  iv,  3,  and  so  do 
Eusebius,  Epiphanius^  and  Jerome;  but  this  Clement 
was  probably  a  Philippian.  In  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  it  was  the  custom  to  identify  the 
pope  with  the  consul  of  95,  T.  Flavius  Clemens,  who 
was  martyred  by  his  first  cousin,  the  Emperor  Domit- 
ian,  at  the  end  of  his  consulship.  But  the  ancients 
never  suggest  this,  and  the  pope  is  said  to  hav» 


OLEMENf 


14 


OUSMMMT 


Lived  on  till  the  reign  of  Trajan.  It  is  unlikely  that 
he  was  a  member  of  the  imperial  family.  Hie  con- 
tinual use  of  the  Old  Testament  in  his  Epistle  has 
suggested  to  Lightfoot,  Funk,  Nestle,  and  others  that 
he  was  of  Jewish  origin.  Probably  he  was  a  freed- 
man  or  son  of  a  freedman  of  the  ^nperor's  household, 
which  included  thousands  or  tens  of  thousands.  We 
know  that  there  were  Christians  in  the  household  of 
Nero  (Phil.,  iv,  22).  It  is  highly  probable  that  the 
bearers  of  Clement's  letter,  Claudius  Ephebus  and 
Valerius  Vito,  were  of  this  number,  for  the  names 
Claudius  and  Valerius  occur  with  great  frequency  in 
inscriptions  among  the  freedmen  of  the  Emperor 
Claudfius  (and  his  two  predecessors  of  the  same  gens) 
and  his  wife  Valeria  Messalina.  The  two  messengers 
are  described  as  "faithful  and  prudent  men,  who 
have  walked  among  us  from  youth  unto  old  ace 
unblameably^';  thus  th^  were  probably  alreaoy 
Christians  and  living  in  Rome  berore  the  death  of 
the  Apostles  about  thirty  years  earlier.  The  Prefect 
of  Rome  during  Nero's  persecution  was  Titus  Flavins 
Sabinus,  elder  brother  of  the  Emperor  Vespasian, 
and  father  of  the  martyred  Clemens.  Flavia  Domi- 
tilla,  wife  of  the  Martyr,  was  a  granddaughter  of 
Vespasian,  and  niece  of  Titus  and  Domitian;  she 
may  have  died  a  martyr  to  the  rigours  of  her  banish- 
noent.  The  catacomb  of  Domitilla  is  shown  by 
existing  inscriptions  to  have  been  founded  by  her. 
Whether  she  is  distinct  from  another  Flavia  Domi- 
tilla, who  is  styled  "Virgin  and  Martyr",  is  uncer^ 
tain.  (See  Flavia  Domitilla  and  Nerbus  and 
A<^BiLLBUS.)  The  consul  and  his  wife  had  two  sons, 
Vespasian  and  Domitian,  who  had  Ouintilian  for 
their  tutor.  Of  their  life  nothing  is  known.  The 
elder  brother  of  the  martyr  Clemens  was  T.  Flavius 
Sabinus,  consul  in  82,  i>ut  to  death  by  Domitian, 
whose  sister  he  had  married.  Pope  Clement  is  rep- 
resented as  his  son  in  the  Acts  of  Sts.  Nereus  and 
Achilleus,  but  this  would  make  him  too  young  to 
have  known  the  Apostles. 

Martyrdom. — Of  the  life  and  death  of  St.  Clement 
nothing  is  known.  The  apocryphal  Greek  Acts  of 
his  martyrdom  were  printed  by  Cotelier  in  his 
"Patres  Apost."  (1724,  I,  808;  reprinted  in  Migne, 
P.  a,  II,  617;  best  edition  by  Funk,  "Patr.  Apost.", 
II,  28).  They  relate  how  he  converted  Theodora, 
wif3  of  Sisinnius,  a  courtier  of  Nerva,  and  (after 
miracles)  Sisinnlus  himself  and  four  hundred  and 
twenty-three  other  persons  of  rank.  Trajan  ban- 
ishes the  pope  to  the  Crimea,  where  he  slakes  the 
thirst  of  two  thoilfland  Christian  confessors  by  a 
miracle.  The  people  of  the  country  are  converted, 
seventy-five  churches  are  built.  Trajan,  in  conse- 
quence, orders  Clement  to  be  thrown  into  the  sea 
with  an  iron  anchor.  But  the  tide  every  year  recedes 
two  miles,  revealing  a  Divinely  built  shrine  which  con- 
tains the  martyr's  bones.  This  story  is  not  older 
than  the  fotirth  century.  It  is  known  to  Gregory 
of  Tours  in  the  sixth.  About  868  St.  Cyril,  when  in 
the  Crimea  on  the  way  to  evangelize  the  Chazars, 
dug  up  some  bones  in  a  mound  (not  in  a  tomb  under 
the  sea),  and  also  an  anchor.  These  were  believed 
to  be  the  relics  of  St.  Clement.  They  were  carried 
by  St.  Cyril  to  Rome,  and  deposited  by  Adrian  II 
with  those  of  St:  Ignatius  of  Antioch  in  the  high 
altar  of  the  basilica  of  St.  Clement  in  Rome.  The 
history  of  this  translation  is  evidently  quite  truthful, 
but  there  seems  to  have  been  no  tradition  with  regard 
to  the  mound,  which  simply  looked  a  likely  place  to 
be  a  tomb.  The  anchor  appears  to  be  the  only  evi- 
dence of  identity,  but  we  cannot  gather  from  the 
account  that  it  belonged  to  the  scattered  bones. 
rSee  Acta  SS.,  9  March,  II,  20.)  St.  Clement  is 
first  mentioned  as  a  martyr  by  Rufinus  (c.  400). 
Pope  Zozimus  in  a  letter  to  Africa  in  417  relates  the 
trial  and  partial  acquittal  of  the  heretic  Caelestius  in 
the  basilica  of  St.  Clement;  the  pope  had  ohosen  this 


church  because  Clement  had  learned  the  Faith  from 
St.  Peter;  and  had  given  his  life  for  it  (Ep.  ii).  He 
is  also  cEuled  a  imartyr  by  the  writer  known  as  Pre- 
destinatus  (c.  430)  and  by  the  Synod  of  Vaison  in 
442*  Modern  critics  think  it  possible  that  his  martyr- 
dom was  suggested  by  a  confusion  with  his  namesake, 
the  martyr^  consul.  But  the  lack  of  tradition  that 
he  was  buried  in  Rome  is  in  favour  of  his  having 
died  in  exile. 

The  Basilica. — The  church  of  St.  Clement  at  Rome 
lies  in  the  valley  between  the  Esquiline  and  Coelian 
hills,  on  the  direct  road  from  the  Coliseum  to  the 
Lateran.  It  is  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Irish  Province 
of  Dominicans.  With  its  atrium,  its  choir  enclosed 
by  a  wall,  its  ambos,  it  is  the  most  perfect  model  of 
an  early  basilica  in  Rome,  though  it  was  built  as  late 
as  the  first  years  of  the  twelfth  century  by  Paschal 
II,  after  the  destruction  of  this  portion  of  the  city  by 
the  Normans  under  Robert  Guiscard.  Paschal  II 
followed  the  lines  of  an  earlier  church,  on  a  rather 
smaller  scale,  and  employed  some  of  its  materials 
and  fittings.  The  marble  wall  of  the  present  choir 
is  of  the  date  of  John  II  (533-5).  In  1858  the  older 
church  was  unearthed,  below  the  present  buildings 
by  the  Prior,  Father  Mulooly,  O.  P.  Still  lower  were 
found  chambers  of  imperial  date  and  walls  of  the 
Republican  period.  The  lower  church  was  built 
under  Constantine  (d.  337)  or  not  much  later.  St. 
Jerome  implies  that  it  was  not  new  in  his  .time: 
''nominis  eius  [dementis]  memoriam  Maqpte  hodie 
Romae  exsttucta  ecclesia  custodif  (Die  vins  illustr., 
xv).  It  is  mentioned  in  inscriptions  of  Damasus 
(d.  383)  &ad  Siricius  (d.  398).  De  Rossi  thought  the 
lowest  chambers  belonged  to  the  house  of  Clement, 
and  that  the  room  immediately  under  the  altar  was 
probably  titie  original  memoria  of  the  saint.  These 
chambers  communicate  with  a  shrine  of  Mithras, 
which  lies  beyond  the  apse  of  the  church,  on  the 
lowest  level.  De  Rossi  supposed  this  to  be  a  Chris- 
tian chapel  purposely  polluted  by  the  authorities 
during  the  last  persecution.  Lightfoot  has  suggested 
that  uie  rooms  may  have  belonged  to  the  house  of 
T.  Flavius  Clemens  the  consul,  being  later  mistaken 
for  the  dwelling  of  the  pope;  but  this  seems  quite 
gratuitous.  In  the  sanctuary  of  Mithras  a  statue  ol 
the  Good  Shepherd  was  found. 

II.  Psbudo-Clembntinb  Wmtinos. — Many  writ- 
ings have  been  falsely  attributed  to  Pope  St.  Gem- 
ent  I:  (1)  The  ''Second  Clementine  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians",  discussed  under  III.  (2)  Two  "Epis- 
tles to  Virgins",  extant  in  Syriac  in  an  Amster- 
dam MS.  of  1470.  The  Greek  originals  are  lost. 
Many  critics  have  believed  them  genuine,  for 
they  were  knoi^Ti  in  the  fourth  century  to  St. 
Epiphanius  (who  speaks  of  their  bein^  read  in  the 
Churches)  and  to  St.  Jerome.  But  it  is  now  ad- 
mitted on  idl  hands  that  they  cannot  be  by  the  same 
author  as  the  genuine  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 
Some  writers^  as  Hefele  and  Westoott,  have  attributed 
them  to  the  second  half  of  the  second  century,  but 
the  third  is  more  probable  (Hamack,  Lightfoot). 
Harnack  thinks  the  two  letters  were  originally  one. 
They  were  first  edited  by  Wetstein,  1470,  with  Latfai 
translation;  reprinted  by  Gallandi,  "Bibl.  vett. 
Patr.",  I,  and  Migne,  P.  G.,  I.  They  are  found  in 
Latin  only  in  Mansi,  "Concilia",  I,  and  Funk» 
"Patres  Apost.",  II.  See  Lightfoot,  "Clement  ol 
Rome"  (London,  1890),  I:  Bardenhewer,  "Gesch. 
der  altkirchl.  Litt."  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1902),  I; 
Hamack  m  "Sitaungsber.  der  k.  preuss.  Akad.  dcr 
Wiss."  (Beriin,  1891),  361  and  "Chronol."  (1904), 
II,  133.  (3)  At  the  head  of  the  Pseudo-Isidorian 
decretals  stand  five  letters  attributed  to  St.  Clement. 
The  first  is  the  letter  of  Clement  to  James  translated 
by  Rufinus  (see  III);  the  second  is  another  letter  to 
James,  founa  in  many  MSS.  of  the  "Recognitions". 
The  other  three  are  the  work  of  Psoudb-Isidoie. 


OLEMENT 


15 


CLEMENT 


(See  FALsii  Decretals.)  (4)  Ascril.^d  to  Clement 
are  the  "Apostolical  Constitutionfe ",  "Apostolic 
Canons",  and  the  "Testament  of  Our  Lord  ,  also  a 
Jacobite  Anaphora  (Renaudot,  Liturg.  Oriental. 
Coll..  Paris,  1716,  II;  Migne,  P.  G.,  II).  For  other 
attributions  see  Hamack,  "Gtesch.  der  altchr.  Lit.", 
I,  777-80.  (5)  The  "Clementines"  or  Pseudo-Clem- 
.  entines.  (q.  v.) 

III.  The  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians.— The 
Church  of  Corinth  had  been  led  by  a  few  violent 
spirits  into  a  sedition  against  its  rulers.  No  appeal 
seems  to  have  been  made  to  Rome,  but  a  letter 
was  sent  in  the  name  of  the  Church  of  Home  by  St. 
Clement  to  restore  peace  and  unity.  He  begins 
by  explaining  that  his  delay  in  writing  has  been 
caused  by  the  sudden  calamities  which,  one  after 
another,  had  just  been  falline  upon  the  Roman 
Church.  The  reference  is  clearly  to  the  persecution 
of  Domitian.  The  former  high  reputation  of  the 
Corinthian  Church  is  recalled,  its  piety  and  hospi- 
tality, ita  obedience  and  discipline.  Jealousy  had 
caused  the  divisions;  it  was  jealousy  that  led  Cain, 
Esau,  etc.,  into  sin,  it  was  jealousy  to  which  Peter 
and  Paul  and  ^lultitudes  with  them  fell  victims.  The 
Corinthians  are  urged  to  repent  after  the  example  of 
the  Patriarchs,  ana  to  be  humble  like  Christ  himself. 
Let  them  observe  order,  as  all  creation  does.  A 
curious  passage  on  the  Resurrection  is  somewhat  of 
an  interruption  in  the  sequence:  all  creation  proves 
the  Resurrection,  and  so  does  the  phoenix,  which 
every  five  hundred  years  consumes  itself,  that  its 
offspring  may  arise  out  of  its  ashes  (23-6).  Let  us, 
Clement  continues,  forsake  evil  and  approach  God 
with  purity,  clinging  to  His  blessing,  which  the 
Patriarchs  so  richly  obtained,  for  the  Lord  will 
quickly  come  with  His  rewards:  let  us  look  to  Jesus 
Christ,  our  High-Priest,  above  the  angels  at  the  right 
hand  of  the  Father  (36).  .  Discipline  and  subordina- 
tion are  necessary  as  in  an  army  and  in  the  human 
body,  while  arrogance  is  absurd,  for  man  is  nothing. 
The  Apostles  foresaw  feuds,  ana  provided  for  a  suc- 
cession of  bishops  and  deacons;  such,  therefore,  can- 
not be  removed  at  pleasure.  The  just  have  always 
been  persecuted.  Read  St.  Paul's  first  epistle  to 
you,  how  he  condemns  party  spirit.  It  is  shocking 
that  a  few  should  disgrace  the  Church  of  Corinth. 
Let  us  beg  for  pardon;  nothing  is  more  beautiful 
than  charity;  it  was  shown  by  Christ  when  He  gave 
His  Flesh  for  our  flesh,  His  ISoul  for  our  souls;  by 
living  in  this  love,  we  shall  be  in  the  number  of  the 
saved  through  Jesus  Christ,  by  Whom -is  glory  to 
God  for  ever  and  ever,  Amen  (58).  But  if  any 
disobey,  he  is  in  great  danger;  but  we  will  pray  that 
the  Creator  may  preserve  the  number  of  His  elect 
in  the  whole  world. — Here  follows  a  beautiful  Euchar- 
istic  prayer  (59-61).  The  conclusion  follows:  "We 
have  said  enough,  on  the  necessity  of  repentance, 
unity,  peace;  for  we  have  been  spealcing  to  the  faith- 
ful, who  have  deeply  studied  the  Scriptures,  and  will 
understand  the  examples  pointed  out,  and  will  follow 
them.  We  shall  indeed  be  happy  if  you  obey.  We 
have  sent  two  venerable  messengers,  to  show  how 
great  is  our  anxiety  for  peace  among  you"  (62-4). 
"Finally  may  the  all-seeing  God  and  Master  of 
Spirits  and  Lord  of  all  flesh,  who  chose  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  and  us  through  Him  for  a  peculiar  peo- 
ple, grant  unto  every  soul  that  is  called  after  His 
excellent  and  holy  Name  faith,  fear,  peace,  patience, 
long-suffering,  temperance,  chastity,  and  soberness, 
that  they  may  be  well-pleasing  unto  His  Name 
through  our  High  Priest  and  Guard!  "ji,  Jesus  Christ, 
through  whom*unto  Him  be  glc.y  and  majesty, 
might  and  honour,  both  now  and  for  ever  and  ever, 
Amen.  Now  send  ye  back  speedily  unto  us  our 
messengers  CJlaudius  Ephebus  and  Valerius  Bito, 
together  with  Fortunatus  also,  in  peace  and  with 
joy,  to  the  end  that  they  may  the  more  quickly 


report  the  peace  and  concord  which  is  prayed  for 
and  earnestly  desired  by  us,  that  we  also  may  the 
more  speedily  rejoice  over  your  good  order.  The 
grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  be  with  you  and  with 
all  men  in  all  places  who  have  been  called  by  (3od 
and  through  Him,  through  whom  is  glory  and  honour, 
power  and  greatness  and  eternal  dominion,  unto  Him, 
from  the  ages  past  and  for  ever  and  ever.  Amen." 
(64-5.) 

The  style  of  the  Epistle  is  earnest  and  simple, 
restrained  and  dignified,  and  sometimes  eloquent. 
The  Greek  is  correct,  though  not  classical.  The  quo- 
tations from  the  Old  Testament  are  long  and  numer- 
ous. The  version  of  the  Septuagint  used  by  (Element 
inclines  in  places  towards  that  which  appears  in  the 
New  Testament,  yet  presents  sufficient  evidence  of 
independence;  his  readings  are  often  with  A,  but 
are  less  often  opposed  to  B  than  are  those  in  the 
New  Testament;  occasionally  he  is  found  against 
the  Septuagint  with  Theodotion  or  even  Aquila  (see 
H.  B.  Swete,  Introd.  to  the  O.  T.  in  Greek,  Cam- 
bridge, 1900).  The  New  Testament  he  never  quotes 
verbally.  Sayings  of  Christ  are  now  and  then  given, 
but  not  in  the  words  of  the  Gospels.  It  cannot  be 
proved,  therefore,  that  he  used  any  one  of  the  Synop- 
tic Gospels.  He  mentions  St.  PauFs  First  Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians,  and  appears  to  imply  a  second.  He 
knows  Romans  and  Titus,  and  apparently  cites  sev- 
eral other  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  But  Hebrews  is 
most  often  employed  of  all  New  Testament  books. 
James,  probably,  and  I  Peter,  perhaps,  are  referred  to. 
(See  the  lists  of  citations  in  Funic  and  Lightfoot, 
Westcott  and  Zahn  on  the  Canon;  Introductions  to 
Holy  Scripture,  such  as  those  of  Comely,  Zahn,  etc., 
and  "The  New  Test,  in  the  Apost.  Fathers",  by  a 
Committee  of  the  Oxford  Society  of  Hist.  Theology, 
Oxford,  1906.)  The  tone  of  authority  with  which  the 
letter  speaks  is  noteworthy,  especially  in  the  later 
part  (56,  58,  etc.):  "But  if  certain  persons  should  be 
disobedient  unto  the  words  spoken  by  Him  through 
us,  let  them  understand  that  they  will  entangle  them- 
selves in  no  slight  transgression  and  danger;  but  we 
shall  be  guiltless  of  this  sin"  (59).  "It  may,  per- 
haps, seem  strange",  writes  Bishop  Lightfoot,  "to 
describe  this  noble  remonstrance  as  the  first  step 
towards  papal  domination.  And  yet  undoubtedly 
this  is  the  case."  (I,  70.) 

Doctrine. — ^There  is  little  intentional  dogmatic 
teaching  in  the  Epistle,  for  it  is  almost  wholly 
hortatory.  A  passage  on  the  Holy  Trinity  is  im- 
portant. Clement  uses  the  Old  Testament  affirma- 
tion "The  Lord  liveth",  substituting  the  Trinity 
thus:  "As  God  liveth,  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
liveth  and  the  Holy  Spirit, — the  faith  and  hope  of 
the  elect,  so  surely  he  that  performeth",  etc.  (58). 
Christ  is  frecjuently  represented  as  the  High-Priest, 
and  redemption  is  oft^n  referred  to.  CJlement  speaks 
strongly  of  justification  by  works.  His  words  on 
the  Christian  ministry  have  given  rise  to  much  dis- 
cussion (42  and  44):  "The  Apostles  received  the 
Gospel  for  us  from  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  Jesus 
Christ  was  sent  from  God.  So  then  Christ  is  from 
G<Ki,  and  the  Apostles  from  Christ.     Both  [missions] 

therefore  came  m  due  order  by  the  will  of  God 

So  preaching  everywhere  in  country  and  town,  they 
appoint^  their  first-fruits,  having  proved  them  by 
the  Spirit,  to  be  bishops  and  deacons  for  those  who 
should  believe.  And  this  in  no  new  fashion,  for  it 
had  indeed  besn  written  from  very  ancient  times 
about  bishoi)s  and  deacons;  for  thus  saith  the  Scrip- 
ture: *I  will  appoint  their  bishops  in  justice  and  their 
deacons  in  faith'"  (a  strange  citation  of  Is,,  Ix,  17). 

"And  our  Apostles  knew  through  our  Lord  Jesus 

Christ  that  there  would  be  strife  over  the  name  of 
the  office  of  bishop.  For  this  cause  therefore,  having 
received  complete  foreknowledge,  they  appointed  the 
aforesaid  persons,  and  afterwards  they  have  given  a 


OLKMSNT 


16 


OLEMSNT 


law,  BO  that,  if  these  should  fall  asleep,  other  approved 
men  should  succeed  to  their  ministration."  Rothe, 
Michiels  (Origines  de  T^piscopat,  Lou  vain,  1900, 197), 
and  others  awkwardly  understand  "if  they,  the 
Apostles,  should  fall  asleep'*.  For  ivi¥o/i^v  btlibicaaiv^ 
which  the  Latin  renders  legem  dederunt,  Lightfoot 
reads  infwriiv  Miiicaffiv,  "they  have  provided  a  con- 
tinuance ''.  In  any  case  the  general  meaning  is  clear, 
that  the  Apostles  provided  for  a  lawful  succession 
of  ministers.  Presbyters  are  mentioned  several 
times,  but  are  not  distinguished  from  bishops. 
There  is  absolutely  no  mention  of  a  bishop  at  Cor- 
inth, and  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  there  are 
always  spoken  of  in  the  plural.  R.  Sohm  thinks 
there  was  as  yet  no  bishop  at  Corinth  when  Clement 
wrote  (so  Michiels  and  man^r  other  Catholic  writers; 
Lightfoot  leaves  the  question  open),  but  that  a 
bishop  must  have  been  appointed  in  consequence  of 
the  letter;  he  thinks  that  Rome  was  the  origin  of 
all  ecclesiastical  institutions  and  laws  (Kirchenrecht, 
189).  Harnack  in  1897  (Chronol.,  I)  upheld  the 
paradox  that  the  Church  of  Rome  was  so  conserva- 
tive as  ty  be  governed  by  presbyters  until  Anicetus; 
and  that  when  the  list  of  popes  was  composed,  c.  170, 
there  had  been  a  bishop  for  less  than  twenty  years; 
Clement  and  others  in  the  list  were  only  presbyters 
of  special  influence. 

The  liturgical  character  of  parts  of  the  Epistle  is 
elaborately  discussed  by  Lightfoot.  The  prayer  (59- 
61)  already  mentioned,  which  reminds  us  of  the 
Anaphora  of  early  liturgies,  cannot  be  regarded,  says 
Duchesne,  "  as  a  reproduction  of  a  sacrea  formulary, 
but  it  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  style  of  solemn 
prayer  in  which  the  ecclesiastical  leaders  of  that  time 
were  accustomed  to  express  themselves  at  meetings 
for  worship"  (Origines  du  culte  chr6t.,  3rd  ed.,  50; 
tr.,  50).  The  fine  passage  about  Creation,  32-3,  is 
almost  in  the  style  of  a  Preface,  and  concludes  by 
introducing  the  Sanctus  by  the  usual  mention  of  the 
angelic  powers:  "Let  us  mark  the  whole  host  of  the 
angels,  how  they  stand  by  and  minister  unto  His 
Will.  For  the  Scripture  saith:  Ten  thousand  times 
ten  thousand  stood  by  Him,  and  thousands  of 
thousands  ministered  unto  Him ;  and  they  cried  aloud: 
Holy,  holy,  holy  is  the  Lord  of  Sabaoth;  all  creation 
is  full  of  His  glory.  Yea,  and  let  us  ourselves  then, 
being  gathered  together  in  concord  with  intentness  of 
heart,  cry  unto  Him.  .  ."  The  combination  of 
Daniel,  vii,  10,  with  Is.,  vi,  3,  may  be  from  a  liturgical 
formula.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  contem- 
porary Apocalypse  of  St.  John  (iv,  8)  shows  the  four 
living  creatures,  representing  all  creation,  singing  the 
Sanctus  at  the  heavenly  Mass. 

The  historical  references  in  the  letter  are  deeply 
interesting:  "To  pass  from  the  examples  of  ancient 
days,  let  ub  come  to  those  champions  who  lived  very 
near  to  our  time.  Let  us  set  before  us  the  noble 
examples  which  belong  to  our  generation.  By  reason 
of  jealousy  and  envy  the  greatest  and  most  righteous 
pillars  of  the  Church  were  persecuted,  and  contended 
even  until  death.  Let  us  set  before  our  eyes  the 
good  Apostles.  There  was  Peter,  who  by  reason  of 
unrightedUs  jealousy  endured  not  one  or  two,  but 
many  labours,  and  thus  having  borne  his  testimony 
went  to  his  appointed  place  of  glory.  By  reason  of 
jealousy  and  strife  Paul  by  his  example  pointed  out 
the  prize  of  patient  endurance.  After  that  he  had 
been  seven  times  in  bonds,  had  been  driven  into 
exile,  had  been  stoned,  had  preached  in  the  East 
and  in  the  West,  he  won  the  noble  renown  which 
was  the  reward  of  his  faith,  having  taught  righteous- 
ness unto  the  whole  world  and  having  reacted  the 
farthest  bounds  of  the  West;  and  when  he  had  borne 
his  testimony  before  the  rulers,  so  he  departed  from 
the  world  and  went  unto  the  holy  place,  naving  been 
found  a  notable  pattern  of  patient  endurance"'  (5). 
It  is  obvious  that  these  two  Apostles  are  mentioned 


because  they  suffered  at  Rome.  It  seems  that  St. 
Paul  went  to  Spain  as  he  intended  (Rom.,  xv,  28) 
and  as  is  declared  by  the  spurious  Acts  of  Peter  and 
by  the  Muratorian  fragment.  "Unto  these  men  of 
holy  lives  was  gathered  a  vast  multitude  of  the  elect, 
who  through  many  indignities  and  tortures,  being  the 
victims  of  jealousy,  set  a  brave  example  among  our- 
selves. By  reason  of  jealousy  women  being  perse- 
cuted, after  that  they  had  suffered  cruel  and  unholy 
insults  as  Danaids  and  Dircse,  safely  reached   the 

?;oal  in  the  race  of  faith,  and  received  a  noble  rewaitl, 
eeble  though  they  were  in  body"  (6).  The  "vast 
multitude"  both  of  men  and  women  "among  our- 
selves" at  Rome  refers  to  the  horrible  persecution  of 
Nero,  described  by  Tacitus,  "Ann.",  XV,  xliv.  It 
is  in  the  recent  past,  and  the  writer  continues:  "We 
are  in  the  same  lists,  and  the  same  contest  awaits 
us"  (7);  he  is  under  another  persecution,  that  of 
Domitian,  covertly  referred  to  as  a  series  of  "sudden 
and  repeated  calamities  and  reverses",  which  have 
prevented  the  letter  from  being  written  sooner.  The 
martyrdom  of  the  Ck)nsul  Clement  (prgbably  patron 
of  the  pope's  own  family)  and  the  exile  of  his  wife 
will  be  amon^  these  disasters. 

Date  and  Authenticity. — ^The  date  of  the  letter  is 
determined  by  these  notices  of  persecution.  It  is 
strange  that  even  a  few  good  scholars  (such  as 
Grotius,  Grabe,  Orsi,  Uhlhorn,  Hefele,  Wieseler) 
should  have  dated  it  soon  after  Nero.  It  is  now 
universally  acknowledged,  after  Lightfoot,  that  it  was 
written  about  the  last  year  of  Domitian  (Harnack) 
or  immediately  after  his  death  in  96  (Funk).  The 
Roman  Church  had  existed  several  decades,  for  the 
two  envoys  to  Corinth  had  lived  in  it  from  youth  to 
a§e.  The  Church  of  Corinth  is  called  dpxota  (47). 
Bishops  and  deacons  have  succeeded  to  bishops  and 
deacons  appointed  by  the  Apostles  (44).  Yet  the 
time  of  the  Apostles  is  "quite  lately"  and  "our  own 
generation  "  (5).  The  external  evidence  is  in  accord. 
The  dates  given  for  Clement's  episcopate  by  Hegesip- 
pus  are  apparently  90-99,  and  that  early  writer 
states  that  the  schism  at  Corinth  took  place  un- 
der Domitian  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  xvi,  for 
Karii  Tbv  iiikadfuvov  is  meaningless  if  it  is  taken  t-o 
refer  to  Clement  and  not  to  Domitian;  besides,  the 
whole  of  Eusebius 's  account  of  that  emperor's  per- 
secution, III,  xvii-xx,  is  founded  on  Hegesippus). 
St.  Irenseus  says  that  Clement  still  remembered  the 
Apostles,  and  so  did  many  others,  implying  an  inter- 
val of  many  years  after  their  death.  Volkmar  placed 
the  date  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  because  the  Book 
of  Judith  is  quoted,  which  he  declared  to  have  been 
written  in  that  reijp.  He  was  followed  by  Baur, 
but  not  by  Hilgenfeld.  Such  a  date  is  manifestly 
impossible,  if  only  because  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp 
is  entirely  modelled  on  that  of  Clement  and  borrows 
from  it  freely.  It  is  possibly  employed  by  St.  Igna- 
tius, c.  107.  and  certainly  in  the  letter  of  the  Sm3rr- 
naeans  on  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Polycarp,  c.  156. 

The  Epistle  is  in  the  name  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
but  the  early  authorities  always  ascribe  it  to  Clement. 
Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Corinth,  wrote  c.  170  to  the 
Romans  in  Pope  Soter's  time:  "To-day  we  kept  the 
holy  day,  the  Lord's  day,  and  on  it  we  read  your 
letter;  and  we  shall  ever  have  it  to  give  us  instruc- 
tion, even  as  the  former  one  written  through  Clement" 
(Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  IV,  xxx).  Hegesippus  at- 
tributed the  letter  to  Clement.  Iren«eus,  c.  180-5, 
perhaps  using  Hegesippus,  says:  "  Under  this  Clement 
no  small  sedition  took  place  among  the  brethren  at 
Corintli,  and  the  Church  of  Rome  sent  a  most  suffi- 
cient letter  to  the  Corinthians,  establishing  them  in 
peace,  and  renewing  their  faith,  and  announcing  the 
tradition  it  had  recently  received  from  the  Apostles" 
(III,  iii).  Clement  of  Alexandria,  c.  200,  frequently 
quotes  the  Epistle  as  Cl'^ment's,  and  so  do  Origen 
and  Eusebius.    Lightfoot  and  Harnack  are  fond  of 


CLSMENr 


17 


OLEMENT 


pointing  out  that  we  hear  earlier  of  the  importance 
of  the  Homan  Church  than  of  the  authority  of  the 
Roman  bishop.  If  Clement  had  spoken  in  his  own 
name,  they  would  surely  have  noted  expressly  that 
he  wrote  not  as  Bishop  of  Rome,  but  as  an  aged 
"presbyter"  who  had  known  the  Apostles.  St.  Jonn 
indeed  was  still  alive,  and  Corinth  was  rather  nearer 
to  Ephesus  than  to  Rome.  Clement  evidently  writes  of- 
ficially, with  all  that  authority  of  the  Roman  Church 
of  which  Ignatius  and  Ircnseus  have  so  much  to  say. 

The  Second  Letter  to  the  Corinthians. — An  ancient 
homily  by  an  anonymous  author  has  come  down  to 
us  in  the  same  two  Greek  MSS.  as  the  Epistle  of 
Clement,  and  is  called  the  Second  Epistle  of  Clement 
to  the  Corinthians.  It  is  first  mentioned  by  Eusebius 
(Hist.  EccL,  III,  xxxvii).  who  considered  it  spurious, 
as  being  unknown  to  the  ancients;  he  is  followed 
(perhaps  not  independently)  by  Rufinus  and  Jerome. 
Its  inclusion  as  a  letter  of  Clement  in  the  Codex 
Alexandrinus  of  the  whole  Bible  in  the  fifth  century 
is  the  earliest  testimon^r  to  a  belief  in  its  authenticity; 
in  the  sixth  century  it  is  quoted  by  the  Monophysite 
leaders  Timothy  of  Alexandria  and  Severus  of  Anti- 
och,  and  it  was  later  known  to  many  Greek  writers. 
This  witness  is  a  great  contrast  to  the  very  early 
veneration  paid  to  the  genuine  letter.  Hilgenfeld% 
theory  that  it  is  the  letter  of  Pope  Soter  to  the  Corin- 
thians, mentioned  by  Dionysius  in  the  fragment 
quoted  above,  was  accepted  by  many  critics,  until 
the  discovery  of  the  end  of  the  work  by  Bryennios 
showed  that  it  was  not  a  letter  at  all,  but  a  homily. 
Still  Hamack  has  again  and  again  defended  this  view. 
An  apparent  reference  to  the  Isthmian  Games  in 
§7  suff^sts  that  the  homily  was  delivered  at  Corinth; 
but  tnu9  would  be  in  character  if  it  was  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  Corinth.  Lightfoot  and  others  think  it 
earlier  than  Marcion,  c.  140,  but  its  reference  to 
Gnostic  views  does  not  allow  us  to  place  it  much 
earlier.  The  matter  of  the  sermon  is  a  very  general 
exhortation,  and  there  is  no  definite  plan  or  sequence. 
Some  citations  from  unknown  Scriptures  are  inter- 
esting. 

The  editio  vrinceps  of  the  two  "Epistles  to  the 
Corinthians"  is  that  of  Patrick  Young,  1633  (2d  ed.. 
1637),  from  the  famous  Codex  Alexandrinus  (A)  of 
the  whole  Bible  in  Greek.  A  number  of  editions 
followed  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
(enumerated  by  Funk,  Gebhardt,  and  Lightfoot). 
in  the  nineteenth  we  may  notice  those  of  C.  J.  Hefele 
(TQbingen,  1st  ed..  1839),  Jacobson  (Oxford,  1st  ed., 
1840,  etc.),  Dressel  (Leipzig,  1857),  in  the  editions  of 
the  Apostolic  Fathers  by  these  writers.  An  edition 
by  Bishop  J.  B.  Lightfoot  appeared  in  1869  (London 
and  Camoridge),  one  by  J.  C.  M.  Laurent  in  1870 
(Leipzig),  and  one  by  0.  von  Gebhardt  and  A.  Har- 
nack  in  1 875  (Leipzie)  •  All  these  editions  are  founded 
on  the  one  MS.,  which  gives  both  letters  incom- 
pletely, and  not  always  legibly.  On  its  doubtful 
readings  Tischendorf  wrote  in  1873*  (Clementis  Rom. 
EpistuTse,  Leipzig),  and  he  gave  a  so-called  facsimile 
in  1867  (Appendix  codicum  celeberrimorum  Sinaitici 
et  Vaticam,  Leipzig).  A  photographic  reproduction 
of  the  whole  codex  was  published  at  the  British 
Museum  in  1879.  In  1875  the  complete  text  of  both 
Epistles  was  published  by  Bryennios  at  Constanti- 
nople, from  a  MS.  in  the  ratnarchal  library  of  that 
city.  It  was  used  in  Hilgenf eld's  * '  Clementis  Roman! 
Epistulffi"  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1876),  in  the  second 
edition  of  Gebhardt  and  Hamack  (1876).  In  Light- 
foot's  edition  of  1877  (London)  a  Syriac  version  was 
also  used  for  the  first  time.  The  MS.  was  written  in 
1170,  and  is  in  the  Cambridge  University  Library. 
It  has  been  published  in  full  oy  R.  L.  Bensley  and 
R.  H.  Kennett,  "The  Epistles  of  St.  Clement  to  the 
Corinthians  in  Sjrriac"  (London,  1899).  Dr.  Funk's 
"Opera  Patrum  Apostolicorum "  first  appeared  in 
1878-81  (Tubingen).  The  great  and  comprehensive 
JV.—  ? 


posthumous  edition  of  Lightfoot 's ' '  Clement  of  Rome  *' 
(which  contains  a  photographic  facsimile  of  the 
Constantinople  MS.)  was  published  in  1890  (2  vols., 
London).  The  Greek  text  and  English  translation 
are  reprinted  by  Lightfoot,  "The  Apostolic  Fathers" 
(1  vol.,  London,  1891).  In  1878  Dom  Germain 
Morin  discovered  a  Latin  translation  of  the  genuine 
Epistle  in  an  eleventh-century  MS.  in  the  library  of 
the  Seminary  of  Namur  (Anecdota  Maredsolana,  2 
vols.,  "S.  clementis  ad  Corinthios  Epistulae  versio 
antiquissima",  Maredsous,  1894).  The  version  is 
attributed  to  the  second  century  by  Hamack  and 
others.  It  has  been  employed  to  correct  the  text 
in  Funk's  latest  edition  (1901),  and  by  R.  Knflpf, 
"Dererste  Clemensbricf"  (in  "Texte  und  Unters.", 
New  Series,  I^eipzig,  1899).  Besides  Lightfoot's  excel- 
lent English  rendering,  there  is  a  translation  of  the 
two  Epistles  in  "Ante-Nicene  Chr.  Lit."  (Edinburgh, 
1873,  I). 

On  the  Epistle  in  general  the  complet^st  commentary  in  that 
of  LiaHTrooT,  1890;  Dr.  Funk's,  in  Latin,  will  be  found  most 
serviceable.  See  also  Freppel,  Lea  Phrea  Apoaioliquea  (Paris, 
1869;  4th  ed.,  1885);  Habnack,  Geaeh.  der  cStchriat.  LU.  (Vol. 
I.  Leipzig,  1893),  (Vol.  II,  Chronologie,  I,  1897);  Wrede, 
UnUrauchunqen  zum  eraten  Clemenabriefe  (1891);  Br€xl,  Der 
erata  Brief  dea  Clemens  von  Rom  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1883). 
Detiiiled  references  to  other  writers  and  to  periodicals  will  be 
found  in  Bardenhewer,  Patralogie  (1894);  Idem,  Gesch.  der 
altkirchl.  LiU.;  CThevauer,  Rep.  dea  aoureea  hist..  Bio-Bibl.; 
Ehruard,  Die  aUchrist.  LUL;  Richardson,  Bibliographical 
Synopsis  (Buffalo,  1887). 

On  the  order  and  chronology  of  the  fint  popes,  the  earlier 
investigations  are  fruitless;  see  P.L.,  CXXvI-VII.  Modem 
research  begins  with  Mommsen,  Ueber  den  Chronographen  vom 
Jakre  85/*,  m  Abhandlungm  k,  Sachs.  Gea.  der  Wisa.  (1§50), 
I,  549,  and  the  unsatisfactory  works  of  Lipsius,  Die  Papstver^ 
teichniaae  dea  Euaetnoa  (Kiel,  1868),  ChronoL.  der  rdm.  Bischofe 
(Kiel,  1869).  The  next  most  important  work  is  LiBer  Pontifi- 
calia, ed.  Duchesne  (1st  part,  1884).  Liohtfoot's  long  ex- 
cursus in  Clement  of  Rome,  I,  was  epoch-making.  Since  then 
Harnack,  Chronol.,  I,  70-230;  Turner,  in  Journal  of  Th. 
Stud.,  Jan.,  1000;  Flaiuon,  in  Revue  d'hiat.  ecd^.  (Dec, 
1900);  Ch.vpuan,  in  Revue  BSnMictine  (Oct.,  1901,  Jan.  and 
April,  1902). 

On  the  Church  of  St.  Clement  see  MniooiiT,  Saint  Clement 
and  his  Basilica  at  Rome  (1st  ed..  Rome,  1869;  2d.  1873); 
Db  Rossi,  Bull,  di  arched,  crist.  (1863,  1864,  1865,  1867,  and 
1870);  Roller,  Saint  Climent  de  Rome  (Paris,  1873).  Shorter 
accounts  in  Grxsar.  Geach.  Roma  und  der  Ptipate  (Freiburg  im 
Br.,  1901);  LjoHTTt>OT  and  the  various  Roman  guide-books, 
Murray,  Baedeker,  Chandlery,  etc. 

John  Chapman. 

Olement  n,  Pope  (Sthdoer),  date  of  birth  unknown ; 
enthroned  25  December,  1046;  d.  9  October,  1047. 
In  the  autumn  of  1046  the  King  of  Germany,  Henry 
III,  crossed  the  Alps  at  the  head  of  a  large  army  and 
accompanied  by  a  brilliant  retinue  of  the  secular  and 
ecclesiastical  princes  of  the  empire,  for  the  twofold 
purpose  of  receiving  the  impenal  crown  and  of  re- 
storing order  in  the  Italian  peninsula.  The  condi- 
tion of  Rome  in  particular  was  deplorable.  In  St. 
Peter's,  the  Lateran,  and  St.  Mary  Major's,  sat  three 
rivd  claimants  to  the  papacy,  ^ee  Benedict  IX.) 
Two  of  them,  Benedict  IX  and  Sylvester  III,  repre- 
sented rival  factions  of  the  Roman  nobility.  The 
position  of  the  third,  Gregory  VI,  was  peculiar.  The 
reform  party,  in  order  to  free  the  city  from  the  in- 
tolerable yoke  of  the  House  of  Tusculum,  and  the 
Church  from  the  stigma  of  Benedict's  dissolute  life, 
had  stipulated  with  that  stripling  that  he  should  re- 
sign the  tiara  upon  receipt  of  a  certain  amount  of 
money.  That  this  heroic  measure  for  delivering  the 
Holy  See  from  destruction  was  simoniacal,  has  been 
doubted  by  many;  but  that  it  bore  the  outward 
aspect  of  smiony  and  would  be  considered  a  flaw  in 
Gregory's  title,  consequently  in  the  imperial  title 
Henry  was  seeking,  was  the  opinion  of  that  age. 

Strong  in  the  consciousness  of  his  good  intentions, 
Gregory  met  King  Henry  at  Piac^nza,  and  was  re- 
ceived with  all  possible  honours.  It  was  decided 
that  he  should  summon  a  synod  to  meet  at  Sutri  near 
Rome,  at  which  the  entire  question  should  be  venti- 
lated. The  proceedings  of  the  Synod  of  Sutri,  20 
December,  are  well  summarized  by  Cardinal  Newman 


CLEMENT 


18 


CLEMENT 


in  his  "Essays  Critical  and  Historical"  (II,  262  sqq.). 
Of  the  three  papal  claimants,  Benedict  refusea  to 
appear;  he  was  again  summoned  and  afterwards  pro- 
nounced deposed  at  Rome.  Sylvester  was  "stripped 
of  his  sacerdotal  rank  and  shut  up  in  a  monastery". 
Gregory  showed  himself  to  be,  if  not  an  idiota,  at  least 
a  man  mircB  simplicitaHs,  by  explaining  in  straight- 
forward speech  his  compact  witn  Benedict^  and  he 
made  no  other  defence  than  his  good  intentions,  and 
deposed  himself  (Watterich,  Vita  Rom.  Pont.,  1, 76); 
an  act  by  some  interpreted  as  a  voluntary  resi^ation, 
by  others  (Hefele),  in  keeping  with  the  contemporary 
ann^,  as  a  deposition  by  the  synod.  The  Synod  of 
Sutri  adjourned  to  meet  again  in  Rome  23  and  24 
December.  Benedict,  failing  to  appear,  was  con- 
demned and  deposed  in  contumaciamt  and  the  papal 
chair  was  declared  vacant.  As  King  Henry  was  not 
yet  crowned  emperor,  he  had  no  canonical  right  to 
take  part  in  the  new  election;  but  the  Romans  had  no 
candidate  to  propose  and  begged  the  monarch  to  sug- 
gest a  worthy  subject. 

Henry's  first  choice,  the  powerful  Adalbert,  Arch- 
bishop of  Bremen,  positively  refused  to  accept  the 
burden  and  suggested  his  fnend  Suidger,  Bishop  of 
Bamberg.  In  spite  of  the  latter's  protests,  the  king 
took  him  by  the  hand  and  presented  him  to  the  ac- 
claiming clergy 
and  people  as 
their  spiritual 
chief.  Suid- 
ger's  reluc- 
tance was  final- 
ly overcome, 
though  he  in- 


Saboophaoub  op  Clement  II 
(Cathedral  of  Bamberg) 


I  upon  re- 
taining  the 
[  bishopric  of 
his  beloved  see. 
He  might  be 
pardon^  for 
fearing  that 
the  turbulent  Romans  would  ere  long  send  him  back  to 
Bamberg.  Moreover,  since  the  king  refused  to  give 
back  to  the  Roman  See  its  possessions  usurped  by  the 
nobles  and  the  Normans,  the  pope  was  forced  to  look 
to  his  German  bishopric  for  financial  support.  He 
was  enthroned  in  St.  Peter's  on  Christmas  Day  and 
took  the  name  of  Clement  II.  He  was  bom  in  Saxony 
of  noble  parentage,  was  first  a  canon  in  Halberstadt, 
then  chaplain  at  the  court  of  King  Henry,  who  on  the 
death  of  Eberhard,  the  first  Bishop  of  Bamberg,  ap- 
pointed him  to  that  important  see.  He  was  a  man  of 
strictest  integrity  and  severe  morality.  His  first  pon- 
tifical act  was  to  place  the  imperial  crown  upon  his 
benefactor  and  the  queen-consort,  Agnes  of  Aqui- 
taine.  The  new  emperor  received  from  the  Romans 
and  the  pope  the  title  and  diadem  of  a  Roman 
Patricius,  a  dignity  which,  since  the  tenth  century, 
owing  to  the  uncanonical  pretensions  of  the  Roman 
aristocracy,  was  commonly  supposed  to  give  the 
bearer  the  right  of  appointing  the  pope,  or,  more  ex- 
actly speaking,  of  indicating  the  person  to  be  chosen 
(Hefele).  Had  not  God  given  His  Church  the  in- 
alienable right  of  freedom  and  independence,  and 
sent  her  champions  determined  to  enforce  this  right, 
she  would  now  have  simply  exchanged  the  tyranny 
of  Roman  factions  for  the  more  serious  thraldom  to  a 
foreign  power.  The  fact  that  Henry  had  protected 
the  Roman  Church  and  rescued  her  from  her  enemies 
gave  him  no  iust  claim  to  become  her  lord  and  master. 
Short-sifted  reformers,  even  men  like  St.  Peter 
Damiam  (Opusc.,  VI,  36)  who  saw  in  this  surrender 
of  the  freedom  of  papal  elections  to  the  arbitrarv  will 
of  the  emperor  the  opening  of  a  new  era,  liveci  long 
enough  to  regret  the  mistake  that  was  made.  With 
due  reco^tion  of  the  prominent  part  taken  by  the 
Germans  in  the  reformation  of  the  eleventh  century, 


we  cannot  forget  that  neither  Henry  III  nor  his 
bishops  understood  the  importance  of  absolute  inde- 
pendence in  the  election  of  the  officers  of  the  Church. 
This  lesson  was  taught  them  by  Hildebrand,  the 
young  chaplain  of  Gregory  VI,  whom  they  took  to 
Germany  with  his  master,  only  to  return  Tiith  St. 
Leo  IX  to  begin  his  immortal  career.  Henry  III, 
the  sworn  enemy  of  simony,  never  took  a  penny  from 
any  of  his  appointees,  but  he  claimed  a  right  of  ap- 
pomtment  which  virtually  made  him  head  of  the 
Church  and  paved  the  way  for  intolerable  abuses 
under  his  unworthy  successors. 

Clement  lost  no  time  in  beginning  the  work  of  re- 
form. At  a  great  synod  in  Rome,  January,  1047,  the 
buying  and  selling  of  things  spiritual  was  punished 
with  excommunication;  anyone  who  should  know- 
in^y  accept  ordination  at  the  hands  of  a  prelate 
euilty  of  simony  was  ordered  to  do  canonical  penance 
tor  forty  days.  A  dispute  for  precedence  between  the 
Sees  of  Ravenna,  Milan,  and  Aquileia  was  settled  in 
favour  of  Ravenna,  the  bishop  of  which  was,  in  the 
absence  of  the  emperor,  to  take  his  station  at  the 
pope's  right.  Clement  accompanied  the  emperor  in 
a  triunaphal  progress  throu^  Southern  Italy  and 
placed  Benevento  under  an  mtcrdict  for  refusing  to 
open  its  gates  to  them.  Proceeding  with  Heniy  to 
Gfermany,  he  canonized  Wiborada,  a  nun  of  St.  Call, 
martyred  by  the  Huns  in  925.  On  his  way  back  to 
Rome  he  died  near  Pesaro.  That  he  was  poisoned  by 
the  partisans  of  Benedict  IX  is  a  mere  suspicion  with- 
out proof.  He  bequeathed  his  mortal  remains  to 
Bamberg,  in  the  great  cathedral  of  which  his  marble 
sarcophagus  is  to  oe  seen  at  the  present  day.  He  is 
the  only  pope  buried  in  Germany.  Many  zealous  ec- 
clesiastics, notably  the  Bishop  of  Li^ge,  now  exerted 
themselves  to  reseat  in  the  papal  chair  Gregory  VI, 
whom,  together  with  his  chaplain,  Henry  held  in 
honourable  custody;  but  the  emperor  unceremoni- 
ously appointed  Poppo,  Bishop  of  Brixen,  who  took 
the  name  of  Damasus  II.  (See  Gregory  VI:  Bene- 
dict IX.) 

Baronius,  Annales^cd.,  ad  ann.  1046,  1047;  Lafitbav,  La 
vie  de  Climent  11  (Padua,  1752);  WiLu  Die  Anfdnffe  der  Ree- 
tauration  der  Kirche  im  XI.  Jahrhundert  (Marburc,  1869); 
WiTTMANN,  Clemens  II.  in  Archiv  f.  kalkol.  KirchenreJu,  (1884), 
LI,  238;  Von  Reumont,  Geech.  d.  Stadt  Rom  (Berlin,  1867),  II, 
339-44;  Abtattd  db  Montor,  History  of  the  Rwnan  Pontiff e 
(New  York,  1867);  Heinbuann,  Der.Patriziat  d.  devUchen 
Kdniffe  (Halle,  1887);  Hefelb,  Conciiiengesch.,  IV,  706-14. 

James  F.  Louqhlin. 

Olement  m,  Pope  (Paolo  Scolari),  date  of  birth 
unknown;  elected  19  December,  1187;  d.  27  March, 
1191.  During  the  short  space  (llSI-1198)  which 
separated  the  glorious  pontificates  of  Alexander  III 
and  Innocent  III,  no  less  than  five  pontiffs  occupied 
in  rapid  succession  the  papal  chair.  They  were  all 
veterans  trained  in  the  school  of  Alexander,  and 
needed  only  their  earlier  youthful  vigour  and  length 
of  reign  to  gain  lasting  renown  in  an  age  of  great 
events.  Gregory  VII I,  after  a  pontificate  of  two 
months,  died  on  17  December,  1187,  at  Pisa,  whither 
he  had  gone  to  expedite  the  preparations  for  the 
recovery  of  Jerusalem;  he  was  succeeded  two  days 
later  by  the  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Palestrina,  Paolo 
Scolari,  a  Roman  by  birth.  The  choice  was  partic- 
ularly acceptable  to  the  Romans;  for  he  was  the 
first  native  of  their  city  who  was  elevated  to  the 
papacy  since  their  rebellion  in  the  days  of  Arnold 
of  Brescia,  and  his  well-known  mildness  and  love 
of  peace  turned  their  thoughts  towards  a  recon- 
ciliation, more  necessary  to  them  than  to  the 
pope.  Overtures  led  to  the  conclusion  of  a  formal 
treaty,  by  which  the  papal  sovereignty  and  the  mu- 
nicipal liberties  were  equally  secured;  and  in  the 
following  February  Clement  made  his  entry  into  the 
city  amid  the  boundless  enthusiasm  of  a  population 
which  never  seemed  to  have  learned  the  art  of  living 
either  with  or  without  the  pope. 


OLBMEHT 


19 


OLSMEHT 


Seated  in  the  Lateran,  Pope  Clement  turned  his 
Attention  U>  the  gi^ntic  tftsic  of  massing  the  forces 
of  Christendom  against  the  Saracens.  He  was  the 
ofganiser  of  the  Third  Crasade;  and  if  that  imposing 
expedition  produced  insignificant  results,  the  bhune 
nowise  attaches  to  him.  He  dispatched  legates  to 
the  diiGFerent  courts,  who  laboured  to  restore  harmony 
ttpong  the  belligerent  monarchs  and  princes,  and  to 
(Uvert  their  ener^  towards  the  reconquest  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre.  Fired  by  the  example  of  the  Em- 
peror Barbarossa  and  of  the  Kingjs  of  France  and 
jBngland,  a  countless  host  of  Christian  warriors  took 
the  road  which  led  them  to  Palestine  and  death.  At 
the  time  of  Clement's  death,  just  before  the  capture 
of  Acre,  the  prospects,  notwithstanding  the  drowning 
of  Barbarossa  and  the  return  of  Philip  Augustus,  still 
seemed  bri^t  enough. 

The  death  of  the  pope's  chief  vassal,  William  II  of 
Sicfly,  precipitated  another  imfortunate  quarrel  be- 
tween the  Holv  See  and  the  Hohenstaufen.  Henry 
VI,  tiie  son  and  successor  of  Barbarossa,  claimed  the 
kingdom  by  ri^t  of  his  wife  Costanza,  the  only  le- 
gitimate survivor  of  the  House  of  Roger.  The  pope, 
whose  independence  was  at  an  end,  if  the  empve 
and  the  Two  Sicilies  were  held  by  the  same  monarch, 
as  well  as  the  Italians  who  detested  the  rule  of  a  for- 
eigner, determined  upon  resistance,  and  when  the 
Sicilians  proclaimed  Tancred  of  Lecoe,  a  brave  but 
illegitimate  scion  of  the  family  of  Roger,  as  king,  the 
pope  gave  him  the  investiture.  Henry  advanced  into 
Italy  with  a  strong  army  to  enforce  his  daim;  an  op- 
portune death  reserved  the  continuation  of  the  con- 
test to  Qement's  successor,  Celestine  III.  By  a  wise 
moderation  Clement  succeeded  in  quieting  the  dis- 
turbances caused  by  contested  elections  in  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Trier  in  Germanv  and  St.  Andrews  in  Scot- 
land. He  also  delivered  the  Scottish  Church  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Metropolitan  of  York  and  declared 
it  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  Clement  canon- 
ised Otto  of  Bamberg,  the  Apostle  of  Pomerania  (d. 
1139),  and  Stephen  of  Thiers  in  Auvergne,  founder 
of  the  Hermits  of  Qranmiont  (d.  1124). 

Baronius,  Ann.  Bed.,  ad  aan.  1188:  LiU  ond  IftUtn  in 
Mans,  XXU,  543.  P.  L.,  CXHV.  5:  Michaud.  HU,  dea  Crai- 
aadea  (Brussels,  1841);  Condbr,  The  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerur- 
udtm  (London,  1897):  Artaud  db  Montor,  aittory  of  the 
Baman  Pontiff e  (New  York.  1867). 

Jamss  F.  Louohlin. 


Clement  IV,  Popb  (Guido  Le  Grob),  b.  at  Saint- 
Gilles  on  the  Rhone,  23  November,  year  unknown; 
elected  at  Perugia  6  February,  1265;  d.  at  Viterbo, 
29  November,  1268.  After  the  death  of  Urban  IV 
(2  October,  1264),  the  cardinals,  assembled  in  conclave 
at  Perugia,  discussed  for  four  months  the  momentous 
question  whether  the  Church  should 
continue  the  war  to  the  end  against 
the  House  of  Hohenstaufen  by  calhng 
in  Charles  of  Anjou,  the  youneest 
brother  of  St.  Lotus  of  France,  or  find 
some  other  means  of  securine  the  in- 
dependence of  the  papacv.  No  other 
solution  offering  itself,  the  only  pos- 
sible course  was  to  unite  upon  the 
Cardinal-Bishop  of  Sabina,  by  birth  a 
Frenchman  and  a  subject  of  Charles. 
Guido  Le  Gros  was  of  noble  extraction.  When  his 
mother  died,  his  father,  the  knight  Fouiquois,  entered 
a  Carthusian  monastery  where  he  ended  a  saintly 
life.  Giiido  married,  and  for  a  short  time  wielded 
the  spear  and  the  sword.  Then  devoting  himself 
to  the  study  of  law  under  the  able  direction  of  the 
famous  Durandus,  he  ^ned  a  national  reputation  as 
an  advocate.  St.  Louis,  who  entertained  a  great  re- 
spect and  affection  for  him,  took  him  into  his  cabinet 
and  made  him  one  of  his  trusted  councillors.  His 
wife  died,  leaving  him  two  daughters,  where- 
upon he  imitated   his  father  to  tte  extent  that 


ijp'^ijl' 


*. 


Arm K  or 
Clement  IV 


he  gave  up  worldly  concerns  and  took  Holy  o^ 
ders. 

His  rise  in  the  Church  was  rapid;  1256.  he  was 
Bishop  of  Puy;  1259,  Archbishop  of  Narbonne;  De- 
cember, 1261,  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Sabina.  He  was 
the  first  cardinal  created  by  Urban  IV  (Eubel,  Hier- 
archia  Catholica,  7).  He  was  in  France,  returning 
from  an  important  legation  to  England,  when  he  re- 
ceived an  urgent  message  from  the  cardinals  demand- 
ing his  immediate  presence  in  Perugia.  Not  until  he 
entered  the  conclave,  was  he  informed  that  the  imani- 
mous  vote  of  the  Sacred  College  had  confided  into  his 
hands  the  destinies  of  the  Catholic  Church.  He  was 
astonished;  for  only  a  man  of  his  large  experience 
could  fully  realise  the  responsibility  of  him  whose 
judgment,  at  this  critical  juncture,  must  irrevocably 
shape  the  course  of  Itahan  and  ecclesiastical  history 
for  centuries  to  come.  His  prayers  and  tears  failing 
to  move  the  cardinals,  he  reluctantly  accepted  the 
heavy  burden,  was  crowned  at  Viterbo,  22  February, 
and,  to  honour  the  saint  of  his  birthday,  assumed  the 
name  of  Clement  IV.  His  contemporaries  are  unani- 
mous and  enthusiastic  in  extolling  his  exemplary  piety 
and  rigorously  ascetic  life.  He  had  a  remaikable 
aversion  to  nepotism.  His  first  act  was  to  forbid  any 
of  his  relatives  to  come  to  the  Curia,  or  to  attempt 
to  derive  any  sort  of  temporal  advantckge  from  his 
elevation.  Suitors  for  the  hands  of  his  daughters 
were  admonished  that  their  prospective  brides  were 
"children  not  of  the  pope,  but  of  Guido  Grossus",  and 
that  their  dowers  should  be  extremely  modest.  The 
two  ladies  preferred  the  seclusion  of  the  convent. 

The  Neapohtan  question  occumed,  almost  exclu- 
sively, the  thoughts  of  Clement  IV  during  his  short 
pontificate  of  3  years,  9  months,  and  25  days,  which, 
however,  witnessed  the  two  decisive  battles  of  Bene- 
vento  and  Tagliacossso  (1268),  and  the  execution  of 
Conradin«  The  negotiations  with  Charles  of  Anjou 
had  progressed  so  far  under  the  reign  of  Urban  IV 
that  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  pope  could  now  weU 
draw  back,  even  were  he  so  inchned.  But  Clement 
had  no  intention  of  doing  so.  The  power  of  Man- 
fred and  the  insecurity  of  the  Holy  See  were  increas- 
ing daily.  Clement  had  already,  as  cardinal,  taken 
an  active  part  in  the  negotiations  with  Charles  and 
now  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  in  order  to  supply 
the  ambitious  but  needy  adventurer  with  troops  and 
money.  Papal  legates  and  mendicant  friars  appeared 
upon  the  scene,  preaching  a  formal  crusade,  with  the 
amplest  indulgences  and  most  lavish  promises.  Sol- 
diers were  obtained  in  abundance  among  the  warlike 
chivalry  of  France;  the  great  difficulty;  was  to  find 
money  with  which  to  equip  and  maintain  the  army. 
The  clergy  and  people  failed  to  detect  a  crusade  m 
what  they  deemed  a  personal  quarrel  of  the  pope,  a 
''war  hard  by  the  Lateran,  and  not  with  Saracens  nor 
with  Jews''  (Dante,  Inf.,  canto  xxviii);  though,  in 
reality,  Saracens,  implanted  in  Italy  by  Frederick  II, 
made  up  the  main  strength  of  Manfred's  army.  Al- 
though reduced  at  times  to  utter  destitution,  and 
forced  to  pledge  everything  of  value  and  to  borrow  at 
exorbitant  rates,  the  pope  did  not  despair;  the  expe- 
dition arrived,  and  from  the  military  point  of  view 
achieved  a  brilliant  success. 

Charles,  preceding  his  army,  came  to  Rome  by  sea, 
and  upon  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty,  by  which  the 
liberties  of  the  Church  and  the  overlordship  of  the 
Holy  See  seemed  to  be  most  firmly  securea,  he  re- 
ceived the  investiture  of  his  new  kingdom.  On  6  Jan- 
uary, 1266,  he  was  solemnly  crowned  in  St.  Peter's; 
not,  as  he  had  wished,  by  the  pope,  who  took  up  his 
residence  in  Viterbo  and  never  saw  Rome,  but  by 
cardinals  designated  for  the  purpose.  Gn  22  Febru- 
ary was  fou^t  the  battle  of  Benevento,  in  which 
Charles  was  completely  victorious;  Manfred  was 
found  among  the  slain.  Naples  opened  her  gates  and 
the  Angevin  dynasty  was  established.    Though  a 


CUBMSNT 


20 


CUSMENT 


good  ge&eraii  Charles  had  man^  weaknesses  of  char* 
acter  that  made  him  a  very  different  ruler  from  his 
saintly  brother.  He  was  harsh,  oruel,  grasping*  and 
tyrannical.  Clement  was  kept  biisy  reminding  him 
of  the  terms  of  his  treaty,  reproving  his  excesses  and 
those  of  his  officials,  and  warning  him  that  he  was 
gaining  the  enmity  of  his  subjects.  Nevertheless, 
when,  a  httle  later,  yoimg  Conradin,  disregarding 
papal  censures  and  anathemas,  advanced  to  the  con- 
quest of  what  he  deemed  his  birthright,  Clement  re- 
mained faithful  to  Charles  and  prophesied  that  the 
gallant  youth,  received  b^  the  Ghibelline  party  every- 
where, even  in  Home,  with  unbounded  enthusiasm, 
"was  being  led  like  a  lamb  to  the  slaughter '^  and 
that  ''his  glory  would  vanish  like  smoke'',  a  prophecy 
only  too  literally  fulfilled  when,  after  the  fatal  day  of 
Tagliacozzo  (23  August,  1268),  Conradin  fell  mto 
Charles'  merciless  hands  and  was  beheaded  (29  Octo- 
ber) on  the  market-place  of  Naples.  The  fable  that 
Pope  Clement  advised  the  execution  of  the  imfortu- 
nate  prince  by  saying,  "The  death  or  life  of  Conradin 
means  the  life  or  death  of  Charles",  is  of  a  later  date, 
and  opposed  to  the  truth.  Even  the  statement  of 
Gregorovius  that  Clement  became  an  accomplice  bv 
refusing  to  intercede  for  Conradin,  is  equally  ground- 
less; for  it  has  been  shown  conclusively,  not  only  that 
he  pleaded  for  his  life  and  besousht  St.  Louis  to  add 
the  weight  of  his  influence  with  his  brother,  but, 
moreover,  that  he  sternly  reproved  Charles  for  his 
cruel  deed  when  it  was  perpetrated.  Clement  fol- 
lowed "the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufen"  to  the  grave 
just  one  month  later,  leaving  the  papacy  in  a  much 
Detter  condition  than  when  ne  received  the  keys  of 
St.  Peter.  He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  the  Domin- 
icans at  Vit^rbo.  Owing  to  divergent  views  among 
the  cardinals,  the  papal  throne  remained  vacant  for 
nearly  three  years.  In  1268,  Clement  canonized  St. 
Hedwig  of  Poland  (d.  1243). 

Jordan,  Let  registrea  de  Climent  IV  (Paris,  1893,  Bqa.);  Life 
and  Letters  in  MansI,  XIV.  325;  Hbidbmann,  PapM  Klemens 
IV.  (Man«t«r,  1903,  pt.  I):  Hbteub,  ConcHienq.,  VI,  1-265; 
UrniOBKROmBB-KiRBCu,  Ktrchengeach.,  4th  ed.  (Freiburg, 
1004).  II,  576;  Priest.  Hist,  de  la  ConqxUte  de  Naples  par 
Charles  aAnjmi  fParis,  1841);  Bratda,  La  risponsabililii  di 
Clements  IV  e  di  Carlo  X  d'Anjou  nella  morte  di  Corradino  di 
Soevia  (Naples.  1900). 

James  F.  Louqhun. 

Clement  V,  Pope  (Bertrand  db  Got),  b.  at  Vil- 
landraut  in  Gasoony,  France,  1264;  d.  at  Roquemaure, 
20  April,  1314.  He  was  elected,  5  June,  1305,  at  Peru- 
gia as  successor  to  Benedict  XI,  after  a  conclave  of 
eleven  months,  the  great  length  of  which  waa  owing 
to  the  French  and  Italian  factions  among  the  cardi- 
nals. Ten  of  the  fifteen  (mostly 
Italian)  cardinals  voting  elected  him. 
Giovanni  Villani's  stoiy  (Hist.  Flor- 
ent.,  Vm,  80,  in  Muratori,  SS.  RR. 
lUl.,  XIII,  417;  cf.  Raynald,  Ann. 
£ccl.,  1305,  2-4)  of  a  decisive  influ- 
ence of  Plulip  the  Fair,  and  the  new 
pope's  secret  conference  with  and 
abject  concessioitt  to  that  king  in 
Abmb  of  Clem-  the  forest  of  Saint-Jean-d'Ang61y,  is 
KNT  V  quite  unhistorical;  on  the  other  hand, 

the  cardinals  were  willing  to  please  the  powerful 
French  king  whom  the  late  Benedict  XI  had  been 
obli^d  to  placate  by  notable  concessions,  and  it  is 
not  improbable  that  some  kind  of  a  mutual  under- 
standing was  reached  by  the  king  and  the  future 
pope.  As  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  Bertrand  de 
Got  was  actually  a  suoject  of  the  King  of  £nfl[land, 
but  from  early  youth  he  had  been  a  personal  mend 
of  Philip  the  Fair.  Nevertheless,  he  had  remained 
faithful  to  Boniface  VIII.  The  new  pope  came 
from  a  distinguished  family.  An  elder  brother 
had  been  Arelioishop  of  Lyons,  and  died  (1297)  as 
Cardinal-Bishop  of  Allxanio  and  papal  legate  in 
France.     Bert  rund  ntudicd  the  arts  at  Toulouse  and 


canon  and  civil  law  at  Gri^ns  and  Bologna.  He  had 
been  suoeessively  canon  at  Bordeaux,  vicar-generai 
of  the  Archbishop  pf  Lyons  (his  aforesaid  brother), 
papal  chaplain,  Bishop  of  Gomminges  under  Boniface 
YUr,  ana  eventually  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  then 
a  difficult  office  because  of  the  persistent  ooaflict 
between  England  and  France  for  the  possession  of 
Normandy.  The  cardinals  besought  him  to  come  to 
Perugia  and  go  thence  to  Rome  for  his  coronation, 
but  he  ordered  them  to  repair  to  Lyons,  where  he  waa 
crowned  (14  November,  1305)  in  presence  of  Philip 
the  Fair  and  with  great  pomp.    JDuring  the  usual 

E'  >lic  procession  the  pope  was  thrown  from  his  horse 
a  falling  wall;  one  of  his  brothers  was  killed  on 
t  occasion,  also  the  aged  Cardinal  Matteo  Orsini 
who  had  taken  part  in  twelve  conclaves  and  seen 
thirteen  pope?.  The  most  precious  jewel  in  the  papal 
tiara  (a  carbuncle)  was  lost  that  day,  an  incident 
prophetically  interpreted  by  German  and  Italian 
nistorians,  and  the  next  day  another  brother  waa 
slain  in  a  quarrel  between  servants  of  the  new  pope 
and  retainers  of  the  cardinals.  For  some  time  (1305- 
1309),  Pope  Clement  resided  at  different  places  in 
France  (Bordeaux,  Poitiers,  Toulouse),  but  finally 
took  up  his  residence  at  Avignon,  then  a  fief  of  Naples, 
though  within  the  County  of  Venaissin  that  since  1228 
acknowledged  the  pope  as  overlord  (in  1348  Clement 
VI  purchased  Avignon  for  80,000  gold  gulden  from 
Joanna  of  Naples).  Strong  affection  for  hb  native 
France  and  an  equally  influential  fear  of  the  quasi- 
anarchical  conditions  of  Italy,  and  in  particular  of  the 
States  of  the  Church  and  the  city  of  Rome,  led  him  to 
this  fateful  decision,  wherebv  he  exposed  himself  to  the 
domination  of  a  civil  ruler  (Philip  tne  Fair),  whose  im- 
mediate aims  were  a  universal  French  monarchy  and  a 
solemn  humiliation  of  Pope  Boniface  VIII  in  return 
for  the  latter's  courageous  resistance  to  Philip's  cun- 
ning, violence,  and  usurpations  (HergenrOther). 

States  of  the  Church. — ^The  government  of  the 
States  of  the  Church  was  committ^  by  Clement  to  a 
commission  of  three  cardinals,  while  at  Spoleto  hia 
own  brother,  Amaud  Gaisiaa  de  Got,  held  the  office 
of  papal  vicar.  Giacomo  degli  Stefaneschi,  a  senator 
and  popular  chief,  governed  within  the  city  in  a  loose 
and  personal  way.  (Confusion  and  anarchy  were 
prevalent,  owing  to  the  implacable  mutual  hatred  of 
the  Colonna  and  Orsini,  the  traditional  turbulence  of 
the  Romans,  and  the  frequent  angry  conflicts  be- 
tween the  people  and  the  nobles,  conditians  which 
had  been  growing  worse  all  through  the  thirteenth 
century  and  had  eventually  driven  even  the  Italian 
popes  to  such  outside  strongholds  as  Viterbo,  Ana^, 
Orvieto,  and  Perugia.  No  more  graphic  illustration 
of  the  local  conditions  at  Rome  and  in  the  Patrimony 
of  Peter  could  be  asked  than  the  description  of 
Nicholas  of  Butrinto,  the  historiographer  of  Emperor 
Heniy  VII,  on  his  fateful  Roman  expedition  of  1312 
[see  Von  Reumont,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom,  Ber- 
lin, 1867,  II  (1),  743-65].  Among  the  untoward 
Roman  events  of  Pope  Clement's  reign  was  the  con- 
flagration 6  May,  1308,  that  destroycJd  the  church  of 
St.  John  Lateran,  soon  rebuilt,  however,  by  the  Ro- 
mans with  the  aid  of  the  pope.  Clement  did  not 
hesitate  to  tiy  the  conclusions  of  war  with  the  Italian 
state  of  Venice  that  had  unjustly  seized  on  Ferrara, 
a  fief  of  the  Patrimony  of  Peter.  When  excommuni- 
cation, interdict,  and  a  general  prohibiticm  of  all 
commercial  intercourse  failed,  he  outlawed  the  Vene- 
tians, and  caused  a  crusade  to  be  preached  against 
them;  finally  his  legate,  Cardinal  Pdkgrue,  over- 
threw in  a  terrific  battle  the  haughty  affiressors  (28 
August,  1309).  The  papal  vicariate  of  Ferrara  was 
then  conferred  on  Robert  of  Naples,  whose  Catalon- 
ian  mercenaries,  however,  were  more  (xlious  to  the 
people  than  the  Venetian  usurpers.  In  any  case,  the 
smaller  powers  of  Italy  had  learned  that  they  could 
not  yet  strip  with  impunity  the  inheritance  of  the 


GLBMSNT 


21 


eLBMCHf 


Apo8tolic  See,  and  an  example  was  furnished  which 
the  greatest  soldier  of  the  papacy,  Gil  d'Albomos 
(q.  v.)>  would  better  befoie  the  century  was  over. 
Process  of  Bonitacb  VIII. — Almost  at  once  King 
Philip  demanded  from  the  new  pope  a  formal  con- 
demnation of  the  memoiy  of  Bomface  VIU;  only 
thus  could  the  royal  hate  be  placated.  The  king 
wished  the  name  of  Boniface  stricken  from  the  list  m 
popes  as  a  heretic,  his  bones  disinterred,  buraed,  and 
the  ashes  scattered  to  the  winds.  This  odioiis  and 
disgraceful  step  Clement  sought  to  avert,  partly  by 
delay,  partly  fay  new  favours  to  the  king;  he  renewed 
the  absolution  granted  the  king  by  Benedict  XI, 
created  nine  French  cardinals  out  of  a  group  of  ten, 
restored  to  the  Colonna  cardinals  tlieir  places  in  the 
Sacred  College,  and  accorded  the  king  tithes  of  church 
property  for  five  years.  Finally,  he  withdrew  the 
BuU  "Cleriois  Laicos'V  though  i^ot  the  earlier  l^isla*- 
tion  on  which  it  was  based,  and  declared  that  the 
doctrinal  Bull  *^Unam  Sanctam''  affected  in  no  dis- 
advantageous manner  the  meritorious  French  king, 
and  implied  for  him  and  his  kingdom  no  greater 
decree  of  subjection  to  the  papal  see  than  formerly 
existed.  The  pope  was  also  helpful  to  Charles  of 
Valois,  the  king's  brother,  and  pretender  to  the  im- 
perial throne  of  Constantinople,  by  granting  him  a 
two  years'  tithe  of  church  revenues;  Clement  hoped 
that  a  crusade  operating  from  a  reconquered  Con- 
stantinople would  be  sucoessfuL  In  Majr,  1307,  at 
Poitiers,  where  peace  was  made  between  iSigland  and 
France,  Philip  again  insisted  on  a  canonical  process 
for  condemnation  of  the  memoiy  of  Boniface  VIII, 
as  a  heretic,  a  blasphemer,  an  mimoral  priest,  etc. 
Eventually,  the  pope  made  answer  that  so  grave  a 
matter  could  not  oe  settled  outside  of  a  general 
council,  and  the  king  for  a  while  seemed  satisfi^  with 
this  solution.  Nevertheless^  he  returned  frequently 
and  utgentlv  to  his  proposition.  It  was  in  vam  that 
the  pope  exhibited  a  willingness  to  sacrifice  the  Tem- 
plars (see  below);  the  merciless  kizig,  sure  of  his 
power,  pressed  for  the  opening  of  this  unique  trial, 
unheard  of  since  the  time  of  Pope  Formosus.  Clem- 
ent had  to  yield,  and  designated  2  February^  1309, 
as  the  date,  and  Avignon  as  the  place  for  the  trial  of 
his  dead  predecessor  on  the  shameful  charges  so  long 
colported  about  Europe  by  the  Colonna  cardinals 
and  their  faction.  In  the  document  (citation)  that 
called  (13  September,  1309)  for  the  witnesses,  Clement 
expressed  his  personal  conviction  of  the  innocence 
of  Boniface,  at  the  same  time  his  resolution  to  satisfy 
the  king.    Though  the  pope  had  soon  (2  February, 

1310)  to  protest  against  a  false  interpretation  of  ms 
own  words,  the  process  was  really  begun  in  a  con- 
sistory of  16  March,  1310,  at  Avignon.  Much  delay 
followed,  on  one  side  and  the  ot&r,  apropos  chiefly 
of  methods  of  procedure.  Early  in  1311,  witnesses 
were  examined  outside  of  Avignon,  in  France,  and  in 
Italy,  but  by  French  commissaries  and  mostly  on  the 
above-mentioned  charges  of  the  Colonna  (see  Boni- 
FACB  VIII).  Finally,  in  February,  1311,  the  king 
wrote  to  Clement  abandoning  the  process  to  the 
future  council  (of  Vienne)  or  to  the  pope's  own  action, 
and  promising  to  cause  the  withdrawal  of  the  charees: 
at  the  same  time  he  protested  that  his  intentions  hacl 
been  pure.  One  price  of  these  welcome  concessions 
was  a  formal  declaration  by  Pope  Clement  (27  April, 

1311)  of  the  king's  innocence  and  that  of  his  friends; 
these  representatives  of  France,  the  ''Israel  of  the 
New  Alliance",  had  acted,  said  the  pope,  in  good  faith 
and  with  a  pure  seal,  nor  shouLd  tney  fear  in  the 
future  any  canonical  detriment  from  the  events  of 
Anagni.  William  Nogaret  was  excepted,  but  on  his 
protestation  of  innocence,  and  at  the  intercession  of 
Philip,  a  penance  was  imposed  on  him  and  he  too 
leceived  absolution.  Only  those  who  detained  ec- 
clesiastical proi)erty  were  fimdl^  excluded  from  par- 
don.   The  religious  seal  of  Phihp  was  agaia  acknowl- 


edged; all  papal  art«  detrimental  to  him  and  his 
kii^om  since  November,  1302,  were  rescinded;  the 
erasures  are  yet  vifftble  in  the  **  R^esta  "  of  Bomface 
VIII,  in  the  Vatican  Arehives  (see  Tosti,  ''Storia  di 
Bonifazio  VIII",  Rome,  1886,  II,  343-44).  This 
painful  situation  was  closed  for  Clement  V  by  the 
Council  of  Vienne  (16  October,  1311),  most  of  whose 
members  were  peraonally  favourable  to  Boniface. 
It  is  not  certain  that  the  council  took  up  formally 
the  question  of  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  Boniface.  In 
their  present  shape  the  official  Acts  of  the  council  are 
silent,  nor  do  all  contemporarv  writers  mention  it  as  a 
fact.  It  is  true  that  Giovanni  Villani  dedcribes  Philip 
and  his  counsellors  as  ui^nt  for  the  condemnation  of 
Boniface  by  the  council,  but,  he  says,  the  memory 
of  the  pope  was  formally  purged  from  aH  adverse 
chaiges  by  three  cardinals  and  several  jurists;  more- 
over, three  Catalonian  knights  offered  to  defend  with 
their  swords  the  good  name  of  the  Gaetani  pope 
against  all  comers,  whereupon  the  king  vielded,  and 
demanded  only  that  he  be  declared  euiltless  of  anv 
responsibility  for  the  turn  affairs  had  taken.  Witn 
the  death  of  his  personal  enemies,  opposition  to  Boni- 
face diminished,  and  his  legitimacy  was  no  longer 
denied  even  in  France  (Balan,  "II  processo  di  Boni- 
fasio  VIU  ",  Rome,  1881). 

CLEllfiNT  V  AND  THE  TEMPLARS. — SlUCC  the  final 

expulsion  (1291)  of  the  crusading  forces  from  the 
Holy  Land,  the  ecclesiastico-military  orders  in  Europe 
had  aroused  much  adverse  criticism,  partly  because 
to  their  jealousies  (Templars,  Hospitallers  or  Knights 
of  St.  Jonn,  Teutonic  Order)  was  attributed  the  humil- 
iating defeat,  partly  because  of  the  vast  wealth  they 
had  acquired  in  Uieir  short  existence.  The  Templara 
(so-called  from  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  pauperea 
comimUUmea  Chnsti  Templioue  SolofntmicCf  i.  e.  poor 
fellow-soldiere  of  Christ  ana  of  the  Temple  of  Solo- 
mon) were  the  richest.  Their  fortress-like  monas- 
teries, known  as  Temples,  arose  in  every  European 
land,  and  by  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
sheltered  the  chief  banking-system  of  Europe;  the 
knights  were  trusted  by  popes  and  kings  and  by  per- 
sons of  wealth  because  of  their  uprightness,  the  good 
management  of  their  affairs,  and  their  solid  credit 
based  on  the  countless  estates  of  the  order  and  its 
widespread  financial  relations.  Already,  before  the 
accession  of  Pope  Clement,  their  status  was  growing 
perilous ;  apart  from  the  envy  aroused  by  their  riches, 
accusations  of  pride,  exclusiveness^  usurpation  of 
episcopal  rights,  etc.  were  raised  against  them,  lliey 
had  resisted  several  attempts  to  unite  their  order  . 
with  the  HospitaUerS)  and  while  it  is  no  longer  easy 
to  fix  the  degree  of  their  popularity  with  the  common 
people,  it  is  certain  that  in  many  quarters  of  Europe 
had  aroused  the  cupidity  of  princes  and  tne 

Eusy  of  many  higher  ecclesiastics,  especially  in 
ce;  without  the  co-operation  of  the  tatter  thejr 
could  never  have  fallen  in  so  tragic  a  manner.  Their 
story  is  told  in  full  in  the  article  Templars;  hence,  to 
avoid  repetition,  it  will  suffice  to  mention  here  the 
principal  facts.  In  the  first  year  of  the  pontificate 
of  Clement  V  the  French  king  began  to  demand  from 
the  pope  the  suppression  of  this  ecclesiastical  order 
and  to  set  afoot  a  campaign  of  violence  and  calumny 
such  as  had  so  far  suoceeded  in  the  case  of  Boniface 
VIU.  If  the  pope,  as  was  naturally  to  be  feared, 
refused  finally  to  yield  in  the  matter,  of  the  process 
against  his  predecessor's  memory,  he  would  surely 
be  glad  to  buy  relief  with  the  sacrifice  of  the  Tem- 
plara. Owing  to  the  weakness  and  irresolution  of 
Pope  Clement,  the  royal  plan  succeeded.  After  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  of  the  pope  (in  August,  1307)  to 
unite  the  Templara  and  the  Hospitallere,  he  yielded 
to  the  demands  of  King  Philip  and  ordered  an  inves- 
tigation of  the  order,  against  which  the  king  brought 
chaigea  of  heresy  (renunciation  of  Christ,  immorality, 
idolatry,  contempt  of  the  Mass,  denial  of  the  sacra- 


OIJBMINT 


22 


OLEMEVT 


ments,  etc.)-  Philip,  however,  did  not  wait  for  the 
ordinary  operation  of  the  Inquisition,  but,  with  the 
aid  of  his  confessor,  Guillaume  de  Paris  (the  inquisitor 
of  France),  and  his  dever,  unscrupulous  jurists 
(Nogaret,  de  Plaisians,  Engueirand  de  Maximy) 
struck  suddenly  at  the  whole  order,  12  October,  1307, 
by  the  arrest  at  Paris  of  Jacques  de  Molay,  the  Grand 
Commander,  and  one  hundred  and  forty  knights,  fol- 
low^ed  by  the  inouisitor's  mandate  to  arrest  all  other 
members  throughout  France,  and  by  royal  sequestra- 
tion of  the  property  of  the  order.  Public  opinion 
was  cunnin^y  and  successfully  forestalled  by  the 
aforesaid  jurists.  It  was  also  falsely  made  to  appear 
that  the  pope  approved,  or  was  oonsentingly  aware,  of 
the  royal  action,  while  the  co-operation  of  French 
inquisitors  and  bishops  put  the  seal  of  ecdesiastioil 
approval  on  an  act  tnat  was  certainly  so  far  one  of 
gross  injustice. 

While  Philip  invited  the  other  princes  of  Europe 
to  follow  his  example,  Clement  V  protested  (27  Octo- 
ber) against  the  royal  usurpation  of  the  papal  au- 
thority, demanded  the  transfer  to  his  own  custody 
of  the  prisoners  and  their  prooerty,  and  susp^Qded 
the  inquisitional  authority  of  the  king's  ecclesiastic 
and  the  French  bishops.  Philip  made  an  apparent 
submission,  but  in  the  meantime  Qement  had  issued 
anoliier  Biill  (22  November)  commanding  an  investi- 
gation of  the  anti-Templar  charges  in  aU  European 
countries.  (It  may  be  said  at  once  that  the  results 
were  generally  favourable  to  the  order;  nowhere, 
given  the  lack  of  torture,  were  confessions  obtainea 
like  those  secured  in  France.)  The  feeble  efforts  of 
Clement  to  obtain  for  the  order  strict  canonical 
justice  (he  was  himself  an  excellent  canonist)  were 
counteracted  Inr  the  new  Bull  that  dignified  &Dd 
seemed  to  conmm  the  charges  of  the  firench  king, 
neither  then  nor  later  supjsorted  by  any  material 
evidence  or  documents  outside  of  his  own  suborned 
witnesses  and  the  confessions  of  the  prisoners,  ob- 
tained by  tortiire  or  by  other  dubious  methods  of 
their  jailers,  none  of  whom  dared  resist  the  well- 
known  will  of  Philip.  The  alleged  secret  Rule  of  the 
TempIaJs,  authorizing  the  aforesaid  charges,  was 
never  produced.  In  the  meantime  William  Nogaret 
had  been  busy  defaming  Pope  Clement,  threatening 
him  with  charges  not  unlike  those  pending  against 
Boniface  VIII,  and  working  up  successfully  an  anti- 
Templar  public  opinion  against  the  next  meeting 
(May,  1308)  of  the  States-General.  In  July  of  that 
year  it  was  a^ed  between  the  pope  and  the  king  that 
the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  order  itself  should  be 
separated  from  that  of  its  individual  (French)  mem- 
bers. The  former  was  reserved  to  a  general  council, 
soon  to  be  convoked  at  Vienne  in  Southern  France, 
and  to  prepare  evidence  for  which,  apart  from  the 
examinations  now  going  on  through  Europe,  and  a 
hearing  before  the  pope  of  seventy-two  members  of  the 
order  brought  from  the  prisons  of  Philip  (ail  of  whom 
confessed  themselves  guilty  of  heresy  and  prayed  for 
absolution),  there  were  appointed  various  special 
commissions,  the  most  important  of  which  began  its 
sessions  at  Paris  in  Au^t,  1309.  Its  members,  act- 
ing in  the  name  and  with  the  authority  of  the  pope, 
were  opposed  to  the  use  of  torture,  hence  before  them 
hundreds  of  kni^ts  maintained  freely  the  innocence 
of  the  order,  while  many  of  those  who  had  formerly 
yielded  to  the  diocesan  inquisitors  now  retracted  their 
avowals  as  contrary  to  truth.  When  Nogaret  and  de 
Plaisians  saw  the  probable  outcome  of  the  hearings 
before  the  papal  commissions,  they  precipitatMi 
matters,  caused  the  Archbishop  of  Sens  (brother  of 
Enguerrand  de  Marigny)  to  call  a  provincial  council 
(Sens  was  then  metropolitan  of  Pans  and  seat  of  the 
local  inquisition  tribunal),  at  which  were  condemned, 
as  relapsed  heretics,  fifty-four  knights  who  had  re- 
cently withdrawn  before  the  papal  commissioners 
their  former  confessions  on  the  plea  that  they  had 


been  given  under  torture  and  were  quite  false.  That 
same  day  (12  May,  1310),  all  these  Imights  were  pub- 
licly burned  at  Paris  outside  the  Porte  St-Antoine. 
To  the  end  all  protested  their  innocence. 

There  could  no  longer  be  any  question  of  liberty  of 
defence;  the  papal  conunission  at  Paris  suspended 
its  sessions  for  six  months,  and  when  it  met  again 
found  before  it  only  knights  who  had  confessed  the 
crimes  they  were  oha^gea  with  and  had  been  reocm- 
eiled  by  the  local  inquisitors.  The  fate  of  the  Templars 
was  finally  sealed  at  the  Council  of  Vienne  (open(^  16 
October,  1311).  The  majority  of  its  three  hundred 
members  were  opposed  to  the  abolition  of  the  order, 
beUeving  the  alleged  crimes  unproven,  but  the  king  was 
uigent,  appeaiedin  person  at  the  council,  and  finally 
obtained  from  Clement  V  the  practical  execution  of  his 
will.  At  the  second  session  of  the  council,  in  presence 
of  the  king  and  his  three  sons,  was  read  the  Bull "  Vox 
in  excelsis'',  dated  22  March,  1312,  in  which  tiie  pope 
said  that  though  he  had  no  sufficient  reasons  lor  a 
fonnal  condemnation  of  the  order,  nevertheless, 
because  of  the  common  weal,  the  hatred  borne  them 
by  the  King  of  France,  the  scandalous  nature  of  their 
tnal,  and  the  probable  dilapidation  of  the  order's 
property  in  every  Christian  land,  he  suppressed  it  by 
virtue  of  his  sovereien  power,  and  not  by  any  definitive 
sentence.  By  another  Bull  of  2  May  he  vested  in  the 
Hospitallers  the  title  to  the  property  of  the  sup- 
TOessed  order.  In  one  way  or  another,  however, 
Fhilip  managed  to  become  the  chief  legatee  of  its 
great  wealth  in  France.  As  to  the  Templars  them- 
selves, those  who  continued  to  maintain  their  con- 
fessions were  set  free;  those  who  withdrew  them 
were  considered  relapsed  heretics  and  were  dealt  with 
as  such  by  the  tribunals  of  the  Inquisition.  It  was 
only  in  1314  that  the  Grand  Master,  Jacques  de  Molay 
and  Geoffroy  de  CSiamay,  Grand  Preceptor  of  Nor- 
mandy, reserved  to  the  judgment  of  the  pope,  were 
condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  Thereupon 
they  prodaimea  the  falsity  of  their  confessions,  and 
accused  themselves  of  cowardice  in  betraying  their 
order  to  save  their  lives.  They  were  at  once  declared 
relapsed  heretics,  turned  over  to  the  secular  arm  by 
the  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  were  burned  that 
same  day  (18  March,  1314).  Of  Pope  Clement  it  may 
be  said  that  the  few  measures  of  equity  that  appear 
in  the  course  of  this  great  crime  were  owing  to  him  ; 
unfortunately  his  sense  of  justice  and  his  respect  for 
the  law  were  counterbalanced  by  a  weak  and  vacil- 
lating character,  to  which  peihaps  his  feeble  and  un- 
certam  health  contributed.  Some  think  he  was  con- 
vinced of  the  Templars'  guilt,  especially  after  so 
many  of  the  chief  membera  had  acunitted  it  to  him- 
self;  they  explain  thus  his  recommendation  of  the 
use  of  torture,  also  his  toleration  of  the  king's  sup- 
pression of  all  proper  Uberty  of  defence  on  the  part 
of  the  accused.  Othera  believe  that  he  feared  for 
himself  the  fate  of  Boniface  VIII^  whose  cruel  en^y, 
William  Nogaret,  still  lived,  attorney-general  of 
Philip,  skill^  in  le^  violence,  and  emboldened  by  a 
long  career  of  successful  infamy.  His  strongest 
motive  was,  in  all  probability,  anxiety  to  save  the 
memory  of  Boniface  VIII  from  the  injustice  of  a 
formal  condemnation  which  the  malice  of  Nogaret 
and  the  cold  vindictiveness  of  Philip  would  have  in- 
sisted on,  had  not  the  rich  prey  of  the  Temple  been 
thrown  to  them;  to  stand  for  both  with  Apostolic 
courage  might  have  meant  intolerable  consequences, 
not  only  personal  indignities,  but  in  the  end  the 
graver  evu  of  schism  under  conditions  peculiarly  un- 
mvouraUe  for  the  papacy.    (See  Philip  thx  Faik; 

ViSNNS,  COtTNCIL  OF;   TlAfPIiAJlS.) 

C^jBMENT  V  AND  Emperob  Henbt  VII. — In  pur- 
suance of  the  vast  ambitions  of  the  French  monarchy 
(Pierre  Dubois,  "De recuperatione  terns sanctSB^',  ed. 
Langlois,  Paris,  1891),  Ein^  Philip  was  anxious  to  see 
his  brother  Charles  of  Valois  chosen  King  of  Germany 


0U5MENT 


23 


OLEMSNT 


m  succesfiion  to  the  muxdered  Adolph  of  Nassau, 
of  course  with  a  view  of  obtaining  later  the  imperial 
crown.  Pope  Clement  was  apparently  active  in 
favour  of  Pnilip's  plan;  at  the  same  time  he  made  it 
known  to  the  ecclesiastical  electors  that  the  selection 
of  Count  Henry  of  Liitxelburg,  brother  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Trier,  would  be  pleasing  to  him.  The  pope 
was  well  aware  that  further  extension  of  French  au> 
thority  could  only  reduce  still  more  his  own  small 
measure  of  independence.  Though  elected,  6  Janu- 
ary, 1309,  aa  Henry  VII,  and  soon  a^eured  of  the 
papal  agreement  to  his  imperial  consecration,  it  was 
only  in  1312  that  the  new  king  reached  Rome  and 
was  consecrated  emperor  in  the  church  of  St.  John 
Lateran  by  cardinals  specially  delegated  by  the  pope. 
Circumstances  forced  Henry^  VII  to  side  with  the 
Italian  Ghibellines,  with  the  result  that  in  Rome 
itself  he  found  a  powerful  Guelph  party  in  possession 
of  St.  Peter^s  and  the  greater  part  of  the  city,  actively 
supported  also  by  King  Robert  of  Naples.  The 
new  emperor,  after  the  humiliating  failiue  of  his 
Italian  expedition,'  undertook  to  compel  the  Angevin 
king  to  recognize  the  imperial  authority,  but  was 
crossed  by  the  pap&l  action  in  def^ice  of  Kmg  Robert 
as  a  vassal  of  the  Roman  Church,  overlord  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  On  the  eve  of  a  new  Italian  campaign  in 
sufmort  of  the  imperial  honour  and  rights  Heniy  VII 
died  suddenly  near  Siena,  24  August,  1313.  He  was 
the  last  hope  of  Dante  and  his  feUow-Ghibellines, 
for  whom  at  this  time  the  sreat  poet  drew  up  in  the 
"De  Monarchic"  his  ideal  of  ^)od  government  in 
Ital^r  through  the  restoration  of  the  earlier  strong 
empire  of  German  rulers,  in  whom  he  saw  the  ideal 
overiords  of  the  European  world,  and  even  of  the 
pope  as  a  temporal  prince. 

Clement  V  and  England. — ^Ambassadors  of  Ed- 
ward I  assisted  at  the  coronation  of  Clement  V.  At 
the  reaueet  of  King  Edward,  the  pope  freed  him  from 
the  obii^tion  of  keeping  the  pronuses  added  to  the 
Charter  m  1297  and  1300,  though  the  king  afterwards 
took  little  or  no  advantage  of  the  papal  absolution. 
Moreover,  to  satisfy  the  king,  he  suspended  and 
called  to  the  papal  court  (1305)  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  Kooert  of  Winchelaea,  who  had  pre- 
viously suffered  much  for  adhering  to  the  side  of  Boni- 
face VIII,  and  whom  Edward  I  was  now  pursuing 
with  unproved  changes  of  treason.  (See  Clericis 
Laioos.)  It  was  only  in  1307,  after  the  accession  of 
Edward  II,  that  this  great  churchman,  at  the  royal 
request,  was  permitted  by  Clement  to  return  from 
Bordeaux  to  his  See  of  Canterbury,  whose  ancient 
right  to  crown  the  kings  of  England  he  successfully 
maintained.  Clement  excommunicated  (1306)  Rol>- 
eit  Bruce  of  Scotland  for  his  share  in  the  murder  of 
the  Red  Comyn,  and  he  deprived  of  their  sees  Bishops 
Lambarton  and  Wishart  for  their  part  in  the  subse- 
quent national  rising  of  the  Scots.  The  Lords  and 
Commons  at  the  Parliament  of  Carlisle  (1307)  exhibited 
a  strong  anti-papal  temper,  apropos,  among  other 
complaints,  of  the  granting  of  rich  English  benefices 
to  fareigners,  and  though  no  positive  action  followed, 
the  later  Statutes  of  Provisors  and  Praemunire  look 
back  to  this  event  as  indicative  of  English  temper. 
(See  Gasquet,  "The  Eve  of  the  Reformation",  essay 
on  "Mixed  Jurisdiction'',  and  for  other  items  of 
English  interest  the  "Regesta"  of  Clement  V,  and 
Bliss,  "Calendar  of  Ecclesiastical  Documents  relating 
to  England  "  London,  1893  sqq..  Rolls  series.) 

Clement  V  and  the  Canon  Law. — He  completed 
the  medieval  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici "  by  the  publica- 
tion of  a  ooUectioii  of  papal  decretals  known  as  "  Clem- 
mtine",  or  "liber  Clementinarum",  sometimes 
"Liber  Septimus''  in  reference  to  the  "Liber  Sextus" 
of  Boniface  VIII.  It  contains  decretals  of  the  latter 
pope,  of  Benedict  XI,  and  oi  Clement  himself.  To- 
gether with  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Vienne  it 
was  promulgated  (21  March,  1314)  at  the  papal  resi- 


dence of  Monteaux  near  Carpentras.  It  follows  the 
method  of  the  "Decretals"  of  Gregory  IX  and  the 
"Liber  Sextus"  of  Boniface  VIII,  i.  e.  five  books, 
with  subdivision  into  titles  and  chapters.  As  the  pope 
died  (20  April)  before  this  collection  had  been  gener- 
ally published,  its  authenticitv  was  doubted  by  some, 
w^herefore  John  XXII  promu^ted  it  anew,  25  Octo- 
ber, 1317,  and  sent  it  to  the  Umversity  of  Boloeim  as  a 
genuine  collection  of  papal  decretals  to  be  used  in  the 
courts  and  the  schools.  (Laurin,  ''Introd.  in  corpus 
juris  canonici",  Freiburg,  1889:  cf.  Ehrle,  "Archiv  f. 
Litteratur  und  Kirchengesch.'',  IV,  36  sqq.) 

Clement's  official  correspondence  la  found  in  tne  nine  folio 
volumes  of  the  Regeata  ClemerdU  V  (Benedictine  ed.,  Rome. 
1885-92);  Bax^uzb.  Viiapa'paTum  Avenionentium  (Paris,  1693), 
I;  Ratnald.  Ann.  Ecel.,  ad  ann.  1303-13;  Hmwrnix,  ConcUien' 
geach.(2d  ed  J,VI,393  sqq.:  EHRix.ilrc^tv  /.  LiU.u.  Kirchengesch. 
(1887-89^;  Christophu,  Ifist.  de  la  papayU  pendant  le  qwUor- 
tiime  nMe  (Paris.  1853),  I ;  Souchon,  Fapstwahlen  von  Boni^az 
VIIJ.  bis  Urban  VL  (1888);  Rabanxb,  CUment  V  el  PhUivpe  U 
Bel  (Paris.  1858^;  Boutabic.  La  France  sous  Philippe  le  Bd 
(Pans,  1861);  Rbnan.  Etttdea  eur  la  politique  de  PhiUppe  le  Bd 
(Paris.  1899);  Wenck.  Clement  V.undHeinrich  VII.  (1882); 
LAOoeTB.  NouveUea  Hudee  eur  CUmmU  V  (Paris,  1896):  Bbb- 
CHON,  Hid^  du  Pape  Cl6ment  V  (Bordeaux,  1898),  and  tiie  ex- 
haustive bibliography  in  Chevalier,  Bio-Bibl.  ror  the  litera- 
ture of  the  Templars,  see  Templars.  It  will  suffice  to  men- 
tion here:  Lavocat.  Le  proces  dee  fr^ee  de  Vordre  du  Temjde 
(Paris,  1888);  SchottisOller,  Der  Unlerqanq  des  Templer^- 
dena  (1887);  Gmbun,  Schidd  oder  UnechtUd  dee  Templerordene 
(1893);  Ch.  Lanoloxs,  Hietoire  de  France,  ed.  Lavisbe  (Paris, 
1901).  Ill  (u).  174-200:  Lea.  Hielory  of  the  Inquiaitum.  (New 
York,  1887),  III,  238-334;  Delaville  Lb  Roulx.  La  aupprea- 
aion  dee  Templiera  in  Revue  dee  gueeliona  hiatoriqtiea  (1890), 
XLVII.  29;  and  Grange,  The  FaU  of  the  KnighU  of  The 
Temple  in  DuibHn  Review  (1895),  329-16. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Olement  VI,  Pope  (Pierr£  Roger),  b.  1291  in  the 
castle  of  Maumont,  department  of  Corrdze,  France, 
elected  pope,  7  May,  1342,  at  Avignon,  where  he  died 
6  December,  1352.  At  the  age  often  he  entered  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  la  Chaise-Dieu  (Haute- 
Loire),  where  he  made  his  religious 
ptrofession.  After  devoting  some 
time  to'  study  at  Paris,  he  gradu- 
ated as  doctor  and  became  professor 
in  that  city.  Subsequent  to  liis  in- 
troduction to  Pope  John  XXII  by 
Cardinal  Pierre  Grouin  de  Mortemart, 
he  rapidly  rose  from  one  ecclesiasti- 
cal dignity  to  another.  At  first  prior  of 
Saint-Baudile  at  Ntmes,  then  Aobot  of 
Fecamp  in  Normandy,  he  became  Bish- 
op of  Arras  and  Chancellor  of  France  in  1328,  was  pro- 
moted to  the  Archbishopric  of  Sens  in  1329,  and  to  that 
of  Rouen  the  following  year.  In  the  latter  city  a  pro- 
vincial council,  which  promulgated  several  disciplinary 
decrees,  was  held  under  his  presidency  in  1335.  He 
was  created  cardinal  (1338)  oy  Benedict  XII,  whom 
he  succeeded  as  pontiff.  One  of  the  characteristic 
traits  of  his  policy  as  head  of  the  Universal  Church 
was  his  excessive  devotion  to  the  interests  of  France 
and  those  of  his  relatives.  His  French  sjrmpathies 
impeded  his  efforts  to  restore  and  maintain  peace  be- 
tween England  and  France,  although  his  mediation 
led  to  the  conclusion  of  a  short  general  truce  (Males- 
troit,  1343).  Most  of  the  twenty-five  cardinals  whom 
he  created  were  French,  and  twelve  of  them  were 
related  to  him.  The  King  of  France  was  given  per- 
mission (1344)  to  Communicate  under  both  kinds. 
Clement  accepted  the  senatorial  dignity  offered  him 
as  "Kni^t  Roger''  by  a  Roman  delegation,  which 
numbered  Petrarch  as  one  of  its  memt^rs.  He  also 
granted  their  request  for  the  celebration  of  a  jubilee 
every  fifty,  instead  of  every  hundred,  years  (Bull 
'^Unigenitus",  1343),  but  declined  their  invitation  to 
return  to  Rome.  Greater  permanencv  seemed  to  be 
assured  to  the  papal  residence  abroad  oy  his  purchase 
of  the  sovereimty  of  Avignon  for  80,000  florins  from 
Joanna  of  Na^es  and  Provence  (9  June ,  1 348).  About 
the  same  time  he  also  declared  this  princess  innocent 
of  complicity  in  the  murder  of  her  husband.    The 


Ahms  of  Clem- 
ent VI 


OLBMSNY 


24 


OLSMSHT 


pope's  success  in  Roman  affairs  is  evidenced  bv  his 
confirmation  of  the  ephemeral  but  then  unavoidable 
rule  of  Ck)Ia  di  Rienzi  (20  May  to  15  Dec,  1347).  His 
later  condemnation  of  thiis  arrogant  tribune  was  large- 
ly instrumental  in  bringing  about  his  fall  from  power. 
Shortly  after  these  events  the  jubilee  year  of  1350 
brought  an  extraordinarily  laiige  number  of  pilgrims 
to  the  Eternal  City.  In  his  attempt  to  stren^hen 
the  Guelph  party  in  Italy  the  pope  met  with  failure, 
and  was  constrained  to  cede  the  city  of  Bologna  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Milan  for  a  period  of  twelve  years. 
Clement  took  up  with  ardour  the  long-standine 
conflict  between  the  Emperor  Louis  the  Bavarian  and 
the  papacv.  The  former  had  offended  the  religious 
feelinm  of  many  of  his  adherents  by  arbitrarily 
annulling  the  marriage  of  Marguerite  Maultasch, 
heiress  of  Tyrol,  and  John  Henry,  Prince  of  Bohemia. 
The  popular  discontent  was  still  further  intensified 
when  the  emperor  authorized  his  *own  son  to 
marry  the  same  princess.  Louis  consequently  was 
ready  to  make  the  greatest  concessions  to  the  pope. 
In  a  writing  of  September,  1343,  he  acknowledged  nis 
unlawful  assumption  of  the  imperial  title,  declared  his 
willin)gne8s  to  annul  aU  his  imperial  acts  and  to  sub- 
mit to  any  papal  penalty,  but  at  the  same  time  wished 
to  be  recognized  as  King  of  the  Romans.  Clement  de- 
manded as  further  conditions  that  no  law  should  be  en- 
acted in  the  empire  without  f)apal  sanction,  that  the 
binding-force  of  Louis's  promulgated  roysd  decrees 
should  be  suspended  until  confirmation  by  the  Holy 
See,  that  he  should  depose  all  bishops  and  abbots 
named  by  himself,  and  waive  all  claim  to  the  sov- 
erei^ty  of  the  Papal  States,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and 
Corsica.  Louis  submitted  the  pope's  demands  to  the 
consideration  of  the  German  princes,  at  a  time  when 
anti-papal  feeling  ran  very  high  in  Germany,  as  a 
result  of  the  separation  of  the  Archbishopric  of  Prague 
from  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Mainz  (30  April, 
1344).  The  princes  declared  them  unacceptable,  out 
also  spoke  of  the  necessity  of  electing  a  new  king  in 
place  of  Louis,  whose  rule  had  been  so  disastrous  to 
the  empire.  The  pope  on  7  April,  1346,  deposed 
Henry  of  Vimeburg,  Archbishop  of  Mainz  and  an 
ardent  partisan  of  the  reigning  eniperor,  and  named 
the  twentjr-year-old  Gerlach  of  Nassau  to  the  see. 
On  13  April  of  the  same  year  he  launched  a  severe 
Bull  against  the  emperor,  in  which  he  requested  the 
electors  to  give  him  a  successor.  Charles  of  Luxem- 
burg, the  pope's  candidate  and  former  pupil,  was 
elected  King  of  Germany  (11  July,  1346),  by  his 
father,  John  of  Bohemia,  by  Rudolf  of  Saxony,  and 
the  three  ecclesiastical  electors.  Charles  IV  (1346-78) 
substantially  accepted  the  papal  demands,  but  his 
authority  was  not  immediately  recognized  through- 
out Germany.  The  country  was  on  the  verge  of  civil 
war,  when  Louis  the  Bavarian  suddenly  med  while 
engaged  in  a  boar-hunt  near  Munich  (11  October, 
1347).  The  opposition  of  Giinther  of  Schwarzburg 
(d.  14  June,  1349)  to  Charles  was  but  of  short  dura- 
tion. Left  without  a  protector,  through  the  death 
of  Louis,  William  of  Occam  and  the  schismatical  Friars 
Minor  now  made  their  submission  to  the  pope.  About 
1344  Clement  VI  granted  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Canary  Islands  to  the  Castilian  Prince  Louis  de  la 
Cerda,  on  condition  that  no  other  Christian  ruler  had 
acquired  any  right  to  their  possession.  The  new 
sovereipi,  who  was  accorded  the  title  of  Prince  of 
Fortuma,  agreed  to  introduce  Christianity  into  the 
islands  and  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Holy  See.  He  could 
not,  however,  take  effective  possession  of  the  terri- 
tory, which  was  not  permanently  converted  at  this 
time,  even  though  a  special  bishop  (the  Carmehte 
Bernard)  was  named  for  the  islanos  in  1351.  The 
pope's  attempts  to  reunite  the  Greeks  and  Armenians 
with  the  Roman  Church  led  to  no  definite  resists. 
The  East  desired  not  so  much  a  return  to  doctrinal 
unitv  as  assistance  against  the  Turks.    A  crusade 


against  the  latter,  which  was  undertaken  in  1344, 
ended  in  a  barren  truce. 

More  of  a  temporal  prince  than  an  ecclesiastical 
ruler,  Clement  was  mumficent  to  profusion,  a  patron 
of  arts  and  letters,  a  lover  of  good  cheer,  well-ap- 
pointed banquets,  and  brilliant  receptions,  to  which 
ladies  were  freely  admitted.  The  neavy  expenses 
necessitated  by  such  pomp  soon  exhausted  the  funds 
which  the  economy  of  Benedict  XII  had  provided  for 
his  successor.  To  open  up  new  sources  of  revenue, 
in  the  absence  of  the  ordinary  income  from  the  States 
of  the  Church,  fresh  taxes  were  imposed  and  an  ever- 
increasing  number  of  appointments  to  biedioprics  and 
benefices  was  reserved  to  the  pope.  Such  arlntrary 
proceedings  led  to  resistance  in  several  countries.  In 
1343  the  agents  of  two  cardinals,  whom  Clement  had 
appointed  to  ofl^cee  in  England,  were  driven  from  that 
country.  Edward  III  vehemently  complained  of  the 
exactions  of  the  Avignon  Court,  and  in  1351  was  passed 
the  Statute  of  Provisors,  according  to  which  the  kins 
reserved  the  right  of  presentation  m  all  cases  of  papal 
appointments  to  benefices.  The  memory  of  this  pope 
is  clouded  by  his  open  French  partisanship  and  by  tne 
gross  nepotism  of  nis  reign.  Clement  Vi  was  never- 
theless a  protector  of  the  oppressed  and  a  helper  of 
the  needy.  His  courage  and  charity  strikingly  ap- 
peared at  the  time  of  tne  Great  Pestilence,  or  Black 
Death,  at  Avignon  (1348-49).  While  in  many  places, 
numerous  Jews  were  massacred  by  the  populace  as 
being  the  cause  of  the  pestilence.  Clement  issued 
Bulls  for  their  protection  and  afforded  them  a  refuge 
in  his  little  State.  He  canonized  St.  Ivo  of  Trfeiier, 
Brittany  (d.  1303),  the  advocate  of  orphans  (June, 
1347),  condemned  the  Flagellants,  and  m  1351  cour- 
ageously defended  the  Mendicant  friars  against  he 
accusations  of  some  secular  prelates.  Several  sermons 
have  been  preserved  of  this  admittedly  learned  pope 
and  eloquent  speaker.  He  died  after  a  short  illness, 
and,  according  to  his  desire,  was  interred  at  LaChaise- 
Dieu.  In  1562  his  grave  was  desecrated  and  his  re- 
mains burned  by  some  Huguenots. 

BALuns,  VUm  Paparum  Avenion.  (Paria,  1693),  I,  243-323, 
829-925;  CHRiaroPHS,  Hiai.d^  la  papaut^  pendant  U  XIV*  •iktU 
(PariB,  1853) ;  Hofler,  Di^  avignoneriMchen  P&pHe  (Vienna, 

IfiTI^*    Af^Vw^o      rjn-mf.m^*     m»    1^     U.-^^    A     !„    <»M>«>  •wM.A^f     ;«i     t>Mm     Amm 


KarUIV.  (Innsbruck,  1880-92) ;  Dbsprez,  LeUrescloaeipatenUs 
et  curialea  dea  papea  d^ Avignon  serapportani  il  la  France,  CUment 
V/ (Paris,  1901);  BdHMXR,  Pontes  rerum  germanicarum  (Stutt- 
gart, 1843,  1868),  I.  IV;  Klicman,  Monumenta  Vaticona  res 
geataa  Bohemicas  tUuatrantiat  I.  Ada  ClemerUia  VI;  Gat,  Le 
Pape  Clhnent  VI  et  les  affaires  d! Orient  (Paris,  1904);  Kirscr. 
ZKs  VerwaUung  der  Annaten  unter  Klemens  VI.  in  ROmiache 
Quarialaehrifi  (1902). 425-51;  Hkvslb-Kn^pfubr,  Concilien- 
geach.  (Freiburg,  1890),  VI,  663-75,  passim;  Pastor,  Geach. 
der  Papate  (Freiburg,  1901),  I,  89-95,  passim,  tr.  Antrobus 
(I^ndon,  1891),  I,  85-92;  Creiqhton,  Hiat.  of  the  Papacy 
(London,  1892),  I,  44-48;  BBRufeRS.  Suppliquea  de  Cl^nunt 
VI  (Paris,  1906) ;  Chjbvalibr,  Bio-Bibl.  (Paris,  1905),  1, 954-55. 
HsRORNRdTHER-KiRSCH.  Kirchengesch,  (4th  ed.,  1904),  II, 
735-37. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Olement  VH,  Pope  (Gix7lio  db'  Medici),  b.  1478; 
d.  25  September,  1534.  Giulio  de'  Medici  was  bom 
a  few  months  after  the  death  of  his  father,  Giuliano, 
who  was  slain  at  Florence  in  the  dis- 
turbances which  followed  the  Pazzi 
conspiracy.  Although  his  parents  had 
not  been  properly  married,  they  had, 
it  was  alleged,  oeen  betrothed  per 
sponsalia  de  prceseniif  and  Giulio,  in 
virtue  of  a  well-known  principle  of 
canon  law,  was  subsequently  de- 
clared legitimate.  The  youth  was 
educated  by  his  uncle,  torenzo  the 
Magnificent.     He  was  made  a  Knight 


Abmb  or  Clxm- 
KNT  VII 


of  Rhodes  and  Grand  Prior  of  Capua,  and,  upon 
the  election  of  his  cousin  Giovanni  de'  Medici  to 
the  papacy  as  Leo  X,  he  at  once  became  a  person 
of  great   consequence.      On   23   September,   1513, 


OLEMENT 


25 


OLEMENT 


lie  was  made  cardinal,  and  he  had  the  credit  of 
being  the  prime  mover  of  the  papal  policy  during  the 
'whole  of  Leo's  pontificate.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
favoured  candidates  in  the  protracted  conclave  which 
resulted  in  the  election  of  Adrian  VI;  neither  did  the 
Cardinal  de'  Medici,  in  spite  of  his  close  connexion 
with  the  luxurious  regime  of  Leo  X,  altogether  lose 
influence  under  his  austere  successor.  GiuUo,  in  the 
words  of  a  modem  historian,  was  "learned,  clever, 
respectable  and  industrious,  though  he  had  little  en- 
terprise and  less  decision  (Armstrong,  Charles  V., 
I.  166).  After  Adrian's  death  (14  September,  1523) 
the  Cardinal  de*  Medici  was  eventually  chosen  pope, 
18  November,  1523,  and  his  election  was  hailed  at 
Rome  with  enthusiastic  rejoicing.  But  the  temper  of 
the  Roman  people  was  only  one  element  in  the  com- 
plex problem  wnich  Clement  VII  had  to  face.  The 
whole  political  and  religious  situation  was  one  of  ex- 
treme delicacy,  and  it  may  be  doubted  if  there  was 
one  man  in  ten  thousand  who  would  have  succeeded 
by  natural  tact  and  human  prudence  in  guiding  the 
Bark  of  Peter  through  sucn  tempestuous  waters. 
Clement  was  certainly  not  such  a  man.  He  had  un- 
fortunately been  brought  up  in  all  the  bad  traditions  of 
Italian  diplomacy,  and  over  and  above  this  a  certain 
fatal  irresolution  of  character  seemed  to  impel  him, 
when  any  decision  had  been  arrived  at,  to  hark  back 
upon  the  course  agreed  on  and  to  try  to  make  terms 
with  the  other  side. 

The  early  y^ears  of  his  pontificate  were  occupied 
with  the  negotiations  which  culminated  in  the  Lea^e 
of  Cognac.  When  Clement  was  crowned,  Francis  I 
and  tne  Emperor  Charles  V  were  at  war.  Charles 
had  supported  Clement's  candidature  and  hoped 
much  from  his  friendship  with  the  Medici,  but  barely 
a  year  had  elapsed  after  his  election  before  the  new 
pope  concluded  a  secret  treaty  with  France.  The 
pitched  battle  which  was  fought  between  Francis  and 
the  imperial  commanders  at  Pa  via  in  February,  1525, 
ending  in  the  defeat  and  captivity  of  the  French  king, 
put  into  Charles'  hq^ds  the  means  of  avenping.him- 
self .  Still  he  used  his  victory  with  moderation.  The 
terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Madrid  (14  January,  1526)  were 
not  really  extravagant,  but  Francis  seems  to  have 
sipied  with  the  deliberate  intention  of  breaking  his 
promises,  though  confirmed  by  the  most  solenan  of 
oa«rhs.  That  Clement,  instead  of  accepting  Charles' 
overtures,  should  have  made  himself  a  party  to  the 
French  king's  perfidy  and  should  have  organized  a 
league  with  France,  Venice,  and  Florence,  signed  at 
Co^ac,  22  May,  1526,  must  certainly  have  been  re- 
garded by  the  emperor  as  almost  unpardonable  prov- 
ocation. No  doubt  Clement  was  moved  by  ^nuine 
patriotism  in  his  distrust  of  imperial  influence  m  Italy 
'•nd  especisdQy  by  anxiety  for  his  native  Florence. 
Moreover,  he  chaied  under  dictation  which  seemed  to 
him  to  threaten  the  freedom  of  the  Church.  But 
though  he  probably  feared  that  the  bonds  might  be 
drawn  tighter,  it  is  hard  to  see  that  he  had  at  that 
time  any  serious  ground  of  complaint.  We  cannot 
be  much  surprised  at  what  followed.  Charles'  en- 
voys, obtaining  no  satisfaction  from  the  pope,  allied 
themselves  with  the  disaffected  Colonna  who  had  been 
raiding  the  papal  territory.  These  last  pretended 
reconciliation  until  the  papal  commanders  were  lulled 
into  a  sense  of  security.  Then  the  Colonna  made  a 
sudden  attack  upon  Rome  and  shut  up  Clement  in  the 
Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  while  their  followers  plundered 
the  Vatican  (20  September,  1526).  Charles  dis- 
avowed the  action  of  the  Colonna  but  took  advantage 
of  the  situation  created  by  their  success.  A  period  of 
vacillation  followed.  At  one  time  Clement  concluded 
a  truce  with  the  emperor,  at  another  he  turned  again 
despairingly  to  the  League,  at  another,  under  the  en- 
couragement of  a  slight  success,  he  broke  off  negotiar 
tions  with  the  imperial  representatives  and  resumed 
active  hostilities,  and  then  again,  still  later,  he  signed 


a  truce  with  Charles  for  eight  months,  promising  the 
immediate  payment  of  an  indemnity  of  60,000  ducats. 

In  the  mean  time  the  German  mercenaries  in  the 
north  of  Italy  were  fast  being  reduced  to  the  last  ex- 
tremities for  lack  of  provisions  and  pay.  On  hearing 
of  the  indemnity  of  60,000  ducats  they  threatened 
mutiny,  and  the  imperial  commissioners  extracted 
from  the  pope  the  payment  of  100,000  ducats  instead 
of  the  sum  first  agreed  upon.  But  the  sacrifice  was 
ineffectual.  It  seems  probable  that  the  Lands- 
knechte,  a  very  large  proportion  of  whom  were  Luth- 
erans, had  really  got  completely  out  of  hand,  and  that 
they  practically  forced  tne  Constable  Bourbon,  now 
in  supreme  command,  to  lead  them  against  Rome, 
On  the  5th  of  May  they  reached  the  walls,  which, 
owing  to  the  pope's  confidence  in  the  truce  he  had  con- 
cluded, were  almost  undefended.  Clement  had  barely 
time  to  take  refuge  in  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  and 
for  eight  days  the  "Sack  of  Rome"  continued  amid 
horrors  almost  unexampled  in  the  history  of  war. 
"The  Lutherans", 
says  an  impartial 
authority,  "  re- 
joiced to  bum  and 
to  defile  what  all 
the  world  had 
adored.  Churehes 
were  desecrated, 
women,  even  the 
religious,  violated, 
ambassadors  pil- 
laged, cardinals 
put  to  ransom, 
ecclesiastical  dig- 
nitaries and  cere- 
monies made  a 
mockery,  and  the 
soldiers  fought 
among  themselves 
for  the  spoil" 
(Loathes  in 
'*Camb.    Mod. 

History",  II,  55).  It  seems  probable  that  Charles  V 
was  really  not  implicated  in  the  horrors  which  then 
took  place.  Still  he  had  no  objection  against  the 
pope  bearing  the  lull  consequences  of  his  shifty  diplo-' 
macy,  and  he  allowed  him  to  remain  a  virtual  prisoner 
in  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  for  more  than  seven 
months.  Clement's  pliability  had  already  given 
offence  to  the  other  members  of  the  League,  and  his 
appeals  were  not  responded  to  very  warmly.  Be- 
sides this,  he  wa^  sorely  in  need  of  tne  imperial  sup- 
port both  to  make  head  against  the  Lutherans  in  Ger- 
many and  to  reinstate  the  Medici  in  the  government 
of  Florence  from  which  they  had  been  driven  out. 
The  combined  effect  of  these  various  considerations 
and  of  the  failure  of  the  French  attempts  upon  Naples 
was  to  throw  Clement  into  the  emperor's  arms.  After 
a  sojourn  in  Orv^ieto  and  Viterbo,  Clement  returned  to 
Rome,  and  there,  before  the  end  of  July,  1529,  terms 
favourable  to  the  Holy  See  were  definitely  arranged 
with  Charles.  The  seal  was  set  upon  the  compact  by 
the  meeting  of  the  emperor  and  the  pope  at  Bologna, 
where,  on  24  February,  1530,  Charles  was  solemnly 
crowned.  By  whatever  motives  the  pontiff  was 
swayed,  this  settlement  certainly  had  tne  effect  of 
restoring  to  Italy  a  much-needed  peace. 

Meanwhile  events,  the  momentous  consequence  of 
which  were  not  then  fully  foreseen,  had  been  taking 
place  in  England.  Henry  VIII,  tired  of  Queen  Cath- 
erine, by  whom  he  had  no  heir  to  the  throne,  but  only 
one  surviving  daughter,  Mary,  and  passionately 
enamoured  of  Anne  Boleyn,  had  made  known  to 
Wolsey  in  May,  1527,  that  he  wished  to  be  divorced. 
He  pretended  that  his  conscience  was  uneasy  at  the 
marriage  contracted  under  papal  dispensation  with 
his  brother's  widow.     As  his  first  act  was  to  solicit 


ClBM ENT  VII — SSBABTIANO  DEL  PlOMBO 

(Pinacoteca,  Parma) 


CLEMENT 


26 


CLEMENT 


from  the  Holy  See,  contingently  upon  the  granting  of 
the  divorce,  a  dispensation  from  the  impediment  of 
affinity  in  the  first  degree  (an  impediment  which 
stood  between  him  and  any  legal  marriage  with  Anne 
on  account  of  his  previous  carnal  intercourse  with 
Anne's  sister  Mary),  the  scruple  of  conscience  cannot 
have  been  very  sincere.  Moreover,  as  Queen  Cath- 
erine solemnly  swore  that  the  marriage  between  her- 
self and  Henry's  elder  brother  Arthur  nad  never  been 
consunmiated,  there  had  consequently  never  been  any 
real  affinity  between  her  and  Henry  but  only  the  im- 
pedimentum  jmblicoB  honestoHs.  The  king's  unpar 
tience,  however,  was  such  that,  without  giving  his  lull 
confidence  to  Wolsey,  he  sent  his  envoy.  Knight,  at 
once  to  Rome  to  treat  with  the  pope  about  getting  the 
marriage  annulled.  Knight  found  the  pope  a  pris- 
oner in  Sant'  Angelo  and  could  do  little  until  he  visited 
Gement,  after  his  escape,  at  Orvieto.  Clement  was 
anxious  to  gratify  Henry,  and  he  did  not  make  much 
difficulty  about  the  contingent  dispensation  from 
affinity,  judging,  no  doubt,  that,  as  it  would  only  take 
effect  when  the  marriage  with  Catherine '  was  can- 
celled, it  was  of  no  practical  consequence.  On  being 
pressed,  however,  to  issue  a  commission  to  Wolsey  to 
try  the  divorce  case,  he  made  a  more  determmed 
stand,  and  Cardinal  Pucci,  to  whom  was  submitted 
a  draft  instrument  for  the  purpose,  declared  that 
such  a  document  would  reflect  discredit  upon  all 
concerned.  A  second  mission  to  Rome  organized  by 
Wolsey,  and  consisting  of  Gardiner  and  Foxe,  was  at 
first  not  much  more  successful.  A  commission  was 
indeed  granted  and  taken  back  to  England  by  Foxe, 
but  it  was  safeguarded  in  ways  which  rendered  it  prac- 
tically innocuous.  The  bullying  attitude  which  Gar- 
diner adopted  towards  the  pope  6eems  to  have  passed 
all  limits  of  decency,  but  Wolsey,  fearful  of  losing  the 
royal  favour,  egged  him  on  to  new  exertions  and  im' 
plored him  to  obtain  at  any  cost  a  "decretal  commis- 
sion". This  was  an  instrument  which  decided  the  points 
of  law  beforehand,  secure  from  appeal,  and  left  only  the 
issue  of  fact  to  be  determined  in  England.  Against  this 
Clement  seems  honestly  to  have  striven,  but  he  at  last 
yielded  so  far  as  to  issue  a  secret  commission  to  Caiv 
dinal  Wolsey  and  Cardinal  Campe^io  jointly  to  try 
the  case  in  England.  The  commission  was  to  be 
shown  to  no  one,  and  was  never  to  leave  Campeggio's 
hands.  We  do  not  know  its  exact  terms;  but  if  it  fol- 
lowed the  drafts  prepared  in  England  for  the  purpose, 
it  pronounced  that  the  Bull  of  dispensation  granted 
by  Julius  for  the  marriage  of  Henry  with  his  deceased 
brother's  wife  must  be  declared  obreptitious  and  con- 
sequently void,  if  the  commissioners  found  that  the 
motives  alleged  by  Julius  were  insufficient  and  con- 
trary to  the  facts.  For  example,  it  had  been  pre- 
tenaed  that  the  dispensation  was  necessary  to  cement 
the  friendship  between  England  and  Spain,  also  that 
the  young  Henry  himself  desired  the  marriage,  etc. 

Campeggio  reached  England  by  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber, 15287but  the  proceedings  of  the  legatine  court 
were  at  once  brought  to  a  standstill  by  the  production 
of  a  second  dispensation  granted  by  Pope  Julius  in  the 
form  of  a  Brief.  This  hada  double  importance.  Clem- 
ent's commission  empowered  Wolsey  and  Campeg- 
gio to  pronounce  upon  the  sufficiency  of  the  motives 
allegeci  in  a  certain  specified  document,  viz.  the  Bull; 
but  the  Brief  was  not  contemplated  by,  and  lay  out- 
side, their  commission.  Moreover,  the  Brief  did  not 
limit  the  motives  for  granting  the  dispensation  to  cer- 
tain specified  allegations,  but  spoke  of  ''aliis  causis 
animam  nostram  moventibus".  The  production  of 
the  Brief,  now  commonly  admitted  to  be  quite  authen- 
tic, though  the  king's  party  declared  it  a  forgery,  ar- 
Mtcd  the  oroceedings  of  the  commission  for  eight 
hfl,  and  in  the  end,  under  pressure  from  Charles 
ifhom  his  Aunt  Catherine  had  vehemently  ap- 
**  *  as  well  as  to  the  pope,  the  cause 

lliere  can  ho  no  doubt  that 


Clement  showed  much  weakness  in  the  concessions  he 
had  made  to  the  English  demands;  but  it  must  alao 
be  remembered,  first,  that  in  the  decision  of  this  point 
of  law,  the  technical  grounds  for  treating  the  dispen- 
sation as  obreptitious  were  in  themselves  serious  and, 
secondly,  that  in  committing  the  honour  of  the  Holy 
See  to  Camp^gio's  keeping,  Clement  had  known  that 
he  had  to  ao  with  a  man  of  exceptionally  high  prin- 
ciple. , 

How  far  the  pope  was  influenced  by  Charles  V  in  his 
resistance,  it  is  difficult  to  say;  but  it  is  clear  that  his 
own  sense  of  justice  disposed  him  entirely  in  favour  of 
Queen  Catherine.  Henry  in  consequence  shifted  his 
ground,  and  showed  how  deep  was  the  rift  which 
separated  him  from  the  Holy  See,  by  now  urging  that 
a  marriage  with  a  deceased  husband's  brother  lay 
beyond  the  papal  powers  of  dispensation.  Clement 
retaliated  by  pronouncing  censure  against  those  who 
threatened  to  nave  the  king's  divorce  suit  decided  by 
an  English  tribunal,  and  forbade  Henry  to  proceed  to 
a  new  marriage  before  a  decision  was  given  in  Rome. 
The  king  on  nis  side  (1531)  extorted  a  vast  sum  of 
money  from  the  English  clergy  upon  the  pretext  that 
the  penalties  of  praBmunire  had  been  incurred  by  them 
through  their  recognition  of  the  papal  legate,  and  soon 
afterwards  he  prevailed  upon  rarliament  to  prohibit 
under  certain  conditions  the  payment  of  annates 
(q.  V.)  to  Rome.  Other  developments  followed.  Hie 
death  of  Archbishop  Warham  (22  August,  1532) 
allowed  Henry  to  press  for  the  institution  of  Cranmer 
as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  through  the  inter- 
vention of  the  King  of  France  this  was  conceded,  the 
pallium  being  granted  to  him  by  Clement.  Almost 
immediately  after  his  consecration  Cranmer  proceeded 
to  pronounce  judgment  upon  the  divorce,  while  Henry 
had  previously  contracted  a  secret  marriage  with 
Anne  Boleyn,  which  marriage  Cranmer,  in  May,  1533, 
declared  to  be  valid.  Anne  Boleyn  was  consequently 
crowned  on  Jiine  the  1st.  Meanwhile  the  Commons 
had  forbidden  all  appeals  to  Rome  and  enacted  the 
penalties  of  prsemunire  against  >aU  who  introduced 
papal  Bulls  into  England.  It  was  only  then  that 
Clement  at  last  took  the  step  of  launching  a  sentence 
of  excommunication  against  the  king,  declaring  at  the 
same  time  Cranmer's  pretended  decree  of  divorce  to 
be  invalid  and  the  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn  null 
and  void.  The  papal  nuncio  was  withdrawn  from 
England  and  diplomatic  relations  with  Rome  broken 
off.  Henry  appealed  from  the  pope  to  a  general  coun- 
cil, and  in  January,  1534,  the  Parliament  pressed  on 
further  legislation  abolishing  all  ecclesiastical  depend- 
ence on  Rome.  But  it  was  only  in  March,  1534,  that 
the  papal  tribunal  finally  pronounced  its  verdict  upon 
the  onginal  issue  raised  by  the  king  and  declared  the 
marriage  between  Henry  and  Catherine  to  be  unques- 
tionably valid.  Clement  has  been  much  blamed  for 
this  delay  and  for  his  various  concessions  in  the  mat- 
ter of  the  divorce;  indeed  he  has  been  accused  of  losing 
England  to  the  Catholic  Faith  on  account  of  the  en- 
couragement thus  given  to  Henry,  but  it  is  extremely 
doubtful  whether  a  firmer  attitude  would  have  had  a 
more  beneficial  result.  The  king  was  determined  to 
effect  his  purpose,  and  Clement  had  sufficient  princi- 
ple not  to  yield  the  one  vital  point  upon  which  all 
turned. 

With  regard  to  Germany,  though  Clement  never 
broke  away  from  his  friendship  with  Charles  V, 
which  was  cemented  by  the  coronation  at  Bologna 
in  1530,  he  never  lent  to  the  emperor  that  cordial 
co-operation  which  could  alone  nave  coped  with 
a  situation  the  extreme  difficulty  and  aanger  of 
which  Clement  probably  never  understood.  In  par- 
ticular, the  pope  seems  to  have  had  a  horror  of  the 
idea  of  convoking  a  general  council,  foreseeing,  no 
doubt,  grave  difficulties  with  France  in  any  such  at- 
tempt. Things  were  not  improved  when  Henry, 
through  his  envoy  Bonner,  who  found  Clement  visit- 


CLEMENT 


27 


CLEMENT 


ing  the  French  king  at  Marseilles,  lodged  his  appeal  to 
a  future  general  council  on  the  divorce  question. 

In  the  more  ecclesiastical  aspects  of  his  pontificate 
Clement  was  free  from  reproach.  Two  Franciscan 
reforms,  that  of  the  Capuchins  and  that  of  the  Recol- 
lectsy  foimd  in  him  a  sufficiently  sympathetic  patron. 
He  was  genuinely  in  earnest  over  the  crusade  against 
the  Turks,  and  he  gave  much  encouragement  to  foreign 
missions.  As  a  patron  of  art,  he  was  much  hampered 
by  the  sack  of  Rome  and  the  other  disastrous  events 
of  his  pontificate.  But  he  was  keenly  interested  in 
such  matters,  and  according  to  Benvenuto  Cellini  he 
had  excellent  taste.  By  the  commission  given  to  the 
last-named  artist  for  the  famous  cope-clasp  of  which 
we  hear  so  much  in  the  autobiography,  he  became  the 
founder  of  Benvenuto's  fortunes.  (See  Cellini, 
Benvenuto.)  Clement  also  continued  to  be  the 
patron  of  Raphael  and  of  Michelangelo,  whose  great 
fresco  of  the  Last  Judgment  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  was 
iindertaken  by  his  orders. 

In  their  verdict  upon  the  character  of  Pope  Clement 
VII  almost  all  historians  are  agreed,  ne  was  an 
Italian  prince,  a  de'  Medici,  and  a  diplomat  first,  and 
a  spiritual  ruler  afterwards.  His  intelligence  was  of  a 
hign  order,  though  his  diplomacy  was  feeble  and  irres- 
olute. On  the  other  hand,  his  private  life  was  free 
from  reproach,  and  he  had  many  excellent  impulses, 
but  despite  good  intention,  all  qualities  of  heroism 
and  greatness  must  emphatically  be  denied  him. 

Paotob,  Gesehichie  der  P&pate  (Freiburg.  1907),  IV  pt.  II; 
Fraiken.  Noneiaturet  deCUment  Vll  (Pans,  1906—);  Idem  in 
MSUmqes  de  Vicole  irancaiae  de  Rome  (1906):  Gaisdner,  Tht 
Bngliah  Chtirch  in  the  StxUenth  Century  (London.  1902);  Idbu, 
New  lAohi  on  the  Divorce  of  Henry  VIJI  in  Bngliah  Hietor. 
Rev.  (1896-1897):  E^es,  ROmiache  Dokumente  rur  GeaehidUe 
der  SheacheidungHeinricha  V7// .  (Paderbom.  1893):  Thueoton. 
The  Canon  Law  of  the  Divorce  in  Eng,  Hiator.  Rev.  (Oct.,  1904); 
Am.  Cath.  QuaH.  (April.  1906);  Hemmer  in  Did.  de  thiol,  oath., 
in  which  and  in  Pastor  a  fuller  bibliography  will  be  found. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Cnement  viix.  Pope  (Ippolito  Aldobrandini),  b. 
at  Fano,  March,  1536,  of  a  distinguished  Florentine 
family;  d.  at  Rome,  5  March,  1605.  He  was  elected 
pope  30  January,  1592,  after  a  stormv  conclave 
graphically  described  by  Ranke  (Gescnichte  der 
rOmischen  P^pete,  9th  ed.,  II,  150 
sqq.).  In  his  ^outh  he  made  excel- 
lent progress  m  jurisprudence  under 
the  direction  of  his  father,  an  able 
jurist.  Through  the  stages  of  con- 
sistorial  advocate,  auditor  of  the 
Rota  and  the  Dataiy,  he  was  ad- 
vanced in  1585  to  the  dignity  of 
Cardinal-Priest  of  the  Title  of  St. 
Pancratius  and  was  made  ^rand  peni- 
tentiarv.  He  won  the  fnendstup  of 
the  Hapsburas  by  his  successful 
efforts,  during  a  legation  to  Poland,  to  obtain  the 
release  of  the  imprisoned  Archduke  Maximilian,  the 
defeated  claimant  to  the  Polish  throne.  During  the 
conclave  of  1592  he  was  the  unwilling  candidate  of  the 
compact  minority  of  cardinals  who  were  determined 
to  aeliver  the  Holy  See  from  the  prepotency  of 
Philip  II  of  Spain.  His  election  was  greeted  with 
boundless  enthusiasm  by  the  Italians  and  by  all 
who  knew  his  character.  He  possessed  all  the  quali- 
fications needed  in  the  Vicar  of  Christ.  Blameless  in 
morals  from  childhood,  he  had  at  an  early  period 
placed  himself  under  the  direction  of  St.  Philip  Neri, 
who  for  thirty  years  was  his  confessor.  Upon 
Clement's  elevation  to  the  papacy,  the  aged  saint 
gave  over  this  important  office  to  Baronius,  whom 
the  pope,  notwithstanding  his  reluctance,  created  a 
cardinal,  and  to  whom  he  made  his  confession  every 
evening.  The  fervour  with  which  he  said  his  daily 
Mass  filled  all  present  with  devotion.  His  long  asso- 
cbition  with  the  Apostle  of  Rome  caused  him  to 
imbibe  the  saint's  spirit  so  thoroughly,  that  in  him 


Arhb  op  Clem- 
EWT  VIII 


Pope  Clement  VIII 


St.  Philip  himself  might  be  said  to  have  ascended  the 
papal  chair.  Though  vast  pohtical  problems  clam- 
oured for  solution,  the  pope  first  turned  his  attention 
to  the  more  important  spiritual  interests  of  the  Church. 
He  made  a  personal  visitation  of  all  the  churches 
and  educational  and  charitable  institutions  of  Rome, 
everywhere  eliminating  abuses  and  enforcing  dis- 
cipline. To  him  we  owe  the  institution  of  the  Forty 
Hours'  Devotion  (q.  v.).  He  founded  at  Rome  the 
CoUe^o  Clementino  for  the  education  of  the  sons  of 
the  richer  classes,  and  augmented  the  number  of 
national  colleges 
in  Rome  by  open- 
ing  the  Colleno 
Scozzese  for  the 
training  of  mis- 
sionaries to 
Scotland.  The 
"Bullarium  Ro- 
manum  '*  contains 
many  important 
constitutions  of 
Clement,  notably 
one  denouncing 
duelling  and  one 
providing  for  the 
mviolabiuty  of 
the  States  of  the 
Church.  He  is- 
sued revised  edi- 
tions of  the  Vul- 
fite  (1598),  the 
reviary,  the  Mis- 
sal,al8othe  *  'Csere- 
moniale",  and  the 
"Pontifical^". 

The  complicated  situation  in  France  presented  no 
insuperable  difficulties  to  two  consummate  statesmen 
like  Heniy  of  Navarre  and  Clement  VIII.  It  was 
clear  to  Henry  that,  notwithstanding  his  victories,  he 
could  not  peacefully  retain  the  French  Crown  without 
adopting  the  Catholic  Faith.  He  abjured  Calvinism 
25  July,  1593.  It  was  equally  clear  to  Pope  Clement 
that  it  was  his  duty  to  brave  the  selfish  hostility  of 
Spain  by  acknowledging  the  legitimate  claims  of 
Henry,  as  soon  as  he  had  convinced  himself  that  the 
latter  s  conversion  was  something  more  than  a  polit- 
ical manoeuvre.  In  the  autunm  of  1595  he  solemnly 
absolved  Henry  IV,  thus  putting  an  end  to  the  thirty 
years'  religious  war  in  France  and  winning  a  powerful 
ally  in  his  strugele  to  achieve  the  independence  of 
Italy  and  of  the  Holy  See.  Heniy 's  triendship  was  of 
essential  importance  to  the  pope  two  years  later,  when 
Alfonso  II,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  died  childless  (27  Oct., 
1597),  and  Pope  Clement  resolved  to  bring  the 
stronghold  of  the  Este  dynasty  under  the  immediate 
juriscBction  of  the  Church.  Though  Spain  and  the 
empire  encouraged  Alfonso's  illegitimate  cousin, 
Cesare  d'Este,  to  withstand  the  pope,  they  were 
deterred  from  giving  him  aid  by  Henxy's  threats,  and 
the  papal  army  entered  Ferrara  almost  unopposed. 
In  1598  Pope  Clement  won  still  more  credit  for  the 

Eapacy  by  bringing  about  a  definite  treaty  of  peace 
etween  Spain  and  France  in  the  Treaty  of  Vervins 
and  between  France  and  Savoy.  He  also  lent  valu- 
able assistance  in  men  and  money  to  the  emperor  in 
his  contest  with  the  Turks  in  Hungary.  He  was  as 
merciless  as  Sixtus  V  in  crushing  out  brigandage  and 
in  punishing  the  lawlessness  of  the  Roman  nobihty. 
He  did  not  even  spare  the  youthful  patricide  Beatrice 
Cenci,  over  whom  so  many  tears  have  been  shed. 
(Bertolotti,  Francesco  Cenci  e  la  sua  famiglia,  Flor- 
ence, 1879.)  On  17  Feb.,  1600,  the  apostate  Gior- 
dan© Bruno  (q.  v.)  was  burned  at  the  stake  on  the 
Piazza  dei  Fiori.  The  jubilee  of  1600  was  a  brilliant 
witness  to  the  glories  of  the  renovated  papacy,  three 
million  pilgrims  visiting  the  holy  places.    In  1595 


OUMENT 


28 


OUBIUNT 


was  held  the  Synod  of  Brest,  in  Lithuaniai  by  which  a 
great  part  of  the  Ruthenian  cler^  and  people  were 
reunited  to  Rome  (Likowski,  Union  zu  ^rest,  1904). 
Although  Clement,  in  spite  of  constant  fasting,  was 
tortured  with  gout  in  feet  and  hands,  his  capacity 
for  work  was  unlimited,  and  his  powerful  intellect 
grasped  all  the  needs  of  the  Church  throughout  the 
world.  He  entered  personally  into  the  minutest 
detail  of  every  subject  which  came  before  him,  e.  g^ 
in  the  divorce  between  Henry  IV  and  Margaret  of 
Valois,  yet  more  in  the  great  controversy  on  grace 
between  the  Jesuits  and  the  Dominicans  (see  BaK*£Z, 
Molina).  He  was  present  at  ail  the  sessions  of  ihe 
Congregaiio  de  auxuiis  (q.  v.),  but  wisely  refrained 
from  issuing  a  final  decree  on  the  question.  Clement 
VIII  died  in  his  seventieth  year  after  a  pontificate  of 
thirteen  years.  His  remains  repose  in  Santa  Maria 
Mi^raore,  where  the  Borghesi,  who  succeed  the 
Aldobrandini  in  the  female  line,  erected  a  goigeous 
monument  to  his  memory. 

Vita  Clem.  VIIl  in  Labbe  and  Comart,  CoU.dmc.,  XXI. 
1323:  Wadding,  Vita  Clem.  VIII  (Rome,  1723);  Von  Rankb. 
The  Roman  Papee  in  the  Laat  Four  Centurtea  (1834-37):  Pelesz, 
OeBch.  der  Unum  der  rutfienischen  Kirehe  mii  Rom  (WQrzburg, 
1881);  Rossi,  jW  una  oontroveraia  tra  la  republica  di  Venezia  e 
Clem.  VIII  in  Archivio  Veneta  (1889),  fasc.  74;  Sebby.  HUt, 
conirov.  de  atixHiie  (Antwerp.  1700):  RicNON,  Baiiez  el  Molina 
(Paris,  1883);  db  Montob,  Liwa  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  (New 
York,  1867).  ^ 

Jambs  F.  Loughlin. 

OlementlX,  Pope  (Giulio  Rospigliosi),  b.  28 
January,  1600,  at  Pistoja,  of  an  ancient  family 
originally  from  Lombardy;  elected  20  June,  1667; 
d.  at  Rome,  9  December,  1669.  He  made  a  brilliant 
course  of  studies  at  the  Roman  Seminary,  and  the 
University  of  Pisa,  where  he  received 
>.v4..:;^^ra  the  doctorate  in  his  twenty-third  year 
i:.W^^^^B  and  was  made  professor  of  philosophy. 
r.'Avj:*?^^^  His  talents  and  virtuous  hfe  brougnt 
him  rapid  promotion  in  the  Roman 
Court  at  a  period  when  Tuscan  influ- 
ence under  Tuscan  pontiffs  was  every- 
where predominant.  He  enjoyed  the 
special  favour  of  Urban  VI II,  like 
Clembnt^^X  ^°^6lf  ^^^^  o^  literature  and  pfoetry, 
and  was  made  titular  Archbishop  of 
Tarsus  and  sent  as  nuncio  to  the  Spanish  Court.  He 
lived  in  retirement  during  the  pontificate  of  Innocent 
X,  who  disliked  the  Barberim  and  their  adherents, 
but  was  recalled  to  office  by  Alexander  VII  and  by 
him  appointed  secretary  of  state  and  Cardinal-Priest 
of  the  Title  of  San  Sisto  (1667).  Ten  years  later,  one 
month  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  Cardinal  Ros- 
pigliosi was  elected  to  the  papacy  by  the  unanimous 
vote  of  the  Sacred  College.  He  was  the  idol  of  the 
Romans,  not  so  much  for  his  erudition  and  applica- 
tion to  business,  as  for  his  extreme  charity  and  his 
affability  towards  great  and  small.  He  increased 
the  goodwill  of  his  subjects  by  buying  off  the  mon- 
opolist who  had  secured  the  macincUOy  or  privilege  of 
selling  grain,  and  as  his  predecessor  had  collected 
the  money  for  the  purpose,  Clement  had  the  decree 
published  in  the  name  of  Alexander  VII.  Two  days 
each  week  he  occupied  a  confessional  in  St.  Peter's 
church  and  heard  any  one  who  wished  to  confess  to 
him.  He  frequently  visited  the  hospitals,  and  was 
lavish  in  his  alms  to  the  poor.  In  an  age  of  nepotism, 
he  did  little  or  nothing  to  advance  or  enrich  his  fam- 
ily. In  his  aversion  to  notoriety,  he  refused  to  permit 
his  name  to  be  placed  on  the  buildings  erected  during 
his  reign.  On  15  April,  1668,  he  declared  blessed. 
Rose  of  Lima,  the  first  American  saint.  On  28  April, 
1669,  he  solemnly  canonized  S.  Maria  Maddalena  dei 
Pazzi  and  St.  Peter  of  Alcantara.  He  reorganized 
the  Church  in  Portugal,  after  that  nation  had  achieved 
its  independence  from  Spain.  By  a  mild  compromise 
in  the  affair  of  French  Jansenism,  known  as  the  Clem- 
entine Peace  [Pax  Clementina),  he  procured  a  lull  in 


Cl.BME!fT   IX — GaVULU    (BaOCIOCSO) 

(Academy  of  S^n  Luca,  Rome) 


the  storm,  which,  unfortunatelv,  owing  to  the  in* 
sincerity  of  the  sectaries,  was  but  temporary.  He 
brought  about,  as  arbiter,  the  Peace  of  Alx-la- 
Chapelle  between  France  and  Spain,  and  gravely 
admonished  Louis  XIV  against  the  aggressive  career 
upon  which  he 
was  setting  forth. 
By  strict  economy 
he  brought  the 
papal  finances  in- 
to good  order,  and 
was  able  to  fur- 
nish material  aid 
to  Venice  for  the 
defence  of  Crete, 
then  besieged  by 
the  Turks.  Had 
the  European 
powers  listened  to 
his  exhortations, 
that  important 
island  would  not 
have  been  lost  to 
Christendom.  The 
news  of  its  fall, 
after  a  gallant  re- 
sistance of  twenty 
years,  hastened 
the  pope's  death.  . 
He  aied  after  a  pontificate  of  two  years,  five  months, 
and  nineteen  days.  He  ordered  his  remains  to  be 
buried  under  the  pavement  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore, 
with  the  simple  inscription  Clemeniis  IXfCinere^f  but 
his  successor,  Clement  X,  erected  in  his  honour  the 
sumptuous  monument  which  stands  at  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  nave  near  the  door.  The  death  ofthe 
beloved  pontiff  was  long  lamented  by  the  Romans, 
who  considered  him,  if  not  the  greatest,  at  least  the 
most  amiable  of  the  popes. 

Fabboni,  Vita  Clem.  X,  in  Vita  Italorum  doetrind  exodlenMium, 
II,  1;  DE  MoNTOR,  Lives  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  (New  York, 
1867),  II;  OfeBiN,  Louis  XIV  et  Clhnent  IX  dans  V affaire  dM 
deux  manages  de  Marie  de  Savoie  (1666-68)  in  Rev.  des  queslt, 
hist,  (1880). 

James  F.  Lotiohlin. 

Olexuent  X,  Pope  (Emilio  Altieri),  b.  at  Romei 
13  July,  1590;  elected  29  April,  1670,  and  d.  at  Rome, 
22  July,  1676.  Unable  to  secure  the  election  of  any 
of  the  prominent  candidates,  the  cardinals  finally, 
after  a  conclave  of  four  months  and  twenty  dayB> 
resorted  to  the  old  expedient  of  elect- 
ing a  cardinal  of  advanced  years;  they 
united  upon  Cardinal  Altieri,  an  octo- 
genarian, whose  long  life  had  been 
spent  in  the  service  of  the  Church,  and 
whom  Clement  IX,  on  the  eve  of  his 
death,  had  raised  to  the  dignity  of  the 
purple.  The  reason  a  prelate  of  such 
transcendent  merits  received  the  cardi- 
nalate  so  late  in  life  seems  to  have  been 
that  he  had  waived  his  claims  to  the 
elevation  in  favour  of  an  older  brother.  He  protested 
vigorously  against  this  use  of  the  papal  robes  as  a 
funeral  shroud,  but  at  length  was  persuaded  to  ai^cept, 
and  out  of  gratitude  to  his  benefactor,  by  ten  years 
his  junior,  assumed  the  name  of  Clement  X.  The 
Altieri  belonged  to  the  ancient  Roman  nobility,  and 
since  all  but  one  of  the  male  scions  had  chosen  the 
ecclesiastical  career,  the  pope,  in  order  to  save  the 
name  from  extinction,  adopted  the  Paoluzzi,  one  of 
whom  was  married  to  Laura  Caterina  Altieri,  the  sole 
heiress  of  the  family. 

During  previous  pontificates  the  new  pope  had  held 
im^)ortant  offices  and  had  been  entrusted  with  deli- 
cate missions.  Urban  VIII  gave  him  charge  of  the 
works  designed  to  protect  the  territory  of  Ravenna 
from  the  unruly  Po.     Innocent  X  appointed  him 


KgJ 


or 

CuniBHT  X 


OLKMKMT 


2fl 


OLSMtMT 


PoPK  Clkment  X 


nuncio  to  Naples:  and  he  is  credit ofl  with  no  slight 
share  in  the  re-establishment  of  i^eace  after  the  stormy 
days  of  Masaniello.  Under  Alexander  VII  he  was 
made  secretary  of  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars.  Clement  IX  named  nim  superintendent  of 
the  papal  exchequer.  On  his  accession  to  the  pa- 
pacv,  he  gave  to  nis  new  kinsman,  Cardinal  Paoluzzi- 
Allien,  the  uncle  of  Laura's  husband,  the  office  of 
cardinal  nephew,  and  with  advancing  years  graxiuallv 
entrusted  to  him  the  management  of  affairs,  to  such 

an  extent  that  the 
biting  Romans 
said  he  had  re- 
served to  himself 
only  the  episcopal 
functions  of  6ene- 
dicere  et  sancti- 
ficare,  resigning  in 
favour  of  the  cai^ 
dinal  the  admini- 
strative duties  of 
Tegere  et  guber- 
nare.  Neverthe- 
less, the  "Buliar- 
ium  Romanum" 
contains  many 
evidences  of  his 
religious  activity, 
among  which  may 
be  mentioned  the 
canonization  of 
Sts.  Cajetan, 
Philip  Benitius, 
Francis  Borgia,  Louis  Bertrand,  and  Rose  of  .Lima; 
also  the  beatification  of  Pope  Pius  V,  John  of  the 
Cross,  and  the  Martyrs  of  Gorcum  in  Holland. 
He  laboured  to  preserve  the  peace  of  Europe,  menaced 
by  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV,  and  began  with  that 
imperious  monarch  the  long  struggle  concerning  the 
rigcde,  or  revenues  of  vacant  dioceses  and  abbeys. 
He  supported  the  Poles  with  strong  financial  aid 
in  their  hard  struggle  with  their  Turkish  invaders. 
He  decorated  the  bridge  of  Sant'  Angelo  with  the  ten 
statues  of  angels  in  Carrara  marble  still  to  be  seen 
there.  To  Clement  we  owe  the  two  beautiful  foun- 
tains which  adorn  the  Piazza  of  St.  Peter's.  At  a 
cost  of  300,000  scudi  (dollars)  he  erected  the  exten- 
sive Palazzo  Altieri.  His  remains  lie  in  St.  Peter's 
church  near  the  tribune,  where  a  monument  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory. 

Awsio,  Memorie  auUa  vita  di  Clemente  X  (Rome,  1863); 
Von  Reumont,  Geseh.  d.  Stadi  Rom  (Berlin,  1867),  III,  ii, 
635-36;  Csrbotz,  Bibliograiia  Romana  (Rome,  1803).  226,  563; 
NoVAES.  BlemerUi  deUa  storia  de*  romani  porUefici  da  S.  Pietro 
fino  a  Put  VI  (Rome,  1821-25);  de  Montor,  Hietcry  of  the 
Rixman  PonHffa  (New  Vork.  1867),  II. 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Clement  ZI,  Pops  (Giovanni  Francesco  Al- 
B ANi) :  b.  at  Urbino,  23  July,  1649 ;  elected  23  Novem- 
ber, 1700;  d.  at  Rome  19  March,  1721.  The  Albani 
(q.  V.)  were  a  noble  Umbrian  family.  Under  Urban 
VlII  the  grandfather  of  the  future  pope  had  held  for 
thirteen  years  the  honourable  office 
of  Senator  of  Rome,  An  uncle,  Anni- 
bale  Albani,  was  a  distinguished  scholar 
and  was  Prefect  of  the  Vatican  Li- 
brary. Giovanni  Francesco  was  sent 
to  Rome  in  his  eleventh  year  to  prose- 
cute his  studies  at  the  Roman  College. 
He  made  rapid  progress  and  was  known 
as  an  author  at  me  age  of  eighteen, 
translating  from  the  Greek  into  elegant 
Latin.  He  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  patroness  of  Roman  literati,  Queen  Christina  of 
Sweden,  whc  before  he  became  of  age  enrolled  him  in 
her  exclusive  A  ccademia.  With  equal  ardour  and  suc- 
cess he  applied  himself  to  the  profounder  branches, 


Amis  OP 

Clbvent  XI 


theology  and  law,  and  was  created  doctor  of  canon 
and  civil  law.  So  brilliant  an  intellect,  joined  with 
stainless  morals  and  piety,  secured  for  him  a  rapid 
advancement  at  the  papal  court.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-eieht  he  was  xnade  a  prelate,  and  governed 
successively  Rieti,  Sabina,  ana  Orvieto,  everywhere 
acceptable  on  account  of  his  reputation  for  justice  and 
pruaence.  Recalled  to  Rome,  he  was  appointed 
Vicar  of  St.  Peter's,  and  on  the  death  of  Cardinal 
Slusio  succeeded  to  the  important  position  of  Secre- 
tary of  Papal  Briefs,  which  ne  held  for  thirteen  years, 
and  for  which  his  command  of  classical  latinity  singu- 
larly fitted  him.  On  13  February,  1690,  he  was  cre- 
ated cardinal-deacon  and  later  Cardinal-Priest  of 
the  Title  of  San  Silvestro,  and  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood. 

The  conclave  of  1700  would  have  terminated  speed- 
ily with  the  election  of  Cardinal  Marisootti,  had  not 
the  veto  of  France  rendered  the  choice  of  that  able 
cardinal  impossible.  After  deliberating  for  forty-six 
davs,  the  Sacred  College  united  in  selecting  Cardinal 
Albani,  whose  virtues  and  ability  overbalanced  the 
objection  that  he  was  only  fifty-one  years  old.  Three 
days  were  spent  in  the  effort  to  overcome  his  reluc- 
tance to  accept  a  dignity  the  heavy  burden  of  which 
none  knew  better  than  the  experienced  curialist  (Gal- 
land  in  Hist.  Jahrbuch,  1882,  III,  208  sqq.).  The 
period  was  critical  for  Europe  and  the  papacy.  Dur- 
mg  the  conclave  Charles  II,  the  last  of  the  Spanish 
Hapsbuigs,  had  died  childless,  leaving  his  vast  domin- 
ions a  prey  to  French  and  Austrian  ambition.  His 
will,  making  Philip  of  Anion,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV, 
sole  heir  to  the  Spanish  Empire,  was  contested  by  the 
Emperor  Leopold,  who  claimed  Spain  for  his  second 
son  Charles.  The  late  king,  before  making  this  will, 
had  consulted  Pope  Innocent  XII,  and  Cardinal  Al- 
bani had  been  one  of  the  three  cardinals  to  whom  the 
pontiff  had  entrusted  the  case  and  who  advised  him  to 
pronounce  secretly  in  its  favour.  This  was  at  tne 
time  unknown  to  the  emperor,  else  Austria  would 
have  vetoed  the  election  of  Albani.  The  latter  was 
finally  persuaded  that  it  was  his  duty  to  obey  the  call 
from  Heaven;  on  30  November  he  was  consecrated 
bishop,  and  on  8  December  solemnly  enthroned  in  the 
Vatican.  The  enthusiasm  with  which  his  elevation 
was  greeted  throughout  the  world  is  the  best  evidence 
of  his  worth.  Even  Protestants  received  the  intelli- 
gence with  joy  and  the  city  of  Nuremberg  struck  a 
medal  in  his  honour.  The  sincere  Catholic  reformers 
greeted  his  accession  as  the  death-knell  of  nepotism; 
for,  though  he  had  many  relatives,  it  was  known  that 
he  had  instigated  and  written  the  severe  condemna^ 
tion  of  that  abuse  issued  by  his  predecessor.  As  pon- 
tiff, he  did  not  belie  his  principles.  He  bestowed  the 
offices  of  his  court  upon  the  most  worthy  subjects  and 
ordered  his  brother  to  keep  at  a  distance  and  refrain 
from  adopting  any  new  title  or  interfering  in  matters 
of  state.  In  the  government  of  the  States  of  the 
Church,  Clement  was  a  capable  administrator.  He 
provided  diligently  for  the  needs  of  his  subjects,  was 
extremely  charitable  to  the  poor,  bettered  the  condi- 
tion of  the  prisons,  and  secured  food  for  the  populace 
in  time  of  scarcity.  He  won  the  good  will  of  artists 
by  prohibiting  tne  exportation  of  ancient  master- 
pieces, and  of  scientists  by  commissioning  Bianchini 
to  lay  down  on  the  pavement  of  Sta  Maria  degli  An- 
gioli  the  meridian  of  Rome,  known  as  the  Clementina. 

His  capacity  for  woric  was  prodigious.  He  slept 
but  little  and  ate  so  sparingly  that  a  few  pence  per  day 
sufficed  for  his  table.  Every  day  he  confessed  and 
celebrated  Mass.  He  entered  minutely  into  the  de- 
tails of  every  measure  which  came  before  him,  and 
with  his  own  hand  prepared  the  numerous  allocutions. 
Briefs,  and  constitutions  afterwards  collected  and  pub- 
lished. He  also  found  time  to  preach  his  beautiful 
homilies  and  was  frequently  to  be  seen  in  the  confes- 
sional.    Though  his  powerful  frame  more  than  once 


OLEMENT 


30 


OLXHSMT 


sank  under  the  weight  of  his  labours  and  cares,  he  con- 
tinued to  keep  rigorously  the  fasts  of  the  Church,  and 
generally  allowed  himself  but  the  shortest  possible 
respite  from  his  labours. 

In  his  efforts  to  establish  peace  among  the  Powers  of 
Europe  and  to  uphold  the  rights  of  the  Church,  he  met 
with  scant  success;  for  the  eighteenth  century  was 
eminently  the  age  of  selfishness  and  infidelity.  One 
of  his  fiist  pubUc  acts  was  to  protest  against  the  as- 
sumption (1701)  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  of  the 
title  of  King  of  Prussia.  The  pope's  action,  though 
often  derided  and  misinterpretea,  was  natural  enough, 
not  only  because  the  bestowal  of  royal  titles  had  al- 
ways been  regarded  as  the  privilege  of  the  Holy  See, 
but  also  because  Prussia  belong^  by  ancient  right  to 
the  ecclesiastico-military  institute  known  as  the  Teu- 
tonic Order.  In  the  troubles  excited  by  the  rivalry  of 
France  and  the  Empire  for  the  Spanish  succession, 
Pope  Clement  resolved  to  maintain  a  neutral  attitude; 
but  this  was  found  to  be  impossible.  When,  there- 
fore, the  Bourbon  was  crowned  in  Madrid  as  Philip  V, 
amid  the  universal  acclamations  of  the  Spaniards,  the 
pope  acquiesced  and  acknowledged  the  validity  of  his 
title.  This  embittered  the  morose  Emperor  Leopold, 
and  the  relations  between  Austria  ancl  the  Holy  See 
became  so  strained  that  the  pope  did  not  conceal  his 
satisfaction  when  the  French  and  Bavarian  troops  be- 
gan that  march  on  Vienna  which  ended  so  disas- 
trously on  the  field  of  Blenheim.  Marlboroi^h's  vic- 
tory, followed  by  Prince  Eugene's  successful  cam- 
paign in  Piedmont,  placed  Itahr  at  the  merey  of  the 
Austrians.  Leopold  died  in  1705  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  oldest  son  Joseph  I.  a  worthy  precursor  of 
Joseph  II.  A  contest  immeaiately  began  on  the  ques- 
tion known  as  Jus  primarum  precunif  involving  the 

lit  of  the  crown  to  appoint  to  vacant  benefices. 


le  victorious  Austrians,  now  masters  of  Northern 

Italy,  invaded  the  Papal  States,  took  possession  of 
Piacenza  and  Parma,  annexed  Comacchio  and  be- 
sieged Ferrara.  Clement  at  first  offered  a  spirited 
resistance,  but,  abandoned  by  aU,  could  not  hope  for 
success,  and  when  a  strong  detachment  of  Protestant 
troops  under  the  command  of  the  Prince  of  Hesse- 
Cassel  reached  Bologna,  fearing  a  repetition  of  the 
fearful  scenes  of  1527,  he  finally  gave  way  (15  Jan., 
1709),  acknowledged  the  Archduke  Charies  as  King  of 
Spain  ''without  detriment  to  the  rights  of  another", 
and  promised  him  the  investiture  of  Naples.  Thoueh 
the  Bourbon  monarohs  had  done  nothing  to  aid  the 
pope  in  his  unequal  struggle,  both  Louis  and  Philip 
became  very  indignant  and  retaliated  by  every  means 
in  their  power  (see  Louis  XIV).  In  the  negotiations 
preceding  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1713)  the  rijghts  of  the 
pope  were  studiously  neglected;  his  nuncio  was  not 
accorded  a  hearing;  his  aominions  were  parcelled  out 
to  suit  the  convenience  of  either  party.  Sicily  was 
ffiven  to  Victor  Amadeus  II  of  Savoy,  with  whom 
from  the  first  days  of  his  pontificate  Clement  was  in- 
volved in  quarrels  on  the  subjects  of  ecclesiastical  im- 
munities and  appointments  to  vacant  benefices.  The 
new  king  now  undertook  to  revive  the  so-called  Mon- 
archia  Siada,  an  ancient  but  much-disputed  and 
abused  privilege  of  pontifical  origin  which  practically 
excluded  the  pope  from  any  authority  over  the  Churcn 
in  Sicily.  When  Clement  answered  with  bann  and 
interdict,  all  the  clergy,  about  3000  in  number,  who 
remained  loyal  to  the  Holy  See  were  banished  the 
island,  and  the  pope  was  forced  to  give  them  food  and 
shelter.  The  interdict  was  not  raised  till  1718,  when 
Spain  r^ained  possession,  but  the  old  controversy 
was  repeatedly  resumed  under  the  Bourbons.  Through 
the  machinations  of  Cardinal  Alberoni,  Parma  and 
Piacenza  were  granted  to  a  Spanish  Infante  without 
regard  to  the  papal  overlordship.  It  was  some  con- 
solation to  the  much-tried  pope  that  Awistus  of  Sax- 
ony, King  of  Poland,  returned  to  the  Church.  Clem- 
ent laboured  hard  to  restore  harmony  in  Poland,  but 


without  success.  The  Turks  had  taken  advantage  of 
the  dissensions  among  the  Christians  to  invade  Eu- 
rope by  land  and  sea.  Clement  proclaimed  a  jubilee, 
sent  money  and  ships  to  the  assistance  of  the  Vene- 
tians, and  granted  a  tithe  on  all  benefices  to  the  Em- 
peror Chanes  VI.  When  Prince  Eugene  won  the 
neat  battle  of  Temesv^r,  which  put  an  end  to  the 
Turkish  danger,  no  slight  share  of  tne  credit  was  given 
by  the  Christian  world  to  the  pope  and  the  Holy  Ros- 
ajy.  Clement  sent  the  great  commander  a  blessed 
hat  and  sword.  The  fleet  which  Philip  V  of  Spain  had 
raised  at  the  instigation  of  the  pope,  and  wi^  sub- 
sidies levied  on  cnurch  revenues,  was  diverted  by 
Alberoni  to  the  conquest  of  Sardinia;  and  though 
Clement  showed  his  indignation  by  demanding  the 
dismissal  of  the  minister,  and  beginning  a  process 
against  him,  he  had  much  to  do  to  convince  tne  em- 
peror that  he  was  not  privy  to  the  treacherous  trans- 
action. He  gave  a  senerous  hospitality  to  the  exiled 
son  of  James  II  of  England,  James  Edward  Stuart, 
and  helped  him  to  obtain,  the  hand  of  Clementina, 
John  Sooieski's  accomplished  granddaughter,  mother 
of  Charles  Edward. 

Clement's  pastoral  vigilance  was  felt  in  every  comer 
of  the  earth.  He  organized  the  Church  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  and  sent  missionaries  to  every  distant 
spot.  He  erected  Lisbon  into  a  patriarchate,  7  De- 
cember, 1716.  He  enriched  the  Vatican  Library  with 
the  manuscript  treasures  gathered  at  the  expense  of 
the  pope  by  Joseph  Simeon  Assemani  in  his  researches 
througnout  Egypt  and  Syria.  In  the  unfortunate 
controversy  between  the  Dominican  and  the  Jesuit 
missionaries  in  China  concerning  the  permissibility  of 
certain  rites  and  customs,  Clement  decided  in  favour 
of  the  former.  When  the  Jansenists  provoked  a  new 
collision  with  the  Church  under  the  leadership  of 
Quesnel,  Pope  Clement  issued  his  two  memorable 
Constitutions,  "  Vineam  Domini",  16  July,  1705,  and 
"Unigenitus",  10  September,  1713  (see  Unigenitus; 
Vineam  Domini;  Jansenism).  Clement  XI  made 
the  feast  of  the  Conception  of  the  B. V.  M.  a  Holy  Day 
of  obligation,  and  canonized  Pius  V,  Andrew  of  Avel- 
lino,  Felix  of  Cantalice,  and  Catherine  of  Bologna. 

Ttus  great  and  saintly  pontiff  died  appropriately  on 
the  feast  of  St.  Joseph,  for  whom  he  entertained  a 
particular  devotion,  and  in  whose  honour  he  com- 
posed the  special  Office  found  in  the  Breviary.  His 
remains  rest  in  St.  Peter's.  His  official  acts,  letters, 
and  Briefs,  also  his  homilies,  were  collected  and  pub- 
lished by  his  nephew,  Cardinal  Annibale  Albani  (2 
vols.,  Rome,  1722-24). 

PoLXDORi,  De  vitd  et  rebus  oettis  Clemenfi»  XI  Hbri  sex 
(Urbino,  1724),  also  in  Fassini,  Supplemenio  to  Nataus  Alex- 
ander. Hi»Urria  Eccleai<ut%ca  (Basaano,  1778);  Reboulbt. 
Hutoire  de  CUmetU  XI  (Avignon.  1752;)  Lafiteau,  Vie  de 
Clhnent  XI  (Padua,  1752);  Buder  (non-Calholic).  L«6en  vnd 
Thaten  dea  kluoen  und  berlihmlen  Papatet  Cletnentie  X I.  (Frank- 
fort, 1721);  Nov  ABB,  BlemerUi  ddla  ttoria  de'  eommi  jwnlefici 
da  S.  Pietro  fino  a  Pio  VI  (Rome,  1821-26);  Landau, 
Rom,  Wieih  Neapet  tolthrend  dea  apaniachen  Erbfolgekriegea 
(Leipzig.  1885);  HeRqenr5ther-Kirsch,  Kirehenoesehtchte 
(4ih  ed..  Freiburg,  1907),  III.  See  abo,  on  the  Albani.  Vis- 
OONTI  in  Pamiglte  di  R<ma  (I),  and  Von  Reumont  id  SeHr^oe 
zur  Ual,  OeadiiaUe,  V,323  sqq.,and  Oeach.  d.  Stadi  Rom  (Berlin, 
1867).  Ill,  u,  642  sqq.  Cf.  Artattd  de  Montor,  Hiatory  of  the 
Roman  PonUffa  (New  York.  1867).  II.         _    ^ 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Olement  ZHi  Pope  (Lorenzo  Corsini),  b.  at  Flor- 
ence, 7  April,  1652;  elected  12  July,  1730;  d.  at  Rome 
6  February,  1740.  The  pontificate  of  the  saintly 
Orsini  pope,  Benedict  Xlll,  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  spintual  interests  of  the  Church,  had  left  nothing 
to  be  desired.  He  had,  however,  given  over  tem- 
poral concerns  into  the  hands  of  rapacious  ministers; 
hence  the  finances  of  the  Holy  See  were  in  bad  condi- 
tion; there  was  an  increasing  deficit,  and  the  papal 
subjects  were  in  a  state  of  exasperation.  It  was  no 
easy  task  to  select  a  man  who  possessed  all  the  quali- 
ties demanded  by  the  emergency.  After  deliberating 
for  four  months,  the  Sacred  College  united  on  Cardinal 


OLXMSNT 


31 


OLSMSNT 


S>^ 


Corslni,  the  best  possible  choice,  were  it  not  for  his 
seventy-eight  years  and  his  failing  eyesight.  , 

A  Corsini  by  the  father's  side  and  by  the  mother's 
a  Strozzi,  the  best  blood  of  Florence  coursed  throu^ 
his  veins.  Innumerable  were  the  members  of  his 
house  who  had  risen  to  high  positions 
in  Church  and  State,  but  its  chief 
ornament  was  St.  Andrew  Corsini,  the 
canonized  Bishop  of  Fiesole.  Lorenzo 
made  a  brilliant  course  of  studies,  first 
in  the  Roman  College,  then  at  the 
University  of  Pisa,  where,  after  five 
years,  he  received  the  de^ee  of  Doctor 
of  Laws.  Returning  to  Rome,  he  ap- 
TL^KiJr^xii  P^^  himself  to  the  practice  of  law 
under  the  able  direction  of  his  uncle, 
Cardinal  Neri  Corsini,  a  man  of  the  highest  culture. 
After  the  death  of  his  uncle  and  his  father,  in  1685,  Lor- 
enzo, now  thirty-three  vears  old,  resigned  his  right  of 
primogeniture  and  entered  the  ecclesiastical  state. 
From  Innocent  XI  he  purchased,  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  time,  for  30,000  scudi  (dollars)  a  position  of 
prelatial  rank,  and  devoted  his  wealth  and  leisure  to 
the  enlargement  of  the  library  bequeathed  to  him  by 
his  uncle.  In  1691  he  was  made  titular  Archbishop 
of  Nicomedia  and  chosen  nuncio  to  Vienna.  He  did 
not  proceed  to  the  imperial  court,  because  Leopold 
advanced  the  novel  claim,  which  Pope  Alexander 
Vni  refused  to  admit,  of  selecting  a  nuncio  from  a 
list  of  three  names  to  be  furnished  by  the  pope.  In 
1696  Corsini  was  appointed  to  the  arduous  office  of 
treasurer-general  ana  governor  of  Castle  Sant'  Angelo. 
His  good  fortune  increased  during  the  pontificate  of 
Clement  XI,  who  employed  his  talents  in  afitairs  de- 
manding tact  and  prudence.  On  17  Mav,  1706,  he 
was  created  Cardinal-Deacon  of  the  Title  of  Santa 
Susanna,  retaining  the  office  of  papal  treasurer.  He 
was  attached  to  several  of  the  most  important  con- 
gregations and  was  made  protector  of  a  score  of  re- 
ligious institutions.  He  aavxmced  stiU  further  under 
Benedict  XIII,  who  assigned  him  to  the  Congregation 
of  the  Holy  Office  and  made  him  prefect  of  the  judicial 
tribunal  known  aa  the  Se^atura  di  Giustizia.  He 
was  successively  Cardinal-Priest  of  S.  Pietro  in  Yin- 
coli  and  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Frascati. 

He  had  thus  held  with  universal  applause  all  the 
important  offices  of  the  Roman  Court,  and  it  is  not 
surprising  that  his  elevation  to  the  papacy  filled  the 
Romans  with  joy.  In  token  of  gratitude  to  his  bene- 
factor, Clement  XI,  and  as  a  pledge  that  he  would 
make  that  great  pontiff  his  model,  he  assumed  the 
title  of  Clement  XII.  Unfortimately  he  lacked  the 
important  qualities  of  youth  and  physical  strength. 
The  infirmities  of  old  age  bore  heavily  upon  him.  In 
the  second  year  of  his  pontificate  he  became  totally 
blind;  in  his  later  years  he  was  compelled  to  keep  his 
bed,  from  which  he  gave  audiences  and  transacted 
afTairs  of  state.  Notwithstanding  his  physical  de- 
crepitude, he  displayed  a  wonderful  activity.  He 
demanded  restitution  of  ill-gotten  goods  from  the 
ministers  who  had  abused  the  confidence  of  his  pred- 
ecessor. The  chief  culprit.  Cardinal  Coscia,  was 
mulcted  in  a  heavy  sum  and  sentenced  to  ten  years* 
imprisonment.  Clement  surrounded  himself  with 
capable  officials,  and  won  the  affection  of  his  subjects 
by.  lightening  their  burdens,  encouraging  manufacture 
and  Se  arts,  and  infusing  a  modem  spirit  into  the  laws 
relating  to  commerce.  The  public  lottery,  which  had 
been  suppressed  by  the  severe  morality  of  Benedict 
XIII,  was  revivecl  by  Clement,  and  poured  into  his 
treasury  an  annual  siun  amounting  to  nearly  a  half 
million  of  ncudi  (dollars),  enabling  nim  to  undertake 
the  extensive  buildings  which  distinguish  his  reign. 
He  bc^an  the  majestic  facade  of  St.  John  Lateran  and 
built  m  that  basilica  the  magnificent  chapel  of  St. 
Andrew  Corsini.  He  restored  the  Arch  of  Constantine 
and  built  the  governmental  palace  of  the  Confiulta  on 


the  quirinal.  He  purchased  from  Cardinal  Albani  for 
60,000  scudi  the  fine  collection  of  statues,  inscriptions, 
etc.  with  which  he  adorned  the  gallery  of  the  (JiE4)itol. 
He  paved  the  streets  of  Rome  and  the  roads  leading 
from  the  city,  and  widened  the  Corso.  He  began  the 
great  Fontaina  di  Trevi,  one  of  the  noted  ornaments 
of  Rome. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  reunion  of  the  Greeks, 
Clement  XII  founded  at  Ullano,  in  Calabria,  the 
Corsini  College  for  Greek  students.  With  a  similar 
intent  he  called  to  Rome  Greek-Melchite  monks  of 
Mt.  Lebanon,  and  assigned  to  them  the  ancient  church 
of  Santa  Maria  in  Domnica.  He  dispatched  Joseph 
Simeon  Assemani  to  the  East  for  the  twofold  purpose 
of  continuing  his  search  for  manuscripts  and  presiding 
as  legate  over  a  national  council  of  the  Maronites. 
We  make  no  attempt  to  enumerate^  all  the  operations 
which  this  wonderful  blind-stricken  old  man  directed 

from   his  bed   of    

sickness.  His 
name  is  associated 
in  Rome  with  the 
foundation  and 
embellishment  of 
institutions  of  all 
sorts.  The  people 
of  Ancona  hold 
him  in  well-de- 
served veneration 
and  have  erected 
on  the  public 
s(^uare  a  statue  in 
his  honour.  Ho 
gave  them  a  port 
which  excited  the 
envy  of  Venice, 
and  built  a  high- 
way that  gave 
them  easy  access 
to  the  interior. 
He  drained  the 
marshes  of  the 
Chiana  near  Lake 
Trasimeno    by 


MONUMVNT  OF  ClEMKNT  XII 

(St.  John  Lateran,  Rome) 


leading  the  waters  through  a  ditch  fourteen  miles 
long  into  the  Tiber.  He  disavowed  the  arbitrary 
action  of  his  l^ate.  Cardinal  Alberonl,  in  seizing 
San  Marino,  and  restored  the  independence  of  that 
miniature  republic.  His  activity  in  the  spiritual 
concerns  of  tiie  Church  was  equally  pronounced.  His 
efforts  were  directed  towarcfs  raising  the  prevalent 
low  tone  of  morality  and  securing  discipline,  espe- 
cially in  the  cloisters.  He  issued  the  first  papal  decree 
against  the  Freemasons  (1738).  He  fostered  the  new 
Congregation  of  the  Passionists  and  gave  to  his  fellow- 
Tuscan,  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross,  the  church  and  monas- 
tery of  Sts.  John  and  Paul,  with  the  beautiful  garden 
overlooking  the  Colosseum.  He  canonized  Sts.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul,  John  Francis  Regis,  Catherine  Fieschi 
Adomi,  Juliana  Falconieri,  and  approved  the  cult  of 
St.  Gertrude.  He  proceeded  with  vigour  against  the 
French  Jansenists  and  had  the  happiness  to  receive 
the  submission  of  the  Maurists  to  the  Constitution 
''Unigenitus*'.  Through  the  efforts  of  his  mission- 
aries in  Egypt  10,000  Copts,  with  their  patriarch,  re- 
turned to  the  unity  of  the  Church.  Clement  per- 
suaded the  Armenian  patriarch  to  remove  from  the 
diptychs  the  anathema  against  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  and  St.  Leo  I.  In  his  dealings  with  the  powers 
of  Europe,  he  managed  by  a  union  of  firmness  and 
moderation  to  preserve  or  restore  harmony;  but  he 
was  unable  to  maintain  the  rights  of  the  Holy  See 
over  the  Duchies  of  Parma  and  Piacenza.  It  was  a 
consequence  of  his  blindness  that  he  should  surround 
himself  with  trusted  relatives;  but  he  advanced  them 
only  as  they  proved  their  worth,  and  did  little  for  his 
family  except  to  purchase  and  enlarge  the  palace  built 


OLEMSKT 


32 


OLSMENT 


in  Trastevere  for  tho  Riarii,  and  now  known  as  the 
Palazzo  Corsini  (purchased  in  1884  by  the  Italian 
Government,  and  now  the  seat  of  the  Regia  Accademia 
del  Lincei).  In- 1754,  his  nephew,  Cardinal  Neri  Cor- 
sini, founded  there  the  famous  Corsini  Library,  which 
in  1905  included  about  70,000  books  and  pamphlets, 
2288  incunabula  or  works  printed  in  the  first  fifty 
or  sixty  years  after  the  discovery  of  printing,  2511 
manuscripts,  and  600  autographs.  Retaining  his  ex- 
traordinary faculties  and  his  cheerful  resignation  to 
the  end,  he  died  in  the  Quirinal  in  his  eighty-eighth 
year.  His  remains  were  transferred  to  his  magnifi- 
cent tomb  in  the  Lateran,  20  July,  1742. 

Fabronivs,  De  vitd  et  rebua  geslia  Clementia  XII  (Rome, 
1760),  aljK)  in  Fassini,  SunpiemeiUo  to  the  HistoriaEcelwaatica 
of  Nataus  Alexander  (Bassano,  1778);  Passbrini,  Qenealo- 
ffia  e  Stor-'^  deUa  famiglia  Corsini  (Florence,  1858);  Von  Reu- 
MONT,  Gesch.  d.  Stadt  Rom  (Berlin,  1867),  III.  iii,  653-55; 
NovAES-  hl^nnenti  delta  Horia  de*  eommi  pontefici  (Rome,  1821- 
26);  Hhhues&Qth^r-Kibsch,  Kirchengeschichte  i^th  ed.,  Frie- 
burg,  1907),  III  (biblionaphy);  Abtaud  de  Montor,  History 
of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  (New  York,  1867),  II. 

James  F.  Loughun. 

Olexuent  Xm,  Pope  (Carlo  della  Torre  Rez- 
zoNico),  b.  at  Venice,  7  March,  1693;  d.  at  Rome,  2 
February,  1769.  He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at 
Bologna,  took  his  degrees  in  law  at  Padua,  and  in  1716 
was  appointed  at  Rome  referendaiy  of  the  two  depart- 
ments known  as  tne  "Signatura  Jus- 
titiae"  and  the  "Signatura  Grati»". 
He  was  made  governor  of  Rieti  in 
1716,  of  Fano  in  1721,  and  Auditor 
of  the  Rota  for  Venice  in  1725.  In 
1737  he  was  made  cardinal-deacon, 
and  in  1743  Bishop  of  Padua,  where 
he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  for 
the  formation  and  sanctification  of  his 
Arms  or  cieigy,  to'  promote  which  he  held  a 
Clement  XIII  g^^^j  -^  ^^^q  ^^^  published  a  very  re- 
markable pastoral  on  the  priestl^r  state.  His  personal 
life  was  in  Keeping  with  his  teaching,  and  the  Jansenist 
Abb^Cl^ment,  a  grudging  witness,  tells  us  that "  he  was 
called  the  saint  (by  iiis  people),  and  was  an  exem- 
plary man  who,  notwithstanding  the  immense  reve- 
nues of  his  diocese  and  his  private  estate,  was  always 
without  money  owing  to  the  lavishness  of  his  alms- 
deeds,  and  would  give  away  even  his  linen".  In 
1747  ne  became  cardinal-priest,  and  on  6  July,  1758, 
he  was  elected  pope  to  succeed  Benedict  AlV.  It 
was  with  tears  that  he  submitted  to  the  will  of  the 
electors,  for  he  ^uged  well  the  force  and  direction 
of  the  storm  wmch  was  gathering  on  the  political 
horizon. 

Regalism  and  Jansenism  were  the  traditional  ene- 
mies of  the  Holy  See  in  its  government  of  the  Church, 
but  a  still  more  formidable  foe  was  rising  into  power 
and  using  the  other  two  as  its  instruments.  This 
was  the  party  of  Voltaire  and  the  Encyclopedists,  the 
"Philosophers"  as  they  liked  to  call  theniselves. 
They  were  men  of  talent  and  highly  educated,  and  by 
means  of  these  gifts  had  drawn  over  to  themselves 
many  admirers  and  adherents  from  among  the  ruling 
classes,  with  the  result  that  by  the  time  of  Clement 
XIII,  they  had  their  representatives  in  power  in  the 
Portuguese  and  in  all  the  five  Bourbon  Courts.  Their 
enmity  was  radically  against  the  Christian  religion  it- 
self, as  putting  a  restraint  on  their  licence  of  thought  and 
action.  In  their  private  correspondence  they  called 
it  the  Infdme  (the  infamous  one),  and  looked  forward 
to  its  speedv  extinction  through  the  success  of  their 
policy ;  but  tney  felt  that  in  their  relations  \^ith  the  pub- 
lic, and  especially  with  the  sovereigns,  it  was  necessary 
to  feign  some  kind  of  Catholic  belief.  In  planning  this 
war  against  the  Church,  they  were  agreed  that  the 
first  step  must  be  the  destruction  of  the  Jesuits. 
"When  we  have  destroyed  the  Jesuits",  wrote  Vol- 
taire to  Helv6tius,  in  1761,  "we  shall  have  easy  work 
with  the  /n/^Twc."    And  their  method  was  to  per- 


suade the  sovereigns  that  the  Jesuits  were  the  chief 
obstacle  to  their  Regalist  pretensions,  and  thereby 
a  dan^r  to  the  peace  of  their  realms;  and  to  support 
this  view  by  the  diffusion  of  defamatonr  literature, 
likewise  by  inviting  the  co-operation  of  those  who, 
whilst  blind  to  the  character  of  their  ulterior  ends, 
stood  with  them  for  doctrinal  or  other  reasons  in  their 
antii)athy  to  the  Societv  of  Jesus.  Such  was  the 
political  situation  with  which  Clement  XIII  saw  him- 
self confronted  when  he  began  his  pontificate. 

Portugal. — His  attention  was  called  in  the  first 
instance  to  Portugal,  where  the  attack  on  the  Society 
had  already  commenced.  Joseph  I,  a  weak  and 
voluptuous  prince,  was  a  mere  puppet  in  the  hands 
of  his  minister,  SebastiSo  Carvalho,  afterwards  Mar- 
quis de  Pombal,  a  secret  adherent  of  the  Voltairian 
opinions,  and  bent  on  the  destruction  of  the  Society. 
A  rebellion  of  the  Indians  in  the  Uruguay  Reductions 
gave  him  his  first  opportunity.  The  cause  of  the  re- 
bellion was  obvious,  for  the  natives  had  been  ordered 
to  abandon  forthwith  their  cultivated  lands  and 
migrate  into  the  virgin  forest.  But,  as  they  were 
under  the  care  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries.  Carvalho 
declared  that  these  must  have  instigated  tne  natives. 
Moreover,  on  3  September,  1758,  Joseph  I  was  shot 
at,  apparently  by  the  injured  husband  of  a  lady  he 
had  seduced.  Pombal  held  a  secret  trial  in  whicn  he 
pronoimced  the  whole  Tavora  family  guiljy,  and 
with  them  three  Jesuit  Fathers,  against  whom  the  sole 
evidence  was  that  they  haa  been  friends  of  the 
Tavoras.  Then,  on  the  pretext  that  all  Jesuits 
thought  alike,  he  imprisoned  their  superiors,  some 
himdred  in  number,  m  his  subterranean  dungeons, 
and  wrote  in  the  king's  name  to  Rome  for  permission 
from  the  Holy  See  to  punish  the  guilty  clerics. 
Clement  did  not  see  his  way  to  refuse  a  request  backed 
by  the  king's  assurances  that  he  had  good  grounds  for 
his  charges,  but  he  begged  that  the  accused  might 
have  a  careful  trial,  andthat  the  innocent  might  not 
be  included  in  a  punishment  they  had  not  deserved. 
The  pope's  letter  was  writtf'n  with  exquisite  courtesy 
and  consideration,  but  Pombal  pronounced  it  in- 
sulting to  his  master  and  returned  it  to  the  sender. 
Then  he  shipped  off  all  the  Jesuits  from  Portugal  and 
its  colonies,  save  the  superiors  who  were  still  detained 
in  their  prisons,  and  sent  them  to  Civitavecchia,  "  as 
a  present  to  the  pope",  without  a  penny  from  their 
confiscated  funds  lett  to  them  for  their  maintenance. 
Clement,  however,  received  them  kindly,  and  pro- 
vided for  their  needs.  It  was  to  be  expected  that 
diplomatic  relations  would  not  long  continue  after 
these  events ;  they  were  severed  in  1760  by  Pombal, 
who  sent  back  the  nuncio,  Acciajuoli,  and  recalled  his 
own  ambassador  J  nor  were  these  relations  restored 
till  the  next  pontificate.  Pombal  had  seen  the  neces- 
sity of  supporting  his  administrative  measures  by  an 
endeavour  to  destroy  the  good  name  of  his  victims 
with  the  public.  For  this  purpose  he  caused  various 
defamatory  publioations  to  be  written,  chief  among 
which  was  the  "Brief  Relation",  in  which  the  Ameri- 
can Jesuits  were  represented  as  having  set  up  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom  in  South  America  under  their  own 
sovereignty,  and  of  tyrannizing  over  the  Indians,  all  in 
the  interest  of  an  insatiable  ambition  and  avarice. 
These  libels  were  spread  broadcast,  especially  through 
Portugal  and  Spam,  and  many  bishops  from  Spain 
and  elsewhere  wrote  to  the  pope  protesting  against 
charges  so  improbable  in  themselves,  and  so  incom- 
patible with  their  experience  of  the  onler  in  their  own 
jurisdictions.  The  text  of  many  of  their  letters  and 
of  Clement  XJII's  approving  replies  may  be  seen  in 
the  "Appendices"  to  P^re  de  Ravignan's  "Clement 
XIII  et  Clement  XIV". 

France. — It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  Society's 
many  enemies  in  France  would  be  stimulated  to  follow 
in  the  footsteps  of  Pombal.  Tlie  attack  was  opened 
by  the  Pariomont,  which  was  predominantly  Jansen- 


CLJBMXNT 


33 


OLEMENT 


i8t  in  it*j  ooniposition,  in  the  spring  of  1761.  Taking 
advantage  of  the  financial  difficulties  into  which  tlie 
French  Jesuits  had  been  driven*  over  the  affair  of 
Father  Lavalette,  they  proceeded  to  examine  the 
constitutions  of  the  Society  in  which  they  professed 
to  find  ^ve  improprieties,  and  to  demand  that,  if 
the  Jesmts  were  to  remain  in  the  country,  these  con- 
stitutions should  be  remodelled  on  the  principle  of 
reducing  the  power  of  the  general  and  practically 
substituting  for  him  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the 
Crown.  They  also  drew  up  a  famous  document, 
named  the  "Extraits  des  assertions",  made  up  en- 
tirely of  garbled  extracts  from  Jesuit  writers,  and 
tending  to  diow  that  their  method  was  to  establish 
their  own  domination  by  justifying  almost  every 
form  of  crime  and  licentiousness,  particularly  tyran- 
nicide. Louis  XV,  like  Joseph  I,  had  a  will  enervate 
by  lust,  but  unlike  him,  was  by  no  means  a  fool,  and 
had  besides  an  underlying  respect  for  religion.  Thus 
he  sought,  in  the  first  instance,  to  save  a  body  of  men 
whom  ne  judged  to  be  innocent,  and  for  that  purpose 
he  referred  their  constitutions  to  the  French  oishops 
assembled  at  Paris  in  December,  1761.  Forty-five  of 
these  bishops  reported  in  favour  of  the  constitutions, 
and  of  the  Jesuits  being  left  as  they  were,  twenty-seven 
or  more,  not  then  in  Paris,  sending  in  their  adhesion ; 
but  the  king  was  being  drawn  the  other  way  by  his 
Voltairian  statesmen  and  Madame  de  Pompadour, 
and  accordin^y  preferred  the  advice  of  tne  one 
bishop  who  sided  with  the  Parlement,  Bishop  Fitz- 
James  of  Soissons.  He  therefore  issued  an  edict  in 
March,  1762,  which  allowed  the  Society  to  remain  in 
the  kingdom,  but  prescribed  some  essential  changes 
in  their  institute  with  the  view  of  satisfying  the  Par- 
lement. 

Clement  XIII  intervened  in  various  ways  in  this 
crisis  of  the  French  Jesuits.  He  wrote  to  the  king 
in  June,  1761,  and  again  in  January,  1762,  on  the 
former  occasion  to  implore  him  to  stay  the  proceed- 
ings of  his  Parlement,  on  the  latter  to  protest  against 
the  scheme  of  setting  a  French  vicar-general,  inde- 
pendent of  the  general  in  Rome,  over  the  French 
provinces;  it  was  likewise  on  this  latter  occasion 
that,  whilst  blammg  their  general  for  the  compliance 
of  some  of  his  French  subjects,  he  used  the  famous 
words  "Sint  ut  simt  aut  non  sint".  To  the  French 
bishopswho  wrote  to  him  protesting  against  the  doings 
of  the  Parlement,  he  replied  in  words  of  thankfulness 
and  approval,  e.g.  to  the  Bishop  of  Grenoble  on  4  April, 
1762,  and  to  the  Bishop  of  Sarlat  (with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  "Extraits  des  assertions")  on  14  Novem- 
ber, 1764;  and  to  the  bishops  collectively  in  June, 
1762,  exhorting  them  to  use  all  their  influence  with 
the  king  to  induce  him  to  resist  his  evil  counsellors. 
To  the  arrH  of  2  August^  1762,  by  which  the  Parle- 
ment suppressed  the  Society  in  France,  and  imposed 
impossible  conditions  on  any  of  its  members  wishing 
to  remain  in  the  country,  Clement  replied  by  an  Allo- 
cution of  3  September,  in  which  he  protested  against 
the  invasion  of  the  Church's  rights,  and  annulled  the 
arr^  of  the  Parlement  against  the  Society.  Finally, 
when  the  king,  weakly  yielding  to  the  pressure  of  his 
entourage,  suppressed  the  French  provinces  by  his 
edict  of  >lovember,  1764,  the  Holy  Father  felt  it  his 
duty,  besought  as  he  was  by  so  many  bishops  from 
all  parts,  to  public  the  Bull  "  Apostolicum  ",  of  9  Jan- 
uary, 1765.  Its  object  was  to  oppose  to  the  current 
misrepresentations  of  the  Society's  institute,  spiritual 
exercises,  preaching,  missions,  and  theology,  a  solenm 
and  formal  approbation,  and  to  declare  that  the 
Church  herself  was  assailed  in  these  condemnations 
of  what  she  sanctioned  in  so  many  ways. 

Spain. — ^The  statesmen  who  had  the  ear  of  Charles 
in  were  iii  regular  correspondence  with  the  French 
Encyclopedists,  and  had  for  some  years  previously 
been  projecting  a  proscription  of  the  Society  on  the 
same  lines  as  in  Portugal  and  France.  But  this  was 
TV.— 3 


not  known  to  the  public,  or  to  the  Jesuits,  who  be 
lieved  themselves  to  have  a  warm  friend  in  theii 
sovereign.  It  came  then  as  a  surprise  to  all  when, 
on  the  night  of  2-3  April,  1767,  all  the  Jesuit  houses 
were  suddenly  surrounded,  the  inmates  arrested  and 
transferred  to  vehicles  ordered  to  take  them  to  the 
coast,  thence  to  be  shipped  off  for  some  unknown 
destination — forbidden  to  take  anything  with  them 
beyond  the  clothes  which  they  wore.  Nor  was  any 
other  explanation  vouchsafed  to  the  outer  world 
save  that  contained  in  the  king's  letter  to  Clement 
XIII,  dated  31  March.  There  it  was  stated  that  the 
kin^  had  found  it  necessary  to  expel  all  his  Jesuit 
subjects  for  reasons  which  he  intended  to  reserve  for 
ever  in  his  royal  breast,  but  that  he  was  sending  them 


Tomb  of  Clement  XIII — Canova  (St.  Petor's.  Rome) 

all  to  Civitavecchia  that  they  might  be  under  the 
pope's  care,  and  he  would  allow  them  a  maintenance 
of  100  piastres  (i.  e.  Spanish  dollars)  a  year — a  main- 
tenance, however,  which  would  be  withdrawn  for  the 
whole  body,  shoidd  any  one  of  them  venture  at  any 
time  to  write  anything  m  self-defence  or  in  criticism  of 
the  motives  for  the  expulsion.  The  pope  wrote  back 
on  16  April  a  very  touching  letter  in  which  he  declared 
that  this  was  the  cruellest  blow  of  all  to  his  paternal 
heart,  beseeching  the  king  to  see  that  if  any  were 
accused  they  should  not  be  condemned  \vithout 
proper  trial,  and  assuring  him  that  the  chaiges  cur- 
rent against  the  institute  and  the  whole  body  of  its 
members  were  misrepresentations  due  to  the  malice 
of  the  Church's  enemies.  But  nothing  could  be  ex- 
tracted from  the  king,  and  it  is  now  known  that 
this  idea  of  a  royal  secret  was  merely  a  pret<jxt  de- 
vised in  order  to  prevent  the  Holy  See  from  having 
any  say  in  the  matter. 

Foreseeing  the  difficulty  of  so  large  an  influx  of 
expelled  religious  into  his  states,  Clement  felt  com- 
peUed  to  refuse  them  permission  to  land,  and  after 
various  wanderings  they  had  to  settle  down  in  Cor- 
sica, where  they  were  joined  by  their  brethren  who 
had  been  similarly  sent  away  from  Spanish  America. 
When,  a  year  and  a  half  later,  they  were  forced  to 
move  again,  the  pope's  compassion  overcame  his 
administrative  prudence,  and  ne  permitted  them  to 


CLEMENT 


34 


OLSMEVT 


take  refuge  in  his  territory.  On  the  throne  of  Naples 
was  seated  a  son  of  Charies  III,  and  on  that  of  Parma 
his  nephew.  Both  were  minors,  and  both  had  Vol- 
tairian ministers  through  whose  instrumentahty  their 
policy  was  directed  from  Madrid.  Accordingly  the 
Jesuits  in  their  dominions  were  similarly  banished, 
and  their  banishment  drew  similar  remonstrances 
from  the  pope.  But  in  the  case  of  Parma  there  was  a 
complication,  for  this  state  having  been  for  centuries 
regarded  as  a  fief  of  the  Holy  See,  the  pope  had  felt  him- 
seu  bound  to  condenm  by  his  Monitorium  of  30  Janu- 
ary, 1768,  some  laws  passed  by  the  duke  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  Church's  liberties.  The  Bourbon  Courts 
thereupon  united  in  demanding  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Monitorium,  threatening,  if  refused,  to  deprive  the 
pope  by  armed  force  of  his  territories  of  Avignon  and 
the  Venaissin  in  France,  and  of  Benevento  and  Mon- 
tecorvo  in  Italy.  Finally,  on  18,  20,  22  January, 
1769,  the  ambassadors  of  Francej  Spain,  and  Naples 
presented  to  him  identical  notes  aemanding  the  total 
and  entire  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  through- 
out the  world.  It  was  this  that  killed  him.  He  ex- 
pired under  the  shock  on  the  ni^ht  of  2-3  February. 
In  one  sense,  no  doubt,  his  pontificate  was  a  failure, 
and  he  has  been  blamed  for  a  lack  of  foresight  which 
should  have  made  him  yield  to  the  exigencies  of  the 
times.  But  in  a  higher  sense  it  was  a  splendid  suc- 
cess. For  he  had  the  insight  to  see  through  the 
plausible  pretences  of  the  unurch's  enemies,  and  to 
discern  the  ultimate  ends  which  they  were  pursuing. 
He  viewed  the  course  of  events  ever  in  the  lieht  of  faith, 
and  was  ever  faithful  to  his  trust.  He  always  took 
up  sound  positions,  and  knew  how  to  defend  them 
with  langua^  conspicuous  for  its  truth  and  justice,  as 
well  as  tor  its  moderation  and  Christian  tenderness. 
His  pontificate,  in  short,  afforded  the  spectacle  of  a 
saint  clad  in  moral  strength  contending  alone  against 
the  powers  of  the  world  and  their  physical  might; 
and  such  a  spectacle  is  an  acquisition  forever. 

There  were  other  aspects  under  which  Clement 
XIII  had  to  contend  with  the  prevailing  errors  of 
Regalism  and  Jansenism  in  France,  Germany,  Hol- 
land, Poland,  and  Venice,  but  these  by  comparison 
were  of  minor  moment.  Among  the  pernicious  books 
condemned  by  him  were  the  "Histoire  du  peuple  de 
Dieu"  of  the  Jesuit  Bemiyer,  the  "Esprit"  of  Helv6- 
tius,  the  "Exposition  de  la  doctrine  chr^tienne"  of 
M^senguy,  the  "Encyclopddie"  of  D'Alembert  and 
Diderot,  and  the  "De  Statu  Ecclesi®"  of  Febronius. 
He  greatly  encouraged  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart, 
and  ordered  the  Preface  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  to  be 
recited  on  Sundays. 

Barbbbi  and  Spbtia,  BuUarii  Romani  CorUinuatio  (Rome, 
1835):  CoBDARA,  Commentarii  in  DdLUNOBR,  BeitrQge  zur 
polUischen,  kirchlichen  und  Ktdturgesehiehte  (1882),  III; 
Proc^8'Verbaux  du  dergi  francait  (1882),  VIII;  Novabs,  EU- 
nunti  della  storia  de'  aommi  pontefici  (Rome;  1822),  XV;  db 
MoNTOR,  Histoire  dea  aouveraifu  parUijea  romaxna  (Paris,  1851); 
VON  Rankb,  DierOmiachen  P6p8le,  III;  CRiTiNBAU-JoLT,  Cl^ 
ment  XIV  el  lea  JSauitea  (Paris,  1847);  Idbm,  Histoire  de  la  com- 
pagnie  deJiaua  (Paria,  1851).V;  Thxxnbr,  Histoire  du  Pontiflcat 
de  CUment  XIV  (Paris,  1852);  Ravignan,  CUment  XIII  et 
CUmenl  XIV  (Paris,  1854):  Fbrrbr  del  Rfo,  Historia  dd 
Reinado  de  Carlos  III  (Madrid,  1857);  DXvila  t  Collado, 
Reinado  de  Carlos  III  m  CXnovas  db  Cabtillo,  Historia 
General  de  Espafla  (Madrid,  1893);  Smith,  The  Suppression  of 
Ihe  Society  of  Jesus  articles  in  the  Month  (1002,  1003);  Roita- 
ABAU,  Expulsion  des  Jisuites  en  Espagne  in  the  Revue  des  guer- 
tions  historiques  (Jan.,  1904). 

Sydney  Smith. 

Clement  XTV,  Pope  (Lorenzo — or  Giovanni 
ViNCENzo  Antonio — Ganganelu)  ;  b.  at  Sant'  Aro- 
angelo,  near  Rimini,  31  October,  1705;  d.  at  Rome,  22 
September,  1774. — At  the  death  of  Clement  XIII  the 
Church  was  in  dire  distress.  Gallicanism  and  Jansen- 
ism, Febronianism  and  Rationalism  were  up  in  rebel- 
lion against  the  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiff;  the 
rulers  of  France,  Spain,  Naples,  Portugal,  Parma 
were  on  the  side  of  tne  sectarians  who  flattered  their 
dynastic  prejudices  and,  at  least  in  appearance, 
worked  for  the  strengthening  of  the  temporal  power 


Arms  op 
Clement  XIV 


against  the  spiritual.  The  new  po|)e  would  have  to 
face  a  coalition  of  moral  and  political  forces  which 
Clement  XIII  had  indeed  manfully  resisted,  but  failed 
to  put  down,  or  even  materially  to  check.  The  great 
question  between  Rome  and  the  Bour- 
bon princes  was  the  suppression  of  the 
Society  of  Jeeus.  In  France,  Spain, 
and  Portugal  the  suppression  had 
taken  place  de  facto;  the  accession  of  a 
new  ^pe  wsa  made  the  occasion  for 
insisting  on  the  abolition  of  the  order 
root  and  branch,  de  facto  and  de  jure, 
in  Europe  and  all  over  the  world. 

The  conclave  assembled  15  February, 
1769.  Rarely,  if  ever,  has  a  conclave 
been  the  victim  of  such  overweening  interference,  base 
intrigues,  and  unwarranted  pressure.  TTie  ambassadors 
of  France  (d'Aubeterre)  and  Spain  (Azpuru)  and  the 
Cardinals  de  Bemis  (France)  and  Orsini  (Naples)  led 
the  campaign.  The  Sacred  College,  consisting  of  forty- 
seven  csutiinals,  was  divided  into  Court  carmnals  and 
Zelanti.  The  latter,  favourable  to  the  Jesuits  suid  op- 
posed to  the  encroaching  secular  powers,  were  in  a  ma- 
jority. "  It  is  easy  to  foresee  the  diflBculties  of  our  ne- 
gotiations on  a  stajge  where  more  than  thr^-fourths  of 
the  actors  are  against  us. "  Thus  wrote  Bemis  to  Choi- 
seul,  the  minister  of  Louis  XV.  The  immediate  ob- 
ject of  the  intriguers  was  to  gain  over  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  Zelanti.  D'Aubeterre,  inspired  by  Azpuru, 
urged  Bemis  to  insist  that  the  election  of  the  future 
pope  be  made  to  depend  on  his  written  engagement 
to  suppress  the  Jesuits.  The  cardinal,  however,  re- 
fused. In  a  memorandum  to  Choiseul,  dated  12  April, 
1769,  he  says:  "To  require  from  the  future  pope  a 
promise  made  in  writing  or  before  witnesses,  to  de- 
stroy the  Jesuits,  would  oe  a  flagrant  violation  of  the 
canon  law  and  therefore  a  blot  on  the  honour  of  the 
crowns,"  The  King  of  Spain  (Charles  III)  was  will- 
ing to  bear  the  responsibilitv.  D'Aubeterre  opined 
that  simony  and  canon  law  had  no  standing  against 
reason,  which  claimed  the  abolition  of  the  Society  for 
the  peace  of  the  world.  Threats  were  now  resorted 
to;  Bemis  hinted  at  a  blockade  of  Rome  and  popular 
insurrections  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  Ze- 
lanti. France  and  Spain,  in  virtue  of  their  right  of 
veto,  excluded  twenty-three  of  the  forty-seven  car- 
dinals; nine  or  ten  more,  on  account*  of  their  age  or  for 
some  other  reason,  were  not  papabili;  only  four  or 
five  remained  eligible.  Well  might  the  Sacred  Col- 
lege, as  Bernis  feared  it  would,  protest  against  vio- 
lence and  separate  on  the  plea  of  not  being  free  to  elect 
a  suitable  candidate.  But  d'Aubeterre  was  relent- 
less. He  wished  to  intimidate  the  cardinals.  "A 
pope  elected  against  the  wishes  of  the  Courts",  he 
wrote,  "will  not  be  acknowledged";  and  again,  "I 
think  that  a  pope  of  that  [philosophical]  temper,  that 
is  without  scruples,  holding  fast  to  no  opinion  and 
consulting  onlv  his  own  interests,  might  be  acceptable 
to  the  Courts  ".  The  ambassadors  threatened  to  leave 
Rome  unless  the  conclave  surrendered  to  their  dictar- 
tion.  The  arrival  of  the  two  Spanish  cardinals,  Solis 
and  La  Cerda,  added  new  strength  to  the  Court  party. 
Solis  insisted  on  a  written  promise  to  suppress  the 
Jesuits  being  given  by  the  future  pope,  but  Bemis  was 
not  to  be  gained  over  to  such  a  breach  of  the  law. 
Solis,  theretore,  supported  ^  the  conclave  by  Cardinal 
Malvezzi  and  outsiae  by  the  ambassadors  of  France 
and  Spain,  took  the  matter  into  his  own  hands.  He 
began  by  sounding  Cardinal  Ganpanelli  as  to  his  will- 
in^ess  to  give  the  promise  required  b>  he  Bourbon 
prmces  as  an  indispensable  condition  for  election. — 
Why  Ganganelli?  This  cardinal  was  the  only  friar 
in  the  Sacred  College.  Of  humble  birth  (his  father 
had  been  a  surgeon  at  Sant'  Arcangelo),  he  had  re- 
ceived his  education  from  the  Jesuits  of  Rimini  and 
the  Piarists  of  Urbino,  and,  in  1724,  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen, had  entered  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  of  St 


OLEMENT 


35 


OLEMXHT 


Francis  and  chaiifled  his  baptismal  name  (Giovanni 
Vinoenzo  Antonio)  for  that  of  Lorenzo.  His  talents 
and  his  virtiies  had  raised  him  to  the  disnity  of  defini- 
tor  generalis  of  his  order  (1741);  Benedict  AlV  made 
him  Consultor  of  the  Holy  Office,  and  Clement  XIII 
^ve  him  the  cardinal's  hat  (1759),  at  the  instance^  it 
IS  said,  of  Father  Rioci,  the  General  of  the  Jesmts. 
During  the  conclave  he  endeavoured  to  please  both 
the  Zdanti  and  the  Cburt  party  without  committing 
himself  to  either.  At  anv  rate  he  signed  a  paper 
which  satisfied  Solis.  Cretineau-Joly,  the  historian 
of  the  Jesuits,  gives  its  text;  the  future  pope  declared 
"  that  he  recognized  in  the  sovereign  pontiff  the  right 
to  extinguish,  with  good  conscience,  the  Company  of 
Jesus,  provided  he  observed  the  canon  law;  and  that 
it  was  desirable  that  the  pope  should  do  everything 
in  his  power  to  satisfy  the  wishes  of  the  Crowns  . 
The  original  paper  is,  however,  nowhere  to  be  foimd, 
but  its  existence  seems  established  by  subsequent 
events,  and  also  by  the  testimony  of  Bernis  in  letters 
to  Choiseul  (28  July,  and  20  November,  1769).  Gan- 
ganelll  had  thus  secured  the  votes  of  the  Court  cardi- 
nals; the  Zelanti  looked  upon  him  as  indifferent  or 
even  favourable  to  the  Jesuits;  d'Aubeterre  had  al- 
ways been  in  his  favour  as  being  "  a  wise  and  moderate 
theologian",  and  Choiseul  had  marked  him  as  "very 
eood  *  *  on  the  list  of  papdbUi.  Bernis,  anxious  to  have 
his  share  in  the  victory  of  the  sovereims,  urged  the 
election.  On  18  May,  1769,  GanganeUi  was  elected 
by  forty-six  votes  out  of  forty-seven,  the  forty- 
seventh  being  his  own  which  he  had  given  to  Cardinal 
Rezzonico,  a  nephew  of  (Element  Xlll.  He  took  the 
name  of  Clement  XIV. 

The  new  pope's  first  Encyclical  dearly  defined  his 
policy:  to  keep  the  peace  with  Catholic  princes  in 
order  to  secure  their  support  in  the  war  against  irre- 
ligion.  His  predecessor  had  left  him  a  legacy  of 
broils  with  nearly  every  Catholic  power  in  Europe. 
Clement  hastened  to  settle  as  many  as  he  could  by 
concessions  and  conciliatory  measures.  Without  re- 
voking the  constitution  of  (Element  XIII  aeainst  the 
young  Duke  of  Parma's  inroads  on  the  ri^ts  of  the 
Qiurch,  he  refrained  from  urging  its  execution,  and 
graciously  granted  him  a  dispensation  to  marry  his 
cousin,  the  Archduchess  Amelia,  dau^ter  of  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria.  The  King  of  Spam,  soothed  by 
tiiese  concessions,  withdrew  the  imcanonical  edict 
which,  a  jrear  before,  he  had  issued  as  a  counterblast 
to  the  pope's  proceedings  against  the  infant  Duke  of 
Parma,  the  king's  nephew ;  ne  also  re-established  the 
nuncio's  tribunal  and  condemned  some  writings 
against  Rome.  Portugal  had  been  severed  from 
IU>me  since  1760;  Clement  XIV  began  his  attempt 
at  reconciliation  by  elevating  to  the  Sacred  (Ibllege 
Paulo  de  Carvalho,  brother  of  the  famous  minister 
Pombal;  active  negotiations  terminated  in  the  re- 
vocation, by  King  Joseph  I,  of  the  ordinances  of  1760, 
the  origin  and  cause  of  the  rupture  between  Portugal 
and  the  Holy  See.  A  grievance  common  to  Cath(3ic 
princes  was  the  yearly  publication,  on  Holy  Thursday, 
of  the  censures  reserved  to  the  pope;  Clement  abol- 
ished this  custom  in  the  first  Lent  of  his  pontificate. 
But  there  remained  the  ominous  question  of  the 
Jesuits.  The  Bourbon  princes,  thoiu^h  thankful  for 
smaller  concessions,  would  not  rest  tm  they  had  ob- 
tained the  great  object  of  their  machinations,  the 
total  suppression  of  the  Society.  Although  perse- 
cuted in  France,  Spain,  Sicily,  and  Portugal,  the 
Jesuits  had  still  many  powerful  protectors:  the 
rulers,  as  well  as  the  puiDlic  conscience,  protected 
them  and  their  numerous  establishments  in  the  ec- 
clesiastical electorates  of  Germany,  in  the  Palatinate, 
Bavaria,  Sflesia,  Poland,  Switzerland,  and  the  many 
countries  subject  to  the  sceptre  of  Maria  Theresa,  not 
to  mention  the  States  of  the  Church  and  the  foreig;n 
missions.  The  Bourbon  princes  were  moved  in  their 
persecution  by  the  spirit  of  the  times,  represc^nted  in 


Pope  Clement  XIV 


Latin  coimtries  by  French  irreli^ous  phflosophism,  by 
Jansenism,  Gallicanism,  and  Erastianism;  probably 
also  by  the  natural  desire  to  receive  the  papal  sanction 
for  their  unjust  proceedings  against  the  order,  for 
which  they  stood  accused  at  the  bar  of  the  Catholic 
conscience.  The  victim  of  a  man's  injustice  often 
becomes  the  object  of  his  hatred;  thus  only  the  con- 
duct of  Charles  III,  of  Pombal,  Tanucci,  Aranda, 
Monifio  can  be  accounted  for. 

An  ever-recurring  and  almost  solitary  grievance 
against  the  Society  was  that  the  Fathers  disturbed  the 
peace  wherever  they  were  firmly  established.  The 
accusation  is  not  umounded:  the  Jesuits  did  indeed 
disturb  the  peace  of  the  enemies  of  the  Church,  for,  in 
the  words  .of  d'A- 
lembert  to  Fred- 
erick II,  they  were 
"the  grenadiers  of 
the  pope's  guard ' '. 
CardinaldeBernis, 
now  French  am- 
bassador in  Rome, 
was  instructed  by 
Choiseul  to  follow 
the  lead  of  Spain 
in  the  renewed 
campaign  against 
the  Jesuits.  On 
the  22nd  of  July, 
1769,  he  present^ 
to  the  pope  a 
memorandum  in 
the  name  of  the 
three  ministers  of 
the  Bourbon 
kings.  "The three 
monarchs ' ',  it  ran, 
"  still  believe  the  destruction  of  the  Jesuits  to  be  useful 
and  necessary ;  they  have  already  made  their  request  to 
Your  Holiness,  and  they  renew  it  this  day. ' '  Clement 
answered  that  "  he  had  his  conscience  and  honour  to 
consult";  he  asked  for  a  delay.  On  30  September 
he  made  some  vague  promises  to  Louis  XV,  who  was 
less  eager  in  the  fray  than  Charles  III.  This  latter, 
bent  on  the  immediate  suppression  of  the  order,  ob- 
tained from  Gement  XIV,  under  the  strong  pressure 
of  Azpuru,  the  written  promise  "to  submit  to  His 
Majesty  a  scheme  for  the  absolute  extinction  of  the 
Society"  (30  November,  1769).  To  prove  his  sin- 
cerity the  pope  now  commenced  open  hostilities 
against  the  Jesuits.  He  refused  to  see  their  general. 
Father  Ricci,  and  gradually  removed  from  his  en- 
toura^  their  best  friends;  his  only  confidants  were 
two  fnars  of  his  own  order,  Buontempo  and  Francesco; 
no  princes  or  cardinals  surrounded  his  throne.  The 
Roman  people,  dissatisfied  with  this  state  of  things 
and  reduced  to  starvation  by  maladministration, 
openly  showed  their  discontent,  but  Clement,  bound 
by  his  promises  and  caught  in  the  meshes  of  Bourbon 
diplomacy,  was  unable  to  retrace  his  steps.  The  col- 
lege and  seminary  of  Frascati  were  taken  from  the 
Jesuits  and  handed  over  to  the  bishop  of  the  town,  the 
Cardinal  of  York.  Their  Lenten  cat'echisms  were 
prohibited  for  1770.  A  congregation  of  cardinals 
nostile  to  the  order  visited  the  Roman  College  and  had 
the  Fathers  expelled;  the  novitiate  and  the  German 
College  were  also  attacked.  The  German  College  won 
its  cause,  but  the  sentence  was  never  executed.  The 
novices  and  students  were  sent  back  to  their  families. 
A  similar  system  of  persecution  was  extended  to 
Bologna,  Ravenna,  Ferrara,  Modona,  Macerata.  No- 
where did  the  Jesuits  offer  any  resistance ;  they  knew 
that  their  efforts  were  futile.  Father  Gamier  wrote: 
"You  ask  me  why  the  Jesuits  offer  no  defence:  they 
can  do  nothing  here.  All  approaches,  direct  and  in- 
direct, are  completely  closed,  walled  up  with  double 
walls.     Not  the  most  insignificant  uiemor.induni  can 


GLSMXNT 


36 


OLEMENT 


find  its  way  in.  There  is  no  one  who  would  undertake 
to  hand  it  in"  (19th  Jan.,  1773). 

On  4  July,  1772,  appeared  on  the  scene  a  new  Span- 
ish ambassador,  Joseph  Moniiio,  Count  of  Florida 
Blanca.  At  once  he  made  an  onslaught  on  the  per- 
plexed pope.  He  openly  threatened  him  witn  a 
schism  in  Spain  and  probably  in  the  other  Bourbon 
states,  such  as  had  existed  in  Portugal  from  1760  to 
1770,  On  the  other  hand,  he  promised  the  restitution 
of  Avignon  and  Benevento,  still  held  by  Prance  and 
Naples.  Whilst  Clement's  anger  was  roused  by  this 
latter  simoniacal  proposal,  his  good,  but  feeble,  heart 
could  not  overcome  the  fear  of  a  widespread  schism. 
Moniiio  had  conquered.  He  now  ransacked  the 
archives  of  Rome  and  Spain  to  supply  Clement  with 
facts  iustifving  the  promised  suppression.  Monifio 
must  be  held  responsible  for  the  matter  of  the  Brief 
"  Dominus  ac  Redemptor",  i.  e.  for  its  facts  and  pro- 
visions; the  pope  contributed  little  more  to  it  tnan 
the  form  of  his  supreme  authority.  Meanwhile  Clem- 
ent continued  to  harass  the  Jesuits  of  his  own  do- 
minions, perhaps  with  a  view  to  preparing  the  Cath- 
olic world  for  the  Brief  of  suppression,  or  perhaps  hop- 
ing by  his  severity  to  soothe  the  anger  of  Chanes  III 
and  to  stave  off  the  abolition  of  the  whole  order.  Un- 
til the  end  of  1772  he  still  found  some  support  against 
the  Bourbons  in  King  Charles  Emmanuel  of  Sardinia 
and  in  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  But 
Charles  Emmanuel  died,  and  Maria  Theresa,  giving 
way  to  the  importunate"prayers  of  her  son  Joseph  11 
and  her  daughter  the  Queen  of  Naples,  ceased  to 
plead  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Society.  Thus  left 
to  himself,  or  rather  to  the  will  of  Charles  III  and  the 
wiles  of  Monifio,  Clement  began,  in  November,  1772, 
the  composition  of  the  Brief  of  abolition,  which  took 
him  seven  months  to  finish.  It  was  signed  8  June, 
1773;  at  the  same  time  a  congregation  of  cardinals 
was  appointed  to  administer  the  propertv  of  the  sup- 
pressed order.  On  21  July  the  bells  of  the  GesCk  rang 
the  opening  of  the  annual  novena  preceding  the  feast 
of  St.  Ignatius;  the  pope,  hearing  them,  remarked: 
"  They  are  not  ringing  for  the  saints  but  for  the  dead  ". 
The  Brief  of  suppression,  signed  on  8  June,  bears  the 
date  21  July,  1773.  It  was  made  known  at  the  Gesii 
to  the  general  (Father  Ricci)  and  his  assistants  on  the 
evening  of  16  August;  the  following  day  they  were 
taken  first  to  the  English  College,  then  to  Castel  Sant' 
Angelo,  where  their  long  trial  was  commenced.  Ricci 
never  saw  the  end  of  it.  He  died  in  prison,  to  his  last 
moment  protesting  his  innocence  and  that  of  his  order. 
His  companions  were  set  free  under  Pius  VI,  their 
judges  having  found  them  "not  guilty". 

Tne  Brief  "Dominus  ac  Redemptor"  opens  with 
the  statement  that  it  is  the  pope's  office  to  secure  in 
the  wprld  the  unity  of  mind  in  the  bonds  of  peace. 
He  must  therefore  be  prepared,  for  the  sake  of  charity, 
to  uproot  and  destroy  tfie  things  most  dear  to  him, 
whatever  pains  and  bitterness  their  loss  mav  entail. 
Often  the  popes,  his  predecessors,  have  made  use  of 
their  supreme  authority  for  reforming,  and  even  dis- 
solving, religious  orders  which  had  become  harmful 
and  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  nations  rather  than 
promoted  it.  Numerous  examples  are  quoted,  then 
the  Brief  continues:  "Our  predecessors,  in  virtue  of 
the  plenitude  of  power  which  is  theirs  as  Vicars  of 
Christ,  have  suppressed  such  orders  without  allowing 
them  to  state  their  claims  or  to  refute  the  grave  accu- 
sations brought  against  them,  or  to  impugn  the  mo- 
tives of  the  pope.  Clement  has  now  to  deal  with  a 
similar  case,  that  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Having 
enumerated  the  principal  favours  granted  it  by 
former  popes,  he  remarks  tliat  "the  very  tenor  and 
terms  of  the  said  Apostolic  constitutions  show  that 
the  Society  from  its  earliest  days  bore  the  germs  of 
dissensions  and  jealousies  which  tore  its  own  members 
asunder,  led  them  to  rise  against  other  religious  orders, 
against  the  secular  clergy  and  the  universities,  nay 


even  against  the  sovereigns  who  had  received  them  In 
their  states".  Then  follows  a  list  of  the  q^uarrels  in 
which  the  Jesuits  had  been  engaged,  from  Sixtus  V  to 
Benedict  XIV.  Clement  XIII  had  hoped  to  silenoe 
their  enemies  by  renewing  the  approbation  of  their 
Institute,  "but  the  Holy  See  derived  no  consolation, 
the  Society  no  help,  Christianity  no  advantage  from 
the  Apostolic  lettere  of  Clement  AlII,  of  blessed  mem- 
ory, letters  which  were  wrung  from  him  rather  than 
freely  given".  At  the  end  of  this  pope's  rei^  "the 
outcry  and  the  complaints  against  the  Society  mcreas- 
ing  day  by  day,  the  very  princes  whose  piety  andhered- 
itaiy  benevolence  towards  it  are  favourably  known  of 
all  nations — our  beloved  Sons  in  Jesus  Christ  the 
Kings  of  France,  Spain,  Portu^,  and  the  two  Sicilies 
— ^were  forced  to  expel  from  their  kingdoms,  states  and 
provinces,  all  the  religious  of  this  Order,  well  knowing 
that  this  extreme  measure  was  the  only  remedv  to 
such  great  evils."  Now  the  complete  abolition  of  the 
order  is  demanded  by  the  same  princes.  After  long 
and  mature  consideration  the  pope,  "compelled  by 
his  office,  which  imposes  on  him  the  obligation  to  pro- 
cure, maintain,  and  consolidate  with  vli  his  power  the 
peace  and  tranquillity  of  the  Christian  people — per- 
suaded, moreover,  that  the  Society  of  Jesus  is  no 
longer  able  to  produce  the  abundant  fruit  and  the 
^eat  good  for  which  it  was  instituted — ^and  consider- 
ing that,  as  long  as  this  order  subsists,  it  is  impossible 
for  the  Church  to  enjoy  free  and  solid  peace",  resolves 
to  "suppress  and  abolish"  the  Society,  "  to  annul  and 
abrogate  all  and  each  of  its  offices,  functions,  and  ad- 
ministrations". The  authority  of  the  superiors  was 
transferred  to  the  bishops;  minute  provisions  were 
made  for  the  maintenance  and  the  employment  of  the 
members  ot  the  order.  The  Brief  concludes  with  a 
prohibition  to  suspend  or  impede  its  execution,  to 
make  it  the  occasion  of  insulting  or  attacking  anyone, 
least  of  all  the  former  Jesuits;  finally  it  exnorts  the 
faithful  to  live  in  peace  with  all  men  and  to  love  one 
another. 

The  one  and  only  motive  for  the  suppression  of  the 
Society  set  forth  in  this  Brief  is  to  restore  the  peace  of 
the  Church  by  removing  one  of  the  contending  parties 
from  the  battlefield.  No  blame  is  laid  by  the  pope  on 
the  rules  of  the  order,  or  the  personal  conduct  of  its 
members,  or  the  orthodoxy  of  their  teaching.  More- 
over, Father  Sydney  Smith,  S.  J.  (in  "The  Month", 
CII,  62,  July,  1903),  ob8<jrves:  "The  fact  remains 
that  the  condemnation  is  not  pronounced  in  the 
straightforward  language  of  direct  statement,  but  is 
merely  insinuated  with  the  aid  of  dexterous  phras- 
ing"; and  he  contrasts  this  method  of  stating  grounds 
for  the  suppression  of  the  Society  with  the  vigorous 
and  direct  langusige  used  by  former  popes  in  sup- 
pressing the  Ilumiiiati  and  other  orders.  If  Clement 
Al  V  hoped  to  stop  the  storm  of  unbelief  raging  against 
the  Bark  of  Peter  by  throwing  its  best  oarsmen  over- 
board, he  was  sorely  mistaken.  But  it  is  unlikely 
that  he  entertained  such  a  fallacy.  He  loved  the 
Jesuits,  who  had  been  his  first  teachers,  his  trusty  ad- 
visers, the  best  defenders  of  the  Church  over  which  he 
ruled.  No  personal  animosity  guided  his  action;  the 
Jesuits  themselves,  in  agreement  with  all  serious  his- 
torians, attribute  their  suppression  to  Clement's  weak- 
ness of  character,  unskillea  diplomacy,  and  that  kind 
of  goodness  of  heart  which  is  more  bent  on  doing  what 
than  what  is  right.     He  was  not  built  to 


hold  his  head  above  the  tempest ;  his  hesitations  and 
liis  struggles  were  of  no  avau  against  the  enemies  of 
the  order,  and  his  friends  found  no  better  excuse  for 
him  than  that  of  St.  Alphonsus:  What  could  the 
poor  pope  do  when  all  the  Courts  insisted  on  the  sup- 
pression? The  Jesuit  Cordara  expresses  the  same 
mind:  "I  think  we  should  not  condemn  the  pontiff 
who,  after  so  many  hesitations,  has  judged  it  his  duty 
to  suppress  the  Society  of  Jesus.  I  love  my  order  as 
njuch  as  any  man,  yd,  hn<i  1  been  in  the  pope's  place 


OLXmEMT 


37 


OLXMXHT 


I  should  prob$tbly  have  acted  as  he  did.  The  Ck)m- 
pany,  foimded  and  maintained  for  the  0ood  of  the 
Church,  perished  for  the  same  good:  it  oomd  not  have 
ended  more  gloriously." 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  Brief  was  not  promul- 
^ted  in  the  form  customary  for  papal  Constitutions 
mtended  as  laws  of  the  Church.  It  was  not  a  Bull, 
but  a  Brief,  i.  e.  a  decree  of  less  binding  force  ana 
easier  of  revocation;  it  was  not  affixed  to  the  gates  of 
St.  Peter's  or  in  the  Campo  di  Fiore;  it  was  not  even 
communicated  in  legal  form  to  the  Jesuits  in  Rome; 
the  i^neral  and  his  assistants  alone  received  the  noti- 
fication of  their  suppression.  In  France  it  was  not 
published,  the  Galhcan  Church,  and  especially  Beau- 
mont, Archbishop  of  Paris,  resolutely  opposing  it  as 
being  the  pope's  personal  aeed,  not  supported  by  the 
whole  Church  ana  therefore  not  binding  on  the  Church 
of  France.  The  King  of  Spam  thought  the  Brief  too 
lenient,  for  it  condemned  neither  the  doctrine,  nor  the 
morals,  nor  the  discipline  of  his  victims.  The  Court 
of  Naples  forbade  its  publication  underpain  of  death. 
Maria  Theresa  allowed  her  son  Joseph  II  to  seize  the 
property  of  the  Jesuits  (some  $10,000,000)  and  then, 
''reservmg  her  rights",  acquiesced  in  the  suppression 
"for  the  peace  of  the  Church".  Poland  resisted  a 
while;  the  Swiss  cantons  of  Lucerne,  Fribourg,  and 
Solothum  never  allowed  the  Fathers  to  ^ve  up  their 
colleges.  Two  non-Catholic  sovereigns,  Frederick  of 
Prussia  and  Catherine  of  Russia,  took  the  Jesuits 
under  their  protection.  Whatever  may  have  been 
their  motives,  whether  it  was  to  spite  the  pope  and 
the  Bourbon  Courts  or  to  please  tneir  Catholic  sub- 
jects and  preserve  for  them  the  services  of  the  best 
educators,  their  intervention  kept  the  order  alive  untU 
its  complete  restoration  in  1804.  Frederick  per- 
severed m  his  opposition  only  for  a  few  years;  in  1780 
the  Brief  was  promulgated  in  his  dominions.  The 
Jesuits  retained  possession  of  all  their  colleges  and  of 
the  University  of  Breslau  until  1806  and  1811,  but 
they  ranked  as  secular  priests  and  admitted  no  more 
novices.  But  Catherine  II  resisted  to  the  end.  By 
her  order  the  bishops  of  White  Russia  ignored  the 
Brief  of  suppression  and  commanded  the  Jesuits  to 
continue  to  live  in  communities  and  to  go  on  with 
their  usual  work.  Clement  XIV  seems  to  have  ap- 
proved of  their  conduct.  The  empress,  in  order  to 
set  at  rest  the  scruples  of  the  Fathers,  engaged  in  sev- 
eral negotiations  with  the  pope  and  had  her  will.  In 
France,  too,  the  persecuted  Jesuits  were  not  alto- 
gether without  friends.  Madame  Louise  de  France, 
oaughter  of  Louis  XV,  who  had  entered  the  Carmelite 
Order  and  was,  with  her  sisters,  the  leader  of  a  band  of 
pious  women  at  the  court  of  her  royal  father,  had 
worked  out  a  scheme  for  re-establishing  the  Jesuits  in 
six  provinces  under  the  authority  of  the  bishops. 
Bemis,  however,  defeated  their  good  intentions.  He 
obtained  from  the  pope  a  newBr^f,  addressed  to  him- 
self and  requesting  him  to  see  that  the  French  bishops 
conformed,  each  in  his  diocese,  to  the  Brief  **  Dominus 
acRedemptor". 

After  the  death  of  Clement  XIV  it  was  rumoured 
that  he  had  retracted  the  Brief  of  abolition  by  a  letter 
of  29  June,  1774.  That  letter,  it  was  said,  had  been 
entrusted  to  his  confessor  to  be  given  to  the  next  pope. 
It  was  published  for  the  first  time  in  1789,  at  Zurich, 
in  P.  Ph.  Wolf's  "Allgemeine  Geschichte  der  Jesui- 
ten".  Although  Pius  VI  never  protested  against  this 
statement,  the  authenticity  of  the  document  in  ques- 
tion is  not  sufficiently  established  (De  la  Servi^re). 

The  first  and  almost  the  only  advantage  the  pope 
reaped  from  his  policy  of  concessions  was  the  restora- 
tbn  to  the  Holy  See  of  Avignon  and  Benevento. 
These  provinces  had  been  seised  by  the  Kings  of 
France  and  Naples  when  Clement  XIII  had  excom- 
municated their  kinsman  the  young  Duke  of  Parma 
(1768).  The  restitution,  following  so  closely  on  the 
0uppression  of  the  Jesuits,  seero^  the   price   piiiil 


for  it,  althougjh,  to  save  appearances,  the  duke  inter- 
ceded with  the  two  kings  in  favour  of  the  pope,  and 
Clement,  in  the  consistory  of  17  January,  1774,  took 
occasion  from  it  to  load  the  Bourbon  princes  with 
praises  they  little  deserved.  The  hostile  and  schis- 
matical  manoeuvres  against  the  Church  continued  un- 
abated in  many  Catholic  countries.  In  France  a 
royal  commission  for  the  reformation  of  the  religious 
orders  had  been  at  work  for  s^veral  years,  notwith- 
standing the  energetic  protests  of  Clement  XIII; 
without  the  pope's  consent  it  had  abolished  in  1770 
the  congregations  of  Grandmont  and  of  the  exempt 
Benedictines;  it  had  threatened  the  Premonstraten- 
sians,  the  Trinitarians,  and  the  Minims  with  the  same 
fate.  Hie  pope  protested,  through  his  nuncio  in 
Paris,  against 
such  abuses  of  the 
secular  power, 
but  in  vain.  The 
Celestines  and  the 
Camaldolese  were 
secularized  that 
same  year,  1770. 
The  only  conces- 
sions Louis  XV 
deigned  to  make 
was  to  submit  to 
Clement  the  gen- 
eral edict  for  the 
reformation  of  the 
French  religious 
before  its  publi- 
cation. This  was 
in  1773.  Thepope 
succeeded  in  ob- 
taining its  modi- 
fication in  several 
points. 

In  1768  Genoa 
had  ceded  the  Is- 
land of  Corsica 
to  France.  At 
once  a  conflict  arose  as  to  the  introduction  of 
''Gallican  usaees".  The  pope  sent  a  visitor  Apos- 
tolic to  the  island  and  had  the  gratification  of  pre- 
venting the  adoption  of  usages  in  opposition  to  the 
Roman  practice.  Louis  XV,  however,  revenged  him- 
self by  absolutely  refusing  to  acknowledge  the  pope's 
suzerainty  over  Corsica.  Louis  XV  died  in  1774,  and 
one  is  rather  surprised  at  the  eulogy  which  Clement 
XIV  pronoimced  in  a  consistory  on  ''  the  king's  deep 
love  for  the  Church,  and  his  admirable  zeal  for  the 
defence  of  the  Catholic  religion ' '.  He  also  hoped  that 
the  penitent  death  of  the  prince  had  securecf  his  sal- 
vation. It  may  be  surmised  that  he  was  prompted  by 
a  desire  to  please  the  king's  youngest  daughter, 
Madame  Louise  de  France,  Prioress  of  the  Carmelites 
.of  Saint-Denis,  for  whom  he  had  always  shown  a  great 
affection,  attested  by  numerous  favours  granted  to 
herself  and  to  her  convent. 

During  Clement  XIV's  pontificate  the  chief  rulers 
in  German  lands  were  Maria  Theresa,  of  Austria,  and 
Frederick  the  Great,  of  Prussia.  Frederick,  by  pre- 
serving the  Jesuits  in  his  dominions,  rendered  the 
Church  a  good,  though  perhaps  unintended,  service. 
He  also  authorized  tne  erection  of  a  Catholic  church 
in  B^lhi;  the  pope  sent  a  generous  contribution  and 
ordered  collections  for  the  same  purpose  to  be  made 
in  Belgium,  the  Rhineland,  and  Austria.  Maria 
Theresa  lived  up  to  the  title  of  Regina  ApoHoUca  be- 
stowed on  her  by  Clement  XIII.  But  tne  doctrines 
of  Febronius  were  prevalent  at  her  court,  and  more 
than  once  she  came  into  conflict  with  the  pope.  She 
refused  to  suppress  a  new  edition  of  Febronius,  as 
Clement  XIV  requested;  she  lent  a  willing  ear  to  the 
**  Grievances  of  the  German  nation",  a  scheme  of  re- 
forms in  the  Church  making  it  more  ilcpondont  on 


Monument  of  Clement  XIV — Canova 

(Church  of  the  Apostles,  Rome) 


OLBMEMT 


38 


OLSMXMT 


the  princes  than  on  the  pope;  she  leoslated  for  the 
religious  orders  of  her  dommions  witnout  consulting 
Rome.  She  maintained  her  edict  on  the  religious 
against  all  the  pope's  remonstrances,  but  withchrew 
her  protection  from  the  authors  of  the  "Grievances", 
the  Electors  of  Cologne,  Maims,  and  Trier.  She  also 
obtained  from  Clement  (in  1770)  the  institution  of  a 
Euthenian  bishop  for  the  Ruthenian  Catliolics  of 
Hungary.  In  other  pprts  of  Germany  the  pope  had 
to  face  similar  difficulties.  The  number  and  wealth 
of  the  religious  houses,  in  some  instances  their  useless- 
ness,  and  occasionally  their  disorders,  tempted  the 
princes  to  lay  violent  and  rapacious  hands  on  them. 
Numerous  houses  were  to  be  suppressed  in  Bavaria 
for  the  endowment  of  the  new  University  of  Ebersberg/ 
in  the  Palatinate  the  reception  of  new  religious  was  to 
be  stopped;  Clement  opposed  both  measures  with 
success.  Westphalia  is  mdebted  to  him  for  the  Uni- 
versity of  Mfinster,  erected  27  May,  1773. 

In  Spain  Clement  approved  the  Order  of  the 
Knights  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  instituted  by 
Charles  III.  The  king  also  desired  him  to  define. the 
dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  but  France 
blocked  the  way.  Portujzal,  whilst  it  made  a  certain 
outward  show  of  eoodwm  towards  Rome,  continued 
to  interfere  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  to  impose  on 
colleges  and  seminaries  an  education  more  in  accord 
with  French  philosophism  than  with  the  spirit  of  the 
Church.  At  Naples  the  minister  Tanuoci  hindered 
the  recruitment  of  religious  orders;  episcopal  acts  re- 
quired the  royal  placet;  the  anti-religious  press  en- 
joyed high  protection.  Poland  and  Russia  were  an- 
other source  of  deep  grief  for  Clement  XIV.  Whilst, 
politically,  Poland  was  preparing  its  own  ruin,  the 
Piarists  openly  taught  the  worst  philosophism  in 
their  schools  and  refused  to  have  their  houses  visited 
by  the  papal  nuncio  at  Warsaw.  King  Stanidaus 
planned  tne  extinction  of  the  religious  orders  and 
favoured  the  Freemasons.  The  pope  was  powerless; 
the  few  concessions  he  obtained  from  Catherine  II  for 
the  Catholics  of  her  new  province  were  set  at  naught 
by  that  headstrong  woman  as  soon  as  it  suited  her 
politics.  Of  her  own  authority  she  created  for  the 
annexed  Catholic  Ruthenians  a  new  diocese  (Mohileff ) 
administered  by  a  bishop  (Siestrencewicz)  of  schis- 
matic temper.  Clement  AlV  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  his  nuncio,  Caprara,  favourably  received  at  the 
Court  of  England,  and  of  initiating  measures  for  the 
emancipation  of  English  Catholics.  This  turn  in  the 
relations  between  Rome  and  England  was  due  to  the 

rating  of  royal  honours  to  the  king's  brother  when 
visited  Rome  in  1772;  the  same  honours  being 
refused  to  the  Pretender.  In  the  East,  the  Nestorian 
Patriarch,  Mar  Simeon,  and  six  of  his  suffragans,  were 
reunited  to  Rome.  In  Rome  the  pope  found  little 
favour  with  either  the  Roman  patriciate  or  the  Sacred 
College;  none  of  the  many  measures  he  took  for  the 
betterment  of  his  people  could  atone,  in  their  eyes, 
for  his  subserviency  to  the  Bourbon  Courts  and  for  the 
suppression  of  the  Jesuits.  The  last  months  of  his  life 
were  embittered  by  the  consciousness  of  his  failures; 
at  times  he  seemed  crushed  under  the  weight  of  sor- 
row. On  the  10th  of  September,  1774,  he  took  to  his 
bed,  received  Extreme  Unction  on  the  21st,  and  di^ 
piously  on  the  22nd  of  the  same  month.  Many  wit- 
nesses in  the  process  of  canonization  of  St.  Alphonsus 
of  Liguori  attested  that  the  saint  had  been  miracu- 
lously present  at  the  death-bed  of  Clement  XIV  to 
console  and  fortify  him  in  his  last  hour.  The  doctors, 
who  opened  the  dead  body  in  presence  of  many  spec- 
tators, ascribed  death  to  scorbutic  and  hoemorrhoidal 
dispositions  of  long  standing,  aggravated  by  excessive 
labour  and  by  the  habit  of  provoking  artificial  per- 
spiration even  during  the  g^*eatest  heat.  Notwi^- 
standing  the  doctors'  certificate,  the  "Spanish  party" 
and  historical  romancers  attributed  death  to  poison 
administered  by  the  Jesuits.    The  mortal  remains  of 


Clement  XIV  rest  in  the  church  of  the  Twelve  Apos« 
ties.  (See  also  SoeuDTT  OF  Jesus.) 

BuUarium  Bamttnum;  CUmnUis  XIV  eptBtoUg  ti  drevMi,  ed. 
Thbtner  (Paris,  1852);  Cohdara,  Memoirt  on  the  suppression 
of  the  Jesuits,  published  by  DdLUNOER  in  BeitHlge  tur  politi- 
aehen,  kirehlieken  u.  CuUurouchichte  (Vienna,  18iB2). — As  to 
the  LetfTM  inUnsaantea  de  CUm&ni  XIV.  published  by  the  Maji- 
CHSss  Caraccxolo  in  1776,  Father  Sydney  Smith,  S.  J.,  says, 
in  a  note  to  one  of  the  articles  in  The  MarOh  (CJI,  180,  Feb.,  1008) 
referred  to  below:  "There  has  been  muon  discussion  about 
these  letters.  The  Marchese  Caracciolo  in  his  Preface  is  sus- 
piciously reticent  as  to  the  channels  throu^  which  he  obtained 
them,  and  saves  them  in  a  French  translation  instead  of  in  the 
ori^nal  Italian.  On  this  account,  and  because  it  is  difficult  to 
believe  that  some  of  the  contents  come  from  Fra  Lorenso  [as 
CJIement  XIV  was  called  in  religion],  many  critics  have  rejected 
the  entire  collection  as  spurious.  But  von  Rbxtmont  thinks 
(OttnganMi — Paptt  Clement — aeine  Brief  €  und  Heine  Zeit,  1847, 
Preface  40-42)  that  it  is  in  substance  a  i^uine  collection,  though 
some  of  the  letters  are  spurious  and  mterpolated.  Von  Reu- 
mont  argues  very  Justly  that  it  would  hardly  be  possible  to 
fabricate  so  many  letters,  addressed  to  correspondents  most  of 
whom  wei«  alive  at  the  time  of  the  publication,  and  yet  impart 
to  them  the  unity,  distinctness,  and  spontaneity  of  a  living 
character." — CJr4tineau-Joly,  Clhnent  XIV  et  lea  JHuitea 
(Paris.  1847):  La  Pape  CUment  XIV,  LeOrea  au  P.  Theiner; 
Masson.  La  Cardinal  de  Bemia  Q^aris,  1884);  Roussbau.  Ex- 
ptdaion  dea  JiauHea  en  Eapaone  (Paris,  1907);  Ds  la  SehviI:rs 
in  Vacant,  Did.  de  thiol,  cath.  (Paris.  1907),  s.  v.  Climeni  XIV; 
The  Z>uMtn  Review  (1855),  XXXIX.  107:  Smith,  The  Sup- 
mraaaion  cfjhe  Socieiy  of  Jesut,  articles  in  The  Month  (London. 
1902-3).  XCIX.  C,  CI,  CII;  Ravionan.  CUment  X III  et  CIS- 
meni  XiV  (Paris.  1854). 

J.  WiLHELM. 

Olement,  Cjosar,  date  of  birth  uncertain;  d.  at 
Brussels  28  Aug.,  1626,  great-nephew  of  Sir  Thomas 
More's  friend,  Dr.  John  Clement.  He  was  a  student 
at  Douai  when  in  1578  the  college  was  removed  to 
Reims,  but  was  shortly  sent  to  the  English  College, 
Rome,  being  admitted  5th  September,  1579.  He  was 
ordsdned  priest  in  1585,  but  remained  in  Rome  till 
Oct.,  1587.  He  took  the  decree  of  Doctor  of  Theology 
in  Italy,  probably  in  Rome  itself.  Though  originally 
destined  for  the  English  mission,  he  never  went  to 
England,  but  held  the  important  positions  of  Dean  of 
St.  Gudule's,  Brussels,  and  vicar-general  of  the  King 
of  Spain's  army  in  Flanders.  He  was  a  great  bene- 
factor to  all  English  exiles,  especially  the  Augustinian 
Canonesses  of  Lou  vain.  In  1612  he,  with  the  Rev. 
Robert  Chambers,  was  commissioned  from  Rome  to 
make  a  visitation  of  Douai  College  so  as  to  put  an  end 
to  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  administration  there. 
(See  Dodd,  "Church  Hist,  of  Eng.",  Tiemey  ed.,  V, 
3sqq.) 

Donn,  Church  Hietory  of  Bn^and  (London,  1737),  II,  388; 
MoRBis,  TrotMea  of  our  Cath.  Forefathera  (London.  1872\  I, 
40.  41,  47,  57;  Douay  Diariea  (London.  1877);  Foi*By,  Recorda 
Bng.  Prov.  S.  J.  (London,  1880),  VI,  138:  CJillow,  Bibl.  Diet. 
Eng.  Cath.  (London.  1885),  I,  497-8;  (3oopbr  in  Diet.  Nat. 
Biog.  (London,  1887),  XI,  32;  HABflLTON,  Chronidea  of  the 
Eni^iah  AuQuatinian  Canoneaaea  of  Lauvain  (London.  1904-6). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Ol^ment,  Francois,  a  member  of  the  Benedictine 
Congregation  of  Saint-Maur  and  historian,  b.  at 
BSze  in  the  department  of  C6te-d'0r,  France,  1714; 
d.  at  Paris,  29  March,  1793.  He  made  his  firot 
studies  at  the  colle^  of  the  Jesuits  at  Dijon.  Soon 
after  his  profession  in  1731  his  superiors  sent  him  to 
the  monastery  of  the  "  Blancs-Manteaux ''  at  Paris 
to  assist  in  the  learned  labours  of  the  oongre^tion. 
To  great  intellectual  gifts  Clement  added  scientific 
acimien  and  an  unflagging  industry  which  especially 
fitted  him  for  his  taskT  He  knew  no  fatigue  and  at 
night  gave  barely  two  or  three  hours  to  sleep.  He 
firat  busied  himself  «rith  the  preparations  for  volumes 

XI  and  XII  of  the  ''Histoire  litt^raire  de  la  France"; 
these  volumes  covered  the  years  1141-1167  and  were 
edited  bv  Cl^mencet.  He  then  edited,  in  collabora- 
tion with  Dom  Brial»  a  fellow-Benedictine,  volumes 

XII  and  XIII  of  the  work  bc«un  by  Bouquet  in  1738, 
'^Recueil  des  historiens  des  Uaules  et  de  la  France'' 
(Paris,  1786),  or  as  the  title  is  generally  given  "  Scrip- 
tores  rerum  gallicarum  et  francicarum".  These 
volumes  contain  altogether  439  original  documents, 


OLXMENT 


39 


0LSMENTINE8 


acconipaoied  by  exiiaustive  introductions,  nutnerous 
explanatory  remarks,  and  acute  critical  notes.  C16- 
ment's  chief  work  is  a  revised  edition  of  the  chronology 
first  issued  by  Cltoenoet  in  one  volumoi  entitled: 
''L'art  de  v^fifier  les  dates  des  faits  hiirtx>riques  *'. 
The  new  edition  in  which  the  original  work  appeared 
in  an  entirely  changed  form  was  published  at  Paris 
in  1770.  A  third  edition  (Paris,  1783-1787)  em- 
braced three  folio  volumes^  in  this  the  original  undei^ 
went  even  greater  alterations,  and  the  labour  on  it 
cost  Cltoent  more  than  ten  years  of  tofl.  In  con- 
trast to  Cltoenoet  he  treated  his  matter  objectively, 
and  was  influenced  neither  by  prejudices  against  the 
Jesuits  nor  by  a  blind  predilection  for  the  «mnsenists. 
His  position  met  with  the  approval  of  scholars  and 
he  was  made  a  member  of  the  '^  Acaddmie  des  Inscrip- 
tions". The  work  is  still  of  value,  and  it  has  been  well 
called  ''the  finest  memorial  of  French  learning  of  the 
eighteenth  centuiy''.  Clement  was  engaged  in  the 
preparation  of  a  fourth  and  much  enlarged  edition 
when  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  caused  his  death.  The 
unfinished  work  was  completed  by  Viton  de  Saint- 
AlJais  and  appeared  with  additional  matter  in  eight- 
een volumes  (Paris,  181S-19).  Viton  de  Samt- 
Allais  also  published  from  the  literaiy  remains  of 
Clement  the  treatise  "  L'art  de  v^ifier  les  dates  des 
faita  historiques  avant  I'^re  chr^tienne"  (Paris,  1820). 
A  work  of  less  importance  was  one  begun  by  Dom 
Poncet  and  edited  by  Cldment,  entitled:  ''Nouveaux 
^lairdasements  sur  Torigine  et  le  Pentateuque  des 
Samaritains"  (Paris,  1760).  Clement's  industry  in 
collecting  material  is  shown  by  the  ''  Catalogus  manu- 
scriptorum  oodicum  Coll^ii  Claramontani,  quem 
excipit  catalogus  domus  professaB  Parisiensis,  uterque 
digestus  et  notis  omatus"  (Paris,  1764).  For  infor- 
mation concerning  his  letters  see  the  "Revue  b^6- 
dictine",  XU,  508. 

Db  J«ame.  Bibliotheque  de§  icrivaina  de  la  eongrSgation  de 
Saint'Maur,  4S4. 

Patrigitts  Schlager. 

Clement,  John.  President  of  the  (Dolle^e  of  Physi- 
cians and  tutor  to  St.  Thomas  More's  children,  b.  in 
Yorkshire  about  1500;  d,  1  July,  1572,  in  the  Blocstrate, 
St.  John's  parish,  Mechlin.  Educated  at  St.  Paul's 
School  and  Oxford,  St.  Thomas  More  admitted  Clement 
as  one  of  his  household  to  help  in  the  education  of 
his  children  and  to  assist  him  in  linguistic  studies. 
In  1519  we  find  Clement  at  (Dorpus  (Ihnsti  Oollege,  Ox- 
ford, when  Wolsey  constituted  him  the  Rhetoric 
Reader  in  the  university;  later  he  became  professor  of 
Greek  there.  About  1526  he  married  the  daughter  of 
a  Norfolk  gentleman,  Margaret  Gibbs,  who  lived  and 
studied  witn  More's  family.  Applying  himself  to  the 
study  of  medicine,  he  was  admitted  a  Fellow  of  the 
Ck)llege  of  Phvsicians  (1  Feb.,  1528),  and  was  chosen 
by  Henry  VIlI  to  attend  Wolsey  when  the  latter  was 
dangerously  ill  at  Esher  (1529).  He  was  consiliarius 
of  the  college  from  1529  to  1531,  in  1547,  and  again 
from  1556  to  1558.  He  held  the  office  of  president  in 
1544.  and  that  of  censor  in  1555.  After  the  accession 
of  Edward  VI  he  retired  to  Louvain  to  escape  religious 
persecution;  so  obnoxious  was  he  to  the  Protestant 
authorities  that  he  was  exempted  from  the  general 
pardon  ^nted  by  Edward  VT.  He  returned  to 
England  m  Mary's  reign  and  practised  his  profession 
in  Essex,  but  fled  abroad  again  when  Elizabeth  came 
to  the  throne.  Mechlin  was  his  last  place  of  exile. 
He  fies  buried  in  the  cathedral  church  of  St.  Rum- 
bold  in  that  city.  He  wrote:  '' Epigrammatum  et 
aliorum  carminum  liber";  and  also  translated  from 
Greek  into  Latin:  (1)  "The  Epistles  of  St.  Gregory 
Narianzen";  (2)  "The  Homilies  of  Nicephorus 
Callistus  concerning  the  Greek  Saints";  (3)  "The 
Epistles  of  Pope  Ceiestine  I  to  Csrril,  Bishop  of  Alex- 
andria'*. 

^DoDD,  Chweh  HietOTV  (BruMels.  1737-1742).  I,  202;  Pli», 
De  Anglim  Scriplaribue    (Paris.  1619),  767;   Wood,  Aihenm 


Oxonienses,  ed.  hum  (I^oiKJon,  1813-1S20).  I.  401;  Robin- 
son. Registers  of  St.  Paul's  School  (London,  s.  d.).  19;  Munk, 
College  of  P/iyatcians  (London.  1878).  I.  26. 

G.  E.  Hind. 


Olementiiie  Decretals.  See  Corpus  Juris  Cano- 
Nici;  Law. 

Olementine  Liturgy.    See  Clement  I,  St.,  Pops. 

Olementmea  {KXrtfjJma),  (Clementine  Pseudo- 
WRiTiNQs),  the  name  given  to  the  curious  religious  ro- 
mance wliich  has  come  down  to  us  in  two  forms  as 
composed  by  Po]>e  St.  Clement  I.  The  Greek  form 
is  preserved  onl^  in  two  MSS.  and  consists  of  twenty 
books  of  homilies.  The  Latin  form  is  a  translation 
made  from  the  Greek  by  Rufinus,  who  died  in  410. 
It  is  called  the  "  Recognitions  ".  Two  later  epitomes 
of  the  Homilies  exist  also,  and  there  is  a  partial 
Syriac  translation,  embracing  Recog.  i-iii,  and  Hom. 
x-xiv,  preserved  in  two  British  Museum  MSS.,  one  of 
which  was  written  in  the  ^ear  411.  Some  fragments 
are  known  in  Arabic  and  in  Slavonic.  The  writings 
are  curious  rather  than  admirable,  and  their  main  in- 
terest lies  in  the  extraordinary  theories  which  they 
have  been  made  to  support  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. The  existence  of  the  Clementine  Homilies  was 
first  made  known  in  1572  and  157S  by  the  Jesuit  Tur- 
rianus,  who  was  a  diligent  searcher  of  libraries.  He 
seems  to  have  found  a  MS.  of  quite  a  different  version 
from  that  which  we  possess.  The  first  edition  was 
that  of  G.  B.  Cotelier,  1672,  from  the  Paris  MS.,  in 
which  the  20th  book  and  part  of  the  19th  are  wanting. 
This  was  re-edited  in  1847  by  Schwegler.  The  com- 
plete Vatican  MS.  was  first  used  in  Dressel's  edition, 
1853,  reprinted  in  Migne,  P.  G.,  II;  another  edition 
by  Lagarde,  1865.  The  "Recognitions''  are  found 
in  numerous  MSS.,  for  they  weie  very  popular  in  the 
Middle  Ages:  indeed  the  strange  liistory  of  Clement 
and  his  father  Faustus,  or  Faustinianus,  is  said  to 
have  originated  the  Faust  legend  (cf.  Richardson, 
"  Papers  of  Amer.  Soc.  of  Ch.  Hist. ",  VI,  1894).  The 
first  edition,  by  Faber  Stapulensis,  appeared  in  1504; 
Migne,  P.  G.,  I,  gives  a  reprint  of  Gersdorf*s  edition 
of  1838.  A  new  and  much-needed  edition  is  expected 
from  E.  C.  Richardson.  To  the  Homilies  are  pre- 
fixed two  lettero  and  an  account  of  the  reception  of 
one  of  them.  That  from  Clement  to  James  was  trans- 
lated by  Rufinus  at  an  earlier  date  than  the  Recog- 
nitions (best  edition  by  Fritzsche,  1873). 

Contents. — Lai:^  portions  of  the  Homilies  (H.) 
and  Recognitions  (K.)  are  almost  word  for  word  the 
same.  Yet  lar^r  portions  correspond  in  subject 
and  more  or  less  m  treatment.  Other  parts  contained 
only  in  one  of  the  two  works  appear  to  be  referred  to 
or  presupposed  in  the  other.  JThe  two'  works  are 
roughly  ot  the  same  length,  and  contain  the  same 
framework  of  romance.  H.  was  considered  to  be 
the  original  by  Neander,  Baur,  Scliliemann,  Schwegler, 
and  otners.  Lehmann  thought  the  first  three  books 
of  R.  to  be  original,  and  H.  for  the  remainder. 
Uhlhom  argued  that  both  were  recensions  of  an 
earlier  book,  "Preachings  of  Peter'',  R.  having  best 
preserved  the  narrative,  H.  the  dogmatic  teaching. 
Cave,  Whiston,  Rosenmiiller,  Ritschl,  Hilgenfeld,  and 
others  held  R.  to  be  the  original.  It  is  now  almost 
universally  held  (after  Hort,  Hamack,  Waitz)  that 
H.  and  R.  are  two  versions  of  an  original  CJlementine 
romance,  which  was  longer  than  either,  and  em- 
braced most  of  the  contents  of  both.  Sometimes  H., 
sometimes  R.,  is  the  more  faithful  to  the  archetype. 
With  the  elaborate  pliilosophical  and  dogmatic  dis- 
course which  forms  the  bulk  of  both  works  is  inter- 
woven a  story  which,  when  we  consider  its  date,  mav 
be  described  as  positively  exciting  and  romantic,  ft 
differs  slightly  m  the  two  books.  The  narrattve  is 
addressed  to  St.  James,  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and 
is  related  in  the  person  of  Clement  himself.    He 


OLSMENTHrES 


40 


GLXMUmNES 


begins  bv  detailing  his  religiuus  questiunin^,  bin 
doubts  about  immortality,  etc.  He  hears  at  Rome 
the  preaching  of  a  man  of  Judea  who  relates  the 
miracles  of  Christ.  This  man  (R.)  was  Barnabas; 
Clement  defends  him  from  the  mob,  and  follows  him 
to  Palestine.  (In  H.,  evidently  the  original  form,  no 
name  is  given.  Clement  sets  out  for  Palestine,  but  is 
driven  by  storms  to  Alexandria:  there  he  is  directed 
by  philosophers  to  Barnabas,  whom  he  defends  from 
the  mob  and  follows  to  Csesarea.)  At  Csesarea 
Clement  hears  that  Peter  is  there  and  is  about  to 
hold  a  disputation  with  Simon  Ma^s.  At  Peter's 
lodging  he  finds  Barnabas,  who  mt reduces  him. 
Peter  mvites  Clement  to  accompany  him  from  city 
to  city,  on  his  way  to  Rome,  in  order  to  hear  his  dis- 
courses. Clement  (so  R.,  or  Peter  himself,  H.)  sends 
a  report  of  this  to  James,  from  whom  Peter  has  an 
order  to  transmit  to  him  accounts  of  all  his  teaching. 
So  far  H.  i.  and  R.  i.,  1-21.  Then  the  two  recen- 
sions vary.  The  original  order  may  have  been  as 
follows:  Clement  arises  at  dawn  (H.  ii,  1)  and  finds 
Peter,  who  continues  to  instruct  him  (2-18,  cf.  R.  ii, 
33  and  iii,  61).  Peter  sends  for  two  of  his  disciples, 
Nicetas  and  Aquila,  whom  he  describes  as  foster-sons 
of  Justa,  the  Syro-Phoenician  woman  who  was  healed 
by  Christ.  They  had  been  educated  from  boyhood 
by  Simon  Ma^us,  but  had  been  converted  by  Zacchseus, 
another  disciple  of  Peter  (19-21).  Aquila  relates 
Simon's  parentage  and  his  Samaritan  origin,  and 
declares  that  he  claims  to  be  greater  than  the  God 
who  created  the  world  (H.  ii,  22,  R.  ii,  7).  He  had 
been  a  disciple  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  who  is  repre- 
sented in  H.  as  the  head  of  a  sect  of  ''daily  baptiz- 
eis";  Dositheus  succeeded  John  as  head  of  it,  and 
Simon  supplanted  Dositheus  (23-4).  In  R.  the 
Baptist  has  been  omitted,  and  the  sect  is  that  of 
Dositheus.  The  woman,  Helena,  whom  Simon  took 
about  with  him,  is  described  (in  R.  she  is  called  the 
moon — R.  ii,  12,  H.  ii,  26),  and  the  sham  miracles  he 
claimed  to  do  (H.  ii,  32,  R.  ii,  10).  He  can  make 
himself  visible  or  invisible  at  will,  can  pass  through 
rocks  as  if  they  were  clay,  throw  himself  down  from  a 
mountain  unhurt,  loose  himself  when  bound;  he  can 
animate  statues,  make  trees  spring  up;  he  can  throw 
himself  into  the  fire  without  harm,  can  appear  with 
two  faces:  "I  shall  change  myself  into  a  sneep  or  a 

foat.  I  shall  make  a  beard  to  grow  upon  little  bovs. 
shaU  ascend  by  flight  into  the  air.  I  shall  exhibit 
abundance  of  gold,  I  shall  make  and  unmake  kings. 
I  shall  be  worshipped  as  Crod,  I  shall  have  divine 
honours  publicly  assigned  to  me,  so  that  an  image  of 
me  shall  be  set  up,  and  I  shall  be  adored  as  God.'' 
(R.  ii,  9.)  Next  day  at  noon  Zacchseus  announces 
that  Simon  has  put  oflf  the  promised  dispute  (H.  ii. 
36-7j  R.  ii,  20-1).  Peter  instructs  Qement  till 
evening  (H.  ii,  38-53).  [Probably  before  this  should 
come  a  long  passage  of  H.  (i,  22-74)  in  which  Peter 
speaks  of  Old  Testament  history  (27-41)  and  then 

Sves  an  account  of  the  coming  of  the  true  Prophet, 
is  rejection.  Passion,  and  Resurrection,  and  relates 
the  preaching  to  the  Gentiles.  The  Church  at  Jeru- 
salem having  been  governed  by  James  for  a  week  of 
J  ears,  the  Apostles  return  from  their  travels,  and  at 
ames's  request  state  what  they  have  accomplished. 
Caiphas  sends  to  ask  if  Jesus  was  the  Christ.  Here 
Peter,  in  a  digression,  explains  why  the  true  Prophet 
is  called  Christ  and  describes  the  Jewish  sects.  Then 
we  are  told  how  the  Apostles  amied  before  Caiphas, 
and  refuted  successively  the  Sadducees,  Samaritans, 
Scribes,  Pharisees,  disciples  of  John,  and  Caiphas 
himself.  When  Peter  foretells  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple,  the  priests  are  enraged,  but  Gamaliel  quells 
the  tumult,  and  next  day  makes  a  speech.  St.  James 
preaches  for  seven  days,  and  the  people  are  on  the 
point  of  being  baptized,  when  an  enemy  (not  named, 
out  obviously  Simon)  excites  them  against  James, 
who  is  thrown  down  the  steps  of  the  Temple  and  left 


for  dead.  He  is  carried  to  Jericho,  with  5000  dis- 
ciples. On  recovering  he  sends  Peter  to  Gaesarea  to 
refute  Simon.  He  is  welcomed  by  Zacchfieus,  who 
relates  Simon's  doings  to  him.  The  author  of  H. 
probably  thought  ail  this  story  inconsistent  with 
Acts,  and  omitted  it.}  Next  morning  before  dawn 
Peter  arouses  his  disciples  (H.  iii,  1,  R.  ii,  1),  who  are 
enumerated  (H.  ii,  1,  K.  ii,  1).  Peter  gives  a  private 
preparatory  discourse  (H.)  and  then  goes  out  to  the 
public  discussion  with  Simon.  Only  one  day  of  it  is 
related  in  H.  (iii,  38-57),  but  the  whole  matter  of  the 
three  days  is  given  in  R.  (ii,  24-70,  iii,  12-30, 3^8). 
But  what  H.  has  omitted  R.  gives  largely,  though  in 
a  different  form,  in  xvi,  xvii,  xviii,  and  partly  in  xix, 
as  another  discussion  with  Simon  in  Laodioea.  It  is 
clear  that  R.  has  the  original  order.  Simon,  being 
worsted,  flies  in  the  night  to  Tyre.  Peter  deter- 
mines to  follow,  leaving  ZacchsBus  as  bishop  at 
Ceesarea  (H.  iii,  58-72,  R.  iii,  63-6).  H.  adds  that 
Peter  remained  seven  days  longer  and  baptised 
10,000  people,  sending  on  Nicetas  and  Aquila  to  stay 
at  Tyre  with  Bemice,  daughter  of  their  stepmother, 
Justa  (iii,  73).  But  R.  reUtes  that  seven  other  dis- 
ciples were  sent  on,  while  Clement  remained  at 
Csesarea  for  three  months  with  Peter,  who  repeat^ 
in  private  at  night  the  public  instructions  he  gave 
during  the  day.  All  this  Clement  wrote  down  and 
sent  to  James.  In  ch.  74  are  described  the  con- 
tents of  the  ten  books  of  these  sermons  as  sent  to 
Jerusalem.  H.  now  makes  Clement,  Nicetas,  and 
Aquila  go  on  to  Tyre.  Bemice  tells  them  how 
Simon  has  been  raising  ghosts,  infecting  the  people 
with  diseases,  and  bringmg  demons  upon  them,  and 
has  gone  to  Sidon.  Clement  has  a  discussion  with 
Simon's  disciple  Appion  (H-  v,  7 — vi,  25).  All  this 
is  omitted  by  R.,  but  the  same  subjects  are  discussed 
in  R.  X,  17-51.  Peter  goes  on  northward  by  Tyre, 
Sidon,  Berytus,  and  Byblus  to  Tripolis  (H.  vii,  5-12). 
(R.  adds  Dora  and  Ptolemais,  omitting  Byblus,  iv,  1.) 
Peter's  discourses  to  the  multitude  at  Tripolis  are 
detailed  in  H.  viii,  ix,  x,  xi,  and  in  R.  (three  days 
only)  iv,  v,  vi,  with  considerable  diflerences.  Clem- 
ent is  baptized  (H.  xi,  35,  R.  vi,  15).  After  a  stay 
of  three  months  ne  ^oes  through  Ortosias  to  Antara- 
dus  (H.  xii,  1,  R.  vii,  1). 

At  this  point  Clement  recounts  his  history  to  the 
Apostle.  He  was  closely  related  to  the  emperor. 
Soon  after  his  birth  his  mother  had  a  vision  that  unless 
she  speedily  left  Rome  with  her  twin  elder  sons,  she 
and  they  would  perish  miserably.  His  father  there- 
fore sent  them  with  many  servants  to  Athens,  but 
they  disappeared,  and  nothing  could  be  learned  of 
their  fate.  At  last,  when  Clement  was  twelve  years 
old,  his  father  himself  set  out  upon  the  search;  and 
he  too  was  no  more  heard  of  (H.  xii,  9-11,  R.  vii, 
8-10).  In  the  island  of  Aradus,  opposite  the  town, 
Peter  finds  a  miserable  beggar  woman,  who  turns  out 
to  be  Clement's  mother.  Peter  unites  them,  and 
heals  the  woman  (H.  xii,  12-23,  R.  vii,  11-23).  H. 
adds  a  discourse  by  Peter  on  philanthropy  (25-33). 
The  party  now  leave  Aradus  (Mattidia,  Clement's 
mother,  journeying  with  Peter  s  wife)  and  go  by 
Balanese,  Paltos,  and  Gabala  to  Laodicea  of  Syria. 
Nicetas  and  Aquila  receive  them,  and  hear  Clement's 
story  with  amazement;  they  declare  themselves  to  be 
Faustus  and  Faustinianus,  the  twin  sons  of  Mattidia 
and  brothers  of  Clement.  They  had  been  saved  on  a 
fragment  of  wreck,  and  some  men  in  a  boat  had  taken 
them  up.  They  had  been  beaten  and  starved,  and 
finally  sold  at  Csesarea  Stratonis  to  Justa,  who  had 
educated  them  as  her  own  sons.  Later  they  had 
adhered  to  Simon,  but  were  brought  by  Zacchsus  to 
Peter.  Mattidia  is  now^  baptiz^,  and  Peter  dis- 
courses on  the  rewards  given  to  chastity  (H.  xii,  R. 
vii,  24-38).  Next  morning  Peter  is  interrupted  at 
his  prayers  by  an  old  man,  who  assures  him  that 
prayer  is  a  mistake,  since  all  things  are  governed  by 


41 


OLEMUfTlHXS 


oeMsU  or  fate.  Peter  replies  (H.  xiv,  1-6— in  R. 
Nioetos),*^  Aquila  and  Clement  txy  also  to  refute  faun 
(viii,  5--ix,  33;  cf.  H.  xv,  1-5),  but  without  suooess, 
for  the  old  man  had  traced  the  horoscope  of  hknself 
atKi  his  wife,  and  it  came  true.  He  tells  his  Btor^. 
Clement,  Nioetas,  and  Aquila  guess  that  this  is  their 
father.  Peter  oaks  his  name  and  those  of  his  cfail- 
dresk.  The  mother  rushes  in,  and  all  embrace  in 
floods  of  tears.  Faustus  is  then  converted  by  a  long 
series  of  dtscouises  on  evil  and  on  mythology  (R.  x, 
1-61,  to  which  correspond  H.  xx,  1-10  ana  iv,  7 — 
vi,  25— the  (Uscussion  between  Clement  and  Appion 
at  Tyre.  The  long  discussions  with  Simon  before 
Faustus  m  U.  xvi,  xvii,  xviii  were  in  their  right 
place  in  R.  as  part  of  the  debate  at  Csesarea) .  Simon 
IS  (hiven  away  by  the  threats  of  Cornelius  the  Cen- 
turion, but  first  he  changes  the  face  of  Faustus  into 
his  own  likeness  by  smearing  it  with  a  magic  juice, 
in  hopes  that  Faustus  will  be  put  to  death  instead  of 
Irnnaelf.  Peter  frightens  away  Simon's  disciples  bv 
what  are  simply  lies,  and  he  sends  Faustus  to  Antioch 
to  unsay  in  the  person  of  Simon  all  the  abuse  Simon 
has  been  pouring  on  the  Apostle  there.  The  people 
of  Antiocn  in  consequence  long  for  Peter's  coming, 
and  nearly  put  the  false  Simon  to  death.  Peter 
restores  him  to  his  proper  form,  and  thenceforth  they 
all  Hve  happily. 

A  lettw  from  Clement  to  James  forms  an  epilogue 
to  H.  In  it  Clement  relates  how  Peter  berore  nis 
death  gave  his  last  instructions  and  set  Clement  in 
his  own  chair  as  his  successor  in  the  See  of  Rome. 
James  is  addressed  as  ''Bishop  of  bishops,  who  rules 
Jerusalem,  the  holy  Church  ot  the  Hebrews,  and  the 
Churches  everywhere".  To  him  Clement  sends  a 
book,  "Clement's  Epitome  of  the  Preadungs  of 
Peter  from  place  to  place".  Another  letter,  tfa^t  of 
Peter  to  James,  forms  an  introduction.  The  Apostle 
\XTfi0S  that  the  book  of  his  teachings  is  not  to  be  com- 
mitted to  anyone  before  initiation  and  probation.  A 
note  follows  the  letter,  relating  that  James  on  receipt 
of  the  letter  called  the  elders  and  read  it  to  them. 
The  book  is  to  be  given  only  to  one  who  is  pious,  and 
a  teacher,  and  circumdwd,  and  even  then  only  a  part 
at  a  time.  A  form  of  promise  (not  an  oath,  which  is 
unlawful)  is  prescribed  for  the  reader,  by  heaven, 
earth,  water,  and  air,  that  he  will  take  extraordinary 
care  of  the  writings  and  communicate  them  to  no 
one;  he  invokes  upon  himself  terrible  curses  in  case 
he  should  be  unfaithful  to  this  covenant.  The  most 
curious  passage  is:  ''Even  if  I  should  come  to 
acknowledge  another  Qod,  I  now  swear  b^r  him, 
whether  he  exist  or  not."  After  the  adjuration  he 
shaD  partake  of  bread  and  salt.  The  elders,  on 
hearing  of  this  solemnity,  are  terrified,  but  James 
FKftcifies  them.  The  whole  of  this  elaborate  mystifica- 
tion is  obviously  intended  to  explain  how  the 
Clementine  writmgps  came  to  be  unknown  from 
Clement's  time  until  the  date  of  their  unknown 
author.  Many  parallels  can  be  found  in  modem 
times;  Sir  Walter  Scott's  prefaces — ^the  imaginary 
Mr.  Oldbuck  and  his  friends — ^will  occur  to  everyone. 
Nevertheless  a  gjood  many  modem  critics  accept  the 
*'  adjuration  "  with  the  utmost  gravity  as  the  secret 
rite  of  an  obscure  and  very  early  sect  of  Judaizers. 

Doctrine. — ^The  central  and  all-important  doc- 
trine of  the  Clementines  is  the  Unity  of  God.  Though 
transcendent  and  imknowable.  He  is  the  Creator  of 
the  World.  Though  infinite,  He  has  (according  to 
the  Homilies)  shape  and  body,  for  He  is  the  Arche- 
t>pe  of  all  beauty,  and  in  particular  the  exemplar 
e^r  which  man  was  fashioned.  He,  therefore,  even 
^smembers,  in  some  eminent  way.  He  is  the  self- 
b^otten  or  unbegotten,  from  whom  proceeds  His 
Wisdom  like  a  hand.  To  His  Wisdom  He  said:  "Let 
w  make  man  ",  and  He  is  the  "  Parents  "  (i.  e..  Father 
and  Mother)  oif  men. 

The  HomiKcs  also  explain  that  ttie  elements  pro- 


ceed from  God  as  His  Child.  From  them  the  Evil 
One  proceeded  by  an  accidental  mingling.  He  is 
theretore  not  the  Son,  nor  ev^i  to  be  called  brother 
of  the  Son.  God  is  infinitely  chiOigeable,  and  can 
assume  all  forms  at  will.  The  Son  proceeds  from  the 
most  perfect  of  these  modifications  of  the  Divine 
nature  and  is  consubstantial  with  that  modification, 
but  not  with  the  Divine  nature  itself.  The  Son  is 
not  God,  therefore,  in  the  full  sense,  nor  has  He  all  the 

S>wer  of  God.  He  cannot  chanse  Himself,  though 
e  can  be  changed  at  will  by  God.  Of  the  Ho^ 
Ghost  we  learn  nothing  definite.  The  whole  of  this 
extraordinary  teaching  is  omitted  in  R.,  except  the 
accidental  generation  of  the  devil.  Instead  we  find 
a  long  passage,  R  iii,  2-11,  in-cormpt  and  unintelli- 
gible Latin,  preserved  also  in  the  early  Syriac  MSS. 
Kufinus  in  his  preface  tells  us  that  he  omitted  it,  and 
in  his  work  on  the  adulteration  of  the  books  of  Origen 
he  declares  that  it  b  so  Eunomian  in  doctrine  that  one 
seems  to  hear  Eunomius  himself  speaking.  It  is 
naturally  not  found  in  the  best  MSS.  of  R.,  but  as 
preserved  in  many  MSS.  it  is  an  interpolation  b^ 
some  Arian  editor,  who  seems  to  have  translated  it 
from  the  original  Greek  without  always  understand- 
ing the  meaning.  The  doctrine  is,  as  Rufinus  says, 
the  Arianism  of  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century. 
The  Son  is  a  creature;  the  Holy  Ghost  the  creature  of 
the  Son. 

Of  demons  much  is  said.  They  have  great  power 
over  the  self-indulgent,  and  are  swallowed  with  food 
by  those  who  eat  too  much.  Magic  is  constantly 
mentioned,  and  its  use  reprobated.  Idolatry  is 
argued  against  at  length.  The  immorality  of  the 
Greek  stories  of  the  gods  is  ridiculed,  and  attempts  at 
mystical  explanation  are  refuted.  Various  virtues 
are  praised:  temperance,  kindness  or  philanthropy, 
chastity  in  the  married  state;  asceticism  of  a  most 
rigorous  kind  is  practised  by  St.  Peter.  The  intro- 
duction after  the  Deluge  of  eating  meat,  according  to 
the  Book  of  Genesis,  is  violently  dfenoimced,  as  having 
naturally  led  to  cannibalism.  The  use  of  meat  is, 
however,  not  forbidden  as  a  sin,  and  is  probably  peiv 
mitted  as  a  bad,  but  ineradicable,  custom.  There  is 
no  trace  of  any  Judaistic  observance,  for  though  the 
letter  of  Peter  and  the  speech  of  James  allow  the 
books  to  be  ^ven  to  none  who  is  not  "a  circumcised 
believer",  this  is  only  a  part  of  the  mystification,  by 
which  the  number  of  adepts  is  limited  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. 

It  is  now  becoming  recognised  bv  all  critics  that 
the  original  writings  were  not  intended  for  the  use  of 
baptized  Christians  of  any  sect.  Most  of  the  latest 
critics  say  they  are  meant  for  catechumens,  and  in- 
deed the  office  of  a  teacher  is  highly  commended;  but 
it  would  be  more  exact  to  sa^  that  the  arguments  are 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  mquiring  heathens.  Of 
baptism  much  is  said,  but  of  repentance  little.  There 
is  little  characteristically  Christian  doctrine  to  hp 
found;  atonement  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  sin 
and  its  penalty,  forgiveness,  grace,  are  far  to  seek. 
Once  the  Eucharist  is  mentioned  by  name:  "Peter 
broke  the  Eucharist"  (H.  xi,  36,  R.  vi,  15).  Christ 
is  always  spoken  of  as  "the  true  Prophet",  as  the 
revealer  to  men  of  God,  of  trath,  of  the  answers  to  the 
riddle  of  life.  The  writer  knows  a  complete  s^tem 
of  ecclesiastical  organization.  Peter  sets  a  bishop 
over  each  city,  with  priest  and  deacons  under  him; 
the  office  of  bishop  is  well  defined.  It  was  princi- 
pally this  fact  which  prevented  critics  of  the  Tttbinger 
School  from  dating  H.  and  R.  earlier  than  the  middle 
of  the  second  century.  The  writer  was  not  an 
Ebionite,  since  he  believes  in  the  pre-existence  of  the 
Son,  His  Incamation  and  miraculous  conception, 
^iiile  he  enjoins  no  Jewish  observances. 

Antagonism  to  St.  Paul  is  commonly  asserted  to  be 
a  characteristic  of  the  Clementines.  He  is  never 
mentioned,  for  the  supposed  date  of  the  dialogues  is 


OLEHBNTINSS 


42 


OLEMsmmnss 


before  his  conversion,  and  the  writer  is  very  careful  to 
avoid  anachronisms.  But  his  Epistles  are  regularly 
used,  and  the  ^unds  for  supposing  that  Simon 
always  or  sometmies  'represents  St.  Paul  are  exceed- 
ingly feeble.  The  latest  critics,  who  still  admit  that 
St.  Paul  is  occasionallv  combated,  do  not  attribute 
this  attitude  to  the  Clementine  writer,  but  only  to 
one  of  some  presumed  sources.  In  fact,  there  is  a 
clear  prophetic  reference  to  St.  Paul  as  the  teacher 
of  the  nations  in  R.  iii,  61.  But  it  is  not  safe  to  admit 
any  polemic  against  St.  Paul's  person  in  any  part  of 
the  writings,  for  the  simple  reason  that  there  is  no- 
where any  trace  of  antagonism  to  his  doctrines. 

It  seems  to  be  universallv  held  that  the  Clemen- 
tines are  based  upjon  the  doctrines  of  the  Book  of 
Elchasai  or  Hebcai,  which  was  much  used  by  the 
Ebionites.  The  contents  of  it  were  said  to  have  been 
revealed  by  an  angel  ninety-six  miles  high  to  a  holy 
man  Elchasai  in  the  year  100,  and  this  is  gravely  ac- 
cepted by  Hilgenfeld  and  Waitz  as  its  reu  date.  It 
does  not,  however,  seem  to  have  been  known  until  it 
was  brought  to  Rome  about  the  year  220,  by  a  cer- 
tain Alcibiades  of  Apamea.  We  know  its  doctrines 
from  the  ^'Philosopnumena"  and  from  Epiphanius. 
It  taught  a  second  baptism  (in  running  streams  with 
all  the  clothes  on)  for  the  remission  of  sins,  to  be  ac- 
companied by  an  adjuration  of  seven  elements;  the 
same  process  was  recommended  as  a  cure  for  the  bite 
of  mad  does  and  for  similar  evils.  This  is  not  par- 
ticularly like  the  calling  of  four  (not  seven)  elements 
to  witness  a  solemn  promise  by  the  side  of  water 
(without  bathing)  in  tne  Clementines.  For  the  rest, 
Elchasai  taught  magic  and  astrolo^,  made  marriage 
compulsory,  celebrated  the  Eucharist  with  bread  and 
water,  caused  all  believers  to  be  circumcised  and  to  live 
by  the  Jewish  law,  held  that  Christ  was  bom  of  a 
human  father.  All  this  is  contradictoiy  to  the 
Clementines.  The  only  point  of  resemblance  seems 
to  be  that  the  Homilies  represent  Christ  as  having 
been  in  Adam  and  Moses,  while  Elchasai  said  He  haa 
been  frequently  incarnate  in  Adam  and  since,  and 
would  be  a^in.  The  Clementine  writer  is  fond  of 
pain  of  antitheses,  or  <rv^ia,  such  as  Christ  and  the 
tempter,  Peter  and  Simon.  But  these  have  no  con- 
nexion with  any  Gnostic  or  Marcionite  antitheses, 
nor  is  there  any  trace  of  the  Gnostic  genealogies.  He 
is  simply  airing  his  own  pseudo-philosophic  specula- 
tions. Polemic  against  Marcionism  has  often  been 
pointed  out.  But  the  denial  of  two  Gods,  a  tran- 
scendental God  and  a  Creator,  is  directed  a^inst  popu- 
lar neo-Platonism,  and  not  against  Marcion.  Agam, 
replies  are  made  to  objections  to  Christianity  drawn 
from  immorality  or  anthropomorphism  in  the  Old 
Testament,  but  these  objections  are  not  Marcionite. 
The  writer  is  fond  of  citing  sayings  of  Christ  not  found 
in  Scripture.  His  Scripture  tesrt  has  been  analyzed 
by  Hileenfeld,  Waitz,  and  others.  He  never  cites  a 
book  of  the  N.  T.  by  name,  which  would  be  an  an- 
achronism at  the  date  he  has  chosen. 

Early  Use  of  the  Clementinbs. — ^It  was  long 
believed  that  the  early  date  of  the  Clementines  was 
proved  by  the  fact  tliat  they  were  twice  quoted  by 
Origen.  One  of  these  quotations  occurs  in  the 
^'Philocalia''  of  Sts.  Gregorv  of  Nazianzus  and  Basil 
(c.  360).  Dr.  Armitage  Kobinson  showed  in  his  edi- 
tion of  that  work  (1893)  that  the  citation  is  an  addi- 
tion to  the  passage  of  Origen  made  by  the  compilers, 
or  possibly  by  a  later  editor.  The  other  citation 
occurs  in  the  old  Latin  translation  of  Origen  on 
Matthew.  This  translation  is  full  of  interpolations 
and  alterations,  and  the  passage  of  Pseudo-Qement 
is  apparently  an  interpolation  by  the  translator  from 
the  Arian  "  Opus  imperfectum  in  Matt."  (See  Journal 
of  Theol.  Studies,  III,  436.)  Omitting  Origen,  the 
earliest  witness  is  Eusebius.  In  his  ''Hist.  Eccl.'^  III, 
xx3cviii  (a.  d.  325)  he  mentions  some  short  writings 
and  adds:  ''And  now  some  have  only  the  other  day 


brought  forward  other  wordy  and  lengtny  ccHnpo- 
sitions  as  bein^  Clement's,  containing  dialogues  of 
Fteter  and  Appion,  of  which  there  is  absolutelv  no 
mention  in  the  ancients."  These  dialogues  need  not 
have  been  the  complete  romance,  but  may  have  been 
an  earlier  draft  ofpart  of  it.  Next  we  find  the  Clem- 
entines used  by  Ebionites  c.  360  (Epiphanius,  Hser., 
XXX,  15).  They  are  quoted  as  the  ^Periodi"  by  St. 
Jerome  in  387  and  392  (On  Gal.,  i,  18,  and  "Adv. 
Jovin.",  i,  26).  Two  forms  of  the  "Recognitions" 
were  known  to  Rufinus,  and  one  of  them  was  trans- 
lated by  him  c.  400.  About  408  St.  Paulinus  of 
Nola,  in  a  letter  to  Rufinus,  mentions  having  himself 
tramdated  a  part  or  all,  perhaps  as  an  exercise  in 
Greek.  The  '^Opus  imperfectum"  above  mentioned 
has  five  quotations,  it  is  apparently  by  an  Arian 
of  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  possibly  by  a 
bishop  called  Maximus.  The  Syriac  translation  was 
made  before  41 1,  the  date  of  one  of  the  MSS.  After 
this  time  citations  occur  in  many  Byzantine  writers, 
and  from  the  commendation  given  by  Nicephorus 
Callisti  (fourteenth  century)  we  may  gather  tnat  an 
orthodox  version  was  current.  In  the  West  the 
translation  by  Rufinus  became  very  popular,  and 
citations  are  found  in  Syriac  and  Arabic  writings. 

Modern  Theories  op  Ortoin  and  Date:— Baur, 
the  founder  of  the  "Tubingen  School"  of  New  Testa- 
ment criticism,  rested  his  ideas  about  the  New  Testa- 
ment on  the  Clementines,  and  his  ideas  about  the 
Clementines  on  St.  Epiphanius,  who  found  the  writ- 
ing used  by  an  Ebionite  sect  in  the  fourth  centuiy. 
This  JudsBo-Christian  sect  at  that  date  rejected  St. 
Paul  as  an  apostate.  It  was  assumed  that  this 
fourth-century  opinion  represented  the  Christianity 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles;  Paulinism  was  ori^n^y  a 
heresy,  and  a  schism  from  the  Jewish  Christianity  of 
James  and  Peter  and  the  rest;  Marcion  was  a  leader 
of  the  Pauline  sect  in  its  survival  in  the  second  cen- 
tur3r,  using  only  the  Pauline  Gospel,  St.  Luke  ([in  its 
original  form),  and  the  Emstles  of  St.  Paul  (without 
the  Pastoral  Epistles).  The  Clementine  literature 
had  its  first  origm  in  the  Ap€>stolic  Age,  and  belonged 
to  the  original  Jewish,  Petrine,  legal  Church.  It  is 
directed  wholly  against  St.  Paul  and  his  sect.  Simon 
Magus  never  existed;  it  is  a  nickname  for  St.  Paul. 
The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  compiled  in  the  second  cen- 
tuiy, have  borrowed  their  mention  of  Simon  from 
the  earliest  form  of  the  Clementines.  Catholicism 
under  the  presidency  of  Rome  was  the  result  of  the 
adjustment  between  the  Petrine  and  Pauline  sections 
of  the  Church  in  the  second  half  of  the  second  oentuiy. 
The  Fourth  Gospel  is  a  monument  of  this  reconcili- 
ation, in  which  Rome  took  a  leading  part,  having  in- 
vented the  fiction  that  both  Peter  and  Paul  were  the 
founders  of  her  Church,  both  having  been  martyred 
at  Rome,  and  on  the  same  day,  in  perfect  union. 

Throughout  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
this  theonr,  in  many  forms,  was  dominant  in  Ger- 
manv.  The  demonstration,  mainly  by  English 
scholars,  of  the  impossibility  of  the  late  dates  ascnbed 
to  the  New  Testament  documents  (four  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul  and  the  Apocalypse  were  the  only  documents 
generally  admittea  as  being  of  early  date),  and  the 
proofs  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers 
and  of  the  use  of  St.  John  s  Gospel  by  Justin,  Papias, 
and  Ignatius  gradually  brought  Baur's  theories  into 
discredit.  Of  the  original  school,  Adolf  Hilgen- 
feld may  be  considered  the  last  survivor  (d.  1907).  He 
was  induced  many  years  ago  to  admit  that  Simon 
Magus  was  a  real  personage,  though  he  persists  that 
in  tne  Clementines  he  is  meant  for  St.  Paul.  To  a 
priori  critics  it  counts  as  nothing  that  Simon  holds  no  • 
Pauline  doctrine  and  that  the  author  shows  no  signs 
of  being  a  Judieo-Christian.  In  1S47  Hilgenfeld 
dated  the  original  nucleus  (Preachings  of  Peter)  soon 
after  the  Jewish  war  of  70;  successive  revisions  of  it 
were    anti-Basilidian,   anti-Valentinian,   and  anti- 


OUHBllTIlfXS 


4J 


OLKMBNTimBS 


Marcionite  respectively.  Baur  placed  the  completed 
form,  H.,  soon  after  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
and  Schliemann  (1S44)  agreed,  placing  R.,  aa  a  revis- 
ion, between  211  and  230.  This  writer  sums  up  the 
opinions  of  his  predecessors  thus: 

R.  2nd  century:  Sixtus  Senensis,  Blondellus, 
Nourri,  Cotelerius,  Natalis  Alexander,  Gave,  Oudin, 
Heinsius,  Rosenmaller,  FlO^,  Gieseler,  Tholuck, 
Bretschneider,  Engelhardt,  Gfrdrer. 

R.  2nd  or  3rd  century:  Schr5ck,  Stark,  Lumper, 
Krabbe,  Locherer,  Gersdorf. 

R.  3rd  century:  Strunzius  (on  Bardesanes,  1710), 
Weifflnann  (1718),  Mosheim,  Kleuker,  Schmidt 
(Ejrchengesch.)- 

R.  4th  century:  Corrodi,  Lentz  (Dogmengesch.)* 

H.  2nd  century  (beginning):  Credner,  Bretschnei- 
der, Kem,  Rothe. 

H.  2nd  century:  Clericus,  Beausobre,  Flttgge, 
MUnscher,  Hoffmann,  Ddllinger,  Hilgers;  (middle  of 
2nd)  Ease. 

H.  end  of  2nd  century:  Schr5ck,  Cdlln,  Gieeeler 
(3rd  ed.),  Schenkel,  GfrSrer,  LUcke. 

H.  3rd  century:  Mill,  Mosheim,  Gallandi,  Gieseler 
(2nd  ed.). 

H.  2nd  or  3rd  century:  Neander,  Krabbe,  Baur, 
Ritter,  Paniel,  D&hne. 

H.  4th  century:  Lentz. 

Uhlhom  in  his  valuable  monograph  (1854)  placed 
the  orifi;inal  document,  or  Orundschriftt  in  East 
Syria,  alter  150;  H.  in  the  same  region  after  160;  R. 
in  Rome  after  170.  Lehmann  (1869)  put  the  source 
(Preaching  of  Peter)  very  early,  H.  ana  R.  i-ii  before 
160,  the  rest  of  R.  before  170.  In  England  Salmon 
set  R.  about  200,  H.  about  218.  Dr.  Bigg  makes  H. 
the  original,  Syrian,  first  half  of  second  century,  R. 
being  a  recasting  in  an  orthodox  sense.  H.  was  orig* 
inally  written  by  a  Catholic,  and  the  heretical  parts 
belong  to  a  later  recension.  Dr.  Headlam,  in  a  very 
interesting  article,  considers  that  the  original  form 
was  rather  a  collection  of  works  than  a  single  book, 
yet  all  products  of  one  design  and  plan,  coming  from 
one  wnter,  of  a  curious,  versatile,  unequally  devel- 
oped mind.  While  accepting  the  dependence  on  the 
Book  of  Elchasai,  Dr.  Headlam  sees  no  antagonism  to 
St.  Paul^  and  declares  that  the  writer  is  quite  ignorant 
of  Judaism.  Under  the  impression  that  the  ori^pnal 
work  was  known  to  Origen,  ne  is  obliged  to  date  it  at 
the  end  of  the  second  century  or  the  b«^ninf  of 
the  third.  In  1883  Bestmann  made  the  ClementmeB 
the  basis  of  an  unsuccessful  theory  which,  aa  Hamack 
puts  it,  "  claimed  for  Jewish  Christianity  the  glory  of 
having  developed  by  itself  the  whole  doctrine,  wor- 
ship, and  constitution  of  Catholicism,  and  of  having 
transmitted  it  to  Gentile  Christianity  as  a  finished 

Sroduct  which  only  required  to  be  divested  of  a  few 
ewish  husks"  (Hist,  of  Dogma,  I,  310). 
Another  popiilar  theory  based  upon  the  Clemen- 
tines has  been  that  it  was  the  Epistle  of  Clement  to 
James  which  originated  the  notion  that  St.  Peter  was 
the  first  Bishop  of  Rome.  This  has  been  asserted  by 
no  lesser  authorities  than  Lightfoot,  Salmon,  and 
Bright,  and  it  has  been  made  an  important  point  in 
the  controversial  work  of  the  Rev.  F.  W.  Puller, 
"Primitive  Saints  and  the  Roman  See".  It  is  ac- 
knowledged that  in  St.  Cyprian's  time  (c.  250)  it  was 
universaUy  believed  that  St.  Peter  was  Bishop  of 
Rome,  and  that  he  was  looked  upon  as  the  type 
and  origin  of  episcopacy.  Modem  criticism  has  lon^ 
since  put  the  letter  of  Clement  too  late  to  allow  this 
theory  to  be  tenable,  and  now  Waitz  places  it  after 
220,  and  Hamack  after  260.  We  shall  presently  see 
that  it  probably  belongs  to  the  fourth  century. 

The  "Old  Catholic"  Professor  Langen  in  1890 
elaborated  a  new  theory.  Until  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  in  135,  he  sajrs,  that  city  was  the  centre  of 
the  Cluistian  Church.  A  new  pivot  was  then  needed. 
The  OhuTch  of  the  capital  made  a  bold  bid  for  the 


vacant  post  of  pre-eminence.  Shortly  after  135  was 
published  the  original  form  of  the  Clementine  ro- 
mance. It  was  a  Roman  forgery,  claiming  for  the 
Church  of  Peter  the  succession  to  a  part  of  the  head- 
ship of  the  Church  of  James.  James  indeed  had  been 
"bishop  of  bishops",  and  Peter's  successor  could  not 
claim  to  be  more  than  Peter  was  among  the  Apostles, 
primus  inter  pares.  The  Roman  attempt  was  eventu- 
ally successful,  but  not  without  a  stru^le.  Csesarea, 
the  metropolis  of  Palestine,  also  claimed  the  succes- 
sion to  Jerusalem.  The  monument  of  this  claim  is 
H.,  a  recension  of  the  Roman  work  made  at  Csesarea 
before  the  end  of  the  second  century  in  order  to  fight 
Rome  with  her  own  weapons.  (The  intention  must 
be  admitted  to  have  been  closely  vjeiled.)  In  the 
be^linning  of  the  third  century  the  metropolis  of  the 
Orient,  ^tioch,  produced  a  new  edition,  R.,  claiming 
for  that  city  the  vacant  primacy.  Langen 's  view 
has  found  no  adherents. 

Dr.  Hort  complained  that  the  Clementines  have 
left  no  traces  in  tne  eighty  years  between  Origen  and 
Eusebius,  but  he  felt  obliged  to  date  them  before 
Origen,  and  placed  the  original  c.  200  as  the  work 
of  a  Syrian  Helxalte.  Hamack,  in  his  "History  of 
Dogma",  saw  that  they  had  no  influence  in  the  tnird 
century:  he  dated  R.  and  H.  not  earlier  than  the  first 
half  of  tnat  century,  or  even  a  few  decades  later.  All 
the  foregoing  writers  presupposed  that  the  Clemen- 
tines were  Imown  to  Origen.  Since  this  has  been 
shown  to  be  not  proven  (1903),  Waitz's  elaborate 
study  has  appeared  (1904),  but  his  view  was  evi- 
dently formed  earlier.  His  view  is  that  H.  is  the 
work  of  an  Aramsean  Christian  after  325  (for  he  uses 
the  word  d/iooifviot)  and  earlier  than  411  (the  Syriac 
MS.),  R.  probably  after  350,  also  in  the  East.  But 
the  Orundschrift,  or  archetype,  was  written  at  Rome, 
perhaps  under  the  syncretistic  system  of  cult  in 
favour  at  the  court  of  Alexander  Severus,  probably 
between  220  and  250.  Hamack,  in  his  "Chronol- 
ogie"  (II),  gives  260  or  later  as  the  date,  but  he 
thinks  H.  and  R.  may  be  ante-Nicene.  Waitz  sup- 
poses two  earlier  sources  to  have  been  employed  m 
the  romance,  the  "Preachings  of  Peter"  (ori^n  in 
first  century,  but  used  in  a  later  anti-Marcionite 
recension)  and  the  "Acts  of  Peter"  (written  in  a 
Catholic  circle  at  Antioch  c.  210).  Hamack  accepts 
the  existence  of  these  sources,  but  thinks  neither  was 
earlier  than  about  200.  They  are  carefuUy  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  well-known  second-century 
works,  the  "Preaching  of  Peter"  and  "Acts  of 
Peter",  of  which  fragments  still  exist.  These  are 
quoted  by  many  early  writers,  whereas  the  supposed 
sources  of  the  Clementines  are  otherwise  unknown, 
and  therefore  probably  never  existed  at  all.  A  long 
l^issage  from  Pseudo-Bardesanes' "  De  Fato"  occurs  in 
R.  ix,  19  sqq.  Hilgenfeld,  Ritschl,  and  some  earlier 
critics  characteristically  held  that  Bardesanes  used 
the  Clementines.  Merx,  Waitz,  and  most  others  hold 
that  R.  cites  Bardesanes  directly.  Nau  and  Hamack 
are  certainly  right,  that  R.  has  borrowed  the  citation 
at  second  hand  from  Eusebius  (Pnep.  Evang.,  vi,  10, 
11-48,  A.  D.  313). 

Probable  Date  op  the  Clementines. — ^We  now 
know  that  the  Clementine  writer  need  not  have  lived 
before  Origen.  Let  us  add  that  there  is  no  reason  to 
think  he  was  a  Judseo-Christian,  an  Elchasaite,  or 
anti-Pauline,  or  anti-Marcionite,  that  he  employed 
ancient  sources,  that  he  belonged  to  a  secretive  sect. 
We  are  free,  then,  to  look  out  for  indications  of  date 
without  prejudice. 

R.  is  certainly  post-Nicene,  as  Waitz  has  shown. 
But  we  may  go  further.  The  curious  passage  R.  iii, 
2-11,  which  Rufinus  omitted,  and  in  which  he  seemed 
to  hear  Eunomius  himself  speaking,  gives  in  fact  the 
doctrine  of  Eunomius  so  exactly  that  it  frequently 
almost  cites  the  "Apologeticus''  (c.  362-3)  of  that 
heretic  word  for  word.    (The  Eunomian  doctrine  is 


OUBMENT 


44 


OUBMBirT 


that  the  essence  of  God  is  to  be  unborn,  consequently 
the  Son  Who  is  begotten  is  not  God.  He  is  a  creature, 
the  first-bom  of  all  creation  and  the  Image  of  God. 
The  Holy  Ghost  is  the  creature  of  the  Son.)  The 
agreement  with  Eunomius's  ixOwit  TUrretat  of 
381-3  is  less  close.  As  the  Eunomian  passage  was 
found  by  Rufinus  in  both  the  recensions  of  Clement 
known  to  him,  we  may  suppose  that  the  interpolation 
was  made  in  the  origmal  work  by  a  Eunomian  about 
365-70,  before  the  abridgment  R.  was  made  about 
370-80.  (The  word  archiepiacopus  used  of  St.  James 
suggests  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  It  occurs  in 
the  middle  of  that  centuiy  in  some  Meletian  docu- 
ments cited  by  Athanasius,  and  then  not  till  the 
Council  of  Ephesus,  431.) 

H.  has  also  a* disquisition  on  the  generation  of  the 
Son  (xvi,  16-18,  and  xx,  7-8).  The  writer  calls  God 
airordrtap  and  a^oyimntroSj  and  both  Mother  and 
Father  of  men.  His  idea  of  a  changeable  God  and 
an  unchangeable  Son  projected  from  the  best  modi- 
fication of  God  has  been  mentioned  above.  This 
ingenious  doctrine  enables  the  writer  to  accept  the 
words  of  the  Nicene  definition,  while  denying  their 
sense.  The  Son  may  be  called  God,  for  so  may  men 
be,  but  not  in  the  strict  sense.  He  is  6tMo6aios  rt} 
Uarplf  begotten  ix  r^t  o&r(at.  He  is  not  rptwHt  or 
dXXoici»r6s.  Apparently  He  is  not  KTwrht^  nor  was 
there  a  time  when  He  was  not,  though  this  is  not 
quite  distinctly  enunciated.  The  wnter  is  clearly 
an  Arian  who  manages  to  accept  the  formula  of 
NicsBa  by  an  acrobatic  feat,  in  order  to  save  himself. 
The  date  is  therefore  probably  within  the  reign  of 
Constantine  (d.  337),  while  the  great  council  was 
still  impoNBed  on  all  by  the  emperor — say,  about  330. 

But  this  is  not  the  date  of  H.,  but  of  the  original 
behind  both  H.  and  R.;  for  it  is  clear  that  the  Euno- 
mian interpolator  of  R.  attacks  the  doctrine  we.  find 
in  H.  He  ridicules,  a^oirdrwp  and  a^oydvmfrot,  he 
declares  God  to  be  unchangeable,  and  the  Son  to  be 
created,  not  begotten  from  the  Father's  essence  and 
consubstantial.  God  is  not  mascvlo-femina.  It  is 
clear  that  the  interpolator  had  before  him  the  doctrine 
of  H.  in  a  yet  clearer  form,  and  that  he  substituted 
his  own  view  for  it  (R.  iii,  2-11).  But  it  is  remark- 
able that  he  retained  one  integral  part  of  H.'s  theory, 
viz.,  the  origin  of  the  Evil  One  from  an  accidental 
mixture  of  elements,  for  Rufinus  tells  us  (De  Adult, 
libr.  Origenis)  that  he  found  this  doctrine  in  R.  and 
omitted  it.  The  date  of  the  original  is  therefore 
fixed  as  after  Nicaea,  325,  probably  c.  330;  that  of  H. 
may  be  anywhere  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourth 
century.  The  Eunomian  interpolator  is  about 
365-70,  and  the  compilation  of  R.  about  370-80. 

The  original  author  shows  a  detailed  knowledge  of 
the  towns  on  the  Phoenician  coast  from  Csesarea  to 
Antioch.  He  was  an  Arian,  and  Arianism  had  its 
home  in  the  civil  diocese  of  the  Orient.  He  uses  the 
"Praep.  Evang."  of  Eusebius  of  Csesarea  (written 
about  313).  In  325  that  historian  mentions  the 
dialogues  of  Peter  and  Appion  as  just  published 
— ^presumably  in  his  own  region;  these  were  prol>- 
ably  the  nucleus  of  the  lai*ger  work  completed 
by  the  same  hand  a  few  years  later.  Citations 
of  Pseudo-Clement  are  by  the  Palestinian  Epipha- 
nius,  who  found  the  romance  among  the  Ebionites 
of  Palestine;  by  St.  Jerome,  who  hfwi  dwelt  in  the 
Syrian  desert  and  settled  at  Bethlehem;  by  the 
travelled  Rufinus;  by  the  "Apostolical  Constitutions", 
compiled  in  Syria  or  Palestine.  The  work  is  renderea 
into  Syriac  before  411.  The  Arian  author  of  the 
"Opus  imperfectum"  cited  it  freely.  It  was  in- 
terpolated by  a  Eunomian  about  365-70.  All 
th^  indications  sufl;gest  an  Arian  author  before  350 
in  the  East,  probably  not  far  from  Csesarea. 

The  author,  though  an  Arian,  probably  belonged 
nominally  to  the  Catholic  Church.  He  wrote  for  the 
heathens  of  his  day,  and  observed  the  stiff  and  often 


merely  formal  disciplina  arcani  which  the  fourth  oen- 
tuiy  enforced.  Atonement,  grace,  sacraments  are 
omitted  for  this  cause  only.  "The  true  Prophet"  is 
not  a  name  for  Christ  used  by  Christians,  but  the 
ofllce  of  Christ  which  the  author  puts  forward 
towards  the  pagan  world.  He  shows  Peter  keeping 
the  evening  ajppe  and  Eucharist  secret  from  Clement 
when  unbaptized;  it  was  no  doubt  a  Eucharist  of 
bread  and  wine,  not  of  bread  and  salt. 

The  great  pagan  antagonist  of  the  third  century 
was  the  neo-Piatonic  ppilosopher.  Porphyry;  but 
under  Constantine  his  disciple  lamblichus  was  the 
chief  restorer  and  defender  of  the  old  gods,  and  his 
S3r8tem  of  defence  is  that  which  we  find  made  the 
official  religion  by  Julian  (361-3).  Consequently, 
it  is  not  astonishing  to  find  that  Simon  and  his  disci- 
ples represent  not  St.  Paul,  but  lamblichus.  The 
doctrines  and  practices  repelled  are  the  theuigy  and 
magic,  astroli^  and  mantic^  absurd  miracles  and 
claims  to  union  with  the  Divinity,  which  character- 
ized the  debased  neo-Platonism  of  320-30.  It  is  not 
against  Marcion  but  against  Plato  that  Pseudo- 
Clement  teaches  the  supremacy  of  the  Creator  of  alL 
He  defends  the  Old  Testament  against  the  school  of 
Porphyry,  and  when  he  declares  it  to  be  interpolated, 
he  IS  using  Porphyry's  own  higher  criticism  in  a 
clumsy  way.  Tne  elaborate  discussion  of  ancient 
history,  the  ridicule  cast  on  the  obscene  mythology 
of  the  Greeks,  and  the  philosophical  explanations  ofa 
hieher  meaning  are  also  against  Porphyry.  The 
refutation  of  the  grossest  idolatiy  is  against  lam- 
blichus. 

It  is  perhaps  mere  accident  that  we  hear  nothing  of 
the  Clementmes  from  330  till  360.  But  about  360- 
410  they  are  interpolated,  they  are  revised  and 
abridged  in  H.,  yet  more  revised  and  abridged  in  R., 
translated  into  Latin,  translated  into  Syriac,  and 
frequently  cited.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  it  was 
the  policy  of  Julian  which  drew  them  from  obscurity. 
They  were  useful  weapons  against  the  momentaiy 
resurrection  of  polytheism,  mythology,  theurgy,  and 
idolatry. 

The  principal  editionB  have  been  mentioned  above.  The 
literature  is  so  enormotia  that  a  selection  from  it  must  suffice. 
Somewhat  fuller  lists  will  be  found  in  Harnack,  Chronoloffie, 
II,  in  Barobnhbwbb,  Palrologie  and  Oeaehichte  dor  kirck* 
lichen  LiUeratur  and  in  Chevaubr,  Repertoire. — Schubbi ann. 
Die  CUmerUinen  (1844);  Hiloenfeld.  Die  Clem.  Recoan.  una 
Horn,  naeh  ihrem  Urvprung  vnd  Inhalt  (Jena,  1848):  Kritiaehe 
Unterauchungen  uber  die  avanoelien  Justina,  der  Clem.  Ham. 
urui  Marcione  (Halle,  185()) ;  Uhlhobn,  Die  Horn,  und  Recoan. 
dee  Clemens  Romantu  ((jrdttingen,  1854);  Lehmann,  Die 
demeniinutchen  Schrifien  (Qotha,  1869) ;  Ln>aiUB,  Qudlen  der 
romiechen  Peirueeage  (1872)  and  Apokr.  ApoaitifieMchichie 
(1887),  II;  Salmon  in  Did.  Chr.  Biog.  (1877):  Lanobn,  Dis 
Clemeneromane  (Gotha,  1890):  Funk  in  Kirckerdex.  (1884); 
Bioo,  The  Clementine  HomUuia  in  StudiaBiblica  (Oxford.  1890). 
II;  BnssELL,  The  Purpose  of  the  World-Proceaa  and  the  Problem 
of  BvU  in  the  Clementine  and  Lactantian  Writings  in  Sttidia 
Bibtica  (1896),  IV;  W.  CJhawner],  Index  of  noteworthy  words 
and  phrases  found  in  the  Clementine  writinm  in  lAghtfooi  Fund 
PubUc.  (London,  1893):  Hort,  Clementine  Recognitums  (lectures 
delivered  in  1884;  pub.  London,  1901):  Meyboom,  De  Clemens 
Roman  (1902);  Hbadlam,  The  Clementine  Literature  in 
Jmim.  Theol.  Stud.  (1903).  Ill,  41;  Chapman.  Origen  and 
Pseudo-Clement  in  Joum.  Theol.  Stud.,  Ill,  436;  Hiusbn- 
PELD,  Origenes  und  Pseudo-Clemens  in  Zeitsehr.  fUr  Wias. 
Theol.  (1903),  XLVI,  342;  Preuschen  in  Harnack.  Geseh. 
der  aUehriea.  Literatur  (1883),  I,  212;  and  U.Chronoloffie, 
518;  Waxtz.  Die  Pseudodementinen  in  Tezte  und  Unters.,  New 
Series.  X,4;  Chapman.  The  Date  of  the  Clementines  in  Zeitsehr. 
far  Neu'Test.  Wiss.  C1908).  An  English  translation  of  the 
ReoognUions,  by  the  Rev.  T.  Smith.  D.D.,  will  bo  found  in 
the  Ante-Nieene  Library,  III.  and  of  the  Homtlies,  urtd..  XVII 
(Edinburgh,  1871-2).  ,  ^ 

John  Chapman. 

CUement  Mary  Hofbauer  (John  Dvo^Ak),  Saint, 
the  second  founder  of  the  Redemptorist  Congregation, 
called  "the  Apostle  of  Vienna^',  b.  at  Tasswitz  in 
Moravia.  26  December,  1751 ;  d.  at  Vienna,  15  March, 
1821.  The  family  name  of  Dvorak  was  better  known 
by  its  German  equivalent,  Hofbauer.  The  youngest 
of  twelve  children,  and  son  of  a  grazier  and  butcher, 
he  was  six  years  old  when  his  father  died.    His  great 


OLfiHfiMT 


45 


CLEMEKT 


desire  was  io  become  a  prieet,  but  his  family  being 
unable  to  give  him  the  necessary  education  he  became 
a  baker's  assistant,  devoting  all  his  spare  time  to 
study.  He  was  a  servant  in  the  Premonstratensian 
monastery  of  Bruck  from  1771  to  1775,  and  then 
lived  for  some  time  as  a  hermit.  When  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II  abolished  hermitages  he  went  to  Vienna, 
wh^re  he  worked  once  more  as  a  baker.  After  two 
pilgrimages  to  Rome  he  aeain  tried  a  hermit's  life 
(17S2-3),  this  time  under  the  protection  of  Bamaba 
Chiaramonti,  Bishop  of  Tivoli,  afterwards  Pope  Pius 
VII,  taking  the  name  of  Clement,  by  which  ne  was 
ever  s^terwards  known.  He  once  more  returned  to 
Vienna,  where  at  length  by  the  generosity  of  benefac- 
tors he  was  enabled  to  go  to  the  university  and  com- 
plete his  studies.  In  1784  he  made  a  third  pUgrimage 
on  foot  to  Rome  with  a  friend,  Thadd&us  Htibl,  and 
the  two  were  received  into  the  Redemptorist  novitiate 
at  San  Giuliano  on  the  Esquiline.  After  a  shortened 
probation  they  were  professed  on  19  March,  1785,  and 
ordained  priests  a  few  days  later.  They  were  sent, 
towards  the  end  of  the  same  year,  to  found  a  house 
north  of  the  Al{)s,  St.  Alphonsus,  who  was  still  alive, 

Jrophesying  their  success.  It  being  impossible  under 
oseph  II  to  found  a  house  in  Vienna,  Clement  and 
Thadd&us  turned  to  Warsaw,  where  King  Stanislaus 
Poniatowski,  at  the  nuncio's  request,  placed  St. 
Benno's,  the  German  national  church,  at  their  dis- 
posal. Here,  in  1 795,  they  saw  the  end  of  Polish  inde- 
pendence. The  labours  of  Clement  and  his  com- 
panions in  Warsaw  from  1786  to  1808  are  wellnigh 
incredible.  In  addition  to  St.  Benno's,  another  large 
church  was  reserved  for  them,  where  sermons  were 
preached  in  French,  and  there  were  daily  classes  of 
instruction  for  Protestants  and  Jews.  Besides  this 
Clement  founded  an  orphana^  and  a  school  for  boys. 
His  chief  helper,  Thadd&us  Habl,  died  in  1807.  In 
the  next  year,  on  orders  from  Paris,  the  house  at 
Warsaw  and  three  other  houses  which  Clement  had 
founded  were  suppressed,  and  the  Redemptorists 
were  expelled  from  the  Grand  Duchy*  Clement  with 
one  companion  went  to  Vienna,  where  for  the  last 
twelve  years  of  his  life  he  acted  as  chaplain  and 
director  at  an  Ursuline  convent.  During  these  years 
he  exercised  a  veritable  apostolate  among  all  classes 
in  the  capital  from  the  Emperor  Francis  downward. 
Unable  to  found  a  regular  house  of  his  congregation, 
which  was  however  established,  as  he  had  predicted, 
almost  immediately  after  his  death,  he  devoted  him- 
self in  a  special  way  to  the  conversion  and  training  of 
young  men.  **  I  know  but  three  men  of  superhuman 
energy",  his  friend  Werner  had  said,  ''Napoleon, 
Goethe,  and  Clement  Hofbauer. "  ''Religion  in  Aus- 
tria", said  Pius  VII,  "has  lost  its  chief  support." 
Indeed  it  was  to  Clement  Hofbauer  perhaps  more 
than  to  any  single  individual  that  the  extinction  of 
Josephinism  was  due.  He  was  beatified  by  Leo  XIII, 
29  January,  1888;  canonized  20  May,  1909.      (See 

AuSTRO-HUNaARIAN  MONARCHY,   II,    129.) 

Hu  life  in  German  by  Habinobr,  tnuulated  into  EngUah  by 
Laot  Hxrbkbt  (New  York.  1883).  Another  life  by  O.  R. 
Vamaix  Phillips  (New  York,  1803);  Berthe,  Saint  Alphonae 
de  LiouoH  (Paris,  10(X)).  tr.  Lift  of  St.  Alphonsua  de  Ligvari 
(DubSn.  1906).  j^  MaGNIER. 

Olement  of  Alexandria  (properly  Titus  Flavius 
Clsuens,  but  known  in  church  history  by  the  former 
designation  to  distinguish  him  from  Clement  of 
Rome),  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  about  the  year 
215;  an  early  Greek  theologian  and  head  of  the  cate- 
chetical school  of  Alexandria.  Athens  is  given  as 
the  Btarting-point  of  his  joumeyings,  and  was  proba- 
bly his  birthplace.  He  became  a  convert  to  the  Faith 
and  travelled  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  hijgher 
instruction,  attaching  himscdf  successively  to  dmer- 
^t  masters:  to  a  Greek  of  Ionia,  to  another  of  Magna 
Qnecia,  to  a  third  of  CSoBle-S3rTia,  after  all  of  whom  he 
addressed  himself  in  turn  to  an  Egyptian,  an  Assy- 


rian, and  a  converted  Palestinian  Jew.  At  last  he 
met  Pantsenus  in  Alexandria,  and  in  his  teaching 
"found  rest". 

The  place  itself  was  well  chosen.  It  was  natural 
that  Christian  speculation  should  have  a  home  at 
Alexandria.  This  great  city  was  at  the  time  a  centre 
of  culture  as  well  as  of  trade.  A  great  university  had 
grown  up  \mder  the  long-continued  patronage  of  the 
State.  The  intellectual  temper  was  broad  and  tol- 
erant, as  became  a  city  where  so  many  races  mingled. 
The  philosophers  were  critics  or  eclectics,  and  Plato 
was  the  most  favoured  of  the  old  masters.  Neo- 
'  Platonism,  the  philosophy  of  the  new  pagan  renais- 
sance, had  a  prophet  at  Alexandria  in  the  person  of 
Ammonius  Saccas.  The  Jews,  too,  who  were  there 
in  vei^  large  numbers,  breathed  its  liberal  atmosphere, 
and  had  assimilated  secular  culture.  They  there 
formed  the  most  enlightened  colony  of  the  Disper- 
sion. Having  lost  the  use  of  Hebrew,  they  found  it 
necessary  to  translate  the  Scriptures  into  the  more 
familiar  Greek.  Philo,  their  foremost  thinker,  be- 
came a  sort  of  Jewish  Plato.  Alexandria  was,  in 
addition,  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  that  peculiar  mixed 
pagan  and  Christian  speculation  known  as  Gnosti- 
cism. Basilides  and  Valentinus  taught  there.  It  is 
no  matter  of  surprise,  therefore,  to  find  some  of  the 
Christians  affected  in  turn  by  the  scientific  spirit. 
At  an  uncertain  date,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  second 
century,  ''a  school  of  oral  instruction"  was  founded. 
Lectures  were  given  to  which  pagan  hearers  were  ad- 
mitted, and  advanced  teacliing  to  Christians  sepaiv 
ately.  It  was  an  official  institution  of  the  Chureh. 
PantsBnus  is  the  eariiest  teacher  whose  name  lias  been 

Preserved.  Clement  first  assisted  and  then  succeeded 
antsenus  in  the  direction  of  the  school,  about  a.d. 
190.  He  was  already  known  as  a  Christian  writer 
before  the  days  of  Pope  Victor  (188-199). 

About  this  time  he  may  have  composed  the 
"Hortatory  Discourse  to  the  Greeks"  (UpoTperriKbt 
rflbs  ''EXXi7raf).  It  is  a  persuasive  appeal  for  the 
Faith,  written  in  a  lofty  strain.  The  discourse  opens 
with  passages  which  fall  on  the  ear  with  the  effect  of 
sweet  music.  Amphion  and  Arion  by  their  min- 
strel^ drew  after  tnem  savage  monsters  and  moved 
the  very  stones;  Christ  is  the  noblest  minstrel.  His 
harp  and  lyre  are  men.  He  draws  music  from  their 
hearts  by  the  Holy  Spirit:  nay,  Christ  is  Himself  the 
New  Canticle,  whose  melody  subdues  the  fiercest  and 
hardest  natures.  Clement  then  proceeds  to  show  the 
transcendence  of  the  Christian  religion.  He  con- 
trasts Christianity  with  the  vileness  of  pagan  rites, 
and  with  the  faint  hopes  of  pagan  poets  and  philoso- 
phers. Man  is  bom  for  God.  The  Word  calls  men 
to  Himself.  The  full  truth  is  found  in  Christ  alone. 
The  work  ends  with  a  description  of  the  God-fearing 
Christian.  He  answers  those  who  uige  that  it  is 
wrong  to  desert  one's  ancestral  religion. 

The  work  entitled  "Outlines"  ( TiroTwir<6<r€if )  is 
likewise  believed  t^o  be  a  production  of  the  early 
activity  of  Clement.  It  was  translated  into  Latin 
by  Rufinus  under  the  title  "Dispositiones".  It 
was  in  eight  books,  but  is  no  longer  extant,  though 
numerous  fragments  have  been  preserved  in  Greek  by 
Eusebius,  G^umenius,  Maximus  Confessor,  John 
Moschos,  and  Photius.  According  to  Zahn,  a  Latin 
fragment,  "  Adumbrationes  Clementis  Alexandrini 
in  epistolas  canonicas",  translated  by  Cassiodorus 
and  purged  of  objectionable  passages,  represents  in 
part  the  text  of  Clement.  Eusebius  represents  the 
"Outlines"  as  an  abridged  commentary,  with  doc- 
trinal and  historical  remarks  on  the  entire  Bible  and 
on  the  non-canonical  "Epistle  of  Barnabas"  and 
"  Apocalypse  of  Peter  ".  Photius,  who  had  also  read  it, 
describes  it  as  a  series  of  explanations  of  Biblical  texts, 
especially  of  Genesb,  Exodus,  the  Psalms,  Ecclesiastes, 
and  the  Pauline  and  Catholic  Epistles.  He  declares 
the  work  sound  on  some  points,  but  adds  that  it  con- 


GLSMSNT 


46 


OLSMENT 


tains  "impieties  and  fables",  such  as  the  eternity  of 
matter,  the  creatureship  of  the  Word,  plurality  of 
Words  (A6yot)f  Docetism,  metempsychosis,  etc.  Con- 
servative scholars  are  inclined  to  believe  that  Photius 
has  thrown  the  mistakes  of  Clement,  whatever  they 
may  have  been,  into  undue  relief.  Clement's  style 
is  difficult,  his  works  are  full  of  borrowed  excerots, 
and  his  teaching  is  with  difficulty  reduced  to  a  coheiv 
ent  body  of  doctrine.  And  this  early  work,  being  a 
scattered  commentary  on  Holy  Writ,  must  have  been 
peculiarly  liable  to  misconstruction.  It  is  certain 
that  several  of  the  more  serious  charges  can  rest  upon 
nothing  but  mistakes.  At  any  rate,  his  extant  writ- ' 
ings  show  Clement  in  a  better  li^ht. 

Other  works  of  his  are  the  "Miscellanies"  (2rp»- 
fULTeis)  and  "The  Tutor"  (noi«a7«*7^).  The  "Mis- 
cellanies" comprise  seven  entire  books,  of  which  the 
first  four  are  earlier  than  "The  Tutor".  When  he 
had  finished  this  latter  work  he  returned  to  the 
"Miscellanies",  which  he  was  never  able  to  finish. 
The  first  pages  of  the  work  are  now  missing.  What 
has  been  known  as  the  eighth  book  since  the  time  of 
Eusebius  is  nothing  more  than  a  collection  of  ex- 
tracts drawn  from  pagan  philosophers.  It  is  likely, 
as  von  Amim  has  suggested,  that  Clement  had  in- 
tended to  make  use  of  these  materials  together  with 
the  abridgment  of  Theodotus  (Excerpts  from  Theo- 
dotus  andthe  Eastern  School  of  Valentinus)  and  the 
"Eclogffi  Propheticse",  Extracts  from  the  Prophets 
(not  extracts,  but  notes  at  random  on  texts  or  Scrip- 
tural topics)  for  the  continuation  of  the  "Miscellan- 
ies ".  In  the  "  Miscellanies  "  Clement  disclaims  order 
and  plan.  He  compares  the  work  to  a  meadow 
where  all  kinds  of  flowers  grow  at  random  uid,  again, 
to  a  shady  hill  or  mountain  planted  with  trees  of 
every  sort.  In  fact,  it  is  a  loosely  related  series  of 
remarks,  possibly  hotes  of  his  lectures  in  the  school. 
It  is  the  fullest  of  Clement's  works.  He  starts  with 
the  importance  of  philosophy  for  the  pursuit  of 
Christian  knowledge.  Here  he  is  perhaps  defending 
his  own  scientific  labours  from  local  criticism  of  con- 
servative brethren.  He  shows  how  faith  is  related  to 
knowledge,  and  emphasizes  the  superiority  of  revela- 
tion to  philosophy.  Crod's  truth  is  to  be  foimd  in 
revelation,  another  portion  of  it  in  philosophy.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  Christian  to  neglect  neither.  Relig- 
ious science,  drawn  from  this  twofold  source,  is  even 
an  element  of  perfection;  the  instructed  Christian — 
*  *  the  true  Gnostic  " — is  the  perfect  Christian.  He  who 
has  risen  to  this  height  is  far  from  the  disturbance 
of  passion;  he  is  united  to  God,  and  in  a  mvsterious 
sense  is  one  with  Him.  Such  is  the  line  of  thought 
indicated  in  the  work,  which  is  full  of  digressions. 

"The  Tutor"  is  a  practical  treatise  in  three  books. 
Its  purpose  is  to  fit  the  ordinary  Christian  by  a  di&- 
ciphned  life  to  become  an  instructed  Christian.  In 
ancient  times  the  pcBdagogua  was  the  slave  who  had 
constant  charge  of  a  boy,  his  companion  at  all  times. 
On  him  depended  the  formation  pf  the  boy's  charac- 
ter. Such  is  the  office  of  the  Word  Incarnate 
towards  men.  He  first  summons  them  to  be  His, 
then  He  trains  them  in  His  wa^.  His  ways  are 
temperate,  orderly,  calm,  and  simple.  Nothing  is 
too  common  or  trivial  for  the  Tutor's  care.  His 
influence  tells  on  the  minute  details  of  life,  on  one's 
manner  of  eating,  drinking,  sleeping,  dressing,  taking 
recreation,  etc.  The  moral  tone  of  this  work  is 
kindly;  very  beautiful  is  the  ideal  of  a  transfigured 
life  described  at  the  close.  In  the  editions  of  Clement 
"The  Tutor"  is  followed  by  two  short  poems,  the 
second  of  which,  addressed  to  the  Tutor,  is  from  some 
pious  reader  of  the  work;  the  first,  entitled  "A 
Hymn  of  the  Saviour  Christ "  ("TfAvot  roO  Xwr^pot  Xpw- 
rov) ,  is,  in  the  manuscripts  which  contain  it,  attributed 
to  Clement.  The  hjrmn  may  be  the  work  of  Clement 
(Bardenhewer),  or  it  may  be  of  as  early  a  date  as  the 
Gloria  in  Excelsis  (Westcott). 


Some  scholars  see  in  the  chief  writings  of  Clement, 
the  "Exhortation",  "The  Tutor",  the  "Miscel- 
lanies", a  great  tnlog^r  representing  a  graduated 
initiation  into  the  Christian  life — belief,  discipline, 
knowledge — three  states  corresponding  to  the  three 
degrees  of  the  neo-Platonic  m3rsterie6 — ^purification, 
initiation,  and  vision.  Some  such  underlying  con- 
ception was  doubtless  before  the  mind  of  Clement, 
but  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  realised.  He 
was  too  unsystematic.  Besides  these  more  impor- 
tant works,  he  wrote  the  beautiful  tract,  "Who  is  the 
rich  man  who  shall  be  saved?"  (r<v  6  vufifupot  rXo^ 
0*101  i).  It  is  an  exposition  of  St.  Mark,  x,  17-31, 
wherein  (I^ement  shows  that  wealth  is  not  condenmed 
by  the  Gospel  as  intrinsically  evil;  its  morality  de- 
pends on  the  good  or  ill  use  made  of  it.  The  work 
concludes  with  the  narrative  of  the  young  man  who 
was  baptized,  lost,  and  again  rewon  by  the  Apostle 
St.  John.  The  date  of  tne  composition  cannot  be 
fixed.  We  have  the  woric  almost  in  its  entirety. 
Clement  wrote  homilies  on  fasting  and  on  evil-speak- 
ing, and  he  also  used  his  pen  in  the  controversy  on 
the   Paschal  question. 

Duchesne  (Hist.  anciennedel'Eglise,  1, 3348^.)  thus 
summarises  the  remaining  years  of  Clement's  life.  He 
did  not  end  his  life  at  Alexandria.  The  persecution 
fell  upon  Egypt  in  the  year  202,  and  catechumens 
were  pursuea  with  special  intent  of  law.  The 
catechetical  school  suffered  accordingly.  In  the 
first  two  books  of  the  "Miscellanies",  written  at  this 
time,  we  find  more  than  one  allusion  to  the  crisis. 
At  length  Clement  felt  obliged  to  withdraw.  We 
find  him  shortly  after  at  GBesarea  in  Cappadocia 
beside  his  friend  and  former  pupil  Bishop  Alexander. 
The  persecution  is  active  there  also,  and  Clement  is 
fulfilun^  a  ministry  of  love.  Alexander  is  in  prison 
for  Christ's  sake,  Caement  takes  charge  of  the  Church 
in  his  stead,  strengthens  the  faithful,  and  is  even 
able  to  draw  in  additional  converts.  We  learn  this 
from  a  letter  written  in  211  or  212  by  Alexander  to 
congratulate  the  Church  of  Antioch  on  the  election  of 
AscTepiades  to  the  bishopric.  Clement  himself 
undertook  to  deliver  the  letter  in  person,  being  known 
to  the  faithful  of  Antioch.  In  another  letter  written 
about  215  to  Origen  Alexander  speaks  of  Qement 
as  of  one  then  dead. 

Clement  has  had  no  notable  influence  on  the  course 
of  theology  beyond  his  personal  influence  on  the 
young  Origen.  His  writings  were  occasionally 
copied,  as  by  Hippolytus  in  his  "Chronicon",  by 
Amobius,  and  by  Theodoret  of  Qsrrus.  St.  Jerome 
admired  his  leammg.  Pope  (jelasius  in  the  catalogue 
attributed  to  him  mentions  Clement's  works,  but  acuis, 
"they  are  in  no  case  to  be  received  amongst  us". 
Photius  in  the  "  Bibliotheca  "  censures  a  list  of  errors 
drawn  from  his  writings,  but  shows  a  kindly  feeling  to- 
wards Clement,  assuming  that  the  original  text  had 
been  tampered  with.  Clement  has  in  fact  been  dwarfed 
in  history  by  the  towering  grandeur  of  the  great 
Origen,  who  succeeded  him  at  Alexandria.  Down 
to  the  seventeenth  century  he  was  venerated  as  a 
saint.  His  name  was  to  be  found  in  the  martyrol- 
ogies,  and  his  feast  fell  on  the  fourth  of  December. 
But  when  the  Roman  Martyrology  was  revised  by 
Pope  Clement  VIII  his  name  was  dropped  from  the 
calendar  on  the  advice  of  Cardinal  Baronius.  Bene- 
dict XIV  maintained  this  decision  of  his  predecessor 
on  the  grounds  that  Clement's  life  was  little  known, 
that  he  had  never  obtained  public  cultus  in  the 
Church,  and  that  some  of  his  doctrines  were,  if  not 
erroneous,  at  least  suspect.  In  more  recent  times 
Clement  has  ^wn  in  favour  for  his  charming  liter* 
ary  temper,  his  attractive  candour,  the  brave  spirit 
which  made  him  a  pioneer  in  theology,  and  his  leaning 
to  the  claims  of  philosophy.  He  is  modem  in  spirit. 
He  was  exceptionally  well-read.  He  had  a  thorough 
knowledge  ot  the  whole  range  of  Biblical  and  Chii9- 


OLBMENT 


47 


OLBMENT 


tian  literature,  of  orthodox  and  heretical  works, 
lie  was  fond  of  letters  also,  and  had  a  fine  knowledge 
of  the  pagan  poets  and  philosophers;  he  loved  to 
quote  them,  too,  and  has  tnus  preserved  a  number  of 
fragments  of  lost  works.  The  mass  of  facts  and 
citations  collected  by  him  and  pieced  together  in  his 
writings  is  in  fact  unexampled  in  antiquity,  though  it 
is  not  unlikely  that  he  drew  at  times  upon  the  florv- 
legiOf  or  anthologies,  exhibiting  choice  passages  of 
literature. 

Scholars  have  found  it  no  easy  task  to  sum  up  the 
chief  ^ints  of  Clement's  teaching.  As  has  already 
been  mtimated,  he  lacks  technical  precision  and 
misJLes  no  pretence  to  orderly  exposition.  It  is  eacjy, 
therefore,  to  misjudge  him.  We  accept  the  dis- 
criminating judgment  of  Tixeront.  Clement's  rule 
of  faith  was  sound  He  admitted  the  authority  of 
the  Church's  tradition.  He  would  be,  first  of  all,  a 
Christian,  accepting  'Hhe  ecclesiastical  rule",  but  he 
would  ^so  strive  to  remain  a  philosopher,  and  bring 
his  reason  to  bear  in  matters  of  religion.    ''  Few  are 


osophy  as  an  instrument,  to  transform  faith  into 
science,  and  revelation  into  theology.  The  Gnostics 
had  already  pretended  to  possess  the  science  of  faith, 
but  they  were,  in  fact,  mere  rationalists,  or  rather 
dreamers  of  fantastic  dreams.  Clement  would  have 
nothing  but  faith  for  the  basis  of  his  speculations. 
He  cannot,  therefore,  be  accused  of  disloyalty  in 
will.  But  he  was  a  pioneer  in  a  difficult  undertaking, 
and  it  must  be  admitted  that  he  failed  at  times  in  his 
high  endeavour.  He  was  careful  to  go  to  Holy  Scrip- 
ture for  his  doctrine;  but  he  misused  the  text  by  his 
faulty  exegesis.  He  had  read  all  the  Books  of  the 
NcwTestament  except  the  Second  Epistle  of  St.  Peter 
and  the  Third  Epistle  of  St.  John.  'Tn  fact",  Tixeront 
says,  "his  evidence  as  to  the  primitive  form  of  the 
Apostolic  writings  is  of  the  highest  value."  Unfoi^ 
tunately,  he  interpreted  the  Scripture  after  the  manner 
of  PWlo.  He  was  ready  to  find  allegory  everywhere. 
The  facts  of  the  Old  Testament  became  mere  symbols 
to  him.  He  did  not,  however,  permit  himself  so  much 
freedom  with  the  New  Testament. 

The  special  field  which  Clement  cultivated  led  him 
to  insist  on  the  difference  between  the  faith  of  the 
ordinary  Christian  and  the  science  of  the  perfect,  and 
his  teaching  on  this  point  .is  most  characteristic  of 
him.  The  perfect  Christian  has  an  insight  into  ''  the 
great  mysteries" — of  man,  of  nature,  of  virtue — 
which  the  ordinary  Christian  accepts  without  such 
clear  insight.  Clement  has  seemed  to  some  to  exag- 
gerate the  moral  worth  of  religious  knowledge;  it 
must  however  be  remembered  that  he  praises  not 
mere  sterile  knowledge,  but  knowledge  which  turns 
to  love.  It  is  Christian  perfection  that  he  extols. 
The  perfect  Christian — the  true  Gnostic  wbgm 
Clement  loves  to  describe — leads  a  life  of  unalterable 
calm.  And  here  Clement's  teaching  is  undoubtedly 
coloured  by  Stoicism.  He  is  reaUy  describing  not  so 
much  the  Christian  with  his  sensitive  feelings  and 
desires  under  due  control,  but  the  ideal  Stoic  wno  has 
deadened  his  feelings  altogether.  The  perfect  Chris- 
tian leads  a  life  of  utter  devotion;  the  love  in  his  heart 
prompts  him  to  live  always  in  closest  union  with  God 
by  prayer,  to  labour  for  the  conversion  of  souls,  to 
love  his  enemies,  and  even  to  endure  martyrdom  itself. 

Clement  preceded  the  days  of  the  Trinitarian  con- 
troversies. He  taught  in  the  Godhead  three  Temis. 
Some  critics  doubt  whether  he  distinguished  them 
as  Persons,  but  a  careful  reading  of  him  proves  that 
he  dki.  The  Second  Term  of  the  Trinity  is  the  Word. 
Photius  believed  that  Clement  taught  a  plurality  of 
Words,  whereas  in  reality  Clement  merely  drew  a  dis- 
tinction between  the  Father's  Divine  immanent 
attribute  of  intelligence  and  the  Personal  Word  Who 


is  the  Son.  The  Son  is  eternally  begotten,  and  has 
the  very  attributes  of  the  Father.  They  are  but  one 
God.  So  far,  in  fact,  does  Clement  push  this  notion 
of  imity  as  to  seem  to  approach  Modalism.  And  yet, 
so  loose  a  writer  is  he  that  elsewhere  are  found  dis- 
quieting traces  of  the  very  opposite  error  of  Subordi- 
nationism.  These,  however,  may  be  explained  away. 
In  fact,  he  needs  to  be  judged,  more  than  writers 
generally,  not  by  a  chance  phrase  here  or  there,  but 
by  the  general  drift  of  his  teaching.  Of  the  Holy 
Ghost  he  says  little,  and  when  he  does  refer  to  the 
Third  Person  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  he  adheres 
closely  to  the  lan^page  of  Scripture.  He  acknowl- 
edges two  natures  m  Christ.  Christ  is  the  Man-God, 
who  profits  us  both  as  God  and  as  man.  Clement 
evidently  regards  Christ  as  one  Person — the  Word. 
Instances  of  the  interchange  of  idioms  are  frequent 
in  his  writings.  Photius  has  accused  Clement  of 
Docetism.  Clement,  however,  clearly  admits  in 
Christ  a  real  body,  but  he  thought  this  body  exempt 
from  the  common  needs  of  life,  as  eating  and  drink- 
ing, and  the  soul  of  Christ  exempt  from  the  move- 
ment of  the  passions,  of  joy,  and  of  sadness. 

Editions. — ^The  works  of  Clement  of  Alexandria 
were  first  edited  by  P.  Victorius  (Florence,  1550). 
The  most  complete  edition  is  tliat  of  J.  Potter, 
''Clementis  Alexandrini  opera  qiue  extant  omnia" 
(Oxford,  1715;  Venice,  1757),  reproduced  in  Migne, 
P.  G.,  VIII,  IX.  The  edition  of  G.  Dindorf  (Oxford, 
1869)  is  declared  unsatisfactory  by  competent  judges. 
A  new  complete  edition  by  O.  Stfthlin  is  appearing 
in  the  Berlin  "Griechiscnen  christlichen  Schrift- 
steller  ",  etc.  So  far  (1908)  two  volumes  have  been 
published:  the  "Protrepticus  "  and  the  "  PaBdagogus  " 
(Leipzig,  1905),  and  the  "Stromata"  (Bks.  I-VI, 
ibid.,  1906).  The  preface  to  the  first  volume  (pp.  i- 
Ixxxiii)  contains  the  best  account  of  the  manuscripts 
and  editions  of  Clement.  Among  the  separate  editions 
of  his  works  the  following  are  noteworthy:  Hort  and 
Mayor,  "Miscellanies",  Bk.  VII,  with  English  trans- 
lation (London,  1902);  Zahn,  '*Adumbrationes"  in 
"Forschungen  zur  Geschichte  des  Neutestament- 
liehen  Kanons",  III,  and  **  Supplementum  Clement- 
inum"  (Erlangen,  1884);  Koster,  "Quis  dives 
salvetur?^'  (Freiburg,  1893).  The  last-mentioned 
work  was  also  edited  by  P.  M.  Barnard  in  "Cam- 
bridge Texts  and  Studies"  by  W.  Wilson  (1897),  and 
translated  by  him  in  "Early  Church  Classics"  for  the 
S.  P.  C.  K.  (London,  1901).  For  an  English  transla- 
tion of  aU  the  writings  of  Clement  see  Ante-Nicene 
Christian  Library  (New  York). 

Bioo,  The  Chriatum  PUUonisU  of  Alexandria  (Oxford,  1886); 
Kate,  Some  Account  of  the  Writings  and  Opinions  of  Clement 
of  Alexandria  (London.  1835,  2nd  ed.,  1800);  Westcott  in 
Did.  Christ.  Biog.  (Boston,  1877),  I,  659-67;  Barnahd,  The 
Biblical  Text  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  in  Texts  and  Studies 
(Cambridge,  1899),  V,  2:  Db  Fate,  ClfmerU  d'Alexandrie 
(Paris,  1898);  Frsppbl,  CUment  d'Alexandrie  (Paris.  1865); 
Stahun,  Beitr&ge  zur  Kenniniss  der  Handschriflen  des  Clemens 
Alex.  (Nuremberg,  1895):  Zieoert,  Zwei  Abhandlungen  iiber  T. 
Flav.  Klemens  Alex.  (Heidelberg,  1894);  Hillen,  dementis 
Alexandrini  de  SS.  Eucharistia  doctrind  (Warendorf,  1861); 
WiNTEB,  Die  Eihik  des  Klemens  von  Alexandrien  (Leipzig. 
1882);  Ernesti,  Die  Ethik  des  T.  Flavius  Klemens  von  Alex- 
andrien (Paderbom,  1900);  Capitaine.  Die  Moral  des  Clemens 
von  Alexandrien  (Paderborn,  1903);  Wagner,  Der  Christ  und 
die  Welt  nach  Clemens  von  Alexandrien  (Gdttingen,  1903); 
EiCKUOFF.  Das  Neue  Testament  des  Klemens  Alexandrinus 
(Schleswig,  1890);  Dauscii,  Der  neutestamentliche  Sckriflkanon 
und  Klemens  von  Alexandrien  (Freiburg  ira  Br.,  1894); 
KuTTER,  Klemens  Alexandrinus  und  das  Neue  Testament 
(Giessen.  1897);  Deiber,  Client  d'Alexandrie  et  VEglise  in 
M6m.  de  I'Institut  francais  d' Archiologie  orierdale  (Cairo.  1904). 
— See  also  the  manuals  of  patrology  (Fessler-Junomann, 
Bardenhewer),  the  histories  of  Gnosticism  (Manbel) 
and  of  the  Alexandrine  School  (Guericke,  Matter.  J. 
Simon,  Vacherot).  Extensive  bibliographies  are  given  by 
Chevauer  in  Bio-Btbliographie^  s.  v.,  ancl  by  RiCBARDaON  in 
bis  bibliographical  appendix  to  the  Ante-Nicene  Christian 
Library.  FraNCIS   P.   Havey. 

Olement  of  Ireland,  Saint,  also  known  as  Clem- 
ens ScoTus  (not  to  be  confounded  with  (Claudius 
Clemens),  b.  in  Ireland^  towards  tlio  middle  of  the 


OLENOOK 


4S 


OLXBO 


eighth  century;  d.  perhaps  in  France,  probably  after 
818.  About  the  year  771  he  bet  out  for  France.  His 
biographer,  an  Irish  monk  of  St.  Gall,  who  wrote  his 
Acts,  dedicated  to  Charles  the  Fat  (d.  888),  says  that 
St.  Clement,  with  his  companion  Albums,  or  Ailbe, 
arrived  in  Gaul,  in  772,  and  announced  himself  as  a 
vender  of  learning.  So  great  was  the  fame  of  Clement 
and  Ailbe  that  Cnarlemagne  sent  for  them  to  come 
to  his  court,  where  they  stayed  for  some  months. 
Ailbe  was  then  i^ivcn  the  direction  of  a  monastery 
near  Pavia,  but  Clement  was  requested  to  remain  in 
France  as  the  master  of  a  higher  school  of  learning. 
These  events  may  have  taken  place  in  the  winter  of 
the  year  774,  after  Charlemagne  had  been  in  Italy. 
St.  Clement  was  regent  of  the  Paris  school  from  775 
until  his  death.  It  was  not  until  782  that  Alcuin  be- 
came master  of  the  royal  school  at  Aachen,  but  even 
the  fame  of  Alcuin  in  no  wise  diminished  the  acknowl- 
edged reputation  of  Clement.  No  serious  writer  of 
to-day  thinks  of  repeating  the  legend  to  the  effect 
that  St.  Clement  was  founder  of  the  University  of 
Paris,  but,  as  there  is  a  substratum  of  truth  in  most 
lecends,  the  fact  remains  that  this  remarkable  Irish 
scholar  planted  the  mustard  seed  which  developed 
into  a  great  tree  of  learning  at  Paris.  Many  anecdotes 
are  related  of  St.  Clement  s  life,  especially  as  regards 
his  success  as  a  teacher  of  youth.  Among  his  pupils 
were  Bruno,  Modestus,  and  Candidus,  who  had  been 
placed  under  his  care  in  803  bv  Ratgar,  Abbot  of 
Fulda.  When  Alcuin  retired  to  Tours  in  796,  his  post 
as  rector  of  the  School  of  the  Palace  was  naturally 
given  to  St.  Clement.  In  803,  as  an  old  man,  Alcuin 
wrote  from  his  retirement  to  Charlemagne,  queru- 
lously commenting  on  "  the  daily  increasing  influence 
of  the  Irish  at  the  School  of  the  Palace".  Alcuin  died 
19  May,  804,  and  Charlemagne  survived  till  28  Janu- 
ary, 814.  St.  Clement  is  probably  identical  with  the 
person  of  this  name  who  wrote  the  biography  of 
Charlemagne,  but  the  question  has  not  been  defi- 
nitely settled.  Colgan  sa3rs  that  he  was  living  in  818, 
and  gives  the  date  of  Clement's  death  as  ^  March 
and  the  place  as  Auxeire,  where  he  was  interred  in 
the  church  of  Saint-Amator. 

CoLOAN,  Acta  Santi.  Hib.:  Harris  ed.,  Writern  of  Irdand, 
III;  Laniqan,  Erd.  HiM.  of  Irdandt  III;  Usshbr,  Vet.  EpiU. 
Hib.  Sylloge  (Dublin,  1632):  Canisiub,  AntiquoB  Lectiones^  II; 
O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  Ihe  Irish  Saints  (Dublin,  1875),  III. 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Glenock  (or  Clynog),  Maurice,  date  of  birth  un- 
known, d.  about  1580.  He  was  b.  in  Wales  and 
educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  was  admitted  Bachelor 
of  Canon  Law  in  1548.  During  Mary's  reign  he  be- 
came almoner  and  secretary  to  Cardinal  Pole,  preben- 
dary of  York,  rector  of  Orpington  ^Kent),  and  dean 
of  Shoreham  and  Croydon,  and  chancellor  of  the 
l)rerogative  court  of  Canterbury.  In  1556  he  was 
made  rector  of  Corwen  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Asaph, 
and  on  the  death  of  the  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  1558  was 
nominated  to  the  vacant  see,  but  was  never  conse- 
crated, owing  to  the  change  of  religion  under  Eliza- 
beth. Surrendering  all  his  preferments,  he  accom- 
panied Bishop  Gokiwell  of  St.  Asaph  to  Rome,  where 
tliey  resided  in  the  English  hospitw,  of  which  Clenock 
was  a  camerarius  in  1567.  In  1578  he  was  made  its 
warden.  At  the  same  time  Gregory  XIII  ordered  the 
hospital  to  be  converted  into  a  college  until  England 
should  return  to  the  Church.  The  warden  was  made 
the  first  rector  of  the  college  by  the  pope;  but  Cardi- 
nal Allen  judged  hina  unfit,  though  he  described  him 
as  "an  honest  and  friendly  man  and  a  great  advancer 
of  the  students'  and  seminaries'  cause"  (Letter  to 
Dr.  Lewis,  12  May,  1579).  Despite  his  personal  good 
qualities  he  did  not  prove  a  com{)etent  ruler.  He 
was  accused  of  unduly  favouring  his  fellow-country- 
men at  the  ex|>ense  of  the  English  students,  who 
numbered  thirty- three  as  against  seven  Welshmen. 
Feeling  ran  so  high  that,  as  Allen  wrote,  "Mischief 


and  murder  had  like  to  have  been  committed  in  ipa9 
coUegio*'  Hetter  cited  above).  The  students,  having 
unsuccessfully  appealed  to  the  pope,  left  the  college, 
and  finally  the  pope,  in  April,  1579,  appointed  Father 
Agazzari,  S.  J.,  rector,  leaving  Dr.  Clenock  still  war- 
den of  the  hospital.  He  retired,  however,  in  1580 
to  Rouen,  where  he  took  ship  for  Spain,  but  was  lost 
at  sea.  In  contemporary  documents  he  is  frequently 
referred  to  as  "Dr.  Morrice". 

DoDD,  Cfiurch  History  (Bruaaels,  1737),  1, 513,  alaoTiKRNKY'a 
edition  (London,  1830),  II,  167  sqq.;  Kirk,  Catholic  MisceUany 
(London,  1826),  VI.  255;  Knox,  Historical  Introduction  to 
Douay  Diaries  (London,  1878);  Foley,  Records  Enq.  Prow 
S.  J.  (London,  1880),  Introduction;  Knox,  Lett^s  and  Memo- 
riala  of  Cardinal  AUen  (London.  1882);  GiiLLOW.  BUd.  Did. 
Eng.  Cath.  (London.  1885).  I.  501;  Ckwpsa  in  IHct.  Nai.  Biog. 
(London.  1887),  XI.  37;  Law,  Jesuits  and  Seculars  in  the  Reign 
of  Elizabeth  (London,  1889);  Sander,  Report  to  Cardinal 
Moroni  in  Cath.  Record  Soc  Hiiaeellanea  (London,  1005).  I; 
Pabsons.  Memoirs  in  Cath.  Record  Soe.  Miecellanea  (London. 
1006),  II. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Oleophas,  according  to  the  Catholic  English  ver- 
sions the  name  of  two  persons  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament.  In  Greek,  however,  the  names  are  dif- 
ferent, one  being  Cleopas,  abbreviated  form  of  Cleo- 
patros,  and  the  other  (Jlopas.  The  first  one,  Cleopas, 
was  one  of  the  two  disciples  to  whom  the  risen  Lord 
appeared  at  Emmaus  (Luke,  xxiv,  18).  We  have 
no  reliable  data  concerning  him;  his  name  is  entered 
in  the  martjrrology  on  the  25th  of  September.  (See 
Acta  Sanctorum,  Sept.,  VII,  5  sqq.)  The  second, 
Clopas,  is  mentioned  in  St.  John,  xix.  25,  where  a 
Mary  is  called  Mapla  ij  rou  KXwira,  w^hicn  is  generally 
translated  by  "Mary  the  wife  of  Clopas  .  This 
name,  Clopas,  is  thought  by  many  to  be  the  Greek 
transliteration  of  the  Aramaic  ^abn,  Alphseus.  This 
view  is  based  on  the  identification  of  Mary,  the 
mother  of  James  etc.  (Mark,  xv,  40)  with  Mary, 
the  wife  of  Clopas,  and  the  consequent  identitv 
of  Alphseus,  father  of  James  (Mark,  iii,  18),  with 
Clopas.  Etymologically,  however,  the  identification 
of  the  two  names  offers  serious  difiBculties;  (1)  Al- 
though the  letter  fleth  is  occasionally  rendered  in  Greek 
by  Kappa  at  the  end  and  in  the  middle  of  words,  it  is 
very  seldom  so  in  the  beginning,  where  the  aspirate  is 
better  protected;  examples  of  this,  however,  are  given 
by  Levy  (Sem.  Fremdworter  in  Griech.) ;  but  (2)  even 
if  this  difficulty  was  met,  Cldpas  would  suppose  an 
Aramaic  ffalophai,  not  Halpat,  (3)  The  Syriac  ver- 
sions have  rendered  the  Greek  Cldpas  with  a  Qdph, 
not  with  a  Hetht  as  they  would  have  done  naturally 
had  they  been  conscious  of  the  identitv  of  Clopas  and 
Halpai;  Alphaeus  is  rendered  with  a  Heth  (occasion- 
ally Aleph).  For  these  reasons,  others  see  in  Cldpas  a 
substitute  for  Cleopas,  with  the  contraction  of  eo  into 
w.  In  Greek,  it  is  true,  eo  is  not  contracted  into  «, 
but  a  Semite,  borrowing  a  name,  did  not  necessarily 
follow  the  rules  of  Greek  contraction.  In  fact,  in 
Mishnic  Hebrew  the  name  Cleopatra  is  rendered 
by  fcniDDli>p,  ClOpatra,  and  hence  the  Greek  Cleopas 
might  be  rendered  by  Cldpas.  See  also,  Chabot, 
"Journ.  Asiat.",  X,  327  (1897).  Even  if,  etymo- 
logically, the  two  names  are  different  they  may 
have  been  borne  by  one  man,  and  the  question  of  the 
identity  of  Alpheeus  and  Clopas  is  still  open.  If  the 
two  persons  are  distinct,  then  we  know  nothing  of 
Clopas  beyond  the  fact  recorded  in  St.  John;  if,  on 
the  contrary,  they  are  identified,  Clopas'  personality 
is  or  may  be  closely  connected  with  the  history  of  the 
brethren  of  the  Lord  and  of  James  the  Less.  (See 
Brethren  of  the  Lord;  Jambs  the  Less.) 

ScHEGQ,  Jakobue  der  Bruder  dee  Herm  (Munich,  1883); 
NicoLL,  Alphrrus  and  Klopas  in  The  Bxpontor  (ISS/i),  70  eqn.; 
Wetzel,  Aiphteue  u.  Klopas  in  Theolog.  Stud.  u.  Krit.  (18S3), 
620  eq.;  Jacquikr  in  Vio.,  Did.  de  la  Bib.^  b.v.  Alnh^ ;  abo 
commentaries  on  John,  xix,  25.  R,  BuTIN. 

Olerc,  Alexis.  See  Commttnb,  Martyrs  of  the 
Paris. 


OLEBO 


OLERIO 


Olerc,  J.-M.    See  Vizagapatam,  Diocese  of. 

Clerestory,  a  term  formerly  applied  to  any  win- 
dow or  traceried  opening  in  a  church,  e.  g.  in  an  aisle, 
tower,  cloister,  or  screen,  but  now  restricted  to  the 
windows  in  an  aisled  nave,  or  to  the  range  of  wall  in 
which  the  high  windows  are  set.  Sometimes  these 
'windows  are  very  small,  bein^  mere  quatrefoils  or 
spherical  triangles.  In  large  bmldings,  however,  they 
are  important  features  both  of  beauty  and  utility. 
The  clerestory  is  especially  used  in  churches  where  the 
division  into  nave  and  side  aisles  permits  the  intro- 
duction of  light  into  the  body  of  the  church  from 
above  the  aisle  roofs.  According  to  Fergusson's 
theory,  the  interior  of  Greek  temples  was  lighted 
by  a  clerestory,  similar  internally  to  that  found  in 
all  the  great  Egyptian  temples,  but  externally  re- 
quiring such  a  cnange  of  arrangement  as  was  nec- 
essary to  adapt  it  to  a  sloping  instead  of  a  flat 
roof.  This  seems  to  have  been  effected  by  counter- 
sinking into  the  roof,  so  as  to  make  three  ridges  in 
those  pi^  where  the  lie^t  was  admitted,  thou^i  the 
regular  ^ape  of  tiie  roofwas  retained  between  these 
openines.  Thus,  neither  the  ridge  nor  the  continuity 
of  the  Tines  of  the  roof  was  interfered  with.  This 
theory  is  borne  out  by  all  the  remains  of  Greek  tem- 

Eles  that  now  exist,  and  by  all  the  descriptions  that 
ave  been  handed  down  from  antiquity.  Simpson, 
however,  regards  the  theory  as  extremely  improbable. 
Flktcher  and  Fubtcher,  a  Hittary  of  Architecture  (Lon- 
don, New  York.  1896),  690;  Gwilt.  Encuc.  of  Arch.  (London, 
1881).  1648;  Parkeb.  Qlostary  of  Arch.  (Oxford.  1860),  I. 
104;  SruRaia.  Diet,  of  Arch,  and  Buildinff  (London,  1904); 
FERGX7S80N,  A  Hittcry  of  ArchitecHire  in  aU  Countriet  (New 
York):  Simpson,  A  History  of  Architecturcd  DwehpmnU 
(New  Vork.  1905). 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Olergy.    See  Cleric. 

Olerie,  a  person  who  has  been  legitimately  re- 
ceived into  the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  By  clei^gy  in  the 
strict  sense  is  meant  the  entire  ecclesiastical  hier- 
archy. Consequently  a  cleric  is  one  who  belongs  in 
some  sense  to  the  hierarchy.  For  this  it  is  necessaiy 
that  he  have  received  at  least  the  tonsure  (see  Ton- 
sure). The  clergy  by  Divine  right  form  an  order  or 
state  which  is  essentially  distinct  from  that  of  the 
laity.  (Cone.  Trid.,Sess.  XXIV,  De  sac.  ord.,  can.  i, 
6.)  Christ  did  not  commit  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel  and  the  administration  of  tne  sacraments  to 
the  faithful  in  general,  but  to  certain  carefuUy  defined 
persons,  as  the  Apostles  and  seventy-two  Disciples. 
They  also  received  the  power  of  governing  the  flocks; 
which  power  is  represented  by  the  Kejrs,  a  well-known 
Oriental  symbol  for  authority.  That  the  distinction 
between  clergy  and  laity  was  recognized  in  New 
Testament  times  is  plain  from  St.  Paul's  statement 
that  the  bishops  have  been  placed  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
to  rule  the  Church  (Acts,  xx,  28),  for  the  right  to 
rule  implies  a  corrdative  obligation  to  obey.  Pres- 
byters are  continually  distinguished  from  the  laity 
throughout  the  Pauline  Epistles. 

The  word  cleric  (Lat.  derictta  from  derus)  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  kXijpos,  a  "  lot".  In  the  Septua- 
gint,  this  word  is  used  in  the  literal  sense  quite  fre- 
ouentlyt  though  not  in  its  later  technical  sens^.  In 
the  First  Epistle  of  St.  Peter  (v,  3)  it  is  applied  to  the 
entire  body  of  the  faithful.  The  use  of  the  word  in  its 
present  restricted  meaning  occurs,  however,  as  early 
as  the  third  century.  It  is  found  in  Tertullian  (De 
idol.,  c.  viii),  Origen  (Hom.  in  Jer.,  xi,  3)  and  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  (Quis  dives  salvetur,  c.  xKi)  in  this 
sense.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  exactly  how  the 
word  came  to  have  it«  present  determinate  meaning. 
The  "Pontificale  Romanum"  refers  to  clerics  as  being 
those  whose  ''lot'*  is  the  Lord  Himself,  and  St. 
Jerome  explicitly  derives  the  name  from  that  fact. 
These  statements  do  not  give  us,  however,  the  steps 
IV.— 4 


by  which  kX^poj,  "lot"  became  "clergy"  or  "cleric", 
ftobably  the  best  suggested  explanation  is,  that 
from  lot  or  portion,  it  came  to  mean  a  particular 
lot  or  office  assigned  to  some  one,  and  finally  the 
person  himself  possessing  the  lot  or  office.  ^ 

Extension  of  Meaning. — While  cleric  in  its  strict 
sense  means  one  who  has  received  the  ecclesiastical 
tonsure,  yet  in  a  general  sense  it  is  also  employed  in 
canon  law  for  all  to  whom  clerical  privileges  have 
been  extended.  Such  are  the  members  of  religious 
orders:  monks  and  nuns,  and  even  lay  brothers  and 
novices.  It  is  also  applied  to  tertiaries  of  the  mendi- 
cant oixiers.  If  they  be  men,  however,  they  must 
live  in  community,  but  if  they  be  women  they  may 
enjoy  the  privilege  even  when  living  at  home.  Her- 
mits and  virgins,  or  celibates  whose  vows  are  approved 
by  the  bishop,  have  like>>ise  clerical  immunities. 
Members  of  tne  miUtary  religious  orders,  such  as 
formerly  the  Knights  Templars,  and  at  present  the 
Teutomo  Knights  and  Knights  of  Malta,  rank  as 
clerics.  The  meaning  of  the  word  has  been  so  ex- 
tended as  to  include  even  laics,  men  or  women,  who 
render  service  to  a  regular  community,  such  as  by 
begging,  provided  they  wear  a  clerical  dress  and 
reside  near  the  monastery  or  convent.  The  privi- 
leges enjoyed  by  thus  obtaining  the  benefit  of  clergy 
were  once  great  (see  Immunity),  and  were  formerly 
recognized  by  secular  govemments;  In  modem 
times,  however,  these  privileges  in  as  far  as  they 
were  guaranteed  by  the  civil  power  have  been  almost 
entirely  swept  away  in  every  countnr  of  the  world. 
It  is  only  when  there  is  question  of  favours,  or  as 
canonists  say,  in  a  favourable  sense,  that  cleric  has 
this  wide  signification.  When  there  is  question  of 
penalties,  on  the  contrary,  it  becomes  so  restricted 
as  to  mean  only  the  lower  orders  of  the  secular  clergy. 
In  En^and  in  medieval  times  the  term  clerk  acquired 
in  conmion  parlance  the  significance  of  an  educated 
man. 

Clerical  Religious  Orders. — Among  the  regular 
orders  in  the  strict  sense,  namely  those  whose  mem- 
bers have  solemn  vows,  is  a  lai^  class  designated  as 
clerks  regular  {derici  regulares)  because  living  accord- 
ing to  a  rule  (regula).  In  contradistinction  to  the 
monastic  orders,  these  clerical  orders  were^  instituted 
for  the  purpose  of  exercising  a  ministry  similar  to  that 
of  the  secular  clerics,  by  promotion  of  the  Divine 
worship  and  procuring  the  salvation  of  souls.  Their 
main  object  is  the  spiritual  and  temporal  service  of 
their  neighbour  in  educating  youth,  preaching,  serv- 
ing the  sick,  etc.  Orders  o/  clerks  regular  were  first 
founded  in  the  sixteenth  century.  To  this  class 
belong  the  Jesuits,  Theatines,  Barnabites,  and  others. 
Many  religious  congregations,  which  are  not  orders 
in  the  strict  sense,  such  as  the  Passionists  and  Re- 
demptorists  follow  a  similar  mode  of  life. 

Region ARY  Clerics,  who  are  also  called  d^ci 
vagarUes  and  acephalif  were  those  who  were  ordained 
without  title  to  a  special  church.  They  were  re- 
ceived into  the  sacred  ministry  by  the  bishops  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  the  dearth  of  the  clerg}'  in  the 
outlying  districts  of  the  dioceses  where  no  benefices 
existed.  Here  they  were  to  act  as  missionaries  and 
in  course  of  time,  if  possible,  to  gather  together  congre- 
gations who  would  build  and  endow  a  church.  Many 
of  these  clerics  became  mere  ^\^nde^ers  without  set- 
tled occupation  or  abode,  sometimes  supporting 
themselves  by  filling  temporary  chaplaincies  in  the 
castles  of  noblemen.  In  course  of  time,  numbers 
of  these  untitled  clerics  returned  to  the  settled  por- 
tions, of  their  dioceses  and  acted  as  assistants  to  such 
beneficed  clergymen  as  chose  to  accept  their  help. 
Owing  to  the  abuses  arising  from  the  unsettled  state 
of  these  vagrant  clerics,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXIII,  c.  xvi,  De  ref.)  forbade  the  ordaining  in 
future  of  any  candidate  who  was  not  attached  to  a 
definite  church  or  pious  institute. 


OLEBIOATO 


50 


OLEBIOIS 


Obugations  op  Clerics.— (1)  They  must  wear  a 
eostume  suited  to  their  state.  While  the  common 
canon  law  does  not  determine  in  every  detail  what 
the  dress  of  clerics  should  be,  yet  man^  and  various 
prescriptions  on  the  subject  are  found  m  the  canons, 
the  pontifical  constitutions,  and  the  decrees  of  coim- 
cils.  These  ordain  that  the  clerics  are  not  to  wear  the 
dress  of  laymen.  They  must  abstain  from  gaudy 
colours,  imbecoming  their  state.  The  wearing  of 
the  soutane  or  cassock  on  all  occasions,  even  in  {>ublic, 
is  prescribed  for  clerics  living  in  Rome,  and  bishops 
may  command  the  same  in  their  dioceses.  In  non- 
Catholic  countries,  synods  generally  prescribe  that  for 
public  use  the  dress  of  clerics  shomd  be  such  as  to 
distinguish  them  from  lavmen;  that  is  of  black  or  of  a 
sober  colour,  and  that  the  so-called  Roman  collar  be 
worn.  In  private,  clergymen  are  commonly  re- 
quired to  wear  the  soutane.  (2)  Clerics  are  forbidden 
to  engage  in  trade  and  secular  business.  In  the  early 
ages  of  the  Church,  it  was  allowable  to  seek  necessary 
sustenance  by  labour,  and  this  b  not  forbidden  now 
if  the  cleric  does  not  receive  proper  support  from 
ecclesiastical  sources.  What  is  specially  J>rohibited 
is  to  engage  in  trade  for  the  sake  of  gain.  The  buying 
and  selling,  however,  which  is  necessary  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  lands  or  the  goods  of  a  benefice  do  not 
fall  under  the  prohibition.  Neither  is  it  forbidden 
to  clerics  nowaoays  to  place  their  money  out  at  inter- 
est and  receive  the  increment;  for  this  is  equivalent, 
allowing  for  modem  circumstances,  to  the  economic 
management  of  the  lands  of  ecclesiastical  benefices. 
Gambling  in  stocks,  however,  remains  an  illicit  form 
of  trade  for  clergymen  (Lehmkuhl,  Theol.  Mor.,  II, 
n.  612.). 

(3)  There  are  stringent  laws  concerning  the  rela- 
tions of  clerics  with  persons  of  the  other  sex.  They 
must  conform  to  the  canons  in  all  that  regards 
allowing  females  to  dwell  in  their  houses.  Above  all 
must  they  avoid  associating  with  those  whose  moral 
character  causes  the  least  suspicion.  (4)  Unbecom- 
ing amusements  are  also  forbidden  to  them,  such  as 
the  fre(^uenting  of  improper  plays  and  spectacles, 
the  visiting  of  taverns,  mdulgenoe  m  games  of  chance, 
carrying  of  arms,  following  the  chase,  etc.  When  in 
the  above  amusements,  however,  there  is  no  necessary 
impropriety,  lawful  custom  and  synodal  prescriptions 
may  make  a  participation  in  them  allowable.^  (5) 
Clerics  are  bound  to  obey  their  diocesan  bishops  in  all 
matters  determined  by  the  canon  law.  Various 
Roman  decisions  have  declared  that  by  his  ordinary 
authority,  the  bishop  cannot  oblige  clerics  to  render 
to  him  any  service  not  expressed  in  the  canons.  While 
the  obligation  of  obedience  is  binding  on  all  clerics, 
it  is  strengthened  for  priests  by  the  solemn  promise 
made  at  ordination,  and  for  all  holders  of  benefices 
by  the  canonical  oath.  The  obligation  to  be  subject 
to  the  bishop  in  lawful  matters  is  not,  however,  a 
vow. 

Loss  OF  Clerical  Privileoes. — ^Although  the 
sacramental  character  received  in  Sacred  orders  may 
not  be  obliterated,  yet  even  the  higher  orders  of 
clergy  may  be  degraded  from  their  <5gnity  and  re- 
duced to  what  is  technically  called  lay  communion. 
The  same  holds,  of  course,  likewise  for  the  lower 
clergy.  When,  however,  a  cleric  who  has  received 
only  minor  orders  or  even  tonsure,  after  losing  his 
privileges,  has  been  restored  to  the  clerical  state,  this 
restitution,  even  when  solemn,  is  merely  ceremonious 
and  is  not  considered  as  a  new  conferring  of  ionsure 
or  minor  orders.  Even  minor  clerics  are  therefore 
oonsidered  to  have  a  stable  connexion  with  the  hier- 
archical order.  See  Minor  Orders;  Deacon;  Sub- 
deacon;  Priest;  Hierarchy;  LAmr. 

Wbrnz,  Ju»  Decrdalium  (Rome.  1800),  II;  Fbrbani, 
Promvta  Bibl.  (Rome,  1886),  II;  Laursntius,  In^.  Jur.  Bed, 
(Fraiburg.  1003). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 


Olericato,  Giovanni,  canonist,  b.  1633,  at  Padua; 
d.  1717.  He  was  of  English  descent,  and  the  name 
is  variously  written  Clbricatus,  Chericato,  Cheri- 
CATi,  and  Chiericato,  probably  from  Clark,  the 
original  family  name.  Tne  charity  of  a  pious  woman 
made  it  possible  for  him  to  satis^  his  strong  incli- 
nation for  study;  and,  being  raised  to  the  priesthood, 
he  came  to  be  considered  one  of  the  ablest  men  of 
his  time  in  matters  of  ecclesiastical  jurisprudence. 
Cardinal  Barbarigo,  whose  life  he  afterwards  wrote, 
made  him  Vicar-General  of  the  Diocese  of  Padua. 
He  wrote  many  works  on  civil  and  canon  law;  his 
"Decisiones  Sacramentales"  was  published  in  1727, 
and  in  1757  in  three  volumes,  and  merited  the 
encomiums  of  Benedict  XIV  (notific.  32,  n.  6). 
His  name  is  held  in  honour  in  Italian  ecclesiastical 
literature. 

Mor£bi.  Or.  Did.  Hiat.  (Paris.  1750):  Sbebti,  Memorie 
(Padua.  1700);  Tzraboschx.  Storia  dMa  Lett.  lud.  (Milan. 
1825).  John  H.  Stapleton. 

OlericiB  LaiooB,  the  initial  words  of  a  Bull  issued 
25  Feb.,  1296,  by  Boniface  VIII  in  response  to  an 
earnest  appeal  of  the  Enpjiish  and  French  prelates  for 
protection  against  the  mtolerable  exactions  of  the 
civil  power  (see  Boniface  VIII).  The  decree  was  in- 
sertea  amons  the  papal  decretals  and  is  found  in 
Lib.  Sextus,  III,  tit.  23.  After  a  preamble  in  which 
the  pope  complains  that  the  laity  are,  and  have  al- 
ways been,  bitterly  hostile  to  the  clergy;  that,  al- 
though they  possess  no  authority  over  ecclesiastical 
persons  or  property,  they  impose  all  sorts  of  heavy 
burdens  on  the  clergy  and  seek  to  reduce  them  to 
servitude;  that  several  prelates  and  other  dignitaries 
of  the  Church,  more  fearful  of  giving  offence  to  their 
earthly  rulers  than  to  the  majesty  of  God,  acquiesce 
in  these  abuses,  without  having  obtained  authori^  or 
permission  from  the  Apostolic  See;  he,  therefore,  wish- 
mg  to  put  an  end  to  these  iniquitous  proceedings,  with 
the  consent  of  his  cardinals  and  by  Apostolic  author- 
ity, decrees  that  all  prelates  or  other  ecclesiastic^^  su- 
periors who  under  whatsoever  pretext  or  colour  shall, 
without  authority  from  the  Holy  See,  pay  to  laymen 
any  part  of  their  income  or  of  the  revenue  of  the 
Church;  also  all  emperors,  kings,  dukes,  counts,  etc. 
who  shall  exact  or  receive  sucn  payments  incur  eo 
ipBo  the  sentence  of  excommimication  from  which, 
except  in  arHculo  mor^ts,  no  one  can  absolve  them  with- 
out special  faculties  from  the  pope;  no  privileges  or 
dispensations  to  be  of  avail  against  the  decree. 

The  two  underlying  principles  of  this  Bull,  vis.  (1) 
that  the  clergy  should  enjoy  equally  with  the  laity  &e 
ridbt  of  determining  the  need  and  the  amount  of  their 
subsidies  to  the  Crown,  and  (2)  that  the  head  of  the 
Church  ought  to  be  consulted  when  there  was  ques- 
tion of  diverting  the  revenues  of  the  Church  to  secular 
purposes,  were^  no  means  strange  or  novel-  in  that 
age  of  Magnffi  CJhart®;  and  outside  of  France  and 
]£igland  it  was  accepted  without  a  murmur.  But 
what  excited  the  wrath  of  the  two  chief  culprits, 
PhiHp  the  Fair  and  Edward  I,  was  that  from  its  fieiy 
tone,  from  the  express  mention  of  sovereigns,  and  the 
srave  ipso  facto  penalties  attached,  they  felt  that  be- 
hind the  decree  tnere  stood  a  new  Hildebrand  resolved 
to  enforce  it  to  the  letter.  The  Bull  has  been  criti- 
cized for  the  unconventional  vehemence  of  its  tone, 
for  its  exaggerated  indictment  of  the  hostile  attitude 
of  the  laity  of  all  ages  towards  the  clergy,  and  for  its 
failure  to  make  clear  the  distinction  between  the  rev- 
enues of  the  purely  ecclesiastical  benefices  and  the  lay 
fees  held  by  the  clergy  on  feudal  tenure.  The  un- 
scrupulous advisers  orPhilip  the  Fair  were  quick  to 
take  advantage  of  the  pope^  hasty  language  and,  by 
forcing  him  to  make  explanations,  put  mm  on  the  de- 
fensive and  weakened  his  prestige. 

For  sources  and  literature,  see  Bonifacb  VIII. 

James  F.  Loughlin. 


OLEBX 


51 


OISEKS 


Olerk,  John,  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Welb;  date  of 
birth  unknown;  d.  3  January,  1541.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1499;  M.A.,  1502)  and 
Bologna,  where  he  became  Doctor  of  Laws.  When  be 
returned  to  England  he  attached  himself  to  Cardinal 
Wolsey,  and  much  preferment  followed.  He  became 
Hector  of  Hothfield,  Kent,  1508;  Master  of  the  Maison 
Dieu  at  Dover,  1509;  Rector  of  Portishead  (Somer- 
set) 1513;  Ivychurch  (Kent),  West  Tarring  (Sussex), 
and  Charlton,  all  in  1514;  South  Molton  (Devonshire) 
and  Archdeacon  of  Colchester,  1519;  Dean  of  Windsor 
and  judge  in  the  Court  of  Star  Chamber,  1519.  He 
was  also  Dean  of  the  King's  Chapel.  He  was  useful 
in  diplomatic  commissions  both  to  Wolsey  and  the 
king.  In  1521  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  the 
Papal  Court,  in  which  capacity  he  presented  King 
Henry's  book  against  Luther  to  the  pope  in  full  oon- 
sistory.  He  acted  as  Wolsey^s  aeent  in  Rome  in  the 
conclave  on  the  death  of  Leo  X.  lie  returned  to  Eng- 
land to  be  appointed  Master  of  the  Rolls  in  October, 

1522,  which  office  he  held  till  9  October,  1523.  When 
Wolsey  resigned  the  See  of  Bath  and  Wells,  in  1523, 
Clerk  was  appointed  bishop  in  his  stead.  As  bishop- 
elect  he  went  on  another  political  embassy  to  Rome, 
wbere  he  received  episcopal  consecration,  6  December, 

1523.  He  remained  in  Rome  for  two  years  and  once 
more  unsuccessfully  represented  Wofsey's  interests 
at  the  conclave  in  which  Clement  VII  was  elected 
pope.  He  left  Rome  in  November,  1525,  but  was  so 
useful  as  a  diplomatic  agent  that  he  was  never  long  in 
Eziigland,  ana  his  diocese  was  administered  by  his  two 
sum-agan  bishops.  When  the  question  of  the  roytd 
divorce  was  raised  Clerk  was  appointed  as  one  of  the 
queen's  counsellors,  but.  Wolsey  persuaded  him  to 
agree  on  her  behalf  that  she  should  withdraw  from 
proceedings  at  Rome.  Afterwards  he  joined  in  pro- 
nouncing sentence  of  divorce,  and  is  believed  to  have 
assisted  Cranmer  in  works  on  the  supremacy  and  the 
divorce.  His  last  embassy  was  in  1540,  to  the  Duke 
of  Cleves,  to  explain  the  king's  divorce  of  Anne  of 
Cleves.  On  his  retmrn  he  was  taken  iU  at  Dunkirk, 
not  without  suspicion  of  poison^  but  he  managed  to 
reach  England,  though  only  to  die.  He  lies  buried  at 
St.  Botolph's,  Aldgate,  not  at  Dunkirk,  as  sometimes 
stated. 

Clerk  wrote  "Oratio  pro  Henrico  VIII  apud  Leonem 
pontif.  Max.  in  exhibitione  operis  re<di  contra  Luth- 
erum  in  consistorio  habitam'vCLondon,  1541),  trans- 
lated into  English  by  T.  W.  (Thomas  Warde?),  1687. 

Letten  and  StaU  Papen  of  Henry  VIII  (London.  1830-^52); 
Chsrbubt.  lAf0  and  Reion  of  Heiuy  VIII  (London,  1714); 
Hunt  in  DieL  of  Nat,  Biogr,,  s.  v.;  Dodd.  Church  Hitt.  (Lon- 
don. 1737),  I,  181-2;  Coopsb.  Athena.  Cantab.  (Cambridge. 
1858),  I,  77;  Oillow^  BtM.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.  The  account 
of  Pirn,  D0  Ang.  Senptonlnt*  (Paris,  1619),  U  erroneoua. 

Edwik  Burton. 

Gierke,  Agnes  Mart,  astronomer,  b,  at  Skibbereen, 
County  Cork,  Ireland,  10  February,  1842;  d.  in  Lon- 
don. 20  January,  1907.  At  the  very  be^nning  of  her 
studv  she  showed  a  marked  interest  in  astronomy, 
and  before  she  was  fifteen  years  old  she  had  begun  to 
write  a  history  of  that  science.  In  1861  the  family 
moved  to  Dublin,  and  in  1863  to  Queenstown.  Sev- 
eral years  later  she  went  to  Italy  where  she  stayed 
until  1877,  chiefly  at  Florence,  studying  at  the  public 
librarv  and  preparinsfor  literary  work.  In  1877  she 
settled  in  London.  Her  first  important  article,  ^'Co- 
pernicus in  Italy",  was  published  in  the  "Edinbun^ 
Review"  (October,  1877).  She  achieved  a  worfl- 
wide  reputation  in  1885,  on  the  appearance  of  her 
exhaustive  treatise,  "A  Popular  History  of  Astronomy 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century^'.  This  was  at  once  recog- 
nised as  an  authoritative  work.  Miss  Clerke  was  not 
a  practical  astronomer;  in  1888,  however,  she  spent 
three  months  at  the  Cape  Observatory  as  the  guest  of 
the  director^  Sir  David  Gill,  and  his  wife.  There  she 
became  mimciently  familiar  with  spectroscopic  work 
to  be  enabled  to  write  about  this  newer  branch  of  the 


science  with  increased  clearness  and  confidence.  In 
1892  the  Royal  Institution  awarded  to  her  the  Acton- 
ian  Prise  of  one  hundred  guineas.  As  a  member  of 
the  British  Astronomical  .^^sociation  she  attended  its 
meetings  resularly,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Royal 
Astronomicu  Society.  In  1903,  with  Lady  Huggins. 
she  was  elected  an  honorary  member  of  the  Soyal 
Astronomical  Society,  a  rank  previously  held  only  oy 
two  other  women,  Caroline  Herschel  and  Mary  Somer- 
ville.  Her  work  is  remarkable  in  a  literary  as  well  as 
in  a  scientific  way.  She  compiled  facts  with  untirins 
diligence,  sifted  them  carefully,  discussed  them  with 
judgment,  and  sug^ted  problems  and  lines  of  future 
research.  All  this. is  expressed  in  polished,  eloquent, 
and  b^kutiful  language.  With  this  scientific  tempersr 
ment  she  combined  a  noble  religious  nature  that  made 
her  acknowledge  ''with  supreme  conviction"  the  in- 
sufficiency of  science  to  know  and  predict  the  possible 
acts  of  the  Divine  Power.  Her  works,  all  published 
in  London,  include,  "A  Popular  History  of  Astron- 
omy in  the  Nineteenth  Century"  (1885,  4th  revised 
ed.,  1902);  "The  System  of  the  Stars"  (1890;  2nd  ed., 
1905);  "The  Herschels  and  Modem  Astronomer" 
(1895);  "The  Concise  Knowledge  Astronomy" — in 
conjunction  with  J.  E.  Gore  and  A.  Fowler  (1898); 
"Problems  in  Astrophysics"  (1903);  "Modem  Cos- 
mogonies" (1906).  To  the  ^'Edinburgh  Review" 
she  contributed  fifty-five  articles,  mainlv  on  subjects 
connected  with  astrophysics.  The  articles  on  astron- 
omers in  the  " Dictionary  of  National  Biography"; 
on  "Laplace"  and  some  on  other  astronomers  and 
astronomical  subjects  in  the  "  Encyclopsdia  Britan- 
nica";  and  on  "Astronomy"  in  The  Catholic 
Enctclopedia,  were  from  her  pen,  as  well  as  numer- 
ous contributions  to  "Knowl^ge",  "The  Observa- 
tory", the  London  "Tablet",  and  other  periodicals. 

Ellen  Mart,  sister  of  preceding,  journalist  and 
novelist,  b.  at  Skibbereen,  County  Cork,  Ireland, 
1840;  d.  in  London,  2  March,  1906.  A  gifted  and 
accomplished  writer,  she  was  for  many  years  an  edito- 
rial writer  for  the  London  ' '  Tablet ' '.  Her  knowledge 
of  the  intricacies  of  the  religious  and  political  prob- 
lems of  Continental  Europe  was  remarkable.  A  seven 
years'  stay  in  Italy  made  her  intimatelv  familiar  not 
only  with  its  language  and  literature,  but  also  with 
every  phase  of  its  public  life.  She  contributed  a 
series  of  stories,  perfect  in  Italian  phrase,  idiom,  and 
local  colour,  to  periodicals  in  Florence.  Her  pamph- 
lets, "Jupiter  and  His  System"  and  "The  Planet 
Venus",  were  valuable  additions  to  the  literature  of 
popular  astronomy.  In  1899  she  published  "Fable 
and  Son^  in  Italy  ,  a  collection  of  essays  and  studies 
and  specimens  of  Italian  poetry  rendered  into  Eng- 
lish in  the  original  metres.  A  novel,  "Flowers  of 
Fire"  (1902),  was  her  last  work. 

The  Tablet,  61m  (London,  March.  1906:  January,  1907) 
Obituary  in  Monthly  Noticea  of  the  R.  A.  S.  (London.  1907) 
MACPiOBRaoN  in  Popular  Aatronomp  (London,  March,  1907) 
The  Mouenger  Maganno  (New  York,  March,  1907). 

William  Fox. 

Olarka  of  St.  Viator.  See  Vl^tor,  St.,  Clerks  or. 

Olerks  of  the  Oomxnon  Xaife.  See  Ck)MMON  Lite, 
Brethren  of  the. 

Olerks  K^gulMX,— Canonical  Status. — By  clerks 
r^lar  are  meant  those  bodies  of  men  in  the  Church 
who  by  the  very  nature  of  their  institute  unite  the 
perfection  of  the  religious  state  to  the  priestly  office, 
h  e.  who  while  bein^  essentially  clerics,  aevoted  to  the 
exercise  of  the  ministry  in  preaching,  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacraments,  the  education  of  youth,  and 
other  spiritual  and  corporal  works  of  mercy,  are  at  the 
same  time  religious  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word, 
professing  solemn  vows,  and  living  a  oommunity  life 
according  to  a  rule  solemnly  approved  of  by  the  sov- 
ereign pontiff.  In  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici"  the 
term  ctarks  regular  is  often  used  for  canons  regular,  and 


CLERKS 


52 


OLSBKS 


regular  clerks  are  classed  by  aiithorB  as  a  branch  or 
modern  adaptation  of  the  once  world-famous  family  of 
regular  canons  (see  Canons  and  Canonbsbb8  Regu- 
lar). This  is  because  of  the  intimate  connexion  ex- 
isting between  the  two;  for  while  separated  from  the 
secular  clerey^  by  their  vows  and  the  observance  of  a 
community  life  and  a  rule,  they  form  a  distinct  class 
in  the  religious  state,  the  clerical,  in  opposition  to  the 
monastic,  which  includes  monks,  hermits,  and  friars. 
Clerks  regular  are  distinguished  from  the  purely  mo- 
nastic bodies,  or  monks,  in  four  wa^:  They  are  pri- 
marily devoted  to  the  sacred  ministry*  not  so  the 
monks,  whose  proper  work  is  contemplation  and  the 
solemn  celebration  of  the  liturgy.  Tney  are  obhged 
to  cultivate  the  sacred  sciences,  which,  if  cultivated  by 
the  monks,  are  yet  not  imposed  upon  them  by  virtue  of 
their  state  of  life.  Clerks  regular  as  clerics  must  re- 
tain some  appearance  of  clerical  dress  distinct  from 
the  habit  and  cowl  of  the  monk.  And  lastly,  because 
of  their  occupations,  they  are  less  given  to  the  prac- 
tice of  austerity  which  is  a  distinct  feature  or  the 
purely  monastic  life.  They  are  distinguished  from  the 
friars  in  this,  that  though  the  latter  are  devoted  to  the 
sacred  ministry  and  the  cultivation  of  leamine,  thejr 
are  not  primarily  priests.  Finally,  clerks  regular  dif- 
fer from  canons  r^ular  in  that  they  do  not  possess 
cathedral  or  collegiate  churdies,  devote  themselves 
more  completely  to  ministerisd  work  in  place  of  choir- 
service,  and  have  fewer  penitential  observances  of 
rule. 

History. — ^The  exact  date  at  which  clerks  r^ular 
appeared  in  the  Church  cannot  be  absolutely  deter- 
mired.  Regular  clerks  of  some  sort,  i.  e.  pnests  de- 
voted both  to  the  exercise  of  the  ministry  and  to  the 
practice  of  the  religious  Ufe  are  found  in  the  earliest 
da3rB  of  Christian  antiquity.  Many  eminent  theolo- 
gians hold  that  the  clerks  regular  were  founded  by 
Christ  Himself.  In  this  opinion  the  Apostles  were  the 
first  regular  clerks,  being  constituted  by  Christ  min- 
isters par  excellence  of  PI  is  Church  and  called  by  Him 
personally  to  the  practice  of  the  counsels  of  the  relig- 
ious life  (cf.  Suarez).  From  the  fact  that  St.  Augus- 
tine in  the  fourth  century  established  in  his  house  a 
community  of  priests  leading  the  religious  life,  for 
whom  he  drew  up  a  rule,  he  haa  ordinarffy  been  styled 
the  founder  of  the  regular  clerks  and  canons,  and  upon 
his  rule  have  been  built  the  constitutions  of  the 
canons  regular  and  an  immense  number  of  the  relig- 
ious communities  of  the  Middle  Ages,  besides  those  of 
the  clerks  regular  established  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
During  the  whole  medieval  period  the  clerks  regular 
were  represented  by  the  r^ular  canons  who  under 
the  name  of  the  Canons  Regular  or  Black  Canons  of 
St.  Augustine,  the  Premonstratensians  or  White 
Canons,  Canons  of  St.  Norbert,  etc.,  shared  with 
the  monks  the  possession  of  those  magnificent 
abbeys  and  monasteries  all  over  Europe  which,  even 
though  they  are  in  ruins,  compel  the  admiration  of 
the  beholder. 

It  was  not  until  the  sixteenth  century  that  clerks 
regular  in  the  modem  and  strictest  sense  of  the  word 
came  into  being.  Just  as  the  conditions  obtaining  in 
the  thirteenth  century  brought  about  a  change  in  the 
monastic  ideal,  so  in  the  sixteenth  the  altereacircum- 
stances  of  the  times  called  for  a  fresh  development  of 
the  ever  fecund  religious  spirit  in  the  Church.  This 
development,  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  times,  was 
had  in  the  various  bodies  of  simple  clerics,  who,  desir- 
ous of  devoting  themselves  more  perfectly  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  their  priestly  ministry  under  the  safeguards 
of  the  religious  life,  instituted  the  several  bodies 
which,  under  the  names  of  the  various  orders  of  regular 
clerics,  constitute  rn  themselves  and  in  their  imitators 
one  of  the  most  efficient  instruments  for  good  in  the 
Church  militant  to-day.  So  successful  and  popular 
and  well  adapted  to  all  modem  needs  were  the  clerks 
regular,  that  their  mode  of  life  was  chosen  as  the  pat- 


tern for  all  the  various  communities  of  men,  whether 
religious  or  secular,  living  under  rule,  in  which  tiie 
Church  has  in  recent  times  been  so  prolific.  The  first 
order  of  clerks  regular  to  be  founded  were  the  Thea- 
tines  (a.  v.)  established  at  Rome  in  1524;  then  fol- 
lowed the  Clerks  Regular  of  the  Good  Jesus,  founded  at 
Ravenna  in  1526,  and  abolished  by  Innocent  X  in 
1651;  the  Bamabites  (q.  v.)  or  Clerks  R^ular  of  St. 
Paul,  Milan,  1530;  The  Somaschi  (q.  v.)  or  Qerks 
R^ular  of  St.  Majolus,  Somasca,  1532;  the  Jesuits  or 
the  Society  of  Jesus  (q.  v.),  Paris,  1534;  the  Regular 
Clerks  of  the  Mother  of  God,  Lucca,  1583;  the  R^u- 
lar  Cl^ks  Ministering  to  the  Sick,  Rome,  1584;  uie 
Minor  Clerks  Regular,  Naples,  1588;  and  the  Piarists 
or  R^;ular  Qerln  of  the  Mother  of  God  of  the  Pious 
Schoou,  Rome,  1597.  Since  the  dose  of  the  six- 
teenth century  no  new  orders  have  been  added  to  tlie 
number,  thou^  the  name  Clerks  R^ular  has  been 
assmned  occasioneklly  by  communities  tnat  are  techni- 
cally only  religious,  or  pious,  congregations  (see  Con- 

GBEQATIONS,  RbLIOIOUS). 

Suarez,  De  Religume,  tr.  0 ;  Humphxgt,  BlemenU  of  ReUg- 
iou8  lAfe  (London,  1884) ;  Iueii,  The  Riiligiotis  Stale  (Lon« 
don,  1003).  II:  Andr6-Waoner,  />tcf.  de  droit  canonimte 
(Paris,  1901);  Veriiebr8CH.  De  Keligiosia  Institutit  et  Per- 
•onis  (BnigM,  1004), I;  Wxrns,  «/iu«  rhcretalium  (Rome,  1800), 
III;  H&LTOT,  D%ci.ae9  ordret  religieux  (Paris,  1850), ed.  Mionk, 
III;  Heimbuchkr,  Die  Orden  und  Kong,  der  kath.  Kirche 
(Paderbom.  1907).  III.  j^^  p    x.  MuRPHY. 

Olerka  Be^ar  of  Our  Saviour,  a  religious  con- 
urbation instituted  in  its  present  form  in  1851,  at 
Benolte-Vaux  in  the  Diocese  of  Verdun,  France.  The 
constitutions  and  spirit  of  the  con^gation  are  those 
of  the  Canons  Regular  of  Our  Saviour,  who  were  es- 
tablished as  a  reform  among  the  various  bodies  of 
regular  canons  in  Lorraine  by  St.  Peter  Fourier  (a.  v.), 
canon  of  Chamousay  in  1623,  and  confirmed  by  Urban 
VIII  in  1628.  The  scope  of  the  reformed  order,  as 
outlined  in  the  *'Summarium  Cbnstitutionum"  of  St. 
Peter,  was  the  CJhristian  education  of  youth  and  the 
exercise  of  the  sacred  ministry  among  the  poor  and 
neglected.  The  order  flourished  exceedingly  through- 
out the  Duchy  of  Lorraine  and  made  its  way  into 
France  and  Savoy;  but  was  completely  destroyed  by 
the  French  Revolution.  In  1851  four  zedous  priests 
of  the  Diocese  of  Verdun,  anxious  to  see  revived  the 
apostolic  labours  of  the  sons  of  Fourier,  withdrew  to 
the  retired  shrine  of  Our  Lady  of  Benolte-Vaux,  and 
there  began  a  religious  life  according  to  the  rule  given 
to  his  canons  by  St.  Peter  Fourier.  Three  years  later 
they  received  tne  approbation  of  the  Holy  See,  which 
changed  their  name  from  Canons  Regular,  the  title  of 
the  earlier  organization,  to  Clerks  Regular.  During 
the  next  half  century  the  congregation  spread  and  it 
now  numbers  several  houses,  its  special  work  being  the 
education  of  youth.  The  members  of  the  congrega- 
tion are  of  three  jgrades,  priests,  scholastics,  and  lay 
brothers.  Though  possessing  the  title  "clerks  regular  " 
(q.  V.)  they  are  not  such  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
as  their  vows,  though  perpetual,  are  simple,  according 
to  the  present  practice  of  the  Roman  authorities  of  es- 
tablishing no  new  institutes  of  solemn  vows. 

Hbimbucheb,  Die  Orden  und  Kong,  der  kath.  Kirche  (Psdcr- 
bom,  1907),  II,  47  bo.;  H^lyot,  Diet,  dee  ordres  religieux,  (Paris, 
1859),  ed.  MioNE,  iV. 

John  F.  X.  Murphy. 

Clerks  Befirolar  of  St.  PauL    See  BARNABrrEs. 

OlerkB  Begular  of  the  Mother  of  Ood  of 
Lucca,  a  oonfijegation  founded  by  the  Blessed  Gio- 
vanni Leonaroi,  son  of  middle-class  parents,  who  was 
bom  in  1541  at  Diecimo,  a  small  township  in  the  Re- 
public of  Lucca,  though  at  that  time  the  chief  place 
of  a  fief  of  the  same  name  held  by  the  bishops  of  Lucca 
from  the  republic.  At  seventeen  years  of  age  he  was 
sent  to  Lucca  to  learn  the  apothecary's  trade,  but 
having  from  a  tender  age  been  most  piously  inclined, 


OUBBXS 


53 


OLEBMONT 


he,  after  many  clifficulties,  including  the  necessity  of 
educating  himself  .embraced  the  sacerdotal  state,  and 
was  ordained  22  December,  1572.  His  congregation 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  1574.  Two  or  three 
young  laymen,  attracted  by  his  sanctity  and  the  sweet- 
ness of  his  character,  had  gathered  round  him  to  sub- 
mit themselves  to  his  spiritual  guidance  and  help  him 
in  the  work  for  the  reform  of  manners  and  the  saving 
of  souls  which  he  had  be^in  even  as  a  layman.  Gio- 
vanni rented  the  beautiful  little  church  of  Santa 
Maria  della  Rosa,  and  in  a  quarter  close  by,  some- 
thing Uke  community  life  was  started.  It  was  here, 
when  it  became  evident  that  Giovanni*s  lay  helpers 
were  preparing  for  the  priesthood  and  tbiat  some- 
thing uke  a  religious  order  was  in  process  of  formation, 
that  a  storm  of  persecution  broke  out  against  the 
devoted  founder.  The  Fathers  of  the  republic  seem 
to  have  had  a  real  fear  that  a  native  religious  order, 
if  spread  over  Italy,  would  cause  the  affairs  of  the 
little  state  to  become  too  well  known  to  its  neigh- 
bours. The  persecution,  however,  was  so  effective 
and  lasting,  that  the  Blessed  Leonardi  practically 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  banishment  from  Lucca, 
only  being  now  and  again  admitted  by  special  decree 
of  the  Senate,  unwillingly  extracted  under  papal  pres- 
sure. In  1580  Giovanni  acauired  secretly  the  ancient 
church  of  Santa  Maria  Cortelandini  (popularly  known 
as  Santa  Maria  Nera)  which  his  sons  hold  to  this  day. 
In  1583  the  congregation  was  canonically  erected  at 
the  instigation  of  Pope  Gregory  XIII  bv  Bishop  Al- 
essandro  Guidiccioni,  of  Lucca,  and  confirmed  by  the 
Brief  of  Clement  VIII  "Ex  quo  divina  majestas",  13 
October,  1595. 

The  congre^tion  at  this  time  only  took  simple 
vows  of  chastity,  perseverance,  and  obedience,  and 
was  known  as  the  *' Congregation  of  Clerks  Secular  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin".  In  1596  Oement  VIII  nom- 
inated the  Blessed  Giovanni  commissary  Apostolic 
for  the  reform  of  the  monks  of  the  Order  of  Monte 
Vergine,  and  in  1601  the  cardinal  protector  appointed 
him  to  carry  out  a  similar  work  among  the  Vallom- 
brosans.  In  1601  he  obtained  the  church  of  S.  Maria 
in  Portico  in  Rome.  In  the  same  year  Cardinal 
Baronius  became  protector  of  the  congregation.  Gio- 
vanni died  in  Rome  9  October,  1609,  agea  sixty-eight, 
and  was  buried  in  Santa  Maria  in  Portico.  The  present 
church  of  the  congregation  in  Rome,  obtained  in 
1662,  is  Santa  Maria  in  Campitelli  (called  also  Santa 
Maria  in  Portico)  interesting  to  Englishmen  as  the 
first  titular  church  of  the  Cardinal  of  York.  The 
body  of  the  founder  was  removed  to  this  church  and 
lies  there  under  the  altar  of  St.  John  the  Baptist. 
Giovanni  Leonardi  was  declared  Venerable  in  1701, 
and  beatified  by  Pius  IX  in  1861.  Leo  XIII,  in  1893, 
caused  his  name  to  be  inserted  in  the  Roman  Martyr- 
oloey  and  ordered  the  clergy  of  Rome  to  say  his  Mass 
and  Office,  an  honour  accorded  to  no  other  Blessed 
in  that  city  except  the  beatified  popes.  In  1614  Paul 
V  confided  to  the  congregation  the  care  of  the  so- 
called  Pious  Schools.  It  is  in  his  Brief  "  Inter  Pastor- 
alis''  that  the  congregation  is  first  called  ''of  the 
Mother  of  God",  having  until  then  been  known  by  its 
original  name  of  ''Clerks  Secular  of  the  Blessed 
Vir^".  The  care  of  these  schools  being  considered 
outside  the  scope  of  the  congregation,  it  was  relieved 
of  their  charge  by  the  same  pontiff  in  1617. 

It  was  not  untu  1621  (3  November)  that  Grecoiy 
Xy,  carrying  out  what  was  always  in  the  founder^ 
mind,  erected  the  congregation  into  a  religious  order 
proper  by  permitting  its  members  to  take  solemn 
vows,  and  it  henceforth  became  the  Clerks  Re^lar 
of  the  Mother  of  God.  The  Blessed  Leonardi  received 
many  offers  of  churches  during  his  life,  but  with  a 
view  of  conciliating  the  governing  body  of  the  re- 
public thought  it  Sitter  to  refuse  them.  In  all  its 
nistorv  the  order  has  never  had  more  than  fifteen 
shurches,  and  never  more  than  seven  at  one  time.    It 


was  introduced  into  Naples  in  1632,  Genoa  1669,  and 
Milan  1709.  The  only  churches  of  the  order  now  ex- 
isting are  Santa  Maria  Cortelandini,  Lucca;  Santa 
Maria  in  Campitelli,  Rome;  Santa  Maria  in  Portico 
di  Chiaja,  ana  Santa  Brigida,  Naples;  the  Madonna 
della  Stella  Migliano  (1902);  ana  the  parish  church 
of  S.  Carlo  in  Monte  Carlo  (1873),  the  only  church  of 
the  order  outside  the  borders  of  modem  Italy.  In 
the  sacristy  of  Santa  Maria  Cortelandini  is  preserved 
a  large  portion  of  a  hair-shirt  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury whose  feast  is  celebrated  there  with  considerable 
ceremony;  in  1908  half  of  this  relic  was  presented  to 
the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St.  Thomas,  Erdington, 
England.  The  former  residence  of  the  clerks,  who 
kept  a  large  boys'  school  until  the  suppression  in 
1867,  is  now  the  pubUc  library  of  Lucca.  Two  of 
the  original  companions  of  the  holy  founder,  Cesare 
Franciotti  and  Giovanni  Cioni,  have  been  declared 
Venerable.  The  order  justly  enjoys  great  fame  for 
its  learning  and  its  numerous  scholars  and  writers. 
Suffice  it  to  mention  Giovanni  Domenico  Mansi, 
editor  of  the  "Councils"  and  a  hundred  other  works. 
The  arms  of  the  order  are  azure.  Our  Lady  Assumed 
into  Heaven;  and  its  badge  and  seal  the  monogram 
of  the  Mother  of  God  in  Greek  characters. 

Hi:LTOT,  Hist.  Ord.  Rd.^  especially  the  Italian  vemon  by 
FoNTANA,  clerk  of  this  congregation  (Lucca,  1738),  IV,  268- 
295;  BoNANNi.  Cat.  Ord.  Rdig.,  I;  Marracci,  Vila  dd  V.  P. 
Oiavanni  Leonardi  (Rome,  1673);  Gubrra,  La  Vita  dd  B. 
Oiov.  Leonardi  (Monia,  1895);  Barbosa,  Jur,  Ecd.  Univ.^  I, 
xli,  162;  BuUar.  Rom.,  Ill;   Sarteschi,  De  Scriptoribua  Cong, 

***  Montgomery  Carmichabl. 

Olermont  (Clermont-Ferrand),  Diocese  of 
(Claromontensis),  comprises  the  entire  department 
of  Puy-de-D6me  and  is  a  sufifragan  of  Bourges.  Al- 
though at  first  very  extensive,  in  ^317  the  diocese  lost 
Haute-Auvergne 
through  tne 
creation  of  the 
Diocese  of  Saint- 
Flour  and  in  1822 
the  Bourbonnais, 
on  account  of  the 
erection  of  the 
Diocese  of  Mou- 
lins.  The  first 
Bishop  of  Cler- 
mont was  St. 
Austremonius 
(Stramonius). 
(See  Austremo- 
nius.) Accord- 
ing to  local  tra- 
dition he  was  one 
of  the  seventy- 
two  Disciples  of 
Christ,  by  oirth  a 
Jew,  who  came 
with  St.  Peter 
from  Palestine  to 
Rome  and  subse- 
quently became  the  Apostle  of  Auvergne,  Berry,  Niver- 
nais,  and  Limousin.  At  Clermont  he  is  said  to  have 
converted  the  senator  Cassius  and  the  pagan  priest  Vlo- 
torinus,to  have  sent  St.  Sirenatus  (Cerneuf)  to  Thiers, 
St.  Marius  to  Salers,  Sts.  Nectarius  and  Antoninus  into 
other  parts  of  Auvergne,  and  to  have  been  beheaded 
in  92.  This  tradition  is  based  on  a  life  of  St.  Austremo- 
nius written  in  the  tenth  century  in  the  monastery  of 
Mozat,  where  the  body  of  the  saint  had  rested  from 
761,  and  rewritten  by  the  monks  of  Issoire,  who  re- 
tained the  saint's  head.  St.  Gregory  of  Tours,  bom 
in  Auvergne  in  544  and  well  versed  in  the  history  of 
that  country,  looks  upon  Austremonius  as  one  of  the 
seven  envoys  who,  about  250^  evangelized  Gaul;  he 
relates  how  the  body  of  the  samt  was  first  interred  at 
Issoire,  being  there  the  object  of  great  veneratioa. 


Cathbdhal,  Clermont-Ferrand 


0UBTF8 


54 


OLITUS 


Clermont  counted  amongst  its  bishops  a  large  number 
of  saints,  as  St.  Urbicus  (c.  312);  St.  Leosuntius;  St. 
Illidius  (Allyre),  who,  about  385,  cured  the  daughter 
of  the  Emperor  Maximus  at  Trier;  the  saint's  name 
was  given  to  the  petrifying  springs  of  Clermont,  and 
his  lue  was  written  by  Gregory  of  Tours;  St.  Nepo- 
tianus  (d.  388);  St.  Artemius  (d.  about  394);  St.  Ven- 
erandus  (Veau,  d.  about  423) ;  St.  Rusticus  (424-46) ; 
St.  Namatius  (446-62),  founder  of  the  Clermont  cathe- 
dral, where  he  deposited  the  relics  of  Sts.  Vitalis  and 
Agricola  brought  from  Bologna;  Sidonius  Apollinaris 
(470-79),  the  celebrated  Christian  writer  who  broueht 
to  Clermont  the  priest  St.  Amabilis;  St.  Aprunciuus 
(d.  about  491);  St.  Euphrasius  (491-515);  St.  Quin- 
tianus  (d.  about  527).  whose  life  was  written  by  Greg- 
ory of  Tours;  St.  Gallus  (527-51),  of  whom  Gregory  of 
Tours  was  the  biographer  and  nephew;  St.  A  Vitus 
(second  half  of  the  sixth  century),  founder  of  Notre- 

Dame  du  Port ;  St. 
CfiBsarius  (c.  627); 
St.  Gallus  II  (c. 
650);St.Genesius 
(c.  660) :  St.  PrsB- 
Jectus  (Frix),  his- 
torian of  the  mar- 
tyrs of  Clermont 
and  assassinated 
at  Volvic  25  Jan- 
uary, 676;  St. 
Avitus  II  (676- 
91);  St.  Bonitus, 
intimate  friend  of 
Sigebert  II  (end 
of  seventh  cen- 
tury) ;  St.  Stabilis 
(823-^),  and  St. 
Sigo(866).AmonK 
the  Bishops  of 
Clermont  should 
also  be  mentioned: 
Pierre  de  Cros 
(1301-04),  en- 
gaged by  ^  St. 
umma";  Etienne 
(1352- 


Cburch  of  Notbb-Damb  du  Pobt, 

Cusrmont-Fbrrand  (Eleventh 

Century  Romanesque) 


Thomas  Aquinas  to  complete  his  '' 
d'Albert  (1340-42),  later  Pope  Innocent  VI 
62) ;  Guillaume  du  Prat  (1528-60),  founder  of  the  Cler- 
mont ColleTO  at  Paris  and  delegate  of  Francis  I  to  the 
Council  of  Trent;  and  Massillon.  the  illustrious  orator 
(1717-42).  The  Diocese  of  Clermont  can  likewise 
claim  a  number  of  monks  whom  the  Church  honours 
%a  saints,  viz:  St.  Calevisus  (Calais,  460-541),  a  pupil 
in  the  monastery  of  Menat  near  Riom,  whence  he  re- 
tired to  Maine,  where  he  founded  the  Abbey  of  Ani- 
sole;  St.  Maztius  (d.  527),  founder  at  Royat  near 
Clermont  of  a  monastery  which  became  later  a  Ben- 
edictine priory;  St.  Portianus  (sixth  century),  founder 
of  a  monastery  to  which  the  city  of  Saint- Pourgain 
(Allier)  owes  its  origin;  St.  Etienne  de  Muret  (1046- 
1124),  son  of  the  Viscount  of  Thiers  and  founder  of 
the  Order  of  Grandmont  in  Limousin,  and  St.  Peter 
the  Venerable  (1092-1156),  of  the  Montboissier  family 
of  Auvergne,  noted  as  a  writer  and  Abbot  of  Cluny. 
Severalfamous  Jansenists  were  natives  of  Clermont: 
Blaise  Pascal,  author  of  the  "Pens^es"  (1623-62) ;  the 
Amauld  family,  and  Soanen  (1647-1740),  Bishop  of 
Senez,  famous  for  his  stubborn  opposition  to  the  Bull 
"Unigenitus".  On  the  other  hand  the  city  of  Riom 
was  tne  birthplace  of  Sirmond,  the  learned  Jesuit 
(1559-1651),  confessor  to  Louis  XIII  and  editor  of 
the  ancient  councils  of  Gaul.  Other  natives  worthy 
of  mention  in  church  history  were  the  Abb6  Delille, 
poet  (1738-1813),  and  Montlosier,  the  publicist  (1755- 
1838),  famous  for  his  memoir  a^inst  the  Jesuits  and 
to  whom  Bishop  Ferou  refused  ecclesiastical  burial. 
Pope  Urban  II  came  to  Clermont  in  1095  to  preside 
at  the  organization  of  the  First  Crusade;  Pope  Pas- 
chal II  yiaited  the  city  in  1106,  Callistus  II  in  1120, 


Innocent  II  in  1430,  Alexander  III  in  1164,  and,  in 
1166,  St.  Thomas  Becket.  It  was  also  at  Clermont 
that^  in  1262,  in  presence  of  St.  Louis,  the  marriage  of 
Philip  the  Bold  and  Isabella  of  Aragon  was  solem- 
nized. The  cathedral  of  Clermont,  dating  from  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  is  not  of  equal 
archaeological  importance  with  the  church  of  Notre- 
Dame  du  Port,  which  stands  to-day  as  it  was  rebuilt 
in  the  eleventh  century,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  Romanesque  churches  in  the  Auvergnese  style. 
One  of  the  capitals  in  Notre-Dame  du  Port,  ascribed 
to  the  eleventh  century,  is  among  the  most  ancient 
sculptured  representations  of  the  Assumption  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  This  cathedral  is  much  frequented 
as  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  as  are  also  Notre  Dame  d'Or- 
cival  and  Notre  Dame  de  Vassivi^re  at  Besse.  The 
"dry  mass''  (without  Consecration  or  Communion) 
was  celebrated  in  the  Diocese  of  Clermont  as  late  as 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Before  the  Law  of  1901  was  carried  into  effect, 
there  were  in  the  diocese:  Capuchins,  Jesuits,  Marists, 
Fathers  of  the  African  Missions,  Fathers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  Sulpicians.  Several  local  congregations 
of  women  are  eneaged  in  teaching,  among  them  being 
the  religious  of  Notre-Dame  de  Clermont,  founded  in 
1835,  with  mother-house  at  Chamali^res ;  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  founded  by  Massil- 
lon in  1723,  with  mother-house  at  Clermont;  the  Sis- 
ters of  the  Heart  pf  the  Infant  Jesus,  mother-house  at 
Lezoux;  and  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  founded  in  1806, 
with  mother-house  at  Billom.  The  diocese  has  the 
following  religious  institutions:  2  maternity  hospitals, 
40  infant  schools,  1  school  for  the  blind,  4  schools  for 
deaf  mutes,  3  boys'  orphanages,  16  girls'  orphanages,  2 
houses  of  refuge  and  of  protection,  23  hospitals  and 
hospices,  35  houses  for  nursing  sisters,  and  1  insane 
asylum.  Statistics  for  the  end  of  1905  (the  close  of 
the  period  under  the  Concordat)  show  a  population 
of  529,181,  with  54  parishes,  447  succursal  parishes 
(mission  churches),  and  175  curacies  remunerated  by 
the  State. 

Grsoort  of  Toubb,  Hiatoria  Francorum;  Idem,  Vita 
Patrum  (nine  out  of  twenty  being  devoted  to  sainte  of  Au- 
vergne); GaUia  Christiana  (nova)  (1715).  II,  222-316,416-418; 
Instrumental  73-128:  RtsiE,  Histoire  de  VEglise  d^ Auvergne 
(3  vols.,  CHerraont-Ferrand.  1855);  Morin.  L' Auvergne  ckrH. 
du  premier  eikcU  it  1880  (Roanne,  1880);  Duchesne.  Faetes 
Spiaeppaux.  I,  20,  II,  31-39.  117-22;  Desdevizes  du  D&sbrt. 
Bibliographie  du  cerUenaire  dee  croisadea  h  Clermonl-Ferrana 
(Clermont-Ferrand,   1895);   Chevauer,  iZ^.  dea  sources  hist., 

Topo-Bibl.,  B.  v.  Georges  Goyau, 

Oletus,  Saint,  Pope. — This  name  is  only  another 
form  for  Anacletus  (q.  v.),  the  second  successor  of  St. 
Peter.  It  is  true  that  the  Liberian  Catalo^e,  a 
fourth-century  list  of  popes,  so  called  because  it  ends 
with  Pope  Liberius  (d.  366),  contains  both  names,  as 
if  they  were  different  persons.  But  this  is  an  error, 
owing  evidently  to  the  existence  of  two  forms  of  the 
same  name,  one  an  abbreviation  of  the  other.  In  the 
foresaid  catalogue  the  papal  succession  is:  Petrus, 
Linus,  Clemens,  Cletus,  Anacletus.  This  catalo^e, 
however,  is  the  only  authority  previous  .to  the  sixth 
century  (Liber  Pontificalis)  for  distinguishing  two 
popes  under  the  names  of  Cletus  and  Anacletus.  The 
"Cfarmen  adv.  Marcionem"  is  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
fourth  century,  and  its  pa.pal  list  probably  depends  on 
the  Liberian  Catalogue.  The  "  Martyrologium  Hiero- 
nymianum"  (q.  v.)  mentions  both  ^'Aninclitus"  and 
"ditus"  (23  and  31  December),  but  on  each  occasion 
these  names  are  found  in  a  list  of  popes ;  hence  the  days 
mentioned  cannot  be  looked  on  as  specially  conse- 
crated to  these  two  persons.  Apart  from  these  lists, 
all  other  ancient  papal  lists,  from  the  second  to  the 
fourth  century,  give  as  follows  the  immediate  succes- 
sion of  St.  Peter:  At>of,  'Ai^/cXiyTof,  KX^m^s  (Linus 
Anencletus,  Clemens),  and  this  succession  is  certainly 
the  ri^t  one.  It  is  that  found  in  St.  Irensus  and  in 
the  chronicles  of  the  second  and  third  centuries.  Both 


CLEVELAND 


55 


CLEVELAND 


Africa  and  the  Orient  adhered  faithfully  to  this  list, 
which  is  also  given  in  the  very  ancient  Roman  Canon  of 
the  Mass,  except  that  in  the  latterCletus  iBthcfformused, 
and  the  same  occurs  in  St.  Epiphanius,  St.  Jerome, 
Rufinus,  and  in  many  fifth-  ana  sixth-century  .Usts. 
This  second  successor  of  St.  Peter  governed  the 
Roman  Church  from  about  76  to  about  88.  The 
"Liber  Pontificalis"  says  that  his  father  was  Emeli- 
anus  and  that  Cletus  was  a  Roman  by  birth,  and  be- 
longed to  the  quarter  known  as  the  Vicus  Patrici.  It 
also  tells  us  that  he  ordained  twenty-five  priests,  and 
was  buried  in  VaHcano  near  the  bodv  ot  St.  Peter. 
There  is  historical  evidence  for  only  the  last  of  these 
statements.  The  feast  of  St.  Cletus  falls,  with  that  of  St. 
Marcellinus,  on  26  April;  this  date  is  already  assigned 
to  it  in  the  first  edition  of  the  ''Liber  Pontificatis''. 
(See  Clement  I,  Saint,  Pope.) 

Lkqrtfoot,  ApoMtolic  Fathers,  Pi.  I:  St,  Clement  of  Rome 
(2nd  ed.,  London.  1890),  201-345;  Duchesnb.  Liber  Pontifi- 
ealia,  I.  LXIX-LXX«  2-3.  52-53:  Habnack.  OtBch,  der  aU- 
chriea.  Lit,  bit  Bueebiua,  II-I,  144-202;  Acta  S8.,  April.  III. 
409-11;  DB  Smbot,  Diaeertationet  aeleda  in  hist,  eedea.  (Ghent, 
1876).  300-04. 

J.  P.   KiRSCH. 

Oleveland,  Diocbsb  of  (Clevblandenbis),  estab- 
lished 23  April,  1847,  comprises  all  that  part  of  Ohio 
lying  north  of  the  southern  limits  of  the  Counties  of 
Columbiana,  Stark,  Wayne,  Ashland,  Richland,  Craw- 
ford, Wyandot,  Hancock,  Allen,  and  Van  Wert,  its 
territory  covering  thirty-six  counties,  an  area  of  15,- 
032  square  miles. 

Early  History. — ^The  Jesuit  Fathers  Potier  and 
Bonnecamp  were  the  first  missionaries  to  visit  the 
territory  now  within  the  limits  of  Ohio.  They  came 
from  Quebec  in  1749  to  evangeliae  the  Huron 
Indians  living  along  the  Vermilion  and  Sandusky 
Rivers  in  Northern  Ohio.  Two  years  later  they 
received  the  assistance  of  another  Jesuit,  Father  de 
la  Bichardie,  who  had  come  from  Detroit,  Michigan, 
to  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie.  Shortly  alter 
his  arrival  he  induced  a  part  of  the  Huron  tribe  to 
settle  near  the  present  site  of  Sandusky,  where  he 
erected  (1751)  a  chapel — the  first  place  of  Catholic 
worship  within  the  present  limits  of  Ohio.  These 
Hurons  assumed  the  name  of  Wyandots  when  they 
left  the  parent  tribe.  Although  checked  for  a  time 
by  Father  Potier,  they  took  part  in  the  Indian-French 
War.  Soon  they  became  implicated  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Pontiac,  in  conseciuence  of  which  the  Jesuits 
were  unjustly  forced  m  1752  to  leave  the  territory 
of  Ohio,  Father  Potier  being  the  last  Jesuit  missionary 
amon^  the  Western  Hurons.  The  Indian  missions, 
established  and  cared  for  by  the  Jesuits  for  nearly 
three  years,  had  now  to  depend  exclusively  on  the 
chance  visits  of  the  priests  attached  to  the  military 
posts  in  Canada  and  Southern  Michigan.  Despite 
the  spiritual  deprivation  which  this  implied,  the 
Hurons  (Wyandots)  kept  the  Faith  for  many  years, 
although  their  descendants  were  ultimately  lost  to 
the  Church  through  the  successful  efforts  of  Ptotes- 
tant  missionaries.  After  the  f oreed  retirement  of  the 
Jesuits  no  systematic  efforts  were  made  to  continue 
the  missionary  work  begun  by  them  until  1795, 
when  the  Rev.  Edmimd  Burke,  a  secular  priest  from 
Quebec,  came  as  chaplain  of  the  military  post  at 
Fort  Meigs,  near  the  present  site  of  Maumee.  Father 
Burke  remained  at  the  post  until  February,  1797, 
ministering  to  the  Catholic  soldiers  at  the  fort., 
and  endeavouring,  though  with  little  success,  to 
Christianize  the  Ottawa  and  Chippewa  Indians  in 
the  neighbourhood. 

In  the  meantime  the  See  of  Bardstown  was  erected 
(1810),  embracing  the  entire  State  of  Ohio,  as  well 
as  Michigan  ana  Kentucky.  Bishop  Flaget  sent 
(1817)  the  Rev.  Edward  Fenwick,  O.  P.  (later  first 
Bishop  of  (Cincinnati),  from  the  Dominican  monastery 
at  Somerset,  Ohio,  to  attend  the  few  Catholic  families 
who  had  st^ttlod  in  Cohimbiana  and  Stark  (>>unties, 


in  the  north-eastern  part  of  Ohio.  From  that  time 
forward  he  and  other  Dominican  Fathers,  especially 
the  Revs.  Nicholas  D.  Young  and  John  A.  Hill,  con- 
tinued to  visit  at  regular  intervals  the  Catholic 
families  in  that  section  of  Ohio  (notably  in  Colum- 
biana, Stark,  Mahoning,  and  Wayne  Counties),  then 
very  sparsely  settled.  It  is,  therefore,  from  this 
penod  that  Cfatholicity  in  Northern  Ohio  really  da^tes 
its  beginning.  In  the  course  of  time  the  Dominican 
Fathers  gradually  gave  up  to  the  secular  clergy  their 
pastoral  charges  in  the  above-named  counties  until, 
m  1842,  they  withdrew  altogether.  St.  John's, 
Canton,  was  their  last  mission.  Meanwhile  the 
central  portion  of  Northern  Ohio  (Huron,  Erie, 
Sandusky,  and  Seneca  Counties)  had  received  a  con- 
siderable influx  of  Catholic  immigrants,  principally 
from  Germany.  Similar  conditions  were  obtaining 
elsewhere  in  the  State,  and  the  need  of  more  com- 
pact organization  to  minister  to  growing  wants 
made  Cincinnati  an  episcopal  see  in  1822,  with  the 
entire  State  for  its  jurisdiction.  Little  seems  to 
have  been  done,  however,  for  the  northern  part  of 
the  State,  and  but  little  could  be  done,  as  Catholics 
were  so  few,  until  the -advent  of  its  second  bishop, 
John  B.  Purcell.  He  succeeded  (13  Oct.,  1833) 
the  saintly  Bishop  Fenwick,  who,  while  en^ised  in 
a  confirmation  tour,  died  at  Wooster,  Ohio  (26  Sep- 
tember, 1832)  of  cholera,  then  raging  in  Ohio,  in 
1834  Bishop  Purcell  commissioned  the  Redemptorist 
Fathers,  who  had  just  arrived  in  America,  to 
take  charge  of  the  widely  scattered  German  missions 
then  existing  in  these  counties,  and  to  organise 
others  where  needed.  The  Rev.  Francis  X.  Tschen- 
hens,  C.  SS.  R.,  was  the  first  priest  assigned  to  this 
task.  Later  on  he  was  assisted  by  other  members 
of  his  community,  among  them  the  Revs.  Peter 
Czakert,  Francis  Haetscher,  Joseph  Prost,  Simon 
Saenderl,  Louis  M.  Alig,  and  John  N.  Neumann 
(Uiter  Bishop  of  Philadelphia).  The  Redemptorists 
remained  in  Northern  Ohio  until  November,  1842. 
They  were  succeeded,  January,  1844,  by  seven 
Sanguinist  Fathers  (the  Revs.  Francis  S.  Brunner, 
M.  A.  Meier,  J.  Wittmer,  J.  Van  den  Broek,  P.  A. 
Capeder,  J.  Ringele,  and  J.  B.  Jacomet),  who  came 
from  Europe  at  that  time  at  the  solicitation  of  Bishop 
Purcell.  They  settled  at  St.  Alphonsus'  church, 
Peru,  Huron  County,  whence  they  attended  all  the 
missions  formerly  under  the  care  of  the  Redemp- 
torists. They  also  accepted  charge  of  the  scattered 
missions  in  Lorain,  Medina,  and  Wayiie  Counties, 
besides  attending  the  Catholic  Crermans  in  Cleveland. 
Their  advent  was  hailed  with  delight  wherever  they 
went,  and  their  priestly  labours  were  signallv  blessed.. 
Under  their  vigilant  care  religion  flourished,  so  that 
the  healthy  growth  of  Catholicity  in  Northern 
Ohio  nmy  justly,  under  God,  be  ascribed  in  large 
measure  to  their  untiring  zeal  and  self-sacrifice. 

The  secular  clergy  are  no  less  deserving  of  mention, 
as  they,  too,  laboured  in  this  part  of  the  Lord's 
vineyiurd,  amid  trials  and  difficulties,  often  side  by 
side  with  their  brethren  of  the  religious  orders,  and 
more  often  alone  in  the  widespread  missions  of 
Northern  Ohio.  They  did  yeoman  service,  blazing 
the  way  for  those  who  succeeded  them,  and  laying 
the  foundations  for  many  missions,  which  have  long 
since  developed  into  vigorous  and  prosperous  con- 
gregations. The  first  of  these  secular  clergy  was 
the  Kev.  Ignatius  J.  Mullen,  of  Cincinnati.  Between 
1824  and  1834  he  frequently  attended  the  missions 
in  Stark,  Columbiana,  Seneca,  and  Sandusky  Counties. 
Other  pioneer  secular  priests  of  prominence  were, 
the  Revs.  Francis  Marshall  (1827),  John  M.  Henn) 
(later  Bishop  and  Archbishop  of  Milwaukee),  resident 

?astor  of  Canton  (1831-34),  Edmund  Quinn,  at 
iffin  (1831-<i5),  William  J.  Horstmann,  at  Glandorf 
(1835-43),  James  Conlon,  at  Dungannon  (1834-53), 
Matthias  Wuerz,  at  ('antou  (183.>-45),  John  Dillon, 


OLEVELAND 


56 


0L1VEL4ND 


first  resident  pastor  of  Cleveland  (1*835-^),  Basil 
Sohorb,  in  chaurge  of  missions  in  Stark,  Wayne,  and 
Portage  Counties  (1837-43),  Patrick  O'Dwyer,  second 
pastor  of  Cleveland  (183&-38),  where  he  built  the 
first  church  in  1838,  Michael  McAleer,  in  Stark  and 
Columbiana  Counties  (1838-40),  Joseph  McNamee, 
at  Tiffin  (1839-47),  Projectus  J.  Machebeuf  (L&ter 
Bishop  of  Denver),  at  Tiffin  and  Sandusky  (1839-51), 
Amaoeus  Rappe  (later  first  Bishop  of  Cleveland), 
stationed  at  Maumee  for  a  short  time,  and  then,  as 
first  resident  pastor,  at  Toledo  (1840-47),  Louis  de 
Goesbriand  (later  Bishop  of  Burlington,  Vermont), 
at  Louisville,  Toledo,  and  Cleveland  (1840-53),  Peter 
McLaughlin,  resident  pastor  of  Cleveland  (1840-46), 
Maurice  Howard,  at  Cleveland  and  later  at  Tiffin 
(1842-52),  John  J.  Doherty,  at  Canton  (1843-48), 
John  H.  Luhr,  at  Canton,  and  later  at  Cleveland 
(1844-^),  John  O.  Bredeick,  founder  of  Delphos, 
and  its  Grst  pastor  (1844-58),  Cornelius  Daley,  first 
resident  pastor  of  Akron,  and  later  stationed  at 
Doylestown  (1844-47),  Philip  Foley,  at  Massillon 
and  Wooster  (1847-48).  The  Rev.  Stephen  Badin, 
proto-priest  of  the  thirteen  original  United  States, 
and  the  Rev.  Edward  T.  Collins  occasionally  came 
from  Cincinnati,  between  1835  and  1837,  to  attend 
the  missions  in  Northern  Ohio,  the  former  those  of 
Canton,  Fremont,  and*  Tiffin,  and  the  latter  those  of 
Dungannon,  Toledo,  and  along  the  Maumee  River. 
The  first  permanent  church  in  Northern  Ohio  was 
erected  near  the  present  village  of  Dungannon,  in 
1820,  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev.  Edward  Fen- 
wick,  O.  P.,  the  "Apostle of  Ohio",  and  later  the  first 
Bishop  of  Cincinnati.  Until  1847  churches  of  brick 
or  wood  were  built  in  the  following  places:  Canton 
(St.  John's,  1823),  Chippewa  (1828),  Randolph,  Canal 
Fulton  (1831),  Tiffin  (St.  Mary's,  1832),  Glandorf, 
Navarre,  New  Riegel  (1833),  Peru  (1834),  Louis- 
ville, La  Porte  (1835),  Shelby  Settlement  (1836), 
McCutchenville  (1837),  Thompson  (1839),  Cleveland, 
East  Liverpool  (1840),  Toledo,  Maumee,  New  Wash- 
ington, Norwalk  .(1841),  Sandudcy  (Holy  Angels), 
Landeck,  Liberty,  Liverpool,  Sheffield  (St.  Stephen's, 
1842),  Delphos,  Massillon  (St.  Mary's),  Akron  (St. 
Vincent's),  Fremont  (St.  Anne's),  French  Creek 
(1844),  Canton  (St.  Peter's),  Harrisburg,  New  Berlin, 
Tiffin  (St.  Joseph's),  Providence  (1845),  Sherman 
(1846),  Poplar  Ridge  (1847). 

From  lfe2  until  October,  1847,  Northern  Ohio 
was  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Cincinnati,  of  which  the 
first  bishop  was  Edward  Fenwick  (1822-32),  and  its 
second  bishop,  John  B.  Purcell,  who  succeeded  in 
October,  1833.  He  petitioned  the  Holy  See,  in 
1846,  for  a  division  of  his  jurisdiction,  then  com- 
prising the  entire  State  of  Ohio.  The  petition  was 
granted  (23  April,  1847),  by  the  appointment  of  the 
Rev.  Louis  Amadeus  Rappe  as  the  first  Bishop  of 
Cleveland,  and  the  assignment  to  his  jurisdiction  of 
''all  that  part  of  Ohio  lying  north  of  43  degrees  and 
41  minutes,  N.  L."  As  this  division  intersected 
several  counties  it  was  chan^  in  January,  1849, 
to  the  present  limits,  as  descnbed  at  the  beginning 
of  this  article. 

Bishops  of  Cleveland. — (1)  Louis  Amabeus 
Rappb,  consecrated  10th  October,  1847^  was  bom 
2  Feb.,  1801,  at  Andrehem,  France.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  at  Arras,  France,  14  March*  1829. 
His  cathedral  church  was  St.  Mary's  on  the  "  Flats", 
Cleveland,  the  first,  and  at  that  time  the  only, 
church  in  his  episcopal  city.  In  November,  1852, 
he  completed  the  present  cathedral,  an  imposing 
brick  structure  of  Gothic  architecture,  still  ranking 
with  the  many  fine  churches  of  the  diocese.  Dur- 
ing his  administration  of  the  diocese,  which  ended  in 
August,  1870,  he  convoked  five  diocesan  synods  (1848, 
1862, 1854, 1867, 1868).  He  established  the  diocesan 
seminary  (1848),  St.  John's  CoUege,  aeveland  (1854), 
St.  Louis'  College,  Louisvill*  (1866);  these  two  col- 


leges, however,  being  closed  a  few  years  later,  owin^ 
to  lack  of  f)atronage.  Under  his  direction  the  follow- 
ing educsrtional  and  charitable  institutions  were  also 
established:  In  Cleveland,  the  Ursuline  Academy;  St. 
Vincent's  Orphanajee,  for  boys;  St.  Mary's  Orphanage, 
for  girb  (1851);  St.  Joseph's  Orphanage,  for  girls 
(1862);  Charity  Hospital  (1865);  House  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  (1869);  Home  for  the  Aged  Poor  (1870).— 
In  Toledo,  Ursuline  Academy  (1864),  St.  Vincent's 
Orphana^(1855);  in  Tiffin,  UreuUne  Academy  (1863), 
St.  Francis'  Asylum  and  Home  for  the  Ag^  (1867). 
He  founded  the  commimity  of  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
St.  Augustine  (1851),  whose  work  is  the  care  of  or- 
phans, waifs,  and  the  sick.  In  1869  he  mtroduoed 
into  tne  diocese  the  Franciscan  and  Jesuit  Fathers, 
givinff  to  the  former  the  care  of  St.  Joseph's  church, 
Cleveland,  and  to  the  latter  St.  Mary's,  Toledo. 
Wherever  possible  he  insisted  on  the  support  of  parish 
schools.  He  was  a  strong  advocate  oi  total  absti- 
nence, which  he  practised  horn  the  time  he  was  a  mis- 
sionary priest  in  North-Westem  Ohio  until  his  death. 
He  never  spared  himself  in  the  discharge  of  his  mani- 
fold and  exacting  duties.  By  his  affabuity  and  disin- 
terestedness he  gained  the  love  of  his  people,  as  also  the 
respect  of  his  fellow-citizens  regardless  of  cresd.  He 
resigned  his  see  in  August,  1870,  and  retii^d  to  the  Dio- 
cese of  Burlington,  Vermont,  where  he  did  miasionaiy 
work  almost  to  the  day  of  his  death  (8  September, 
1877).  Between  the  time  of  Bishop  Rappe's  resigna- 
tion and  the  appointment  of  his  successor,  the  Very 
Rev.  Edward  Hannin  administered  the  ^aiis  of  the 
diocese. 

(2)  Richard  Gilmour,  consecrated  14  April,  1872. 
In  November  of  the  same  year  he  convoked  the 
Sixth  Diocesan  Synod,  in  which  many  of  the  statutes 
by  which  the  diocese  is  at  present  governed  were 
promulgated.  It  also  embodied  considerable  of  the 
Wislature  of  previous  synods,  notably  that  of  1868. 
This  synod  inade  provision  for  a  diocesan  fimd  for 
the  support  of  the  seminary,  bishop,  etc.,  and  another 
for  the  support  of  sick  and  disabled  priests,  by  annual 
assessments  on  the  parishes  of  the  diocese.  Among 
other  diocesan  statutes  published  then  were  those 
ur^ng  anew  the  support  of  parochial  schools,  regu- 
lating the  financial  affairs  of  parishes,  and  the  manner 
of  electing  parish  councilmen  and  of  conveying  church 

Sroperty.  Bishop  Gilmour  established  "TheCatho- 
c  Universe",  its  first  issue  appearing  4  July,  1874. 
In  1875  he  organized  "The  Catnolic  (Antral  Associa- 
tion", composed  of  representatives  from  all  the  par- 
ishes and  cnurch  societies  in  Cleveland;  its  influence 
for  the  betterment  of  social  and  religious  conditions 
and  for  the  defence  of  Catholic  interests  was  soon  felt 
not  only  in  Cleveland,  but  elsewhere  as  well,  and  con- 
tinued during  almost  its  entire  existence  of  nearly 
eighteen  years.  It  also  proved  a  tower  of  strength  to 
its  organizer  in  his  forced  contention  for  the  civic 
rights  of  Catholics,  in  the  face  of  bitter  opposition 
from  bigotry  and  a  hostile  press.  In  1875  the  Catho- 
lic school  property  in  Cleveland  was  placed  on  the  tas. 
duplicate  in  spite  of  the  decision  (1874)  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Ohio,  that  such  property  was  not  tax- 
able. A  suit  of  restraint  was  entered  by  the  bishop, 
and  finally  carried  to  the  Supreme  Court,  which  re- 
affirmed its  former  decision.  The  present  episcopal 
residence  was  begun  in  1874  and  completed  two 
years  later.  It  serves  also  as  the  residence  of  the 
cathedral  clergy. — In  1872  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
and  in  1874  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  were  welcomed 
to  the  diocese.  Both  communities  have  flourishing 
academies  in  connexion  with  their  convents,  besides 
supplying  many  parish  schools  with  eflBcient  teachere. 
The  same  also  is  the  case  with  the  Ursulines  of  Cleve- 
land, Tiffin,  Toledo,  and  Youngstown,  and  the  Sisters 
of  the  Humility  of  Mary. — ^The  following  institutions 
were  established  between  1873  and  1891 :  St.  Anne's 
Asylum  and  House  of  Maternity,  Cleveland  (1873); 


OLSVBLAHD 


67 


OLEVBLAND 


Ursuline  Convent,  \^oungstown  (1874);  St.  Vincent's 
Hospital,  Toledo  (1876);  St.  Joseph's  Franciscan 
College,  Cleveland  (1876-80);  Ck>nvent  of  Poor  Clares 
(1877);  Ursuline  Academy,  Nottingham  (1877);  St. 
Alexis'  Hospital,  Cleveland  (1884);  St.  Louis'  Or- 
phanage, Louisville  (1884);  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor, 
Toledo  (1885);  St.  Ignatius'  College,  Cleveland  (1886); 
St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  for  young  boys,  Nottingham 
(1886).  The  diocesan  seminaiy  was  remodelled  and 
considerably  enlarged  in  1884-85.  A  diocesan  chan- 
cery office  was  established  (1877)  for  the  transaction 
of  the  official  business  of  the  diocese.  In  1878  the 
first  attempt  was  made  to  gather  historical  data  in 
connexion  with  every  parish  and  institution  in  the 
diocese,  and  in  a  few  veais  a  great  mass  of  matter, 
covering  the  histonr  of  Catholicity  in  Northern  Ohio 
and  the  Diocese  of  Cleveland  as  far  back  as  1817,  was 
collected  and  is  now  a  part  of  the  diocesan  archives. 
In  May,  1882,  the  Seventh  Diocesan  Synod  was  held, 
wliich  resulted  in  the  legislation  at  present  in  force. 
With  the  exception  of  about  half  a  dozen  of  its  262 
statutes,  it  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  decrees  of 
the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  held  in 
November,  1884.  like  his  predecessor.  Bishop 
Gihnour  made  it  obligatory  on  every  parish  at  all 
financially  able  to  support  a  parochial  school.  In 
consequence,  the  Diocese  of  Cleveland  has  more  paro- 
chial schools,  in  proportion  to  its  number  of  churches 
and  its  population,  than  any  other  diocese  in  the 
United  States,  and  many  of  its  school  buildings  vie, 
in  size,  appointments,  and  beauty  of  architecture, 
with  the  public-school  buildings.  With  very  few  ex- 
ceptions the  parish  schools  are  in  charge  of  teachers 
belong;ing  to  male  and  female  religious  communities. 
Bishop  Gilmour  had  an  eventful  episcopate,  lasting 
nineteen  years.  He  left  his  strong,  aggressive  per* 
sonality  indelibly  stamped  upon  the  diocese  he  nad 
ruled.  During  the  interim  between  his  death  (13 
April,  1891)  and  the  appointment  of  his  successor,  the 
Right  Rev.  Monsignor  F.  M.  Boff  was  administrator 
of  the  diocese. 

(3)  Iqnatius  Frederick  Horstmann,  chancellor 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Philadelphia,  was  appointed  to 
succeed  Bishop  Gilmour.  Bom  in  Philadelphia,  16 
December,  1840,  after  graduating  from  the  Central 
High  School,  he  attended  St.  Joseph's  CoUeee  and 
then  entered  the  diocesan  seminary.  In  1860  ne  was 
sent  by  Bishop  Wood  to  the  American  College,  Rome, 
where  he  was  ordained  priest,  10  June,  1865.  In  the 
following  year  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity  and  returning  to  Philadelphia  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  St.  Charles's  Seminary  where  he  remained 
eleven  years  and  was  then  appointed  rector  of  St. 
Mary's  church,  Philadelphia.  In  1885  he  was  made 
chancellor.  His  consecration  as  Bishop  of  Geveland 
took  place  in  Philadelphia  26  Februaiy,  1892.  He 
died  suddenly  of  heart  disease  on  13  May,  1908,  while 
on  an  official  visit  to  Canton,  Ohio.  He  had  proved 
himself  a  zealous  pastor  of  souls,  a  wise  and  prudent 
ruler,  a  fearless  defender  of  truth.  Among  the  note- 
worthy accomplishments  of  his  episcopate  were  the 
founding  of  Loyola  High  School,  Cleveland  (1902); 
St.  John's  College,  Toledo  (1898);  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  diocesan  band  of  missionaries — ^the  first  in 
any  diocese  of  the  United  States.  He  was  foremost 
in  encouM^ng  every  missionary  movement,  and  his 
zeal  for  (Christian  education  was  one  of  the  dominant 
purposes  of  his  life.  He  served  as  a  trustee  of  the 
CJatholic  University  and  in  spite  of  manv  duties  found 
time  to  contribute  to  the  "  American  Catholic  Review  '* 
and  otherperiodicals  and  to  edit  the  American  edition 
of  **The  Citholic  Doctrine  as  Defined  by  the  Council 
of  Trent"  and  "Potter's  CJatholic  Bible^'. 

A  few  months  before  he  died  he  asked  for  an 
auxiliary  bishop  with  jurisdiction  over  the  growing 
foreign  population,  especially  of  the  Slav  races,  in  the 
diocese.     The  Rev.  Joseph  M.  Koudelka,  rector  of 


St.  Michael's  chiu'ch,  Cleveland,  was  named  29  Nov., 
1907,  and  consecrated  25  Feb.,  1908,  being  the  first 
auxiliary  bishop  of  special  jurisdiction  appointed  for 
the  Umted  States.  He  was  bom  in  Bohemia,  15 
August,  1852,  and  emigrated  to  the  United  States 
when  siirteen  years  of  age.  After  making  his  studies 
at  St.  Francis's  Seminary,  Milwaukee,  he  was  or- 
dained priest  8  October,  1875.  He  was  for  some  time 
editor  of  "  Hlas"  (Voice),  a  Bohemian  Catholic  weekly 
paper,  and  compiled  a  series  of  textbooks  for  Bohe- 
mian Catholic  schools. 

Recent  Times.— In  1 894  the  "  St.  Vincent's  Union", 
composed  of  the  laity  who  contribute  towards  the 
support  of  St.  Vincent's  Omhanage,  Cleveland,  was 
organized;  and  it  has  provea  of  great  financial  assist- 
ance to  that  institution.  In  1893  Bishop  Horstmann 
opened  the  Calvary  Cemetery,  which  covers  nearlv 
250  acres,  near  the  southern  limits  of  Cleveland. 
About  fifty  acres  of  the  cemetery's  whole  area  are 
improved.  In  1892  the  Cleveland  Apostolate  was 
established,  an  association  of  secular  priests,  having 
for  its  obj^  the  giving  of  lectures  and  missions  to 
non-CJatholics.  B^des  making  man^  converts  this 
association  has  removed  much  prejudice  and  brought 
about  a  kindlier  feeling  towards  the  Church  and  its 
members.  The  Golden  Jubilee  of  the  diocese  was 
celebrated  13  October,  1897.  It  was  a  memorable 
event,  observed  with  great  religious  pomp  in  Cleve- 
land, Toledo,  and  elsewhere.  At  the  bishop's  solici- 
tation the  Jesuit  Fathers  of  Toledo  opened  (Septem- 
ber, 1898)  St.  John's  College.  In  tne  same  city  a 
home  for  fallen  women  was  established  (1906)  by  the 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  A  fine  school  building 
was  erected  (1906)  in  connexion  with  St.  Vincent's 
Asylum,  Cleveland,  in  which  the  boys  have  every 
famlity  for  a  thorough  education.  The  diocese  is  in  a 
prosperous  condition,  spiritually  and  financially,  and 
nealthy  growth  is  apparent  in  every  direction. 

Causes  op  Growth. — ^The  growth  of  the  diocesan 
population  down  to  1860  was  due  chiefly  to  emigra- 
tion  from  Ireland  and  Germany.  Since  1870  it  has 
been  receiving  other  large  accessions,  but  from  quite 
another  source.  The  Slav  race,  manifold  in  its 
divisions,  has  been  pouring  in,  more  notably  since 
1895.  The  early  immigrants  were  drawn  hither  by 
the  market  for  their  labour  which  the  opening  of  a 
new  country  offered.  The  Irish  found  employment 
on  public  works,  such  as  the  construction  of  canals 
and  railroads;  the  Germans  turned  more  to  agri- 
culture. The  various  branches  of  the  Slav  race  are 
engaged  in  foundries,  mills,  and  factories,  and  many 
are  also  employed  as  longshoremen  and  at  common 
labour.  The  same  holds  also  for  the  Italians,  of 
whom  there  is  a  large  percentage.  Nearly  all  the 
recent  immigration  has  settled  in  cities  like  Cleveland, 
Toledo,  Youngstown,  Lorain,  and  Ashtabula,  where 
employment  is  had  in  abundance  and  at  a  fair 
wage. 

Statistics. — In  December,  1907,  the  clergy  num- 
bered 388,  of  whom  315  were  diocesan  priests  and  73 
regulars  (Sanguinists,  Franciscans,  and  Jesuits). 
There  were  21  Brothers  of  Mary  and  5  Christian 
Brothers,  teaching  in  6  parochial  schools.  The 
Sisters  (Sanguinists,  Ursulines,  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
St.  Augustine,  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Franciscans, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Mary,  Sisters  of  the  Humility  of  Mary,  Grey  Nuns, 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Poor  Gares,  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Dominicans,  Sisters  of  St.  Agnes, 
Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  Loretto,  Felician  Sisters, 
Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  Sisters-Servants  of  the 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary)  number  1141,  of 
whom  684  teach  in  138  parochial  schools.  The 
parishes  with  resident  pastors  number  241;  mission 
churches,  60;  parochial  schools,  186:  attendance, 
43,544;  1  diocesan  seminary,  with  96  students; 
diocesan  students  in  colleges  and  other  seminaries, 


OLZOHTOVB 


58 


ourroN 


45;  colleees  and  acailemics  for  l>oy8;  4;  attendance, 
615  pupus;  academies  for  girls,  11;  attendance, 
2113  pupils;  9  orphanages  and  one  infant  asylum, 
total  number  of  inmates,  1251;  hospitals,  9;  homes 
for  the  aged,  3;  Houses  of  Good  Shepherd,  2. — 
The  Catholic  population  is  about  330,000,  and  is 
composed  of  13  nationalities,  exclusive  of  native 
Americans,  viz.  Irish,  German,  Slovak,  Polish,  Bo- 
hemian, Magyar,  Slovenian,  Italian,  Lithuanian, 
Croatian,  Rumanian,  Ruthenian,  Syrian. 

Shea.  Catholio  Misnona  (New  York,  1854).  293,  and  in 
Catholic  Univerte  (aeveland.  13  September.  1881);  Idem,  Hitt. 
of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States  (New  York.  1889. 
1892):  Leben  u.  Wirken  dee  hochw.  Franz  Sales  Brunner.  C. 
PP.  S.;  The  Catholic  MiaceUany  (Charleston.  S.  C.  1824-30); 
The  Catholic  Telegraph  (ancinnati,  1831-47);  Houck,  A  His- 
tory of  Catholicity  in  Northern  Ohio  and  Diocese  of  Cleveland 
(CHevoland,  1902);  Idem.  The  Church  in  Northern  Ohio  (Qeve- 
land.  1889);  Reminiscences  of  the  Right  Rev.  P.  J.  Maehebeuf 
in  The  Catholic  Universe  (18  Oct..  1883,  and  31  Jan.,  1889); 
Reminiscences  of  the  Right  Rev.  Louis  de  Qoesbriand  in  The 
Catholic  Universe  (27  December,  1888). 

George  F.  Houck. 

Olichtove,  Josse  (Jodocub  CiJCHToviEnB),  a 
theologian,  b.  1472  at  Nieuport  (Flanders);  d.  1543 
at  Chsutres  (France).  He  began  his  studies  at  Lou- 
vain  and  went  to  Paris  for  his  philosophical  and  theo- 
logical studjes.  After  receiving  the  doctorate  in 
theology  (1506)  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the 
Sorbonne.  In  1515  he  was  asked  to  direct  the  studies 
of  Louis  Guillard,  the  Bishop^lect  of  Toumai,  and 
four  years  later  accompanied  nim  to  this  latter  place. 
After  a  short  stay  there,  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  in 
1527  to  Chartres,  whither  Guillard  had  been  trans- 
ferred. He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Council  of  Sens, 
convoked  at  Paris  by  Cardinal  Duprat,  and  he  gath- 
ered in  a  volume  the  various  arguments  brought  for- 
ward against  the  Protestants.  A  champion  ofreform 
in  philosophical  and  theological  studies  durins  the 
earlier  part  of  his  life,  he  devoted  himself  later  almost 
exclusively  to  combating  the  doctrines  of  Luther. 
His  works  are  numerous  and  belong  to  almost  every 
department  of  theology  and  philosophy.  He  began 
with  commentaries  on  many  Aristotelean  treatises: 
logic,  natural  philosophy,  ethics,  arithmetic,  and 
geometry.  He  also  wrote  studies  on  several  books 
of  Holy  Scripture,  edited  and  commented  the  writ- 
ings of  some  of  the  Fathers  and  Doctors  of  the  Church. 
Among  his  original  works  must  be  mentioned  ''De 
ver&  nobilitate  opusculum"  (Paris,  1512);  "Eluci- 
datorium  ecclesiasticum"  (Paris,  1516);  "De  vitA  et 
moribus  sacerdotum"  (Paris,  1519),  and  several  other 
works  of  instruction  and  edification;  **  Antilutherus" 
(Paris,  1524);  "  Propugnaculum  ecclesisB  adversus 
Lutheranos"  (Parb,  1526);  "De  Sacramento  Eucha- 
ristisB  contra  CEcoIampadium"  (Paris,  1526);  "Com- 
pendium veritatum  ad  fidem  pertinentium  contra 
erroneas  Lutheranorum  assertiones  ex  dictis  et  actis  in 
concilio  provinciali  Senonensi  apud  Parisios  celebrato'' 
(Paris,  1529);  "Sermones"  (Paris,  1534);  "Convul- 
sio  calumniarum  Ulrichi  Veleni  quibus  S.  Petnim 
nunquam  Romse  fuisse  cavillatur"  (Paris,  1535). 

Clsrval,  De  JudotA.  Clichtovei  .  .  .  vitd  et  operibus  (Paris, 
1895):  Idem  in  DiU.  de  thiol,  cath..  III.  236;  Van  dbr  Haeo- 
BEN,  Bibliographie  des  aeuvres  de  Josse  Clichtove  in  Bibl,  belgica 
(Ghent,  1888). 

C.   A.   DUBRAY. 

Oliflord,  William  (alias  Mansell),  divine,  d.  30 
April,  1670;  he  was  the  son  of  Henry  Oifford,  by  his  wife 
Elizabeth  Thimelby,  who  as  a  widow  joined  the  English 
Augustinian  nuns  at  Louvain,  and  died,  aged  about 
seventy-seven,  3  September,  1642.  Through  humility 
Cliflfora  never  asserted  his  right  to  the  Barony  of  Cum- 
berland. After  education  and  ordination  at  Douai,  he 
came  on  the  En^sh  mission.  As  vice-president,  he 
helped  the  Enghsh  Colle^  at  Lisbon  through  difficult 
times,  and  became  supenor  of  Toumay College  (Paris), 
assigned  bv  Cardinal  Richelieu  to  the  English  clergy. 
He  evaded  being  made  bishop  in  1660,  declined  m 


1670  the  presidency  of  Douai,  an<l  closed  his  life 
in  the  Hopital  des  Incurables  in  Paris.  Clifford's 
works  are:  "Christian  Rules  proposed  to  a  vertuoas 
Soule"  (Paris,  1615),  dedicated  to  Mrs.  Ursula  Clif- 
ford; "The  Spirituall  Combat",  translated  by  R.  R. 
(Paris,  1656),  dedicated  to  Abbot  Montague;  "little 
Manual  of  the  Poore  Man's  Dayly  Devotion"  (2nd 
edition,  Paris,  1670),  often  reprinted;  "Observations 
upon  Kings'  Reigns  since  the  Conquest"  (MS.); 
"Collections  concerning  Chief  Points  of  Controversy" 
(MS.) 

Little  Manual,  5th  ed..  preface;  Dodd,  Church  History ,  III, 
297;  GiLLOw.  Bibl.  Did.  Eng.  Catholics,  I.  514,  b.  v.;  Idem. 
Lisbon  College,  9  and  189;  0>opsr  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v.; 
Chronicle  of  St.  Monica's,  Louvain  (Edinburgh.  1904).  I.  127; 
Kirk,  Biographies  (London,  1908).  e.  v. 

Patrick  Rtan. 

Oliftoiii  DiocBSE  OF  (Cliftoniensis),  England, 
consisting  of  Gloucestershire,  Somersetshire,  ana 
Wiltshire.  It  was  founded  by  Pius  IX  when  he 
restored  the  English  hierarchy  in  1850.  Previously 
to  that  the  diocese  formed  part  of  the  Western  Dis* 
trict,  one  of  the  four  vicariates  established  by  Inno- 
cent XI  in  1688,  and  including  Wales  and  the  six 
south-western  counties  of  England.  In  1840  Wales 
became  a  separate  vicariate,  and  thenceforth  the  dis- 
trict consisted  of  the  English  counties  only.  As  the 
vicars  Apostolic  resided  chiefly  at  Bath  in  Somerset, 
when  the  district  was  divided  into  the  two  dioceses 
of  Clifton  and  Plymouth,  it  was  fitting  that  the  last 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Western  District,  Dr.  Joseph 
William  Hendren,  O.S.F.  (1791-1866),  consecrated 
in  1848,  should  become  the  first  Bishop  of  Clifton. 
Thus  the  diocese  is,  in  a  special  sense,  the  representa- 
tive of  the  old  vicariate.  In  this  capacity  the 
Bishop  of  Clifton  retains  possession  of  the  arehives 
of  the  Western  District,  one  of  the  most  important 
sources  of  information  for  the  history  of  the  Church 
in  England  from  1780  to  1850.  The  papers  earlier 
in  date  perished  during  the  Gordon  Riots  in  1780. 
Besides  these  valuable  archives  there  is  at  Bishop's 
House  an  interesting  series  of  portraits  of  the  vicars 
Apostolic  of  the  Western  District  and  of  the  bishops 
of  Clifton. 

A  year  after  the  foundation  of  the  new  diocese 
Dr.  Hendren  was  translated  to  the  See  of  Nottingham 
and  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Thomas  Burgess  (1791- 
1854).  On  28  June,  1852,  a  cathedral  chapter,  con- 
sisting of  a  provost  and  ten  canons,  was  erected.  On 
the  death  of  Bishop  Burgess,  27  Nov.,  1854,  there 
was  a  long  vacancy,  and  the  administration  of  the 
diocese  was  given  provisionally  to  Archbishop  Erring- 
ton,  coadjutor  to  Cardinal  Wiseman.  This 'arrange- 
ment lasted  until  Feb.,  1857,  when  the  Hon.  and  Rev. 
William  Joseph  Hugh  ClifiFord  (1823-1893),  son  of 
the  seventh  Lord  Clifford,  was  appointed  bishop, 
being  consecrated  by  Pope  Pius  lA  m  person.  His 
loM  pontificate  lasted  lor  thirty-six  years,  ending 
with  nis  death,  14  Aug.,  1893.  His  successor  was 
Dr.  William  Robert  Brownlow  (1836-1901),  famous 
as  an  arcluBologist,  and  whose  well-known  work  on 
the  catacombs,  written  conjointly  with  Dr.  James 
Spencer  Northcote,  is  a  classical  work  of  reference. 
Dr.  Brownlow  died  9  Nov.,  1901,  and  was  succ^ided 
by  the  Jit.  Rev.  Geoige  Ambrose  Burton,  consecrated 
1  May,  1902.  The  diocese,  which  is  under  the 
patronage  of  "Our  Lady  Conceived  without  Sin" 
and  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  is  divided  into  six  rural 
deaneries.  There  are  57  public  churches  and  chapels, 
besides  24  private  chapels  belonguig  to  communities. 
The  clergy  number  about  50  secular  priests  and 
about  80  regulars,  the  latter  including  the  Benedic- 
tines of  the  famous  abbe^  and  school  at  Downside. 
The  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  Cister- 
cians, and  Jesuits  are  also  represented  in  the  diocese. 
The  College  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  Prior  Park, 
founded  by  Benedictines  and  afterwards  conducted 


OUBfAOUS 


59 


OLOOHSB 


by  secular  priests,  is  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Fathers 
of  the  Society  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Catholie  Direetoriea  (1850-1907);  Bbadt.  AnnaU  of  th€ 
CaUwlie  Hierarchy  (1877). 

Edwin  Burton. 

OlixnaeuB,  John,  Saint.  See  John  Climacus, 
Saint. 

Gliment,  Josi:,  Spanish  bishop,  b.  at  CastelI6n  de 
la  Plana  (Valencia),  1706;  d.  there  25  Nov.,  1781.  Dis- 
tinguisheid  for  his  charities,  educational  efforts,  elo- 
quence, and  exemplary  life,  he  studied  and  afterwards 
professed  theolo^  at  the  University  of  Valencia, 
laboured  for  several  years  as  parish  priest,  and 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Barcelona  in  1766;  he 
resigned  his  see  in  1775.  His  episcopal  activity 
was  directed  to  the  founding  of  hospitals,  the  estab- 
lishing of  free  schools,  and  the  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge among  the  people  by  means  of  low-priced 
publications.  He  translatea  into  Spanish  several 
works,  amon^  them  Fleury's  "Moeurs  des  Israelites 
et  des  Chretiens '\  His  pastoral  instructions  con- 
tributed largely  to  his  fame.  That  of  1769,  on  the 
renewal  of  ecclesiastical  studies,  caused  him  to  be  de- 
nounced to  the  court  of  Charles  III  for  having  eulo- 
gized the  Church  of  Utrecht;  but  a  commission  com- 
posed of  archbishops,  bishops,  and  heads  of  religious 
orders,  appointed  to  examine  his  case,  returned  a 
decision  favourable  to  the  prelate.  The  sway  he  held 
over  his  people  was  shown  by  his  success  in  quelling  a 
dangerous  uprising  in  Barcelona  against  military  con- 
scription; but  this  only  served  still  further  to  render 
him  obnoxious  to  a  suspicious  court,  ^e  refused,  on 
conscientious  grounds,  a  promotion  to  the  wealthy 
See  of  Malaga,  and  withdrew  to  his  native  place.  His 
life  was  published  in  Barcelona  in  1785. 

BfiCBAUD,  Biog.  Univen.  (Paris,  1843-66). 

John  H,  Staplbton. 

Clinical  Baptism.    Sec  Baptism. 

OUtherow,  Margaret,  Venerable,  Martyr,  called 
the  "Peari  of  York'',  b.  about  1556;  d.  25  March, 
15S6.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Thomas  Middleton, 
Sheriff  of  York  (1564-5),  a  wax-chandler;  married 
John  Clitherow,  a  wealthy  butcher  and  a  chamber- 
lain of  the  city,  in  St.  Martin's  cjiurch.  Coney  St.,  8 
July,  1571,  and  lived  in  the  Shambles,  a  street  still 
unaltered.  Converted  to  the  Faith  about  three  years 
latef",  she  became  most  fervent,  continually  risking  her 
life  by  harbouring  and  maintaining  priests,  was  fre- 
quently imprisoned,  sometimes  for  two  years  at  a 
time,  yet  never  daunted,  and  was  a  model  of  all  vir- 
tues. Though  her  husband  belonged  to  the  Established 
Church,  he  had  a  brother  a  priest,  and  Margaret  pro- 
vided two  chambers,  one  adjoining  her  house  and 
a  second  in  another  part  of  the  city,  where  she  kept 
priests  hidden  and  had  Mass  contmually  celebrated 
through  the  thick  of  the  persecution.  Some  of  her 
priests  were  martyred,  and  Margaret  who  desired 
the  same  grace  above  all  things,  used  to  make  secret 
pilgrimages  by  night  to  York  Tyburn  to  pray  beneath 
the  gibbet  for  this  intention.  Finally  arrested  on  10 
March,  1586,  she  was  committed  to  the  castle.  On 
14  March,  she  was  arraigned  before  Judges  Clinch  and 
Rhodes  and  several  members  of  the  Council  of  the 
North  at  the  York  assizes.  Her  indictment  was 
that  she  had  harboured  priests,  heard  Mass,  and  the 
like;  but  she  refused  to  plead,  since  the  only  witnesses 
against  her  would  be  her  own  little  children  and  ser- 
vants, whom  she  could  not  bear  to  involve  in  the  guilt 
of  her  death.  She  was  therefore  condemned  to  the 
peine  forte  et  dure,  i.  e.  to  be  pressed  to  death.  "  God 
.be  thanked,  I  am  not  worthy  of  so  good  a  death  as 
this",  she  said.  Although  she  was  probably  with 
child,  this  horrible  sentence  was  carried  out  on  Lady 
Day,  1586  (Good  Friday  according  to  New  Style), 
^he  had  endured  an  agony  of  fear  the  previous  night, 


but  was  now  calm,  joyous,  and  smiling.  She  walked 
barefooted  to  the  tofbooth  on  Ouscbridge,  for  she 
had  sent  her  hose  and  shoes  to  her  daughter  Anne,  in 
token  that  she  should  follow  in  her  steps.  She  had 
been  tormented  by  the  ministers  and  even  now  was 
urged  to  confess  her  crimes.  "  No,  no,  Mr.  Sheriff,  I 
die  for  the  love  of  my  Lord  Jesu",  she  answered.  She 
was  laid  on  the  ground,  a  sharp  stone  beneath  her 
back,  her  hands  stretched  out  in  the  form  of  a  cross 
and  bound  to  two  posts.  Then  a  door  was  placed 
upon  her,  which  was  weighted  down  till  she  was 
crushed  to  death.  Her  last  words  during  an  agony 
of  fifteen  minutes,  were  "Jesu!  Jesu!  Jesu!  have 
mercy  on  me!"  Her  right  hand  is  preserved  at  St. 
Mary  s  Convent,  York,  but  the  restmg-place  of  her 
sacred  body  is  not  known.  Her  sons  Henry  and 
William  became  priests,  and  her  daughter  Anne  a 
nun  at  St.  Ursula's,  Louvain.  Her  life,  written  by 
her  confessor,  John  Mush,  exists  in  two  versions.  The 
earlier  has  been  edited  by  Father  John  Morris,  S.  J.,  in 
his  "Troubles  of  our  Catholic  Forefathers",  third 
series  (London,  1877).  The  later  MS.,  now  at  York 
Convent,  was  published  by  W.  Nicholson,  of  Thelwall 
Hall,  Cheshire  (London,  Derby,  1849),  with  portrait: 
"Life  and  Death  of  Margaret  Clitherow  the  martyr 
of  York".  It  also  contains  the  "History  of  Mrs. 
Margaret  Ward  and  Mrs.  Anne  Line,  martyrs". 

Challonbr,  Memoira  of  Miaaionary  Prieata  (London,  1878); 
GiLLOw,  BiM.  Diet,  of  Eng.  Cath.  (London,  1885),  I;  Milburn, 
A  Marturof  Yfk  (London,  1900);   The  Pearl  of  York  (with 

Sortrait),   (London,  1904),  a  drama  by  the  Benedictines  of 
tanbrook. 

Bede  Camm. 

Ologher,  Diocese  of  (Clogherensis),  a  suffragan 
of  Armagh,  Ireland,  which  comprises  the  County  Mona- 
ghan,  almost  the  whole  of  Fermanagh,  the  southern 
portion  of  Tyrone,  and  parts  of  Donegal,  Louth,  and 
Qavan.     It  takes  its  name  from  Clogher,  the  seat  of 


Ruins  of  St.  Mary's  Abbet,  Devenish  Island. 

the  Prince  of  Oriel,  with  whose  territory  the  old  Dio- 
cese of  Clogher  was,  practically  spealSng,  coexten- 
sive. The  see  was  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  who 
appointed  one  of  his  household,  St.  Macarten,  as 
first  bishop.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  evidence 
that  St.  Patrick  governed  Clogher  as  a  distinct  diocese 
before  taking  up  his  residence  at  Armagh,  as  is  stated 
by  Jocelyn.  There  is  great  difficulty  m  tracing  the 
succession  of  bishops  in  Clogher,  as  indeed  in  every 
Irish  diocese  from  the  sixth  to  the  eleventh  century, 
on  account  of  the  confusion  of  the  bishops  with  the 
abbots  of  the  monastic  establishments;  the  difficulty 
is  increased  in  Clogher  in  view  of  the  diversity  exist- 
ing between  the  lists  as  given  in  the  Irish  Annals,  and 
the  "  Register  of  Clogher",  compiled  by  Patrick  Culin, 
Bishop  of  Clogher  (1519-34),  and  Roderick  Cassidy, 
archdeacon  of  the  diocese.  The  "Register  of  Clo- 
gher" is  of  very  little  historical  value. 

In  1241  Henry  III  ordered  that  Clogher  should  be 
united  to  Armagh,  on  account  of  ihv  |)overty  of  both 


OLOISTER 


60 


OLOISTER 


dioceses,  but  this  was  not  carried  out,  though  under 
Bishop  David  O'Brogan  large  portions  of  Tyrone 
were  cut  off  from  Clogher  and  given  to  Ardstraw  (now 
united  with  Derry),  while  the  greater  part  of  the 
present  County  Louth,  including  Dundalk,  Drogheda, 
and  Ardee,  was  taken  over  by  Armagh.  In  1535 
Bishop  Odo,  or  Hugh  O'Cervallan,  was  appointed  to 
the  See  of  Clogher  by  Paul  III,  and  on  the  submission 
of  his  patron  Con  O  Neill  to  Henry  VIII,  this  prelate 
seems  to  have  accepted  the  new  teaching,  and  was 
superseded  by  Raymond  MacMahon,  1546.  From 
his  time  there  are  two  lines  of  bishops  in  Clogher,  the 
Catholic  and  the  Protestant.  The  apostate  Miler 
Magrath  was  appointed  Pl'otestant  bishop  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  1570,  but  on  his  promotion  to  Cashel, 
resigned  Clogher  in  the  same  year.  Heber  or  Emer 
MacMahon  (1643-50)  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
war  of  the  Irish  Confederates,  and  on  the  death  of 
Owen  Roe  O'Neill,  was  chosen  general  of  the  Con- 
federate forces.  He  was  defeated  at  Scariflfhollis  near 
I^tterkenny,  taken  prisoner  by  Coote,  and  beheaded 
at  Enniskillen.  Owing  to  the  persecutions  of  the 
Irish  Catholics,  Clogher  was  governed  by  vicars  dur- 
ing the  periods  1612-43,  16.50-71, 1687-1707, 1713-27. 
The  chapter  of  Clogher  was  allowed  to  lapse,  but 
towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  was 
re-established  by  papal  Brief. 

A  very  important  provincial  synod  was  held  at 
Clones  in  1670  by  Oliver  Plunkett,  Archbishop  of 
Armagh  (see  Moran,  Life  of  Plunkett).  The  most 
remarkable  shrines  of  the  diocese  are  at  St.  Patrick's, 
Lough  Derg,  near  Pettigo,  still  frequented  by  thou- 
sands of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  world  (see  St. 
Patrick's  Purgatory);  Devenish  Island  in  Lough 
Erne  (see  McKenna,  Devenish,  its  History  and 
Antiquities,  Dublin,  1897);  Innismacsaint;  also  in 
Lough  Erne,  where  the  "Annals  of  Ulster"  were  com- 
posed; Lisgoole,  Clones,  and  Clogher.  The  most 
celebrated  works  of  ancient  ecclesiastical  art  con- 
nected with  the  diocese  are  the  Domnach  Airigid,  a 
shrine  enclosing  a  copy  of  the  Gospels,  said  to  have 
been  given  by  St.  Patrick  to  St.  Macarten,  and  the 
Cross  of  Clogher,  both  of  them  now  in  the  National 
Museum  in  Dublin.  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
diocese  is  101,162,  distributed  in  forty  parishes  and 
ministered  to  by  about  100  priests. 

Wark-Harrib.  Bishops  of  Irdand  (Dublin,  1746);  Mazibrb 
Brady,  Episcopal  Succession  in  Enqland,  Irdand,  etc.  (Rome, 
1876),  I;   O'Connor.  St.  Patrick's  Purgatory  (Dublin). 

James  MacCafpret. 

Oloister,  the  English  equivalent  of  the  Latin  word 
dausitra  (from  claudere,  'to  shut  up").  This  word 
occurs  in  Roman  law  in  the  sense  of  rampart,  barrier 
fcf.  Code  of  Justinian,  1.  2  sec.  4;  De  officiis  Praef. 
Pract.  AfricaB  (1,  27);  1.  4  De  officiis  mag.  officiorum 
(1, 31)].  In  the  "Concordia  Regularum"  of  St.  Bene- 
dict of  Aniane,  c.  xh,  sec.  11,  we  find  it  in  the  sense 
of  "case",  or  "cupboard"  (Migne,  P.  L.,  CIII,  1057). 
In  modem  ecclesiastical  usage,  clausura  signifies,  ma- 
terially, an  enclosed  space  for  religious  retirement; 
formally,  it  stands  for  the  legal  restrictions  opposed  to 
the  free  egress  of  those  who  are  cloistered  or  enclosed, 
and  to  the  free  entry,  or  free  introduction,  of  outsiders 
within  the  limits  of  the  material  clausura. 

I.  Synopsis  of  Existing  Legislation. — The  actual 
legislation  distinguishes  between  religious  orders  and 
institutes  with  simple  vows;  institutes  of  men  and 
those  of  women. 

(1)  Religious  Orders. — (a)  Male. — Material  Clausura. 
— According  to  the  present  common  law,  every 
convent  or  monastery  of  regulars  must,  on  its  comple- 
tion, be  encloifltered.  A  convent  is  defined  as  a  build- 
ing which  serves  as  a  fixed  dwelling-place  where  relig- 
ious five  according  to  their  rule.  According  to  the 
common  opinion  of  jurists  (Piat,  "  Prjelectiones  juris 
Regularis'^,  1,  844,  n.  4;  Wemz.  "Jus  Decretalium  ', 
658,  n.  479)  tlie  houses  where  only  two  or  three  relig- 


ious dwell  permanently,  and  observe  their  rule  as  they 
can,  are  subject  to  this  law;  it  is  not  necessary  that 
the  religious  be  in  a  number  which  secures  them  the 
privilege  of  exemption  from  the  bishop's  jurisdiction. 
The  Congregation  of  Propaganda  seems  to  have  made 
this  opinion  its  own,  in  decreeing  that,  in  missionary 
coimtries.  the  law  of  cloister  appUes  to  the  religious 
houses  which  belong  to  the  mission,  and  which  serv^e 
as  a  fixed  dwelling  for  even  two  or  three  regular  mis- 
sionaries of  the  Latin  Rite  (Collectanea  Propagandse 
Fidei,  Replies  of  26  Aug.,  1780,  and  of  5  March,  1787, 
n.  410  and  412, 1st  edit.,  n.  545  and  587,  2d  ed.).  On 
the  other  hand,  the  law  of  cloister  does  not  a^ply  to 
houses  which  are  simply  hired  by  religious,  ana  which 
cannot  therefore  be  looked  upon  as  fixed  and  defini- 


Cloxsteb,  Santa  Mabia  Novsi«la,  Fix>rbngb 

tive  homes,  nor  to  the  villa-houses  to  which  the  re- 
ligious go  for  recreation  on  fixed  days  or  for  a  few 
weeks  every  year. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  whole  enclosed  space — liouse 
and  garden — ought  to  be  encloistered.  Custom,  how- 
ever, allows  the  erection,  at  the  entrance  to  the  con- 
vent, of  reception  rooms  to  which  women  may  be 
admitted.  These  reception  rooms  should  be  isolated 
from  the  interior  of  the  convent,  and  the  religious 
should  not  have  free  access  to  them.  The  church, 
choir,  and  even  the  sacristy,  when  it  is  strictly  con- 
tiguous to  the  church,  are  neutral  territory;  here 
women  mav  enter,  ana  the  reUgious  are  free  to  go 
thither  without  special  permission.  It  may  be  as^ed 
whether  a  strictly  continuous  material  barrier  is  a 
necessary  part  of  the  clausura.  Lehmkuhl  (in  Kir- 
chenlex.,  s.  v.  Clausura)  is  of  the  opinion  that  a  door 
which  can  be  locked  should  separate  the  cloistered 
from  the  other  parts  of  a  house  of  religious.  Pas- 
serini,  however,  thinks  (De  hominum  statibus,  III, 
461,  n.  376)  that  any  intelligible  sign  suffices,  provided 
it  sufficiently  indicates  the  beginning  of  the  cloistered 
part.  And  even  in  the  Roman  law,  the  clausurae 
were  sometimes  fictitious.  Finally,  it  may  be  added 
thiAt  it  is  for  the  provincial  superior  to  fix  the  h'mits  of 
the  cloister  and  the  point  at  which  it  begins,  in  con- 
formity i^ith  the  usages  of  his  order  and  with  the  local 
needs;  of  course  his  power  is  Umited  by  the  disposi- 
tions of  the  law. 

Formal  Clausiu-a. — Obstacle  to  the  Free  Egress  of 
the  Religious. — The  cloistered  religious  maj^  not  go  out- 
side their  material  cloister  without  pennission;  still, 
the  rehgious  man  who  transgresses  this  prohibition 
does  not  incur  any  ecclesiastical  censure.  In  two 
cases,  however,  he  would  commit  a  grave  sin:  if  his* 
absence  were  prolonged  (i.  e.  exceeding  two  or  three 
days);  and  if  he  should  go  out  by  night.  Going  out 
at  night  without  permission  is  lu^ually  a  reserved  case. 
But  what  constitutes  going  out  by  night?    The  pres- 


OXiOISTER 


61 


0LOI8TER 


ant  writer  is  of  the  opmion  that  the  oomxnon  estimfr- 
tion  (which  may  vary  in  difTerent  countries)  defines  it. 
It  consists  in  leaving  the  cloister  without  a  good  and 
serious  motive,  at  a  late  hour,  when  people  would  be 
surprised  to  meet  a  religious  outside  his  monastery. 
Canonical  legislation  carefully  provides  that  religious, 
when  not  emplo^red  in  the  functions  of  the  sacred 
ministiy,  shall  reside  in  monasteries.  The  Council  of 
Trent  had  already  forbidden  them  to  leave  the  mon- 
astery without  permission  under  pretext  of  meeting 
their  superiors.  If  they  are  sent  to  follow  a  tmiver- 
sity  course,  they  must  reside  in  a  rdigious  house.  The 
bishop  can  and  must  punish  the  viomtois  of  this  law 
of  residence  (Sess.  XXIV,  De^Reg.  et  Mon.,  c.  iv). 
Certain  decrees  of  refonn,  primarily  intended  for  Italy 
alone,  but  probably  extended  by  usage,  specially  for- 
bid religious  to  go  to  Rome  without  peimission  of  the 
superior  general. 

Obstade  to  the  Entrance  of  Outsiders. — ^Women  are 
strictly  forbidden  to  enter  the  encloistered  portions  of 
a  house  of  male  religious.  In  his  '' Apostoficas  Sedis'' . 
(1869),  sec.  2,  n.  7,  Pius  IX  renewed  the  sentence  of 
exoonmiunication  against  violators  of  this  law.  This 
excommunication  is  absolutely  reserved  to  the  Holy 
See;  it  affects  the  women  who  enter  as  well  as  the 
superior  or  religious  who  admits  them.  The  penaltv 
always  supposes,  of  course,  a  serious  sin  on  the  offena- 
er's  part,  but  the  moralists  are  venr  severe  in  their 
appreciation  of  cases.  The  fact  of  naving  just  fully 
crossed  the  boundary  suffices,  according  to  them,  for 
the  pommission  of  a  serious  sin  and  incurs  the  penalty. 
Such  severity  is  comprehensible  when  a  continuous 
material  barrier  separates  the  cloistered  and  non- 
cloistered  parts  of  the  monastery;  still,  the  present 
writer  is  rather  inclined  to  exonerate  that  person  from 
a  grievous  sin  who  should  just  step  over  the  boundary 
and  retire  immediately.  Where  tnere  is  no  such  bar- 
rier, somewhat  more  latitude  may  be  allowed.  The 
law  makes  exceptions  for  queens  and  women  of  like 
rank,  as,  for  example,  the  wife  of  the  president  of  a 
republic;  such  persons  may  also  be  accompanied  by  a 
smtable  retinue.  Exception  is  also  sometimes  made 
for  notable  benefactresses,  who  must,  however,  pre- 
viously obtain  a  pontifical  indult.  It  should  be  noted 
that  young  ^ris  under  twelve  do  not  incm-  this  ex- 
Gommimication,  but  the  religious  who  should  admit 
them  would  incur  the  penalty.  It  is  not  certain  that 
young  girls  under  seven  come  under  the  law;  hence 
the  religious  who  should  admit  them  would  not  com- 
mit a  grave  fault  or  incur  the  excommunication. 

(b)  Female. — ^Material  Clausura. — ^Those  parts  of 
the  convent  to  which  the  nuns  have  access  are  all 
within  the  cloister,  the  choir  not  excepted.  Here  the 
law  recognLees  no  neutral  territory.  If  the  convent 
church  be  public,  the  nuns  cannot  go  into  those  part« 
accessible  to  the  people.  Further,  the  building  should 
be  BO  constructed  that  neither  the  sisters  can  look  out- 
side their  enclosure,  nor  their  neighbours  see  into  the 
court-yards  or  ^rdens  at  the  disposal  of  the  sisters. 
Before  establishing  a  women's  convent  with  cloister, 
it  is  the  desire  of  the  Holy  See — if  it  be  not  a  condi- 
tion of  validity — ^that  the  he?ieplacitum  Apostolicum 
should  be  obtained;  this  is  a  certain  obhgation  for 
countries,  like  the  United  States,  which  are  subject 
to  the  Constitution  of  Leo  XIII  ''Romanos  Pon- 
tifices",  8  May,  1881.  (See  also  the  Letter  of  7  Dec, 
1901,  of  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda.) 

Formal  Clausura. — Obstacle  to  Egress. — ^Under  no 
pretext  may  the  sisters  go  outside  their  cloister  with- 
out a  legitimate  cause  approved  of  by  the  bishop. 
Such  is  the  legislation  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXV,  De.  Reg.  et  Mon.,  c.  v.).  St.  Pius  V,  restrict- 
ing still  more  this  law,  recognized  only  three  legiti- 
^te  causes:  fire,  leprosy,  and  contagious  malady. 
Without  keeping  rigorously  to  this  enumeration,  we 
°^y  say  that  an  analogous  necessity  is  always  re- 
quu-eci  in  order  that  the  bishop  may  accord  the  |^er- 


mission.  The  nuns  who  transgress  this  law  incur  an 
excommunication  reserved  absolutely  to  the  Holy  See 
("  Apost.  Sedis",  seo.  2,  n.  6). 

Obstacle  to  the  FreeEntranoe  of  Outsiders. — The  law 
is  much  more  severe  for  female  than  for  male  houses; 
in  fact,  even  women  are  rigorously  excluded  from  the 
cloistered  parts.  The  penalty  for  those  who  enter 
and  for  those  who  admit  or  introduce  them  is  the 
same — an  excommunication  absolutely  reserved  to 
the  Holy  See  ("  Apost.  Sed.",  sec.  2,  n.  6).  The  pen- 
alty affects  all  those,  and  only  those,  who  have 
reached  the  age  of  reason.  Hence,  in  spite  of  the 
general  terms  of  the  law,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
sister  who  should  introduce  a  child  under  seven 
would  not  incur  the  ecclesiastical  censure.  This  re- 
gime, however,  admits  of  exceptions;  corporal  or 
spiritual  needs  demand  the  physician's  or  the  confes- 
sor's presence,  the  garden  must  be  cultivated,  the 
building  kept  in  repair.  Hence  general  permissions 
are  given  to  doctors,  confessors,  workmen,  and  others. 
The  confessor  of  the  nuns  has  this  permission  in  virtue 
of  his  office,  so  also  the  bishop  who  must  make  the 
canonical  visitation,  and  the  regular  superior.  If  the 
convent  be  under  the  jurisdiction  of  regulars,  out- 
siders who  need  to  enter  the  cloister  probably  require 
only  one  permission,  that  of  the  regular  superior,  ex- 
cept where  custom  requires  also  the  permission  of  the 
bishop  or  of  his  delegate  (St.  Alph.,  "Theol.  mor.", 
VII,  224).  Benedict  XIV,  Lehmkuhl,  and  Piat,  bas- 
ing their  view  on  the  jurisprudence  of  the  CJongrega- 
tion  of  the  Coimcil,  hold  that  the  bishop's  permission 
is  always  reouired.  This  permission,  whether  coming 
from  tne  bishop  or  from  the  regular  superior,  should 
be  in  writing,  according  to  the  wording  of  the  law; 
but  an  oral  permission  is  sufficient  to  avoid  the  cen- 
sure (St.  Alph.,  ''Theol.  mor.",  VII,  223).  We  may 
follow  the  ojpinion  of  St.  Alphonsus  (loc.  cit.),  who 
maintains  that  when  one  has  an  evident  reason  for 
entering  within  the  cloister,  he  avoids  both  the  cen- 
sure and  the  sin,  even  though  he  have  only  an  oral 
permission.  It  should  be  observed  that  girl-boarders 
are  subject  to  this  legislation.  Hence  the  solemnly 
professed  nuns  who  wish  to  occupy  themselves  with 
the  education  of  the  young  must  he  provided  with  a 
pontifical  indult. 

However,  cloistered  nuns  are  not  absolutely  for- 
bidden all  intercourse  with  the  outside  world.  They 
may  of  course  receive  letters;  they  may  also  receive 
visitors  in  the  convent  parloiir,  provided  that  they 
remain  behind  the  gratmg,  or  grille,  erected  there. 
For  such  visits  a  reasonable  cause  and  a  permission 
from  the  bishop  is  usually  needed.  This  permission, 
however,  is  not  required  m  the  case  of  those  who,  by 
virtue  of  their  office,  are  obliged  to  have  relations 
with  a  convent,  viz.  the  ecclesiastical  superior,  the 
confessor  (for  spiritual  affairs),  the  canonical  visitor, 
etc.  Except  in  Advent  and  Lent,  relatives  and 
children  are  admitted  once  a  week.  The  conditions 
for  a  visit  by  a  male  religious  are  very  severe;  accord- 
ing to  some  authors  he  can  only  receive  permission  if 
he  is  a  blood  relation  of  the  first  or  second  degree,  and 
then  only  four  times  a  year.  Further,  although  an 
irregular  visit  on  the  part  of  a  lay  person  or  secular 
priest  does  not  constitute  a  grave  fault,  any  visit 
without  leave  is  a  mortal  sin  for  the  religious.  Such 
is  the  severity  of  the  prohibition  contained  in  the 
decree  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,  dated  7 
June,  1669.  However,  the  conditions  commonly  re- 
quired for  a  mortal  sin  must  be  present.  For  that 
reason  some  eminent  theologians  do  not  think  there 
is  a  mortal  sin  if  the  conversation  does  not  last  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  (C.  d  'Annibale,  Summula  theol. ,  III, 
n.  228).  It  should  be  noted,  at  the  same  time,  that 
certain  usages  have  miti^ted  the  rigour  of  the  /aws 
here  mentioned.  In  Spain,  for  instance,  the  permis- 
sion of  the  diocesan  authority  is  never  asked  for  mak- 
ing such  visits.     Ami  of  course  the  law  itself  affects 


OLOISTER 


62 


OLOISTKB 


only  convents  where  the  inmates  pronounce  solemn 
vows. 

(2)  InstUiUes  with  Simple  Vows  Ordv. — Generally 
speaking,  in  a  convent  or  monastery  where  there  are 
no  solemn  vows,  there  is  no  cloister  protected  by  the 
excommunications  of  the  *  'Apostolicte  Sedis  " ;  further, 
women  cannot  make  solenm  vows  except  in  a  con- 
vent which  has  the  clausura.  Sometimes,  however, 
this  papal  clausura  is  granted  to  convents  of  women 
who  make  only  simple  vows.  Except  in  this  case 
the  institutes  of  simple  vows  are  not  subject  to  the 
laws  above-described.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  only 
female  convents  in  the  United  States  with  either 
solemn  vows  or  the  papal  clausura  are  those  of  the 
Visitation  Nims  at  Georgetown,  Mobile,  St.  Louis, 
and  Baltimore.  (See  Bizzarri,  ''Ck>llectanea;  Causa 
Americana",  1st  edit.,  X,  page  778,  and  the  decree, 
page  791.)  The  fifth  convent  mentioned  in  the  de- 
cree, Kaskaskia,  no  longer  exists.  The  same  is  true 
of  Belgium  and  France,  with  the  exception  of  the 
districts  of  Nice  and  Savoy.  In  these  countries, 
therefore,  the  nuns  forming  part  of  the  old  religious 
orders  have  only  the  cloister  imposed  by  their  rules 
or  by  such  vows  as  that  of  perpetual  enclosure  taken 
by  the  relidous  of  St.  Clare.  It  is  worth  noting  that 
tnis  vow,  although  it  forbids  the  inmates  to  leave  the 
cloister,  does  not  forbid  them  to  receive  people  from 
outside.  They  are  not,  then,  acting  contrary  to  their 
vow  when  they  admit  secular  persons  to  the  inside  of 
their  convents.  But  in  countries  where  the  absence 
of  solemn  vows  exempts  convents  of  women  from  the 
papal  enclosure,  the  bishop,  whom  the  Council  of 
Trent  (Sess.  XXV,  De  Reg.  et  Mon.,  c.  v.)  constitutes 
the  guardian  of  nuns'  cloister,  can  censure  and  punish 
with  ecclesiastical  penalties  infractions  of  cloister,  and 
can  thus  establish  an  episcopal  clausura  (cf.  Reply, 
"In  Parisiensi",  1  Aug.,  1839).  In  the  institutes  of 
simple  vows,  there  is  nearly  always  a  partial  cloister 
which  reserves  exclusively  to  the  religious  certain 
parts  of  their  convents.  This  partial  cloister  in  the 
nuns'  convents  has  been  conmiitted  to  the  special 
vigilance  of  the  bishops  by  the  Constitution,  ''Con- 
ditae",  8  Dec,  1900,  second  part,  and,  if  we  may 
judge  by  the  present  action  of  the  Congregation  of 
Bishops  and  Regulars,  the  clausura  in  this  form  tends 
to  become  obligatory  on  all  such  institutes.  (See 
"Nomue"  of  the  Congreg.  of  Bishops  and  Regulars j 
28  June,  1901.) 

II.  Reasons  for  this  Legislation. — This  legisla- 
tion has  for  itsprincipal  object  to  safeguard  the  virtue 
of  chastity.  The  religious  consecrates  his  person  to 
God,  but  he  is  not  on  that  account  impeccable  in  the 
matter  of  chastity:  indeed,  his  very  profession,  if  he 
does  not  live  up  to  nis  ideal,  exposes  him  to  the  danger 
of  becoming  a  scandal  and  a  source  of  the  gravest  harm 
to  religion.  To  this  principal  reason  inculcated  in 
the  Constitution  "Penculoso"  of  Boniface  VIII  may 
be  added  others;  for  instance,  the  calm  and  recollec- 
tion necessary  for  the  religious  life.  The  Church  has 
therefore  acted  wisely  in  forestalling  such  dan^rs  and 
protecting  those  who  aim  at  leading  a  perfect  hfe;  and 
for  this  the  external  rigour  is  certainly  not  excessive. 
Moreover,  this  external  rigour  (as,  e.  g.,  the  grille) 
varies  much  according  to  local  needs  and  circum- 
stances; and  it  seems  that  the  recent  institutes  suc- 
ceed admirably  with  their  partial  cloister,  which  is  not 
protected  by  tne  severe  penalties  of  the  Church.  The 
more  perfect  form,  however,  is  undoubtedly  better 
adiapt^  to  the  mystic  life. 

III.  Sources  of  the  Existino  Legislation. — (1) 
Religious  Orders, — (a)  Male. — There  is  no  pontifical 
constitution  of  universal  application  which  prohibits 
the  egress  of  the  reli^ous.  The  only  written  law  that 
might  be  invoked  is  the  decree  of  Clement  VIII, 
"Nullus  Omnino'',  25  June,  1599;  and  it  would  be 
difficult  to  prove  that  this  Constitution  is  binding  out- 
side of  Italy.    Hence,  this  element  of  cloister  results 


partl}r  from  usa^ge,  partly  from  special  laws.  A  con- 
stitution of  univex^  bearing  was  projected  at  the 
Vatican  Council  C'De  Clausuri'',  c.  li,  ''CoUectio 
Lacensis",  VII,  681).  The  interdict  against  the  ad- 
mission of  women  rests  nowadays  on  the  Constitution 
of  Benedict  XIV,  '^R^ularis  Disdplins",  3  Jan., 
1742,  and  on  that  of  Pius  IX,  "Apostolic®  Sedis", 
sec.  2,  n.  7,  12  Oct.,  1869,  which  renews  the  censures 
against  offenders. 

(b)  Female, — Here  the  Apostolical  Constitutions 
abound.  We  cite  some  of  the  more  recent  which  sanc- 
tion at  the  same  time  the  two  elements  of  cloister: 
"Salutare",  3  Jan.,  1742,  and  "Per  binas  aUas",  24 
Jan.,  1747,  of  Benedict  XIV;  add  also,  for  the  censures, 
the  "  Apostolicse  Sedis'',  sec.  2,  n.  6,  of  Pius  IX. 

(2)  Institutes  with  Simple  Vows  Only. — For  these  in- 
stitutes there  is  no  other  law  of  universal  application 


Small  Cloibtbr,  CisBToeA  of  Pavia — Giovanni 
Antonio  Amadbo 

besides  the  Constitution,  "Condit»  aChristo",  which 
indeed  rather  supposes  than  imposes  a  certain  clau- 
sura. 

IV.  Historical  Development  of  Legislation. — 
From  the  very  first,  the  foimders  of  monasteries  and 
the  masters  of  the  spiritual  life  sought  to  guard 
against  the  dangers  which  commerce  with  the  world 
and  intercourse  with  the  other  sex  offered  to  those  de- 
voted to  the  life  of  perfection.  So  we  find  from  the 
earliest  times,  both  in  the  counsels  and  the  rules  of  the 
initiators  of  the  religious  life,  wise  maxims  of  practical 
prudence.  In  the  ^pod  of  Alexandria  (362)  we  find 
at  the  head  of  the  minor  ordinances  a  rule  forbidding 
monks  and  religious  celibates  {continentes)  to  meet 
women,  to  speak  to  them,  and,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  to 
see  them  (Kevillout,  "Le  Concile  de  Nic6e",  II,  475, 
476).  Still,  cloister,  as  we  understand  it  to-day,  did 
not  exist  for  the  first  Eastern  monks.  Their  rules 
concerning  monastic  hospitality  prove  this;  other- 
wise, how  could  St.  Macnna  have  receive  the  visits 
of  which  her  brother,  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  spealcs 
("Vita  S.  Macrin»",  in  P.  G.,  XLVI,  975)?  St. 
Basil's  niles,  in  recommending  discretion  in  the  rela- 
tions between  monks  and  nuns,  prove  indirectlv  the 
non-existence  of  a  cloister  properly  so  called  ("K^u- 
Ise  fusius  tractatse,  Q.  and  R.,  XXX,  P.  G.,  XXXI.  997; 
"Regute  brevius  tractat»",  106-11,  P.  G.,  XXXI, 
1155-58).  What  seems  stranger  still  in  our  eyes,  in 
the  East  there  existed  double  monasteries  where,  in 
contiguous  houses,  if  not  actually  under  the  same  roof, 
religious  men  and  women  observed  the  same  rule; 
sometimes  also  pious  women  (dyamrral)  shared  their 
homes  with  monks.  As  regards  Africa,  in  St.  Augus- 
tine's day  the  visits  of  clerics  or  of  monks  to  the  **  vir- 
gins and  widows"  were  made  only  with  permission, 
and  in  the  company  of  irreproachable  Christians 
(Cone.  Carth.  Ill,  can.  xxv,  Hardouin,  1, 963);  but  the 


0LOI8TB& 


63 


OLOISTSft 


cloister  proper  was  unknown,  so  much  so  that  the 
nuns  themselves  used  to  go  out,  though  always  ac- 
companied (Aug.,  Epist.,  ccxi,  P.  L.,  XXXIII,  963). 

In  Europe,  St.  Csesarius  of  Aries  (536)  forbade 
women  to  enter  men's  monasteries,  and  even  pre- 
vented them  from  visiting  the  interior  i)art  of  a  nun's 
convent  (R^nila  ad  monachos,  xi;  Ad  virgines,  xxxiv, 
P.  L.,  LXVn,  1100,  1114);  so  also  St.  AureUus,  who 
further  forbade  nuns  to  go  out  except  with  a  compan- 
ion (R^^ula  ad  monachos,  xv;  Ad  virgines,  xii,  P.L., 
LXVIlf,  390,  401).  The  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  says 
nothing  about  the  clobter,  and  even  the  Rule  of  St. 
Francis  only  forbids  monks  to  enter  convents  of  nuns. 
It  is  worth  noting  that  other  religious  so  far  surpassed 
in  severity  the  authorizations  of  current  law  as  to 
place  their  churches  under  cloister  (Carthusians;  see 
"Guigonis  CJonsuetudines",  c.  xxi,  P.  L.,  CUII,  681, 
6S2),  or  to  prohibit  the  introduction  of  foods  which 
the  monks  were  forbidden  to  use  (Camaldolese).  St. 
Gregory  (P.  L.,  LXXVII,  717)  in  his  letter  (594)  to 
the  Abbot  Valentine  (letter  xlii  or  xl,  bk.  IV)  com- 
plained that  the  said  abbot  used  to  admit  women  into 
his  monastery  frequently,  and  used  to  allow  his  monks 
to  act  as  godfathers  at  baptisms,  thus  associating 
with  the  women  who  acted  as  godmothers.  This  last 
permission  appeared  to  him  more  reprehensible  than 
the  former.  In  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  (450- 
56)  an  Irish  council  presided  over  by  St.  Patnck  for- 
bade (can.  ix)  the  religious  and  consecrated  virgins  to 
lodge  in  the  same  inn,  ride  in  the  same  carriage,  or 
frequently  meet  together  (Hard.,  1, 1791).  About  the 
same  time,  the  Fourth  (Ecumenical  Council  (451)  sub- 
ject^ to  the  bishop's  jurisdiction  the  monks  who 
lived  outside  their  monastery.  In  517  the  Council  of 
Epao  (a  locality  which  has  not  been  identified  hitherto. 
See  Hefele,  "Concilien^eschichte",  II,  681;  L6ning, 
"Geschichte  des  deutschen  Kirchenrechts",  1, 569,  n. 
2,  identifies  it  with  Albon,  between  Valence  and 
Vienne;  the  '*  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.":  Cone,  1, 17,  refer  to 
Lining)  prescribed  measures  (can.  xxxviii)  prohibiting 
any  but  women  pf  known  integrity  or  priests  on 
duty  from  entering  the  monasteries  of  vimns  {puel- 
terum— Hard.,  II,  1051).  In  the  Constitution  ("  No- 
vella") 133  of  Justinian  I,  xepl  A*ol^ix«^  16  or  18 
Mareh,  539,  we  meet  with  a  prescription  which  re- 
sembles much  more  closely  our  cloister.  In  the  third 
chapter  the  emperor  forbids  women  to  enter  men's 
monasteries  even  for  a  burial  service,  and  vice  versa. 
In  the  Coimcil  of  Saragossa  (691)  the  Fathers  assem- 
bled protested  against  the  facility  with  which  lav- 
persons  were  admitted  into  monasteries  (Hard.,  HI, 
1780).  Next  come  the  Council  of  Freising  (about  800), 
which  forbids  either  laymen  or  clerics  to  enter  nuns' 
^  convents  (can.  xxi  in  the  collection  reproduced  in 
the  ''Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Capitularia  Regum  Fran- 
corum",  1, 28),  and  the  Council  of  Mainz  (813),  which 
forbids  (can.  xii)  monks  to  go  out  without  the  abbot's 
leave,  and  which  seems  (can.  xiii)  to  forbid  absolutely 
all  egress  for  nuns,  even  for  the  abbesses,  except  with 
the  advice  and  permission  of  the  bishop  (Hard.,  IV, 
1011,  1012).  In  the  acts  of  the  synods  of  829  pre- 
sented to  Louis  le  D^bonnaire,  we  find  a  measure  to 
prevent  monks  from  conversing  with  nuns  without 
the  bishop's  permission  [''Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Capitu- 
laria ",  II,  42,  n.  19  (53)].  The  Second  General  Cioun- 
cil  of  the  Lateran  (1139)  forbade  nuns  to  dwell  in 
private  houses  (can.  xxvi)  and  expressed  the  wish  that 
they  should  not  sing  in  the  same  choir  with  the  canons 
or  monks  (Hard.,  VII,  1222).  '  The  Third  Council  of 
the  Lateran  (1 179)  re<^uired  a  cause  of  clear  necessity 
to  justify  clerics  in  visiting  convents  of  nuns.  We 
may  ada  here  the  decree  of  Innocent  III  (1198)  in- 
serted in  the  Decretalia  (I,  31,  7),  which  gives  to  the 
bishop  the  right  to  supplement  the  negligence  of  pre- 
lates who  should  not  compel  wandering  monks  to  re- 
turn to  their  convents. 

Thus  far  we  have  surveyed  the  beginnings  of  the 


present  legislation.  In  1298  Boniface  VIII  promul- 
gated his  celebrated  Constitution  "Periculoso"  (De 
Statu  Regularium,  in  VI®,  III,  16),  in  which  he  im- 
posed the  cloister  on  all  nuns.  According  to  this  law, 
all  egress  is  forbidden  to  them;  only  persons  of  irre- 
proachable life  are  admitted  to  see  the  sisters,  and 
that  only  when  there  is  a  reasonable  excusepreviously 
approved  of  by  the  competent  authorities.  The  bishops 
(m  the  convents  whicn  are  subject  to  them,  as  well 
as  in  those  which  depend  immediately  on  the  Holy 
See)  and  the  regular  prelates  (in  other  convents)  are 
charged  to  watcn  over  the  execution  of  these  disposi- 
tions. The  Council  of  Trent  (Sees.  XXV,  De  Reg. 
et  Mon.,  c.  v),  confirming  these  measures,  con- 
fided to  the  bishops  all  responsibility  for  the  cloister 
of  nuns;  it  further  directed  that  no  nun  might  go  out 
without  a  written  permit  from  the  bishop,  and  that 
outsiders,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  might  not 
enter  without  a  written  permit  from  the  bishop  or  the 
regular  superior,  which  permit  might  not  be  given 
except  in  case  of  necessity.  St.  Pius  V,  in  his  "Circa 
Pastoralis"  (29  May,  1566),  urged  the  execution  of 
Boniface's  law,  and  imposed  the  cloister  even  on  the 
third  orders.  Shortly  after,  the  same  pontiff,  in  his 
"Decori"  (1  Feb.,  1570),  defined  the  cases  and  the 
manner  in  which  a  professed  nun  might  go  outside 
of  her  cloister.  In  this  coimexion  may  also  be 
mentioned  the  "Ubi  Gratiie"  of  Gregory  XIII  (13 
June,  1575),  explained  by  the  Brief  "  Dubiis  "  (23  Dec, 
1581).  The  decree  of  11  May,  1669,  and  the  declara- 
tion of  26  Nov.,  1679  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Coun- 
cil, forbid  reli^ous  men  to  see  nuns,  even  at  the  grat- 
ing, except  within  the  limits  referred  to  above. 

This  legislation  is  still  further  confirmed  by  the 
Constitutions  of  Benedict  XIV,  "Cum  sacrarum",  1 
June,  1741,  "Salutare"  of  3  Jan.,  1742,  concerning 
the  entrance  of  outsiders;  "Per  binas  alias",  24  Jan., 
1747,  on  the  same  subject;  and  the  Letter  "Gravis- 
simo",  31  Oct.,  1749,  to  the  ordinaries  of  the  pontif- 
ical territory  on  access  of  extems  to  the  grilles,  or 
gratings,  through  which  they  might  communicate 
with  cloistered  religious;  finally,  by  the  Constitution 
"Apostolic®  Sedis",  12  Oct.,  1869,  which  passed  sen- 
tence of  excommunication  on  all  offenders,  and  abro- 
gated all  usages  contrary  to  the  Constitution  of  Pius 
V  on  the  egress  of  cloistered  nuns  (cf.  reply  of  Holy 
Office,  22  Dec,  1880). 

The  Apostolical  constitutions  about  the  cloister  of 
regulars,  and  notably  the  exclusion  of  women,  are  all 
posterior  to  the  CJouncil  of  Trent.  As  regards  the 
entrance  of  women,  we  have  to  quote:  "  Regularium  ", 

24  Oct.,  1566,  and  "Decet",  16  July,  1570,  both  of 
St.  Pius  V;  "Ubi  Gratia",  13  June,  1575,  of  Gregory 
XIII;  "NuUus",  §  18,  of  Clement  VIII,  25  June, 
1599;  "Regularis  Discipline",  3  Jan.,  1742,  of  Bene- 
dict XIV;  lastly,  the  "Apostolicffi  Sedis"  of  Pius  IX 
(1869),  for  the  censures.  Concerning  the  egress  of 
religious,  the  reader  may  refer  to  the  following  con- 
stitutions: "Ad  Eomanum  spectat",  §§  20  and  21, 
21  Oct.,  1588,  of  Sixtus  V;  "Decretum  illud",  10 
March,  1601,  of  Clement  VIII  (on  the  question  of 
journeys  to  Rome) ;  also  the  decree  "  NuUus  omnino  ", 

25  June,  1599,'of  Clement  VIII  (for  Italy). 

V.  Legislation  in  the  Eastern  Church. — In  our 
historical  survey  we  have  already  cited  the  Greek 
sources  of  legislation  prior  to  the  seventh  century. 
In  693  the  Trullan  Council,  so  caUed  from  the  hall 
of  the  palace  at  Constantinople  where  it  was  held,  is 
more  precise  than  those  which  preceded  it.  The 
forty-sixth  canon  (Hard.,  Ill,  1679)  forbade  monks 
and  nuns  to  go  out,  except  during  the  day,  for  a 
necessary  cause,  and  with  the  previous  authorization 
of  their  superior;  the  forty-seventh  canon  forbade 
men  to  sleep  in  a  convent  of  women,  and  vice  versa. 
The  Second  Council  of  Nicaea  (787),  which  Photius 
cites  in  his  "Nomocanon"  (P.  G.,  CIV,  1091),  in  its 
eighteenth  canon  forbids  women  to  dwell  in  men's 


GLONAJEtD  64 

monaskrirs  (Hard.,  IV,  497,  41)8),  and  in  the  twen- 
tieth it  condemns  double  monasteriea,  occupied  by 
both  monks  and  nuns  (Hard.,  IV,  499,  500).  Neither 
Balsamon  nor  Aristenes,  in  their  commentaries  on  the 
canons  of  the  councils  (P.  G.,  CXXXVII),  nor  Bla- 
staris  (1332),  in  his  alphabetical  list  of  the  canons 
(P.  G.,  CXLV,  under  the  titles,  "Hermits'',  ''Nuns", 
col.  45-48, 49-50),  nor  the  Maronite  council  of  1 736,  has 
any  more  recent  general  law  to  cite.  This  Maronite 
council  cites  two  other  Maronite  synods  of  1578  and 
1596  (CoU.  Lac,  II,  36).  In  an  article  like  the  pres- 
ent it  would  be  impossible  to  follow  the  evolution  of 
the  Eastern  legislation  and  the  Eastern  usages  in  this 
matter,  owing  tx)  the  multitude  qf  rites  and  of  com- 
munities into  which  the  Orientals  tend  to  split  up. 

We  may  cite  two  Catholic  Maronite  synods  of  Mt. 
Lebanon,  held  in  1736  and  1818.  The  former  of  these 
(De  monasteriis  et  monachis,  IV,  c.ii)  recalls  the  old 
canons,  forbids  double  monasteries,  imposes  on  the 
monks  a  cloister  similar  to  that  of  the  Western  regu- 
lars, penalizing  women  offenders  with  sentence  of 
excommunication,  reservetl  to  the  patriarch.  In  the 
third  chapter,  devoted  to  sisterhoods,  the  Fathers 
recognize  that  the  strict  cloister  is  not  of  obligation 
in  their  Church.  They  allow  the  nuns  to  go  out  for 
the  needs  of  their  convent,  but  they  desire  tliat  the 
nuns  shall  never  go  out  alone.  The  execution  of 
these  decrees  was  very  slow,  and  met  with  much  diffi- 
culty; and  the  synod,  of  1818  had  to  be  convened  in 
order  to  finally  separate  the  convents  of  men  from 
those  of  women  (cf.  Coll.  Lac.,  II,  365-368,  374,  382. 
490,491,496,576). 

The  provincial  synod  of  the  Ruthenians  of  the 
United  Greek  Rite  (1720)  introduced  what  is  prac- 
tically the  Roman  clausura  the  exconmiunication 
Erotecting  their  cloister  is  reserved  to  the  pope  ((>)11. 
ac,  II,  55,  58).  In  the  patriarchal  council  of  the 
Greek  Melchite  United  Church  (1812),  we  find  noth- 
ing but  a  simple  prohibition  to  the  monks  to  go  on 
journeys  without  written  permission  from  their  supe- 
rior, and  to  pass  the  night  outside  of  their  monastery, 
except  when  assisting  the  dying  (Coll.  Lac,  II,  586). 
In  the  Coptic  Catholic  and  the  Syrian  Catholic 
Churches  there  are  at  present  no  religious  whatever. 
It  may  be  affirmed,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  the 
cloister  is  often  relaxed  among  Eastern  monks,  espe- 
cially the  schismatics;  the  exclusion  of  women,  how- 
ever, is  very' rigorous  in  the  twenty  convents  of  Mt. 
Athos  and  among  the  Egyptian  monks.  There  we 
find  even  more  than  the  ancient  rij^our  of  the  Studists 
for  no  female  anunal  of  any  kind  is  allowed  to  exist 
on  the  promontory  (see  St.  Theodore  the  Studite, 
"Epistula  Nicolao  discipulo,  et  testamentum ",  §  5, 
m  P.  G.,  XCIX,  941,  1820).  The  Basilian  nuns  of 
the  Russian  Church  also  observe  a  strict  cloister. 

For  Cloister  in  the  architectural  sense,  see  under 
Abbey. 

For  the  historiral  sources  see  HARDoriN,  Ada  ConcHiorum 
(Paris,  1714-15);  Boretiub  and  Kraubk,  CapUularia  Hegum 
Francorum  (Hanover,  1883  and  1897);  Hevillodt,  Le  ConcUe 
de  Nic^e  d'aprU  les  texlca  copies  el  Us  diverses  caUeciions  cano" 
niques.  Dissertation  critique  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1876-98);  Migne 
Patrotogim  cursus  completus  (Paris,  1844-1862);  Colledio  La- 
ccnsis:  Ada  et  Decreta  S.  Conciltorum  ReceTitiorum  (7  voU.,  Frei- 
burt5  im  Br.,  1870-90);  Hefelb,  Cona'lienoeschichte  (Freiburg 
imBr.,  1873-1890);  Vkrmeersch,  De  Religiosis  JnstitutisrtPer- 
sonia:  Sttpplementa  et  Monumenta  (Bruges,  1904). 

For  the  legislation,  almost  all  the  canonists  and  moralists 
might  be  cited.  We  will  however  limit  ourselves  to  some  of 
those  who  have  more  formally  treated  the  matter. — For  the 
ancient  legislation  in  particular.  BoNAaNA.,  Tradalut  de  Clau* 
surd  et  de  pcmis  earn  tnolantibus  tmpositis,  in  Opera  omnia 
(Lyons,  1654).  I;  Pellizarius,  ManuaU  Regularium  (2  vols., 
Lyons,  1605);  Montwi  (ed.).  Tradatio  de  Monialibu^  (Editio 
correcta,  Rome,  1761);  Liguori,  Theoloffia  moralis,  I,  7,  n. 
221-243. — For  authorities  in  modem  legislation  see  Pi  at, 
PYaledumes  juris  reffularia  (Toumai.  1898);  Wernjs,  Jiia 
peeretahum  vllome,  1901).  Ill,  n.  658;  Hollweck.  Die  kirch- 
lu^en  Strajgetetze  (Mamr.  1899);  Hhimbucheh,  Die  Orden  und 
ConffregattoTun  der  kaiholischen  Kirehe  (Paderbom,  1907); 
yKBUKERBrH,pe  Reliffiosis  TmtUtdis  et  Persimia,  I,  2nd  ed. 
(Bruges,  1906).— See  also  Dolhaoaray,  La  lot  de  la  dMure 
dans  les  eovventa  d'hommrs  in  Rnj.  des  scieno6$  ecdfs,  (1897), 


OLOHFXRT 


\\^)<r  oS  «*1^/    !»*«¥/  ^  <^i^^K*^  rdioieuae,   ibid.   (1896). 
Ill,  423  sqq..  and  (1861),  V,  618  sqq.;  AndrI;- Wagner.  Did 


de  draU^  c»Wi^  (i^arii'lsWirs.  v'lB^Tre.^Li'rf^"  e^ 
)if.  (1887).  XXVII.  and  (1888).  XXVlHT 


in  Anal,  jur.  ponttl 


Arthur  VermeerscW. 


Olonard,  School  of.— Clonard  (Irish,  Cluain 
Eraird,  or  Cluain  Iraird,  Erard's  Meadow)  was  situ- 
ated on  the  beautiful  river  Boyne,  just  beside  the 
boundary  line  of  the  northern  and  southern  halves  of 
Ireland.  The  founder  of  this  school,  the  most  famous 
of  the  sixth  century,  was  St.  Finnian,  an  abbot 
and  great  wonder-worker.  He  was  bom  at  Myshall, 
County  Carlow,  about  470.  At  an  early  age  he  was 
placed  under  the  care  of  St.  Fortchem,  by  whose  direc- 
tion, it  is  said,  he  proceeded  to  Wales  to  perfect  him- 
self m  holiness  and  sacred  knowledge  under  the  great 
saints  of  that  country.  After  a  long  sojourn  there,  of 
thirty  years  according  to  the  Salamanca  MS.,  be  re- 
turned to  his  native  land  and  went  about  from  place 
to  place,  preaching,  teaching,  and  founding  churches, 
till  he  was  at  last  led  by  an  angel  to  Cluain  Eraird, 
which  he  was  told  would  be  the  place  of  his  resurrec- 
tion. Here  he  built  a  little  cell  and  a  church  of  clay 
and  wattle,  which  after  some  time  gave  way  to  a  sub- 
stantial stone  structure,  anu  Wintered  on  a  life  of  study, 
mortification,  and  prayer.  Tlie  fame  of  his  learning 
and  sanctitv  was  soon  noised  abroad,  and  scholars  of 
all  ages  flocked  from  every  side  to  his  monastic  retreat 
—young  laymen  and  clerics,  abbots  and  bishops  even, 
and  those  illustrious  saints  who  were  af ten^^ards  known 
as  the  " Twelve  Apostles  of  Erin ''.  In  the  Office  of  St. 
Finnian  it  is  stated  that  there  were  no  fewer  than 
3000  pupils  getting  instruction  at  one  time  in  the 
school  in  the  green  fields  of  Clonard  under  the  broad 
canopy  of  heaven.  The  master  excelled  in  exposition 
of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  to  this  fact  must  be 
mainly  attributed  the  extraordinary  popularity  which 
his  lectures  enjoyed.  The  exact  date  of  the  saint's 
death  is  uncertam,  but  it  was  probably  552,  and  his 
burial-place  is  in  his  own  church  of  Clonard.  For  cen- 
turies after  his  death  the  school  continued  to  be  re- 
nowned as  a  seat  of  Scriptural  learning,  but  it  suffered 
at  the  hands  of  the  Danes,  especially  in  the  eleventh 
centuiy,  and  two  wretched  Irishmen,  O'Rorke  of 
Breifney  and  Dermod  McMurrough,  helped  to  com- 
plete the  unholy  work  which  the  Northmen  had  begun. 
With  the  transference  by  the  Norman  Bishop  de 
Rochfort,  m  1206,  of  the  See  of  Meath  from  Qonard  to 
Trim,  the  glory  of  the  former  place  departed  forever. 

Qi^li  ^^?Q*^^r*^*/T^'ui?''*'?23;\  Healy,  Ireland's  Ancient 
Sdiools  and  Scholars  (Dubhn.  1890). 

John  Healt. 

Olonfartt  Diocese  op  (Clonfertenbis,  in  Irish 
Cluain-fearta  Brenainn),  a  suffragan  see  of  the  metro-  * 

g>litan  province  of  Tuam,  was  founded  in  557  by  St. 
rendan  the  Navigator,  in  a  sheltered  cluain  or 
meadow  near  the  Shannon  shore,  at  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  County  Galway.  The  diocese  was 
nearly  coextensive  with  the  tribe-land  of  the  Hy 
Many  or  O'Kelly  country.  It  still  contains  twenty- 
four  parishes  in  the  south-east  of  the  County  Galway, 
including  one  small  parish  east  of  the  Sliannon,  which 
formed  a  part  of  the  ancient  Hy  Many  territory.  The 
renown  of  Brendan  as  a  saint  and  traveller  by  land 
and  sea  attracted  from  the  very  beginning  many 
monks  and  students  to  his  monastery  of  Clonfert,  so 
that  it  became  a  very  famous  school  of  sanctity  and 
learning,  numbering  at  one  time,  it  is  said,  no  Ims 
than  three  thousand  students.  Brendan  was  not  a 
bishop  himself,  but  he  had  as  coadjutor,  his  nephew 
Moineim,  who,  after  his  death,  became  an  abbot- 
bishop  and  head  of  the  monastic  schoc^.  At  a  later 
period  a  still  more  celebrated  man,  Cummian  Fada, 
or  Cummian  the  Tall,  presided  over  the  School  and 
Diocese  of  Clonfert.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
famous  Paschal  oontroveray  and  wrote  a  veiy  leftrned 


CLOISTERS 

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65 


OLONMAONOISS 


work  on  the  subject,  known  as  liis  "Padchal  Epistle", 
«ehich  fortunately  still  survives  (P.  L.,  LXXXVIII) 
and  furnishes  conclusive  evidence  of  the  varied  learn- 
ingcultivated  in  the  school  of  Clonfert. 

Clonfert  being  on. the  highway  of  the  Shannon  suf- 
fered greatly  from  the  ravage  of  the  Danes,  and  also 
of  some  Irish  chieftains  who  imitated  their  bad  ex- 
ample; yet  the  school  and  monastery  lived  on  throueh 
those  stormy  times,  and  we  have  a  fuller  list  of  bish- 
ops and  abbots  of  Clonfert  than  we  have  of  any  other 
see,  at  least  in  the  West  of  Ireland.  It  was  richly  en- 
dowed with  lar^  estates  of  fertile  land,  and  hence  we 
find  that  the  Bishop  of  Clonfert.  accoixling  to  a  scale 
fixed  in  1392,  paid  to  the  papal  treasurv  on  his  ap- 
pointment three  hundred  florins  in  gola,  the  Arcn- 
Dishop  of  Tuam  being  taxed  only  at  two  hundred 
florins.  At  the  generafsuppression  of  religious  houses 
by  Henry  Vllf,  the  Abbot  O'Gormacan,  with  the 
help  of  Clanrickarde,  contrived  to  hold  the  abbey 
lands  of  Clonfert  until  his  death  in  spite  of  royal  de- 
crees.   Roland  de  Buigo  became  bisho})  in  1534,  and 

being  an  Uncle  of 
the  Eari  of  Clan- 
rickarde wasable 
to  keep  his  lands 
and  his  see  for 
more  than  forty 
years  under 
Henry,  Edward 
VI,  Mary,  and 
Elizabeth.  He 
was  always  a 
Catholic  prelate, 
although  it  is 
probable  that  he 
took  the  Oath 
of  Supremacy  in 
order  to  get  the 
temporalities 
from  Henry 
VIII.  Queen 
Elizabeth  wrote 
to  Sir  H.  Sydney 
suggesting  the 
founding  of  a 
national  univer- 
sity at  Clonfert, 
on  account  of  its  central  position  on  the  highway  of 
the  lordly  river,  to  be  endowed  with  the  abbey  lands. 
But  the  project  was  never  carried  out. 

The  old  cathedral  of  Clonfert  still  exists,  and  is  one 
of  the  few  ancient  churches  still  used  for  religious 
worship,  for  it  was  seized  by  the  Protestants  in  the 
veign  of  Elizabeth  and  has  continued  since  in  their 
hands.  There  is,  however,  practically  no  Protestant 
congregation.  The  church  was  small,  being  only 
fifty-four  by  twenty-seven  feet  in  the  clear,  but  its 
two  characteristic  features,  the  west  doorway  and 
east  windows,  are  veiy  beautiful  examples  of  the 
Irish  Romanesaue.  Brash,  an  expert  authority,  has 
described  the  doorway  with  great  minuteness,  and 
declares  that  in  point  of  design  and  execution  it  is 
not  excelled  by  any  similar  work  that  he  has  seen  in 
these  islands.  Of  the  east  altar- window  he  says,  **  the 
design  is  exceedingly  chaste  and  beautiful,  the  mould- 
ings simple  and  effective,  and  the  workmanship  supe- 
rior to  anything  I  have  seen  either  of  ancient  or 
modem  times."  He  attributes  the  building  of  this 
beautiful  Romanesque  church  to  Peter  O'Mordha,  a 
Cistercian  monk,  first  Abbot  of  Boyle  and  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Clonfert.  He  belonged  to  a  family  of  the 
highest  artistic  genius,  to  whom  we  also  owe  the  noble 
arches  of  the  old  cathedral  of  Tuam, and  the  beauti- 
ful monastery  of  Cong. 

In  1266,  as  we  learn  from  the  annals  of  Lou^h  C^, 
ft  certain  John  was  sent  over  from  Rome  as  Bishop- 
elect  of  the  See  of  Clonfert.    He  must  have  received 
IV.--5 


Azrcmrr  BiARKvr  CBoaa,  Cono 


the  sanction  of  tlie  Crown,  and  could  not  be  Inducted 
to  his  see  without  the  help  of  Walter  de  Burgo,  Earl 
of  Ulster.  Hence  we  are  told  he  was  consecrated  at 
the  English  town  of  Athenry  as  Bishop  of  Clonfert. 
This  was  on  the  Stmday  before  Christmas,  1266.  He 
was  also  appointed  papal  nuncio,  and  we  find  (aptid 
Theiner)  a  letter  from  Pope  John  XXI  (1276)  author- 
izing him  to  collect  the  crusaders'  tax  for  the  recov- 
ery of  the  Holy  Land.  This  John,  one  of  the  few 
Italian  prelates  ever  appointed  to  an  Irish  see,  was  a 
great  benefactor  to  his  cathedral  church,  and  he  is 
believed  to  have  erects  the  statues  and  other  carv- 
ing which  decorate  the  western  end  of  his  cathedral. 
Tms  can  hardly  be  true,  so  far  as  the  Romanesque 
doorway  is  concerned,  for  the  Romanesque  had  then 
gone  out  for  at  least  half  a  century  as  a  feature  in 
Irish  architecture,  and  given  place  to  the  pointed 
style.  It  is  said  that  he  governed  Clonfert  for  no  less 
than  30  years,  and  was  tnen  transferred  by  the  pope 
to  the  Archbishopric  of  Benevento  in  Italy,  aoout 
1296.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  John,  with  his  artistic 
Italian  tastes,  finding  in  his  diocese  a  cathedral  of  the 
best  type  of  the  Irish  Romanesque,  probably  a  hun- 
dred years  old,  did  much  to  renovate  and  decorate 
with  statuaiy  the  beautiful  building.  This  no  doubt 
would  explam  the  ancient  tradition  that  connects  his 
name  witn  the  glories  of  the  old  cathedral.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  note  in  conclusion  that  Concors,  an  Abbot 
of  Clonfert,  was  one  of  the  three  plenipotentiaries 
who  were  sent  by  Roderick  O'Conor,  the  last  King 
of  Ireland,  to  conclude  the  Treaty  of  Windsor,  in  the 
year  1175,  by  which  Roderick  renounced  forever  the 
sceptre  and  Kingdom  of  Ireland.  The  city  of  St. 
Brendan  is  now  a  vast  solitude.  The  episcopal  palace 
is  falling  into  ruinjj;  the  beautiful  church  is  there,  but 
there  is  no  resident  clergyman,  and  only  two  houses 
— that  of  the  sexton  ana  the  police  barrack. 

O'DoNOVAN.  Four  Miulers  (Dublin,  1856).  pamim;  Hbalt. 
IrdaruTs  Ancient  Schools  and  Scholara  (Dublin,  1890);  Warb* 
Harrib.  Lives  of  the  Bishops  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1739):  Abch- 
DALL,  Monasticon  Hibemicum,  ed.  Moran  (Dublin,  1873). 

John  He  alt. 

Olonmacnoise,  Abbey  and  School  of,  situated  on 
the  Shannon,  about  half  way  between  Athlone  and 
Banagher,  King's  County,  Ireland,  and  the  most  re- 
markable of  the  ancient  schools  of  Erin.  Its  founder 
was  St.  Ciaran,  sumamed  Mac  an  Tsair,  or  "  Son  of  the 
Carpenter  ",  and  thus  distinguished  from  his  namesake, 
the  patron  saint  of  Ossoty.  He  chose  this  rather  un- 
inviting region  because  he  thought  it  a  more  suitable 
dwelling-place  for  disciples  of  the  Cross  than  the  luxu- 
riant plains  not  far  away.  Ciaran  was  bom  at  Fuerty, 
County  Roscommon,  in  512,  and  in  his  early  years  was 
committed  to  the  care  of  a  deacon  named  Justus,  who 
had  baptized  him,  and  from  whose  hands  he  passed  to 
the  school  of  St.  Finnian  at  Clonard.  Here  he  met  all 
those  saintly  youths  who  with  himself  were  after- 
wards known  as  the  ^Twelve  Apostles  of  Erin",  and 
he  quickly  won  their  esteem,  when  Finnian  had  to 
absent  himself  from  the  monastery,  it  was  to  the  youth- 
ful Ciaran  that  he  deputed  his  authority  to  teach  and 
''give  out  the  prayers";  and  when  Ciauran  announced 
his  intended  departure,  Finnian  would  fain  resign  to 
him  his  cathair,  or  chair,  and  keep  him  in  Clonard.  But 
Ciaran  felt  himself  unripe  for  such  responsibility,  and 
he  knew,  moreover,  he  nad  work  to  do  dsewhere. 

After  leaving  Clonard,  Ciaran,  like  most  of  the  con- 
temporary Irish  saints,  went  to  Aran  to  commune 
with  holy  Enda.  One  night  the  two  saints  beheld 
the  same  vision,  ''of  a  ^reat  fruitful  tree,  beside  a 
stream,  in  the  middle  of  Ireland,  and  it  protected  the 
island  of  Ireland,  and  its  fruit  went  forth  over  the  sea 
that  surrounded  the  island,  and  the  birds  of  the  worid 
came  to  carry  off  somewhat  of  its  fruit".  And  when 
Ciaran  spoke  of  the  vision  to  Enda,  the  latter  said  to 
him:  "The  great  tree  which  thou  beholdest  is  thou 
thysdf ,  for  thou  art  great  in  the  eyes  of  God  and  men, 


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66 


CLOTILDA 


tnd  all  Ireland  will  be  full  of  thy  honour.  This  island 
will  be  protected  under  the  shadow  of  thy  favour,  and 
multitudes  will  be  satisfied  with  the  grace  of  thy  fast- 
ing and  prayer.  Go  then,  with  God's  word,  to  a  bank 
of  a  stream,  and  there  found  a  church."  Ciaran 
obeyed.  On  reaching  the  mainland  he  first  paid  a 
visit  to  St  Senan  ofScattery  and  then  proceeded 
towards  the  ''  middle  of  Ireland  '\  founding  on  his  way 
two  monasteries,  in  one  of  which,  on  Inis  Ainghin,  he 
6))ent  over  three  years.  Going  farther  south  he  came 
to  a  lonely  waste  by  the  Shannon,  and  seeking  out  a 
beautiful  grassy  ridge,  called  Ard  Tiprait,  or  the 
**  Height  of  the  Spring,"  he  said  to  his  companions: 
**Here  then  we  will  stay,  for  man^  souls  will  co  to 
h'^ven  hence,  and  there  will  be  a  visit  from  God  and 
horn  men  forever  on  this  place".  Thus,  on  23  Janu- 
wv,  544,  Ciaran  laid  the  foundation  of  his  monastic 
school  of  Clonmacnoise,  and  on  9  May  following  he 
witnessed  its  completion.  Diarmait,  son  of  Cerball, 
afterwards  High  King  of  Ireland,  aided  and  encouraged 
the  saint  in  every  way,  promising  him  large  grants  of 


Clonmacnqise  Abbey 

and  as  an  endowment.  Ciaran's  government  of  his 
uonastery  was  of  short  duration ;  he  was  seized  by  a 
plague  which  had  alreadv  decimated  the  saints  of  Ire- 
land, and  died  9  September,  544. 

It  is  remarkable  that  a  young  saint  dying  before  he 
was  thirty-three,  should  have  been  the  founder  of  a 
sdiool  whose  fame  was  to  endure  for  centuries.  But 
Ciaran  was  a  man  of  prayer  and  fasting  and  labour, 
trained  in  all  the  science  and  discipline  of  the  saints, 
humble  and  full  of  faith,  and  so  was  a  worthy  instru- 
ment in  the  hands  of  Providence  for  the  carrying  out 
of  a  h^  design.  St.  Cummian  of  Clonfert  calls  him 
one  of  the  Patres  Priares  of  the  Irish  Church,  and 
Alcuin,  the  most  illustrious  alumnus  of  Clomnacnoise, 
proclaims  him  the  Gloria  Gentia  Scotarum,  His  fes- 
tival is  kept  on  9  September,  and  his  shrine  is  visited 
by  many  pilgrims. 

Ciaran  left  but  little  mark  upon  the  literary  annals 
of  the  famous  school  he  founded.  But  in  the  charac- 
ter which  he  gave  it  of  a  seminary  for  a  whole  nation, 
and  not  for  a  particular  tribe  or  district,  is  to  be  found 
the  secret  of  its  success.  The  masters  were  chosen 
simply  for  their  learning  and  zeal;  the  abbots  were 
elected  almost  in  rotation  from  the  different  prov- 
inces ;  and  the  pupils  thronged  thither  from  all  parts 
of  Ireland,  as  well  as  from  the  remote  quarters  of 
France  and  England.  From  the  beginning  it  enjoyed 
the  confidence  of  the  Irish  bishops  and  the  favour  of 
kings  and  princes  who  were  happy  to  be  buried  in  its 
shadow.  In  its  sacred  clay  sleep  Diarmait  the  High 
Kine,  and  his  rival  Guaire,  King  of  Connaught;  Tur- 
lou^  O'Conor,  and  his  hapless  son,  Roderick,  the  last 
King  of  Ireland,  and  many  other  royal  benefactors, 
^  ho l>elieved  that  the  prayers  of  Ciaran  would  bring  to 
heaven  all  those  who  were  buried  there. 


But  Clonmacnoise  was  not  without  its  vicissitudes. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century  a  plague  car- 
ried off  a  large  number  of  its  students  and  professors ; 
and  in  the  eighth  century  the  monastery  was  burned 
three  times,  probably  by  accident,  for  the  buildingB 
were  mainly  of  wood.  During  the  ninth  and  ten^ 
centuries  it  was  harassed  not  only  by  the  Danes,  but 
also,  and  perhaps  mainlv,  by  some  of  the  Irish  chief- 
tains. One  of  these,  Felim  MacCriffon,  sacked  the 
monastery  three  times,  on  the  last  occasion  slaughter- 
ing the  monks,  we  are  told,  like  sheep.  Even  the 
monks  themselves  were  infected  by  the  bellicose  spirit 
of  the  times,  which  manifested  itself  not  merely  in  de- 
fensive, but  sometimes  even  in  offensive  warfare. 
These  were  evil  days  for  Clonmacnois.e,  but  with  the 
blessing  of  Ciaran,  and  under  the  "shadow  of  his  fav- 
our'', it  rose  superior  to  its  trials,  and  all  the  while 
was  the  Alma  Mater  of  saints  and  sages. 

Under  date  794,  is  recorded  the  death  of  Colgu  the 
Wise,  poet,  theologian,  and  historian,  who  is  said  to 
have  been  the  teacher  of  Alcuin  at  Clonmacnoise  (see 
CoELCHu) .     Another  alumnus  of  vast  erudition,  whose 

Savestone  may  still  be  seen  there,  was  Suibhne,  son  of 
aclume,  who  died  in  891.  He  is  described  as  the 
"wisest  and  greatest  Doctor  of  the  Scots",  and  the 
annals  of  Ulster  call  him  a  "most  excellent  scribe". 
Tighemach,  the  most  accurate  and  most  ancient  prose 
chronicler  of  the  northern  nations,  belongs  to  Clon- 
macnoise, and  probably  also  Dicuil  (q.  v.),  the  world- 
famed  geographer.  In  this  school  were  composed  the 
"Chronicon  Scotorum",  a  valuable  chronicle  of  Irish 
affairs  from  the  earliest  times  to  1135,  and  the 
"Leabhar  na  h-Uidhre",  which,  excepting  the  "Book 
of  Armagh",  is  the  oldest  Irish  historical  transcript 
now  in  existence.  In  the  twelfth  century  Clonmac- 
noise was  a  great  school  of  Celtic  art,  architecture, 
sculpture,  and  metal  work.  To  this  period  and  to 
this  school  we  owe  the  stone  crosses  of  Tuam  and 
Gong,  the  processional  cross  of  Cone,  and  perhaps  the 
Tara  Brooch  and  the  Chalice  of  Arafagh.  The  ruined 
towers  and  crosses  and  temples  are  still  to  be  seen ; 
but  there  is  no  trace  of  the  little  church  of  Ciaran 
which  was  the  nucleus  of  Clonmacnoise. 

Chronicon  Scotorum,  ed  Hbnnesst  (London,  1866):  Lives  of 
Irish  Saints  from  Book  of  Lismore^ed.  Stokes  (Oxford,  1890); 
BKAhlJrelaruTs  Ancient  SchooU  and  Scholars  (Dublin,  1890). 

John  Hbalt. 
Olomnacnoisei  Diocese  of.    See  Ardaqh. 

Olotilda  (Fr.  Clotildb;  Ger.  Chlothildb),  Saint, 
Queen  of  the  Franks,  b.  probably  at  Lyons,  c.  474;  d. 
at  Tours,  3  June,  545.  Her  feast  is  celebrated  3  June. 
Clotilda  was  the  wife  of  Clovis  I,  and  the  daughter  of 
Chilperic,  King  of  the  Burgundians  of  Lyons,  and  his 
wife  Caretena.  After  the  death  of  King  Gundovic 
(Gundioch),  the  Kingdom  of  Burgundy  had  been 
divided  among  his  four  sons,  Chilperic  reigalng  at 
Lyons,  Gondebad  at  Vienne,  and  Godegisil  at  Geneva; 
Gondemar's  capital  is  not  mentioned.  Chilperic  and 
probably  God^sil  were  Catholics,  while  Gondebad 
professed  Arianism.  Clotilda  was  given  a  religious 
training  by  her  mother  Caretena,  who,  according  to 
Sidonius  Apollinaris  and  Fortunatus  of  Poitiers,  was 
a  remarkable  woman.  After  the  death  of  Chilperic, 
Caretena  seems  to  have  made  her  home  with  Gode- 
gisil at  Geneva,  where  her  other  daughter,  Sedeleuba, 
or  Chrona,  founded  the  church  of  Saint- Victor,  and 
took  the  religious  habit.  It  was  soon  after  the  death 
of  Chilperic  that  Clovis  asked  and  obtained  the  hand 
of  Clotilda. 

From  the  sixth  century  on,  the  marriage  of  Clovis 
and  Clotilda  was  made  the  theme  of  epic  narratives, 
in  which  the  original  facts  were  materially^  altered 
and  the  various  versions  foimd  their  way  into  the 
works  of  different  Frankish  chroniclers,  e.  g.  Gr^ory 
of  Tours,  Fredegari\is,  and  the  "Liber  HfstonaB  . 
These  narratives  have  the  character  common  to  all 


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67 


OLOUET 


nuptial  poems  of  the  rude  epic  poetry  found  among 
many  ot  the  Gennamc  peoples.  Here  it  will  suffice 
to  summarize  the  legen<u  and  add  a  bVief  statement 
of  the  historical  facts.  Further  information  will  be 
found  in  special  works  on  the  subject.  The  popular 
poems  substituted  for  Kine  Godegisil,  uncle  and 
protector  oi  Clotilda,  his  brotner  Gondebad,  who  was 
represented  as  the  persecutor  of  theyoung  princess. 
Gondebad  is  supposed  to  have  slain  Chilperic, -thrown 
his  wife  into  a  well,  with  a  stone  tied  around  her  neck, 
and  exiled  her  two  daughters.  Clovis,  on  hearing  of 
the  beauty  of  Clotilda,  sent  his  friend  Aurelian,  dis- 
guised as  a  beggar,  to  visit  her  secretly,  and  give  her 
a  gold  ring  from  his  master ;  he  then  asked  Gondebad 
for  ^e  hand  of  the  yoimg  princess.  Gondebad,  fear- 
ing the  powerful  King  of  the  Franks,  dared  not  refuse, 
and  Clotilda  accompanied  Aurelian  and  his  escort  on 
their  return  journey.  They  hastened  to  reach  Frank- 
ish  territorv,  as  Clotilda  fearal  that  Aredius,  the  faith- 
ful counseUor  of  Gondebad,  on  his  return  from  Con- 
stantinople, whither  he  had  been  sent  on  a  mission, 
w^ould  influence  his  master  to  retract  his  promise. 
Her  fears  were  justified.  Shortlv  after  the  departure 
of  the  princess,  Aredius  retumea  and  caused  Gonde- 
bad to  repent  his  consent  to  the  marriage.  Troops 
were  dispatched  to  brine  Clotilda  back,  but  it  was  too 
late,  as  she  was  safe  on  Frankish  soil.  The  details  of 
tUs  recitsd  are  purely  legendary.  It  is  historically 
established  that  Chflperic's  death  was  lamented  by 
Gonddbad,  and  that  (kretena  lived  imtil  506:  she  died 
'^full  of  days'',  says  her  epitaph,  having  had  the  joy  of 
seeing  her  children  brought  up  in  the  Catholic  religion. 
Aureuan  and  Aredius  are  historical  personages, 
though  little  is  known  of  them  but  their  names,  and 
the  i^  attributed  to  them  in  the  legend  is  highly  im- 
probable. 

Clotilda,  as  wife  of  Clovis,  soon  acquired  a  great 
ascendancy  over  him,  of  which  she  availed  herself  to 
exhort  him  to  embrace  the  Catholic  Faith.  For  a  long 
time  her  efforts  were  fruitless,  though  the  king  per- 
mitted the  baptism  of  Ingomir,  their  first  son.  The 
child  died  in  ms  infancy,  which  seemed  to  give  Clovis 
an  ammient  against  the  God  of  Clotilda,  but  notwith- 
stanmng  this,  the  young  queen  a^ain  obtained  the 
consent  of  her  husband  to  the  baptism  of  their  second 
son,  Clodomir.  Thus  the  future  of  Catholicism  was 
already  assured  in  the  Frankish  Kingdom.  Clovis 
himself  was  soon  afterwards  converted  under  hig^ily 
dramatic  circiunstances,  and  was  baptized  at  Reims 
by  St.  Remieius,  in  496  (see  Clovis).  Thus  Clotilda 
acoomplished  the  mission  assigned  her  by  Providence; 
she  was  miade  the  instrument  in  the  conversion  of  a 
great  people,  who  were  to  be  for  centuries  the  leaders 
of  Catholio  civilization.  Clotilda  bore  Clovis  five 
children:  four  sons,  Ingomir,  who  died  in  infancy,  and 
Kings  Clodomir,  Chiidebert.  and  Clotaire,  and  one 
daughtei*,  named  Clotilda  after  her  mother.  Little 
more  is  known  of  Queen  Clotilda  during  the  lifetime  of 
her  husband,  but  it  may  be  oonjecturea  that  she  inter- 
ceded with  him,  at  the  time  of  his  intervention  in  the 
Quarrel  between  the  Burgundian  kings,  to  win  him  to 
me  cause  of  Godegisil  as  against  Gondebad.  The 
moderation  displayed  by  Clovis  in  this  struggle,  in 
which,  though  victor,  he  did  not  seek  to  turn  the  vio- 
torv  to  his  own  advantage,  as  well  as  the  ediiance 
which  he  afterwards  concluded  with  Gondebad,  were 
doubtless  due  to  the  influence  of  Clotilda,  who  must 
have  viewed  the  fratricidal  struggle  with  norror. 

Clovis  died  at  Paris  in  511,  and  Clotilda  had  him 
intcfred  on  what  was  then  Mons  Lucotetius,  in  the 
churdi  of  the  Apostles  (later  Sainte-Genevi^ve),  which 
thev  had  buflt  together  to  serve  as  a  mausoleum,  and 
whidi  Qotflda  was  left  to  complete.  The  widowhood 
of  tiuB  noble  woman  was  saadened  by  cruel  trials. 
Her  son  Clodomir^  son-in-law  of  Gondebad,  made  war 
Bgainst  his  oousm  Sigismimd,  who  had  succeeded 
Qondebad  on  the  throne  of  Burgundy,  captured  him. 


and  put  him  to  death  with  his  wife  and  children  at 
Coulmiers,  near  Orleans.  According  to  the  popular 
epic  of  the  Franks,  he  was  incited  to  this  war  by  Clo- 
tuda,  who  thought  to  avenge  upon  Sigismund  the 
murder  of  her  parents;  but,  as  has  alreadv  been  seen, 
Clotilda  had  nothing  to  avenge,  and,  on  the  contrary, 
it  was  probably  she  who  arranged  the  alliance  between 
Clovis  and  Crondebad.  Here  the  legend  is  at  vari- 
ance with  the  truth,  cruelly  defaming  the  memory  of 
Qotilda,  who  had  the  sorrow  of  seeing  Clodomir  perish 
in  his  unholy  war  on  the  Burgundians;  he  was  van- 
quished and  slain  in  the  battle  of  Vesenintia  (V&se- 
ronce).  in  524,  by  Godomar,  brother  of  Sigismund. 
Clotilda  took  under  her  care  his  three  sons  of  tender 
age.  Theodoald,  Gunther,  and  Clodoald.  Chiidebert 
ana  Clotaire,  however,  who  had  divided  between  them 
the  inheritance  of  their  elder  brother,  did  not  wish  the 
children  to  live,  to  whom  later  on  they  would  have  to 
render  an  account.  By  means  of  a  ruse  they  with- 
drew the  children  from  the  watchful  care  of  their 
mother  and  slew  the  two  eldest;  the  third  escaped 
and  entered  a  cloister,  to  which  he  gave  his  name 
(Saint-Cloud,  near  Paris). 

The  grief  of  Clotilda  was  so  great  that  Paris  became 
insupportable  to  her,  and  she  withdrew  to  Tours, 
where  close  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Martin,  to  whom  she 
had  great  devotion,  she  spent  the  remainder  of  her  life 
in  prayer  and  good  works.  But  there  were  trials  still 
in  store  for  her.  Her  daughter  Clotilda,  wife  of 
Amalaric,  the  Visigothic  king,  being  cruelly  mal- 
treated bv  her  husband,  appealed  for  help  to  her 
brother  Chiidebert.  He  went  to  her  rescue  and  de- 
feated Amalaric  in  a  battle,  in  which  the  latter  was 
killed;  Clotflda,  however,  died  on  the  journey  home, 
exhausted  by  the  hardships  she  had  endured.  Fi- 
nally, as  though  to  crown  the  long  martyrdom  of  Clo- 
tilda, her  two  sole  surviving  sons,  Chiidebert  and  Clo- 
taire, began  to  quarrel,  and  engaged  in  serious  warfare. 
Clotaire,  closely  pursued  by  Chiidebert,  who  had  been 
joined  by  Theodebert,  son  of  Thierry  I,  took  refuge  in 
the  forest  of  Brotonne,  in  Normandy,  where  he  feared 
that  he  and  his  army  would  be  exterminated  by  the 
superior  forces  of  his  adversaries.  Then,  says  Gregory 
of  Tours,  Clotilda  threw  herself  on  her  knees  before 
the  tomb  of  St.  Martin,  and  besought  him  with  tears 
during  the  whole  ni^t  not  to  permit  another  fratri- 
cide to  afflict  the  family  of  Clovis.  Suddenly  a  fright- 
ful tempest  arose  and  dispersed  the  two  armies  which 
were  about  to  engage  in  a  nand-to-hand  struggle ;  thus, 
says  the  chronicler,  did  the  saint  answer  the  prayers 
of  the  afflicted  mother.  This  was  the  last  of  Clotilda's 
trials.  Rich  in  virtues  and  good  works,  after  a  widow- 
hood of  thirty-f  oiu"  years,  during  which  she  lived  more 
as  a  religious  than  as  a  queen,  she  died  and  was  buried 
in  Paris,  in  the  church  of  the  Apostles,  beside  her  hus- 
band and  children. 

The  life  of  Saint  Clotilda,  the  principal  episodes  of 
which,  both  legendary  and  historic,  are  found  scat- 
tered throughout  the  chronicle  of  St.  Gregory  of  Tours, 
was  written  in  the  tenth  century,  by  an  anonymous 
author,  who  gathered  his  facts  principally  from  this 
source.  At  an  early  period  she  was  venerated  by  the 
Church  as  a  saint,  and  whOe  popular  contemporary 
poetry  disfigures  her  noble  personality  by  making  her 
a  type  of  a  savage  fury,  Clotilda  has  now  entered  into 
the  possession  of  a  pure  and  untarnished  fame,  which 
no  legend  will  be  able  to  obscure. 

Vita  Clotildia  in  Acta  SxS„  June,  I,  also  in  Script,  rerum  MtrO' 
vingicarum,  II;  Kurth.  Lrs  »ourcea  de  Vhist.  de  Clovi*  dam 
GrSgoirt  de  Tours  in  Rev.  des  quest,  hist.  (Paris,  1888);  Idem,  Les 
sources  de  Vhist.  de  Clovis  dans  FrMiqaire,  ibid.,  1800;  Idem, 
Clovis  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1001);  Idem.  SairOe  ClotOde  (8th  ed., 
Paris,  1905).  GODEFROID   KURTH. 

Olouet,  the  family  name  of  several  generations  of 
painters.  • 

I.  Jean  (Jean  the  Yoitngbr),  b.  at  Tours,  France, 
1485:  d.,  probably  at  Paris,  between  1541  and  1646. 


OLomnKE 


68 


0LOVE8HO 


He  was  the  son  and  pupil  of  Jean  the  Elder,  a  Flemish 
painter  who  went  to  Paris  from  Brussels  in  1460  and 
afterwards  settled  at  Tours.  Francis  I  made  the  son 
court  painter  at  Paris,  and,  in  1518,  a  valet  de  chambre, 
a  post  of  distinction.  The  court  called  him  familiarly 
''Janet",  a  name  which  bcNcame  eeneric,  comprising 
his  father,  his  son  Francois,  and  their  numerous  imi- 
tators.   Konsard  sang: 

Peins  moy,  Janet,  peins  moy  je  t'en  supplie. 
His  numerous  portraits  of  royalty  and  nobuity  are  all 
in  the  anticjue,  or  Gothic,  style,  like  that  of  the  Van 
Eycks.  His  outlines  are  sharp  and  precise,  all  the 
lines  are  clear,  and  he  gives  great  attention  to  details. 
Glouet  painted  his  sitter  with  fidelity  and  avoided  the- 
atrical (Italian)  effects,  hence  the  result  is  a  portrait, 
simple,  reticent,  and  naive.  Much  of  his  work  was 
until  recently  attributed  to  Holbein.  In  1524  he 
painted  the  celebrated  portrait  of  Francis  I  in  full 
armour  on  horseback,  and  in  1528  another,  a  life-size 
bust  (now  at  Versailles),  long  ascribed  to  Mabuse. 
Some  authorities  claim  that  of  his  many  pictures  only 
one  is  authentic:  the  portrait  of  Francis  I  in  the 
Louvre.  Other  notable  works  of  Clouet's  are  "Elea- 
nor of  Spain"  (wife  of  Francis  I)  in  Hampton  Court, 
and  "Margaret  of  Valois"  in  Liverpool. 

11.  Francois,  called  Francois  Janet  and  MaItre 
Jehannet,  b.  probably  at  Tours,  between  1500  and 
1520;  d.  at  Paris,  between  1570  and  1580.  He  was 
the  son  and  pupil  of  Jean  the  Younger  and  was  natur- 
alized in  1541.  At  the  age  of  thirty-five  he  succeeded 
his  father  as  court  painter  to  Francis  I,  to  whom  he 
was  also  appointed  a  valet  de  chambre.  Francois  was 
also  court  painter  to  Charles  IX,  at  the  close  of  whose 
reign  all  traces  of  him  disappear.  Clouet's  work  in 
oil,  while  Flemish  in  its  scrupulous  attention  to  de- 
tails, is,  however,  distinctively  French,  and  he  carried 
to  its  highest  the  fame  of  "the  Janets".  He  was  the 
last  of  the  French  primUifs.  His  pictures  are  painted 
solidly,  in  pale,  deUcate  tones,  and  without  chiaro- 
scuro. Clouet's  portraits  are  true,  accurate,  and  de- 
void of  sentimentality ;  they  show  forth  the  moral  and 
intellectual  qualities  of  each  sitter;  and  thi^  "have 
the  charm  of  irUime  painting"  (Blanc).  iVo  por- 
traits of  ereat  brilliancy  and  distinction  are  the 
"Francis  II  as  a  Child"  (1547)  now  at  Antwerp,  and 
"Henry  II"  (1553)  in  the  Louvre;  but  Berlin  pos- 
sesses what  are,  perhaps,  his  masterpieces:  "Francis 
II"  and  the  "Due  d'  Anjou"  (Henry  III).  Clouet's 
office  required  him  to  depict  every  great  court  func- 
tion, ana  as  late  as  1709  such  a  eroup  of  pictures  was 
in  existence.  He  made  many  sketcnes  in  black  and 
red  chalk,  showing  perfect  draughtsmanship  and 
splendid  modelling.  Castle  Howard  contains  eighty- 
eight  such  drawines,  all  in  the  manner  of  Holbein. 
Clouet  also  painted  miniatures;  that  of  greatest  his- 
torical interest  is  "Mary  Queen  of  Scots"  (Windsor 
Castle),  which  has  never  been  out  of  royal  possession 
since  catalogued,  in  the  time  of  Charles,  as  "  oy  Jennet 
a  French  limner".  It  is  probably  the  only  authentic 
picture  of  the  unhappy  Mary.  Clouet's  work  was 
highly  valued  during  nis  lifetime,  and  he  was  a  power 
at  the  courts  of  Francis  I,  Henry  II,  Francis  II,  and 
Charles  IX.  The  brilliant  men  and  women  about 
these  monarehs  felt  that  "the  Janets"  had  elevated 
art  and  France.  To-day  their  pictures  are  so  highly 
prized  that  man^  forgeries  are  made  of  them.  Be- 
sides those  mentioned,  other  great  canvases  by  Fran- 
yois  are  "Elizabeth  of  Austria",  "Charles  IX",  both 
m  the  Louvre,  and  four  portraits  in  Stafford  House 
(London).  Collections  oi  his  drawings  are  in  the 
Louvre,  British  Museum,  and  Albertina  Museum 
(Vienna). 

GowER,  Tkrte  Hundred  Portraits  by  Clouet  at  Castle  Howard 
(London,  1875);  Bouchot.  Les  Clouet  et  CometUe  (Paris,  1892); 
DE  Labordb,  La  Renaissance  h  la  Cour  de  Fraruse  (Paris,  \^S6- 
65);  Charles  IX  et  FrtmQois  Clouet  in  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes 
(Dec.,  1885);  Pattxbon,  Renaissance  of  Art  in  France  (London, 

w79).  Leioh  Hitnt. 


Oloutier,  F.-X.    See  Three  Rivebs,  Diocese  or. 

OloTosho,  Councils  of. — Cloveaho,  or  Clofeshoch, 
is  notable  as  the  place  at  which  were  held  sev^nl  coun- 
cils of  the  An^o-Saxon  Chureh.  The  locality  itself 
has  never  been  successfully  identified.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  been  in  Mereia,  and  probably  near  LondcMi 
CBede,  ed.  Flummer,  II,  214).  Lingard,  in  his  appen- 
dix to  the  "  Antiq[uities  of  the  An^o-Saxon  CSiurch '  \ 
takes  it  to  be  Abingdon,  and  Kemble  (Saxons  in  Eng- 
land, II,  191)  to  De  Tewkesbury,  and  others  have 
thoujght  it  might  be  Clifif-at>Hoo,  in  Kent^  but  Had- 
dan  and  Stubos  (Councils,  III,  121,  n.)  consider  all 
these  conjectures  to  be  based  uj^n  unreliaUe  evi- 
dence. Whatever  imcertainty  exists  in  determining 
the  place  which  was  known  as  Clovesho,  th^  is  no 
doubt  as  to  the  fact  of  the  councils  or  to  the  authen- 
ticity of  their  Acts.  When  Arehbishop  Hieodore  held 
the  Councfl  of  Hertford  in  673,  in  wmch  he  declared 
to  the  assembled  bishops  that  he  had  been  "  appointed 
by  the  Apostolic  See  to  be  Bishop  of  the  Cnurdi  of 
C&nterbury '',  a  canon  was  passed  to  the  effect  that  in 
future  yearly  avnods  should  be  held  every  August  "  in 
the  place  which  is  called  Clofeshoch".  (Bede,  H.  E., 
IV,  ch.  V.)  Notwithstanding  this  provision,  it  was 
not  until  seven^  years  later  that  the  first  Council  of 
Clovesho  of  which  we  have  an  authentic  reocnxl  was 
assembled.  It  is  true  that  in  the  Canterbury  Cartu- 
lary there  is  a  charter  which  says  that  the  Privilege  of 
Kinf  Wihtred  to  the  churehes  was  "confirmed  and 
ratified  in  a  synod  held  in  the  month  of  July  in  a  place 
called  Clovesho''  in  the  year  716;  but  the  authen- 
ticity of  this  document,  thaush  intrinsically  probable, 
is  held  by  Haddan  ana  Stubbs  to  be  dependent  upon 
^that  of  the  Privilege  of  Wihtred.  The  oouncilB  of 
Clovesho  of  which  we  have  authentic  evidence  are 
those  of  the  years  742,  747,  794,  708,  803,  824,  and 
825. 

(1)  The  Council  of  Clovesho  in  742  was  presided 
over  by  Ethelbald,  King  of  Mereia,  and  Cfuthbert, 
Arehbishop  of  Canterbury.  Accordins  to  the  record 
of  its  proceedings  (given  in  Kemble's^' Codex  Diplo- 
maticus  iEvi  Saxonici",  87),  the  council  ''diligently 
enquired  into  the  needs  of  religion,  the  Oeed  as  de- 
livered by  the  ancient  teaching  of  the  Fathers,  and 
carefully  examined  how  things  were  ordered  at  the 
first  beginning  of  the  Chureh  here  in  Knriand,  and 
where  the  honour  of  the  monasteries  according  to  the 
rules  of  justice  was  maintained''.  The  mvilege  of 
King  Wihtred  assuring  the  libertv  of  the  Chiutsh  was 
solemnly  confirmed.  Beyond  this,  no  mention  is 
made  of  particular  provisions. 

(2)  The  Second  Coimcil  of  Clovesho,  in  747,  was  one 
of  the  most  important  in  the  history  of  the  Ang^o- 
Saxon  Church.  Its  acts  were  happily  copied  by  Spel- 
man  (Coimcils,  I,  240)  from  an  andent  Cottonian 
MS.  now  lost.  They  are  printed  in  Wilkins,  I,  94;  in 
Mansi,  XII,  395;  and  in  Haddan  and  Stubbs,  III, 
360.  They  state  that  the  council  was  composed  of 
''bishops  and  dienitaries  of  less  degree  from  the  vari- 
ous provinces  of  Britain"^  and  that  it  was  presided 
over  by  Cuthbert,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Ac- 
cording to  the  MS.  preserved  by  William  of  Malmea- 
bury,  ''King  Ethelbald  and  his  princes  and  chiefs 
were  present".  It  was  thus  substantially  represen- 
tative of  the  Ando-Saxon  Chureh.  The  Acts  rdate 
that  "first  of  all,  the  Metropolitan,  as  president, 
brought  forth  in  their  midst  two  letters  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Lord,  Pope  Zachary,  venerated  throughout  the 
whole  world,  and  with  great  care  these  were  ]dainly 
read,  and  also  openly  translated  into  our  own  lan- 
guage, according  as  ne  himself  by  his  Apostolic  au- 
thority had  commanded".  The  papal  letters  are 
described  as  containing  a  fervent  admonition  to 
amendment  of  life,  addressed  to  the  English  people 
of  every  rank  and  condition,  and  reouiring  tiiat  those 
who  contemned  these  warmngs  ana  remained  obsti- 


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OLOVIO 


OLOVIO 


Date  in  their  malioe  should  be  punished  by  sentence  of 
ezoommunication.  The  council  then  drew  up  thirty- 
one  canons  dealing  mostly  with  matters  of  eodesias* 
tical  discipline  and  litur^. 

The  thirteenth  and  nfteenth  canons  are  note- 
worthy as  sbowinft  the  dose  union  of  the  An^o-Saxon 
Churcn  with  the  Boly  See.  The  thirteenth  canon  is: 
'"That  all  the  most  sacred  Festivals  of  Our  Lord 
made  Man,  in  all  things  pertaining  to  the  same,  viz. :  in 
the  Office  of  Baptism,  the  celebration  of  Masses,  in 
the  method  of  chanting;  shall  be  celebrated  in  one 
and  the  same  way,  namdy,  according  to  the  sample 
which  we  have  received  in  writing  from  the  Roman 
Church.  And  also,  throughout  the  course  of  the 
whole  year,  the  festivals  of  the  Saints  are  to  be  kept 
on  one  and  the  same  day,  with  their  proper  psalmody 
and  chant,  according  to  the  Martyrology  of  the  same 
Roman  Church."  The  fifteenth  canon  adds  that  in 
the  seven  hours  of  the  daily  and  nightly  Office  the 
dergy  "must  not  dare  to  smg  or  read  anything  not 
sanctioned  by  the  general  use,  but  only  that  which 
comes  down  liy  authority  of  Holy  Scripture,  and 
which  the  usage  of  the  Roman  Church  allows''.  The 
sixteenth  canon  in  like  manner  requires  that  the 
litanies  and  roeationa  are  to  be  observed  by  the  derpy 
and  people  with  great  reverence  '*  aooordiiuz  to  the  nte 
of  the  Roman  Church".  The  feasts  of  St.  Gr 
and  of  St.  Augustine,  "who  was  sent  to  the  '. 
people  by  our  said  Pope  and  father  St.  Oregoiy '^  were 
to  be  solemnly  cdebrated.  The  dergy  ana  monks 
were  to  live  so  as  to  be  always  prepared  to  receive 
worthily  the  most  holy  Body  and  Blood  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  laity  were  to  be  exhorted  to  the  practice  of 
frequent  Communion  (Canons  xxii,  xxiii).  Persons 
who  did  not  know  Latin  were  to  join  in  thepsalmody  by 
intention,  and  were  to  be  taught  to  say,  m  the  Saxon 
tonsue^  prayers  for  the  living  or  for  the  repose  of  the 
soulsot  the  aead  (Can.  xxvii).  Neither  dersy  nor  monks 
were  in  future  to  be  allowea  to  live  in  the  houses  of  the 
people  ((}an.  xxix),  nor  were  they  to  adopt  or  imitate 
the  dress  which  is  worn  by  the  laity  (Can.  xxviii). 

(3)  The  record  of  the  Council  of  Qovesho  in  794 
consists  merdy  in  a  charter  by  which  Offa,  King  of 
Mercia,  made  a  grant  of  land  for  pious  purposes. 
The  charter  states  thi^t  it  has  been  drawn  up  "m  the 
general  synodal  Council  in  the  most  cdebrated  place 
called  Qofedioas".  At  or  about  the  time  when  the 
papal  lesates  i>resided  at  the  Councfl  of  Chelsea  in  787. 
Offa  haa  obtained  from  Pope  Adrian  I  that  Lichfield 
should  be  created  an  archbishopric  and  that  the 
Merdan  sees  should  be  subjectea  to  its  jurisdiction 
and  withdrawn  from  that  of  Canterbury.  Conse- 
quently at  this  Coimcil  of  Qovesho  in  794,  Hiffbert  of 
Lichfield,  to  whom  the  pope  had  sent  the  pajl,  signs 
as  an  ardxbishop. 

(4)  A  council  was  hdd  at  Clovesho  in  798  by  Arch- 
bidiop  Ethdheard  with  Kenulph,  King  of  Mercia,  at 
which  the  bishops  and  abbots  and  chief  men  of  the 
province  were  present.  Its  proceedings  are  related  in 
a  document  by  Archbishop  Ethelheard  (Lambeth 
MS.  1212,  p.  312;  Haddan  and  Stubbs,  III.  612).  He 
states  that  his  firet  care  was  to  examine  diligently  "  in 
what  way  the  (Catholic  Faith  was  hdd  ana  how  the 
Christian  rdigion  waft  practised  amongst  them".  To 
this  inquiiy,  they  all  replied  with  one  voice:  'Be  it 
known  to  your  Paternity,  that  even  as  it  was  for^ 
meily  delivered  to  us  by  the  Holy  Roman  and  Apostolic 
See.  uy  the  mission  of  the  most  Blessed  Pope  (irw>ry, 
80  GO  we  bdieve,  and  what  we  bdieve,  we  in  all  sin- 
cerity do  our  best  to  put  into  practice.'"  The  rest 
ci  the  time  of  the  council  was  devoted  to  questions  of 
church  property,  and  an  agreement  of  exchange  of 
certain  lanos  between  the  archbishop  and  the  Abbess 
Pynedritha. 

(5)  The  Council  of  Clovesho  in  803  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  the  series,  as  its  Acts  contain  the  dec- 
laration of  the  restitution  of  the  Mercian  sees  to  the 


nrovince  of  Cantert>ui7  bv  the  authority  of  F6pe  Leo 
III.  In  798  King  Kenulph  of  Mercia  addreraed  to 
the  pope  a  Ions  letter,  written  as  he  says  **  with  great 
affection  and  humili^",  representing  the  disadvan- 
tages 0^  the  new  archbishopnc  vriuch  had  been  erected 
at  lichfidd  some  sixteen  years  previously  by  Pope 
Adrian,  at  the  prayer  of  Kmg  Offa.  King  Kenulph 
in  this  letter  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  III,  521)  submits 
the  whole  case  to  the  pope,  asking  his  blessing  and 
saying:  **  I  love  you  as  one  who  is  my  father,  and  I  em* 
brace  you  with  the  whole  strength  of  my  obedience", 
and  promising  to  abide  in  all  things  by  his  decision. 
**  I  judge  it  fitting  to  bend  humbly  the  ear  of  our  obe- 
dience to  your  holy  commands,  and  to  fulfil  with  all 
our  strength  whatever  may  seem  to  your  Holiness  that 
we  oug^t  to  do."  Ethdheard,  Ardnbishop  of  Canter^ 
buiy,  went  himself  to  Rome,  and  pleaded  for  the  resti- 
tution of  the  sees.  In  802  Pope  Leo  III  granted  the 
petition  of  the  king  and  the  arohbishop,  and  issued  to 
the  latter  a  Bull  in  which  by  the  authority  of  Blessed 
Peter  he  restored  to  him  the  full  jurisdiction  enjoyed 
by  his  predecessors  The  pope  communicated  this 
judgment  in  a  letter  to  King  Kenulph  (Haddan  and 
Stuobs,  III,  638).  This  decision  was  duly  proclaimed 
in  the  Council  of  Clovesho  hdd  in  the  following  year. 
Ardibishop  Ethelheard  declared  to  the  synod  that 
"by  the  co-operation  of  CSod  and  of  the  Apostolio 
Lord,  the  Pope  Leo",  he  and  his  fdlow-bishops  unani- 
mously ratified  the  ri^ts  of  the  See  of  Canterbury, 
and  tnat  an  archbishopric  should  never  more  oe 
founded  at  Lichfidd,  and  that  the  |;rant  of  the  pallium 
made  by  Pope  Adrian,  should,  **  with  the  consent  and 
permission  of  the  Apostolic  Lord  Pope  Adrian,  be 
considered  as  null,  having  been  obtained  surrepti- 
tioudy  and  by  evil  suggestion".  Higbert,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Lichfidd,  submitted  to  the  papal  judgment, 
and  retired  into  a  monastexj,  and  the  Mercian  sees  re- 
turned to  the  jurisdiction  of  Canterbury. 

(6-7)  In  824  and  again  in  825  synoos  were  hdd  at 
Qovesho,  ''Beomwulf,  Kingof  Mercia,  presiding  and 
the  Venerable  Archbishop  Wulf red  ruling  and  con- 
trolling the  Synod",  according  to  the  record  of  the 
firat,  and  "  Wiuf  red  the  Archbishop  presiding,  and  also 
Beomwulf ,  Kmg  of  Mercia",  according  to  the  second. 
The  first  assembly  was  occupied  in  deciding  a  suit 
concerning  an  inheritance,  and  the  second  in  termina- 
ting a  dispute  between  the  archbishop  and  the  Abbess 
Cwenthryiha  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  III,  593,  506). 

It  is  evident  from  the  records  that  the  councils  hdd 
at  Qovedio  and  those  generally  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
period  were  mixed  assemblies  at  which  not  only  the 
oishops  and  abbots^  but  the  kings  of  Mercia  and  the 
chief  men  of  the  kingdom  were  present.  Th^  had 
thus  the  character  not  onlv  of  a  church  synod  out  of 
the  Witenagemot  or  assembly  fairly  representative  of 
the  Church  and  realm.  The  affairs  of  the  C^urdi 
were  decided  by  the  bishops  presided  over  by  the  arch- 
bishop, while  the  king,  presiding  over  his  chiefs,  gave 
to  their  decisions  the  oo-operation  and  acceptance  of 
the  State.  Both  parties  signed  the  decrees,  but  there 
is  no  evidence  of  any  ingerence  of  the  lay  power  in  the 
spiritual  legislation  or  judgments  of  the  Church. 
While  it  must  be  remembered  that  at  this  period  the 
country  was  not  yet  united  mto  one  kingdom,  the 
councils  of  Clovesho,  as  far  as  we  may  judge  from 
their  signatures,  represented  the  primatial  See  of 
Canterbury  and  the  whole  English  Church  south  of 
the  Humfcier. 

Kemblb,  Codex  DiplomaHcua  /Bvi  Saxoniei  (London,  1899- 
48);  THOBPsed..  T^  AmfioSaxon  Chnmide  (London.  1861): 
Bbdb,  Hiatoria  Bed.  Oentu  Anglorum,  ed.  Plummbb  (Oxford, 
1896);  WiuciNB,  ConcUia  Mamas  Britannia  (Londoa  1737); 
Haddan  and  Stubbs,  CouneUa  and  Bcdenaatical  DoeumetUa 
(Oxford,  1869-78);  Spelman,  Concilia,  decreia,  tU.^  tn  rs 
eceUaiarum  oHna  Britannici  (London,  1639-64). 

J.  MOTBgi 

Oloyio,  OiORGio  (known  as  Giulio),  a  famous 
Italian  miniaturist,  called  by  Vasari  "the  unique*' 


OLOVIS 


70 


OLOVIS 


aad  ^little  Bfiohelangelo",  b.  at  Grisam,  on  the 
coast  of  Croatia,  in  140S;  d.  at  Rome,  1578.  Hib 
family  appear  to  have  come  from  Macedonia,  and  his 
original  name  was  perhaps  Glovi^S.  CJoming  to  Italy 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  he  soon  won  renown,  and  be^ 
came  a  prot^  of  Cardinal  Grimani,  for  whom  he 
engraved  medals  and  seals.  One  of  his  first  pictures 
was  a  Madonna  after  an  engraving  by  Albert  Darer. 
In  1524  Clovio  was  at  BuobEi,  at  the  court  of  Kinff 
Louis  II,  for  whom  he  painted  the  "  Judgment  of  Paris  " 
and  "  Lucretia".  In  1526  he  returned  to  Rome,  and 
a  year  later,  falling;  into  the  hands  of  the  Constable 
Botirbon's  banditti,  he  made  a  vow  to  enter  religion 
if  he  could  escape  from  them.  He  accordingly  took 
orders  at  Mantua,  and  illustrated  several  manu* 
scripts  for  his  convent,  adopting  in  religion  the  name 
Giulio,  perhaps  in  memoiy  of  Giulio  Romano,  who 
had  been  one  of  his  early  advisers.  Thanks  to  the 
intervention  of  Cardinal  Grimani,  he  was  soon  re- 
leased from  his  vows,  and  spent  several  years  in  the 
service  of  this  prelate,  for  wnom  he  executed  some  of 
his  most  beautiful  works — a  Latin  missal,  1537  (in 
Lord  Hertford's  collection),  and  a  Petrarch  (in  the 
Trivulzio  Library  at  Milan).  He  was  at  Venice  in 
1538,  but  in  1540  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  Pope 
Paul  III.  Cosimo  II  then  lured  him  to  Tuscany, 
and  princes  disputed  over  his  achievements.  Phihp 
II  oraered  from  Clovio  a  life  of  his  father,  Charles  V, 
in  twelve  soence,  and  John  III  of  Portugal  paid  him 
2000  ducats  for  a  psalter,  but  a  pra^rer  book  which  he 
made  for  Cardinal  Famese,  ancf  which  Vasari  calls  a 
"divine  work",  was  considered  Clovio's  masterpiece. 
The  binding  was  made  after  a  desien  by  Cellini. 
Clovio  died  in  Rome  at  the  age  of  eijghty;  his  tomb 
is  to  be  seen  in  the  church  of  San  Pietro  in  Vincoll, 
and  his  works  are  preserved  in  all  the  'libraries  of 
Europe,  especially  tnat  of  the  Vatican. 

This  famous  artist,  although  one  of  the  most  liighly 
esteemed  in  his  own  line,  was  nevertheless  among 
those  who  helped  to  injure  it.  By  intnxiucing  into 
it  the  ideas  and  monumental  style  of  the  Renaissance 
and  replacing  rich  costumes,  delicate  arabesques,  and 
Gothic  foliage  by-  the  nude,  by  antique  ornaments, 
trophies,  medallions,  festoons,  etc.,  Clovio  contributed 
largely  to  the  decadence  of  the  charming  art  of  minia- 
ture-painting, and  his  example  of  extreme  elaboration 
was  imitated  throughout  Europe  at  a  time  when  print* 
ing  had  not  yet  supplanted  manuscripts  for  ^tions  de 
hixe.  However  sumptuous  his  work,  it  lacked  the 
quality  which  distinguished  that  done  by  the  French 
iiluininators  at  an  earlier  period  for  Charies  V  and  the 
Due  de  Berry. 

Vasabx  (ed.  MII.AN1C8I);  Sakcinskx,  Le6e»  des  Giulio  Clovio 
(Agram,  1S52);  Id.,  Georg  Clovio  (Agram,  1878);  Bertolotti, 

I  Giulio  Clovio,  principe  dei  miniatori  (Modena,  1882). 

Louis  Gillet. 


(Agra 
thni 


Oloyis  (Chlodwio,  or  Chlodowech),  son  of  Chil- 
deric.  King  of  the  Salic  Franks,  b.  in  the  year  466 ;  d.  at 
Paris,  27  November,  51 1.  He  succeeded  his  father  as 
King  of  the  Franks  of  Toumai  in  481.  His  kingdom 
was  probably  one  of  the  States  that  sprang  from  the 
division  of  Clodion's  monarchy,  like  those  of  Cambrai, 
Tongres,  and  Cologne.  Although  a  pagan,  Childeric 
had  Kept  up  friendly  relations  with  the  bishops  of 
Gaul,  and  when  Clovis  ascended  the  throne  he  re- 
ceived a  most  cordial  letter  of  congratulation  from 
St.  Remigius,  Archbishop  of  Reims.  The  young  king 
early  began  his  course  of  conquest  by  attacking  Sya- 
grius,  son  of  iGgidius  the  Roman  Count.  Having  es- 
tablished himself  at  Soissons,  he  acquired  sovereign 
authority  over  so  great  a  part  of  Northern  Gaul  as  to 
be  known  to  his  contemporaries  as  the  King  of  Sois- 
sons. Syagrius,  being  defeated,  fled  for  protection 
to  Alaric  II,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  but  the  latter, 
alarmed  by  a  summons  from  Clovis,  delivered  Sya- 
grius  to  his  conquoror,  who  had  liim  decapitated  in 


486.  Clovis  then  remained  master  of  the  dommioius 
of  Syagrius  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Soissons.  It 
would  seem  as  if  the  episode  of  the  celebrated  vase  of 
Soissons  were  an  incident  of  the  campaign  against 
Sya^us,  and  it  proves  that,  although  a  pagan,  Clovis 
oontmued  his  father's  policy  by  remaining  on  amica- 
ble terms  with  the  Gaulish  episcopate.  The  vase, 
taken  by  the  Frankish  soldiers  while  plundering  a 
church,  formed  part  of  the  booty  that  was  to  be  di- 
vided amon^  the  army.  It  was  claimed  by  the  bisho)> 
(St.  Remigius?),  and  the  king  sought  to  have  *it 
awarded  to  himself  in  order  to  return  it  intact  to  th^ 
bishop,  but  a  dissatisfied  soldier  split  the  vase  with  his 
battle-axe,  sa3ring  to  the  king:  '*  You  will  get  only  the 
share  allotted  you  by  fate. "  Clovis  did  not  openly  re- 
sent the  insult,  but  the  following  year,  when  review- 
ing his  army,  he  came  upon  this  same  soldier  and,  re* 
proving  him  for  the  defective  condition  of  his  arms,  ho 
split  his  skull  with  an  axe,  saying:  "  It  was  thus  that 
you  treated  the  Soissons  vase."  ThiB  incident  has 
often  been  cited  to  show  that,  although  in  time  of  war 
a  long  has  unlimited  authority  over  his  army,  after 
the  war  his  power  is  restricted,  and  that  in  the  divis- 
ion of  booty  the  rights  of  the  soldiers  must  be  re- 
spected. 

After  the  defeat  of  Syagrius,  Clovis  extended  his 
dominion  as  far  as  the  Loire.  It  was  owing  to  the  as- 
sistance given  him  by  the  Gaulish  episoopate  that  he 
gained  possession  of  the  country.  The  bishops,  it  is 
quite  certain,  mapped  out  the  reeime  that  afterwards 
prevailed.  Unlike  that  adopted  in  other  barbarian 
kingdoms  founded  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, this  regime  established  absolute  equality  be- 
tween the  Gallo-Roman  natives  and  their  Germanic 
conquerors,  all  sharing  the  same  privileges.  Proeo- 
pius,  a  Byzantine  writer,  has  given  us  an  idea  of  this 
agreement,  but  we  know  it  best  by  its  results.  There 
was  no  distribution  of  Gaulish  territory  by  the  vic- 
tors;  established  in  the  Belgian  provinces,  they  had 
lands  there  to  which  they  returned  after  each  cam- 
paign. All  the  free  men  in  the  kingdom  of  Clovis, 
whether  they  Were  of  Roman  or  of  Germanic  origin, 
called  themselves  Franks,  and  we  must  guard  against 
the  old  mistake  of  looking  upon  the  Franks  after  Cle- 
vis as  no  more  than  Germanic  barbarians. 

Master  of  half  of  Gaul,  Clovis  returned  to  Helium 
and  conquered  the  two  Salic  kingdoms  of  Cambrai  and 
Tongres  (?),  where  his  cousins  j^tgnacaire  and  Chara- 
ric  reigned.  These  events  have  l>een  made  known  to 
us  only  through  the  poetic  tradition  of  the  Franks, 
which  has  singularly  distorted  them.  According  to 
this  tradition  Clovis  called  upon  Chararic  to  assist  him 
in  his  war  aeainst  Syagrius,  but  Chararic 's  attitude 
throughout  &e  battle  was  most  suspicious,  as  he  re- 
frained from  taking  sides  until  he  saw  which  of  the 
rivals  was  to  be  victorious.  Clovis  longed  to  have  re- 
venge. Through  a  ruse  he  obtained  possession  of 
Chararic  and  his  son  and  threw  them  into  prison; 
he  then  had  their  heads  shaved,  and  both  were  or- 
dained, the  father  to  the  priesthood  and  the  son  to  the 
diaconate.  When  Chararic  bemoaned  and  wept  over 
this  humiliation  his  son  exclaimed:  "The  leaves  of  a 
green  tree  have  been  cut,  but  they  will  ciuickly  bud 
forth  again;  may  he  who  has  done  this  pensh  as 
quickly!"  This  remark  was  reported  to  Clovis,  and 
he  had  both  father  and  son  beheaded. 

lYadition  goes  on  to  say  that  Ragnacaire,  King  of 
Cambrai,  was  a  man  of  such  loose  morals  that  he 
hardly  respected  his  own  kindred,  and  Farron,  his 
favourite,  was  equally  licentious.  So  great  was  the 
king's  infatuation  for  this  man  that,  if  given  a  present, 
he  would  accept  it  for  himself  and  his  Farron.  This 
filled  his  subjects  with  indignation  and  Clovis,  to  win 
them  over  to  his  side  before  taking  the  field,  dmtrib- 
uted  among  them  money,  bracelets,  and  baldrics,  all 
in  gilded  copper  in  fraudulent  imitation  of  genuine 
gold.    On  aiflterent  occasions  Ragnacaire  sent  out 


OLOVIS 


71 


OLOVIS 


spies  to  ascertain  the  strength  of  Clovis's  army,  and 
lipon  returning  they  said:  "It  is  a  great  reiniorce- 
ment  for  you  and  your  Farron."  Meanwhile,  Clovis 
advanced  and  the  battle  began.  Being  defeated, 
Ragnacaire  sought  refuge  in  fli^t,  but  was  overtaken, 
made  prisoner,  and  brought  to  Clovis,  his  hands 
bound  behind  him.  "Why",  said  his  conqueror, 
"have  you  permitted  our  blood  to  be  humiliated  by 
allowing  yourself  to  be  put  in  chains?  It  were  better 
that  ^ou  should  die."  And,  so  saying,  Clovis  dealt 
him  his  death-blow.  Then,  turning  to  Richaire,  Rag- 
nacaire's  brother,  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  with 
the  king,  he  said:  "Had  you  but  helped  your  brother, 
they  would  not  have  bound  him",  and  he  slew  Ri- 
chaire also.  After  these  deaths  the  traitors  discovered 
that  they  had  been  given  counterfeit  gold  and  com- 
plained of  it  to  Clovis,  but  he  only  laughed  at  them. 
Kignomir^  one  of  Ragnacaire 's  brothers,  was  put  to 
death  at  Le  Mans  by  order  of  Clovis,  who  took  posses- 
sion of  the  kingdom  and  the  treasure  of  his  victims. 

Such  is  the  legend  of  Clovis;  it  abounds  in  all  kinds 
of  improbabilities,  whigh  cannot  be  considered  as  true 
history.  The  only  facts  that  can  be  accepted  are  that 
Clovis  made  war  upon  Kings  Ragnacaire  and  Chara- 
ric,  put  them  to  death,  and  seized  their  territories. 
Moreover,  the  author  of  this  article  is  of  the  opinion 
that  these  events  occurred  shortly  after  the  conquest 
of  the  territory  of  Syagrius,  and  not  after  the  war 
against  the  Visigoths,  as  has  been  maintained  by 
Gregory  of  Tours,  whose  only  authority  is  an  oral 
tradition,  and  whose  chronology  in  this  matter  is  de- 
cidedly misleading.  Besides,  Gregory  of  Tours  has 
not  given  us  the  name  of  Chararic^  kingdom ;  it  was 
long  oelieved  to  have  been  established  at  Th^rouanne, 
but  it  is  more  probable  that  Tongres  was  its  capital 
city,  since  it  was  here  that  the  Franks  settled  on  gain- 
ing a  foothold  in  Belgium. 

In  492  or  493  Clovis,  who  was  master  of  Gaul 
from  the  Loire  to  the  frontiers  of  the  Rhenish  King- 
dom of  Cologne,  married  Clotilda,  the  niece  of  Gonde- 
bad,  King  of  the  Burgundians.  The  popular  epic  of 
the  Franks  has  transformed  the  story  of  this  marriage 
into  a  veritable  nuptial  poem,  the  analysis  of  which 
will  be  found  in  the  article  on  Clotilda.  Clotilda,  who 
was  a  Catholic,  and  very  pious,  won  the  consent  of 
Clovis  to  the  baptism  of  their  son,  and  then  urged 
that  he  himself  embrace  the  Catholic  Faith.  He  de- 
liberated for  a  long  time.  Finally,  during  a  battle 
against  the  Aiemanni — ^which  without  apparent  rea- 
son has  been  called  the  Battle  of  Tolbiac  (Ztilpich) — 
seeing  his  troops  on  the  point  of  yielding,  he  invoked 
the  aid  of  Clotilda's  God,  and  promised  to  become  a 
Christian  if  only  victory  shoula  be  granted  him.  He 
conquered  and,  true  to  his  word,  was  baptized  at 
Reims  by  St.  Remigius,  bishop  of  that  city,  his  sister 
Aibofledis  and  three  thousana  of  his  warriors  at  the 
same  time  embracing  Christianity.  Gregory  of  Tours, 
in  his  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  Franks,  has  de- 
scribed this  event,  which  took  place  amid  great  pomp 
at  Christmas,  496.  "Bow  thy  head,  O  Sicambrian '^ 
said  St.  Remigius  to  the  royal  convert.  "Adore 
what  thou  hast  burned  and  bum  what  thou  hast 
adored."  According  to  a  ninth-century  legend  found 
in  the  life  of  St.  Remigius,  written  by  the  celebrated 
Hincmar.  himself  Archbishop  of  Reims,  the  chrism 
for  the  baptismal  ceremony  was  missing  and  was 
brought  from  heaven  in  a  vase  {ampulla)  borne  by  a 
dove.  This  is  what  is  known  as  the  Sainte  Amix)ule 
of  Reims,  preserved  in  the  treasury  of  the  cathedral 
of  that  city,  and  used  for  the  coronation  of  the  kings 
of  France  from  Philip  Augustus  down  to  Charles  X. 

The  conversion  of  Clovis  to  the  religion  of  the 
majority  of  his  subjects  soon  brought  about  the 
umon  of  the  Gallo-Romans  with  their  oarbarian  con- 
jpierors.  While  in  all  the  other  Germanic  kingdoms 
founded  on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  dif- 
ferpnce  of  religion  between  the  Catholic  natives  and 


Arian  conquerors  was  a  verv  active  cause  of  destruc- 
tion, in  the  Franldsh  Kingdom,  on  the  contrary,  the 
fundamental  identity  of  religious  beliefs  and  the 
equality  of  political  rights  made  national  and  patri- 
otic sentiment  universsd,  and  produced  the  most  per- 
fect harmony  between  the  two  races.  The  Frankish 
Kingdom  was  thenceforth  the  representative  and  de- 
fender of  Catholic  interests  throughout  the  West, 
while  to  his  conversion  Clovis  owed  an  exceptionally 
brilliant  position.  Those  historians  who  do  not  un- 
derstand the  problems  of  religious  psychology  have 
concluded  that  Clovis  embraced  Christianity  solely 
from  political  motives,  but  nothing  is  more  erroneous. 
On  the  contrary,  everything  goes  to  prove  that  his 
conversion  was  sincere,  and  the  opposite  cannot  be 
maintained  without  refusing  credence  to  the  most 
trustworthy  evidence. 

In  the  year  500  Clovis  was  called  upon  to  mediate 
in  a  Quarrel  between  his  wife's  two  uncles,  Elnes 
Gondebad  of  Vienne  and  Godegisil  of  Geneva.  He 
took  sides  with  the  latter,  whom  he  helped  to  defeat 
Gondebad  at  Dijon,  and  then,  deeming  it  prudent 
to  interfere  no  further  in  this  fratricidal  struggle,  he 
returned  home,  leaving  Gode&jsil  an  auxiliary  corps 
of  five  thousand  Franks.  After  Clovis's  departure 
Gondebad  reconquered  Vienne,  his  capital,  in  which 
Godegisil  had  established  himself.  This  reconquest 
was  effected  by  a  stratagem  seconded  by  treachery, 
and  Godegisil  himself  perished  on  the  same  occasion. 
The  popular  poetry  of  the  Franks  has  singularly  mis- 
represented this  intervention  of  Clovis,  pretending 
that,  at  the  instigation  of  his  wife  Clotilda,  he  sought 
to  avenge  her  grievances  against  her  uncle  Gondebad 
Tsee  Clotilda),  and  that  the  latter  king,  besieged  in 
Avignon  by  Clovis,  got  rid  of  his  opponent  tbSou^h 
the  agency  of  Aredius,  a  faithful. follower.  But  m 
these  poems  there  are  so  many  fictions  as  to  render 
the  history  in  them  indistinguishable. 

An  expedition,  otherwise  important  and  profitable, 
was  unaertaken  by  Clovis  in  the  year  506  against 
Alaric  II,  King  of  the  Visigoths  of  Aquitaine.  He 
was  awaited  as  their  deliverer  by  the  Catholics  of 
that  kingdom,  who  were  being  cruelly  persecuted  by 
Arian  fanatics,  and  was  encouraged  m  nis  enterprise 
bv  the  Emperor  Anastasius,  who  wished  to  crush  this 
ally  of  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths.  Despite 
the  diplomatic  efforts  made  by  the  latter  to  prevent 
the  war,  Clovis  crossed  the  Loire  and  proceeded  to 
V0U1II6,  near  Poitiers,  where  he  defeated  and  slew 
Alaric,  whose  demoralized  troops  fled  in  disorder. 
The  Franks  took  possession  of  the  Visigoth  Kingdom 
as  far  as  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Rhone,  but  the  pai*t 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  this  river  was  stoutly 
defended  by  the  armies  of  Theodoric,  and  thus  the 
Franks  were  prevented  from  seizing  Aries  and  Pro- 
vence. Notwithstanding  this  last  failure,  Clovis.  bv 
his  conquest  of  Aquitaine,  added  to  the  Frankish 
crown  the  fairest  of  its  jewels.  So  greatly  did  the 
Emperor  Anastasius  rejoice  over  the  success  attained 
by  Clovis  that,  to  testify  his  satisfaction,  he  sent  the 
frankish  conqueror  the  insignia  of  the  consular  dig- 
nity, an  honour  always  highly  appreciated  by  the 
barbarians. 

The  annexation  of  the  Rhenish  Kingdom  of  Cologne 
crowned  the  acquisition  of  Gaul  by  Clovis.  But  the 
history  of  this  conquest,  also,  has  been  disfigured  by 
a  legend  that  Clovis  instigated  Chloderic,  son  of  Sige- 
bert  of  Cologne,  to  assassinate  his  father,  then,  after 
the  perpetration  of  this  foul  deed,  caused  Chlodeiic 
himself  to  be  assassinated,  and  finally  offered  himself 
to  the  Rhenish  Franks  as  king,  protesting  his  inno- 
cence of  the  crimes  that  had  been  conmiitted.  The 
oiJy  historical  element  in  this  old  story,  preserved 
by  Gregory  of  Tours,  is  that  the  two  kinps  of  Cologne 
met  with  violent  deaths,  and  that  Clovis,  their  rela- 
tive, succeeded  them  partly  by  right  of  birth,  partly 
by  popular  choice.    The  criminal  means  by  which  he 


OLOYNE 


GLOYNE 


is  said  to  have  reached  this  throne  are  pure  creations 
of  the  barbarian  imagination. 

Master  now  of  a  vast  kingdom,  Clovis  displayed 
the  same  talent  in  governing  that  he  had  displayed 
in  conquering  it.  From  Paris,  which  he  had  finally 
made  his  capital,  he  administered  the  various  prov- 
inces through  the  agency  of  counts  (comites)  estab- 
lished in  each  city  and  selected  by  him  from  the 
aristocracy  of  both  races,  conformaoly  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  absolute  equality  between  Romans  and  bar- 
barians, a  principle  which  dominated  his  entire  policy. 
He  caused  the  Salic  Law  (Lex  Salica)  to  be  reduced 
to  written  form,  revised  and  adapted  to  the  new 
social  conditions  under  which  his  fellow  barbari- 
ans were  subsequently  to  live.  Acknowledging  the 
Church  as  the  foremost  civilizing  force,  he  protected 
it  in  every  way  possible,  especially  by  providing  for 
the  National  Council  of  Orl^ns  (511;,  at  which  the 
bishops  of  Gaul  settled  many  questions  pertaining  to 
the  relations  between  Church  and  State.  Hagio- 
graphic  legends  attribute  to  Clovis  the  founding  of 
a  great  many  churches  and  monasteries  throughout 
France,  and  although  the  accuracy  of  this  claim 
cannot  be  positively  established,  it  is  nevertheless 
certain  that  the  influence  of  the  council  in  this  matter 
must  have  been  considerable.  However,  history  has 
preserved  the  memory  of  one  foundation  which  was 
undoubtedly  due  to  Closes:  the  church  of  the  Apos- 
tles, later  of  Sainte-Genevidve,  on  what  was  then 
Mons  Lucotetius,  to  the  south  of  Paris.  The  king 
destined  it  as  a  mausoleum  for  himself  and  his  queen 
Clotilda,  and  before  it  was  comi>leted  his  mortal 
remains  were  there  interred.  Clovis  died  at  the  age 
of  forty-five.  His  sarcophagus  remained  in  the  crypt 
of  Sainte-Genevi^ve  until  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution,  when  it  was  broken  open  by  the  revolu- 
tionists, and  his  ashes  scattered  to  the  winds,  the 
sanctuary  of  the  beautiful  church  being  destroyed 
at  the  same  time. 

The  history  of  this  monarch  has  been  so  hopelessly 
distorted  by  popular  poetry  and  so  grossly  disfigured 
by  the  vagaries  of  the  barbarian  imagination  as  to 
make  the  portrayal  of  his  character  wellnigh  impos- 
sible. However,  from  authentic  accounts  of  him  it 
may  be  concluded  that  his  private  life  was  not  with- 
out virtues.  As  a  statesman  he  succeeded  in  accom- 
plishing what  neither  the  genius  of  Theodoric  the  Great 
nor  that  of  any  contemporary  barbarian  king  could 
achieve:  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  Empire  he 
built  up  a  powerful  system,  the  influence  or  which 
dominated  European  civilization  during  many  cen- 
turies, and  from  which  sprang  France,  Germany, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  Switzerland,  without  taking 
into  account  that  northern  Spain  and  northern  Italy 
were  also,  for  a  time,  under  the  civilizing  regime  of 
the  Frankish  Empire. 

Clovis  left  four  sons.  Theodoric,  the  eldest,  was 
the  issue  of  a  union  prior  to  that  contracted  with 
Clotilda,  who  was,  however,  the  mother  of  the  three 
others,  Clodomir,  Childebert,  and  Clotaire.  They 
divided  their  father's  kingdom  among  themselves, 
following  the  barbarian  principle  that  sought  promo- 
tion of  personal  rather  than  national  interests,  and 
looked  upon  royalty  as  the  personal  prerogative  of 
the  sons  of  kings.  After  the  death  of  Clovis  his 
daughter  Clotilda,  named  after  her  mother,  married 
Amalric,  King  of  the  Visigoths.  She  died  young,  be- 
ing cruelly  abused  by  this  Arian  prince,  who  seemed 
eager  to  wreak  vengeance  on  the  daughter  of  Clovis 
for  the  tragic  death  of  Alaric  II. 

Arndt  (ed.).  Gregory  of  Tours,  Historia  ecdeaiaatica 
Franeorum  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.  RR.  Mcrovingicarum: 
JuNOBANS,  Die  OtMchiehle  der  fr&nkischen  Kdnige  ChUderich  und 
Chlodovich  (G6ttuigen,  1857),  tr.  by  Monod  as  Histoire  critique 
dea  rois  CkiUUric  el  Clovis  (Paris,  1879);  Rvjna,  Le  origini 
dell*  epopea  francese  (Florence,  1884);  Kitrtti,  Histoire  po&ique 
dee  MtTovinoiens  (Paris,  1893);  Idem,  Clovis  (Tours,  1896,  and 
Pl^riSp  1901). 

GoDEFnoyi)  Kttrth. 


Oloyne  (Gael.  Cluaiiv-itania,  Cave-meadow),  Dio- 
cese OP  (Clonensis,  or  Cloynbnsis),  comprises  the 
northern  half  of  County  Cork.  It  has  140  priests, 
47  parishes,  16  convents,  8  Brothers'  schools,  235 
primary  schools,  and,  for  higher  education,  St.  Col- 
man's  College  and  Loreto  Convent  (Fermoy),  besides 
high  schools  at  Queenstown  and  elsiewhere.  St.  Col- 
man's  Cathedral,  Queenstown,  be^n  in  1869  imder 
Bishop  Keane,  continued  under  Bishop  McCarthy,  in 
1908  near  completion,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
modem  Gothic  cathedrals.  The  medieval  diocessau 
cathedral,  used  by  Protestants  since  the  sixteenth 
century,  still  stands  at  Cloyne.  St.  Colman  Mac- 
Lenin  (560-601),  diverted  from  his  profession  of  poet- 
historian  by  Sts.  Ita  and  Brendan,  became  (560)  first 


Cathedral,  Clotnb 

Bishop  of  Cloyne,  where  he  got  a  royal  grant  of  land. 
Some  religious  poems,  notably  a  metrical  life  of  St. 
Senan,  are  attributed  to  him. 

Fergal,  Abbot-Bishop  of  Clojme,  was  massacred  in 
888  by  the  Danes.  There  are  seven  recorded  devas- 
tations of  Cloyne  from  822  to  1 137.  The  ecclesiastical 
records  were  destroyed,  so  that  few  prelates'  names 
before  1137  are  known;  we  have  nearly  all  of  them 
since  that  year.  In  1152  (Synod  of  Kells)  Cloyne 
was  made  one  of  Cashel's  twelve  suffragan  sees. 
From  1265  to  1429  the  bishops  of  Cloyne  were  mostly 
Englishmen.  Effingham  (1284-1320)  probably  built 
Cloyne  cathedral.  Swafham  (1363-1376),  who  wrote 
"Contra  Wicklevistas"  and  "Conciones",  com- 
menced the  "Rotulus  Pipae  Clonensis",  the  rent-roll 
of  the  see.  Robbery  of  church  property  by  nobles 
impoverished  the  Sees  of  Cloyne  and  Cork,  which 
were  united  in  1429,  by  papal  authority,  under 
Bishop  Purcell.  Blessed  Thaadeus  MacCarthy  was 
bishop  from  1490  to  1492.  The  last  Catholic  bishop 
who  enjoyed  the  temporalities  was  Benet  (1523- 
1536).  Tiny,  appointed  in  1536  by  Henry  VIII, 
and  Tirry's  successor,  Skiddy,  are  ignored  in  the 
Consistonal  Acts.  Macnamara  succeeded  Benet; 
O'Heyne  succeeded  in  1540;  Landes  in  1568;  Tanner 
in  1574;  MacCreaghe  in  1580;  Tirry  in  1622;  Barry 
in  1647;  Creagh  in  1676;  Sleyne  in  1693;  MacCarthy 
in  1712;  MacCarthy  (Thaddeus)  in  1727.  The 
bishops  of  penal  times  were  ruthlessly  persecuted, 
and  some  suffered  cruel  imprisonment  or  died  in 
exile.  John  O'Brien,  author  of  an  Irish  dictionary^ 
poems,  and  tracts,  was  Bishop  of  Clojme  and  Ross 
(1748-1769).  He  died  in  exile  at  Lyons.  His  suc- 
cessors were  Matthew  MacKenna,  appointed  in  1769; 
William  Coppinger  in  1791;  Michael  Collins  in  1830; 
Bartholomew  Crotty  in  1833;  David  Walsh  in  1847. 
Since  the  separation  of  Ross  (1849)  the  bishops  of 
Cloyne  have  oeen:  Timothy  Murphy,  appointed  1849; 
William  Keane,  1857;  Jolm  MacCarthy,  1874;  Robert. 
Browne,  ISO^i, 


OLUNT 


73 


OLUNY 


Over  a  centui^  ago,  when  persecution  relaxed 
iomewhat,  the  diocese,  de8{K>iled  of  all  its  ancient 
churches,  schools,  and  religious  houses,  had  to  be 
fully  equipped  anew.  About  100  plain  churches 
were  erected  between  1800  and  1850.  Recently  a 
fourth  of  these  have  been  replaced,  espiecially  in 
towns,  and  the  new  structures  are  admirably  de- 
sired and  finished.  Between  1800  and  1907,  not- 
withstanding great  difficulties  and  loss  by  emigration, 
besides  103  parish  churches,  all  the  existinjg  schools, 
colleges,  religious  and  charitable  institutions  were 
built,  and  all  are  now  doing  useful  and  excellent  work. 

Bbadt,  Recordt  of  Cork,  Cloyne,  and  Ross  (Dublin,  1864): 
Bradt,  Episcopal  Succession  in  England,  Scotland^  and  Ireland 
(Rome,  1876);  Cauljield,  ed..  Rottdus  Pipa  Clonensts  (Cork, 
1869):  Archdall  (ed.  Moran),  Monaslieon  Hxbemicum 
(DubUn,  1873):  iri^  Catholic  Directory  (DubUn,  1907). 

John  O'Riordan. 


head  of  an  order  consisting  of  some  314  monasteries. 
These  were  spread  over  France,  Italy,  the  Empire, 
Lorraine,  England,  Scotland,  and  Poland.  Accord- 
ing to  the  "Bibliotheca  Cluniacensis*'  (Paris,  1614) 
825  houses  owed  allegiance  to  the  Abbot  of  Cluny  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  Some  writers  have  given  the 
number  as  2000,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  this  is 
an  exaggeration.  It  may  perhaps  include  all  those 
many  otner  monasteries  which,  though  not  joining 
the  congregation,  adopted  either  wholly  or  m  part 
the  Cluny  constitutions,  such  as  Fleury,  Hirschau, 
Farfa,  and  many  others  that  were  subject  to  their 
influence. 

During  the  first  250  years  of  its  existence  Cluny 
was  governed  by  a  series  of  remarkable  abbots,  men 
who  have  left  their  mark  upon  the  history  of  Western 
Europe  and  who  were  prominently  concerned  with 


Abbey  of  Clunt  as  it  vab  before  Destruchon 
(From  "Histoire  Monumentale de  la  France"  by  Anthyme  Saint-Paul) 


Oltiny,  Congregation  of  (Cluni,  Clugni,  or 
Clugny),  the  earliest  reform,  which  became  prac- 
tically a  distinct  order,  within  the  Benedictine  fam- 
ily. It  originated  at  Cluny,  a  town  in  Sa6ne-et- 
lioire,  fifteen  miles  north-west  of  M^on,  where  in 
910  William  the  Pious,  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  founded 
an  abbev  and  endowed  it  with  his  entire  domain. 
Over  it  he  placed  St.  Berno,  then  Abbot  of  Gigny, 
under  whose  guidance  a  somewhat  new  and  stricter 
form  of  Benedictine  life  was  inau^rated.  The  re- 
forms introduced  at  Cluny  were  m  some  measure 
traceable  to  the  influence  of  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane, 
who  had  put  forward  his  new  ideas  at  the  first  great 
meeting  of  the  abbots  of  the  order  held  at  Aachen 
(Aix-la%hapelle)  in  817,  and  their  development  at 
Cluny  resulted  in  many  departures  from  precedent, 
chief  among  which  was  a  highly  centralized  form  of 
government  entirely  foreign  to  Benedictine  tradition. 
The  reform  quickly  spre^  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
Abbey  of  Cluny,  partly  by  the  founding  of  new 
houses  and  partly  oy  the  incorporation  of  those  al- 
ready existing,  and  as  all  these  remained  dependent 
upon  the  motner-house,  the  Congregation  of  Cluny 
came  into  being  almost  automatically.  Under  St. 
Bemo's  successors  it  attained  a  very  widespread  in- 
fluence, and  by  the  twelfth  century  Cluny  was  at  the 


all  the  great  political  questions  of  their  day.  Amons 
these  were  Sts.  Odo,  Mayeul,  Odilo,  and  Hugh,  ana 
Peter  the  Venerable.  Under  the  last  named,  the 
ninth  abbot,  who  ruled  from  1122  to  1156,  Cluny 
reached  the  zenith  of  its  influence  and  prosperity,  at 
which  time  it  was  second  only  to  Rome  as  the  chief 
centre  of  the  Christian  world.  It  became  a  home  of 
learning  and  a  training  school  for  popes,  four  of  whom, 
Gregory  VII  (Hildebrand),  Urban  U,  Paschal  II,  and 
Urban  V,  were  called  from  its  cloisters  to  rule  the 
Universal  Church.  In  England  the  Cluniac  houses 
numbered  thirty-five  at  the  time  of  the  dissolution. 
There  were  three  in  Scotland.  The  earliest  founda- 
tion was  that  of  the  priory  .of  St.  Pancras  at  Lewes 
(1077),  the  prior  of  which  usually  held  the  position 
of  vicar-general  of  the  Abbot  of  Cluny  for  England 
and  Scotland.  Other  important  English  houses  were 
at  Castleacre,  Montacute,  Northampton,  and  Ber- 
mondsey. 

After  the  twelfth  century  the  power  of  Cluny  de- 
clined somewhat,  and  in  the  sixteenth  it  suffered 
much  through  the  civil  and  reli^ous  wars  of  France 
and  their  conseauences.  The  mtroduction  also  of 
commendatory  aobots,  the  first  of  whom  was  ap- 
pointed in  1528,  was  to  some  extent  responsible  for 
its  decline.    Amongst  the  greatest  of  its  titular  prel- 


CLYKK 


74 


q6M 


ates  were  Cardinals  Richelieu  and  Mazarin,  who 
hied  to  restore  it  to  some  of  its  former  greatness, 
though  their  efforts  did  not  meet  with  much  success. 
Claude  de  Vert,  Prior  of  Saint-Pierre,  Abbeville  (d. 
1708),  was  another  would-be  reformer  of  the  congre- 
gation, inspired  no  doubt  by  the  example  of  the 
Maurists. 

The  abbey-church  of  Cluny  was  on  a  scale  com- 
mensurate with  the  greatness  of  the  congregation, 
and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  It  was  no  less  than  555  feet  in  length,  and  was 
the  la^zest  church  in  Christendom  until  the  erection 
of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  It  consisted  of  five  naves,  a 
narthex,  or  ante-church,  and  several  towers.  Com- 
menced by  St.  Hugh,  the  sixth  abbot,  in  1089,  it  was 
finished  and  consecrated  by  Pope  Innocent  II  in 
1131-32,  the  narthex  being  added  in  1220.  Together 
with  the  conventual  builoSngs  it  covered  an  area  of 
twenty-five  acres.  At  the  suppression  in  1790  it  was 
bought  by  the  town  and  almost  entirely  destroyed. 
At  the  present  dav  only  one  tower  and  part  of  a  tran- 
sept remain,  whilst  a  road  traverses  the  site  of  the 
nave.  The  community  of  the  abbey,  which  had 
numbered  three  hundred  in  the  thirteenth  centurv, 
dwindled  down  to  one  hundred  in  the  seventeenth, 
and  when  it  was  suppressed,  in  common  with  all  the 
other  religious  houses  in  France,  its  monks  numbered 
oiUy  fortjr. 

The  spirit  and  organization  of  the  congregation 
was  a  distinct  departure  from  Benedictine  tradition, 
though  its  monks  continued  all  along  to  be  recog- 
nized as  members  of  the  Benedictine  family.  Pre- 
vious to  its  inception  every  monastery  had  been  Inde- 
pendent and  autonomous,  though  the  observance  of 
the  same  rule  in  all  constituted  a  bond  of  union ;  but 
when  Cluny  began  to  throw  out  offshoots  and  to  draw 
other  houses  under  its  influence,  each  such  house,  in- 
stead of  forming  a  separate  family,  was  retained  in 
absolute  dependence  upon  the  central  abbey.  The 
superionB  of  such  houses,  which  were  usually  priories, 
were  subject  to  the  Abbot  of  Cluny  and  were  his 
nominees,  not  the  elect  of  their  own  communities,  as 
is  the  normal  Benedictine  custom.  Every  profession, 
even  in  the  most  distant  monastery  of  the  congrega- 
tion, required  his  sanction,  and  every  monk  had  to 
pass  some  years  at  Cluny  itself.  Sucn  a  system  cut 
at  the  root  of  the  old  family  ideal  and  resulted  in  a 
kind  of  feudal  hierarchy  consisting  of  one  ^at  cen- 
tral monastery  and  a  number  of  dependencies  spread 
over  many  lands.  The  Abbot  of  Cluny  or  his  repre- 
sentative made  annual  visitations  of  the  dependent 
houses,  and  he  had  for  his  assistant  in  the  government 
of  so  vast  an  organization  a  coadjutor  with  the  title 
of  Grand-Prior  of  Cluny.  The  abbot's  monarchical 
status  was  somewhat  curtailed  aft«r  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury by  the  holding  of  general  chapters,  but  it  is  evi- 
dent tnat  he  possessed  a  very  real  power  over  the 
whole  congregation,  so  long  as  he  held  in  his  own 
hands  the  appointment  of  all  the  dependent  priors. 
(For  the  sources  of  information  as  to  tne  rule,  govern- 
ment, and  conventual  observance  of  the  con^gation. 
see  biblio^phy  at  end  of  this  article.)  With  regard 
to  the  Divine  Office,  the  monks  of  Climy  conformed  to 
the  then  prevailing  custom,  introduced  into  the  mon- 
asteries of  France  by  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane,  of  adding 
numerous  extra  devotional  exercises,  in  the  shape  ot 
psalms  {paalmi  famUiares,  speciales,  prostrati,  and  pro 
iribulatione)  and  votive  offices  (Our  Lady,  The  Dead, 
All  Saints,  etc.)  to  the  daily  canonical  hours  pre- 
scribed by  the  Benedictine  Rule. 

The  library  of  Cluny  was  for  many  centuries  one 
of  the  richest  and  most  important  in  Fmnce  and  the 
storehouse  of  a  vast  number  of  most  valuable  MSS. 
When  the  abbev  was  sacked  by  the  Huguenots,  in 
1562,  many  of  tnese  priceless  treasures  perished  and 
others  were  dispersed.  Of  those  that  were  left  at 
Cluny,  some  were  burned  by  the  revolutionary  mob 


at  the  time  of  the  suppression  in  1790,  and  others 
stored  away  in  the  Clunv  town  hall.  These  latter^ 
as  well  as  others  that  had  passed  into  private  hands, 
have  been  gradually  recovered  by  the  French  Gov- 
ernment and  are  now  in  the  Bibhothdque  Nationale 
at  Paris.  There  are  also  in  the  British  Museum, 
London,  about  sixty  charters  which  formerly  be- 
longed to  Cluny.  The  "Hotel  de  Cluny"  in  Paris, 
datmg  from  1334,  was  formerly  the  town  house  of 
the  abbots.  In  1833  it  was  made  into  a  public  mu- 
seum, biit  apart  from  the  name  thus  derived,  it  pos- 
sesses practically  nothing  connected  with  the  aboey. 
For  toe  rule,  constitutions,  etc..  see  Bernard  of  Clunt, 
Ordo  Cluniacen»i8  in  Herroott,  Yelus  Disdplina  MoneuHea 
(Paris,  1794):  and  Udalric  of  Clunt,  Conaueludines  Cluma" 
cerwea  in  P.  L,  CXLIX  (Paris,  1882).  For  the  history  of  the 
Congregation,  etc..  Ducket.  Charters  and  Records  of  Cluni 
(Lewes,  1800):  Maitland,  Dark  Ages  (London,  1845);  Ma- 
billon,  Afvnales  O.  S.  B,  (Paris,  1703-39),  III-V;  Saintb- 
Mabthe.  GaUia  Christiana  (Paris.  1728).  IV,  1117;  H£ltot. 
Hist,  des  ordres  rdigieux  (Paris,  1792),  V;  Miqne.  JHd.  dea 
abbayes  (Paris.  1856);  Lavisse,  Hist,  de  France  (Paris.  1901), 
II,  2;  Lorain,  Hist,  de  Vabbaye  de  CIuim  (Paris.  1845); 
Champlt,  Hist,  de  Cluny  (M&con,  1866);  Heimbucheb.  Die 
Orden  und  Kongregationen  der  katheHischni  Kirche  (Paderbom« 
1896).  I;  Herzog  and  Hauck,  Realencyklopddie  (Ldpsig, 
1898).  Ill;   Sackur.  Die  Cluniacenser  (Halle  a.  S.,  1892-94). 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

Olynn  (or  Clyn),  John,  Irish  Franciscan  and  an- 
nalist, b.  about  1300;  d.,  probably,  in  1349.  His 
place  of  birth  is  unknown,  and  the  date  given  is  only 
conjecture;  but,  as  he  was  appointed  guardian  of  the 
Franciscan  convent  at  Carrick  in  1336,  it  is  concluded 
that  he  was  then  at  least  30  years  of  age.  He  was 
afterwards  in  the  Franciscan  convent  at  Kilkenny, 
and  there  he  probably  died.  He  is  credited  by  Ware, 
in  "  Writers  of  Ireland",  with  having  written  a  work 
on  the  kings  of  England  and  another  on  the  super- 
iors of  his  own  order;  but  these  works  have  not  been 
published,  and  his  celebrity  rests  on  his  "Annals  of 
Ireland",  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  the  year  1349. 
Beginning  with  the  earliest  period,  and  written  in 
Latin,  the  entries  are  at  first  mea^  and  unintei^ 
esting;  but  from  1315  Clynn  deals  with  what  he  him- 
self saw,  and,  though  such  things  as  the  building  of  a 
choir  and  the  consecration  of  an  altar  would  interest 
only  his  own  order  and  time,  other  entries  throw 
much  light  on  the  general  history  of  the  countiy. 
Being  Anglo-Irish,  he  speaks  harshly  of  the  native 
cliiefs;  but  neither  does  he  hesitate  to  condemn  the 
Anglo-Irish  lords,  their  impatience  of  restraint,  their 
contempt  for  the  Government  at  Dublin,  their  op- 
pression of  the  poor.  His  accoimt  of  the  plague  m 
1348-9  is  vivid.  Surrounded  by  dead  and  dying,  he 
laid  down  his  pen,  wondering  if  any  of  the  sons  of 
Adam  would  be  spared,  and  the  scribe  who  copied  the 
work  adds  that  at  this  date  it  seems  the  author  died. 
His  *'Annals"  were  edited  by  Richard  Butler  for  the 
Irish  Archaeological  Society  (December,  1849). 

Ware-Harris,  Writers  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1764);  Webb. 
Compendium  of  Irish  Biography  (Dublin,  1878). 

E.  A.  ly Alton. 

Coadjutor  Bishop.    See  Bishop. 

Goat  of  Arms.    See  Heraldry. 

Oobo,  Bernab^,  b.  at  Lopera  in  Spain,  1582;  d.  at 
Lima,  Peru,  9  October,  1657.  He  went  to  America  in 
1596,  visiting  the  Antilles  and  Venezuela  and  landing 
at  Lima  in  1599.  Entering  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
14  October,  1601,  he  was  sent  by  his  superiors  in 
1615  to  the  mission  of  Juli,  where,  and  at  Potosf. 
Cochabamba,  Oruro,  and  La  Paz,  he  laboured  until 
1618.  He  was  rector  of  the  college  of  Arequipa  from 
1618  until  1621,  afterwards  at  Pisco,  and  finally  at 
Callao  in  the  same  capacity,  as  late  as  1630.  He  was 
then  sent  to  Mexico,  and  remained  there  until  1650. 
when  he  returned  to  Peru.  Such  in  brief  was  the  life  of 
a  man  whom  the  past  centuries  have  treated  with 
unparalleled,  and  certainly  most  ungrateful,  neglect. 


OOOOALBO 


75 


OOOHXM 


Father  C6bo  was  beyond  all  doubt  tho  ablest  and  most 
thorou^  student  of  nature  and  man  in  Spanish  Amer- 
ica durmg  the  seventeenth  century.  Yet,  the  first, 
and  afanost  only,  acknowledgment  of  his  worth  dates 
from  the  fourth  year  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
distinguish^  Spanish  botanist  CavaniUes  not  only 
paid  a  handsome  tribute  of  respect  to  the  memory. 
of  FaUier  Cobo  in  an  address  delivered  at  the  Royal 
Botanical  Gajtlens  of  Madrid,  in  1804,  but  he  gave 
the  name  of  Cobcea  to  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  BignoniaoesB  of  Mexico,  Cobcsa  scandens  b«ing 
its   most   striking   representative. 

Cobo's  long  residence  in  both  Americas  (sixty-one 
years),  his  position  as  priest  and,  several  times,  as 
missionary,  and  the  consec^uently  close  relations  in 
which  he  stood  to  the  Indians,  as  well  as  to  Creoles 
and  half-breeds,  gave  him  unusual  opportunities  for 
obtaining  reliable  information,  and  ne  made  the 
fullest  use  of  these.  We  have  from  his  pen,  two 
works,  one  of  which  ^and  the  most  important)  is, 
unfortunately,  incomplete.  It  is  also  stated  that 
he  wrote  a  work  on  botany  in  ten  volumes,  which, 
it  seems,  is  lost^  or  at  least  its  whereabouts  is  unknown 
to-day.  Of  his  main  work,  to  which  biographers 
give  the  title  of  "Historia  general  de  las  InotaB", 
and  which  he  finished  in  16^,  onlsr  the  first  half  is 
knowTi  and  has  appeared  in  print  (in  four  volumes, 
at  Seville.  1890  ana  years  succeeding^.  The  remain- 
der, ia  wnich  he  treats^  or  claims  to  nave  treated,  of 
every  geographical  and  political  subdivision  in  detail, 
has  eiSier  never  been  finished  or  is  lost.  His  other 
book  appeared  in  print  in  1882.  and  forms  part  of 
the  "Iiistoiy  of  tne  New  Wond"  mentioned,  but 
he  m&de  a  separate  manuscript  of  it  in  1639,  and 
so  it  came  to  be  published  as  ''Historia  de  la  fun- 
daci6ii.  de  Lima",  a  few  years  before  the  puUica- 
tion  of  the  principal  manuscript.  The  "History  of 
the  New  World"  places  Cobo,  as  a  chronicler  and 
didactic  writer,  on  a  plane  higher  than  that  occupied 
by  his  contemporaries  not  to  epeak  of  his  pi«de* 
cessors.  It  is  not  a  dry  and  dreary  catalogue  of 
events;  man  appears  in  it  on  a  stage,  and  that  stage 
is  a  conscientious  picture  of  the  nature  in  which  man 
lias  moved  and  moves.  The  value  of  this  work  for 
several  branches  of  science  (not  onlv  for  histoiy) 
is  much  greater  than  is  believed.  The  book,  only 
recently  publidied,  ia  very  little  known  and  appre- 
ciated. The  "History  of  the  New  Worid"  may,  in 
American  literature,  be  compared  with  one  work 
onhr,  the  "General  and  Natural  History  of  the 
Indues",  by  Oviedo.  But  Oviedo  wrote  a  full  cen- 
tuiy  earlier  than  ()obo.  hence  the  resemblance  is 
limited  to  the  fact  that  tx>th  authors  seek  to  include 
all  Spanish  America — ^its  natural  features  as  well 
as  its  inhabitants.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Gomara 
and  Aoosta.  Cobo  enjo3red  superior  advantages  and 
made  good  use  of  them.  A  century  more  of  knowl- 
edge and  experience  was  at  his  command.  Hence 
we  find  in  his  book  a  wealth  of  information  which 
no  other  author  of  his  time  imparts  or  can  impart. 
And  that  knowledge  is  systematized  and  in  a  meas- 
ure co-ordinated.  On  the  animals  and  plants  of  the 
new  continent,  neither  Nieremberg,  nor  Hemdndez, 
nor  Monardes  can  compare  in  wealth  of  information 
with  CobD.  In  renira  to  man,  his  pre-Columbian 
past  and  vestiges,  Cobo  is,  for  the  South  American 
west  coast,  a  source  of  primary  importance.  We  are 
astonished  at  his  many  and  dose  observations  on 
customs  and  manners.  His  descriptions  of  some  of 
the  principal  ruins  in  South^  America  are  usually 
very  correct.  In  a  word  it  is  evident  from  these 
two  works  of  Cobo  that  he  was  an  investigator  of 
great  perspicacity  and,  for  his  time,  a  scientist  of 
unususu  merit. 

Toaaw  Saldauamdo,  AntiQuot  Jetuitat  del  Peru  (Lima, 
18S2);  Cabanii«lk8,  Di§cur90  §obre  algiinot  botdnicot  eapafioU^ 
del  tfgto  XV n  m  the  AwOm  A  hiaUina  mOwral  (Madrid.  1804). 

An.  F.  Bandxuer, 


Ooccaleo,  Viatuka,  aCapuchm  friar,  so  called  from 
his  birthplace,  Coccaciio  in  Lombardy,  date  of  birth 
unknown ;  d.  1793.  For  a  time  he  was  lector  in  theol- 
ogy and  wrote  several  works  that  give  him  a  place 
among  the  noteworthy  theologians  in  a  period  of  theo- 
logicai  decline.  These  are:  "Tentamina  theolo^co- 
scholastica"  (Bergamo,  1768-74);  "Tentaminum 
theologicorum  in  moralibus Synopsis"  (Venice,  1791) ; 
"Instituta  moraiia"  (Milan,  1760).  His  defence  of 
papal  supremacv,  "Italus  ad  Justinum  Febronium" 
(Lucca,  1768;  Trent,  1774),  is  one  of  the  principal 
apologies  against  Febronius.  Besides  writing  several 
works  against  Jansenism,  he  took  part  in  the  discus- 
sion concerning  the  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  and 
the  sanctification  of  Holy  Davs,  made  famous  by  the 
Synod  of  Pistoja  (1786),  ancT published:  "Riflessioni 
sopra  Torigine  e  il  fine  della  divozione  del  S.  Cuore  di 
Gesfi "  (Naples,  1780) ;  "  Riposta  sul  dubbio,  se  la  soU 
Messa  basti  a  santificare  le  feste"  (Bologna,  1781\ 
To  these  may  be  added  his  studies  ^n  the  text  and 
meaning  of  the  poem  of  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  "  Contra 
Ingratos"  (2  vols.,  Brescia,  1756  and  1763)  and  his 
work  on  the  philosophic  spirit  of  Prosper's  epigrams 
(Brescia,  1760). 

John  or  Ratisbon,  Appendix  ad  BMiothee.  Script.  Citjme' 
cincrum  (Rome,  1852),  40;  Schebben,  Dogmatik,  I,  455.  , 

John  M.  Lenhart. 

Oochabamba,  Dick:ese  of  (Cocabambenbis). — 
The  city  from  which  this  diocese  takes  its  name  is  the 
capital  of  the  department  of  Cochabamba,  Bolivia. 
Founded  in  1563  it  was  called  originally*  Oropesa.  It 
is  situated  on  the  Rio  de  la  Rocha  and  is  the  second 
largest  city  and  one  of  the  most  important  commercial 
centres  of  the  republic.  According  to  the  census  of 
1902,  the  population  is  over  40,000,  of  whom  practi- 
caUv  all  are  Catholics. 

Tne  Diocese  of  Cochabamba  was  erected  by  a  Bull 
of  Pius  IX,  25  June,  1847,  and  is  a  suffragan  of  Char- 
cas  (La  Plata).  It  was  the  foiuih  diocese  established 
in  Bolivia,  the  Archdiocese  of  Charcas  (La  Plata)  and 
the  Dioceses  of  La  Paz  and  Santa  Cruz  having  been 
created  early  in  the  seventeenth  oenturv.  It  com- 
prises the  department  of  Cochabamba  and  part  of  the 
adjoiniiu;  department  of  Beni.  The  population, 
mostly  Catholic,  in  1902  was  over  330,000.  Besides 
a  number  of  schools  and  charitable  institutions  liie 
diocese  has  55  parishes,  80  churches  and  chapels,  and 
160  priests. 

Konvenationa-Lex.  (St.  Louis,  MiBSOuri,  1003),  s.  v.;  Qtr* 
archia  Cattolica  (Rome.  1908). 

Oochem,  Martin  of,  a  celebrated  German  theolo- 
gian, preacher  and  ascetic  writer,  b.  at  Cochem,  a  small 
town  on  the  Moselle,  in  1630 ;  d.  in  the  convent  at  Wag- 
h&usel,  10  September,  1712.  fie  came  of  a  family 
devotedly  attached  to  the  Faith,  and  while  still  voung 
entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Capuchins,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  bv  his  fervour  and  his  fidelity^  to 
the  religious  rule.  After  his  elevation  to  the  priest- 
hood, he  was  assigned  to  a  professorship  of  theology,' a 
position  which  for  several  years  he  filled  most  credit- 
ably. However,  it  was  in  another  sphere  that  he  was 
to  exercise  his  zeal  and  acquire  fame.  Of  the  evils 
which  befell  Europe  in  consequence  of  the  Thirty 
Years  War,  the  plague  was  by  no  means  the  least,  and 
firhen,  in  1666,  it  made  its  appearance  in  the  Rhenish 
country,  such  were  its  ravages  that  it  became  neces- 
sary to  close  the  novitiates  and  houses  of  study.  Just 
at  this  crisis,  Father  Martin  was  left  without  any 
special  charee  and,  in  company  with  his  fellow  monks, 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  bodily  and  spiritual  com- 
fort of  the  afflicted.  What  most  distressed  him  was 
the  religious  ignorance  to  which  a  large  number  of  the 
faithful  had  fsulen  victims  on  account  of  beingdeprived 
of  their  pastors.  To  combat  this  sad  condition,  he 
resolved  to  compose  little  popular  treatises  on  tha 
truths  and  duties  of  religioui  and  in  1666  he  published 


OOOHIH 


76 


oooHnr 


at  Cologno  a  resuiud  of  Christian  doctrine  that  was 
very  well  received.  It  was  a  revelation  to  his  supe- 
riors, who  strongly  encouraged  the  author  to  continue 
in  this  course. 

Thenceforth  Father  Martin  made  a  specialty  of 
popular  preaching  and  rel^ous  writing  and,  in  the 
Archdioceses  of  Trier  and  Ingelheim,  which  he  trav- 
ersed thoroughly,  multitudes  pressed  about  him,  and 
numerous  conversions  followed.  The  zealous  priest 
continued  these  active  ministrations  up  to  the  time  of 
his  death,  and  even  when  he  had  passed  his  eightieth 
year  he  still  went  dailv  to  the  chapel  of  his  convent, 
where,  with  the  aid  of  an  ear-trumpet,  he  heard  the 
confessions  of  the  sinners  who  flocked  to  him.  The 
intervals  between  missions  he  devoted  to  his  numer- 
ous writings,  the  most  voluminous  of  which  is  an  ec- 
clesiastical history  in  2  vols,  fol.,  composed  for  apolo- 
getic purposes  and  provoked  b^  the  attacks  made 
upon  the  Church  by  Protestantism.  However,  the 
author  brought  it  down  only  to  the  year  1100.  Father 
Martin's  other  works  embrace  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects: the  life  of  Christ,  legends  of  the  saints,  edifving 
narratives^  the  setting  forth  of  certain  points  in  Chris- 
tian asceticism,  forms  of  prayer,  metnods  to  be  fol- 
lowed for  the  worthy  reception  of  the  sacraments,  etc. 
These  widely  different  themes  have  as  points  of  simi- 
larity a  pleasing,  graceful  style,  great  erudition,  and  a 
truly  seraphic  eloquence.  They  bespeak  for  their 
author  sincere  piety  and  deep  religious  sentiment, 
coupled  with  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  popular 
heart  and  the  special  needs  of  the  time.  But  the  best 
known  of  all  the  learned  Capuchin's  works  is  unques- 
tionably "Die  heilige  Messe  ,  upon  which,  accoraing 
to  his  own  statement,  he  spent  three  entire  years, 
perusing  Holy  Writ,  the  councils.  Fathers  and  Doc- 
tors of  me  Church,  and  the  lives  of  the  saints,  in  order 
to  condense  into  a  small  volume  a  properly  abridged 
account  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice.  As  soon  as  it  appeared 
this  book  proved  a  delight  to  the  Catholics  of  Ger- 
many^  nor  has  it  yet  lost  any  of  its  popxilarity,  and, 
since  its  translation  into  several  languages,  it  may  be 
said  to  have  acquired  universal  renown. 

It  demanded  a  great  expenditure  of  energy  on  the 
part  of  the  worthv  religious  to  bring  these  underta- 
Kings  to  a  successful  issue.  Even  when  in  his  convent 
he  spent  most  of  the  day  in  directing  souls  and  follow- 
ing the  observances  prescribed  by  the  Capuchin  Rule, 
hence  it  was  time  set  aside  for  sleep  that  ne  was  wont 
to  give  to  his  literary  labours.  Sometimes  after  the 
Ofm^  of  Matins  he  would  obtain  permission  of  the 
superior  to  go  to  Frankfort  to  confer  with  his  publisher 
and,  this  accomplished,  he  would  return  on  foot  to  his 
convent  at  K5nigstein,  catechizing  little  childreUi 
hearing  confessions,  and  visiting  the  sick  along  the 
way.  vVhile  still  in  the  midst  of  his  labours  he  was 
attacked  by  an  illness  to  which  he  soon  succumbed, 
at  the  age  of  eighty-two.  The  works  published  dur- 
ing Father  Martin's  lifetime  are:  "Die  Kirchenhis- 
torie  nach  der  Methode  des  Baronius  und  Raynaldus 
bis  1100"  (Dillingen,  1693):  "Die  christliche  Lehre"; 
"Heilige  Geschichten  und  Exempel";  "  Wohlriechen- 
der  Myrrhengarten"  (Cologne,  1693);  "Bttchlein 
Ober  den  Ablass"  (Dillingen,  1693) : "  Exorcismen  und 
far  Kranke"  (Frankfort,  1695);  "(Soldener  Himmels- 
schlOssel"  (Frankfort,  1695);  "Gebetbuch  far  Soldar 
ten"  (Auesbure,  1698);  "Anmuthungen  wfthrend  der 


heiligen  Messe ''^(Augsburg,  1697) ; "  Die  Legenden  der 
Heaven"  (Augsburg,  1705) ;  "Leben  Christi"  (Frank- 
fort, 1689;  Augsburg,  1708);  "Gebete  imter  der  heili- 
gen Messe"  (Augsburg,  1698);  "Kern  der  heiligen 
Messe"  (Cologne,  1699):  "Liliengarten"  (Cologne, 
1699);  "Gebetbuch  fttr  heilige  Zeiten"  (Augsburg, 
1704) ; "  Die  heilige  Messe  fOr  (Se  Weltleute"  (Cologne, 
1704);  "Traktat  Qber  die  gOttlichen  Vortrefflioh- 
keiten"  (Mainz,  1707);  " Gteistlicher  Baumgarten" 
(Mainz  and  Heidelberg,  1709) ;  "  Neue  mystische  Gold- 
gniben"  ^Cologne,  1/0.:^*  "  Kxeme|j€4bucb "  (Augs- 


burg, 1712).  This  list  does  not  include  all  the  author's 
writings.  In  1896.  there  appeared  a  small  woric  nev^* 
before  published,  "Das  (jebet  des  Henens",  whidi 
at  the  end  of  its  third  year  went  into  a  seventh  edition. 
Ilg.  Geisl  dea  heiligen  Franciacus  SempMcua  (AugvburK. 
1883);  Etudes  Jhranciaeaines  (Paris).  III.  448;  AnaUeia  Or^. 
Min.  Cap.,  XXIII,  279;  Sister  Mabza  Bkrnasdikc,  Martin 
von  Coehem,  aein  Leben,  «em  Wirken,  Beine  Zeit  (MaiDX,  1886). 

F.  Candidb* 

Oochin,  Diocese  of  (Cochinenbis),  on  the  Mala* 
bar  coast,  India.  The  diocese  was  erected  and  cox^ 
stituted  a  suffragan  of  the  Diocese  of  Goa,  of  which  it 
had  previously  formed  a  part,  by  the  Bull  "Pro  excel- 
lenti  praeeminentiA"  of  Paul  IV,  4  Feb.,  1558  (cf.  Bui- 
larium  PatronatuB  Portugalliflo  Regum,  I,  193).  It 
was  later  reorganized  according  to  the  Concordat  of 
23  June,  1886,  between  Leo  XIII  and  King  Luis  I  of 
Portugal,  and  the  Constitution  ''Human»  Salutis 
Auctor"  of  the  same  pope,  1  Sept.,  1886.  It  is  suf- 
fragan to  the  patriarchal  See  of  Goa  (cf.  Julio  Biker, 
Collecgfio  de  Tractados,  XIV,  1 12-437).  The  diocese 
consists  of  two  strips  of  territory  along  the  sea-coast, 
the  first  about  fifty  miles  long,  by  eight  in  its  broadest 
part,  the  second  thirty  miles  in  length.  There  are 
two  important  towns,  Cochin  and  Alleppi  (Alapalli), 
in  which  the  higher  educational  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions of  the  diocese  are  situated. 

I.  History. — ^The  chief  religions  professed  in  Mala- 
bar at  the  arrival  of  the  Portuguese  were:  Hinduism, 
Christianity  (the  Christians  of  St.  Thomas  or  Nesto- 
rians),  Islam,  and  Judaism,  the  last  represented  by 
a  large  colony  of  Jews.  From  these  the  Catholic 
community  was  recruited)  mostly  from  the  Nesto- 
rians  and  the  Hindus.  Islam  also  contributed  a  fair 
share,  especially  when  Portugal  was  supreme  on  this 
coast;  among  the  Jews  conversions  were  rare.  To 
Portund  belongs  the  glory^  of  having  begun  regular 
Catholic  missionary  work  in  India,  and  ODchin  has 
the  honour  of  being  the  cradle  of  Catholicism  in  India. 
The  first  missionaries  to  India  were  eight  Franciscan 
friars,  who  set  sail  from  Lisbon  on  the  fleet  of  Pedro 
Alvarez  Cabral  (q.  v.),  9  March,  1500:  Father  Hen- 
rique de  Coimbra,  Superior;  Fathers  Caspar,  Fran- 
cisco da  Cruz,  Simfto  ae  Guimaraens,  Luiz  do  Salva- 
dor, Masseu,  Pedro  Netto,  and  Brother  JoSo  da 
Vitoria.  Three  of  them  were  slain  at  Calicut  in  the 
massacre  of  16  Nov.,  1500.  The  survivors  arrived 
at  Cochin  on  or  about  the  26th  of  that  month,  and 
settled  there  (except  the  superior,  who  went  back 
with  the  fleet  to  obtain  more  help  for  the  mission), 
thus  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Diocese  of  Cochin 
(Histor.  Seraf .  Chron.  da  Ordem  de  S.  Francisco,  na 
Provincia  de  Portugal,  III,  489^  494,  495).  They 
were  followed  by  large  contingents  of  zealous  mis- 
sionaries, who  worked  from  the  city  of  Cochin  as  a 
centre.  The  harvest  of  souls  was  rich,  the  Christians 
multiplied  along  the  coast  and  in  the  mterior,  and  in 
course  of  time  a  bishop  was  assigned  to  them. 

The  Nestorian  Christians  in  the  vicinity  of  Cochin 
naturally  attracted  the  attention  of  the  missionaries, 
and  Fathers  Sim&o  de  Guimaraens  and  Luiz  do  Sal- 
vador were  soon  occupied  in  refuting  their  errors  and 
reforming  their  discipline  and  cusUuns  (Hist.  Seraf., 
Ill,  497).  These  two  missionaries  were  the  pioneers 
of  the  Faith  among  the  Nestorian  Christians.  Mem- 
bers of  the  same  order  continued  this  missionary 
work  till  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when 
these  missions  were  handed  over  to  the  Jesuits,  who 
continued  the  good  work  with  such  earnestness  and 
zeal  that  most  of  the  Nestorian  Christians  were  con- 
verted before  1600.  The  chief  public  record  of  their 
conversion  is  to  be  found  in  the  proceeding  of  the 
Synod  of  Diamper  (or  Udiamperur),  held  m  June, 
ld99,  by  Aleixo  de  Menezes,  Archbishop  of  Goa, 
Metropolitan  and  Primate  of  the  East  (''Bull.  Patron. 
Port,  reg.",  a  collection  of  papal  and  royal  documcnta 
pertaining  to  the  Portuguese  missions  in  India,  App 


OOOHIN 


77 


OOOHIK 


torn.  1, 147  sqq.;  see  also  "Subsidium  ad  Bull.  Patr. 
Port.",  Alleppi,  1903).  In  December,  1502,  the 
Nestorian  or  Hvrian  Christians  (they  used  the  Syrian 
language  in  their  liturgy)  presented  to  Vasoo  da 
Crama,  who  had  arrived  at  Cochin,  the  sceptre  of  their 
former  kings,  and  applied  to  him  for  assistance  asainst 
their  Mohammedan  neighbours.  Gama  formally  ac- 
cepted the  sceptre  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Portu- 
gal. The  Synan  bishop  of  those  Christians  promised 
obedience  to  the  pope  through  the  Franciscan  mis- 
sionaries, and  two  Nestorian  priests  accompanied 
Gama  to  Lisbon  en  route  for  Rome.  Thus  bejpin  the 
protectorate  of  the  Portuguese  over  the  Syrian  Chris- 
tians, a  protectorate  which  lasted  for  160  years  (cf. 
JoSo  de  oarras,  "Asia",  Dec.  I,  bk.  V,  ch.  viii;  also 
"  Historia  Serafica").  Till  1542  the  Franciscans  were- 
the  only  regular  missionaries'  in  India,  though  they 
had  the  co-operation  of  some  secular  priests,  as  Father 
Pedro  Gonsalves,  Vicar  of  Santa  Cruz  church  in  the 
city  of  Cochin,  and  Father  Miguel  Vaz,  a  zealous 
preacher  of  the  Faith,  as  well  as  of  some  isolated  mem- 
bers of  other  religious  communities,  who  had  come 
out  as  chaplains  to  the  fleets  ("Commentarios  do 
Grande  Affonso  d' Albuquerque",  3d  ed.,  1774,  I,  ch. 
V,  19-20,  and  "Ethiopia  Oriental",  II,  bk.  II,  ch.  i). 

Among  the  pioneer  priests  of  Cochin  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  Franciscans  Jofto  d'Elvas  and 
Pedro  d'Amarante,  who  till  1507  preached  the  Gospel 
at  Vypeen,  Palliport,  Cranganore,  and  other  impor- 
tant luaces;  Fatner  Manuel  de  S.  Mathias,  with  his 
eleven  companions,  who  laboured  for  the  conversion 
of  the  pagans  at  Pcnrocad,  Quilon,  Trivellam,  and 
elsewhere;  Father  Vincent  de  Lagos,  who  in  1540 
established  the  coUe^  of  Cranganore  to  train  the 
Nestorian  Christians  m  the  purity  of  Catholic  Faith, 
a  college  highly  praised  by  St.  Francis  Xavier,  and 
the  first  built  in  India.  In  1 542  it  had  eighty  students 
(Amado,  Hist,  da  Egreja  em  Portugal  e  colonias, 
Vol.  VII,  Pt.  II,  117-21). 

After  St.  Francis  Xavier's  arrival  in  India,  6  May, 
1542,  the  Society  of  Jesus  quickly  spread  over  India, 
and  the  members  were  always  most  successful  in  the 
missions  under  their  charge.  St.  Francis  often  visited 
Cochin,  where  the  citizens  gave  him  the  church  of 
Madre  de  Deus,  and  asked  him  to  establish  in  the 
city  a  residence  of  the  Society.  It  was  accordingly 
founded  by  Father  Balthazar  Gago,  S.  J.,  in  1550. 
In  the  same  year  Father  Nicolao  Lancelot,  S.  J.,  built 
the  residence  and  college  of  Quilon,  and  Affonso 
Cipriano,  S.  J.,  the  residence  of  Mylapore;  soon  after 
the  residence  and  college  of  Punicail  were  established, 
and  the  residence  of  Manar.  In  1560  the  King  of 
Portugal  built  for  the  Society  of  Jesus  the  college  of 
Cochin,  and  in  1562  a  novitiate  of  the  Society  was 
established  there.  In  1601  the  Jesuit  Province  of 
MiUabar  was  founded,  and  Cochin  was  made  the  resi- 
dence of  the  provincial.  Among  the  early  Jesuits 
must  be  mentioned  in  addition  to  St.  Francis  Xavier, 
foremost  of  missionaries.  Fathers  Mansilha,  Criminal, 
B.  Nunes,  H.  Henriques,  F.  Peres,  F.  Rodrigues; 
Brothers  Adam  Francisco,  N.  Nunes.  Later,  the 
Dominicans,  Augustinians,  and  other  orders  followed 
the  Society  of  Jesus  to  India.  The  Dominicans  built 
their  monastery  and  college  at  Cochin  in  1553;  some 
years  later  theu*  example  was  followed  by  the  Augus- 
tinians, and  still  later  oy  the  Capuchins.  Cochin  thus 
became  the  stronghold  of  the  Faith,  and  it  was  the 
missionaries  of  Cbchin  who  carried  the  Gospel  through- 
out all  Southern  India  and  Ceylon,  everywhere  estab- 
lishing missions,  and  building  churches,  charitable  and 
educational  institutions,  all  of  which  were  endowed 
by  the  kin^s  of  Portu^l. 

Apart  from  the  heroic  zeal  of  the  priests,  the  most 
powerful  element  in  the  propagation  of  the  Faith  was 
the  protection  the  Portuguese  Government  always 
accorded  to  the  converts.  It  provided  them  with 
Sood  situations,  employing  them  in  civil  offices,  freed 


them  from  the  molestations  of  their  masters,  elevatecl 
them  in  the  social  scale,  exempted  them  from  the 
operation  of  Hindu  law,  appointed  for  them  a  judicial 
tribunal  composed  of  Catholics,  which  in  rural  dis- 
tricts was  presided  over  by  the  local  priest.  It  in- 
duced the  rajahs  to  treat  the  converts  kindly,  and 
obliged  them  to  allow  their  converted  subjects  ail  th» 
civil  rights,  e.  g.  of  inheritance,  which  their  Hindu 
relatives  enjoyed.  ("Collecgao  de  Tractados",  treaties 
made  with  the  rajahs  of  Asia  and  East  Africa,  paesim 
in  the  first  thirteen  vols.;  also  "Archivo  Portuguez 
Oriental",  Nova  Goa,  1861,  Fasc.  Ill,  parts  I  and  II 
paeaim;  ''Oriente  Conquistado",  Bombay  reprint, 
1881,  I,  II;  P.  Jarric,  S.  J.,  "Thesaurus  Rerum  Indi- 
carum",  Cologne,  1615, 1,  III,  on  the  Malabar  Missions 
of  the  Society.) 

The  above-mentioned  Bull  of  Paul  IV,  by  which 
the  diocese  was  constituted,  raised  the  collegiate 
church  of  the  Holy  Cross  (Santa  Cruz),  the  parish 
church  of  Cochin,  to  the  dignity  of  cathedral  of  the 
diocese,  and  established  therein  a  chapter  consisting  of 
five  dignitaries  and  twelve  canons.  At  the  same  tune 
the  pope  gave  the  patronage  of  the  new  diocese  and  see 
to  the  kings  of  Portugal  (Bull.  Patr.  Port.  Reg.,  1, 194). 

Until  1506  Hindu  law,  which  was  rigorously  ob- 
served, forbade  the  ^  use  of  lime  and  stone  in  other 
constructions  than  temples.  Hence  the  early  Portu- 
guese, to  avoid  displeasing  the  rajah,  built  their 
houses  of  wood.  Finally  the  viceroy,  Francisco  de 
Almeida,  induced  the  Rajah  of  Cochin  to  permit  him 
the  use  of  lime  and  stone,  and  on  3  May,  1506,  the 
first  stone  for  the  fortress  and  city  was  laid  by  the 
viceroy  with  great  pomp.  It  was  the  feast  of  the 
Finding  of  the  Holy  Cross,  which  thus  became  the 
patronal  feast  of  the  city,  and  gave  to  the  parish 
church  its  title.  The  church  of  the  Holy  Cross  (Santa 
Cruz)  was  begun  in,  or  rather  before,  1506,  for  in  1505 
we  find  Portuguese  soldiers  contributing  towards  the 
construction  of  the  church  of  Cochin  1000  xerafins 
(about  $150,  a  large  sum  four  hundred  years  ago), 
the  result  of  an  auction  of  the  rich  booty  of  a  naval 
combat  (Gaspar  Correa,  ''Lendas  da  India",  I,  522; 
II,  182).  Some  years  later  this  church  was  raised  to 
collegiate  rank,  endowed  by  the  king,  and  provided 
with  a  vicar  and  six  beneficed  ecclesiastics.  It  was 
a  magnificent  building,  the  mother  church  of  the 
ancient  Diocese  of  Cochin,  which  the  Malabar,  Coro- 
mandel  and  Fishery  Coasts,  and  Ceylon  once  obeyed, 
and  under  whose  teaching  and  discipline  they  flour- 
ished. There  are  now  not  less  than  eleven  bishoprics  in 
the  territory  of  the  original  Diocese  of  Cochin.  The 
first  Bishop  of  Cochin  was  the  Dominican,  Father  Jorge 
Themudo,  an  illustrious  missionary  on  this  coast. 
The  Brief  "Pastoralis  officii  cura  nos  admonet"  of 
Gregory  XIII,  13  Dec.,  1572,  permitted  the  Bishop 
of  Cochin,  on  occasion  of  the  vacancy  of  the  See  of 
Gk>a,  to  take  possession  of  that  see  and  administer 
it  till  the  Holy  See  provided  for  the  vacancy.  This 
is  why  many  bishops  of  Cochin  were  appointed 
archbishops  of  Goa. 

In  1577  Brother  Jofio  Gonsalves,  S.  J.,  engraved  at 
Cochin,  for  the  first  time,  the  Malealam  type,  from 
which  was  printed  the  first  Malealam  book,  '*  Out- 
lines of  Christian  Doctrine",  written  in  Portuguese  by 
St.  Francis  Xavier  for  the  use  of  children.  In  1578 
Fr.  Jo5o  de  Faria,  S.  J.,  engraved  at  Punicail  the  Tamil 
type,  with  which  the  "Flos  Sanctorum"  was  printed 
in  Tamil  for  the  Fishery  Coast  (Paulinus  a  S.  Bar- 
tholomffio,  ''India  Orient.  Christiana",  Rome,  1794, 
179  sqq. ;  ''Oriente  Conquistado",  Vol.  I,  Pt.  I,  Cong. 
I,  Div.  I,  §  23). 

Cochin  was  taken,  6  Jan.,  1663,  by  the  Dutch,  after  a 
siege  of  six  months.  The  city  was  reduced  in  size; 
the  clergy  were  expelled;  the  monasteries  and  col- 
leges, bishop's  palace  and  2  hospitals,  13  churches  and 
chapels,  were  rasscd  to  the  ground.  The  church  of 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  belonging  to  the  FrancisoNi 


U 


OOOHZH 


78 


OOOHIN 


monastery,  waa  spared  by  the  conquerors  and  con- 
verted to  tbyeir  own  religious  use.  When  the  English 
expelled  the  Dutch,  20  Oct.,  1795,  they  kept  this 
church  for  the  same  purpose;  it  stands  to-day  a  wit- 
ness to  the  events  of  the  past  four  centuries,  and  is 
considered  the  oldest  existing  church  in  India.  The 
magnificent  cathedral  was  turned  by  the  Dutch  into  a 
warehouse  for  merchandise.  In  1806  it  was  blown  up 
by  the  English. 

From  1663  until  the  diocese  was  reorganized  in 
1886,  the  bishops  of  Cochin  resided  at  Quilon.  In 
1896  work  was  oegun  on  the  Cathedral  of  the  Holy- 
Cross  of  Cochin  by  Bishop  Ferreira,  amid  great  sacri- 
fices. In  April,  1897,  when  almost  complete,  the 
building  collapsed,  entailing  a  heavy  loss.  Bishop 
Ferreira  died  at  Goa,  4  May,  the  same  year.  Bishop 
Oliveira  Xavier  took  charge  of  the  diocese  in  March, 
1898,  removed  the  debris  of  the  fallen  building  and 
successfully  carried  the  work  to  completion.  The 
cathedral  was  opened  for  Divine  worship,  9  Au^.,  1903. 
Brother  Moscheni,  the  famous  Italian  painter  of 
India,  belonging  to  the  Jesuit  mission  of  Mangalore,  was 
secured  to  decorate  the  church,  but  had  hanuv  finished 
the  sanctuary  when  he  died ,  1 4  No  v. ,  1 905.  The  cathe- 
dral was  consecrated  19  Nov.,  1905,  by  Bishop  Pereira 
of  Damaun,  Archbishop  ad  hon&rem  of  CraJiganore. 

II.  Reuqious  Conditions. — ^The  Church  of  Cochin 
has  suffered  some  rigorous  persecutions.  The  most 
severe  was  that  of  1780,  commenced  by  Nagam  Pillay , 
Dewan  of  Travancore,  in  which  20,000  converts  fled 
to  the  mountains,  to  escape  his  cruelties,  and  many 
died  as  martyrs.  Father  JoSo  Falcao,  S.  J.,  was  the 
only  priest  left  to  console  the  sufferers.  There  were 
other  less  severe  persecutions  in  1787, 1809,  and  1829 
(Paulinus  a  S.  Bartholomaeo,  "India  Orient.  Chris- 
tiana'', 165  sqq.;  also  "Church  History  of  Travan- 
core'', Madras,  1903,  Introduction,  55).  In  a  general 
way  there  has  always  been  a  kind  of  inild  persecution 
or  animosity  on  the  part  of  Hindu  Governments  and 
authorities  against  Christians.  The  growth  of  the 
Catholic  Church  is  at  present  affected  especially  by 
the '  *  Law  of  Disability ''  in  force  in  the  Native  States  of 
Malabar,  by  which  a  convert  becomes  a  stranger  to  his 
family,  ana  forfeits  all  rights  of  inheritance.  The 
government  schools,  in  which  the  young  are  reared  in 
religious  indifferentism,  form  also  a  remarkable  hin- 
drance to  conversions,  especially  among  the  higher 
classes. 

III.  Statistics. — In  all,  twenty  Bishops  of  Cochin 
have  actually  taken  possession  of  the  see  ("Mitras 
Li^si tanas  noOriente' ,  I,  III;  "Annuario  da  Arch,  de 
Goa",  1907).  The  total  population  of  the  diocese  is 
398,000;  Catholics,  97,259.  The  number  of  conver- 
sions averages  300  a  year.  The  diocese  contains  30 
parishes,  9  missions,  77  churches  and  chapels,  62 
secular  priests  (58  natives  of  India),  4  Jesuits;  8 
Anglo-vernacular  parochial  schools,  with  an  attend- 
ance of  480  boys  and  128  girls,  77  vernacular  paro- 
chial schools,  with  an  attendance  of  6592.  The  Sis- 
ters of  the  Canossian  Congregation  number  15  in  two 
convents.  The  following  educational  and  charitable 
institutions  are  at  Cochin:  Santa  Cruz  High  School 
for  boys,  under  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  and  St.  Mary's 
High  School  for  girls  under  the  Canossian  Sisters, 
both  of  which  prepare  students  for  the  Indian  univer- 
sities; they  have  an  average  daily  attendance  respec- 
tively of  335  and  153;  at  Alleppi  the  Jesuit  Fathers 
conduct  the  Leo  XIII  High  School  for  boys,  with  an 
average  daily  attendance  of  380;  an  orphanage  with 
16  orphans;  a  catechumenate  with  5  catechumens;  a 
printing  office;  an  industrial  school.  They  also  have 
charse  of  the  preparatory  seminary  of  the  diocese,  in 
which  20  students  are  now  enrollea.  For  philosophy 
and  theology  students  are  sent  either  to  the  patri- 
archal seminary  at  Rachol,  Goa,  or  to  the  papal  sem- 
inary at  Kandy,  Ceylon;  at  the  former  there  are  now 
6,  at  the  latter  5^  students  from  Cochin.    The  Canos- 


sian Sisters  at  Alleppi  conduct  the  foUowinK  instita- 
tions  for  girb:  St.  Joseph's  Intermediate  School,  at- 
tendance 160;  a  normal  training  school,  attendance  7; 
a  technical  school,  attendance  29;  an  orphanage  with 
56  orphans;  a  catechumenate,  attendance  21,  and  a 
dispensary  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor.  The  religious 
associations  of  the  diocese  are  as  follows:  oonfratemir 
ties,  64;  con^^rqgatlons  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Fran- 
cis, 3;  Association  of  the  Holy  Family,  1 ;  Conferences 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  2 ;  Society  for  the  relief  of  the 
Souls  in  Purgatory,  2;  Sodalities  of  the  Children  of 
Mary,  6;  Misericordia  Confraternity,  1;  The  Apostle^ 
ship  of  Prayer  is  established  in  all  the  parish  churchec, 
ana  the  Association  of  Christian  Doctrine  in  all 
churches  and  chapels  of  the  diocese.  (See  Goa; 
JPorttjgal;  India.) 

Besides  documents  mentioned  above  see  also  Mctdraa  Cath. 
Directory  (1908):  MCllb aver, /Ca^M.JlfiM.  inOHindien  (Frei- 
burg, 1852) :  DE  SiLVA.  The  Cath.  Ch.  in  India  (Bombay,  1885) ; 
Werner,  Or6.  Terrarum  (Freiburs,  1890). 

J.  MONTBIRO   d'AqXTIAEU 

Oochin,  Jaoques-Denis,  preacher  and  philanthro- 
pist, b.  in  Paris,  1  Januaxy,  1726;  d.  there  3  June,  1783. 
His  father,  Claude-Denis  Cochin  (d.  1786),  was  a  famous 
botanist.    Jacques-Denis  followed  a  course  of  theo- 
logical studies  in  the  Sorbonne  and  was  graduated 
with  the  degree  of  Doctor.    In  1755  he  was  ordained         « 
priest.    The  next  year  he  was  given  charge  of  the  par- 
ish of  Saint-Jacques-du-Haut-Pas.    There  he  spent 
his  whole  life  working  for  the  material  as  well  as  the 
spiritual  betterment  of  his  people.    He  won  flpreat 
fame  for  the  unction  and  strength  of  his  preaching. 
His  published  works  include:  Four  books  of  Sunday 
sermons  (Paris,  1786-1808);  "Exhortations  on  the 
Feasts,  Fasts  and  Oremonies  of  the  Church  "  (Paris, 
1778);  "Retreat  Exercises"  (Paris,  1778);  "Spiritual 
Writings",   a  posthumous  work  published   dv   his 
brother  (Paris,  1784).  Cochin  is  noted  especisdly  for  his 
philanthropy.    The  needs  of  his  own  parish  suggested 
the  foundation  of  a  hospital.    The  idea,  conceived  in 
1780,  resulted  in  the  completion  of  a  building  of  which 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  took  charge.   The  inscription  on 
the  building.  Pauper  damavU  et  Dominua  exaudivit 
evfitf  is  an  index  of  Cochin's  intentions.    He  devoted 
his  whole  fortune  to  the  work.    The  hospital  was  in* 
augurated  with  thirty-eight  beds;  to-day  the  number 
is  nearly  four  hundred.    It  was  originally  called  H6- 
pital  Saint-Jacques.     In  1801  the  Creneral  Council 
of  the  Paris  hospitals  gave  it  the  name  of  its  charitable 
founder,  which  it  still  preserves. 

J.  B.  Delaunat. 

Cochin,  Pierre-Suzanne- AuQUSTiN,  b.  in  Paris,  12 
Dec.,  1823;  d.  at  Versailles,  13  March,  1872.  He  took 
an  early  interest  in  economical  and  political  questions 
and  contributed  articles  to  the  "  Aimaies  de  Charity" 
and  "Le  Correspondanf.  In  1850  he  was  elected 
vice-mayor,  and  in  1853  mayor  of  the  tenth  district 
of  Paris.  His  publications  won  for  him  membership 
in  the  Academic  des  sciences  morales  et  poUtiques 
(1864).  He  was  at  that  time  prominent  among  the 
"  Liberal  Catholics",  an  ardent  friend  of  Montalembert 
and  Lacordaire,  and  was  supported  by  his  party  for 
ihe  office  of  deputy  of  Paris.  He  received  GOOO 
votes,  but  his  democratic  opponent  won  by  an  over- 
whelming majority.  Among  his  many  reUgious, 
pedagogical,  and  sociological  works  we  may  name: 
"  Essai  sur  la  vie,  les  m^thodes  d'instruction  et  d'^dur 
cation,  et  les  ^tablissements  de  Pestalozzi"  (Paris, 
1848) ;  "  Lettre  sur  i'6tat  du  paup^risme  en  Angle- 
terre"  (Paris,  1854);  "Progrds  de  la  science  et  de 
Tindustrie  au  point  de  vue  chr^tien"  (Paris,  1854); 
"Abolition  de  resclavage"  (Paris,  1861),  crowned  by 
the  French  Academy;  "Quelques  mots  sur  la  vie  de 
J^us  de  Renan"  (1863);  "Condition  des  ouvriera 
franpais"  (1862);  "Esp^rances  chr6tiennes"  (post- 
humous publication).  J.  B.  Delaunat. 


OOOHIN 


79 


OO-OOKSEORATOBS 


decbin  Oliimt.   See  Frbncb  iNDO-CamA. 

Oochlaua,  Johank  (prop^Iy  Dobeneck),  mxt- 
named  Cochlaus  (from  cocmea.a  snail  shell}  after  his 
biiiJipIaoe  Wendelstein,  near  Schwabach.  humanist 
and  Catholic  controversialist,  b.  1479;  a.  11  Jan., 
1552,  in  Breslau.  His  eariy  education  he  received  at 
the  house  of  his  unde,  Hirspeck.  About  1500  he  be- 
gan his  humanistic  studies  under  Griennieer  at  Nu- 
remberg. From  1504  he  pursued  his  studies  at  Co- 
Ic^ne  and  there  relations  sprang  up  between  Cochlseus 
and  the  champions  of  humanism.  In  1510  he  ob- 
tained the  rectorate  in  the  Latin  school  of  St.  Law- 
rence in  Nuremberg,  where  the  "Quadrivium  Gram- 
matices"  (1511  and  repeatedly  afterwards)  and  the 
''Tetrachordum  Musices''  appeared.  At  Nurembei^ 
he  became  an  intimate  friend  of  Pirkheimer.  With 
the  iatter's  three  nephews  he  went  to  Bologna  to  con- 
tinue his  hiunanistic  and  legal  studies.  His  main  ob- 
ject, however,  was  to  pursue  a  course  of  theology,  in 
which  he  obtained  his  doctorate  in  1517,  and  then  by 
the  advice  of  Pirkheimer  went  to  Rome.  There,  under 
the  influence  of  the  Oratorio  del  Divino  Amore,  Coch- 
Ueus  turned  his  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  a  religious 
life.  Ordained  at  Rome,  he  went  to  Frankfort,  and 
after  some  hesitation,  arising  no  doubt  from  Consid- 
eration for  his  friends,  he  entered  the  arena  as  the  op- 
ponent of  the  Lutheran  movement.  His  first  wor&s 
were  ''De  Utroque  Sacerdotio"  (1520)  and  several 
smaller  writings  published  in  rapid  succession.  In  1521 
he  met  the  nuncio  Aleander  at  Worms  and  worked 
untiring} V  to  bring  about  the  reconciliation  of  Luther, 
thiring  the  foUowing  years  he  wrote  tracts  against 
Luther's  principEd  theses  on  the  doctrine  of  justificar 
tion,  on  tne  freedom  of  the  will,  and  on  the  teaching  of 
the  Church  (especially  the  important  work,  "De  GratiA 
Sacramentorum ' ',  1 522 ;  '*  De  Baptismo  parvulorum ' ', 
1523;  "A  Commentaiy  on  154  Articles^'; etc.).  Lu- 
ther, to  the  vexation  of  Gochlseus  wrote  in  answer  onl  v 
a  single  work,  "Ad versus  Armatmn  Virum  Cocleum''. 

After  a  short  sojourn  at  Rome  Gochlseus  accom- 
panied Gomp^gio  to  the  negotiations  at  Nuremberg 
and  Ratisbon.  The  Lutheran  movement  and  the 
Peasants'  War  drove  him  to  Golo^e  in  1525.  From 
there  he  wrote  against  the  rebeUion  and  Luther,  its 
real  author.  In  1526  he  received  a  canonry  at  May- 
ence  and  accompanied  Cadinal  Albrecht  of  Branden- 
bure  to  the  Diet  of  Speyer.  After  Emser's  death 
Co^aeus  took  his  place  as  secretar]^  to  Duke  George 
of  Saxony,  whom  ne  defended  against  an  attack  of 
Luther  based  on  the  false  charge  of  an  alliance  be- 
tween the  Catholic  princes  at  Breslau  (cf .  The  Affair  of 
Otto  V.  Pack).  Conjointly  with  Duke  Geoige  he  la- 
boured strenuously  m  1530  to  refute  the  Augsbui^ 
Confession,  and  later  directed  against  Melancmthon, 
its  author,  his  bitter  "Philippics".  Because  of  a 
pamphlet  a^inst  Henry  VIII  of  England  he  was 
transferred  m  1535  to  a  canonry  in  Meissen.  After 
the  duke's  death,  owin^  to  the  advance  of  the  Reform- 
ation, his  further  stay  m  Saxony  became  quite  impos- 
sible. For  the  time  being  he  f oimd  a  ref  u^  as  canon 
first  at  Breslau  and  later  at  Eichst&tt.  With  indomi- 
table ardour  he  published  pamphlet  after  pamphlet 
against  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  against  Zwmgli, 
Butzer,  Bullinger  Cordatus,  Ossiander,  etc.  Almost 
all  of  these  publications,  however,  were  written  in 
haste  and  baa  temper,  without  the  necessary  revision 
and  theological  thorougjmess,  consequently  they  pro- 
duced no  effect  on  the  masses.  His  greatest  work 
against  Luther  is  his  strictly  historical  **  Commentaria 
de  Actii  et  Scriptis  M.  Luther''  (extending  to  his 
death),  an  armoury  of  Catholic  polemics  for  all  suc- 
ceeding time.  Forced  to  resi^  nis  benefice  at  Eich- 
Bt&tt  in  1548,  Cochlseus  remained  for  a  short  time  in 
Mayence  to  edit  a  work  of  Abbot  Conrad  Braim.  In 
1549,  however,  he  returned  to  Breslau  where  he  died 
^itly  after     Naturally  of  a  quiet  and  studious  dis- 


position he  was  drawn  into  the  arena  of  polemics  by 
the  religious  schiam.  There  he  developed  a  produo- 
tivity  and  zeal  imparalleled  by  any  other  Cathouc  theo- 
logian of  his  time.  He  did  not,  however,  possess  the 
other  reauisites  for  success  in  the  same  degree.  Among 
his  two  nundred  and  two  publications  ^talogued  in 
Spahn,  p.  341  sq.)  are  to  be  found,  besides  tracts  bear> 
ing  on  the  topics  of  the  day,  also  editions  of  ecclesias- 
tiod  writers  and  historical  publications.  Among  these 
latter  the  work  "Historic  Hussitarum  XII  Libri** 
(1549)  is  of  great  value  even  to-day  because  of  the 
authorities  used  therein, 

De  Wbldiqb-Krbmer,  />«  Joannia  CochUri  Vitd  et  Scriptia 
(Manster,  1865);  Orro.  Johannes  Cochlceua  (Breslau,  1874); 
Ge88,  Johannes  CodUeaua  (Berlin,  1898);  Schlbcht,  /K  Cod^ 
imusbriefe  in  Hitior.  Jahrbuoh  XX  (1899),  768  sq. 

Joseph  Sausr. 

Oo-conflacratorg  are  the  bishops  who  assist  the 

E residing  bishop  in  the  act  of  consecrating  a  new 
ishop.  It  is  a  very  strict  rule  of  the  Church  that 
there  cdiould  be  two  such  assistant  bishops,  or  three 
bishops  in  all — ^though  an  exoeption  is  made  for  mis- 
sionary countries  where  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
bring  so  many  bishops  together,  the  Holy  See  there 
allowing  two  priests  to  act  as  assistants  to  the  oonse- 
crator.  The  part  assigned  by^  the  Koman  Pontifical 
in  its  present  form  to  the  assistant  bishops  is,  after 
helping  to  place  the  book  of  the  (xospels  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  elect,  to  join  the  oonsecrator  in  laying 
hands  on  his  head,  ana  in  saying  over  him  the  words 
Accipe  SpirUum  Sanctum.  But  it  is  the  consecrator 
alone  who,  with  extended  hands,  says  the  Eucharistio 
prayer,  which  constitutes  the  "essential  form"  of  the 
rite.  In  the  Oriental  rites,  Uniat  and  schismatic,  no 
words  of  any  kind  are  assigned  to  the  assistant  bish- 
ops; this  was  also  the  case  with' the  ancient  Western 
ntes,  the  words  Accipe  SpirUum  Sanctum  being  a  late 
medieval  addition. 

History  of  the  Ua^GB. — ^In  the  earliest  times  the 
ideal  was  to  assemble  as  many  bishops  as  possible  for 
the  election  and  consecration  of  a  new  bishop,  and  it  be- 
came the  rule  that  the  comprovincials  at  least  should 
participate  under  the  presidency  of  the  metropolitan  or 
primate.  But  this  was  found  impracticable  in  a  matter 
of  such  frequency;  so  in  the  Council  of  NiCsea  we  find  it 
enacted  that  ''a  bishop  ou^t  to  be  chosen  by  all  the 
bishops  of  his  province,  but  if  that  is  impossible  because 
of  some  urgent  necessitv,  or  because  of  the  leneth  of 
the  journey,  let  three  bishops  at  least  assemble  and  pro- 
ceed to  the  consecration,  naving  the  written  permis- 
sion of  the  absent"  (can.  iv).  Tnere  was,  indeied.  one 
exception,  which  is  referred  to  in  the  letter  of  Pope 
Siricius  to  the  African  bishops  (3S6),  "That  a  single 
bishop,  unless  he  be  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  must  not 
ordain  a  bishop  ".  This  exception  has  long  since  been 
discontinued,  but  it  bears  witness  to  the  reasonf  orwhich 
the  intervention  of  several  bishops  was  ordinarily  re- 
quired, a  reason  expressly  stated  by  St.  Isidore  (about 
601)  in  his  ''De  Eccles.  Off."  (Bk.  II,  ch.  v,  no.  11  in 
P.  L.,  LXXXIII.  785):  ''[The  custom]  that  a  bishop 
should  not  be  ordained  by  one  bishop,  but  by  all  the 
comprovincial  bishops,  is  known  to  mive  been  insti- 
tuted on  account  of  heresies,  and  in  order  that  the 
tyraimical  authority  of  one  person  should  not  attempt 
anything  contrary  to  the  faith  of  the  Church.''  Such 
a  consicferation  was  not  applicable  to  the  case  of  the 
Bishop  of  Rome.  In  these  provisions  of  the  earlier 
councils  the  conditions  of  the  time  were  presupposed. 
Gradually  other  conditions  supervened,  and  the  right 
of  appointing  to  the  episcopkste  was  reserved  to  the 
metropolitans  in  the  case  of  simple  bishops,  and  to  the 
Holy  See  in  the  case  of  metropolitans,  and  finally  in 
all  cases  to  the  Holv  See.  But  the  practice  of  requir- 
ing at  least  three  bishops  for  the  consecration  cere- 
mony, thot^  no  lon^r  needed  for  its  ancient  purpose, 
has  alwasrs  been  retamed  as  befitting  the  solenmity  of 
the  occasien. 


coouasus 


SO 


OODKX 


Trb  Mods  of  Their  Co-operation. — The  queen 
tion  has  been  raised.  Do  the  co-oonBecratora  eauallv 
with  the  coDsecrator  impart  the  sacramental  gift 
to  the  candidate?  That  tney  do  has  been  contended 
on  the  ground  of  a  well-known  passi^  in  Mart^ne's 
"De  AntiquiB  Ecclesiffi  Ritibus"  fll,  viii,  art.  10), 
in  which  he  says  that  "beyond  the  possibility 
of  a  doubt  they  are  not  witnesses  only  but  co-opera- 
tors.'' But  Martdne's  reference  to  Ferrandus's 
"Breviatio  Canonum"  (P.  L.,  LXVII,  948),  and 
through  Ferrandus  to  the  decree  of  Nicsea  and  the 
words  of  St.  Isidore  already  quoted,  shows  that  his 
meaning  is  that  they  are  not  mere  witnesses  to  the 
fact  that  the  consecration  has  taken  place,  but,  by 
taking  part  in  it,  make  themselves  responsible  for  its 
taking  place.  Moreover,  though  Gasparri  (De  Sacrd 
Ordinatione,  II,  265)  thinks  otherwise,  it  is  not  easy 
to  see  how  the  assistant  bishops  can  be  said  to  comply 
with  the  essentials  of  a  sacramental  administration. 
They  certainly  do  not  in  the  use  of  the  Oriental  rites, 
nor  did  they  in  the  use  of  the  ancient  Western  rite, 
for  they  pronounced  no  words  which  partook  of  the 
nature  or  an  essential  form.  And,  thou^  in  the 
modem  rite  they  say  the  words  Accipe  SpirUum 
SanctuTHf  which  approximate  to  the  reauirements  of 
such  a  form,  it  is  not  conceivable  that  tne  Church  by 
receiving  these  words  into  her  rite  wished  to  transfer 
the  office  of  essential  form  from  the  still-persisting 
•Eucharistic  Preface,  which  had  held  it  previously 
and  was  perfectly  definite,  to  new  words  which  by 
themselves  are  altogether  indefinite. 

Besides  the  authors  quoted,  see  Tiioicabsin,  Vetus  et  nova 
Eecleaia  Disc^ina^  I'iJ^^«  ^^«  ^^  ^^'  *^b*  ^^'  Duchesnk,  Ori- 
gtnes  du  euUe  chrHten  (Fans,  1903);  PontificaU  Romanum,  cd. 
Catalani  (Paris,  1801);  Mabtinuccx,  Manuale  as.  Ccmmoni" 
arum  (Rome,  18(99);  Ke.viucK,  Farm  of  the  Consecration  of  a 
Bishop  (Baltinx>re.  1886);  Woods.  Episcopal  Consecration  in 
the  Anglican  Church  in  The  Messenger  (New  York,  November. 
1907);  Bernard,  Coxtrt  de  LUurgie  romaine:  Le  Pontifical 
(Paris,  1902)1.318-22.  SydNBT  F.  SMrTH. 

Oocossus  (Cocusus,  Cucussus,  Cucusus),  a  titular 
see  of  Armema.  It  was  a  Roman  station  on  the  road 
from  Cilicia  to  Csesarea,  and  belonged  first  to  Cappa^ 
doda  and  later  to  Armenia  Secunda.  St.  Paul  the 
Confessor,  Patriarch  of  (Constantinople,  was  exiled 
thither  by  Constantius  and  put  to  death  by  the  Arians 
in  350  (Socrates,  Hist,  eccl.,  II,  xxvi).  It  was  also 
the  place  of  exile  to  which  St.  John  Chrysostom  was 
banished  by  Arcadius;  his  journey,  often  interrupted 
by  fever,  lasted  seventeen  days  (Sozomen,  Hist,  eccl., 
VIII,  xxii).  The  great  doctor  was  received  most 
kindly  by  the  bishop  and  a  certain  Dioscurus.  He 
lived  three  years  at  0>cussus  (404-407),  and  wrot« 
thence  many  letters  to  the  deaconess  Olympias  and 
his  friends.  The  Greek  panegjrric  of  St.  Gregory  the 
Illuminator,  Apostle  of  Armenia,  attributed  to  St. 
John  Chrysostom  (Migne,  P.  G.,  LXIII,  943),  is  not 
authentic;  an  Armenian  text,  edited  by  Alishan 
(Venice,  1877) ,  may  be  genuine.  Cocussus  appears  in 
the  "Synecdemus"  of  Hierocles  and  in  the  "Notitiae 
episcopatuum'',  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century,  as  a 
suffragan  of  Melitene.  The  name  of  St.  John  Qirys- 
ostonrs  host  is  unknown.  Bishop  Domnus  was  rep- 
resented at  Chalcedon  in  451.  Longinus  subscribed 
the  letter  of  the  bishops  of  Armenia  Secunda  to  £m- 
pror  Leo  in  458.  John  subscribed  at  Constantinople 
m  553  for  his  metropolitan.  Another  John  was  pres- 
ent at  the  Trulian  Council  in  692  (Lequien,  I,  452). 
The  army  of  the  first  crusaders  passed  by  Cocussus. 
In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  there  were 
Armenian  bishops  of  Ck)cu8sus.  It  is  tonday  a  village 
called  Guksun  by  the  Turks,  Kokison  by  the  Arme- 
nians, in  the  caza  of  Hadjin,  vilayet  of  Adana.  The 
site  is  most  picturesque,  but  the  cumat^e  is  very  severe 
during  winter,  owing  to  the  altitude,  4O00  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

Ramsat,  Hist.  Oeogr.  of  Asia  Minor,  paasim;  Aushan, 
Siuouan  (Venice,  1899).  217-21.  a    w^         a. 

S.   P^TTRIDis. 


Code  of  JTustiiiian.    See  Law. 

Oodez,  the  name  given  to  a  manuseript  in  leat 
form,  distinguishing  it  from  a  roll.  The  codex  seems 
to  have  come  into  use  about  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  centuiy ;  the  material  ordinarily  employed  in  it 
was  parchment,  but  discovery  has  shown  tnat  papynis 
was  sometimes  used  in  the  making  of  oodioes,  thoudb 
really  too  brittle  to  be  a  satisfactory  material.  The 
great  MSS.  of  the  Bible  are  in  codex  form  and  gener- 
ally ofparchment;  hence  the  name.  Codex  Vattcanua 
etc.  For  convenience'  sake,  we  ^roup  here  the  four 
great  codices  of  the  Greek  Bible,  Vaticanus,  Sinaiti- 
cus,  Alexandrinus,  and  Ephrsemi,  tc^ther  with  the 
Greek  Codex  Bezae,  so  remarkable  for  its  textual  pecu- 
liarities; also.  Codex  Amiatinus,  the  greatest  Mo.  of 
the  Vulgate.  For  other  codices,  see  Mamuscriptb  of 
THE  Bible,  or  the  particular  designation,  as  Abmagh, 
Book  of;  Kells,  Book  of;  etc. 

Ctodex  Alexandriniu,  a  most  valuable  Greek 
manuscript  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  so  named 
because  it  was  brought  to  Europe  from  Alexandria 
and  had  been  the  property  of  the  patriarch  of  that  see. 
For  the  sake  of  brevity,  Walton,  m  his  polyglot  Bible, 
indicated  it  by  the  letter  A  and  thus  set  the  fashion 
of  designating  Biblical  manuscripts  by  such  symbols. 
Codex  A  was  the  first  of  the  great  uncials  to  hecome 
known  to  the  learned  world.  When  Cyril  Lucar, 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  was  transferred  in  1621  to 
the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  he  is  believed  to 
have  brou^t  the  codex  with  him.  Later  he  sent  it 
as  a  present  to  King  James  I  of  England ;  James  died 
before  the  gift  was  presented,  and  Charles  I,  in  1627, 
accepted  it  in  his  stead.  It  is  now  the  chief  glory  of 
the  British  Museum  in  its  MS.  department  and  is  on 
exhibition  there. 

Codex  A  contains  the  Bible  of  the  Catholic  Canon, 
including  therefore  the  deutero-canonical  books  and 

Portions  of  books  belonging  to  the  Old  Testament, 
[oreover,  it  joins  to  the  canonical  books  of  Macha- 
bees,  the  apocryphal  III  and  IV  Machabees,  of  very 
late  origin.     To  the  New  Testament  are  added  the 
Epistle  of  St.  Clement  of   Rome  and  the  homily 
wnich  passed  under  the  title  of  II  Epistle  of  Clement 
— the  only  copies  then  known  to  be  extant.     These 
are  included  in  the  list  of  N.-T.  books  which  is  pre- 
fixed and  seem  to  have  been  regarded  by  the  scribe  as 
part  of  the  New  Testament.     The  same  list  shows 
that  the  Psalms  of  Solomon,  now  missing,  were  ori- 
ginally contained  in  the  volume,  but  the  space  which 
separates  this  book  from  the  others  on  the  list  indi- 
cates that  it  was  not  ranked  among  New-Testament 
books.    An  "Epistle  to  Marcellinus"  ascribed  to  St. 
Athanasius  is  inserted  as  a  preface  to  the  Psalter,  to- 
gether with  Eusebius's  summary  of  the  Psalnos;  Pb. 
di  and  certain  selected  canticles  of  the  O.  T.  are 
affixed,  and  Uturgical  uses  of  the  psahxu  indicated. 
Not  all  the  books  are  complete.    In  the  O.  T.  there 
is  to  be  noted  particularly  the  lacima  of  thirty  psalms, 
from  1, 20,  to  Ixxx,  11 ;  moreover,  of  Gen.,  xiv,  14-17; 
XV,  1-5,  16-19;  xvi,  6-9;  III  (I)  K.,  xii,  20~-xiv,  9. 
The  New  Testament  has  lost  the  first  twenty-five 
leaves  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  as  far  as  chapter 
XXV,  6,  likewise  the  two  leaves  running  from  John,  vi, 
50,  to  viii,  52  (whidi,  however,  as  the  amount  of  space 
shows,  omitted  the  formerly  much  disputed  passage 
about  the  adulterous  woman),  and  three  leaves  con- 
taining II  Cor.,  iv,  13 — ^xii,  6.    One  leaf  is  missing 
from  I  Clem.,  and  probably  two  at  the  end  cxf  II  dem. 
Codex  A  supports  the  Sixtine  Vulgate  in  regard  to  the 
conclusion  of  St.  Mark  and  John,  v,  4,  but,  like  all 
Greek  MSS.  before  the  fourteenth  century,  omits  the 
text  of  the  three  heavenly  witnesses,  I  John,  v,  7. 
The  order  of  the  O.-T.  books  is  peculiar  (see  Swete, 
"  Introd.  to  O.  T.  in  Greek  ")•    In  the  N.  T.  the  order 
is  Gospels,  Acts,  Catholic  Epistles,  Pauline  Epistles, 


OODXZ 


81 


OODEX 


Apocalypse,  with  Hebrews  placed  before  the  Pastowd 
Epistles.  Originally  one  large  volume,  the  codex  is 
now  bound  in  four  volumes,  bearing  on  their  covers 
ihe  arms  of  Charles  I.  Three  volumes  contain  the 
31d  Testament,  and  the  remaining  volume  the  New 
Testament  with  Clement.  The  leaves,  of  thin  veUum, 
12}  inches  high  by  10  inches  broad,  number  at  present 
773,  but  were  originally  822,  according  to  the  ordinary 
reckoning.  Each  page  has  two  colunms  of  49  to  51 
lines. 

The  codex  is  the  first  to  contain  the  major  chapters 
with  their  titles,  the  Ammonian  Sections  and  the 
Eusebian  Canons  complete  (Scrivener).  A  new  para- 
graph  is  indicated  by  a  large  capital  and  frequently 
by  spacing,  not  by  beginning  a  new  line ;  the  enlarged 
capital  is  placed  in  the  margin  of  the  next  line,  though, 
curiously,  it  may  not 
correspond  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  para- 
graph or  even  of  a 
wwd.  The  manu- 
script is  written  in 
uncial  characters  in  a 
hand  "at  once  firm, 
elegant,  simple";  the 
ereater  part  ofVolume 
III  is  ascribed  by 
Gr^ory  to  a  different 
hand  from  that  of  the 
others;  two  hands  are 
discerned  in  the  N. 
T.  by  Woide,  three 
by  Sir  E.  Maunde 
Thompson  and  Ken- 
yon — experts  differ 
on  these  points.  The 
handwriting  is  gener- 
ally judged  to  belong 
to.  die  Deginning  or 
middle  of  the  fifth 
century  or  possibly 
to  the  late  fourth.  An 
Arabic  note  states 
that  it  was  written  by 
Thecla  the  martyr; 
and  Cyril  Lucar  the 
Patriarch  adds  in  his 
note  that  tradition 
ss^ys  she  was  a  noble 
Egyptian  woman  and 
wrote  the  codex 
shortly  after  the  Nioene  Council.  But  nothing  is 
known  of  such  a  martyr  at  that  date,  and  the  value  of 
this  testimony  is  weakened  by  the  presence  of  the 
Eusebian  Canons  (d.  340)  and  destroyed  by  the  in- 
sertion of  the  letter  of  Athanasius  (d.  373).  On  the 
other  hand,  the  absence  of  the  Euthalian  divisions  is 
regarded  by  Scrivener  as  proof  that  it  can  hardly  be 
later  than  450.  This  is  not  decisive,  and  Gregonr 
would  bringit  down  even  to  the  second  half  of  the  nftn 
century.  The  character  of  the  letters  and  the  history 
of  the  manuscript  point  to  Egypt  as  its  place  of  origin. 

The  text  of  Codex  A  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
valuable  witnesses  to  the  Septuagint.  It  is  found, 
however,  to  bear  a  great  affinity  to  the  text  embodied 
in  Origeh's  Hexapla  and  to  have  been  corrected  in 
numb^less  passages  according  to  the  Hebrew.  The 
text  of  the  Septuagint  codices  is  in  too  chaotic  a  con- 
dition, and  criticism  of  it  too  little  advanced,  to  per- 
mit of  a  sure  judgment  on  the  textual  value  of  the  o-eat 
manuscripts.  Ine  text  of  the  New  Testament  nere 
is  of  a  mixed  character.  In  the  Gospels,  we  have  the 
best  example  of  the  so-called  Syrian  type  of  text,  the 
ancestor  of  the  traditional  ancl  less  pure  form  found 
in  the  texlua  receplus.  The  Syrian  text,  however,  is 
rejected  by  the  great  majority  of  scholars  in  favour 
of  the  ** neutral"  type,  beit  represented  in  the  Codex 
IV.--6 


^  I "  ^  v*  •*-  '^  * '  f  ^"4  "^Y  ^  *  ^^ '  *  ^  ^^  ^^^  *''  ^* 

V » O  V rO VO V  i^  >* '  >Y  "tie  <^-|  I  y- » 


Ck>DEX  Alexandrinub,  I  John,  v,  9-15,  IV-V  Century. 
MS.  IN  Britisu  Museum 


Vaticanus.  In  the  Acts  and  Catholic  £p 
still  more  in  St.  Paul's  Epistles  and  the  A^/wcuj^^^ov. 
Codex  A  approaches  nearer,  or  belongs,  to  tne  neutral 
type.  This  admixture  of  textual  types  is  explained 
on  the  theory  that  A  or  its  prototype  was  not  copied 
from  a  single  MS.,  but  from  several  MSS.  of  varying 
value  and  diverse  origin.  Copyist's  errors  in  this 
codex  are  rather  frequent. 

Codex  Alexandrinus  played  an  important  part  in 
developing  the  textual  criticism  of  the  Bible,  par- 
ticularly of  the  New  Testament.  Grabe  edited  the 
Old  Testament  at  Oxford  in  1707-20,  and  this  edition 
was  reproduced  at  Zurich  1730-32,  and  at  Leipzig, 
1750-51,  and  again  at  Oxford,  by  Field,  in  1859; 
Woide  published  the  New  Testament  in  1786.  which 
B.  H.  Cowper  reproduced  in  1860.     The  readings  of 

Codex  A  were  noted 
in  Walton's  Polyglot, 
1657,  and  in  every 
important  collation 
since  made.  Baber 
published  an  edition 
of  the  Old  Testament 
in  facsimile  type  in 
1816-28;  but  all  pre- 
vious editions  were 
superseded  by  the 
magnificent  photo- 
graphic facsimile  of 
botn  Old  and  New 
Testaments  produced 
by  the  care  of  Sir  E. 
Alaunde  Thompson 
(^eN.T.inl879,the 
O.T.  in  1881-83),  with 
an  introduction  in 
which  the  editor  gives 
the  best  obtainable  de- 
scription of  the  codex 
(London,  1879-80). 

Westoott  and  Hort. 
The  New  Testament  in  the 
Orioinal  Greek  (New 
York,  1887);  NEflrrLB, 
Textual  Criticiem  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament 
(London,  1901):  Grbo- 
ORT,  Canon  and  Text  of 
the  New  Testament  (New 
York.  1907);  Kenyow, 
Handbook  to  the  Textual 
Criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (London.  1901); 
SwETE.  Introduction  to 
the  Old  Testament  in  Greek  (CSambridire,  IQCX));  Idem.  Old  Testae 
ment  in  Greek  (Cambridge,  1894):  Scrivener-Miller,  Intro' 
duction  to  the  Criticism  of  the  New  Testament  (London,  1894). 

John  F.  Fenlon. 

Ck>dex  Amiatiimg,  the  most  celebrated  manuscript 
of  the  Latin  Vulgate  Bible,  remarkable  as  the  best 
witness  to  the  true  text  of  St.  Jerome  and  as  a 
fine  specimen  of  medieval  calligraphy,  now  kept  at 
Florence  in  the  Bibliotheca  Laurentiana.  The  sym- 
bol for  it  is  written  am  or  A  (Wordsworth),  It  is  pre- 
served in  an  immense  tome,  measuring  in  height  and 
breadth  19}  inches  by  13}  inches,  and  in  thickness  7 
inches — so  impressive,  as  Hort  says,  as  to  fill  the 
beholder  with  a  feeling  akin  to  awe.  Some  consider 
it,  with  White,  as  perhaps  "the  finest  book  in  the 
world";  still  there  are  several  manuscripts  which  are 
as  beautifullv  written  and  have  besiaes,  like  the 
Book  of  Kelts  or  Book  of  Lindisfame,  those  exquisite 
ornaments  of  which  Amiatinus  is  devoid.  It  contains 
1029  leaves  of  strong,  smooth  vellum,  fresh-looking 
to-day,  despite  their  great  antic^uity,  arranged  in 
(]uires  of  four  sheets,  or  quaternions.  It  is  written 
in  uncial  characters,  large,  clear,  regular,  and  beauti- 
ful, two  columns  to  a  page,  and  43  or  44  lines  to  a 
column.  A  little  space  is  often  left  between  words, 
but  the  writing  is  in  general  continuous.    The  text  is 


IjVf  ||>^frf^ti^^| 


OODEX 


82 


OODXX 


divided  into  sections,  which  in  the  Gospels  correspond 
closely  to  the  Ammonian  Sections.  There  are  no 
marks  of  punctuation,  but  the  -skilled  reader  waa 
guided  into  the  sense  by  stichometric,  or  verse-like, 
arrangement  into  cola  and  commata,  which  corre^ 
Bpond  roughly  to  the  principal  and  dependent  cLausea 
of  a  sentence.  This  manner  of  writing  the  scribe  Is 
believtfid  to  have  modelled  upon  the  great  Bible 
K}{  Cwsiodorus  (q.  v.)»  but  it  goes  back  perhaps  even 
to B^,  Jerome ;  it  may  be  shown  best  by  an  example:— 

QUIA  IN   POTBSTATB   ERAT 

SERMO   IFSIUS 
Et  in  SYNAOOQA  ERAT  HOMO   RABENS 

DiEMONIUM   INMUNDUM 
BT  EXCLAMAVIT  VOCE   MAGNA 

DICENS 
SINE   QUID   NOBIS  ET  TIBI  IHl^ 

NAZARENE   VENISTI  PBRDEBE   NOS 
8CIO  TE  QUI  SIS  8CS  Dl 
BT  INCREPAVrr   ILL!   IHS   DICENS 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  section  "  Et  in"  and  the 
oola  b^in  at  about  the  same  perpendicular  line,  the 
commata  begin  further  in  unaer  the  third  6r  second 
letter,  and  so  likewise  does  the  continuation  of  a 
oc^n  or  comma  which  runs  beyond  a  single  line 
(see  facsimile  page).  This  arrangement,  besides 
aiding  the  intelligence  of  the  text,  gave  a  spacious, 
varied,  and  rather  artistic  appearance  to  the  page. 
The  initial  letter  of  a  section  was  often  written  in  ink 
of  a  different  colour,  and  so  also  was  the  first  line  of 
a  book.  Beyond  that  there  was  no  attempt  at 
decorating  the  text. 

The  codex  (or  pandect)  is  usually  said  to  contain  the 
whole  Bible;  but  it  should  be  noted  that  the  Book  of 
Baruch  is  missing,  though  the  Epistle  of  Jeremias, 
usually  incorporated  with  it,  is  here  appended  to  the 
Book  of  Jeremias.  Besides  the  text  of  the  Scriptural 
books,  it  contains  St.  Jerome's  "Prologus  Galeatus" 
and  his  prefaces  to  individual  books;  the  capiltila,  or 
summaries  of  contents;  and,  in  the  first  quaternion, 
certain  materials  which  have  been  much  discussed 
and  have  proved  of  the  greatest  service  in  tracing  the 
history  of  the  codex,  among  them  dedicatory  verses, 
a  list  of  the  books  contained  in  the  codex,  a  picture 
of  the  Tabernacle  (formerly  thought  to  be  Solomon's 
Temple),  a  division  of  the  Biblical  books  according  to 
Jerome,  another  according  to  Hilary  and  Epiphanius, 
and  a  third  according  to  Augustine.  Part  of  Solo- 
mon's prayer  (III  K.,  viii,  22-30)  in  an  Old  Latin 
text  is  reproduced  at  the  end  of  Ecclesiasticus.  A 
Greek  inscription  at  the  beginning  of  Leviticus,  re- 
cording that  "the  Lord  Servandus  prepared"  this 
codex  or  part  of  it,  has  entered  largely  into  the  dis- 
cussion of  its  origin. 

The  recoveiy  of  the  history  of  Codex  Amiatinus, 
which  has  important  bearings  upon  the  history  of 
the  Vulgate  itself  and  of  the  text  of  the  Bible,  was 
due  to  the  labours  of  many  scholars  and  the  insight 
of  one  man  of  genius,  de  Rossi.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  pandect,  as  we  have  mentioned,  there  are  certain 
dedicatory  verses;  they  record  the  gift  (of  the  codex) 
to  the  venerable  convent  of  St.  Saviour  by  a  certain 
Peter  who  was  abbot  from  the  extreme  territory  of 
the  Lombards.     The  Latin  text  is  as  follows: — 

CEffOSruX  AD    EXIMII  MERTTO 
VENERABILE   SALVATORia 

QUEM  CAPUT  ECCLESL« 
DEDICAT  ALTA   FIDES 

petrus  lasoobardorvx 

extremis  de  finib.  abbab 
devoti  appectus 

PIGNORA  MITTO   MEI 

St.  Saviour's  is  the  name  of  the  monastery  on 
Monte  Amiata  (whence  Amiaixnus)  near  Siena;  here 
this  codex  was  kept  from  the  ninth  century  till  the 


year  1786»  wheii  it  Was  brought  to  Florence  after  the 
suppression  of  the  monastery.  Naturally,  the  codex 
was  supposed  to  be  a  gift  to  this  house,  but  nothing 
was  known  of  the  donon  Bandini,  the  librarian  of 
the  Laurentiana,  into  whose  hands  the  codex  came, 
noticed  that  the  names  of  neither  the  donor  nor  of 
the  recipient  belonged  to  the  original  dedication. 
They  were  written  in  a  different  hand  over  parts 
of  the  original  inscription,  as  betrayed  by  evident 
signs  of  erasure.  The  letters  italicized  above  were 
by  the  second  hand,  while  the  initial  letter  c  of  the 
first  line  and  the  e  in  the  fifth  were  original.  Ban- 
dini noticed,  also,  that  cenohium  replaced  a  shorter 
word  and  that  the  last  five  letters  of  salvatoria  were 
written  on  parchment  that  had  not  been  erased,  and 
so  that  the  ten  letters  of  this  word  replaced  five  of 
the  original  word.  The  metre  also  was  entirely  at 
fault.  The  clue  for  reconstructing  the  original  lines 
he  found  in  the  expression  caput  eccUsixB,  which  he 
judged  referred  to  St.  Peter.  And  as  in  the  Middle 
Ages  a  favourite  title  for  the  Apostolic  See  was  cuUnen 
apostolicuntf  he  reconstructed  the  line  in  this  fashion: — 

CULMEN  AD   EXiMII  MERITO   VBNERA&ILE  PETRI 

This  conjecture  produced  a  correct  hexameter  verse, 
retained-  the  original  initial  c,  supplied  a  word  of 
proper  length  at  the  beginning  and  another  at  the 
end,  and  afforded  a  sense  fitting  in  perfectly  with  the 

Probabilities  of  the  case.  In  the  fifth  line,  instead  of 
*€tru8  Langobardorumf  Bandini  suggested  Setvandutt 
IxUiif  because  of  the  inscription  about  Servandus 
mentioned  above.  This  Servandus  was  believed  to 
be  the  friend  of  St.  Benedict,  to  whom  he  made  a 
visit  at  Monte  Cassino  in  541;  he  waa  abbot  of  a 
monastery  near  the  extremity  of  Latium. 

These  conjectures  were  accepted  by  the  learned 
world ;  Tischendorf ,  for  instance,  writing  seventy-five 
years  later,  said  Bandini  had  so  well  proved  his  case 
that  no  doubt  remained.  Accordingly,  it  was  settled 
that  the  Codex  Amiatinus  dated  from  the  middle  of 
the  sixth  century,  was  the  oldest  manuscript  t)f  the 
Vulgate,  and  was  written  in  Southern  Italy.  A  few 
protests  were  raised,  however;  that,  for  instance,  of 
Paul  de  Lagarde.  He  had  edited  St.  Jerome's  trans- 
lation of  the  Hebrew  Psalter,  using  freely  for  that 
purpose  a  codex  of  the  ninth  century ;  Amiatinus  he 
judged,  with  a  not  unnatural  partiality,  to  be  "in  all 
probability"  from  the  hand  of  the  scribe  of  his  ninth- 
century  Psalter,  written  '*at  Reichenau  on  the  Lake 
of  Oonstance".  But,  to  quote  Corssen,  it  was  G.  B. 
de  Rossi,  "that  great  Roman  scholar,  whose  never- 
failing  perspicacity  and  learning  discovered  at  once 
the  birthplace  of  our  famous  manuscript"  (Academy, 
7  April,  1888). 

De  Rossi  followed  Bandini  in  his  reconstruction  of 
the  first  verse,  but  he  thought  it  unlikely  that  an 
abbot,  presenting  a  book  to  the  pope  at  Rome,  should 
speak  of  "the  extreme  limits  of  Latium",  really  but 
a  short  distance  from  Rome.  Anziani,  the  librarian 
of  the  Laurentiana,  pointed  out  to  him  that  the  space 
erased  to  make  room  for  Petrtu  Langobardorum  was 
greater  than  called  for  by  the  conjecture  of  Bandini. 
De  Rossi  was  at  the  time  engaged  on  an  inquiry  into 
the  ancient  history  of  the  Vatican  Library,  and, 
recalling  a  paasai^e  of  Bedc,  he  divined  that  the  lost 
name  was  Ceolfridus.  The  erasures,  which  were 
irregular,  seeming  to  follow  the  letters  very  closely, 
corresponded  perfectly  to  this  eonjecture.  He  pro- 
posed then  the  verse: — 

CEOLFRIDUS   BRITONUM   EXTREMIS   DE   FINir .  ABBAS 

The  phrase  exactly  suited  an  abbot  from  the  end  of 
the  world,  as  England  was  then  re^rded  and  styled ; 
and  the  story  of  Ceolfrid  made  de  Rossi's  conjecture 
acceptable  at  once,  especially  to  English  sdiolars. 
Ceolfrid  was  the  disciple  of  Benedict  Bisoop  (o.  v.), 
who  foundo<i  the  n^onasteries  of  Wearmouth  ana  Jar-. 


^W'^\^'     -/^S'  :-::■■  ■^^^■.-  >,--,. .r.  .. 


(<•:.. '■,>- 


<pjix;iNp0TesT\TeeTuiRTUTe 

icnpeRXTSplRITI  BUS 

i;  ^fe^^uLc;\BXTUR  pxa>\  OeilJLo 


yx 


CODEX  AMIATINUS 

SECTION  OP  A  COLUMN.     LUKE,   IV,   32-37 
VIII  CENTURY.     MS.   IN  THE   BIBLIOTHECA  LAURENTIANA,  FLORENCE 


OODXX 


83 


OODXX 


Tovf  in  Northumberland  towards  the  end  of  th^  seventh 
century.  England,  in  those  davs,  was  the  most  de- 
voted daughter  of  the  Roman  See,  and  Abbot  Bene- 
dict was  enUiusiastic  in  his  devotion.  His  monas- 
teries were  dependent  directly  on  Rome.  Five  times 
during  his  life  ne  journeyed  to  Rome,  usually  bringing 
back  with  him  a  library  of  books  presented  by  the 
pope.  Ceolfrid,  who  had  accompamed  him  on  one  of 
these  visits,  became  his  successor  in  686  and  inherited 
his  taste  for  books :  Bede  mentions  three  pandects  of 
St.  Jerome's  translation  which  he  had  made,  one  of 
which  he  determined  in  his  old  age,  in  716,  to  bring 
to  the  church  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome.  He  died  on  the 
way,  but  his  ^t  was  carried  to  the  Holy  Father,  then 
Gr^^ry  II.  This  codex  de  Rossi  identmed  with  Ami- 
atinus. 

This  conjecture  was  hailed  by  all  as  a  genuine  dis- 
covery of  great  importance.  Berger,  however,  ob- 
jected to  BriUmum,  suggesting  Anglarum,  Hort  soon 
filaced  the  matter  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt, 
n  an  anonymous  life  of  Geolfria,  the  chief  source  of 
Bede's  information,  which,  though  twice  published, 
had  been  overlooked  by  all,  Hort  found  the  story 
about  Ceolfrid  journeying  to  Rome  and  cariying  the 
pandect  inscribed  with  the  verses: — 

Corpus  ad  eximii  merito  venerabilb  Petri 
Dbdicat  ecclesi-«  quem  caput  alta  tides 

CEOLFRIDUS,  ANOLORUM  EXTIMIS  DE  FINIBU8  ABBAS 

— etc.  Despite  the  variations,  there  could  be  no  doubt 
of  their  identity  with  the  dedicatory  verses  of  Amiar 
tinus;  Corpus  was  of  course  the  original,  not  CtUmen, 
and  Anglcnrum,  not  BriUmum;  the  other  differences 
were  perhaps  due  to  a  lapse  of  memory,  or  this  version 
may  represent  the  original  draft  of  the  dedication. 
De  Rossi's  chief  point  was  proved  right..  It  estab- 
lished the  fact  that  Amiatinus  originated  in  Northum- 
berland about  the  be^ning  of  the  eighth  century, 
having  been  made,  as  Bede  states,  at  Ceolfrid 's  order. 
It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  the  scribe  was  an 
Enslishman;  -  the  writing  and  certain  peculiarities  of 
or£ography  have  led  some  to  believe  him  an  Italian. 
We  know  that  these  two  monasteries  had  brought  over 
a  Roman  musician  to  train  the  monks  in  the  Roman 
chant,  and  they  may  also,  for  a  similar  purpose,  have 
procured  from  Italy  a  skilled  calligrapher.  The  hand- 
writing of  Amiatinus  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to 
some  fragments  of  St.  Luke  in  a  Durham  MS.,  to  N.-T. 
fragments  boimd  up  with  the  Utrecht  Psalter,  and  to 
the  Stonyhurst  St.  John;  these  facts,  together  with 
Bede's  statement  that  Ceolfrid  had  three  pandects 
written,  indicate  that  **  there  was  a  large  and  flourishing 
school  of  calli^phy  at  Wearmouth  or  Jarrow  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries,  of  which  till  lately  we 
had  no  knowledge  at  all"  (White).  This  conclusion 
is  confirmed  by  peculiarities  in  the  text  and  in  certain 
of  the  summaries. 

The  contents  of  the  first  quaternion  of  Amiatinus 
coincide  so  remarkably  with  descriptions  of  the  cele- 
brated Codex  Grandior  of  Casstodorus  that^it  has  been 
supposed  the  leaves  were  transferred  from  it  bodfly; 
the  conjecture  has  been  rendered  more  credible  by  the 
fact  that  this  codex  was  actually  seen  in  £n^land  by 
Bede,  perhaps  before  Amiatinus  was  carried  to  Rome. 
Moreover,  the  contents  of  our  codex  do  not  correspond 
exactly  to  the  list  prefixed  which  piirports  to  give  the 
contents.  These  reasons,  however,  would  only  prove 
that  the  Codex  Grandior  served  as  the  model,  which 
seems  indubitaUe;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  weighty 
reasons  have  been  urged  against  the  other  attractive 
hypothesis  (see  White  and  de  Rossi). 

Despite  the  lowering  of  its  date  by  a  century  and  a 
half,  Amiatinus  holds  the  first  place  for  purity  of  text 
aroon^  the  manuscripts  of  the  Vulgate.  Its  excel- 
lence 18  best  explained  on  the  ground  that  its  proto- 
type was  an  ancient  Italian  manuscript,  perhaps  one 
of  those  brought  from  Rome  by  Beneaict  ciscop,  per- 


haps one  brought  by  Adrian,  abbot  of  a  monastery 
near  Naples,  when  in  668  he  accompanied  Benedict  and 
Theodore  to  Endand.  It  is  remarkable  that  Amiatinus 
and  the  other  Northumbrian  codices  are  nearest  in 
text  to  Italian  MSS.,  especially  to  Southern  Italian, 
and  to  MSS.  betraying  Italian  descent.  The  group  to 
which  it  belongs  bears  the  closest  relationship  to  the 
best-esteemed  Greek  MSS.  extant,  M,  B.  (Cf.  Manu- 
scripts OF  THE  Bible  ;  Criticism,  Bibucal,  sub-title 
Textual,)  In  the  Old  Testament,  the  text  is  not  of 
equal  purity  throu^out;  Berger,  e.  g.,  notes  the  in- 
feriority of  Wisdom  and  Ecdesiasticus,  and  Tischen- 
dorf  of  Maohabees.  The  Psalter  does  not  present  the 
Vulgate  text,  but  St.  Jerome's  translation  from  the 
Hebrew  (cf.  Psalter;  Vulgate).  The  excellence  of 
the  Amiatine  text  is  not  a  new  discovery:  it  was  well 
known  to  the  Sixtine  revisers  of  the  Vulgate,  who  used 
it  constantly  and  preferred  it,  as  a  rule,  to  any  other. 
To  this  is  largely  due  the  comparative  purity  of  the 
official  Vul^te  text  and  its  freedom  from  so  many  of 
the  corruptions  found  in  the  received  Greek  text, 
which  rests,  as  is  well  known,  on  some  of  the  latest 
and  most  imperfect  Greek  MSS. 

White,  The  Codex  Amiatinus  and  Ita  Birth^jaee  in  Studia 
Biblica  (Oxford,  1890),  II;  Wobdsworth  ano  White,  Novum 
Testamenium  Latine  (Oxford,  1898);  de  Rossi,  La  Bibbia 
Offtrta  da  Ceolfrido  (Rome.  1887,  oontaining  a  photomphio 
facsimile  of  the  dedicatory  verses^;  Berger,  BiaUnre  de  la 
Vulgaie  (Paris,  1893);  Batiffol  m  Viootjroux,  Diet,  de  la 
Bible  'Paris,  1892),  a.  v.  Amiatinue,  with  facsimile  of  part  of  a 
pa«e  of  St.  Lake.  A  series  of  letters  to  the  Academy,  1886-89, 
byWoRDswoHTH.  Hort,  Corssen,  Sanday,  H.uiann.  Browne. 
etc.,  constitute  the  most  exhaustive  discussion.  The  text  of 
the  N.  T.  was  published  by  Ti9cheni>orf  (1850,  1854)  and  by 
'nuBOELLBs  (1857);  O.  T.  not  yet  published,  but  collated  in 
Hetse  and  Tibchsndorf.  Biblia  Latina  (Leipzig,  1873).  The 
Palasographical  Society  has  published  two  facsimile  pages. 

John  F.  Fenlon. 

Ck>dez  Besa  (Codex  Caih'Abrigiensis),  one  of  th6 
five  most  important  Greek  New  Testament  MSSl, 
and  the  most  interesting  of  all  on  account  of  ita  pecu- 
liar readings;  scholars  designate  it  by  the  letter  D 
(see  Criticism,  Biblical,  sub-title  Textual),  It  re- 
ceives ita  name  from  Theodore  Beza,  the  friend  and  suo- 
cessor  of  C^vin,  and  from  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
which  obtained  it  as  a  gift  from  Beaa  in  1581  and  still 
possesses  it.  The  text  is  bilingual,  Greek  and  Latin. 
The  manuscripti  written  in  uncial  characters,  forms  a 
quarto  volume,  of  excellent  vellum,  10x8  inches, 
with  one  column  to  a  page,  the  Greek  being  on  the 
left  page  (considered  the  place  of  honour),  the  paral- 
lel Latm  facing  it  on  the  right  page.  It  has  been 
reproduced  in  an  excellent  photo^phic  facsimile, 
published  (1899)  by  the  University  of  Cambridge.  . 

The  codex  contains  only  the  Four  Gospels,  in  the 
order  once  common  in  the  West,  Matthew,  John, 
Luke,  Mark,  then  a  few  verses  (11-15),  in  Latin  only, 
of  the  Third  Epistle  of  St.  John,  and  the  Acts.  There 
are  missing,  however,  from  the  MS.  of  the  original 
scribe,  in  the  Greek,  Matt.,  i,  1-20;  [iii,  7-16];  vi,  20- 
ix,  2;  xxvii,  2-12;  John  i,  16-iii,  26;  [xvin,  14-xx, 
13];  fMk.  xvi,  15-20];  Acts,  viii,  29-x,  14;  xxi,  2-10, 
16-18;  xxii,  10-20;  xxii,29-xxviii,  31;  in  the  Latin, 
Matt.,  i,  1-11;  pi,  21 -iii,  7];  vi,  8-viii,  27;  xxvi,  65- 
xxvii,  1;  John,  i,  1-iii,  16;  fxviii,  2-xx,  1];  {Mk.,xvi, 
6-20];  Acts,  viii,  20-x,  4;  xx,  31-xxi,  2,  7-10;  xxii, 
2-10;  xxiii,  20-xxviii,  31.  The  passages  in  brackets 
have  been  supphed  by  a  tenth-century  hand.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  St.  Luke^s  Gospel  alone,  of  the  books 
contained,  is  preserved  complete.  The  condition  of 
the  book  shows  a  gap  between  the  Gospels  and  Acts; 
and  the  fragment  of  III  John  indicates  that,  as  in 
other  ancient  MSS.,  the  Catholic  Epistles  were  placed 
there.  The  fact  that  the  Epistle  of  Jude  does  not 
immediately  precede  Acts  is  regarded  as  pointing  to 
its  omission  from  the  codex;  it  may,  however,  have 
been  placed  elsewhere.  We  cannot  tell  whether  the 
MS.  contained  more  of  the  New  Testament,  and  there 
is  no  indication  that  it  was,  like  the  other  great  unciaJ 


OODEX 


84 


OODEX 


MSSv  ever  iomed  to  the  text  of  the  Old  Tefltament. 
Beridlee  the  nand  of  the  original  scribe,  there  are  cor- 
rections in  several  different  hands,  some  probably 
contemporarv  with  the  original,  later  liturgical  anno- 
tations and  the  sortes  sanctorum ,  or  formula  for  telling 
fortunes;  all  these  are  important  for  tracing  the  his- 
torv  of  the  MS. 

Beza  wrote  in  the  letter  accompanying  his  gift 
that  the  MS.  was  obtained  from  the  monastery  of  St. 
Irenffius  in  Lyons,  during  the  war  in  1562.  Lyons 
was  sacked  by  the  Huguenots  in  that  year  and  this 
MS.  was  probably  part  of  the  loot.  The  reformer  said 
it  had  lam  in  the  monastery  for  long  ages,  neglected 
and  covered  with  dust;  but  his  stat^ent  is  rejected 
by  most  modem  scholars.  It  is  claimed,  in  fact,  that 
this  codex  is  the  one  which  was  used  at  the  Council  of 
Frent  in  1546  by  William  Dupr^  (English  writers  per- 
sist in  calling  this  Frenchman  k  mXo),  Bishop  of 
Clermont  in  Auvei^gne,  to  confirm  a  Latm  reading  of 
John,  xxi,  81  eum  volo  manere,  which  is  found  only  in 
the  Greek  of  this  codex.  Moreover,  it  is  uoially  iden- 
tified with  Codex  /S',  whose  peculiar  readings  were 
collated  in  1546  for  Stephens'  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament  by  friends  of  his  in  Italy.  Beza  himself, 
after  having  first  denominated  his  codex  LvgdunensUj 
later  called  it  ClaronumlanuSf  as  if  it  came  not  from 
Lyons,  but  from  Clermont  (near  Beauvais,  not  Cler- 
mont of  Auvei^e).  All  this,  throwing  Beza's  orig- 
inal statement  mto  doubt,  indicates  that  the  BIS.  was 
in  Italy  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
has  some  bearing  upon  the  locality  of  the  production. 

It  has  commonly  been  held  that  the  MS.  originated 
in  Southern  France  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century.  No  one  places  it  at  a  later  date,  chiefly  on 
the  evidence  of  the  nandwriting.  France  was  chosen, 
partly  because  the  MS.  was  found  there,  partly  be- 
cause churches  in  Lyons  and  the  South  were  of  Greek 
foundation  and  for  a  long  time  continued  the  use  of 
Greek  in  the  Liturgy,  while  Latin  was  the  vernacular 
— for  some  such  community,  at  any  rate,  this  bilin- 
gual codex  was  produced — and  partly  because  the 
text  of  D  bears  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  the  text 
quoted  by  St.  Irenseus,  even,  sajrs  Nestle,  in  the  mat- 
ter of  clerical  mistakes,  so  that  it  is  possibly  derived 
from  his  very  copy.  During  the  past  five  years,  how- 
ever, the  opinion  of  the  best  English  textual  critics 
has  been  veerinj;  to  Southern  Italy  as  the  original 
home  of  D.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  MS.  was  used 
by  a  church  practising  the  Greek  Rite,  as  the  hturgi- 
cal  annotations  concern  the  Greek  text  alone;  that 
these  aimotations  date  from  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh 
century,  exactly  the  period  of  the  Greek  Rite  in 
Southern  Italy,  while  it  had  died  out  elsewhere  in 
Latin  Christendom,  and  show  that  the  Byzantine 
Masa-lections  were  in  use,  which  cannot  have  been 
the  case  in  Southern  France.  The  corrections,  too, 
which  concern  the  Greek  text  and  but  rarely  the 
Latin^  the  spelling,  and  the  calendar  all  point  to 
Southern  Italy.  These  arguments,  however,  touch 
only  the  home  of  the  MS.,  not  its  birthplace,  and 
MSS.  have  travelled  from  one  end  of  Europe  to  the 
other.  Ravenna  and  Sardinia,  where  Greek  and 
Latin  influences  also  met,  have  likewise  been  sug- 
gested. It  can  only  be  said  that  the  certainty  with 
which  till  recently  it  was  ascribed  to  Southern  France 
has  been  shaken,  and  the  probabilities  now  favour 
Southern  Italy. 

Following  Scrivener,  scholars  universally  dated  it 
from  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  but  there  is 
a  tendency  now  to  place  it  a  hundred  years  earlier. 
Scrivener  himself  admitted  that  the  handwriting  was 
not  inconsistent  with  this  early  date,  and  only  as- 
signed it  a  later  date  by  reason  of  the  Latinity  of  the 
annotations.  But  the  corrupt  Latin  is  not  itself  in- 
compatible with  an  earlier  date,  while  the  freedom 
with  which  the  I>atin  N.  T.  text  is  handled  indicates 
a  time  when  the  Old  Latin  version  was  still  current. 


It  probably  belongs  to  the  fifth  century.^    Nothing 
necessitates  a  later  date. 

The  type  of  text  found  in  D  is  very  ancient,  vet  ft 
has  survived  in  this  one  Greek  MS.  alone,  thougn  it  is 
found  also  in  the  Old  Latin,  the  Old  S3rnac,  and  the 
Old  Armenian  versions.  It  is  the  so-called  Western 
Text,  or  one  type  of  the  Western  Text.  All  the 
Fathera  before  tne  end  of  the  third  century  used 
a  similar  text  and  it  can  be  traced  back  to  su&- 
Apostolic  times.  Its  value  is  discussed  elsewhere. 
D  departs  more  widely  than  any  other  Greek  codex 
from  the  ordinary  text,  compared  with  which  as  a 
standard,  it  is  characterized  by  numerous  additions^ 
I>araphra8tic  renderings,  inversions,  and  some  omis' 
sions.  (For  collation  of  text,  see  Scrivener,  Bezss 
Codex,  pp.  xlix-bdii:  Nestle,  Novi  Test.  Grseci  Sup- 
plementum,  Gebharat  and  iWhendorf  ed.,  Leipzigr 
1896.)  One  interpolation  is  worth  noting  here.  Af- 
ter Luke,  vi,  5,  we  read:  "On  the  same  day  seeing 
some  one  working  on  the  Sabbath,  He  said  to  him: 
*  O  man,  if  you  know  what  you  do,  blessed  are  you; 
but  if  you  do  not  know,  you  are  cursed  and  a  trans- 
gressor of  the  law'."  The  most  important  oxniission, 
probably,  is  the  second  mention  of  ihb  cup  in  Luke's 
account  of  the  Last  Supper. 

The  Latin  text  is  not  the  Vulgate,  nor  yet  the  Old 
Latin,  which  it  resembles  more  closely.  It  seems  to 
be  an  independent  translation  of  the  Greek  that  faces 
it,  though  the  fact  that  it  contains  two  thousand  varia- 
tions from  its  accompanying  Greek  text  have  led  some 
to  doubt  this.  Of  tnis  number,  however,  only  seven 
hundred  and  sixteen  are  said  to  be  real  variant  read- 
ings, and  some  of  these  are  derived  from  the  Vulgate. 
If  the  translation  be  independent,  both  the  Vulnte 
and  Old  Latin  have  influenced  it  greatj^;  as  tune 
went  on,  the  influence  of  the  Vulgate  grew  and  proba- 
bly extended  even  to  modifications  of  the  GrecK  text. 
Chase,  however,  traces  many  of  the  variants  to  an 
original  Syriac  influence.  The  text,  which  was  in  so 
great  honour  in  the  Early  Church,  possesses  a  fasci- 
nation for  certain  scholars,  who  occasionally  prefer  its 
readings;  but  none  professes  to  have  reiUly  solved  the 
mystery  of  its  origin. 

ScsxVENKR,  Beza  Codtx  text,  introduction,  and  not«B  VCbm- 
bridge.  1864);  Idem,  An  lrUrod%tclwn  to  tha  Textual  CrUicitm 
of  the  New  Teatament  (London,  1894);  Harbm,  Study  of  Codex 
Beza,  in  the  Cambridge  Texts  and  Studies  (Cambridge,  1893); 
Idem,  Four  Leeturee  on  the  Weelem  Text  (London,  1894);  Idem, 
The  Anhotaton  of  the  Codex  Beta  (London,  1901);  Westoott 
AND  HoRT,  Greek  New  Testament  (New  Yorlc).  II;   Gba8Ev7A« 


Old  Syriac  Element  in  the  Text  of  Codex  Beza  (Ixnxdon,  1893); 
Idem,  The  Syro-Latin  TexU  of  the  Oospela  (London.  1896); 
BuRKiTT,  Tfie  Date  of  Codex  Beza,  in  The  Journal  of  TKootof 
ical  Studies  (July,  1902);  valuable  studies  by  Lajkb  and 
Brightman.  ibid.,  vol.  I;  Blabs,  Philology  of  the  Gospels 
(London.  1898);  Idem,  Ada  Apostolorum  (Blaas's  reooitftrue* 
tion  of  Western  Text  of  Acts)  (LeipEig.  1896);  Watas.  IXr 
Codex  D  in  der  Apostelgeschichts  (Leipxig.  189^. 

John  F.  Fenlom; 

Oodex  Oanonum.  See  Canons,  CoLLVcnoir  of 
Ancibnt. 

Oodex  Cphrami  Rescriptua  (symbol  C).  last  in 
the  group  of  the  four  great  nn<Aa\  MSS.  of  tne  Oreek 
Bible,  received  it0  name  from  the  treatises  of  St. 
Ephrsem  the  Syrian  (translated  into  Greek)  which 
were  written  over  the  original  text.  This  took  place 
in  Uie  twelfth  centui^,  the  ink  of  the  Scriptural  text 
having  become  partiallv  effaced  through  fading  or 
rubbing.  Several  Bibhcal  codices  are  palimpsests 
(see  A£iNtTBORiPTB  OP  TBB  Biblb),  of  wtiich  Codex 
Ephnemi  is  the  most  important.  After  the  fall  of 
Constantinople  it  waa  brought  to  Florence;  thence  it 
was  carried  to  Paris  by  (]!atherine  de'  Medici,  and  has 
passed  into  the  posseasion  of  the  National  Libraiy. 

Through  Pierre  Alix,Montf«ucon,  and  Boivin,  atten- 
tion was  called  to  the  und^lyi^  text,  and  some  of  its 
readings  given  to  the  world.  Tne  first  complete  col- 
lation of  the  N.  T.  was  made  by  Wetstcin  (1716). 
Tischendorf  published  the  N.  T.  in  1843  and  the 


OODSX 


85 


OODSZ 


O.  T.  in  1845.  Tlie  torn  coadition  of  many  leaves,  tho 
faded  atate  of  the  ink,  and  the  covering  of  the 
original  writing  by  the  latter  made  the  decipnerment 
an  extremely  difficult  task;  some  portions  are  hope- 
loBsiy  illegible.  Tischendoif,  then  a  yoimg  man,  won 
hia  r^utation  through  this  achievement.  His  results, 
however,  have  not  been  checked  by  other  scholars, 
and  80  cannot  yet  be  accepted  without  caution. 

The  codex,  of  good  vellum,  measures  12^  inches  by 
9  inches;  there  is  but  one  column  to  a  page,  C  being 
the  earliest  example  of  this  kind.  The  writing  is  a 
little  larger  than  that  of  K;  A,  and  B;  the  first  hand 
inserted  no  breathing  or  accents,  and  onhr  an  occa- 
sional apostrophe.  The  period  is  marked  by  a  single 
point.  Laive  capitals  are  frequent,  as  in  A.  The 
maiigin  of  the  Gospels  contains  the  Ammtmian  Sec- 
tions, but  not  the  numbers  of  the  Eusebian  Canons, 
which  were  probably  written  in  vermilion  and  have 

'ToZi.eeTi  xn  kxahx-« 

T H  N  TCU N  CXK€ Y 
OM  6  N  cu  Km  f: TKO 
ciNOJcnenoiH 

MeNCONlHXMlM-l 
TAM  H  CAAeVOM  €NK 
A.1  O  R  XC  t\ei  XN  XCA 

XCYTON  nxi'XA.xu. 
EXMONTeceXOH^ 
>CKflHXlHCAXTP«T 

OMeNeyxfecTcu* 

TCU  e  OD  H.€  TX€r|>X 
R  I XCK  XlliwfeOyc K>4 

rxpoeic  H  MO)  M  nif 

KXTXNXXICKTON-  ' 
H  <pi  XX  Jb.eXcbi  XM* 
H€TCUTH  KCbiXo 

^eisiixt^MH^nixx 

Codex  Sinaiticub,  Hebhewb,  xn,  27-xn 
MS.  IN  Impebial  Libbart, 


another.  "Sometimes",  says  Kenyon,  "it  agrees 
with  the  neutral  group  of  manuscripts,  sometunes 
with  the  Western,  not  unfrequently  with  the  Alexan- 
drian and  perhaps  oftenest  with  the  Syrian".  From 
certain  displacements  in  the  Apocalypse,  Hort  infers 
that  the  book  was  copied  from  a  codex  of  small  leaves.  ^ 
Such  an  exemplar  would  not  be  used  in  church  serv- 
ices and  would  have  no  guarantee  of  a  good  text.  Pos- 
sibly the  rest  of  the  MS.  was  copied  from  similar 
codices. 

TiacHENDORF,  Codex  Ephngmi  Syri  ReseriptuM  (LeipnE, 
1843-1845);  Swete.  OW  Testament  in  Greek  fCambrid«e,  1890. 
II,  pp.  xiii,  xiv.    See  also  bibliography  of  Codex  Alexan- 

DRINUS. 

JoKs  F.  Fbnlon. 


Oodex  SinaiticoB  (symbol  K,  though  Swete  and 
a  few  other  scholars  use  S),  a  Greek  manuscript  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  of  the  greatest  antiquity 

fMlNTOHAOrON 

Tovey^A^  N  XN  X0C 

a>fOYNT€CTMH«K 
RXCINTHCA.NXC7[i 

d>HCM  iMeicexiTH 

niCTIN 

lcx"cexeecKxicH 
MepoNoxcnrocK 

eiCTOYCXICDNX* 

A^ixxxxicrioiKi 

XAICKXIZeNXiCMi 

nxfX<l>efeceekx 
XONrXfXXfiTiRe 

K  XI  oyce  eTH  n  K*f 

XlXNOyBf<JDMX«IM 

eNoicoYKa>d>€ 
XH  ej-^cxN  o  I  n  cfi 


nxT< 


m 


T€C 


t,  2,  AND  XIII,  7-9,  IV  Century, 
St.  Petersburg 


faded  awav.  The  Euthalian  chapters  are  missing; 
the  BubflcnptioDS  are  brief.  From  these  indications 
and  the  character  of  the  writing,  Codex  C  is  placed  in 
thefirsthalf  of  the  fifth  oentui^r,  along  with  A.  Tisch- 
endorf  distinguished  two  scribes  (contemporaries), 
one  for  O.  T..  the  other  for  N.  T.,  and  two  correctors, 
one  (C*)  <^  tne  sixth,  the  other  (G*)  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tuiy;  he  conjectured  that  ^jffpt  was  the  place  of 
origin.  With  the  exception  of  Tischendorf  no  modem 
has  really  studied  the  MS. 

Orieinally  the  whole  Bible  seems  to  have  been  oon- 
taineoin  it.  At.present,  of  the  O.  T.  only  some  of  the 
Hagiographa  survive,  in  an  imperfect  state,  namely 
nearly  all  of  Ecclesiastes,  about  half  of  Eoclesiasticus 
and  Wisdom,  with  fragments  of  Proverbs  and  Canti- 
dee — in  all  64  leaves.  About  two-thirds  of  the  N«  T. 
(145  leaves)  remain,  including  portions  of  all  the 
books  except  II  Thess.  and  II  John;  no  book  is  com- 
plete. The  text  of  C  is  said  to  be  very  good  in  Wis- 
dom, very  bad  in  Ecclesiasticus,  two  books  for  which 
its  tefitimony  is  important.  The  N.  T.  text  is  verv 
mixed;  the  scribe  seems  to  have  had  before  him  MSS. 
of  different  t3rpe8  and  to  have  followed  now  one  now 


and  value;  found  on  Mount  Sinai,  in  St.  Catherine's 
Monasterv,  hf  Constantine  Tischendorf.  He  was 
visiting  there  m  1844,  under  the  patronage  of  Fred- 
erick Augustus,  Kin£  of  Saxony,  when  he  discovered 
in  a  rubbish  basket  forty-three  leaves  of  the  Septua- 
eint,  containing  portions  of  1  Par.  (dSiron.),  Jer., 
Neh.,  and  Esther;  he  was  pjennitted  to  take  them. 
He  also  saw  the  books  of  Isaias  and  I  and  IV  Mach., 
belonging  to  the  same  oodex  as  the  fragments,  but 
could  not  obtain  possession  of  them;  warning  the 
monks  of  their  value,  he  left  for  Europe  and  two  years 
later  published  the  leaves  he  had  brought  with  him 
under  the  name  of  Codex  Friderico-Augustanus,  after 
his  patron.  Tliey  are  preserved  at  Leipzig.  On  a 
second  visit,  in  1853,  he  found  only  two  short  frag* 
ments  of  Genesis  (which  he  printed  on  his  return)  and 
could  learn  nothing  of  the  rest  of  the  codex.  In  1859 
he  made  a  third  visit,  this  time  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Czar,  Alexander  II.  This  visit  seemed  likewise 
fruitless  when,  on  the  eve  of  his  departure,  in  a  chance 
conversation  with  the  steward,  he  learned  of  the  ex- 
istence of  a  manuscript  there ;  when  it  was  shown  to 
him,  he  saw  the  very  manuscript  he  had  sought  con- 


dot)li:it 


86 


ooosx 


Gaining,  beyond  all  his  dreams,  a  great  pari  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  entire  New  Testament,  besides  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas,  and  part  of  the  "Shepherd"  of 
Hermas,  of  which  two  works  no  copies  in  the  original 
,  Greek  were  known  to  exist.  Thinking  it  *' a  crime  to 
nieep '',  Tischendorf  spent  the  night  copying  Barnabas; 
\ie  had  to  leave  in  tne  morning,  after  failing  to  per- 
suade the  monks  to  let  him  have  the  manuscript.  At 
Cairo  he  stopped  at  a  monastery  belonging  to  the 
same  monks  (they  were  of  the  Orthodox  Greek 
Church)  and  succeeded  in  having  the  manuscript  sent 
to  him  there  for  transcription;  and  finally,  in  obtain- 
ing it  from  the  monks  as  a  present  to  the  Czar,  Tisch- 
endorf's  patron  and  the  protector  of  their  Church. 
Years  later,  in  1869,  the  Cfzar.rewarded  the  two  mon- 
asteries with  gifts  of  money  (7000  and  2000  roubles 
each)  and  decorations.  The  manuscript  is  treasured 
in  the  Imperial  Library  at  St.  Petersburg.  Tischen- 
dorf published  an  account  of  it  in  1860;  and,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  csar,  printed  it  in  facsimile  in 
1S62.  Twenty-one  lithographic  plates  made  from 
photographs  were  included  in  this  edition,  which  was 
i38ued  in  four  volumes.  Tlie  following  year  he  pub- 
lished a  critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament.  Fi- 
nally, in  1867,  he  published  additional  fragments  of 
Genesis  and  Numbers,  which  had  been  used  to  bind 
other  volimt^es  at  St.  Catherine's  and  had  been  dis- 
covered by  the  Archimandrite  Porfirius.  On  four  dif- 
ferent occasions,  then,  portions  of  the  original  manu- 
script have  been  discovered;  they  have  never  been 
published  together  in  a  single  edition. 

The  Codex  Sinaiticus,  which  originaliv  must  have 
contained  the  whole  Old  Testament,  has  suffered 
severelv  from  mutilation,  especially  in  the  historical 
books  from  Genesis  to  Esdras  (inclusive) ;  the  rest  of 
the  O.  T.  fared  much  better.  The  fragments  and 
books  extant  are:  several  verses  from  Gen.,  xxiii  and 
xxiv,  and  from  Num.,  v,  vi,  vii;  I  Par.,*ix,  27-xix, 
17;  f^sdras,  ix,  9  to  end;  Nehemias,  Esther,  Tobias, 
Judith,  Joel,  Abdias,  Jonas,  Nahum,  Habaoiic,  Sopho- 
nias,  Aggeus,  Zacharias,  Malacbias,  Isaias,  Jeremias, 
Lamentations,  i,  1-ii,  20;  I  Mach.,  IVMach.  (apocry- 
phal, while  the  canonical  II  Mach.  and  the  apocrvphal 
III  Mac^.  were  never  contained  in  this  oodeac).  A 
curious  occurrence- is  that  Esdras,  ix,  9,  follows  I  Par., 
xix,  17  without  any  break;  the  note  of  a  corrector 
shows  that  seven  leaves  of  I  Par.  were  copied  into  the 
Book  of  Esdras,  probably  by  a  mistake  in  the  bindinjg 
of  the  MS.  from  which  fi<  was  copied.  Oitr  Esdras  is 
called  in  this  codex,  as  in  many  others,  Esdras  B.  This 
may  indicate  that  it  followed  Esdras  A,  as  the  book 
called  by  Jerome  III  Esdras  (see  Esdras)  is  named  in 
ancient  codices;  the  proof  is  by  no  means  sure,  how- 
ever, as  IV  Mach.  is  here  designated  Mach.  D,  as  was 
usual,  although  the  second  and  third  books  of  Mach. 
were  absent  from  the  MS.  The  New  Testament  is  com- 
plete, likewise  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas;  six  leaves  fol- 
lowing Barnabas  are  lost,  which  probably  also  con- 
tained uncanonical  literature:  the  "Shepherd"  of 
Hermas  is  incomplete,  and  we  cannot  tell  whether  other 
works  followed.  In  all,  there  are  346  J  leaves.  The 
order  of  the  N.  T.  is  to  be  noted,  St.  Paul's  Emstles  pre* 
ceding  Acts ;  Hebrews  following  II  Thess.  The  manu- 
script is  on  good  parchment;  the  pages  measure  about 
15  inches  by  13J  inches;  there  are  four  columns  to  a 
page,  except  in  the  poetical  books,  which  are  written 
stichometrically  in  two  columns  of  fireater  width; 
there  are  48  lines  to  a  column,  but  47  m  the  Catholic 
Epistles.  The  four  narrow  col  umns  give  the  page  the 
appearance  of  an  ancient  roll ;  it  is  not  impossible,  as 
Kenyon  says,  that  it  was  in  fact  copied  from  a  papyrus 
roll.  It  is  written  in  uncial  characters,  well  formed, 
without  accents  or  breathings,  and  with  no  punctua- 
tion except  (at  times)  the  apostrophe  and  the  single 
point  for  a  period.  Tfechendorf  judged  that  there 
were  four  hands  engaged  in  the  writing  of  the  manu- 
script; in  this  he  has  been  generally  followed.    He 


has  been  less  happy  in  obtaining  acceptance  of  tus 
conjecture  that  one  of  these  scnbes  also  wrote  the 
New  Testament  of  the  Vatican  Codex.  He  recog- 
nised seven  correctors  of  the  text,  one  of  them  con- 
temporaneous with  the  writing  of  the  MS.  The 
Ammonian  Sections  and  the  Eusebian  Canons  are  in- 
dicated in  the  margin,  probably  by  a  contemporary 
hand;  they  seem  to  have  been  unknown  to  the 
scribe,  however,  who  followed  another  division.  The 
clerical  errors  are  relatively  not  numerous,  in  Greg- 
ory's judgment. 

In  age  this  manuscript  ranks  alongside  the  Codex 
Vaticanus.    Its  antiquity  is  shown  by  the  writing,  by 
the  four  columns  to  a  page  (an  indication,  probably, 
of  the  transition  from  the  roll  to  the  codex  form  of 
MS.),  by  the  absence  of  the  large  initial  letters  and  of 
ornaments,  by  the  rarity  of  punctuation,  by  the  short 
titles  of  the  books,  the  presence  of  divisions  of  the  text 
antedating  Eusebius^  the  ^dition  of  Barnabas  and 
Hennas^  etc.    Such  mdications  have  induced  experts 
to  place  it  in  the  fourth  century,  alon^  with  B  and 
some  time  before  A  and  C;  this  conclusion  is  not  seri- 
ously questioned,  thou^  the  possibility  of  an  early 
fifth-century  date  is  conceded.     Its  origin  has  been 
assigned  to  Rome,  Southern  Italy,  Egypt,  and  Caesa- 
rca,but  cannot  be  determined  (Kenyon,  Handbook  to 
the  Textual  Criticism  of  the  N.  T.,  London,  1901, 
p.  56  sqq.).    It  seems  to  have  been  at.  one  time  at 
Ciesarea;  one  of  the  correctors  (probably  of  seventh 
century)  adds  this  note  at  the  end  of  Esdras:  "Thin 
codex  was  compated  witn  a  very  ancient  exemplar 
which  had  been  corrected  by  the  hand  of  the  holy 
martyr  Pamphflus  [d-  309];  whfch  exemplar  contained 
at  the  end  tne  subscription- in  his  own  hand:  'Taken 
and  corrected  accordmg  to  the  Hexapla  of  Origen: 
Antonius  compared  it:  1,'Pamphilus,  corre<rtpd  it'." 
Pamphilus  was,  with  Eusebius,  the  founder  of  tht?  library 
at  CsBsarea.    Some  are  even  inclined  lo  regard  feC  as  one 
of  the  fifty  MSS.  which  Constantine  bade  Eusebius  of 
Caesarea  to  have  prepafed'in  331  for  the  churches  of 
Constantinople;  but  there  is  no  sign  of  its  havuig  been 
at  Constantmofde.    Nothing  is  known  of  its  later  his- 
tory till  ite  discovery  by  Tischendorf,    The  text  of  K 
bears  a  verv  dose  resemblance  to  that  of  B,  though  it 
cannot  be  descendedrf  rom  the  same  immediate  ances^ 
tor.    In  general^  B  is  placed  first  in  point  of  purity 
by  contemporary  scholars  and  K  next.    This  is  especi- 
ally true,  for  the  N.  T.,  of  the  Gospels.    The  differ- 
ences are  more  frequent  in  the  O.  T,  irhfere  K  and 
A  often  agree. 

The  e^itiona  of  TtsCHSWDOKr  (see  above);  SWktv:,  Introduc- 
tion lo  the  Old  Testament  in  Oreek  (Cambridge,  1900);  see  also 
works  on  N.-T.    criticism  mentioned  under  Codex  Albxan- 

OBINUS. 

John  F.  Fenlon. 

Oodez  Vaticaaas  (Codbx  B),  a  Greek  manuscript, 
the  most  important  of  all  the  manuscripts  of  Holy 
Scripture.  It  is  so  called  because  it  belongs  to  the 
Vatican  Library  {Codex  VaiicanuSy  1209). 

This  codex  is  a  quarto  volume  written  in  unoia) 
lettera  of  the  fourth  century,  on  folios  of  fine  parch- 
ment bound  in  quintems.  Each  page  is  divided  into 
three  columns  of  forty  lines  each,  with  from  sixteen 
to  eighteen  letters  to  a  line,  except  in  the  poetical 
books,  where,  owing  to  the  stichometric  division  of 
the  lines,  there  are  but  two  columns  to  a  page.  There 
are  no  capital  letters,  but  at  times  the  first  letter  of  a 
section  extends  over  the  margin.  Several  hands 
worked  at  the  manuscript;  the  first  writer  inserted 
neither  pauses  nor  accents,  and  made  use  but  rarely 
of  a  simple  punctuation.  Unfortunately,  the  codex 
is  mutilated;  at  a  later  date  the  missing  folios  were 
reolaced  by  others.  Thus,  the  first  twenty  original 
folios  are  missing;  a  part  of  folio  178,  and  ten  folios 
after  fol.  348;  also  the  final  quintems,  whose  number 
it  is  impossible  to  establish.  There  are  extant  in  all 
759  original  folios. 


OODEX 


87 


OODEX 


The  Old  Testament  (Septuagint  Version,  except 
Daniel,  which  is  taken  from  the  Version  of  Theodo- 
tion)  takes  up  617  folios.  On  account  of  the  afore- 
mentioned lacunae,  the  Old  Testament  text  lacks  the 
following  passages:  Gen.,  i-xlvi,  28;  II  Kings,  ii,  5-7, 
10-13;  Pss.  cv,  27-cxxxvii,  6.  The  order  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  is  as  follows:  Genesis  to 
Second  Paralipomenon,  First  and  Second  Esdras, 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Canticle  of  Canticles, 
Job,  Wisdom,  Ecclesiasticus,  Esther,  Judith,  Tobias, 
the  Minor  Prophets  from  Osee  to  Malachy,  Isaias, 
Jeremias,  Baruch,  Lamentations  and  Epistle  of  Jere- 
mias,  Ezechiel,  Daniel;  the  Vatican  Codex  does  not 
contain  the  Prayer  of  Manasses  or  the  Books  of 
Machabees.  The  New  Testament  begins  at  fol.  618. 
Owing  to  the  loss  of  the  final  quinterns,  a  portion  of 
the  Pauline  Epistles  is  missing:  Heb.,  ix,  14-xiii,  25, 
the  Pastoral  Letters,  Epistle  to  Philemon;   also  the 


discovered  by  him,  is  rightly  considered  to  be  the 
oldest  extant  copy  of  the  Bible.  Like  the  Codex 
Sinaiticus  it  represents  what  Westcott  and  Hort  call 
a  "neutral  text",  i.  e.  a  text  that  antedates  the  modi- 
fications found  in  all  later  manuscripts,  not  only  the 
modifications  found  in  the  less  ancient  Antiochene 
recensions,  but  also  those  met  with  in  the  Extern  and 
Alexandrine  recensions.  It  may  be  said  that  the 
Vatican  Codex,  written  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourth 
century,  represents  the  text  of  one  of  those  recensions 
of  the  Bible  which  were  current  in  the  third  century, 
and  that  it  belongs  to  the  family  of  manuscripts  made 
use  of  by  Origen  in  the  composition  of  his  Hexapla. 
The  originaihome  of  the  Vatican  Codex  is  uncertain. 
Hort  thinks  it  was  written  at  Rome;  Rendel  iFiarris, 
Armitage  Robinson,  and  others  attribute  it  to  Asia 
Minor.  A  more  common  opinion  maintains  that  it 
was  written  in  Egypt.     Armitage  Robinson  believes 


i 


j  c^  b^e  K I A  w  o  K  nr  >w  t  -  f  uj 


•  K  Yk  K  N  i  p|  KT  r  c  e  €  I  c  *;ni 

S<  O  A  O  M  O^  6  PXCD  6  UaUK 

■,  xri^c;rwh<iLfeKKHi'yMi^« 

Hf  r>'i^  H;r>l i!j  OM I  MAKt ' 
:0y  I  c|  i.  HK  Ku  1 4  J  H  ro  Y^ ; 
jM  fwo  r  A^-FQ  Y^jv^y»<li 

Ta>  i^i  I  e  f  €  uj  1*  no  A  A  in 

urn-    ^  I  \    .   .     t 

CoDKX  Vaticanub,  III  EsDRAB  (Afocrtphal) 


46-49 


Apocalypse.  It  is  possible  that  there  mav  also  be 
some  extra-canonical  writings  missing,  like  the  Epistle 
of  Clement.  The  order  of  tne  New  Testament  books 
is  as  follows:  Gospels,  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Catholic 
Epistles,  St.  Paul  to  the  Romans,  Corinthians  (I-II), 
Galatians,  Ephesians,  Philippians,  Thessalonians  (I- 
II),  Hebrews. 

In  the  Vatican  Codex  we  find  neither  the  Ammonian 
Sections  nor  the  Eusebian  Canons  (q.  v.).  It  is,  how- 
ever, divided  into  sections,  after  a  manner  that  is 
common  to  it  with  the  Codex  Zacjmthius  (Cod.  S),  an 
eighth-century  Scriptural  manuscript  of  St.  Luke. 
The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  exhibit  a  special  division  into 
thirty-six  chapters.  The  Catholic  Epistles  bear  traces 
of  a  double  division,  in  the  first  ana  earlier  of  which 
some  believe  that  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter  was 
wanting,  llie  division  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  is  quite 
peciiliar:  they  are  treated  as  one  book,  and  numbered 
continuously.  It  is  clear  from  this  enumeration  that 
in  the  copy  of  the  Scriptures  reproduced  by  the  Vati- 
can Codex  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  placed 
between  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  and  the  Epistle 
to  the  Ephesians. 

Tlie  Vatican  Codex,  in  spite  of  the  views  of  Tlschen- 
dorf ,  who  held  for  the  priority  of  the  Codex  Sinaiticus, 


rr^  or  a  c^^kVa  i  an  a  E  U^ 

g  AC  1^^  e  I  e  nrai  H  X A  A  Aiwt 
'co  w'6  Ynro  i  iJ/i  e  Knr^m  x 

TO  YCH>  AM  I C  KpyrlY 

TuiK€N>6M<feArAnefr 

KAipY)<"^<b«lCAH-nc*  ^ 
>4  €  A i^ Tc K dfy t<ei; in Ap 
e€NOYK4»nrecKY^T 

nKwrAcnAr^iwu>K*^N  ^ 
e  I  e  TA  c  X  €  y  ?  JsC  A  ynji^ 

K  A t  n  AMTATA  (  G  f  e  Ac K-y 
H  "TOyXYTAM  etAAAtf 
.TKM  e  I  KP  AK^  rTACKIli - 

^o  ycT^oy  KY  K  A I  *ri^c 
a^fc.  CI  Ki  Hfiic  A  n  a©  H  i<A* 

A  N  A  A 1^  6  o'n  ^mcJiry  hn  *r 
H:  A  N  C  I  C I A  K  YAcji  H  AKXt 

AND  1,  52-54,  IV  Cbnturt.     MS.  in  Vatican  Libr.vry 

that  both  the  Yaticanus  and  the  Sinaiticus  were  origi- 
nally together  in  some  ancient  library.  His  opinion 
is  based  on  the  fact  that  in  the  margins  of  both  manu- 
scripts IB  found  the  same  special  system  of  chapters 
for  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  taken  from  the  division 
of  Euthalius,  and  found  in  two  other  important  codices 
(Amiatinus  and  Fuldensis)  of  the  Latin  Vulgate. 
Tischendorf  believed  that  three  hands  had  work«l  at 
the  transcription  of  the  Vatican  Codex.  He  identified 
(?)  the  first  nand  (B*),  or  transcriber,  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment with  the  transcriber  of  a  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  some  folios  of  the  New  Testament  in  the 
Codex  Sinaiticus.  This  primitive  text  was  revised, 
shortly  after  its  original  transcription,  with  the  aid  of 
a  new  manuscript,  by  a  corrector  (B* — For  the  Old 
Testament  B*  is  quoted  by  Swete  as  B').  Six  centu- 
ries after  (accordmg  to  some),  a  third  hand  (B*,  B*) 
retraced  the  faded  letters,  leaving  but  very  little  of 
the  original  untouched.  According  to  Fabiani,  how- 
ever, this  retracing  was  done  early  in  the  fifteenth 
century  by  the  monk  Clemens  (qui  scbcuIo  XV  ineunte 
floruisse  videtur).  In  modem  times  (fifteenth-six- 
teenth century)  the  missing  folios  were  added  to  the 
codex,  in  order,  as  Treeelles  conjectures,  to  prepare  it 
for  use  in  the  Vatican  Library.     Old  catalogues  show 


CODRIHGTOK 


88 


OO-BDUOATIOH 


thai  it  was  there  m  the  fifteenth  century.  Tlie  addi- 
tioa  to  the  New  Testament  was  Usted  by  Scrivener  as 
Cod.  263  (in  Gregory,  293)  for  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  Cod.  91,  for  the  Apocalypse.  Napoleon 
I  had  the  codex  brought  to  Paris  (where  Hug  was 
enabled  to  study  it),  but  it  was  afterwards  returned 
to  the  Holv  See,  with  some  other  remnants  of  Roman 
booty,  and  replaced  in  the  Vatican  Library.  There 
are  various  collations,  editions,  and  studies  of  the 
Vatican  Codex.  The  collations  are:  (1)  that  of 
Bartolocci  (Giulio  di  S.  Anastasia),  formerly  librarian 
of  the  Vatican;  it  was  done  in  1669  and  is  preserved 
in  MS.— Gr.  Suppl.  53  of  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale — 
at  Paris  (a  noted  under  the  sigla:  Blc);  (2)  that  of 
Birch  (Bch)  published  at  Copenhagen  in  1798  for  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Epistles,  in  1800  for  the 
Apocalypse,  in  1801  for  the  Gospels ;  (3)  that  executed 
for  Bentley  (Btly)  by  the  Abbate  Mico  about  1720  on 
the  margin  of  a  copy  of  the  Greek  New  Testament 
which  was  published  at  Strasburg,  1524,  bv  Cephalsus: 
this  copy  IS  among  Bentley 's  books  in  the  library  oi 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge — the  collation  itself  was 
published  in  Ford's  appendix  to  Woide's  edition  of 
the  Codex  Alexandrinus  in  1799;  (4)  a  list  of  the 
alterations  executed  1i>y  the  original  copyist  or  by  his 
correctors,  edited  at  the  request  of  Bentley  by  the 
Abbate  Rulotta  with  the  aid  of  the  Abbate  de  Stosch 
(Kit) ;  this  list  was  supposed  to  have  perished,  but  it 
is  extant  among  the  Bentley  papers  in  the  library  of 
Trinity  (College,  Cambridge,  under  the  sigla:  B.  17.20; 
(5)  in  1860  Alford,  and  in  1862  Cure,  examined  a 
select  number  of  the  readings  of  the  Vatican  Codex, 
and  published  the  results  of  their  labours  in  the  first 
volume  of  Alford's  Greek  Testament.  Many  other 
scholars  have  made  special  collations  for  their  own 
purposes,  e.  g.  Tregelles,  Tischendorf,  Alford,  etc. 
Among  tne  works  written  on  the  Vatican  Codex  we 
may  indicate:  Bourgon,  "Letters  from  Rome"  (Lon- 
don, 1861).  In  the  second  volume  of  the  Catalogue 
of  Vatican  Greek  MSS.,  executed  according  to  the 
modem  scientific  method  for  the  cataloguing  of  the 
Vatican  Libraxy,  there  is  a  description  of  the  Codex 
Vaticanus. 

As  to  the  editions  of  this  codex,  the  Roman  edition 
of  the  Septuagint  (1587)  was  based  on  the  Vaticanus. 
Similarly,  the  Cambridge  edition  of  Swete  follows  it 
regularly  and  makes  use  of  the  Sinaiticus  and  the 
AJexandrinus  only  for  the  portions  that  are  lacking 
in  the  Vaticanus.  The  first  Roman  edition  appeared 
in  1858,  under  the  names  of  Mai  and  Vercellone,  and, 
under  the  same  names,  a  second  Roman  edition  in 
1859.  Both  editions  were  severely  criticized  by 
Tischendorf  in  the  edition  he  brought  out  at  Leipzig 
in  1867,  **  Novum  Testamentum  Vaticaniun,  poet  A. 
Mail  aliorumque  imperfectos  labores  ex  ipso  codice 
editum",  with  an  appendix  (1869).  The  third  Roman 
edition  (Verc.)  appeared  under  the  names  of  Vercel- 
lone (died  1869)  and  CozzsrLuzi  (died  1905)  in  1868- 
81 ;  it  was  accompanied  by  a  photographic  reproduc- 
tion of  the  text:  "Bibliorum  SS.  Gracorum  Cod.  Vat. 
1209,  Cod.  B,  denuo  phototypice  expressus,  jussu  et 
cur&  prsesidum  Bibliothecae  Vaticanie"  (Milan,  1904- 
6).  This  edition  contains  a  masterly  anonymous 
introduction  (by  Giovanni  Mercati),  in  which  the 
writer  corrects  many  inexact  statements  made  by 
previous  writers.  Until  recently  the  privilege  of  con- 
sulting this  ancient  manuscript  auite  freely  and  fully 
was  not  granted  to  all  who  sought  it.  The  material 
condition  of  the  Vatican  Codex  is  better,  ^nerally 
speaking,  than  that  of  its  contemporaries;  it  is  fore- 
seen, however,  that  within  a  century  it  will  have 
fallen  to  pieces  unless  an  efficacious  remedy,  which  is 
being  earnestly  sought  for,  shall  be  discovered. 

The  Biblical  Dictionaries  of  Viaounoux  and  HAarxNoa; 
Introdudions  of  Cornelt,  Brxoob.  Strack;  Txbcrendorv, 
Svnop8i»  Evano*liea  (7th  ed.,  Leipiig.  1898);  Idem,  ProUpo- 
mena  to  Oi€  New  TettamefU  (20th  ed.,  or  editio  octavo  major, 
Lripiig,  1809;  editio  octavo  miner,  Iveipsis,  1872),  revised  after 


Tiacheudorf'a  deatli  by  Gregory  (Lcipsis.  18S4);  Swltk.  7Vi« 
Old  Testament  in  Oreek,  I,  p.  xni;  Webtcx>tt  and  Hort.  The 
New  Testament  in  Greek,  introd.,  p.  60;  Ai^obd.  The  GrtA 
Testamient  (Cambridge,  1898).  I,  107;  Abmitaoi:  Robinson. 
Euthaliana,  ch.  xxx\ii. 

U.  Benigni. 

Oodrington,  Thomas  (d.  1691?),  Catholic  divme, 
chiefly  known  for  his  attempt  to  introduce  into  Eng- 
land the  "Institute  of  Secular  Priests  Li  vine  in  Com- 
munity",   founded   in    Bavaria   by    Bartnolomaus 
Holzhauser.     He  was  educated  ana  ordained  priest 
at  Douai,  where  he  taught  humanities  for  a  time. 
Later  on  he  lived  with  Cardinal  Howard  at  Rome, 
acting  as  his  chaplain  and  secretary.     He  returned 
to  England  in  Jidv,  1684,  and  on  the  accession  of 
James  II  in  the  following  year,  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  royal  chaplains  and  preachers   in  ordinary. 
While  he  was  in  Rome  he  had  joined  the  institute 
above  mentioned,  in  which  Cardmal  Howard  took  a 
great  personal  interest,  and  his  return  to  England 
seemed  to  the  superior,  Father  Hofer,  a  favourable 
opportunity  for  extendmg  the  institute.      Accord- 
ingly Mr.  Codrington  and  his  companion,  Mr.  John 
Morgan,  were  appointed  procurators  to  introduce  the 
institute  into  England.     The  object  of  the  society, 
the  constitutions  of  which  had  been  approved  by 
Innocent  XI  in  1680,  was  to  encourage  conununity- 
life  among  the  secular  clergy.   This  was  to  be  attained 
by  priests  residing  together,  and  doing  their  woric 
from  a  common  centre,  all  being  subject  to  the  bishop. 
In  this  work  he  received  much  assistance  from  Car- 
dinal Howard,  who  addressed  letters   both  to  the 
secular  clergy  and  to  the  dean  of  the  chapter,  exhort- 
ing all  En^h  priests  to  join  the  institute.     Even 
before  leaving  Kome  he  had  been  active  in  propa- 
gating the  institute,  and  had,  with  his  colleagues, 
endeavoured  not  only  to  introduce  it  into  all  the 
English  colleges  abroad,  but  even  to  make  it  obliga- 
tory on  the  superiors  by  a  decree.    Some  progress  was 
in  fact  made,  but  before  much  could  be  effected  the 
Revolution  took  place,  and  in  1688  James  II  fled  from 
England.    Mr.  Codrinfton  followed  his  patron  abroad 
to  Saint^Germain,  where   he  continued    to  act  as 
chaplain  until  his  death,  which  took  place  about  1691. 
For  some  years  strenuous  efforts  were  made  to  spread 
the  institute  in  England,  and  in  1697  special  consti- 
tutions, designed  to  meet  the  peculiar  circumstances 
of  English  priests,  were  published  with  a  preface, 
which  shows  that  several  of  the  leading  missioners 
had  joined  it.    The  chapter,  however,  were  unre- 
lenting, on  the  ground  that  it  was  unsuitable  in  Eng- 
land and  wouldlead  to  dissensions  among  the  clergy, 
and  ultimately  Bishop  Giffard  suppre^sd  it.     Mr. 
Codrington  published  a  sermon  preached  before  the 
king  and  queen,  28  Nov.,  1686,  and  another  preached 
before  the  queen-dowager,  6  Feb.,  1687.    The  former 
of  these  was  republished  in  the  1741  reprint  entitled 
'* Catholic  Sermons". 

DoDD,  Church  Historj/,  III,  484;  Giixow,  BiM.  Diet,  Bna. 
Calh.,  I,  620  (London,  1885);  Cooper  in  Diet.  Nat,  Biog.,  XI, 
210  (London.  1887);  Kirk,  Biographies  of  English  Catholies 
(London.  1906). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Oo-edncation. — ^The  term  is  now  generally  reserved 
to  the  practice  of  educating  the  sexes  together;  but 
even  in  this  sense  it  has  a  variety  of  meanings,  (a) 
Mere  juxtaposition;  this  implies  the  use  of  the  same 
buildings  and  equipment  under  the  same  teaching 
staff  for  the  education  of  both  sexes,  but  does  not 
oblige  the  sexes  to  follow  the  same  methods  or  to  live 
under  the  same  regimen,  (b)  Co-ordinate  education; 
the  students  are  taught  by  the  same  methods  and  the 
same  teachers  and  are  governed  by  the  same  general 
administration ;  but  each  sex  has  its  own  classes  and, 
in  the  case  of  a  tmiversity,  its  separate  college,  (c) 
Identioal  education;  both  sexes  are  taught  "the  same 
things,  at  the  same  time,  in  the  same  place,  by  the 


OO-EDtJOATXOK 


89 


00-EDUOATION 


same  facility,  with  the  same  methods  and  imder  the 
same  regimen.  This  admits  a^  and  proficiency,  but 
not  sex,  as  a  factor  in  classification  "  (Clarke,  op.  cit.  be- 
low, p.  121).  It  is  in  this  third  and  narrowest  sense 
that  co-education  has  been  the  subject  of  widespread 
discussion  for  some  time  past.  In  the  United  States 
especially  the  practice  has  grown  rapidly  during  the 
last  fifty  years,  while  in  European  countries  it  has  de- 
velopea  more  slowly. 

Extent. — Elementary  Schools. — At  present  co-edu- 
cation  is  practically  universal   in  tne   elementary 
grades  of  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States.    It 
also  prevails  to  a  large  extent  in  the  elementary  grades 
of  private  and  denominational  schools,  including  those 
which  are  \mder  Catholic  direction,  notably  the  pa- 
rochial  schools. — Secondary  Schools. — ^According  to 
the  Commissioner's  Report  for  1905-6,  there  were  in 
the  United  States  40  public  high  schools  for  bovs  only, 
with  22,044  students,  and  29  schools  for  girls  only, 
with  23,203  students;   while  the  co-educational  high 
schools  numbered  7,962  having  on  their  rolls  283,264 
boys  and  394,181  girls;   the  difference  indicated  by 
these  last  figures  is  noteworthy.    During  the  same 
year  there  were  under  private  direction  304  high 
schoolfi  for  boys  only,  with  22,619  students;  600  high 
schools  for  girls  only,  with  27,081  students ;  while  tne 
private  eo-educational  schools  numbered  725  with  an 
attendance  of  26,487  boys  and  25,568  girls.     From 
these  statistics  it  appears  that  even  in  private  high 
schools  the  number  of  boys  is  larger  where  co-education 
prevails  than  it  is  in  schools  exclusively  for  boys;  and 
that  the  number  of  girls  in  co-educational  schools  is  not 
very  far  below  the  number  in  schools  exclusively  for 
girlfi. — Higher  and  Technical  Educational  Institutions. — 
Of  622  universities,  colleges,  and  technological  schools 
reporting  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 
for  the  year  ended  June,  1906,  there  werefor  men  only, 
158;  for  women  only,  129;  for  both  men  and  women, 
335.     Comparison  with  earlier  statistics  shows  a  de- 
cided advance  in  co-education.       In   1889-90  the 
women  in  co-educational  colleges  numbered  8075,  in 
schools  of  technology^  707,  and  in  colleges  for  women 
only,  1979 ;  the  men  m  all  colleges  numbered  44,926. 
In  1905-6  there  were  31,443  women  in  co-educational 
colleges  and  6653  in  colleges  for  women  only;   the 
number  of  men  students  was  97,738. 

The  tendency  in  Europe,  generally  speaking,  is  to  ad- 
mit women  to  university  courses  of  study,  out  under 
restrictions  which  vary  considerably  from  one  country 
to  another.  In  Germany,  women,  for  the  most  part, 
attend  the  imiversity  as  "hearers",  not  as  matricu- 
lated students.  The  custom  in  England  is  that  women 
should  reside  in  colleges  of  their  own  while  receiving 
the  benefit  of  university  education.  There  is  also 
considerable  variety  in  the  regulations  concerning  the 
{^ranting  of  degrees  to  women.  Replies  to  an  inquiry 
issued  by  the  English  Department  of  Education  in 
1897,  with  later  revision  (United  States  Commission- 
er's Report  for  1904,  chap,  xx),  showed  that  of  112 
universities  on  the  Continent,  in  Great  Britain,  and  in 
the  British  colonies,  86  made  no  distinction  between 
men  and  women  students,  6  admitted  women  by 
courtesy  to  lectures  and  examinations,  20  permitted 
them  to  attend  some  lectures  only;  of  these  20  uni- 
versities, 14  were  German  and  6  Austrian.  The  pro- 
portion of  women  students  to  the  total  enrollment  in 
the  universities  of  Central  Europe  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: — 

Austria Total  No.  of  Students,  22,749;  Women,  1.323 

Prance 33.618;         ..  1.022 

Germany „       „     ..         ..        61,535;        ..         1,938 

Switserland ,.        .,     ..         ..  9,483;        ..  2,594 

In  England,  provision  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  began  with  the  founding  of  Queen's  College, 
London  (1848)  and  Bedforti  (bllege  (1849).  In  1878 
the  University  of  London  aflniitteil  women  to  exam- 
inations and  degrees.    The  Honour  <lcgrpe  examina- 


tions of  Cambridge  were  opened  to  women  (students 
of  Girton  and  Newnham  colleges)  in  1881 ;  some  of  the 
Oxford  examinations  were  opened  to  women  (stu- 
dents of  Somerville  College  and  Lady  Margaret  Hall) 
in  1884;  the  Scottish  universities  admitteaf  women  in 
1892;  the  University  of  Durham  in  1895;  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wales  from  its  foundation  in  1893.  In  Ire- 
land, both  the  Royal  University  and  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  receive  women  students.  It  should,  how- 
ever, be  noted  that  the  number  of  women  following 
universitv  courses  in  England  is  still  comparatively 
small.  In  1905-6,  the  colleges  mentioned  above  in 
connexion  with  Oxford  had  in  residence  136  students, 
and  those  at  Cambridge,  316.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
movement  is  stronger  in  some  of  the  recently  founded 
universities.  Thus  the  institutions  for  women  affili- 
ated with  the  London  University  (Bedford,  Halloway, 
Westfield,  and  Royal  Free  Hospital)  in  1905  <6  num- 
bered 628  students.  It  may  therefore  be  said  that  co- 
education in  Europe,  though  it  has  made  a  beginning, 
is  by  no  means  so  prominent  a  feature  of  the  scnools  as 
it  is  in  the  United  States.  Its  growth  and  effects  are 
for  this  reason  best  studied  in  American  institutions ; 
and  in  these  the  historical  facts  are  the  more  impor- 
tant inasmuch  as  they  are  said  to  furnish  ample  justi- 
fication of  the  policy. 

Causes. — ^The  explanation  of  these  facts  is  to  be 
sought  in  a  variety  of  conditions,  some  of  which  are 
naturally  connected  with  the  general  development  of 
the  country  while  others  maybe  called  artificial,  in  the 
sense  that  they  are  the  application  of  theories  or  poli- 
cies rather  than  direct  responses  to  needs,  or  final  solu- 
tions of  problems.  Thus  it  is  sip;nificant  that  co-edu- 
cation has  found  its  stronghold  in  the  Northern,  Cen- 
tral, and  Western  States  of  the  Union  which  i^rofited 
most  by  the  Congressional  land  grants  of  1787  and 
1862  and  by  similar  grants  on  the  part  of  the  several 
States.  It  was  easy  to  argue,  on  the  basis  of  demo- 
cratic principles,  that  institutions  supported  by  public 
funds  should  offer  the  same  advantages  to  all  citizens. 
From  the  founding  of  Oberiin  College,  Ohio  (1833), 
which  was  the  first  institution  of  its  class  to  introduce 
co-education  (1837),  the  policy  spread  at  such  a  rate 
that  by  1880  more  than  half  the  colleges,  and  by  1900 
nearly  three-fourths,  had  adopted  it.  In  the  more 
conservative  East  segregation  was  the  general  prac- 
tice until  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
But  the  precedent  established  by  Boston  University 
(1869)  and  by  Cornell  (1872)  was  soon  followed  by 
many  other  Eastern  institutions. 

A  still  more  powerful  factor  has  been  the  public 
high  school,  which  since  1850  has  held  an  important 
place  in  the  educational  system.  Some  schools  of 
this  class,  notably  those  in  the  West,  were  co-educa- 
tional from  the  start;  others  were  opSened  at  first  for 
boys  only,  but  eventually  they  admitted  girls  on 
the  same  terms;  this  was  the  case  in  the  larger  cities 
of  the  East.  In  1891,  only  15  out  of  628  leading 
cities  of  the  country  had  separate  high  schools,  in  1901 
the  number  had  fallen  to  12.  The  growth  of  these 
schools  coincided  with  the  movement  in  favour  of 
higher  education  for  women.  The  leaders  of  this 
movement  insisted  on  the  right  of  women  to  have 
equal  advantages  with  men  in  the  line  of  education; 
they  quite  overlooked  or  disregarded  the  fact  that 
equality  in  this  case  does  not  mean  identity.  But  any 
defect  m  their  reasoning  on  the  subject  was  more  than 
compensated  for  by  their  enthusiasm  and  perseverance. 
Their  efforts,  however,  were  in  accordance  with  the 
demands  made  by  industrial  changes.  The  introduo- 
tion  of  labour-saving  machinery  which  ^dually 
brought  about  the  factory  organization  of  industry, 
took  from  woman,  one  by  one,  her  traditional  employ- 
ments in  the  home  and  compelled  her  to  seek  new  oc- 
cupations in  fields  hitherto  occupied  exclusively  by 
man:  hence  the  very  natural  demand  for  equal  educa- 
tional opportunities,  not  merely  to  secure  the  more 


OO-EDUOATIOH 


90 


OO-SDUOATIOV 


oomplete  development  of  woman's  faculties,  but  also 
as  a  neoessaiy  means  to  equip  her  for  her  new  position. 
The  demand  of  course  grew  more  imoerative  as  the 
professions  were  opened  to  women.  Once  it  was  ad- 
mitted that  a  woman  might,  for  instance,  take  up  the 
practice  of  medicine,  it  was  quite  obvious  as  a  matter 
of  public  policy  that  she  should  receive  the  training 
given  to  every  physician.  How  fully  her  claims  have 
been  recognized  will  appear  from  statistics  eiven  above 
of  the  growth  of  universities,  coUeges,  ana  schools  of 
technology  since  1889. 

The  rapid  spread  of  co-education  aroused  intense 
interest  not  only  among  educators  but  also  in  the 
mind  of  the  puolic  at  lai^e.  The  subject  was  dis- 
cussed from  every  point*  ot  view,  moral,  medical,  and 
economic,  no  less  than  educational.  Special  inquiries 
were  sent  out  by  school  committees,  State  boards,  and 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  with  a  view 
to  obtaining  statistics  and  expressions  of  opinion. 
Replies  to  these  inquiries  served  as  a  basis  for  numer- 
ous reports,  such  as  that  of  the  Boston  School  Com- 
mittee (Document  19,  1890)  and  that  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  based  on  the  inquiry  of  1891. 
(See  Commissioner's  Report  for  1900-1901,  chap, 
xxviii.)  The  outeome  of  the  discussion  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows:  (1)  the  tendency  towards  co-edu- 
cation as  a  universal  policy  was  freely  admitted  by  all 
parties;  (2)  considerable  divergence  of  opinion  was 
manifested  as  to  the  wisdom  of  co-education,  particu- 
larly in  secondary  schools;  (3)  in  many  cases  the 
issue  was  obscured  by  treating  co-education  as  though 
it  were  synonymous  with  the  higher  education  of 
women. 

In  order  to  set  this  phase  of  the  question  in  a  some- 
what clearer  light,  it  should  be  noted  first  of  all  that 
the  reasons  advanced  in  favour  of  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  women,  valid  as  they  certainly  are,  do  not  of 
themselves  require  that  this  education  shall  be  identi- 
cal with  that  given  to  men.  Passing  over  for  the 
present  the  question  whether  both  sexes  should  study 
the  same  subjects  by  identical  methods  for  the  same 
length  of  time,  or  even  supposing  that  this  question 
should  be  answered  in  the  affirmative,  one  is  not 
thereby  compelled  to  admit  that  co-education  is  the 
only  acceptable  policy.  The  efficient  work  of  those 
colleges  which  are  exclusively  for  women  tells  strong- 
ly in  favour  of  separate  education.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  should  be  remarked  that  the  unification  of  the 
schools  into  a  system  does  not  necessarily  imply  co- 
education all  the  way  throu^.  While  endorsmg  the 
practice  in  the  elementary  school  for  certain  reasons 
and  in  the  university  for  other  reasons,  one  may  con- 
sistently refuse  to  approve  its  introduction  in  the  sec- 
ondary school.  A  third  consideration  turns  on  the 
moral  factor.  This  is,  and  always  has  been,  of  para- 
mount importance  in  Catholic  education.  Whatever 
advantages  of  an  intellectual  sort  may  be  claimed  for 
the  co-educational  school,  these  must,  from  the  Catholic 
point  of  view,  be  waived  if  th^  cannot  be  obtained 
without  danger  to  morality.  This  view  of  course  is 
shared  by  many  non-Catholic  parents  and  teachers, 
some  of  whom  have  made  it  the  oasis  of  their  criticism 
of  co-education.  Doubtless,  too,  it  would  have  counted 
for  more  in  the  discussion  if  the  whole  problem  of 
moral  education  had  received  the  attention  bestowed 
in  late  years  on  everything  pertaining  to  purely  intel- 
lectual culture.  Where  that  problem  is  overlooked  or 
lightly  dismissed,  some  of  the  most  serious  obiections 
to  co-education  naturally  lose  their  force,  while  too 
much  weight  is  attached  to  some  of  the  reasons  on  the 
opposite  side. 

Practicb  and  Attitudb  op  Catholic  Schools. — 
As  noted  above  co-education  prevails  in  most  of  the 
Catholic  elementary  schools.  That  women  should 
also  share  in  the  advantafrcs  of  higher  education  is 
auite  in  keeping  with  Catholic  policy.  An  instance  of 
tois  is  the  authorization  granfod  by  Rome  for  women 


to  follow,  under  requisite  conditions,  couroes  at  the 
English  universities  (Decision  of  Propaganda,  13 
July,  1907).  Another  is  furnished  by  such  institu- 
tions as  the  Anna^Stift,  a  university  school  for  Cath- 
olic teaching  sisters  founded  at  the  University  of 
Miinster  in  1899  to  meet  the  wishes  of  the  German 
bishops.  Instruction  is  given  by  university  profes- 
sors not  in  the  halls  of  the  university  but  in  the  insti- 
tute itself,  an  arrangement  that  is  equivalent  to  what 
has  been  mentioned  above  as  co-ordinate  education. 
(See  Engelkemper  in  Cath.  Univ.  Bulletin,  May, 
1908.)  But  in  secondary  schools,  the  Catholic  policy 
is  decidedly  opposed  to  co-education.  The  hign 
schools,  academies,  and  colleges  for  boys  are  altoc;ether 
separate  from  those  for  girls.  Boys  are  tau^t  by 
male  teachers,  girls  by  women,  usually  reugious. 
Nothing  in  fact  so  strongly  emphasizes  tne  Catholic 
attitude  in  this  matter  as  the  work  of  various  orders  of 
men  established  to  teach  boys,  and  of  no  less  various 
orders  of  women  to  teach  girls.  This  is  the  century- 
old  practice  of  the  Church,  and  it  is  observed  in  all 
countries-  Catholics,  moreover,  have  foUowed  with 
interest  the  discussions  concerning  co-education ;  and 
though  in  many  other  respects  they  have  adopted  in 
their  own  work  the  methods  approved  by  experience 
in  non-Catholic  schools,  they  have  not  been  convinced 
by  the  arguments  advanced  in  favour  of  the  co-educa- 
tional plan. 

From    the    viewpoint    of   economy    oo-education 
might  seem  the  wiser  plan ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  by 
increasing  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  class  it  throws 
a  heavier  burden  on  the  teacher  and  it  makes  difficult 
if  not  impossible  that  individual  instruction,  the  need 
of  which  is  now  so  generally  recognized.     A  saving 
that  impairs  the  efiiciency  oi  the  scnool  is  hardly  de- 
sirable.   The  advantage  also  that  is  claimed  on  the 
score  of  improved  discipline,  is  more  apparent  than 
real.    While  the  boys  probably  part  with  some  of 
their  roughness  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  deli- 
cacy of  feeling  and  the  refinement  of  manner  that  are 
expected  in  girls,   gain  much  by  the   association. 
Moreover,  if  there  is  a  demand  for  better  discipline, 
the  right  way  to  meet  it  is  to  train  teachers  more  thor^ 
oughly  in  the  art  of  school  management.     A  skilful 
teacher  will  easily  control  a  class  either  of  boys  or  of 
girls  by  arousing  and  maintaining  their  interest  in 
what  is  really  the  work  of  the  school.    On  the  other 
hand,  it  can  do  no  harm  to  young  people,  especially 
boys,  to  cultivate  betimes  a  spirit  of  obedience  to  law 
for  ite  own  sake,  and  not  merely  teach  them  to  behave 
themselves  out  of  deference  for  the  opposite  sex. 
There  is  no  doubt  a  decided  benefit  to  be  gotten  from 
social  intercourse,  provided  this  is  accompanied  by 
the  proper  conditions.    The  place  for  it  is  in  the  home, 
imder  the  supervision  of  parents,  who  will  see  to  it 
that  their  children  have  tne  right  kind  of  associates, 
and  will  not  leave  them  to  the  diance  companionships 
which  the  mixed  school  affords.     It  has  often  been 
held  that  the  co-educational  system  extends  to  the 
school  the  "good  effects  that  flow  from  the  mutual  in- 
fluence of  mingling  the  sexes  in  the  family  circle''; 
but  this  contention  evidently  overlooks  the  profound 
difference  between  the  home  situation  which  asso- 
ciates children  by  natural  ties  of  kindred,  and  the  situ- 
ation in  school  where  these  ties  do  not  exist.    And  it 
further  forgets,  apparently,  that  the  home  influence 
itself  has  latterly  been  weakened  in  many  ways  and  by 
various  causes;  how  far  co-education  has  contributea 
to  this  result  is  of  course  another  question.    At  any 
rate,  it  avails  nothing  to  argue  that  because  boys  and 
girls  live  together  in  the  same  family,  it  is  more  nat- 
ural that  they  should  be  educated  in  the  same  classes. 
When  appeal  is  taken  to  the  "natural"  order  oi 
things,  tne  decision  is  plainly  in  favour  of  separate 
schools. 

On  physiological  grounds,  identical  education  pre- 
sents serious  difficulties.    As  no  arrangement  has 


0OSFJrBTSA.n 


91 


OOSFFETKA^U 


been  deviaedt  and  aa  none  oan  be  devised,  to  make  the 
conditions  of  study  exactly  the  same  for  both  sexes, 
oo-«ducatioQ  really  means  that  girls  are  subjected,  to  a 
regimen  intended  and  conducted  for  bovs.  To  the 
physical  strain  which  is  thus  imposed  on  them,  girls  as 
a  rule  are  not  equal ;  in  particular  they  are  apt  to  suf- 
fer from  that  v&rv  rivaliy  which  is  often  oitea  as  a  de- 
sirable feature  of  the  mixed  school.  If  education  is 
to  take  aa  its  first  principle  conformity  to  nature,  it 
must  certainly  make  allowance  for  differences  of  or- 
ganism and  function.  This  need  becomes  the  more 
imperative  in  proportion  as  the  dependence  of  mind 
upon  organic  processes  is  more  full^  realised  and 
turned  to  practical  account  in  educational  work.  It 
then  appears  beyond  question  that  from  a  psychologi- 
cal standpoint  woman  should  have  a  different  training 
from  thi^  which  men  receive.  There  is  no  Question 
here  as  to  the  superiority  or  inferiority  of  eitner  sex, 
nor  will  it  profit  to  say  that  ''soul  has  no  gender''. 
The  fact  is  that  each  sex  has  its  own  mental  constitu- 
tion and  its  special  capacities.  To  develop  these  is 
tibe  work  of  education;  but  this  does  not  mean  that 
unlike  natures  shall  be  moulded  into  a  superficial  resem- 
Uance  to  each  other.  Even  if  it  were  desirable  to 
have  the  finished  product  exactly  the  same  in  both 
sexes,  it  does  not  loilow  that  this  result  is  to  be  ob- 
tained by  subjecting  men  and  women  to  the  same  dis- 
cipline. Ekiucationists  are  agreed  that  the  need  of 
the  developing  mind  is  the  first  taing  to  be  consulted 
in  framing  methods  and  in  organizing  the  work  of  the 
sdiool.  They  rightly  condemn  not  only  a  system 
which  treats  the  boy  as  though  he  were  a  man,  but  also 
any  feature  of  method  that  fails  to  seciu^  adaptation, 
even  in  detail,  of  the  teaching  to  the  present  condition 
of  the  pupil's  mind.  Yet  many  ot  them,  strangely 
enough,  insist  that  the  same  training  shall  be  given  to 
boys  and  girls  in  the  secondary  schools,  that  is  at  a 
period  which  is  chiefly  characterized  by  the  manifesta- 
tion of  profound  mental  differences  between  one  sex 
and  the  other.  The  attempt  now  so  generally  made 
to  obviate  the  physiological  and  psychological  diffi- 
culties of  co-education  by  adapting  the  work  of  the 
school  to  the  capacities  and  requirements  of  girls,  can 
evidenthr  have  but  one  result,  and  that  not  a  desirable 
one,  so  far  as  boys  are  concerned. 

It  must  further  be  pointed  out  on  vocational 
grounds  that,  since  woman's  work  in  the  world  is  nec- 
essarily different  from  man's,  there  should  be  a  corre- 
sponding difference  in  the  preparation.  Here  again  it 
is  singular  that  while  the  whole  trend  of  our  schools  is 
towards  specialization  in  view  of  the  needs  of  after-life, 
no  such  consideration  should  be  had  for  diversity  of 
calling  based  on  diversity  of  sex.  The  student  is  en- 
couraged to  take  up  as  early  as  possible  the  special 
lines  of  work  that  fit  him  for  his  chosen  career  in  busi- 
ness, in  literary  work,  or  in  any  of  the  professions ;  yet 
for  the  essential  duties  of  life,  widely  different  as  these 
are,  men  and  women  receive  an  identical  education. 
However  great  be  the  share  which  woman  is  to  take 
in  "the  public  expression  of  the  ideal  energies,  for 
morality  and  religion,  for  education  and  social  re- 
forms, and  their  embodiment,  not  in  the  home,  but  in 
the  public  consciousness" — it  still  remains  true  that 
her  success  as  a  supporter  of  these  ideal  endeavours  is 
closely  bound  up  with  the  right  discharge  of  those  du- 
ties which  are  at  once  the  lot  and  the  privilege  of  her 
sex.  Any  influence  that  tends  to  make  those  duties 
less  sacred  to  her  or  less  attractive,  is  a  menace  to  her 
individual  perfection  and  may  lead  to  far-reaching 
calamity.  The  lowering  of  sex  tension,  which  is  the 
strong^  argmnent  brought  forward  to  support  co- 
education from  the  view-point  of  morality,  turns  out 
on  closer  inspection  to  be  a  fatal  objection ;  it  proves 
too  much.  The  "  indifference ' '  which  it  is  said  to  pro- 
duce has  its  consequences  beyond  the  limit  of  school- 
life,  and  these  if  left  to  work  out  their  own  results 
would  be,  as  they  undoubtedly  are  in  many  instances, 


antagonistic  to  the  essential  interests  of  family  and 
home,  and  eventually  of  the  national  life  as  well. 

The  element  of  religious  instruction,  essential  to 
Catholic  schools,  has  a  peculiar  significance  in  the 
present  problem.  It  not  only  gives  free  scope  to  ideal 
and  sesthetic  tendencies,  but  it  also  provides  effectual 
safeguards  against  the  dangers  to  which  adolescence 
is  exposed.  As  President  Hall  has  said,  ''every  glow 
of  aesthetic  appreciation  for  a  great  work  of  art,  every 
thrill  aroused  by  an  act  of  sublime  heroism,  eveiy 
pulse  of  religious  aspiration  weakens  by  just  so  much 
the  ^tential  energy  of  passion  because  it  has  found 
its  kinetic  equivalent  in  a  higher  form  of  expression" 
(Pedagogical  Seminary.  Mareh,   1908).    Tne  "pro- 

ghylactic  value"  of  religious  training  is,  from  the 
atholic  point  of  view,  far  greater  than  that  of  the 
conditions  which  co-education  involves  and  on  which 
it  depends  for  the  development  of  character  and 
morals*  But  this  value  of  course  can  be  got  only  by 
teaching  relipion  with  the  same  thoroughness  and  the 
same  perfection  of  method  that  characterizes  the  teach- 
ing of  other  subject^,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
the  duties  which  religion  imposes  on  both  the  sexes 
not  merely  pleasing  items  of  knowledge,  but  also  vital 
elements  in  habit  and  action.  (See  Education; 
Schools.) 

For  extended  bibliographies  see  U.  S.  Commiaaumer*8  Report 
for  1900-01,  xxviii:  ibid,  for  1903,  xx;  Clarkr.  Sex  in  Educa- 
tion (Boston,  1873);  Van  db  Wacheb,  Woinan*a  UnfUneM  for 
Hioher  Bdueation  (New  York,  1903);   Brons,  Ueber  die  gemein' 


aame  Ernehuna  beider  Oe^ddechier  an  den  ktiheren  Sehuien  (Ham- 
bun;,  1889);  Harbxb,  Coeducation  of  the  Sexes  in  Report  on 
PtMie  Schools  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1872-3;  De    Qabmo.  Differ- 


entiation in  the  Higher  EdtuxUion  of  Women  in  Educ.  Rev.,  25, 
301;    Shields,  The  Education  of  Our  Girls  (New  York,  1907). 

Thomas  E.  Shields. 

Ooefleteau,  Nicolas,  preacher  and  controver- 
sialist, b.  1574,  at  Ch&teau-du-Loir,  province  of  Maine, 
France;  d.  Paris,  21  April,  1623.  He  entered  the 
Dominican  convent  of  Sens,  1588,  and  after  his  pro- 
fession, 1590,  was  sent  to  St-Jacaues,  the  house  of 
studies  at  Paris.  There  in  1595  he  began  to  teach 
philosophy.  On  4  May,  1600,  he  received  the  doctor- 
ate ana  was  appointed  regent  of  studies,  which  posi- 
tion he  filled  until  1606  and  again  from  1609  to  the 
spring  of  1612.  He  also  served  two  terms  as  prior  and 
was  vicar-general  of  the  French  congregation  from 
1606  to  1609.  At  this  time  Coeffeteau  had  already 
acquired  distinction  by  his  preachine  at  Blois,  Char- 
tres.  Angers,  and  in  Paris.  Queen  Margaret  of  Va~ 
lois  had  made  him  her  almoner  in  1602,  and  in  1608 
he  received  the  appointment  of  preacher  in  ordinary 
to  Kin^  Henry  IV.  In  June,  1617,  he  was  proposed 
by  Louis  XIII  and  confirmed  by  Pope  Paul  V  as  titu- 
lar Bishop  of  Dardania  and  Administrator  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Metz.  By  his  vigilance  and  zealous  preaching 
he  checked  the  spread  of  Calvinistic  errors,  renewed 
and  re-established  Divine  services,  and  restored  eccle- 
siastical discipline,  especially  in  the  great  abbeys  of 
Metz  and  in  the  monasteries  of  the  diocese.  After 
four  years  he  was  transferred,  22  Aug.,  1621.  to  t^ie 
Diocese  of  Marseilles;  but  ill-health  kept  him  from  his 
see.  He  secured  FranQois  de  Lom^nie  as  his  coadjutor, 
but  he  himself  remained  at  Paris  until  his  death.  He 
was  buried  in  St.  Thomas's  chapel  of  the  convent  of 
St-Jacgues.  Coeffeteau's  writings  are  chiefly  polemi- 
cal. Five  treatises  on  the  Eucharist  were  occasioned 
by  a  controversy  with  Pierre  du  Moulin,  Calvimst 
minister  of  Charenton.  Another  series  on  ecclesiasti- 
cal and  pontifical  authority  was  prompted  by  the 
action  of  the  French  Protestants  in  relation  to  political 
and  religious  disturbances  in  England.  At  the  re- 
ouest  of  Gregory  XV,  Coeffeteau  wrote  a  refutation  of 
tne  "  De  Republicd  Christiand''  by  the  apostate  Arch- 
bi^op  of  Spalato,  Marc'  Antonio  de  Dominis.  In  all 
these  writing,  at  a  time  in  which  partisanship  was 
wont  to  be  violent,  Coeffeteau  maintained  an  equable 
temper  arid  a  praiseworthy  spirit  of  moderation, 


OOELOHU 


92 


OOXRBSD 


ahrays  handling  his  subjects  objectively  and  dispas- 
sionately. His  erudition  was  extraordinary  ana  he 
was  possessed  of  a  rare  and  penetrating  critical  judg- 
ment. On  the  question  of  papal  power  and  author- 
ity, Coeffeteau's  position  is  described  as  that  of  a  mod- 
ified Gallicanism.  He  held  that  the  infallibililry  of  the 
pope  or  of  an  oecumenical  council  was  restricted  to 
matters  of  faith  and  did  not  bear  upon  questions  of 
fact  or  of  persons.  A  oouncQ,  he  held,  was  not  supe- 
rior to  a  pope  except  in  the  case  of  schism,  when  it 
could  depose  the  doubtful  incumbent  to  elect  one 
whose  rijght  and  authority  would  be  beyond  question. 
In  this  Coeffeteau  diflfered  from  the  Sorbonne,  which 
asserted  the  council's  superiority  in  all  cases.  Be- 
sides being  called  the  father  of  French  eloouence, 
Coeffeteau  was  a  recognized  master  of  the  French 
language.  He  was  the  first  to  use  it  aa  a  means  of 
theological  expression,  and  the  purity  of  his  diction, 
especially  in  his  historical  writings  and  translations, 
is  admitted  and  commended  by  many  excellent 
authorities. 

QtiiTiF-EcHARD.  Scriptarea  Ord.  PnBd..  II,  434;  Covlon  in 
Vacant.  Diet,  de  lh6ol.  cath.  (P^ris.  1006).  faac.  XVIII,  ool. 
267;    Urbain,  Nicolaa  Coeffeteau  (Paris.  1804). 

John  R.  Volz. 

Ooelchu,  also  Colga,  Colcu  (Lat.  Colcus)^  a  dis- 
tinguished Abbot  of  the  School  of  Clonmacnoise  in  Ire- 
land, who  flourished  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighth  century.  He  had  been  a  student  of  this  school, 
and  had  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  study  of  St. 
Paul,  whom  he  looked  upon  as  his  special  patron. 
Coelchu  was  remarkable  for  his  learning,  and  was 
sumamed  the  Scribe,  and  also  the  Wise.  C^lgan  (Acta 
Sanctorum  Hibemiae)  mentions  one  tract  from  the  pen 
of  Coelchu  which  was  then  extant,  and  which  was  en- 
tirely of  a  devotional  character.  He  is  generally  as- 
sumed to  be  the  person  with  whom  Alcuin  apparently 
had  some  correspondence.  A  letter  of  Alcuin's  to 
him  has  been  published  by  Ussher  (Sylloge,  £p.  xviii) 
and  republished  by  Colgan.  It  is  headed  **Albini 
Magistri  ad  Colcum  lectorem  in  Scotia.  Benedicto 
magistro  et  pio  patri  Colcu  Alcuinus  humilis  levita 
salutem".  There  can  hardly  be  any  doubt  that  the 
Colcu  spoken  of  was  the  Abbot  of  Clonmacnoise,  and 
that  the  writer  of  the  letter  was  Alcuin,  not  Albin  the 
companion  of  Clement,  though  there  is  no  reason  for 
concluding  from  the  style  of  the  address  that  Alcuin 
had  ever  been  a  student  of  Coelchu's  at  Clonmacnoise. 
In  this  letter  Alcuin  gives  Coelchu  an  account  of  the 
state  of  relieion  on  the  Continent,  mentions  Joseph, 
one  of  Coelchu 's  pupils,  then  in  France,  speaks  of  dis- 
putes between  Kmg  Charles  and  Off  a  of  Mercia,  on  ac- 
count of  which  he  himself  was  likely  to  be  sent  as 
negotiator  into  England.  This  clearly  proves  that  the 
letter  was  written  shortly  before  790.  He  sends  Coel- 
chu presents  of  money  from  King  Charles  and  from 
himself  for  the  monastery  of  Clonmacnoise  and  for  other 
monks  in  Ireland,  and  asks  their  prayers  for  himself 
and  the  king.  There  is  another  reference  to  Coelchu 
in  Alcuin's  letter  to  Joseph,  mentioned  already  in  the 
letter  to  Coelchu.  Though  Coelchu  was  spoken  of  as 
the  Scribe  or  Doctor  of  all  the  Irish,  none  of  his  writ- 
ing have  come  down  to  us. 

Colgan.  Acta  SS.  Hxbemut  (Ix>uTain.  1645),  20  Feb..  378; 
Ubsher,  Syllope  (Dublin,  1632).  Ep.  xviii;  Wars-Harjus. 
Writert  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1739-64),  511;  Mabillon.  Annalet 
O.  S.  B.,  ad  annum  700*.  Lanigan.  Elcdeaiaatical  History  of  Ire- 
land (Dublin,  1829),  III,  228-232. 

James  MacCaffret. 

Ooelde.  Theodore  (Theodore  of  MOnster;  Theo- 
dore OF  OsnabrOck;  Derick,  Dederick,  or  Dibtb- 
RiCH,  C^lde),  Friar  Minor  and  missionary,  b.  at 
Monster,  in  1435;  d.  at  Louvain,  11  December,  1515. 
He  was  a  diflferent  person  from  the  Dominican,  Theo- 
dore of  MOnst«r,  and  from  the  Augustinian,  Theodore 
of  Osnabrftck;  and  was  called  Theodore  von  Mttnster 
(TheodoricuK  a  Monasterio)  from  the  place  of  his 


birth;  and  Theodore  von  OsnabrQck  from  hia  father^s 
native  town.  Coelde  made  his  firet  studies  at  Cologne, 
and  entered  the  Order  of  the  Hermits  of  St.  Augusttue 
at  an  early  age.  In  1454  he  was  nooeived  into  the 
Franciscan  Oraer  in  the  Netheriands.  When  the 
plague  broke  out  at  Brussels  in  1489,  Ck>elde  went 
about  administering  the  last  sacraments  to  the  dving; 
and  when  the  sacristan  aecompanyinR  him  fell  a 
victim  to  the  plague,  Coelde  attacheid  the  lantern  to 
his  girdle,  and,  with  the  pyx  in  one  hand  and  the  bell 
in  the  other,  continued  his  ministrations.  Before 
the  end  of  the  plague,  more  than  thirty-two  thousand 
had  received  the  last  rites  of  the  Church  from  tlie 
heroic  friar.  In  1470  Coelde  composed  a  brief,  popu- 
lar treatise  on  the  truths  of  the  Catholic  Faith,  entitled 
"Kerstenspiegel"  or  "Christcnspiegel"  (The  Chris- 
tian's Mirror),  which  is  considered  to  be  the  first 
German  catechism.  It  went  throu^  thirty-two  edi* 
tions  in  Low  German  and  two  in  High  German,  and 
came  to  be  used  throughout  Germany  and  the  Nether- 
lands as  the  principal  work  of  popular  instruction  in 
religious  matters.  At  the  request  of  his  friend  and 
admirer,  Archbishop  Hermann,  he  wrote  a  series  of 
meditations  on  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  which  appeared 
probably  about  the  same  time  as  the  ''Christen- 
spiegel".  In  1618  the  remains  of  Coelde  were  ex- 
humed, and,  after  the  suppression  of  the  Franciscan 
convent  at  Louvain,  were  transferred  to  Saint-Trond, 
where  they  now  repose  behind  the  high  altar. 

ScHLAOBR,  BtitrUge  tur  Geachichte  der  kdln%»chen  Frm^ 
zttkaner-Ordenaprovinz  (Cologne,  1004),  190«  pasBim;  Scrodt^ 
XNS,  Marlyroloffium  Minorilioo-Bdfficum  (Hoogstraeten,  1002), 

211,213.  Stephen  M.  Donovax. 

Ooello,  Alonzo  SXnchez.  See  SXnchbz-Gokixo, 
Alonzo. 

Ooemgen  (or  Kevin),  Saint,  Abbot  of  Glendar- 
lough,  Ireland,  b.  about  498,  the  date  being  very  ob- 
scure; d.  3  June,  618;  son  of  Coemlog  and  Coemell. 
His  name  signifies  fair-begotten.     He  was  baptized  by 
St.  Cronan  and  educatea   by  St.  Petroc,  a  Briton. 
From  his  twelfth  year  he  studied  under  monks,  and 
eventually  embraced  the   monastic    state.     Subse- 
ouently  he  founded  the  famous  monastery  of  Glen- 
dalough  (the  Valley  of  the  Two  Lakes),  the  parent  of 
several  other  monastic  foundations.    After  visiting 
Sts.    Columba,   Comgall,   and    Cannich  at  Usneacn 
(Usny  Hill)  in  Westmeath,  he  proceeded  to  Qonmac- 
noise,  where  St.  Cieran  had  died  three  days  before, 
in  544.    Having  firmlv  established  his  community, 
he  retired  into  solitude  for  four  years,  and  only  re- 
turned to  Glendalough  at  the  earnest  entreaty  of  his 
monks.    He  belonged  to  the  second  order  of  Irish 
saints  and  probably  was  never  a  bishop.     So  nu- 
merous were  his  followers  that  Glendalough  became 
a  veritable  city  in  the  desert.    His  festival  is  kept 
throughout  Ireland.    Glendalough  became  an  episco- 
pal see,  but  is  now  incorporated  with  Dublin.     St. 
Kevin's  house  and  St.  Kevin's  bed  of  rock  are  still  to 
be  seen :  and  the  Seven  Churches  of  Glendalough  have 
for  centuries  been  visited  by  pilgrims. 

O'Hanlqn.  Lives  of  Irish  Sair%tt  (Dublin,  1875),  VI,  28  aqq.; 
Healt,  Ireland's  Ancient  Schools  and  SiMars  (Dublin,  1890); 
Laniqan,  EecUsiastical  Hist,  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1829),  H; 
Olden  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  b.  v. 

Columba  Edmonds. 

Ooenred  (or  Cenred,  also  Coen&sd,  CoiNREn, 
Kenbed,  and  Chrenred),  King  of  Mercia  (reigned 
704-709);  date  of  birth  and  death  unknown.  He 
was  the  son  of  King  Wulfhere  and  his  Queen  Eonnert- 
gild.  When  Wulfhere  died ,  in  675,  Coenred  was  prol>- 
ably  too  young  to  succeed,  and  his  undo  iEthelred 
ascended  the  throne.  The  A.  S.  Chronicle  speaks  of 
Coenred  becoming  King  of  the  Southumbrians  (a 
name  very  rarely  used)  in  702,  and  succeeding  to  the 
throne  of  Mercia  in  704,  when  ^thelred  retired  to  the 
cloister.    SouUiiimhria  fm>bal  >ly  <U*signates  the  north- 


OQBUB  D'iOJMS 


93 


OOFFXH 


em  portion  of  Mercia^  which  i&thelreti  recovered  from 
Northuinbria.  It  is  inferred  that  the  people  of  this 
reg;ion  rebelled  against  iSthelred  and  cnose  Coenred 
for  their  kin^  and  later  induced  ^thelred  to  resign 
the  whole  ofMercia  in  favour  of  Coenred  in  704.  A 
reaction  against  the  Southumbrians  took  place  in  700, 
when  Coenred  abdicated  in  favour  of  Coetred.  the  son 
of  iSthelred.  Coenred  then  accompanied  Ona,  King 
of  the  East  Saxons,  to  Bx>me,  where  he  received  the 
monastic  habit  from  Pope  Constantine.  He  was 
present  at  a  council  of  the  Mercian  clergy  in  705,  and 
bis  name  appears  on  several  charters  granting  lands 
to  Waldhere,  Bishop  of  London,  to  Cuthswith,  Abbess 
of  Worcester,  and  also  to  the  Abbey  of  Evesham.  It 
does  not  appear  that  he  was  ever  married.  A  great 
lover  of  peace,  and  of  a  pious  disposition,  he  was  more 
suited  for  the  cloister  than  the  throne.  St.  Bede  tells 
us  that  he  befriended  St.  Wilfrid  when  in  exile,  and 
relates  in  detail  his  efforts  to  convert  to  a  better  life 
one  of  his  chief  nobles,  who  finally  died  in  despair. 

LiNOARD,  Hiai.  of  En(iUind.  I.  iii;  Ando-Saxon  Chronicle  ad 
ann.  70S,  70A»  709;  Bedb,  Bed.  Hist.,  bk.  V.  xiii,  xix,  xxiv; 
WiLUAM  or  Malmssburt,  OeH.  Reg.  (Eng.  Hist.  BocJ,  i,  iii; 
Id8m,  Oeet.  PonL,  239,  317,  351-2,  386;  Haddan  and  druBBS. 
CouficO*.  UI,  273. 

G.  E.  Hind. 

Oo9iir  d'Altoe  Indians,  a  small  tribe  of  Salishan 
stock  formerly  ranging  along  the  lake  and  river  of  the 
same  name  in  Northern  Idaho,  U.  S.  A.,  and  now 
residing  upon  a  reservation  established  in  1873  within 
the  same  Doundaries.  The  name  by  which  they  are 
commonly  known,  signifying  ''awl  heart",  is  said, 
although  doubtfully,  to  have  been  originallpr  a  nick- 
name  given  by  the  French  traders  to  a  chief  of  the 
tribe  noted  for  his  stinginess.  They  call  themselves 
Skitswish.  When  first  noticed  by  the  American  ex- 
plorers, Lewis  and  Clark,  in  1805,  the  Coeur  d'Aldne 
were  a  wandering,  poverty-stricken  people,  dwelling 
in  mat-covered  communal  nouses  on  the  border  of  the 
lake,  and  subsisting  chiefly  upon  fish  and  wild  roots. 
In  disposition  they  were  peaceful,  brave  and  honest, 
and  at  a  later  period,  having  acquired  through  the 
French  and  Iroquois  emplovees  ot  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  an  idea  of  the  Catholic  religion,  many  of 
them,  as  well  as  the  Flatheads,  Nez  Perc^,  and  others, 
voluntarily  adopted  a  svstem  of  Christian  prayers  ana 
church  fonns.  In  1841  the  Jesuit.  Nicholas  Point,  a 
companion  of  De  Smet,  established  the  Sacred  Heart 
Tnow  De  Smet)  mission  among  them,  with  such  won- 
derful success  that  within  ten  years  the  entire  tribe 
had  become  Christian,  civilized,  and  comfortably  self- 
supporting. 

In  his  official  report  to  the  Indian  Office  in  1854. 
Governor  Stevens  of  Washington  says:  "It  is  indeed 
extraordinary  what  the goodrathers  have  done  at  the 
Coeur  d'Aldne  mission.  They  have  a  splendid  church 
nearly  finished  bv  the  labours  of  the  fathers,  laymen, 
and  Indians;  a  large  bam;  a  horse  mill  for  flour;  a 
small  range  of  builamg9  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
priests  and  laymen;  a  store  room;  a  milk  or  dairy 
•nom;  a  cook  room,  and  good  arrangements  for  theu* 
pigs  and  oattle.  The^  are  putting  up  a  new  range  of 
quarters,  and  the  Indians  have  some  twelve  comforta- 
ble log  cabins.  The  church  was  designed  by  the  supe- 
rior of  the  mission,  P^  Avil^,  a  man  of  skill  as  an 
architect,  and  undoubtedly,  judging  from  his  well- 
thumbed  books,  of  various  accomplishments.  P^ 
Gassoli  showed  me  several  designs  tor  the  altar,  all  of 
them  eharacterized  by  good  taste  and  harmony  of 
proportion.  The  church,  as  a  specimen  of  architect- 
ure, would  do  credit  to  anyone,  and  has  been  faith- 
fully sketched  by  our  artist,  Mr.  Stanley.  The  mas- 
sive timbeiB  supporting  the  altar  were  from  larch 
trees  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  were  raised  to  their 
place  by  the  Indians,  simply  with  the  aid  of  a  pulley 
and  rope.  Tbey  have  a  laige  cultivated  field  ot  some 
200  acres,  and  a  prairie  of  from  2000  to  3000  acres. 


They  own  a  hundred  pigs,  eight  yoke  of  oxen,  twenty 
cows,  and  a  liberal  proportion  of  horses,  miUes,  and 
young  animals.  The  Indians  have  learned  to  plough, 
sow,  till  the  soil  generally,  milk  cows,  and  do  all  tiie 
duties  incident  to  a  farm.  They  are  some  of  them 
expert  wood  cutters,  and  I  saw  some  thirty  or  forty 
Indians  at  work  getting  in  the  harvest."  All  this  in 
thirteen  years  in  the  neart  of  the  wilderness,  two 
thousand  miles  from  the  frontier  town  of  St.  Louis! 

The  mission  stiU  continues  to  mould  the  tribal  life, 
and  official  reports  show  that  the  same  high  standard 
is  maintained,  each  year  showing  an  advance  in  pros- 
perity and  general  intelligence.  The  tribe  is  increas- 
ing, and  numbered  492  souls  in  1906. 

Annual  Report  of  the  Commi»sum  of  Indian  Affairs  (Wasb- 
m|:toa,  1831-1006);  Lewis  and  Clark,  Original  Journals 
(New  York.  1005);  Moonet,  art.  Missions  in  Handbook  of 
Amsriam  Indians  (Washington.  1007);  Shka,  Catholic  Mis- 
sions (New  York,  1855);  Da  Smet,  Oregon  Missions  (New 
York,  1847);  Stevens,  in  Report  of  Commission  of  Indian 
Affairs  (WuhingUm,  1854). 

James  Moonet. 

Ooffin  (ali<i8  Hatton),  Edwabd,  English  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  b.  at  Exeter,  1570;  d.  17  April,  1626,  at 
Saint-Omer's  College.  After  studies  at  Reims  and 
Ingolstadt,  he  was  ordained  at  the  English  Coiiefle, 
Rome,  and  sent  to  England.  In  1598  he  entered  tne 
Society.  On  his  way  to  the  novitiate  in  Flanders,  he 
was  seised  by  the  Dutch,  near  Antwerp,  and  taken 
to  En^^and,  where  he  was  imprisoned  for  five  years. 
Banished  from  England  in  1603,  he  acted  for  twen^ 
years  as  confessor  at  the  English  College,  Rome,  lie 
volunteered  for  England  again,  but  died  on  the 
journey.  He  wrote  the  preiace  to  Father  Persons 's 
''Discussion  of  Mr.  Barlowe's  Answer''  (Saint-Omer, 
1612) ;  Refutation  of  Hall,  Dean  of  Worcester's  *'  Dis- 
course for  the  Marriage  of  Ecclesiastical  Persons" 
(1619);  "Art  of  Dying  WeU'',  from  the  Latin  of 
Bellarmine  (1621);  "True  Relation  of  Sickness  and 
Death  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine",  by  C.  E.  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus  (1622),  tr.  into  Latin,  "  De  Morte",  etc. 
(Samt-Omer.  1623,  8vo.);  "Marci  Antonii  de  Dom- 
inis  Palinodia"  ( Saint-Omer,  1623),  tr.  by  Dr. 
Fletcher  in  1827  as  "My  Motives  for  Risnoundng  the 
Protestant  Religion";  "De  Martyrio  PP.  Roberts, 
Wilson  et  Napper"  (Stonyhurst  MSS.,  Anglia,  III, 
n.  103). 

OuvsK,  Collectanea  S.  /.,  55;  Foley,  Records^  1, 60;  VI.  178. 
and  677;  VII  (i),  145;  Morris.  Troubles.  1. 166;  Douay  Diaries, 

gj.  18,  207,  213;    Sommertoobl,  Bibiioth^que,  II.  ool.  1270; 
iLLOW,  BttL  Diet.  Eng,  Cath.,  I,  522;    Cooper  in  Diet,  Nat. 


Biog.,B.y, 


Patricx  Ryan. 


Oofiftn,  Robert  Aston,  ecclesiastical  writer  and 
bishop,  b.  at  Brighton,  England,  19  July,  1819;  d.  at 
Teignmouth,  Devonshire,  6  April,  1886.  He  re- 
ceived his  secondary  education  at  Harrow  and  in  1837 
went  to  Christ  CJhurch,  Oxford,  where  he  took  his 
B.A.  degree  with  honours  in  1840.  He  then  prepared 
himself  for  the  ministry  and,  having  received  Anglican 
orders  from  the  Bishop  of  Oxford,  he  was  appointed  in 
1843  vicar  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen,  Oxford.  While  at 
Oxford  he  had  become  a  follower  of  Dr.  Newman,  and 
like  so  many  others  who  had  joined  the  Oxford  or 
Tractarian  Movement  he  left  the  Anglican  Church  and 
was  received  into  the  Catholic  Church  at  Prior  Park 
on  the  feast  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  3  Dec.,  1845,  two 
months  after  the  reception  of  Dr.  Newman.  Having 
8|)ent  a  year  as  tutor  m  the  family  of  Mr.  Ambrose  de 
Lisle,  he  foUowed  Newman  to  Rome  to  prepare  him 
self  for  the  priesthood,  and  was  ordained  31  Oct., 
1847,  by  the  cardinal  vicar.  In  the  meantime  Dr. 
Newnaan  had  been  authorized  by  Pius  IX  to  found  the 
Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri  in  Enpland.  When,  in 
June,  1848,  the  Oratory  was  established.  Father  Cof- 
fin with  oUier  convert  priests  joined  it,  and  he  was 
appointed  superior  of  St.  Wilfrid's,  Cotton  HalL  The 
next  year  he  followed  a  strong  attraction  he  had  felt 


oooiTodm 


m 


OOHW 


fiince  hiB  conversion  for  the  Congregation  of  the  Most 
Holy  Redeemer,  left  the  Oratory,  and  entered  the 
Redemptorist  novitiate  at  Saint-Trond,  in  Belgium. 
Having  made  his  profession  on  2  February,  1852,  he 
returned  to  England  and  b^an  his  long  and  fruitful 
career  as  a  zealous  Redemptorist  missionary.  From 
1855  to  1865  he  was  rector  of  St.  Mary's,  Clapham, 
and  from  the  latter  year  till  1882  he  held  the  office  of 
provincial  of  the  English  Redemptorists.  These 
offices,  however,  did  not  prevent  him  from  zealously 
labouring  with  pen  and  tongue,  for,  from  1852  to 
1872^  he  was  aunost  constantlv  en^iged  in  giving 
missions  and  clei^  retreats  tnrou^out  Englano, 
Ireland,  and  Scotland,  and  in  publishmg  many  asceti- 
cal  books. 

After  the  death  of  Dr.  Danell,  the  second  Bishop  of 
Southwark,  Father  Coffin  was  chosen  as  his  successor, 
and  was  consecrated  in  Rome  by  Cardinal  Howard, 
in  the  chiuxih  of  S.  Alfonso,  11  June,  1882,  taking 
possession  of  his  see  on  27  July.  After  an  illness  m 
several  months,  borne  with  great  fortitude,  Bishop 
Coffiin  died  at  Teigpmouth,  in  the  house  oi  the  Re- 
demptorists which  he  himself  had  founded  when  pro- 
vincial. ''Although  his  name  was  at  no  time  con- 
spicuously before  the  world,  his  influence  had  been 
widely  and  deeply  felt,  and  few  ecclesiastics  in  Eng- 
land were  held  m  greater  esteem  or  affection.  By  the 
publication  of  many  of  the  works  of  St.  Alphonsus,  by 
nis  labours  as  a  preacher  and  missionary  in  nis  younger 
days,  by  lus  numerous  retreats,  especially  to  me 
clergy,  and  still  more  by  his  government  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer 
in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  during  nearly 
twenty  vears,  he  performed  a  quiet,  solid  and  endur- 
ingwork  which  will  be  felt  for  mani^  generations" 
(''The  Tablet'',  London).  Amonjg  his  publications 
are  the  following  English  translations  of  the  Italian 
works  of  St.  Alphonsus:  "The  Glories  of  Mary"  (Lon- 
don, 1852,  1868);  "The  Mysteries  of  the  Faith: 
The  Incarnation'*  (London,  1854)-  "The  Christian 
Virtues"  (London,  1854);  "The  Mysteries  of  the 
Faith:  The  Eucharist"  (London,  1855);  "Visits  to 
the  Most  Holy  Sacrament"  (London,  1855);  "The 
Eternal  Truths"  (London,  1857);  "A  Devotion  in 
Honour  of  St.  Joseph"  (London,  1860);  "The  Mys- 
teries of  the  Faitn:  The  Redemption"  (London, 
1861);  "Hymns  and  Verses  on  Spiritual  Subjects" 
(London,  1863).  He  also  published  a  translation  of 
"The  Oratory  of  the  Faithful  Soul"  by  Blosius  (Lon- 
don, 1848),  and  several  pastoral  letters. 

Giixow.  BM.  Diet,  of  Eno,  Cath.,  b.  v.;  The  Tablet  (London, 
U  April.  1886).  B.  GULDNER. 

OoffitOBUS,  an  Irishman,  an  author,  and  a  monk  of 
Kildare;  the  date  and  place  of  his  birth  and  of  his 
death  are  unknown;  it  is  uncertain  even  in  what  cen- 
tury he  lived.  In  the  one  work  which  he  wrote,  his 
life  of  St.  Brig^d,  he  asks  a  prayer  pro  me  nepote  cuJL- 
vabili,  from  wmch  both  Ware  and  Ussher  conclude  that 
he  was  a  nephew  of  St.  Brigid,  and,  accordingly,  he 
is  put  down  by  them  among  the  writers  of  the  sixth 
century.  But  the  word  nepoa  may  also  be  applied  to 
one  who,  like  the  prodigal,  nad  lived  riotously,  and  it 
may  be,  that  Cogitosus,  recalling  some  former  lapses 
from  virtue,  so  uses  tJbe  word  of  himself.  At  all 
events,  his  editor,  Vossius,  is  quite  satisfied  that  Cogi- 
tosus was  no  nephew  of  St.  Brigid,  because  in  two 
genealogical  menologies  which  Vossius  had,  in  which 
were  enumerated  the  names  of  fotirteen  holy  men  of 
that  saint's  family,  the  name  of  Cogitosus  is  not  to  be 
found.  Nor  did  the  latter  live  in  the  sixth  century, 
because  he  speaks  of  a  long  succession  of  bishops  and 
abbesses  at  Kildare,  showing  that  he  writes  of  a  period 
long  after  the  time  of  St.  Brigid,  who  died  in  525,  and 
of  St.  Conleth,  who  died  a  few  years  earlier.  Besides 
this,  l^e  description  of  the  church  of  Kildare  belong 
to  a  much  later  time;  and  the  author  caUs  St.  Conletn 


an  archbishop,  a  term  not  usual  in  the  Western  Church 
until  the  opening  of  the  ninth  century.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  describes  Kildare  before  it  'wras  plundered  by 
the  Danes,  in  835,  suid  before  St.  Bngid's  remains 
were  removed  to  Down.  The  probability  therefore  is 
that  he  lived  and  wrote  the  life  of  St.  Brigid  about  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  His  work  is  a  pane- 
gyric rather  than  a  biography.  He  gives  so  few 
details  of  the  saint's  life  that  he  omits  we  date  and 

elace  of  her  birth  and  the  date  of  her  death ;  nor  does 
e  make  mention  of  any  of  her  contemporaries,  if  we 
except  St.  Conleth,  the  first  Bishop  of  Kildare,  and 
Macaille  from  whom  she  received  the  veiL  He  cdves 
the  names  of  her  parents,  but  jb  careful  to  conceal  the 
fact  that  she  was  illegitimate,  and  that  her  mother 
was  a  slave.  On  the  other  hand,  he  dwells  with  evi- 
dent satisfaction  on  her  piety,  her  humility,  her  char- 
ity, her  sseal  for  religion,  the  esteem  in  which  she  was 
held  by  all.  And  ne  narrates  at  length  the  many 
miracles  she  wrought,  and  tells  of  the  numbers  who 
came  as  pilgrims  to  Kildare,  attracted  by  her  fame. 
In  his  anxiety  to  exalt  her  he  says  she  had  as  abbess 
authority  over  all  the  abbesses  of  Ireland,  althoue^ 
as  a  matter  of  fact  she  could  govern  onlv  those  who 
followed  her  rule;  and  his  statement  that  she  ap- 
pointed the  Bishop  of  Kildare  could  not,  of  course, 
mean  that  she  conferred  any  jurisdiction.  O^tOsus 
writes  in  fairly  good  Latin,  much  better  indeed  than 
might  be  expected  in  that  a^,  and  his  description  of 
the  church  of  Kildare  with  its  interior  decorations  is 
specially  interesting  for  the  history  of  early  Irish  art 
and  architecture. 

Lanioan,  Bcdeaiastical  Hiatory  (Dublin,  1822);  BiiaNK.  P. 
L..  LXXII;  Healt,  AneierU  SchooU  and  Scholare  (Dublin. 
1896);   Ware  and  Harris,  Writen  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1764). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Oofi^Uudo,  Diego  L6pbz  de,  one  of  the  chief  histo- 
rians of  Yucatan.  His  work,  the  *'Historia  de  Yuca- 
tan", which  appeared  at  Madrid  in  1688,  and  was  re- 
printed in  1842  and  1867,  is  an  important  work,  full 
of  information  personally  gathered  at  a  time  when 
older  sources,  written  and  oral,  that  have  now  partly 
disappeared,  were  accessible.  CogoUudo  consulted 
and  used  the  writings  of  Bishop  Diego  de  Landa  to  a 
considerable  extent,  but  man^  of  his  statements  must 
be  taken  with  cautious  criticism.  He  was  a  native  of 
AlcaU  de  Henares  in  Spain,  and  took  the  habit  of  St. 
Francis  at  the  convent  of  San  Diego,  31  March,  1629. 
He  emigrated  to  Yucatan,  where  he  became  succes- 
sively lector  in  theology,  guardiani  and  finally  pro- 
vincial of  his  order. 

BaaiBTAiN  DB  SouEA^  Biblioteca  hiapano-ameriocma  (Mexioo. 
1816-1828:  2nd  ed.  Ameoameca,  1883);  SQUtaR,  Mcnooraxhcf 
Authora  (New  York,  1861);  BRAasBUR  db  Boubboubo,  RtUp- 
tion  dee  cKoaee  de  Yucatan  par  Diego  de  Landa  (I860);  Stepb- 
BN8,  hicidenU  of  Travd  in  Yucatan  (New  York.  1843);  Bandb- 
LiBR,  Notea  on  the  Bibliography  of  Yucatan  and  Central  Amenca 
(Proceedinge  of  the  Aniiquarittn  Societu.  Woroester,  1880); 
Ancona,  HiHoria  de  Yucatan  (M^rida,  1875):  Bancroft,  The 
Native  Racee  of  the  Pacific  States  (New  York.  1875). 

Ad.  F.  Bandelibr. 

Oohen,  Hermann,  a  Discalced  Carmelite  (AngOB- 
tin-Marie  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  generally  known 
as  Father  Hermann),  b.  at  Hamburg,  Germany,  10 
November,  1820;  d.  at  Spandau,  20  January,  1871. 
The  son  of  a  Jewish  merchant,  he  devoted  himself  to 
music,  which  he  studied  under  Liszt  at  Paris,  where 
he  joined  a  brilliant  but  frivolous  circle,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  his  morals.  One  day,  in  May,  1847,  while 
leading  the  choir  at  Benediction  in  the  churdi  of 
Sainte -Valerie,  he  felt  himself  touched  by  Divine 
grace,  and,  after  a  short  sojourn  at  Ems,  resolved  to 
become  a  Christian.  Baptized  28  August,  he  insti- 
tuted with  De  la  BouiUerie  the  pious  practice  of  the 
nocturnal  adoration;  he  entered  the  Carmelite  no- 
vitiate at  Broussey,  made  his  profession  7  October, 
1860,  and  was  ordamed  priest  19  April  of  the  foUowmg 
year.    His  fieiy  eloquence  and  the  stir  oansed  by  hiB 


GOIMBATORE 


95 


OOlMB&i 


conversion  made  him  a  favourite  preacher,  notwith- 
standing insufiEicient  studies.  He  was  instrumental 
m  the  foundation  of  convents  at  Bagn^res-de-Bigorre 
(1853),  Lyons  (1857),  the  "Desert''  of  Tarasteix  near 
Lourdes  (1857),  and  in  London  (1862),  where  he  had 
been  known  during  his  artistic  career.  After  some 
years  spent  in  England  he  went  on  a  preaching  tour 
thiough  Germany  and  France  and  ultimately  retired 
to  Tarasteix.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German 
War  he  fled  to  Switzerland,  and  later  on  took  charge  of 
the  lazaretto  at  Spandau,  where  he  contracted  small- 
pox. He  was  buried  in  St.  Hedwig's  church,  Berlin. 
Among  his  works  are  "LeCatholicisme  en  Angleterre", 
a  speech  delivered  at  Mechlin,  also  in  Engli^  (Paris, 
1864);  "Gloire  4  Marie'*  (1849);  "Amour  H  J^sus" 
(1851);  "Fleurs  du  Carmel";  "  Couronnement  de  la 
Madonne";  "Thabor''  (1870),  five  collections  of  sa- 
cred songs  with  accompaniment,  pious  but  somewhat 
shallow;  this  also  holos  good  of  his  mass  (1856). 

GBBokfiBS,  Convenum  du  pianiate  Hermann  (Paris,  1861); 
MoRXAU,  Hermann  au  Saint  Diaert  de  Tanuteix  (Paris^l875); 


8TI.VAXN.  Vie  du  R.  P.  Hermann  (Paria,  1881);    tr. 
(Aachen.  1881);  Italian  (Turin,  1883). 

B.  Zimmerman. 

Ooixnbatore  (Koimbatur),  Diocese  of  (Coimba- 
turensib). — The  citv  of  Coimbatore  is  the  capital  of 
the  district  of  Coimbatore  in  Madras,  British  India, 
situated  on  the  River  Noyel.  Its  population  in  1901 
was  53,080;  of  these  3,000  are  Catholics.  The  dio> 
cese  embraces  the  Collectorate  of  Coimbatore  (except 
the  Taluk  of  the  CoUegal),  the  Nileiris  with  the  soutn- 
eastern  Wynaad,  the  Taliiks  of  Palghat,  CoUancodoo, 
Tamalpuram,  and  part  of  Wallavanad,  the  Chittur 
Taluks,  and  the  Nelliampathy  Hills  in  the  Cochin 
territory.  In  1846  Coimbatore  was  separated  from 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Pondicherry,  and  in  1850 
was  made  a  vicariate  Apostolic.  On  1  Sept.,  1886, 
it  was  constituted  a  diocese,  and  the  Right  Rev.  Joseph 
Louis  Bardon,  Bishop  of  Telmessus,  who  had  been 
vicar  Apostolic,  was  chosen  as  its  first  bishop. 

The  total  population  of  the  diocese  is  2,500,000,  of 
whom  37,080  are  Catholics.  There  are  41  European 
and  13  native  priests.  In  the  ecclesiastical  seminary 
are  14  students.  The  diocese  has  2  religious  com- 
munities  of  men  and  3  of  women.  There  are  for  boys 
a  second-grade  college,  a  middle  school,  and  a  high 
school;  and  for  girls  eighteen  convent  schools.  There 
are  lUso  67  elementary  schools,  with  4239  pupils. 
There  are  2  hospitals,  4  orphanages,  and  an  industrial 
school. 

The  Afadrtu  Catholic  Directory,  for  1007;  The  Slaleaman'a 
Year  Book  (London,  1906);  Konvereatione'Lexikon  (St.  Louis, 

Lbo  a.  Kellt. 

Ooimbra,  Diocese  of  (Conimbricensis),  in  Portu- 
ml,  suffragan  of  Braga,  in  the  province  of  Beira. 
l^e  cathe£-al  city  has  13,369  inhabitants.  The  first 
known  bidiiop  was  Lucentius,  who  assisted  (563)  at 
the  First  Council  of  Braga,  the  metropolitan  See  of 
Ck)imbra,  imtil  the  latter  was  attached  to  the  ecclesi- 
astical province  of  M^rida  (650-62).  Titular  bishops 
of  Coimhra  continued  the  succession  \mder  the  Arab 
conquest,  one  of  whom  witnessed  the  consecration  of 
the  church  of  Santiago  de  Compostela  in  876.  The 
see  was  re-established  in  1088,  after  the  reconquest 
of  the  city  by  the  Christians  (1064).  The  first 
bishop  of  the  new  series  was  Martin.  Among  the 
more  famous  bishops  have  been  Pedro  (1300), 
dumoellor  of  King  Diniz,  and  Manoel  de  Menezes 
(1673-78),  rector  of  the  university,  who  fell  with 
I)om  Sebastian  on  the  field  of  Kassr-el-Kebir.  The 
old  cathedral  of  Coimbra,  built  in  the  first  half  of  the 
twelfth  ccntiiry,  partly  at  the  expense  of  Bishop 
Miguel  and  his  chapter,  is  a  remarkable  monument 
of  Romanesque  arcnitecture;  the  new  cathedral,  a 
Henidssance  Duilcting  dating  from  15r:0,  is  of  little 
interest.    The  episcopal  palace  was  also  built  in  the 


sixteenth  century.  The  principal  monastery  of  the 
diocese  is  that  of  Santa  Cruz,  foimded  in  1131  by 
Alfonso  VII,  and  for  some  time  the  most  important  in 
the  kingdom  by  reason  of  its  wealth  and  privileges. 
Its  prior  was  authorized  by  Anastasius  IV  and  Cele» 
tine  III  to  wear  the  episcopal  insignia.  In  1904  the 
diocese  had  a  population  of  875,853,  divided  among 
308  parishes. 

FhdBM,  EepaAa  SoQrada  (Madrid,  1759).  XIV,  71-06; 
BoRQBs  DK  FiQUsniaDO,  Coimbra  anti(fa  $  modema  (Lisbon, 
1886). 

Universitt  op  Coimbba. — ^The  earliest  certain 
information  concerning  a  university  in  Portugal  dates 
from  1288,  when  the  Abbot  of  Alcobaza,  several 
priors  of  convents,  and  parish  priests  made  known  to 
Nicholas  IV  that  they  had  obtained  from  King 
Diniz  the  foundation  of  a  "Studium  Generale"  at 
Lisbon,  and  had  arraneed  among  themselves  to  defray 
the  salaries  of  the  (KKtors  and  masters  from  the 
revenues  of  their  monasteries  and  churches;  they 
besought  the  pope  to  confirm  this  agreement  and  to 
protect  the  work  they  were  undeitaking  "for  the 
service  of  God  and  the  glory  of  their  country".  In  a 
Bull  of  9  August,  1290,  addressed  to  the  ''University 
of  the  masters  and  students  of  Lisbon",  the  pope 
acceded  to  their  rec}uest  suid  expressed  his  satisfac- 
tion with  the  creation  of  this  new  seat  of  studies. 
This  Bull  "sanctions  taxation  of  lodging?  in  the 
Paris  and  Bologna  fashion,  grants  dispensation  from 
residence  to  masters  and  students  ana  authorizes  the 
Bishop  of  Lisbon  (or,  sede  vacarUe^  the  Vicar-capit- 
ular) to  confer  the  jus  vbique  docendi  on  all  faculties 
except  Theology."  Frequent  quarrels  between  the 
students  and  the  citizens  led  the  £jne  of  Portugal  to 
request  the  pope  to  transfer  the  new  school  to  Coimbra, 
a  more  tranquil  place,  and  to  grant  at  the  same  time 
to  the  new  foundation  all  the  "privileges"  of  the 
former  one.  The  transfer  took  place  15  February, 
1308,  on  which  date  King  Diniz  issued  the  charter  of 
foundation,  quite  similar  to  that  of  Alfonso  the  Wise 
for  the  University  of  Salamanca  in  Castile.  The 
sciences  then  taught  at  Coimbra  were  canon  and 
civil  law,  medicine,  dialectic,  and  grammar.  Theol- 
ogy was  taught  in  the  convents  of  the  Dominicans 
and  the  Franciscans.  For  reasons  unknown  to  us, 
the  university  was  again  moved  to  Lisbon  in  1339, 
by  order  of  Alfonso  IV.  In  1354  it  returned  to 
Coimbra,  only  to  be  again  transferred  to  Lisbon  in 
1377.  From  this  time  until  its  final  transfer  to 
Coimbra  in  1537,  the  university  enjoyed  greater 
prosperity.  At  the  beginning  of  tne  fifteenth  century 
theology  appears  regularly  as  one  of  the  sciences 
taught  there. 

During  the  reign  of  John  III  (1521-57)  important 
reforms  were  carried  out,  and  the  university  reached 
the  acme  of  its  career.  The  faculties  hitherto  widely 
scattered  in  different  edifices  were  brought  together 
under  one  roof  in  the  "  Palacio  del  Rey  ",  and  new  and 
illustrious  professors  were  invited  from  Castile;  for 
the  faculty  of  theology,  Alfonso  de  Prado  and  Anto- 
nio de  Fonseca,  the  latter  a  doctor  of  Paris;  for  the 
faculty  of  law,  the  famous  canonist  Martfn  de  AspU- 
cueta  (Doctor  Navarrus),  Manuel  de  Costa,  and 
Antonio  Suarez,  all  three  from  Salamanca;  and  for 
medicine,  Francisco  Franco  and  Eodrigo  Reinoso. 
The  classical  languages  and  literatures  were  taught 
in  the  Colegio  de  las  Artes,  as  a  preparation  for  the 
graver  studies  of  the  university;  this  college  was  at 
first  quite  independent  of  the  latter,  but  was  event- 
ually mcorporated  with  it  and  confided  to  the  Jesuits. 
One  of  its  first  professors  was  the  Scotch  Latinist, 
Geor^  Buchanan,  later  a  follower  of  John  Knox  and 
a  revilcr  of  Mary  Stuart.  The  colleges  of  SSo  Pedro 
and  Sno  Paulo  were  founded  for  grs^uates  (doctors) 
who  purposed  to  devote  themselves  to  teaching; 
other  colleges  were  founded  for  the  students  of  various 
religious  orders  in  which  they  might  follow  the  com- 


COLA 


96 


COLBERT 


mon  life  while  pursuing  their  studies  at  the  university. 
New  reforms  were  inaugurated  in  1770,  when  (23 
December)  King  Jos^  I,  on  the  initiative  of  the 
Marquis  de  Pomoal,  appointed  a  commission  to  con- 
sider the  reor^nization  of  the  university.  The 
conmiission  advised  the  creation  of  two  new  faculties, 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  leaving  intact 
the  older  faculties  of  theology,  canon  law,  civil  law, 
and  medicine.  New  professors  were  brought  from 
Italy,  Michele  Franzim  for  mathematics,  and  Domen- 
ico  Vandelli  for  natural  history.  The  former  Jesuit 
college,  confiscated  at  the  time  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
Society  from  Portugal,  was  turned  over  to  the  faculty 
of  medicine  for  its  cb'nics  and  laboratories.     The 


deeply  religious,  but  his  religion  was  tmcturcd  witti 
the  evils  of  the  day,  Gallicanism  and  Jansenism.  It 
was  Colbert  who  suMjested  to  Louis  XIV  the  oonvezi- 
ing  of  the  famous  Assembly  of  the  Cler^  in  1682 
which  formulated  the  four  propositions  (h  Gallican- 
ism. In  the  conflicts  which  arose  between  the  court 
of  France  and  Rome  Colbert  used  his  influence  against 
Rome.  Protestants  looked  to  him  as  to  tiieir  protec- 
tor. The  Jansenist  De  Bourseys  was  his  evil  genius 
as  well  as  his  informant  on  reugious  questions.  In- 
fluenced by  De  Bourseys,  he  failed  to  see  the  real  dan- 
ger of  Jansenism,  and  by  treating  it  with  levity,  gave 
it  encouragement.  The  Colbert  family  gave  to  the 
Church  a  number  of  nuns  and  ecclesiastics.     Charles 


Universttt  of  Coimbra 


laboratories  for  physics,  chemistry,  and  natural  his- 
tory were  also  located  there;  finally  a  botanical  gar- 
den was  added.  At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
metallur^  was  taught  by  Jos4  Bonifacio  de  Andrade, 
and  hydfraulics  by  Manoel  Pedro  de  Mello,  both 
scholars  of  repute.  In  1907  the  University  of  Coim- 
bra had  five  faculties,  theology,  law,  medicine,  mathe- 
matics, and  philosophy.  Its  professors  numbered 
(1905-06)  68,  and  its  students  2916.  The  library 
now  contains  about  100,000  volumes.     (See  Conim- 

BRICENSES.) 

Dbniplb,  Die  EnUtehung  der  UniversUiUen  dea  MiUdaUera 
b%8  IIM)  (Berlin,  1885),  519^-634;  Viboondb  db  Villa-Major, 
Erj^osioao  axiccxrUa  da  oroaniaoQao  actual  da  Univeraidade  de 
Catmbra,  etc.  (Coimbra,  1878);  Braoa,  Hialoria  da  Univer- 
aidade  de  Coimbra  (Lisbon,  1892-1902),  I-IV;  Mznbrva,  Jahr- 
bueh  der  gel^Hen  WeU  (Strasburg,  1907). 

Eduardo  de  Hinojosa. 

Oola  di  Rienii.    See  Rienzi. 

Colbert,  Jban-Baptiste,  Marquis  de  Seignelay, 
statesman,  b.  at  Reims,  France,  1619;  d.  at  Paris, 
1683,  Noticed  by  Mazarin  and  recommended  by  him 
to  Louis  XIV  he  became  at  the  latter's  death,  con- 
troller of  finances.  Through  the  control  of  finances  he 
organized  nearly  every  public  service  in  France.  Of 
him,  Mme.  de  S6vign6  said:  "M.  de  Colbert  thinks  of 
finances  only  and  never  of  religion."  This  should 
not,  however,  be  taken  too  h'terally.    Colbert  was 


G^rinsays:  "His  sisters  controlled  the  ^reat  abbeys 
of  Sainte-Marie  de  Chaillot,  of  Sainte-Claire  de  Reims 
and  of  the  LeLys  near  Melun.  One  of  his  brothers 
(Nicolas,  1627-1676)  Bishop  of  Luyon  and  afterwards 
of  Auxerre,  having  died,  he  caused  to  be  appointed 
in  his  place  his  cousin  Andr6  (1647-1702)  who  was  a 
member  of  the  assembly  of  1682,  with  another  of  his 
cousins,  Colbert  de  St.  Pouange,  Bishop  of  Montau- 
ban."  This  passage  omits  the  following  three  best 
known  kinsmen  of  the  great  Colbert. 

II. — Jacques-Nicolab  Colbert  (1665-1707), 
Archbishop  of  Rouen.  Fisquet  (La  France  pontifi- 
cale,  Rouen,  p.  253)  describes  him  as  a  wortny  and 
learned  prelate  giving  his  principal  care  to  the  training 
of  his  clerics.  C.  G^rin  (loc.  cit.,  p.  188),  however,  re- 
proaches him  for  being  worldly,  a  spendthrift,  and,  in 
spite  of  his  pompous  declarations  of  orthodoxy,  no  less 
sympathetic  to  Jansenism  than  his  cousin,  the  Bishop 
of  Montepellier. 

ni. — Charles-Joachim  Colbert  (1667-1738), 
Bishop  of  Montepellier,  and  a  militant  Jansenist.  He 
first  appeared  to  submit  to  the  Bull  "Vineam  Dom- 
ini" of  Innocent  XI,  1705,  but  when  Clement  XI 
issued  the  Bull  "Unigenitus",  1713,  he  openly  sided 
with  the  appellants  S)anen  of  Senez,  de  la  Broue  of 
Mirepoix,  and  Langle  of  Boulogne.  The  works  pub- 
lished under  his  name  (Montepellier,  1740)  are  prob- 


OOUB 


97 


OOLBEnWK 


ably,  at  fenst  in  part,  from  the  pen  of  his  advieera, 
Oaulticr  and  Croz,  who  are  moreover  charged  with 
the  perversion  of  their  master.  In  1702,  one  of  his 
priests,  the  Oratorian  Pouget^  published,  at  his  re- 
quest, the  "Cat^hisme  de  Montpellier''  a  remarka- 
ble book  but  tinctured  with  Jansenism  and  condemned 
by  the  Holy  See,  17X2  and  1721. 

IV.— Michel  Colbbrt  (1635-1702),  an  asoetfc 
writer  and  superior  of  the  Premonstrants.  His  elee- 
tion  was  somewhat  irregular  and  had  to  be  validated 
by  papal  rescript.  He  is  the  author  of  **  Lettres  d'un 
AbW  k  ses  religieux  "  and  "  Lettre  de  Consolation  *'. 

Fia4tavt,  La  France  paniifioale  (Pkuis,  v.  d.)  under  th«  van- 
oua  diooeseB  rrferred  to  above: ^  GiiUN,  RecMrchea  4ur  i'oMein- 
bU<  du  clergS  de  Itiai  (Paris,  1869);  Bbbqionb.  Vie  des  OiuUre 
^H-mtes  ffigaai^if  dans  la  oau9e  de  Port-Koual  (Cologne,  175C); 
Cl^men^.  ffitttoite  de  CoAeH  (Paris,  1875);  Kakn.  M4moir» 
(Palis.  1805);  Jai^,  Did.  criiique  (r^ris,  1867);  Gauchie  in 
Rev,  Hist,  Ecd.  (Louvain.  1903).  HI.  968;  Wamhan,  Bvmm 
(New  York,  1905).  202. 

J.   F.  SOLUER. 

Goto,  Hbnrt,  confessor  of  the  Faith ^  b.  at  Gods- 
hill,  lele  of  Wight, "about  1500;  d.  in  the  Fleet  Prison, 
February,  1579  or  1580.  He  was  educated  at  Win- 
chester and  New  College,  Oxford,  admitted  a  per- 
petual fellow  Uiere  (1523),  received  the  degree  of 
B.O.L.  (1525),  and  then  went  to  Italy  for  seven 
years,  residing  chiefly  at  Padua.  During  his  career 
he  was  successively  prebendary  of  Yatminster  (1539), 
rector  of  Qielmsfora,  Essex,  prebendary  of  Holbom, 
Hweting  (1541),  and  Wenlakesbam  (1542),  warden  of 
New  OoU^e  (1542-51),  and  rector  of  Newton  Looigue- 
vUle  in  Buckinghamshire.  Created  a  D.C. L.  at  Oxford 
(1540),  he  resigned  his  fellowship  the  same  jrear.  At 
first  he  conformed  to  the  Protestant  religion,  but  af- 
terwards saw  his  error,  returned  to  the  Catholic  Faith 
about  1547,  and  eventually  resigned  all  his  prefer- 
ments. In  Marv^  reign  he  became  Archdeacon  of 
Ely,  a  canon  of  Westminster  (1554),  vicar-genend 
of  Cardinal  Pole  (1557),  and  a  judge  of  Uie  archiepisco- 
pal  Coart  of  Audience.  He  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners who  restored  Tunstal  and  Bonner  to  their 
bishoprics,  a  disputant  against  Cranmer,  Ridlejr,  and 
Ijatimer  at  Oxford  (1554),  a  delegate  for  the  visitation 
of  Oxford  (1556),  and  Visitor  of  All  Souls  College  in 
1558,  in  wiiich  year  he  received  the  rectory  of  Wroth- 
am,  and  was  sent  to  Ireland  with  a  commission  for 
the  suppression  of  heresy  there.  Cardinal  Pole  ap- 
pcnnted  CV>le  one  of  his  executors.  During  Elizabeth's 
reign  he  remained  true  to  the  Catholic  F^^  Jtnd  iA6t 
nait  in  th^  discussions  begun  at  Westminster  in  1569. 
Il\en  b^gan  lus  sufferingjs:  first,  he  was  fined  500 
marks  ($1600),  then  deprived  of  all  his  preferments, 
committed  to  the  Tower  (20  May,  1560),  and  finally 
removed  to  the  Fleet  (10  June),  where  he  remainea 
for  neftriy  twenty  years,  until  his  death.  He  wrote: 
letters  to  Dr.  Starkey  and  Sir  Richard  Morysin 
from  Padua,  1530,  and  Paris,  1537;  ''Disputation 
with  Cranmer,  Ridley  and  Latimer  at  Oxford",  in 
Fox's  *Acts  and  Monuments";  "Sum  and  effect  of 
his  sermon  at  Oxford  when  Archbishop  Cranmer  was 
burnt",  in  Fox's  "Acts  and  Monuments";  "Answer 
to  the  first  proposition  of  the  Protestants  at  the  dis- 
putation before  the  Lords  at  Westminster,  1559",  in 
Burnet's  ''Hist.  Reform.  Records";  ''Copieof  a  Ser- 
mon at  Paule's  Crosse  1560"  (London,  1560);  "Let- 
ten  to  J(^n,  Bishop  of  Sarum"  (London,  1560); 
"Answere  to  certain  parcels  of  the  Lett(H«  of  the 
Bishop  of  ^rum",  in  Jewel's  works. 

Wood,  AOuna  Oxonieneee,  ed.  Buss  (London,  1818),  I, 
450;  Coovam  Athtna  CantabrigitMei  (Cambrid0»,  1858-61).  I. 
417;  Ra*hi>au^  History  of  New  College  (London,  1901).  109, 
110;  DoDD,  Church  History  of  Enaland,  ftd.  Tierxey  (liondoii, 
1839-43).  II,  136.  137.  dxii.  cccxvi;  III.  150. 

G.  E.  Himj. 

OoUfnuoi,  Edwabd,  controversialist  politician,  and 
secretary  of  the  Dochess  of  York,  date  of  birth  un- 
known; executed  at  Tyburn,  3  December,  1678.  He  was 
IV.— 7 


the  son  of  a  Suffolk  clergyman  aud,  after  a  distin- 
guished career  at  Cambridge,  became  a  Catholic  and 
was  employed  by  the  Diiohess  of  York.  As  her  secre- 
tary he  became  acquainted  with  continental  states- 
men from  whom  he  soi%ht  pecuniary  help  when  in 
difficuHies.  In  1675  he  offered  his  services  in  favour  of 
Catholicism  to  Pdre  La  Obaise,  the  confessor  of  Louis 
XIV;  again  in  1676  he  was  in  communication  with 
Father  Saint-Germain,  offering  his  assistance  to  pre- 
vent a  rupture  between  £ngiand  and  France.  These 
attempts  to  procure  money  failed,  but  he  succeeded 
later  in  obtumng  £3500  from  three  successive  French 
ambassadors  whom  he  supplied  with  daily  informa- 
tion regarding  the  prooeeaings  of  Parliament.  He 
became  a  suspected  character,  and  on  the  discovery 
of  the  Titus  Oates  Plot,  conceived  in  1678  for  the  ruin 
of  the  Duke  of  York  whose  Catholicity  was  suspected, 
Coleman  was  named  as  one  of  the  conspirators.  (Con- 
scious of  his  innocence  he  to<^  no  steps  to  protect 
himself,  allowed  his  papers  to  be  seiced,  and  gave  him- 
self up  for  examination.  He  was  tried  28  Nov.,  1678, 
being  accused  of  corresponding  with  fordgn  poweis 
for  jtne  subversion  of  the  Protestant  religion,  and  of 
consenting  to  a  resolution  to  murder  the  king.  His 
defence  was  that  he  had  only  endea\noured  to  procure 
liberty  of  conscience  for  Catholics  oonatitutionally 
through  Parliament,  and  had  sought  money  abroad 
to  further  this  object.  He  denied  absolutely  anj 
complicity  with  the  plot  against  the  king's  life.  His 
foreign  correspondence  of  1675  and  1676,  when  ex- 
amined, proved  him  to  be  an  intriguer,  but  contained 
nothing  that  could  connect  him  in  any  wa^  with  de- 
signs on  the  king's  life.  However,  m  spite  of  the 
flagrantl}r  false  testimony  of  Oates  and  Bedloe,  he  was 
found  guilty,  drawn  to  Tyburn^  and  there  executed. 
He  was  a  good  linguist,  writer,  and  controversialist. 
His  controversy  ^h  Drs.  Stillingfleet  and  Burnet 
resulted  in  the  conversion  of  Laoy  Tyrwhit  to  the 
Catholic  religion.  His  writings  were:  ''Reason/?  for 
Dissolving  Parliament'' ;  "  Two  Letters  to  M.  La  Chaise, 
the  French  King's  Confessor"  (London,  1678,  re- 

?rinted  in  Cobbett's  "  Parliamentary  History  ") ;  "  The 
Wal  of  Edward  Coloman"  etc.    (London,  1678); 
''Legacies;  a  Poem",  etc.  (London,  1679). 

LiNQARD.  Hiai.  of  England  (ed.  1854).  IX,  175,  177,  17il 
191;  Giixow.  Bibl.  Did.  of  Engli$h  Caih.,  t.  v. 

G.  E.  HiND. 

Ooleri'dg^f  .  Henrt  Jambs,  writer  and  preacher, 
b.  "20  September,  1822,  in  Devonsliire,  Engkmd;  d. 
at  Roehampton,  13  April,  18^.  He  was  the  son  of 
Sir  John  Tavlor  Cqleridge,  a  Judge  of  the  King's 
Bench,  and  brbther  of  John  Duke,  Lord  Coleridge, 
Chief  Justice  of  England.  His  grandfather.  Captain 
James  Coleridge,  was  brother  to  Samuel  Taylor  Cole- 
ridge, the  poet  and  philosophy.  He  was  sent  to  Eton 
at  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  thence  to  Oxford,  havinj^ 
obtained  a  scholarship  at  Trinity  College.  His  uni- 
versity career  was  distinguished;  in  1844  he  took  the 
highest  honours  in  the  classical  schools,  and  waselected 
to  a  fellowship  at  Oriel,  then  the  blue  ribbon  of.  the 
university.  In  1848  he  received  Anglican  orders. 
TheTractarian  movements  being  then  at  its  height, 
Coleridge,  witli  many  of  his  tutors  and  friends,  joined 
its  nmks  and  was  an  ardent  disciple  of  Newman  till 
Ms  conversion.  He  was  one  of  those  who  started 
"The  Guardian"  newspaper  as  the  organ  of  the  High 
Church  party,  being  for  a  time  its  Oxford  sub-editor. 
Gradually  various  incidents,  the  secession  of  Newman, 
Dr.  Hampden's  appointment  as  Regius  Professor  of 
Theolog>',  the  condemnation  and  suspension  of  Dr. 
Pusey,  the  condemnation  and  deprivation  of  W.  O. 
Ward,  and  the  decision  in  the  celebrated  Gorham  case, 
seriously  shook  his  confidence  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. In  consequence  Dr.  Hawkins,  Provost  of  Oriel, 
declined  to  admit  him  as  a  college  tutor,  and  he  there* 
fore  accepted  a  curacy  at  Alphington,  a  parish  recent^i 


CX>LST 


98 


OOLBT 


separated  from  that  of  Otter3r  St.  Mary,  the  home  of 
hia  family,  where  his  father  had  built  for  him  a  house 
and  school.  Here,  with  most  congenial  work,  he  was 
in  close  connexion  with  those  to  whom  he  was  already 
bound  by  a  singular  affection.  His  doubts  as  to  his 
religious  position  continued,  however,  to  grow,  and 
early  in  1852  he  determined  that  he  could  no  longer 
remain  in  the  Anglican  Communion. 

On  Quinquagesima  Sunday  (Februaiy  22)  he  bade 
farewell  to  Alphington,  and  in  April,  after  a  retreat  at 
Clapham  under  the  Redemptorist  Fathers,  he  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Catholic  Church.  Determined  to  be 
a  priest,  he  proceeded  in  the  following  September  to 
Rome  and  entered  the  Accademia  dei  Nobili,  where 
he  had  for  companions  several  of  his  old  Oxford  friends, 
and  others,  including  the  future  Cardinals  Manning 
and  Vau^han.  He  was 
ordained  m  1856  and  six 
months  later  took  the  de- 
gree of  D.D.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1857  he  returned 
to  England,  and  on  the 
7th  of  September  entered 
the  Jesuit  novitiate,  which 
was  then  at  Beaumont 
Lodge,  Old  Wmdsor,  his 
novice  master  being  Father 
Thomas  Tracy  Clarke,  for 
whom  to  the  end  of  his  life 
he  entertained  the  highest 
admiration  and  esteem. 
In  1859  he  was  sent  to 
the  Theok>gical  Collese  of 
St.  Beuno's,  North  Wales, 
as  professor  of  Scripture, 
ana  remained  there  until, 
in  1865,  he  was  called  to 
London  to  become  the  first 
Jesuit  editor  of  "The 
Month",  a  magazine 
started  under  other  man- 
agement in  the  previous 
year.  Then  commenced 
a  course  of  indefatigable 
literary  labour  by  which 
he  is  best  known.  Besides 
the  editorship  of  "The 
Month",  to  which,  after 
the  death  of  Father  Wil- 
liam Maher,  in  1877,  he 
added  that  of  "The  Mes- 
senger", and  for  which 
he  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  writers,  Father 
Coleridge  projected  and  carried  on  the  well  known 
Quarteny  Series  to  which  he  himself  largely  con- 
tributed, both  with  his  great  work  "The  Pubuc  Life 
of  Our  Lord"  and  others,  such  as  "The  Life  and 
Letters  of  St.  Francis  Xavier"  and  "The  Life  and 
Letters  of  St.  Teresa".  Worthy  of  mention  also  is 
his  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  "Vita  Vit®  Nostne", 
a  favourite  book  for  meditation,  published  also  in  an 
English  version.  Studies  based  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment were  his  work  of  predilection,  a  taste  which  seems 
to  have  been  aoquirea,  at  least  in  part,  from  his  old 
Oxford  tutor,  Isaac  Williams.  For  a  time  he  was  also 
superior  of  his  religious  brethren  in  Farm  Street,  Lon- 
don. In  1881  falling  health  obliged  him  to  resign 
"The  Month"  to  another  Oxonian,  Father  Richa^ 
F.  Clarke,  but  he  continued  to  labour  on  "The  Life 
of  Our  Lord",  which  he  earnestly  desired  to  finish. 
In  1890  a  paralytic  seizure  compelled  him  to  withdraw 
to  the  novitiate  at  Roehampton,  where,  with  indom- 
itable spirit,  he  succeeded  in  completing  his  magnitm 
opus  before  passing  away. 

The  chief  sources  for  his  me  are  articles  in  The  Month,  June, 
1893.  by  his  friend  James  PArncRaoN,  Bishop  of  Emmaus,  ana 
Father  Richard  P.  Clarkb  S.  J.  ,  ,  ^ 

John  Gebard. 


Oolet,  John,  Dean  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedcal  and 
founder  of  St.  Paul's  School,  London;  b.  in  London, 
1467;  d.  there  18  Sept.,  1519.    He  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Sir  Heniy  Colet,  twice  Lord  Mavor  of  London. 
Having  finished  his  schooling  in  London,  he  was  sent 
to  Oxford,  but  no  particulars  of  his  life  there  have 
been  preserved,  not  even  the  name  of  his  college. 
While  at  Oxford  he  determined  to  become  a  priest 
and  even  before  ordination  obtained  through  family 
influence  much  preferment,  including  the  livings  of 
St.  Mary  Dennington,  Suffolk,  St.  Dunstan,  Stepnev, 
and  benefices  in  the  counties  of  Htintinxdon,  North- 
ampton, York,  and  Norfolk.    In  1493  he  b€^3;an  a  tour 
through  France  and  Italy,  studying  as  he  went  and  ac- 
quiring that  love  of  the  new  leamin|^  which  marked 
his  after-life.     Returning  to  England  in  1496,  he  pre- 
pared for  ordination,  and 
became  deacon  on  17  Dec., 
1497,    and    priest    on   25 
March,   1497-8.      He  lec- 
tured at    Oxford    on   St. 
Paul's  Epistles,  introduc- 
ing a  new  treatment  by 
abandoning     the     purely 
textual  commentary  then 
usual,  in  favour  of  a  study 
of  the  personality  of  St. 
Paul  and  of  the  text  as  a 
whole.     In    1498  he  met 
Erasmus  at   Oxford,  with 
whom  he  immediately  be- 
came intimate,  arousing  in 
him  especially  a  distrust  of 
thelaterschoolmen.  Colet's 
lectures  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment continued    for    &ve 
years,  until  in  1504  he  was 
made  Dean  of  St.  Paul's, 
proceeding  D.D.  before  he 
left  Oxford.      In  London 
he   became   the   intimate 
friend  and  spiritual  adviser 
of  Sir  Thomas  More.     At 
the  death  of  his  father  in 
1505  he  inherited   a   for- 
tune, which  he  devoted  to 
public  purposes.     His  ad- 
ministration of  the  cathe- 
dral was  vigorous,  and  in 
1509  he  began  the  founda- 
tion of  the  great  sdiool  with 
wliich  his  name  will  ever 
be  associated.    The  cost  of  the  buildings  and  en- 
dowments is  estimated  at  forty  thousand  pounds 
in  present  value.    Tlie  object   was    to  provide  a 
sound   Christian    education.    Gre^   was  to   be  at 
least  of  equal  importance  with  Latin.    William  XiUy 
was  the  first  head  master,   but  Ck>let  exercised  a 
close   personal  supervision   over  the   school,   even 
composing  some  of  the  textbooks.    In  1512  he  was 
accused  of  advanced  views  and  was  in  difiiculties  with 
his  bishop,  but  on  the  trial  Archbishop  Warham  dis- 
missed the  diarges  as  frivolous.    It  may  well  be  that 
Colet,  irritated  by  obvious  abuses  and  not  seeing  how 
far  the  reaction  would  go,  used  langua^  on  certain 

Kints  which  in  the  light  of  after-events  is  regrettable, 
t  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  his  own  orthodoxy  and 
devotion.  In  1518  he  completed  the  revised  statutes 
of  his  school.  At  his  death  the  following  year  he  was 
buried  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  His  school  remained 
on  its  original  site  until  1884,  when  it  was  removed  to 
Hammersmith. 

Colet 's  works  are:  "Convocation  Sermon  of  1512"; 
''A  righte  fruitfull  admonition  concerning  the  order 
of  a  good  Christian  man's  Ufe"   (1534);    "Joannis 
Coleti   Theologi    olim  Decani    Divi  Pauli  .£ditio 
(1527,  and  often  reprinted),  the  original  of  almost 


^  Joannas  Coi-ETV5 


ooum 


99 


QOLOAM. 


allljaUn  Grammam  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
oenturieB;  "Opus  de  Sacramentis  ficolesis''  (1867), 
which  with' the  following  treatises,  long  preserved 
in  MS.,  was  finally  edited  by  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Lup- 
ton,  smnnaster  of  the  school;  two  treatises  on 
the'<Hieiafchiee"  of  Dionysius  (1869);  "An  Expo- 
aition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans"  (1873); 
"An  Exposition  of  St.  Paul's  firat  Epistle  to  the 
CoxiBJt!hians"(1874);  "Letters  to  Radulphus"  on  the 
Mosaic  aocoimt  of  th«  Creation,  and  some  minor  woiks 
(1876);  "Statutes  of  St.  Paul's  School"  (often  re- 
prinled).  Pitts  (de  Ang.  Scriptoribus,  Paris,  1619) 
gives  several  additional  worics  by  Ck)let,none  of  which 
are  extant.  Many  of  his  letters  are  in  the  works  of 
Erasmus. 

The  account  of  Colet  by  Erashub  in  Epi^cim  CLeyden),  III, 
cecxxxv.  tr.  Lupton  (London,  1883),  was  the  foundation  of 
most  of  his  biocraphies  published  before  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Since  then  there  have  been  several  lives  pub- 
lished, none  by  a  GathoUo  writer. — Knight.  Life  of  John 
CoUt  (London.  1724:  miniblished  Oxford,  1823;  written  with 
strong  Protestant  bias);  SzEBOHif,  Oxford  Reformera:  Cai^^ 
Ertamut  €md  More  (London,  1867);  Lupton,  Life  of  John 
CoUt  (London,  1887).  for  a  bibliomphy  see  Lupton.  /n- 
troductum  U>  V6UV»  LetUn  to  RaduLphua;  GABnxNBB.  Remater 
of  St.  PauT a  School  (London.  1884);  Lee  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog. 
(London.  1887),  XI,  321-328,  with  account  of  various  Colet 
USd.  BtUi  earisttnc 

Edwin  Burton. 


Ooleti  (CoLBTTi),  Nicola,  priest  and  historian,  b.  at 
Venice,  1680;  d.  in  the  same  city,  1766.  He  studied 
at  Padua,  where  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor, 
lie  was  sent  to  the  church  of  San  MoLs^  at  Venice,  and 
there  devoted  himself  to  historical  and  antiquarian 
research.  His  first  work  of  importance  was  a  new 
edition  of  Ughelli's  ''Italia  Sacra''  published  in  ten 
volumes  from  1717  to  1722.  Beindes  correcting 
many  errors,  Goleti  oontinued  U^elli's  history  to  the 
banning;  of  iht  eighteenth  century.  Coleti  then 
undertoc^  the  ecnnpiwtion  of  his  large  work  entitled 
''Oollectid  Conoiliorum''.  Up  to  this  time  there  had 
l3e«n  two  standard  histories  of  the  councils,  that  of 
Labbe  and  Oosaart  (Paris,  1671-72),  and  that  of  Har- 
douin  (Psris,  1715).  Baluae  had  begun  a  similar 
work,  but  only  the  first  Volume  had  appeared.  Co- 
leu's  ooUeotion  was  based  on  that  of  Labbe,  though  he 
availed  himself  of  the  laboius  of  Baluze  and  ilar^ 
dotdn.  •  The  work  was  published  b^  his  brother  Seba&* 
tiano  at  Venioe  from  1728  to  1733  m  twenty-three  vol- 
QDoes.  The  last  two  were  called  ^  Apparatus  primus ' ' 
and^'ApparatUB  seoundus",  containing  the  indexes, 
for  whicn  the  eoUection  was  especially  valuable. 
Other  works  of  Coleti's  were  ''Series  q^iscoporum 
Oremonensium  aucta"  (Milan,  1749);  ''Monumenta 
eoclesitt  Veneto  S.  Moisis"  (1758>— this  is  valuable  to 
the  historien  for  the  ancient  documents  it  makes 
known.  Ooleti  also  annotated  a  manuscript  of  Maf- 
fei  now  pi^served  in  the  Biblioteea  ValliceUana  at 
Rome  and  bearing  the  title:  "Sapplementum  Acar 
cianum  monumenta  nunquam  edita  continens,  quae 
marclrio  Sdpio  Mafifeius  a  vetuatissimis  Veronesis  cap 
ituh  eodieibus  eroit  atque  illustravit,  editum  Venetiis 

rd  SelrastiaBum  Coleti  anno  1728 ' '.  In  addition  to 
above,  two  posthomous  dissertations,  said  to  have 
been  published  l>y  his  brothers,  have  been  attributed 
to  CoKti,  but  the  only  mention  of  them  is  found  in  an 
old  dialogue. 

Vacant,  Diet,  de  thM.  eath.,  a.  v.;  Hcbter,  Nommdaior; 
HxcHAKD  AHD  OiftATTD,  BMiMeea  Sacra,  b.  v.;  Dandolo,  La 
ttidula  deOa  rtpMka  di  Vemttia  (Venioe,  1855). 

Leo  a.  KstiiT. 

Odette  (diminutive  of  Nicoijbtta,  Colbtta), 
Saint,  founder  of  the  Colettine  Poor  Clares  (Clar^ 
isses),  b.  13  Jan.,  1381.  at  Corbie  in  Picardy,  France; 
d.  at  Ghent,  0  March,  1447.  Her  father,  Robert 
Boellet,  was  the  carpenter  of  the  famous  Benedictine 
Abbey  of  *Cc/rhie;    her  mother's   name  was  Mar- 


guerite Moyon.  Colette  joined  successively,  the  Be- 
guinea,  the  Benedictines,  and  the  Urbanist  Poor 
Clares.  Later  she  lived  for  a  while  as  a  recluse.  Hav- 
ing resolved  to  reform  the  Poor  Clares,  she  turned  to 
the  antipope,  Benedict  XIII  (Pedro  de  Luna),  then 
recognized  by  France  as  the  rightful  pope.  Benedict 
allowed  her  to  enter  the  order  of  Poor  Clares  and  em- 
powa^  her  by  several  Bulls,  dated  1406,  1407,  1406^ 
and  1412  to  found  new  convents  and  complete  the  re- 
form of  the  order.  With  the  M>proval  of  tne  Countess 
of  Geneva  and  the  Franciscan  Henri  de  la  Beaume,  her 
confessor  and  spiritual  guide,  Colette  began  her  work 
at  Beaume,  in  the  Diocese  of  Geneva.  She  remained 
there  but  a  short  time  and  soon  opened  at  Besan^on 
her  first  convent  in  an  almost  abandoned  house  of 
Urbanist  Poor  Clares.  Thence  her  reform  spread  to 
Auxonne  (1410),  to  Pbli^y,  to  Ghent  (1412),  to 
Heidelberg  (1444),  to  Amiens,  etc.  To  the  seventeen 
convents  founded  during  her  lifetime  must  be  added 
another  begun  by  her  at  Pont*lirMous8on  in  Lorraine. 
She  also  inaugurated  a  reform  among  the  Franeiscan 
friurs  (the  Coletani%  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Ob- 
servants. These  Coletani  remained  obedient  to  the  au- 
thority of  the  provincial  of  the  Franciscan  convents^ 
and  never  attained  much  importance  even  in  Franee. 
In  1448  they  had  only  thirteen  convents,  and  tdgether 
with  other  small  branches  of  the  Franciscan  Order 
were  suppressed  in  1517  by  Leo  X.  In  addition  to  the 
strict  rules  of  the  Poor  Clares,  the  Colettines  follow 
their  special  constitutions  sanctioned  in  1434  by  the 
General  of  the  Franciscans,  William  of  Casale,  ap- 
proved in  1448  by  Nicholaa  V,  in  1458  by  Pius  II,  and 
in  1482  by  Sixtus  IV. 

St.  Colette  was  beatified  23  January,  1740,  and  oan<- 
(mized  24  May,  1807.  She  was  not  only  a  woman  of 
sincere  piety,  but  also  intelligent  and  eneivetic,  and 
exercised  a  remarkable  moral  power  over  all  her  asso- 
ciates. She  was  very  austere  and  mortified  in  her 
Hfe,  for  which  God  rewarded  her  by  supernatural 
favours  and  the  gift  of  mirades.'  For  the  convents 
reformed  by  her  she  prescribed  extreme  poverty,  to  go 
barefooted,  and  the  observanoe  of  perpetual  fast  and 
abstinence.  The  Colettine  Sisters  are  found  to<iay, 
outside  of  France,  in  Belgium,  Germany,  Spain,  Eng*- 
land,  and  the  United  States. 

BxzoT7ARD.  Hist,  de  Saintc  Colette  et  dea  Clariaaea  &n  Boiiraoone 
(Besancon,  ISOO):  Gsrmaik.  Sainta  Colette  da  CorMa  (Patki, 
1903):  PiDOux,  SanUe  Colette  in  Lcm  Saints  (Paris,  1907.  2d 
ed.);  DK  S^&EKT  in  Btudea  franciacainea  (Paris,  1907X,  XVI|; 
Sellier,  Vie  de  Sainte  Colette  (Paris.  1854.  1861),  tr.  St.  Clare. 
St.  CoUtte,  and  the  Poor  Clares  (Dublin,  1864);  AnaUcta  BoOmd 
(1904).  VII,  1004. 1013-16.  For  the  cantetnporaiy  acoounta  ai 
her  life  see  Ada  SS.t  I,  539-^. 

Michael  Bi^ii.  .. 

Oolgan»  John,  hagiographer  and  historian^  b.  in 
County  Donegal,  Ireland,  aoout  the  beginning  ol  the 
seventeenth  century;  d.  probably  in  1657.  Havixig 
joined  the  Franciscan  Order  he  was  sent  to  study  in 
the  Irish  Franciscan  College  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua 
at  Lou  vain..  Here  he  ia  said  to  have  acted  as  pro- 
fessor of  theology  for  some  time,  but  he  soon  forsook 
the  professorial  chair  in  order  to  devote  himself  toithc 
Irish  studies  for  which  that  college  is  justly  famous. 
Father  Hugh  Ward  (d.  1635)  had  projected  a  com- 

elete  history  of  the  Irish  saints,  ana  for  this  purpose 
ad  sent  some  of  his  brethren,  notably  Micnael 
O'Clery,  to  Ireland  to  collect  materials.  Ward  died 
before  he  could  make  any  progress  in  hjswork,  but 
the  materials  that  had  been  gathered  remained. 
Colgan,  being  a  competent  master  of  the  Irish  lan- 
guage, had  wus  ready  at  haad  a  collection  of  manu- 
scripts unequalled  in  the  department  of  Irish  hagl- 
ok>^.  He  undertook  a  ^reat  work,  to  be  published 
in  six  volumes,  dealing  with  the  whole  range  of  Iri^ 
ecclesiastical  history  and  antiquities.  In  1645  he 
published  at  Louvain  the  third  volume  of  this  series 
(Acta  Sanctorum   HibemisB,   etc*),   oont^ning  tl^e 


(MMAB 


100 


CN^LOr 


lives  of  the  Iristi  saints  whose  feasts  occur  in  the  cal- 
endar for  the  months  of  January,  February,  and 
March.  The  lives  of  the  saints  whose  feasts  occur  in 
the  succeeding  months  were  to  have  been  published 
in  the  last  three  volumes  of  the  series.  Wadding,  in 
his  '' Annales  Minorum",  informs  us  that  the  volume 
dealing  with  the  saints  for  April,  May,  and  June  was 
in  the  press  at  Colgan's  death;  this  seems  incorrect, 
since,  if  the  work  had  been  so  far  advanced,  it  would 
have  been  published  by  some  one  of  the  many  com- 
petent colleagues  who  assisted  Colgan. 

The  second  volume  of  the  series,  entitled  "Trias 
Thaumaturga",  etc.,  appeared  at  Louvain  in  1647. 
It  deals  with  the  three  great  national  saints  of  Ire-' 
land,  Patrick,  Brigid,  and  Columbcille.  In  it  are  con- 
tained seven  of  the  ancient  lives  of  St.  Patrick,  five 
of  St.  Cohimba,  and  six  of  St.  Brigid.  For  a  long  time 
the  "Trias  Thaumaturga''  was  nearly  the  only  source 
of  information  on  St.  Patrick,  and  even  since  the 
Whitley  Stokes  edition  of  the  "Vita  Tripartita*' 
(Rolls  Series),  Colgan's  work  cannot  be  dispensed 
with.  It  should  be  noted  that  Colgan  gives  a  Latin 
veraion  of  the  "Vita  Tripartita"  which  represents  a 
different  text  from  that  edited  by  Stokes;  Colgan's 
manuscript  seems  to  have  entirely  disappeared.  Be- 
sides the  "Lives"  in  the  "Trias  Tnaumatuiiga",  there 
are  also  contained  in  this  volume  many  valuable 
"Appendices",  dealing  with  the  ecclesiastical  antiqui- 
ties of  Ireland,  and  critical  and  topographical  notes, 
which,  though  not  always  correct,  are  of  invaluable 
assistance  to  the  student.  In  1655  he  published  at 
Airtwerp  a  life  of  Duns  Scotus,  in  which  he  undertook 
to  prove  that  this  great  Franciscan  doctor  was  bom  in 
Irdand,  and  not  in  Scotland,  as  was  then  frequently 
asserted.  In  the  "Bibliotheca  Franciscana"  Colgan 
is  said  to  have  died  in  1647,  but  this  is  evidently  a 
mistake,  as  a  note  in  his  work  on  Duns  Scotus  proves 
eleariy  that  he  was  alive  in  1655. 

Colgan's  work  on  Irish  hagiology  is  of  undoubted 
value.  Thougih  unfortunately  of  very  weak  constitu- 
tion, he  was  a  man  of  great  ability  and  industry,  and 
with  a  sound  critical  sense.  His  knowledge  of  the 
Irish  language  enabled  him  to  turn  to  good  account 
the  vast  collection  of  manuscripts  (now  unfortunately 
for  the  ^ater  part  lost)  which  had  been  collected  at 
the  instigation  of  Ward,  while  his  acquaintance  with 
the  traditions  existing  among  the  native  Irish  of  his 
time,  about  the  various  names  of  persons  and  places, 
save  him  an  advantage  over  writers  of  the  present 
day.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  Colgan, 
though  a  fluent  Irish  speaker,  had  not,  and  from  the 
nature  of  things  could  not  have,  a  knowledge  of  the 
crammatical  forms  of  Old  and  Middle  Irish.  Hence 
his  judgments  about  the  datixig  of  the  manuscripts 
and  about  the  meaning  of  certain  difficult  expressions 
ought  not  to  be  put  forward  as  irreversible.  In  other 
words,  Colgan  should  be  judged  by  the  criteria  of  his 
time;  from  this  point  of  view  his  work  on  the  eccle- 
siastical history  of  Ireland  is  unequalled.  But  his 
opinions  are  not  decisive  evidences  of  truth  at  the 
present  day,  especially  when  pitted  against  the  views 
of  the  most  skilled  students  of  Old  and  Middle  Irish 
mmmar  and  texts.  His  principal  works  are:  "Acta 
Sanctorum  veteris  et  majoris  Scotise  seu  Hibemi^e, 
Sanctorum  Insulae,  partim  ex  variis  per  Europam 
MS.  Codicibus  exscripta,  partim  ex  antiquis  monu- 
mentis  et  probatis  Auctoribus  eruta  et  coi^eesta; 
omnia  Notis  et  Appendicibus  illustrata.  Tomus 
primus  qui  de  Sacns  Hibemise  Antiauitatibus  est 
tertius,  Januarium,  Februarium  et  Martium  oom^ 
plectens"  (Louvain,  1645);  "Triadis  Thaumaturges, 
seu  Divorum  Patricii  Columbee  et  Brigidie,  tnum 
Veteris  et  Majoris  Scotiffi,  seu  Hibemiae,  Sanctorum 
Insuls,  oommunium  Patronorum  Acta,  Tomus  S^ 
cundus  Sacrarum  ejusdem  Insule  Antiquitatum" 
(Louvain,  1647);  "Tractatus  de  VitA,  PatriA,  Scriptis 
Johannis  Sooti,  Doctoris  Snbtilis"  (Antwerp,  1655). 


Besides  these  he  left  in  manuscript  "De  Apoetolatu 
Hibernorum  inter  exteras  Gentes  cum  Indi<9e  Alpha- 
betico  de  exteris  Sanctis ' '  (&^  p^ges) :  **  De  SftncUs  in 
AngM,  Britannia  Aremorie&,  in  redquft  GalliA,  in 
Belgio"  (1068  pages);  "De  SsLnctis  in  Lotharingik  et 
Burgundid,  in  QetmaniA  ad  tenestnan  et  dexteram 
Rheni,  in  ItaM"  (920  paces).  Some  of  theee  in- 
valuable manuscripts,  thoum  eagerlv  sou^t  for,  have 
not  yet  been  traced  (see  Gi^ert,  National  MSS.  of 
Ireland,  London,  1884;  or  Doherty,  op.  cit.  below, 
81-82). 

Waddinq-Sbahalsa,  Scriplores  OrdinU  Minuman  (ed.  Roma. 
1806:  Quamcchi,  1908  00^);  BMifrihwa  Vnittermi  rrutwiMcana 
(Madrid.  1732);  Ware-Habws,  WriUrs  of  Irtiond  (I>ublitt, 
1746);  DoHeRTY,  Inis-Owtn  and  TireotnteU,  being  trme  oeoounX 
of  Antiquities  emd  Writers  of  the  County  of  DoneocU  (Dublik, 
1895).  4»-52,  71-106;  Hyde.  A  Literary  Hiatoru  of  Ireland 
(New  York,  1902).  »»  w     i 

James  MacCaffrbt. 
Oolgan,  Joseph.    See  Mabras,  Archdiockse  of. 

Oolima,  Diocese  of  (Colimenbis). — The  city  of  Co- 
lima,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in  Mex- 
ico, is  situated  on  the  Colima  River,  at  an  altitude  of 
1400  feet,  and  was  founded  in  the  year  1622  by  Gon- 
zalo  de  Sandoval.  Its  population  in  1900  was  20,698. 
The  Diocese  of  Colima  was  erected  by  Leo  XIII,  11 
December,  1881,  by  the  Constitution  "Si  principum''. 
Before  its  erection  as  a  diocese,  Colima  formed  part  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  Guadalajaca  ^Guadalaxara),  of 
which  it  is  now  a  suffragan.  It  includes  all  die  State 
of  Colima  and  the  southern  part  of  the  State  of  Jalisco. 
The  population  in  1901  numbered  72,500,  many  of 
whom  are  Indians. 

Oerarchia  Catt.  (Rome,  1908);   Konveraatums-Ltx.  (St.  Louia, 
Missouri,  1903),  s.  v. 

bohHf  FR^oiiRso-Loiixs,  Superior  of  the  Sulpicians 
in  Canada,  b.  at  Bourges,  SVanoe,  in  1836;    d*  at 
Montreal.   27   November,    1902w    After  purmiii]^   a 
courae  ot  scientific  studies  he  entmd  tbe  Seminary 
of  Saint-Sulpioe  at  Paris  where  he  wtt6  ordained  priest 
in  1859.    Tramiferred  to  Canada  in  1862  he  at  first 
took  up  parochial  work ;  later  be  became  suooefldvely 
professor  of  theology  and  director  of  the  higfier  sem- 
inary at  Montreal.    From  1881  mitil  his  death  he  was 
superior  of  the  priests  of  Saint^Sulpice  in  Canada. 
Colin  distinguished  himsell  both  as  an  orator  and  as  a 
man  of  action.    Many  of  his  sednons  Imve  been 
printed;  among  them  are<  one  to  the  papal  xouaves 
returning  from  Home  (1871),  and  a  funml  oration 
on  Mgr.  Bottfget  (1886).    Fbr  twenty  years  Father 
Colin  was  the  promoter  in  Monti!«al  of  higher  eduea^ 
tion  for  the  clergy  and  laity.    For  the  clergy  he 
founded  the  Canadian  CbUiege  at  Borne  (1886),  in- 
tended to  enable  young  CansKlian  priests  to  punoie  a 
higher  course  of  eoolesiastioal  studies  by  attending 
the  Roman  universities;   besides  this  he  established 
the  seminary  of  philosophy  at  Montreal  (1882). 

For  the  ben^t  of  laymen  Colin  establiehed^  despite 
many  obstacles,  the  Laval  University*  Aided  bv  Fer- 
dinand Brunetidre,  on  whom  he  exercised  a  sahitaiy 
influence,  he  advocated  the  erection  of  a  chair  of 
fVench  literature  to  be  occupied  hy  a  lecturer  from 
France,  and  he  himself  defrayed'  the  costs.  In  this 
wav  he  quickened  interest  ill  the  French  language 
and  literature  among  the  intelligent  daeses  of  Oanaoa 
and  introduced  the  custom  of  calling  on  French  and 
Belgian  specialists  for  the  hi^er  scientific  and  com- 
mercial instruction  of  voung  French-CanadiAns.  To 
Father  Colin  is  also  due  the  praotiee  of  inviting  a 
preacher  frbm  abroad  to  deliver  the  Lenten  sermons 
at  Notre-Dame  of  Montreal.  His  wise  advice  was 
also  much  sought  for  by  the  eodesiastical  and  ^vil 
authorities. 

JJUnivers  (Psiisi.  16  Jan.,  1908);  BaofisnktB  ia  l4  GmMa 
(30  Doc..  1002);  Button  trvnsalrxH  de»  cfia«na  ^l^  de  iSoml- 
Svlpice  (Ptobruary,  1903);  Semaine  rtligieuse  ae  MonirM  (fi 
and  13  Dec,  1«>4). 

A*  FouRifsfr. 


OtfUK 


101 


OOUEKUM 


OoHn,  Jean-Olattde-Marie.  a  French  priest, 
founcler  of  the  Marists,  b.  at.  Saint-Boimet-le-Tponcy, 
now  in  the  Diocese  of  Lyons,  7  Aug.,  1790;  d.  at  Notre- 
Dame-de-la-Neyliftre  (Rh6he)  ^  Feb.,  1875.  After 
his  preliminary  studies  at  St-Jodard,  Alix,  and  Ver- 
ri^res,  he  entered  the  Grand-S^minaire  de  Saint- 
Ir^n^,  at  Lyons,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1816. 
The  idea  of  a  religious  society  dedicated  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  or^g&iated  with  a  group  of  seminarians  at 
Saint-Ir^nee.  Although  the  most  retiring  and  mod- 
est of  the  group,  Colin  became  the  real  founder. 
While  serving  as  assistant  pastor  at  Cerdon,  then  in 
the  Diocese  of  Lyons,  he  drew  up  provisional  rules 
which  met  the  warm  approval  of  sucn  men  as  Bigex, 
Bishop  of  Pignerol,  Bonald,  •  Bishop  of  Puy,  Frsgrs- 
sinous,  minister  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  etc.  The 
town  of  Cerdon  havingpassed  to  the  newly  reorga- 
nized Diocese  of  Belley,  Colin  obtained  from  its  bishop, 
Mgr.  Devie,  permission  to  take  a  few  companions  and 
preach  missions  in  the  neglected  parts  of  the  diocese, 
llieir  number  increased,  and  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  bishop,  who  wished  to  make  the  society  a  dioc- 
esan congregation,  Colin  obtained  (1836)  from  Greg- 
ory XVI  the  canonical  approbation  of  the  Society  of 
Mary  as  an  order  with  simple  vow^.  In  the  same  year 
Father  Colin  was  chosen  superior  general 

During  the  eighteen  years  of  nis  administration 
(1836-1854)  Colin  showed  great  activity,  organizing 
the  different  branches  of  his  society,  founding  in  France 
missionaiy  houses  and  colleges,  and  above  all  sending 
to  the  various  missions  of  Oceanica,  which  had  been 
entrusted  to  the  Marists.  as  many  as  seventy-four 
priests  and  forty-three  fcrothers,  several  of  whom 
^ve  up  their  lives  in  the  attempt  to  convert  the  na- 
tives. In  1854  he  resigned  the  office  of  superior 
general  and  retired  to  Notre-Dame-de-la-Neyli&re, 
where  he  spent  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  revising 
and  completing  the  constitutions  of  the  Society,  im- 
pressing on  them  the  spirit  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  a 
spirit  of  humility,  self-denial,  and  unwavering  loyalty 
to  the  Holy  See,  of  which  he  was  himself  a  perfect 
model  Two  years  before  his  death  he  had  the  joy  of 
seeing  the  Constitutions  of  the  Society  of  Mary  defin- 
itively approved  by  the  Holy  See,  28  Feb.,  1873. 
The  cause  of  the  beatification  of  Father  Colin  is  now 
(1908)  before  the  Congr^ation  of  Rites. 

Le  Tr^-RivSrend  Pbre  Colin  (Lyons.  1898);  he  Tj^s-Rivirend 
Pht  Cciin  (Lyontf,  1900);  Summariutn  procetauM  ordinarii  in 
CMMl  /.  C.  M.  C<kn  (Rome.  1906). 

J.  F.  SOLLIER. 

Oolifleom,  The,  known  as  the  Flavian  Amphithea- 
tre, oonmienced  a.  d.  72  by  Vespasian^  the  first  of  the 
Flavian  emperors,  dedicated  oy  Titus  a.  b.  80. 
The  ^reat  structure  rises  in  four  stories,  each  story 
exhibiting  a  different  order  of  architecture;  the  first 
Doric,  t&  second  Ionic,  the  third  Corinthian,  the 
fourth  Composite.  The  material  is  the  famous  trav* 
ertine.  The  site  was  originally  a  marshy  hollow. 
bounded  l^  the  Ceelian,  the  Oppian,  the  Velian,  ana 
the  Palatine  HiUs,  which  Nero  had  transformed  into 
the  fish-pond  of  his  Golden  House.  Its  form  is  that 
of  an  eUipae,  790  feet  in  circumference,  its  length  620, 
its  width  525.  and  its  height  157  feet.  The  arena,  in 
which  took  place  the  eladiatorial  combats  {JLudi  aladi- 
atorii)  and  fights  with  the  wild  beasts,  for  which  the 
Coliseum  was  erected,  was  of  wood,  covered  with 
sand.  Surrounding  the  arena  was  a  low  wall,  sur- 
moimted  by  a  railing  high  enough  to  protect  the  audi- 
ence from  danger  of  invasion  by  tne  furious,  non- 
human  contestants.  As  an  additional  security 
against  this  peril,  guards  patrolled  the  passageway 
between  this  wall  and  the  podiwUf  or  marble  terrace, 
on  which  were  the  seats  of  the  senators,  the  members 
of  the  sacred  colleges,  and  other  privileged  spectators. 
From  the  southern  side  of  the  podium  projected  the 
mtqgeslumj  or  imperial  ^llery,  for  the  accommodation 
<3i  the  emperor  and  his  attendants.     Next  to  these 


sat  the  Vestals.  Back  of  the  podium  twenty  tiers  of 
seats  were  reserved  for  the  three  divisions  of  the 
equestrian  order:  the  upper  tiers  of  seats  were  occu- 
pied by  the  ordinary  citisens.  Last  of  all  was  a 
Corinthian  colonnade  in  which  the  lower  orders  were 
accommodated  with  standing  room  onlv.  The  Coli' 
seum,  according  to  the ''  Chronographia  "  of  354,  could 
contain  87,000  spectators.  Professor  Huelsen  (cjuoted' 
by  Lanciani),  however,  has  calculated  that  it  will 
seat  not  more  than  45,000  people.  From  the  external 
cornice  projected  a  circle  of  pine  znasts,  from  which 
awnings  could  readily  be  suspended  over  parts  of  the 
audience  for  the  moment  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays; 
the  imperial  gallery  was  covered  with  a  special  can* 
opy.  The  arena  was  never  shaded.  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  architect  of  the  Coliseum,  although  an 
inscription,  afterwards  shown  to  be  a  foigery,  attrib* 
uted  its  design  to  a  Christian. 

The  Coliseum  ix  the  Middle  Aqeb. — ^Although 
seriously  damaged  bv  two  earthquakes  in  the  fifth 
century,  it  is  generally  held  that  the  Coliseum  was 
practically  intact  in  the  eighth  century  when  Bede 
wrote  the  well-known  lines: 

Quandiu  stabit  cohseus,  stabit  et  Roma; 

Quando  cadit  cohseus,  cadet  et  Roma; 

Quando  cadet  Roma,  cadet  et  mundus. 
(While  stands  the  Coliseum,  Rome  shall  stand;  when 
falls  the  Coliseum,  Rome  shall  fall;  when  Rome  falls, 
the  world  shall  fall.)  Lanciani  attributes  the  c<^ 
lapse  of  the  western  portion  of  the  shell  to  the  earth- 
quake of  September,  1349,  mentioned  b^  Petrarch. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  it  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  Frangipam  family,  with  whose  palace 
it  was  connected  by  a  series  of  constructions.  D\u> 
ing  the  temporary  eclinee  of  the  nobility  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  while  tne  popes  resided  m  Avignon,  it 
became  the  property  of  the  munieipaUtjr  of  Rome 
(1312).  The  last  shows  seen  in  the  Coliseum  were 
given  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixth  century,  one  by 
Eutaricus  Cilica,  son-in-law  of  Theodoric,  in  519,  and 
a  second  in  523  by  Anicius  Maximus.  The  story  of  a 
bull-fight  in  1332,  in  which  eighteen  youths  of  the 
Roman  nobihty  are  said  to  have  lost  their  lives,  is 
apocxyphal  (Delehaye,  L' Amphitheatre  Flavien,  5). 
In  1386  the  municipality  presented  a  third  of  the 
Coliseum  to  the  ''Compagnia  del  Salvatore  ad  sanda 
sanctorum"  to  be  used  as  a  hospital,  which  trans- 
action is  commemorated  by  a  marble  bas-relief  bust 
of  Our  Saviour,  betwe^i  two  candles,  and  the  arms  of 
the  municipality,  above  the  sixtv-third  and  sixty- 
fifth  arches.  Inuring  the  next  four  centuries  the 
enormous  mass  of  stone  which  had  formed  the  west- 
em  part  of  the  structure  served  as  a  quarry  for  the 
Romans.  Besides  other  buildings,  four  churches 
were  erected  in  the  vicinity  from  this  material.  One 
document  attests  that  a  single  contractor  in  nine 
months  of  the  year  1452  carried  ofif  2522  cartloads  of 
travertine  from  the  Coliseum.  This  contractor  was 
not  the  first,  however,  to  utilize  the  great  monument 
of  ancient  Rome  as  a  quan^;  a  Brief  of  Eugenius  IV 
(1431-47),  cited  by  Lanciani,  threatens  dire  penalties 
against  those  who  would  dare  remove  from  the  CoKh 
seum  even  the  smallest  stone  {vd  miwimum  dieti 
ccdUei  lapidem).  The  story  of  Cardinal  Famese  who 
obtained  permission  from  his  uncle,  Paul  III  (1534- 
49),  to  take  from  the  Coliseum  as  much  stone  as  he 
could  remove  in  twelve  hours  is  well  known;  his  emi« 
nence  had  4000  men  ready  to  take  advanti^ge  of  the 
privilege  on  the  day  appointed.  But  a  new  tradition, 
which  graduallv  took  hold  of  the  public  mind  during 
the  seventeenth  century,  put  an  end  to  this  vandal- 
ism, and  effectually  aided  in  preserving  the  most  im- 
portant existing  monument  of  imperiaiRome. 

The  Colisettm  and  the  Marttbs. — Pope  St.  Pius 
V  (1566-72)  is  said  to  have  recommended  persona 
desirous  of  obtaining  relics  to  procure  some  sand 
from  the  arena  of  the  Coliseum,  which,  the  pope  de- 


OOIAADO 


102 


OOWJkBO 


eburedy  waa  impregnated  with  the  blood  of  martyra. 
The  opimon  of  the  saintly  pontiff,  however,  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  shared  by  his  contemporaries. 
The  practical  Sixtus  V  (1585-90)  was  only  prevented 
by  death  from  converting  the  Coliseum  into  a  manu- 
factonr  of  woollen  goods.  In  1671  Cardinal  Altieri 
regarded  so  little  the  Coliseum  as  a  place  consecrated 
by  the  blood  of  Christian  martyrs  that  he  authorized 
its  use  for  buU-fights.  Nevertheless  from  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century  the  conviction  attributed 
to  St.  Pius  V  gradually  came  to  be  shared  by  the 
Homans.  A  write):  named  Martinelli,  in  a  work  pub- 
lished in  1653,  put  the  Coliseum  at  the  head  of  a  list  of 
places  sacred  to  the  martyrs.  Cardinal  Carpegna 
(d.  1679)  was  accustomed  to  stop  his  carriage  when 
passing  by  the  Coliseum  and  make  a  commemoration 
of  the  martyrs.  But  It  was  the  act  of  Cardinal  Altieri, 
referred  to  above,  which  indirectly  effected  a  general 
change  of  public  opinion  in  this  regard.  A  pious 
pecsonage,  Carlo  Tomassi  by  name^  aroused  by  what 
lie  regarded  as  desecration,  published  a  pamphlet 
calling  attention  to  the  sanctity  of  the  Coliseum  and 
protesting  against  the  intended  profanation  author- 
ized by  Altieri.  The  pamphlet  was  so  completely 
successful  that  four  years  later,  the  jubilee  year  of 
1675,  the  exterior  arcades' were  closed  by  order  of  Clem- 
ent X;  from  this  time  the  Coliseum  became  a  sane- 
tuaiy.  At  the  instance  of  St.  Leonard  of  Port  Mau- 
rice, Benedict  XIV  (1740-58)  erected  Stations  of  the 
Orosa  in  the  Coliseum,  which  remained  until  Febru- 
aiy,  1874,  when  they  were  removed  by  order  of  Com- 
mendatore  Rosa.  St.  Benedict  Joseph  Labre  (d.  1783) 
passed  a  life  of  austere  devotion,  living  on  ahns, 
mthin  the  walls  of  the  0>li8eum.  "Pius  VII  in 
1805,  Leo  XII  in  1826,  Gregory  XVI  in  1845,  and 
Pius  IX  in  1852,  contributed  hberally  to  save  the 
acaphitheatre  from  further  degradation,  by  support- 
ing the  fallen  portions  with  great  buttresses"  (Lan- 
ciani).  Thus  at  a  jgioment  when  the  Coliseum  stood 
ill  grave  danger  of  demolition  it  was  saved  by  the 
pious  beUef  which  placed  it  in  the  category  of  monu- 
ments dearest  to  Christians,  the  monuments  of  the 
early  martyrs.  Yet,  after  an  exhaustive  examina- 
tion of  the  documents  in  the  case,  the  learned  BoUan- 
dist,  Father  Delehaye,  S.  J.,  arrives  at  the  conclusion 
that  there  are  no  historical  grounds  for  so  regarding  it 
(op.  cit.).  In  the  Middle  Ages,  for  example,  when  the 
sanctuaries  of  the  martyrs  were  looked  upon  with  so 
great  veneration,  the  Cohseum  was  completely  neg- 
lected: its  name  never  occurs  in  the  itmeranes,  or 
guide-books,  compiled  for  the  use  of  pilgrims  to  the 
Btemal  City.  The  "  Mir^t>ilia  Romse '' ,  the  first  manu- 
scripts of  which  date  from  the  twelfth  centurv,  cites 
among  the  places  mentioned  in  the  "  Passions''^  of  the 
martyrs  the  Circria  Flaminins  ad  pantem  JudcBorum, 
but  in  this  sense  makes  no  allusion  to  the  Coliseum. 
We  have  seen  how  for  more  than  a  century  it  served 
as  a  stronghold  of  the  Frangipani  family  j  such  a  dese^ 
oration  would  have  been  impossible  had  it  been  popu- 
larly regarded  as  a  shrine  consecrated  by  the  blood, 
not  merely  of  innumerable  martyra,  but  even  of  one 
hero  of  the  Faith.  The  intervention  of  Eugenius 
IV  was  based  altogether  on  patriotism;  as  an  Italian 
the  pope  couki  not  look  on  passively  while  a  great 
memorial  of  Rome's  past  was  being  destroyed. 
"  Nam  demoUri  urbis  monumenta  nihil  auud  est  quam 
ipsius  urbis  et  totius  orbis  excellentiam  diminuere." 
Thus  in  the  Middle  Ages  no  tradition  existed  in 
Rome  which  associated  the  martyrs  in  any  way  with 
the  Coliseum;  it  was  only  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  in  the  manner  indicated,  that  it  came  to  be  re- 
garded with  veneration  as  a  scene  of  early  Christian 
heroism.  Indeed,  little  attention  was  paid  by  the 
Christians  of  the  first  age  to  the  actual  place  of  a 
martyr's  sufferings;  the  sand  stained  with  his  blood 
was,  when  possible,  gatlicrcd  up  and  treasured  as  a 
precious  rehc,  but  that  was  all.    The  devotion  of  the 


Christian  body  centred  wholly  around  the  place  where 
the  martyr  was  interred.  Father  Delehaye  calls  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  although  we  kaoinr  f ram  trust- 
worthy historical  sources  of  the  execution  of  Chris- 
tians m  the  garden  of  Nero,  yet  popular  tradition 
preserved  no  recollection  of  an  event  so  memorable 
(op.  cit,,  37).  The  Acts  of  Roman  Martyrs,  it  is  true, 
contain  indications  as  to  the  places  wiiere  various 
martyrs  suffered :  in  ampkUhBotro,  in  TeUure,  etc.  But 
these  Acts  are  often  merely  pious  legends  of  the  fifth, 
sixth,  and  following;  centunes  built  up  by  unknown 
writers  on  a  few  reliable  historical  factis.  Thie  decree 
formerly  attributed  to  Pope  Gelasius  (492—96)  bears 
witness  to  the  slight  consideration  in  which  this  class 
of  literature  was  held  in  the  Roman  Churoh;  to  read  it 
in  the  churches  was  forbidden,  and  it  was  attributed 
to  unknown  writers,  wholly  unqualified  for  their  self- 
imposed  task  (secundum  antiquam  consuetudinem, 
singulari  cautel&,  in  sanct&  RomanA  ecclesiA  non 
leguntur,  quia  et  eorum  qui  conscrii>8ere   nomina 

C'tus  ignorantur,  et  ab  inndelibus  et  idiotis  super- 
aut  minus  apta  quam  rei  ordo  fuerit  esse  putan- 
tur.— Thiel,    Epist.   Kom.    Pont.,    I,^  458).       The 
evidence,  thereiore,  which  we  possess  in  the  Roman 
Acts  in  favour  of  certain  martyrs  suffering  in  the 
Coliseum  is,  for  these  reasons  among  others,  regarded 
by  Father  Delehaye  as  inconclusive.    He  does  not 
deny  that  there  may  have  been  martyrs  who  suffered 
in  tne  Coliseum,  but  we  know  nothing  on  the  subject 
one  way  or  the  other.    (Je  ne  veux  pas  nier  qu'il  y  ait 
eu  des  martyrs  de  Tamphith^&tre  Flavien;  mais  nous 
ne  Savons  pas  non  plus  s'il  y  en  a  eu,  et  en  tout  cas 
leurs  noms  nous  sont  inconnus. — Op.  cit.,  37.)     It  is, 
of  course,  probable  enough  that  some  of  the  Christians 
condemned  ad  besHas  suffered  in  the  Coliseum,  but 
there  is  just  as  much  reason  to  suppose  that  they  met 
their  death  in  one  of  the  other  places  dedicated  to  the 
cruel  amusements  of  inmerial  Kome;  for  instance,  in 
the  Circus  Flaminius,  the  Gainum,  the  Circus  of  Ha- 
drian, the  Amphitheatmm  Castrense,  and  the  Stadium 
of  Pomitian.    Even  as  regards  St.  Ignatius  of  An- 
tioch,  the  evidence  that  he  was  martyred  in  the  Coli- 
seum is  far  from  decisive;  the  terms  employed  by  St. 
John  Chrysostom  and  Evagrius  in  reference  to  this 
matter  convey  no  precise  meaning  (Delehaye.  op.  cit., 
43) .    The  same  is  tme  of  the  term  used  by  Theodoret 
in  reference  to  the  death  of  St.  Telemachus,  who 
sacrificed  his  life  to  put  an  end  to  the  bloody  i^>ecta* 
cles  which,  as  late  as  the  early  fifth  eentury,  took 
place  in  Rome.    There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  fact 
of  the  heroic  death  of  St.  Telemachus,  but  there  is,  on 
the  other  hand,  no  clear  proof  that  its  scene  was  the 
Coliseum.    Theodoret,  the  only  writer  who  records 
the  incident,  says  that  it  happened  tls  rb  tfrdffcor 
(in  the  stadium),  a  different  place  from  the  Coliseum. 
Delbhatb,     UamvhUhSAtre     Flavim      (Bnuiwls.     1897)  t 
Lancxaki,  Ruins  and  Excavatiana  cf  Ancient  Rome  (Bokton, 
1897);  Parker.  The  Fkmian  Amphitheatre  (hfmdon,  1876); 
GoRi,  Le  memarie  sUniche  dell'   anfiteatro  Flaviano    (Rome, 
1874);  VON  RxuMONT,  Oeech,  der  Stadt  Ram  (Berlin.  1867-70), 
isatm;  Grkooroviub,  History  of  the  City  of  R)ome  m  the 
fiddle  Agea,  ir.  Haxiuton  (London,  1894-1902). 

Maubicb  M.  Hassbtt. 


posatn 
SSdl 


OoUado,  I>iEGO,  missionary,  b.  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  sijQteenth  century  at  Miajadas,  in  the  province  of 
Estremadura,  Spain,  He  entered  the  Dominican  Or- 
der at  Salamanca  about  1600,  and  in  1619  went  to 
Japan,  where  the  Christians  were  suffering  persecu- 
tion. After  the  martyrdom  of  Luis  Fl6res,  a  fellow- 
Dominican,  in  1622,  Collado  repaired  to  Home,  and 
later  to  Spain,  in  the  interests  of  the  Oriental  missiohs. 
He  obtained  important  concessions,  though  not  with- 
out incurring  some  animosity.  Bearing  Apostolic 
and  royal  letters,  he  returned  to  the  Orient  in  1635. 
The  following  year  he  endeavoured  to  establish  in  the 
Philippines  an  independent  convent  devoted  solely  to 
the  Chinese  and  Japanese  missions,  but,  owing  to  the 
opposition  of  the  Spanish  civil  authorities,  his  effort 


THE  COLISEUM,  ROME 


OOLLikTION 


103 


oojjjsm 


was  unsucoesiful.  Recalled  to  Spain,  he  was  ship- 
wrecked, in  1638,  OQ  his  way  to  Manila.  He  could 
have  saved  himself,  but  he  remained  with  the  unfor- 
tunates among  his  fellow-voyagere,  hearing  their  con- 
fessions and  preparing  them  for  death.  The  follow- 
ing are  his  ^more  important  writings:  ''Ars  spram- 
matica  japonic®  lingue  '*  (Rome,  1631 ,  1632) ;  ^'  Die- 
tionarium  stve  thesaiuri  lingu®  japonicfls  compendium" 
(Rome,  1632);  ''Modus  confitendi  et  examinandi 
poenitentem  japonensem  formuU  suAmet  linguA  ja- 
ponic&"  (Rome,  1631, 1632);  ''Formula  protestanda 
fidei''  (Ilome):  "Historia  eclesidstica  de  los  suoesos 
de  la  cristianioad  del  Jap6n  desdo  el  aflo  de  MDCII, 
que  entr6  en  €L  la  orden  de  predicadores  hasta  el  de 
MDCXXI  por  el  P.  Hiacintho  Orfanel,  afiadida  hasta 
el  fin  del  afk)  MDCXXlI  por  el  Padre  Fray  Diego 
Collado"  (Madrid,  1632,  1633);  " Dictionarium  ling- 
uiB  sinensis  cum  explicatione  latind  et  hispanici  char- 
actere  sinensi  et  latino''  (Rome,  1632). 
Qjjimw  AND  EcHABD,  Script.  Ord.  Prod.,  II,  497. 

John  R.  Volz. 
Oollation,  Right  of.    See  Benefice. 
Oollationea  Patmm.    See  CAasiAN,  John. 

CtoUect,  the  name  now  used  only  for  the  short 
prayers  before  the  Epistle  in  the  Mass,  which  occur 
agam  at  Lauds,  Terce,  Sext,  None,  and  Vespers.  The 
word  coUeda  corresponds  to  the  Greek  ffj^po^is.  It  is 
a  noun,  a  late  form  for  coUedio  (so  tniasa  for  mismo, 
oUaJta  for  Matio^  ascensa,  in  the  Gelasian  Sacramen- 
tary,  for  asceruio,  etc.).  The  original  meaning  seems 
to  have  been  this:  it  was  used  for  the  service  held  at  a 
certain  church  on  the  days  when  there  was  a  station 
somewhere  else.  The  people  gathered  together  and 
became  a  "collection"  at  this  first  church;  after  cer- 
tain praters  had  been  said  thev  went  in  procession  to 
the  station-church.  Just  before  thev  started  the 
celebrant  said  a  prayer,  the  oratio  ad  collectam  {ad  col- 
lecUonem  populi) ;  the  name  would  then  be  the  same 
as  oratio  super  populum,  a  title  that  still  remains  in 
our  Missal,  m  Lent  for  instance  after  the  Post-Com- 
munion. This  prayer,  the  collect,  would  be  repeated 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Mass  at  the  station  itself 
(Bona,  Rer.  liturg.,  II,  5).  Later  writers  find  other 
meanings  for  the  name.  Innocent  III  says  that  in 
this  prayer  the  priest  collects  together  the  prayers  of 
bX\  the  people  (De  Sacr.  altaris  myst.,  II,  27;  see  also 
Benedict  XlV,  De  SS.  Missse  sacr.,  II,  5).  The  Secret 
and  Post-Communion  are  also  collects,  formed  on  the 
same  model  as  the  one  before  the  Epistle.  Now  the 
name  is  only  used  for  the  first  of  the  three.  Orimnally 
there  was  only  one  collect  (and  one  Secret  and  Post- 
Communion)  for  each  Mass.  The  older  sacramen- 
taries  never  provide  more  than  one.  Amalarius  of 
Metz  (d.  847)  says  (De  officiis  eccl.,  in  P.  L.,  CV,  985 
sqq.)  that  in  his  time  some  priests  began  to  say  more 
than  one  collect,  but  that  at  Rome  only  one  was  used. 
Micrologus  [De  eccl.  observ.,  probably  by  Bemc^d  of 
Constance  (d.  1100\  in  P.  L.,  CLI,  973  sqq.]  defends 
the  old  custom  and  says  that  "one  Prayer  should  be 
said,  as  one  Epistle  and  one  Gospel''.  However,  the 
number  of  collects  was  multiplied  till  gradually  our 
present  rule  was  evolved. 

The  way  in  which  our  collects  are  now  said  at  Mass 
is  the  fragment  of  a  more  elaborate  rite.  Of  tliis 
longer  rite  we  still  have  a  vestige  on  Good  Friday. 
The  celebrant^  after  greeting  the  people  (Domintis 
vobUcum)f  invited  them  to  pray  for  some  intention: 
Oremua,  dikdiadmi  nobis,  etc.  The  deacon  said: 
Fledanvusgsnuaf  and  all  knelt  for  a  time  in  silent 
prayer.  The  subdeacon  then  told  them  to  stand  up 
agam  (LevaU),  and,  all  standing,  the  celebrant  closed 
the  private  prajrera  with  the  short  form  that  is  the 
collect.  Of  this  rite — except  on  Good  Friday — the 
shortening  of  the  Mass,  which  has  affected  all  its  parts, 
has  only  left  the  greeting  Oremus  and  the  collect  itself. 


Here,  as  alwavs,  it  is  in  Holy  Week  that  we  find  the 
older  form.  It  should  be  noted,  then,  that  the  Oremus 
did  not  refer  inmiediately  to  the  collect,  but  rather  to 
the  sflent  prayer  that  went  before  it.  This  also  ex- 
plains the  shorUiess  of  the  older  collects.  They  are 
not  the  prayer  itself,  but  its  conclusion.  One  short 
sentence  summed  up  the  petitions  of  the  people.  It 
is  onlv  since  the  original  meaning  of  the  collect  has 
been  for^tten  that  it  has  become  itself  a  long  petition 
with  various  references  and  clauses  (compare  the  col- 
lects for  the  Sundays  after  Pentecost  with  those  for 
the  modem  feasts).  On  all  feast<days  the  collect 
naturally  contains  a  reference  to  the  event  whose 
memory  we  celebrate.  Its  preparation  is  the  kissing  of 
the  altar  and  the  Daminus  vofnscum.  Before  invitmg 
the  people  to  make  this  praver  the  celebrant  greets 
them,  and,  before  turning  nis  back  to  the  altar  in  order 
to  do  so,  he  salutes  it  in  the  usual  way  by  kissing  it. 
The  form  Dominus  vobiscum  is  the  common  greeting 
in  the  West.  It  occurs  in  the  Gallican,  Milanese,  and 
Mozarabic  Liturgies  under  the  form:  Dominus  sU 
semper  w^iscum.  Germanus  of  Paris  notes  it  as  the 
priest's  (not  bishop's)  greeting  (P.  L.,  LXXVII,  89). 
It  is  taken  from  tne  Bible.  When  Booz  came  from 
Bethlehem  he  said,  ''The  Lord  be  with  you",  to  the 
reapers  (Ruth,  ii,  4),  and  St.  Gabriel  used  the  same 
form  to  Our  Lady  at  the  Annunciation  (Luke,  i,  28; 
cf .  II  Thess.,  iii,  16).  A  bishop  here  says,  Pax  vobis, 
unless  the  Mass  has  no  Gloria,  in  which  case  his  erect- 
ing is  the  same  as  that  of  the  priest  (Ritus  celebr., 
y.  1).  This  distinction  is  as  old  as  the  tenth  century 
((>rdo  Rom.,  XIV,  79,  notes  it).  The  Pax  is  a  joyful 
and  solemn  greeting  to  be  left  out  on  da^s  of  penance. 
Its  connexion  with  the  Gloria,  that  has  just  gone  be- 
fore (et  in  terra  pax  hominibus),  is  obvious.  The  jgreet- 
ing  of  peace  (eipijpii  wtUriw)  is  the  common  one  m  the 
Eastern  liturgies.  In  either  case  the  answer  is:  Et 
cum  spiritu  tuo.  This  is  a  Hebraism  that  occurs  con- 
stantly in  both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament. 
"TTiy  spirit"  simply  means  "thee"  (cf.  e.  g.  Dan., 
iii,  86 ;  dal.,  vi,  18 ;  Phil.,  iv,  23 ;  Philem.,  25).  Nefesh 
(Heb.),  Na/s  (Ar.),  with  a  pronominal  svmx,  in  all 
Semitic  languages  means  simply  the  person  in  ques- 
tion. The  Eastern  liturgies  nave  the  same  answer, 
Kcd  it/erk  roO  rvd^/utar^s  9ov  (and  with  thy  spirit),  as  in 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (Brightman,  Eastern  Lit. 
3,  13),  or  K9X  TV  -rvfAfiarl  <rou  (ibid.,  49,  137,  etc.). 

At  the  Dominus  vobiscum  the  celebrant,  facing  the 
people,  extends  and  then  again  joins  his  hands.  It 
IS  here  a  gesture  of  greeting.  With  folded  hands  he 
turns  back  to  the  altar  and  goes  to  the  Missal  at  the 
Epistle  side.  Here,  again  extending  and  joining  the 
hands  and  bowing  towards  the  cross,  he  sings  or  savs 
Oremus^  and  then,  with  uplifted  hands  (not  above  the 
shoulder,  Ritus  C^elebr.,  V,  1),  goes  on  at  once  with  the 
collect  or  collects.  The  present  rule  about  the  collects 
is  this:  on  doubles  only  one  collect  is  said  (that  of  Uie 
feast),  unless  any  other  feast  be  commemorated,  or  the 
pope  or  bbhop  order  an  oratio  imperata.  Tne  tm- 
pmita  is,  moreover,  omitted  on  doubles  of  the  first 
class,  Palm  Sunday,  Maundy  Thursday,  the  eves  of 
Christmas,  Easter,  and  Whitsunday,  in  Requiems,  and 
solemn  votive  Masses.  On  doubles  of  the  second  class 
it  is  left  out  in  high  and  sung  Masses,  and  may  be  said 
at  the  others  or  not,  at  the  celebrant's  discretion. 
For  a  very  grave  cause  an  imperata  may  be  ordered 
to  be  said  always,  even  on  these  occasions.  It  alwavs 
comes  last  (De  Herdt,  I,  72).  The  collect  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  to  be  said  when  it  is  exposed,  and 
that  for  the  pope  or  bishop  on  the  anniversary  of  their 
election,  coronation,  or  consecration,  are  particular 
cases  of  imperaUs,  The  rules  for  commemoration  of 
feasts,  octaves,  ember  days,  and  ferias  of  Advent  and 
Lent  are  given  in  the  rubrics  of  the  Missal  (Ruhr. 
Gen.,  VII ;  cf .  De  Herdt.  1, 70-71).  On  semi-doubles, 
Sundays,  and  days  within  an  octave,  three  collects 
must  be  said;  but  on  Passbn  Sunday,  on  Sundays 


OOLLBtfFAftnXM 


104 


OOU-EOnORS 


within  an  octave  and  throughout  the  oeta'ves  of  Has- 
ter  and  Whitsunday  there  are  only  two  (Ruhr.  Gen., 
IX ;  De  Herdt,  I,  75,  where  the  rufes  for  these  coiieets 
will  be  found).  But  in  these  cases  the  number  may 
be  greater,  if  there  are  commemorations.    On  aim- 

Sles,  ferias,  and  in  Requiems  and  fnot  solemn)  votive 
[asses,  the  celebrant  may  also  iidd  collects,  as  he 
chooses,  provided  the  total  number  be  an  uneven  one 
and  do  not  exceed  seven  (Ruhr.  Gen.,  IX,  12:  De 
Herdt,  I,  83). 

The  rule  about  the  uneven  niunbers,  on  which  the 
S.  Congr.  Rit.  has  insisted  several  times  (2  December, 
1684;  2  September,  1741 ;  30  June.  1896),  is  a  curious 
one.  The  limit  of  seven  prevents  the  Mass  from  being 
too  long.  In  any  case  the  collect  of  ^e  day  alwa3rs 
comes  first.  It  has  Oremus  before  it  and  the  long 
conclusion  (Per  Dominum.  etc.).  The  second  collect 
has  a  second  Oremus^  and  all  that  follow  are  joined 
together  without  intermediate  ending  nor  Oremus  till 
the  last,  which  again  has  the  long  conclusion.  This 
separates  the  collect  of  the  day  from  the  others  and 
gives  it  a  special  dignity,  as  a  remnant  of  the  old  prin- 
ciple that  it  alone  shomd  be  said.  The  conclusions  of 
the  collects  vary  according  to  their  form  and  refer- 
ences (Ruhr.  Gen.,  IX,  17).  The  people  (choir  or 
server)  answer  Amen,  During  the  conclusions  the 
celebrant  folds  his  hands  and  bows  towards  the  cross 
at  the  words  Domxnum  rtoatrum  Jesum  Christum,  It 
should  be  noted  that  the  great  majority  of  the  collects 
are  addressed  to  God  the  Father  (so  all  the  old  ones; 
the  common  form  is  to  b^in:  Deus,  md);  a  few  later 
ones  (as  on  Corpus  Christi,  for  example)  arc  addressed 
to  God  the  Son,  none  to  the  Holy  Ghost.  At  low 
Mass  collects  are  said  aloud  so  that  they  can  be  heard 
by  the  people,  at  high  (or  sung)  Mass  they  are  sung 
to  the  festive  tone  on  doubles,  semi-doubleS;  and  Sun- 
days. On  simples,  ferias;  and  in  Masses  for  the  dead, 
they  have  the  simple  ferial  tone  (entirely  on  one  note, 
fa).  The  rules  of  the  tones,  with  examples,  are  in  the 
"  Caeremoniale  Episcoporum ",  I,  xxvii.  At  high  Mass 
the  deacon  and  subdeacon  stand  in  a  strai^t  line 
behind  the  celebrant  (the  deacon  on  the  top  step,  the 
subdeacon  in  piano)  with  joined  handis.  At  the  col- 
^>ects,  in  high  Mass,  the  people  should  stand.  This  is 
the  old  position  for  public  prayer;  originally  the  sub- 
deacon explicitly  told  them  to  do  so  (Levate),  TTie 
custom  of  standmg  during  the  collects,  long  n^ected. 
is  now  being  happuy  revived.  At  low  Mass  they  kneel 
all  the  time  except  during  the  Gospel  (Ruhr.  Gen., 
XVII,  2).  ^         -^  *^    V 

RubriocB  gmeraJes  Missalia,  VII,  IX,  XVI.  XVII;  RUua  ede- 
brandi,  V;  Caremoniale  Epiaoaponim,  I,  xxvii;  Bbnsdict  XIV, 
De  JSS.  Mis9(B  Sacnficio,  11.  v;  Giur,  Dm  heiliae  Mesaapfer 
(Freiburg  im  Br..  1897),  II,  {  39,  374-399.  See  abo  the  sacra- 
mentaries,  texts,  and  commentaries  Cfuoted  in  the  article  Canon^ 
or  THE  Mass. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

OoUectariuxn  (sometimes  CoLLBCTARitJs,  Collec- 
TANEtiM,  Orationale,  CAPrTTTLARB),  the  book  which 
contains  the  GoUects.  In  the  Proprium  de  Tempore 
of  the  Roman  Missal  the  title  StatiOf  with  the  name 
of  some  saint  or  mystery,  is  frequently  prefixed  to 
the  Introit  of  the  Mass.  It  signifies  that  in  early 
times,  probably  down  to  the  fourteenth  centur^^  the 
clergy  and  people  celebrated  on  those  days  the  Divine 
mysteries  in  the  churches  dedicated  in  honour  of  that 
samt  or  mystery.  Before  going  in  procession  to  the 
statio  they  assembled  in  some  nearby  church  to  re- 
ceive the  pontiff,  who  recited  a  prayer  which  was 
called  the  Collect.  This  name  was  given  to  the 
prayer  either  because  it  was  recited  for  the  assembled 
people,  or  because  it  contained  the  sum  and  substance 
of  all  favours  asked  by  the  pjontiff  for  himself  and  the 
people,  or  because  in  an  abridged  form  it  represehted 
the  spirit  and  fruit  of  the  feast  or  mystery.  In  course 
of  time  it  was  used  to  signify  the  prayers,  proper, 
votive,  or  prescribed  by  the  ecclesiastical  supenors 
iimperata),  recited  before  the  Epistle,  as  well  as  the 


Secrets  and  the  Post-Conmiunionfi.  Later  it  was  ap- 
plied to  the  prayers  said  at  Divine  Office  or  any  litur- 
gical service. " 

Zaccabia,  BQtliotheoa  RitufUii  fRome,  1776),  I;  Bbbnabd, 
Court  de  Liturgie  Romaina:  La  Mesaa  (Paris.  1808),  11:  Van 
DEB  &TAPPEN,  Socra  JMurgia  Qtfechlin.  1902),  II:  Carpo, 
Compendioaa  BiUiotheca  LUtargica  (Bolocna,  1.879):  Gxhb. 
The  Holy  Saerifice  of  the  Mate,  tr.  (St.  Ixnus,  Miasoun^  1903). 

A.    J.   SCHtTLTB. 

Oolleetions.— 'Die  offerings  of  the  faithful  in  tti&r 
special  relation  to  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  will 
claim  fuller  and  more  general  treatment  under  Offer- 
tory and  Mass  Stipend.    We  will  confine  oiuiselves 
here  to  the  particular  development  which  took  the 
form  of  a  contribution  in  money,  corresponding  pai^ 
ticularly  to  what  is  conveyed  by  the  French  word 
quite.    Of  collections  for  general  church  purposes  we 
find  mention  alreadv  in  tne  days  of  St.  Paul,  for  we 
read  in  I  Ck)r.,  xvi,  1-2:  "Now  concerning  the  collec- 
tions that  are  made  for  the  saints,  ajs  I  have  given 
order  to  the  churches  of  Galatia,  so  do  ye  also.     On 
the  first  day  of  the  week  let  every  one  of  vou  put  apwrt 
with  himself,  la3ring  up  what  it  shall  well  please  him ; 
that  when  I  come,  the  collections  be  not  th^n  to  be 
made.*'    This  seems  to  imply  that  on  every  Sunday 
(the  first  day  of  the  week  )  contributions  were  made, 
probSibly  when  the  faithful  assembled  for  "the  break- 
ing of  bread"  (Acts,  xx,  7),  and  that  then  contribu- 
tions were  put  by,  if  not  required  for  some  immediate 
and  local  need,  e.  g.  the  relieiF  of  the  poor,  in  order  that 
St.  Paul  might  assign  them  for  the  use  of  other  more 
destitute  churches  at  a  distance  (cf.  II  Cor.,  viii  and 
ix).    How  far  such  offerings  were  allocated  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  clergy  and  how  far  to  the  poor  there  fe 
notiiing  to  tell  us,  but  it  is  plain  that  as  a  matter  of 
principle  the  claims  both  of  the  clergy  and  of  the  poor 
were  recognised  from  the  very  first,     (For  the  clergy 
see  I  Cor.,  ix,  8-11 ;  II  Thess.,  iii,  8;  I  Tim.,  v,  17-18; 
and  for  the  poor  see  Acts,  iv,  34-35,  vi,  1,  xi,  29-30; 
I  Tim.,  V,  16,  etc.)    Again  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
from  an  early  date  such  alms  were  administered  ac- 
cording to  some  organized  system.     The  very  institu- 
tion of  deacons  and  deaconesses  proves  this,  and  we 
can  appeal  to  the  existence  in  certain  places,  for  ex- 
ample at  Jerusalem,  of  a  roll  (breve  eceuaiaMieum,  see 
the  recently  recovered  "Life  of  St.  Melania",  §  35) 
bearing  the  names  of  those  in  receipt  of  relief.     Greg- 
ory of  Tours  ^ves  the  name  of  matricularii  (De  Mirac. 
B.  Martin.,  in,  22)  to  those  who  were  entered  on  this 
roll.    Speaking  generally,  the  allocation  of  all  offer- 
ings was  recognized  as  belonging  to  the  bishop  (i.  e.  in 
the  period  before  the  modem  system  of  parishes  and 
parish  priests  had  evolved  itself  with  any  clearness), 
and  the  rule  was  formally  enunciated  in  the  West  that 
all  offerings  were  to  be  divided  by  the  bishop  into  four 
parts:  the  first  for  the  clergy,  the  second  for  the  poor, 
the  third  for  the  fabric  and  up-keep  of  the  churches, 
and  the  last  part  for  the  bishop  himself,  that  he  mi^t 
the  better  exercise  the  hospitality  which  was  ex- 
pected of  him.     This  arrangement  seems  to  date  back 
at  least  to  the  time  of  Pope  Simplicius  (475),  and  a 
hundred  years  later  it  is  stated  by  Pope  Gregory  the 
Great  in  the  following  form  when  he  was  consulted  by 
St.  Augustine  about  the  English  Church  which  he  had 
just  founded:  "It  is  the  custom  of  the  Apostolic  See 
to  deliver  to  ordained  bishops  precepts  that  of  every 
oblation  which  is  made  there  ought  to  be  four  portions, 
one,  to  wit,  for  the  bishop  and  his  household,  on  ac- 
count of  hospitality  and  entertainment,  another  for 
the  dei^,  a  third  for  thepoor,  a  fourth  for  the  repair- 
ing of  churches"  (Bede,  Hist.  Eccles.,  I,  xxvii). 

At  a  later  date  we  find  some  modification  of  this 
nile,  for  in  the  Capitularies  of  Louis  the  Pious  a  third 
of  the  offerings  are  assigned  to  the  cler^  and  two- 
thirds  to  the  poor  in  more  prosperous  districts,  while  a 
half  is  to  be  given  to  each  in  poorer  ones.  During  all 
this  earlier  period  offerings  in  money  do  not  seem  to 


^ 


wuMmam 


105 


oosi^flcnoirB 


have  been  connected  with  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
but  they  were  either  put  into  an  aims-box  perma- 
nently set  up  in  the  church  or  they  were  pven  in  col- 
lections  made  on  certain  specified  occasions.  With 
r^ard  to  the  fonner  Tertulhan  already  speaks  (Apol., 
xxxix,  Migne,  P.  L.,  I,  470)  of  **8ome  sort  of  chest" 
which  stood  in  the  church  and  to  which  the  faithful 
contributed  without  compulsion.  It  seems  to  have 
been  commonly  called  gazavhylaciwn  or  oorbona  (Cyp- 
rian, *'De  op.  et  eleemos.":  Jerome,  Ep.  3cxvii,  14). 
The  coHections  on  the  other  nand  probably  took  place 
on  days  of  which  notice  was  given  oeforehand.  Apart 
from  a  mention  in  the  **  Apology"  of  Justin  Martyr  (I, 
Ixvii),  ftt>m  whidi- we  should  suppose  that  a  collection 
was  made  every  Sunday,  our  principal  source  of  in- 
formation is  the  series  of  six  sermons  **  De  Ck)llectis", 
delivered  by  St.  Leo  the  Great  in  different  years  of  his 
pontificate  (Mime,  P.  L.,  LIV,  168-168).  All  these, 
according  to  the  brothers  Ballerini,  probablv  have 
reference  to  a  collection  annually  made  on  6  July,  on 
which  day  in  pagan  times  certain  games  were  held  in 
honour  of  Apollo,  at  which  a  collection  took  plaee. 
The  Churoh  seems  to  have  continued  the  custom  and 
converted  it  into  an  occasion  of  almsgiving  for  pious 
purposes  upon  the  octave  day  of  the  feast  of  Sts.  Peter 
and  Paul.  It  may  be  noted  that  both  Tertullian 
(De  Jejun.,  xiii,  Migne,  P.  L.,  II,  972)  and  St.  Leo  seem 
to  regard  such  contributions  of  money  as  a  form  of 
mortification,  and  consequently  sanctincation,  closely 
connected  with  fasting.  That  similar  collections  were 
everjrwhere  common  in  the  Early  Church  and  that  con- 
siderable pressure  was  sometimes  brought  to  bear  to 
extort  contributions  we  learn  from  a  letter  of  St.  Greg- 
ory the  Great  (Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXVII,  1060). 

As  already  noted,  these  methods  of  gathering  alms 
seem  to  have  had  nothing  directly  to  do  with  the  lit- 
urgy.   TTie  offerings  which  were  invariably  made  by  the 
faithful  both  in  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Chureh 
during  the  Holy  Sacrifice  were  long  confined  to  simple 
bread  and  wine,  or  at  least  to  such  things  as  wax,  can- 
dles, oil,  or  incense  which  had  a  direct  relation  to  the 
EHvine  service.     According  to  the  so-called  Apostolic 
Canons  (see  Canons,  Apostolic)  other  forms  of  prod- 
uce which  might  be  offered  for  the  support  of  the 
clergy  were  to  oe  taken  to  the  residence  ox  the  bishop, 
where  he  lived  a  sort  of  community  life  with  his 
priests  (see  Funk,  Didascalia  et  Constitutiones  Apos- 
tolorum,  I,   564).     However,  the  bread  and  wine 
which  were  brought  to  the  altar  at  the  Offertory  of  the 
Mass  were  commonly  presented  in  quantities  far  in  ex- 
cess of  what  was  needed  for  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  and 
they  thus  formed,  and  were  intended  to  form,  a  sub- 
stantial  contribution  towards  the  maintenance  of 
those  who  served  in.  the  sanctuary.     Various  enact- 
ments were  passed  during  the  Carlovingian  period 
with  the  object  of  urging  the  people  to  remain  faithful 
to  this  practice,  but  it  seems  gradually  to  have  died 
out,  save  in  certain  functions  of  solemnity,  e.  g.  the 
Mass  celebrated  at  the  consecration  of  a  bishop,  when 
two  loaves  and  two  small  casks  of  wine  are  presented 
to  the  celebrant  at  the  Offertory.     On  the  otner  hand, 
this  oblation  of  bread  and  wine  seems  to  have  been  re- 
placed in  many  localities  by  a  contribution  in  money. 
At  what  period  the  substitution  began  is  not  quite 
clear.    Some  have  thought  that  a  trace  of  this  prac- 
tice is  to  be  recognized  as  early  as  St.  Isidore  of  Sev- 
ille (595)  who  speaks  of  the  arcndeacon  ''receiving  the 
money   collected   from   the   communion"    (Ep.    ad 
Leudof.,  xii).     A  less  ambiguous   example  may  be 
found  in  a  letter  of  St.  Peter  Damian  (c.  1050)  where 
there  is  mention  of  gold  coins  being  offered  by  the 
wives  of  certain  princes  at  his  Mass  (Migne,  P.  L., 
CXLFV,  360).    In  any  case  it  is  certain  that  from  the 
twelfth  to  the  fifteenth  centuiy  a  money  offering, 
known  in  England  as  the  "mass-penny",  was  com- 
monfy  made  at  the  Offertory  all  over  the  Western 
Church.     Kings  and  personages  of  high  rank  often 


had  a  special  coin  which  they  presented  at  Mass  eac^ 
day  and  then  redeemed  it  afterwards  for  a  specified 
sum.    Chaucer  says  of  his  Pardoner: — 

Well  could  he  read  a  lesson  or  a  stone 
But  althebest  he  sang  an  offertorye; 
For  well  he  wyste,  wheu  that  sone  was  songe, 
He  moste  preach  and  well  affyle  nis  tongue 
To  Wynne  silver,  as  he  right  wel  oowde. 
Therefore  he  san^  full  merrily  and  lowde. 

The  offering  was  voluntary,  and  each  one  broudit 
what  he  had  to  give  to  the  altar-rail.  Burckard  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  gives  this  direction : 
"  u  there  be  any  who  wish  to  offer,  the  celebrant  comes 
to  the  epistle  comer  and  itxeie  standing  bareheaded 
with  his  left  side  turned  towards  the  altar,  he  removes 
the  maniple  from  his  left  arm  and  taking  it  in  his  ri^t 
hand,  he  presents  the  end  of  it  to  kiss  to  those  wvio 
offer,  saying  to  eaeh:  'May  thy  sacrifice  be  acceptar 
ble  to  Grod  Almighty',  or  *  Mayst  thou  receive  a  hun- 
dredfold and  possess  eternal  life'."  Tliis  mWc  was 
not  retained  in  the  firet  official  and  authoritative  edi- 
tion of  the  Roman  Missal,  printed  in  1570.  Possibly 
the  struggle  for  precedence  in  going  up  to  make  the 
offering,  of  which  we  read  in  Chaucer,  tended  to  bring 
this  method  of  contributing  into  disfavour  and  led  to 
the  carrying  round  of  an  alms-dish  or  bag  from  bench 
to  bench  as  is  commonly  done  at  present.  Collections 
for  specified  objects,  e.  g.  the  building  of  a  church,  the 
construction  of  a  bridge,  the  relief  of  certain  cases  of 
distress,  etc.  have  at  all  times  been  common  in  the 
Church,  and  during  the  Middle  Ages  the  people  were 
eonstaritly  stimulated  to  give  more  generously  to  par* 
ticulat  funds  for  pious  purposes,  e.  g.  the  Crusades,  by 
the  grant  of  special  Inaul^snces.  "These  grants  of  In- 
du^nce  were  often  entrusted  to  preachers  of  note 
("Pardoners")  who  carried  them  from  town  to  town, 
collecting  money  and  using  their  elomience  to  recom- 
mend the  gpod  work  in  question  ana  to  enhance  the 
spiritual  privileges  attached  to  it.  This  led  to  many 
aoiises.  The  Council  of  Trent  frankly  recognized 
them  and  abolished  all  grants  of  Indiugence  which 
were  conditional  upon  a  pecuniary  contribution'  to- 
warcjs  a  specified  object.  Other  collections  during 
the  Middle  Ages  were  associated  with  special  objects  of 
piety — ^for  example,  noteworthy  shrines,  statues,  or 
relics.  Some  few  specimens  still  remain  oiP  stone  alms- 
boxes  ioined  to  a  bracket  upon  which  some  statue 
formerly  stood,  or  united  to  Easter  sepulchres, 
shrines,  etc.  One  collection,  that  for  the  Holy  Places, 
was  commonly  associated  with  the  creeping  to  the 
Cross  on  Good  Fridays,  as  it  still  is  to-day. 

The  strain  put  upon  the  charity  of  the  lay-folk  in 
the  Middle  Ages  by  the  large  number  of  mendicant 
orders  was  often  severely  felt.  Some  remedy  was 
provided  by  confining  the  appeals  of  those  wiio  soli- 
cited alms  to  certain  assigned  districts.  The  mendi- 
cants so  licensed  were  in  England  often  known  as 
"  limitours  * '.  A  like  difficulty  is  not  unfamiliar  in  ont 
own  dav,  and  the  principle  has  consequently  been  rec- 
ognizea  that  a  bishop  has  a  right  to  prohibit  stran^rs 
from  collecting  alms  in  his  diocese  without  authoriza- 
tion. Although  it  is  not  always  easy  to  exercise  ade- 
quate control  over  these  appeals,  a  certain  check  may 
be  put  upon  importunate  ecclesiastics  by  withholdinc 
permission  to  say  Mass  in  the  diocese.  This  method 
of  exercising  pressure,  to  be  followed  by  complaint  to 
the  Congregation  of  Propaganda  in  case  such  prohibi- 
tions are  n^ected,  is  indicated  in  a  strongly  worded 
decree  drawn  up  by  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Bal- 
timore (n.  295).  Similar  regulations  requiring  that 
the  bishop's  authorization  should  be  obtained  before 
strangers  can  be  allowed  to  collect  money  for  chari- 
table purposes  in  the  diocese  also  prevail  m  England. 
Restrictions  are  further  commonly  imposed,  either  by 
synodal  decrees  or  by  the  command  of  the  bishops 
upon  certain  methods  of   collecting   money  whioi 


OOLUBOnVZSM 


106 


ooLUBornnsM 


mav  be  judged  accordioff  to  local  circumaiances 
to  be  likely  to  give  scandal  or  to  be  attended  with 
danger  to  souls.  The  sometimes  intricate  and  ddi- 
cate  questions  arising  from  the  collection  of  money  by 
religious  when  entrusted  with  quasi-parochial  func- 
tions have  been  leaslated  for  in  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
tution **  Romance  Tontifices*'  of  8  May,  1881. 

There  U  *  short  article  s.  v.  CoUeelen  in  the  Kvrtkenlexxkont 
but  there  aeema  to  be  no  one  source  of  inlonnataoo  which  bnnn 
together  in  moderate  compass  the  facts  discussed  above.  The 
reader  may.  however,  be  merred  for'various  points  to  (fiffeient 
treatises,  m  which  the  foliowins  are  the  most  noteworthy: 
FouBNKRET  in  Did.  de  thiol,  caih,  (1905),  s.  v.  BieM  eocUaiaa- 
tuples;  TBAinorBR,  Litwrifik  (Freiburg.  1883),  Vol.  II,  Pt.  I: 
QiHB,  The  Maaa  (tr.  Freiburg.  1902),  486-514;  Haodan,  Souda- 
MOBS,  and  ABunsLD  in  Diet  Chriat.  Antiq.,  s.  w.  AUiu;  OUa- 
tiana;  Poor;  Scudamobb,  Notitia  Euchariaiioa  (London,  1876). 
346  sq.;  Bondboit,  De  Capacitaie  Poaaidendi  Bceteata (Lou vain. 
1900):  BxBPSBLACX.  De  Bonia  BccleauB  TemporaU^ua  (Ion»* 
bruck.  1892);  Wrhns,  Jua  Deeretalium  (Rome,  1906),  III.  134 
sq.:  Laurentiub,  Inatituiionea  Juris  Eedeaiaatiei  (Freiburg, 
1908).  631-657. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Oollectivijun. — ^This  term  is  sometimes  employed 
as  a  substitute  for  socialism.  It  is  of  later  origin,  and  is 
somewhat  more  precise  in  use  and  content.  Socisd- 
ism,  while  sufficiently  definite  in  the  minds  of  those 
who  have  a  right  to  class  themselves  as  socialists,  is 
frequently  employed  in  a  loose  way  by  others.  The 
sin0e-tax  theory,  government  ownerBhip  of  public 
utilities  such  as  railways  and  telegraphs,  stricter 
public  regulation  of  industry,  and  even  moderate 
measures  of  social  reform,  are  sometimes  called  social- 
ism bv  individuals  and  newspapers.  Collectivism  is 
scarcely  ever  used  except  to  aesignate  that  system  of 
industi^  in  which  the  material  agents  of  production 
would  be  owned  and  managed  by-tbe  public,  the  collec- 
tivity. And  it  usually  indicates  merely  the  economic 
side  of  socialism,  without  reference  to  any  philo- 
sophical, psychological,  ethical,  or  historical  assump- 
tions. Socialism  means  primarily  an  ideal  industrial 
order  as  just  described,  but  it  is  also  quite  properly 
used  to  characterize  the  entire  idealogical  foundation 
upon  which  International  or  Marxian  socialists  build, 
as  well  as  the  concrete  movement  that  is  actively 
striving  for  the  realization  of  this  ideal  order.  Hence 
economic  determinism,  the  class  strug^e,  and  the 
catastrophic  concentration  of  industry  would  be 
called  socialist  rather  than  collectivist  theories.  Not- 
withstandinjg  these  advantages  of  deiiniteness,  the 
word  coUectivitm  has  not  been  widely  employed,  even 
in  France  and  Belgium;  nor  does  it  promise  to  sup- 
plant the  older  term  in  the  future. 

While  collectivism  implies  the  substitution  of  col- 
lective for  private  property  in  the  means  of  produc- 
tion, it  is  susceptible  of  considerable  diversity  in  its 
application  throughout  the  realm  of  industry.  One 
of  the  most  thorough^ing  of  the  German  socialists, 
Karl  Kautsky,  in  his  forecast  of  what  might  be 
expected  to  happen  the  day  after  the  industrial 
revolution,  suggests  that  when  the  State  has  taken 
possession  of  ^e  capitalistic  industries  it  could  sell 
a  portion  of  them  to  the  labourers  who  work  them, 
another  portion  to  co-operative  associations,  anoUier 
to  municipalities,  and  still  another  to  provincial  sub- 
divisions of  the  nation  (in  America,  the  several  States). 
All  industries  that  had  already  become  monopolize 
and  national  in  scope  would,  of  course,  be  operated 
by  the  nation,  ana  the  national  form  of  industry 
woidd  probably  be  the  predominant  one  ultimately. 
Land  would  be  collectively  owned,  but  not  always  col- 
lectively operated.  According  to  Kautsky,  the  small 
non-capitalistic  farms  (embracing  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  all  a^cultural  land)  might  well  remain  in 
the  hands  of  mdividual  farmers.  While  not  owning 
the  ground  that  he  tilled,  and  while — in  all  probability 
— spaying  rent  to  the  State  in  proportion  to  the  value 
of  the  land,  the  small  farmer  would  own  and  manage 
his  agricultural  business,  the  machinery,  seeds,  horses, 
etc.,  that  he  used,  and  the  product  that  he  produced. 


Thus  his  position  would  approximate  that  of  a  farmer 
under  the  sin^e-tax  system.    He   would  not  be  a 
wage-receiver  m  the  employ  of  the  industrial  State. 
Finally  there  are  certain  non-agricultural  small  in- 
dustries which  could  continue  to  be  privately  owned 
and  manaeed.    This  is  especially  true  of  thooe  in 
which  hand  labour  predommates,  and  which  produce 
for  inunediate  consumption,  for  example,  the  work 
of  barbers,  artists,  custom-tailors,  and  dressnaakers. 
Since  the  supreme  aim  of  collectivism  is  the  abolition 
of  that  capitalistic  r^ime  which  enables  one  man  or 
one  oorporatbn  arbitrarily  to  exploit  the  labour  and 
the  necessities  of  many  men,  it  obviously  does  not— 
in  theory  at  least — imply  equal  compensation  for  all 
individuals,  nor  the  destruction  of  individual  initiative, 
nor  the  establishment  of  a  bureaucratic  despotism. 
Hence  the  theoretical  possibility  of  different  rates  of 
pAv,  of  many  and  diverse  industrial  units,  of  a  con- 
sicferable  number  of  small  industries,  and  of  private 
property  in  the  goods  that  minister  to  inunediate 
enjoyment.    As  the  American  socialist  John  Spaigo 
puts  it,  ''we  want  social  ownership  only   of   those 
things  which  cannot  be  controUc^i  by  private  owners 
except  as  means  of  exploiting  the  labour  of  others  and 
making  them  bondsmen''  (Capitalist  and  Labor,  etc., 
120).    As  in  the  matter  of  the  ownership  and  opera- 
tion of  the  means  of  production,  so  with  regard  to  the 
ultimate  directive  power,  the  governmental  functions, 
collectivism  does  not  theoretically  necessitate  the  des- 
potic supremacy  of  a  highly  centralized  State.   Indeed, 
the  Ck)ntinental  socialists,  who  detest  the  militai^ 
governments  under  which  thejr  live,  favour  decentrali- 
zation rather  than  the  opposite;  hence  so  many  of 
them  lay  stress  upon  the  development  of  the  local  polit- 
ical umt,  and  the  inevitable  increase  of  provincial  and 
municipal  functions  in  the  collectivist  State.     Their 
ideal,  and  the  ideal  of  collectivists  generally,  is  a  State 
organized  on  industrial  lines,  in  which  each  industry, 
whether  local  or  national,  and  its  workers  will  be  sub- 
stantially autonomous,  and  in  which  government  of 
persons  will  be  replaced  bv  an  administration  of  thinss. 
From  this  outline  of  what  may  be  regarded  as  tioe 
prevailing  theory  of  collectivism,  it  appears  that  many 
of  the  arguments  against  collectivism  have  lost  some- 
thing of  their  former  strength  and  pertinency.    This 
is  particularly  true  of  those  objections  which  assume 
a  completely  centralized  management  of  industry, 
equal  compensation  for  all  workers,  and  the  entire 
absence  of  individual  initiative  in  production.     On 
the  other  hand,  the  very  diversity  of  industrial  direc- 
tion, the  vast  scope  given  to  local  and  provincial 
autonomy,  and  the  very  small  part  assigned  to  coer- 
cive and  repressive  activity  in  tne  collectivist  system 
would  undoubtedly  prove  fatal  to  its  efficiency  and 
stability.    To  suppose  that  the  local  industrial  unit, 
say,  the  municipal  gas  works,  or  the  local  branch  of 
the  national  shoe  manufacture,  could  be  operated 
effectively  on  a  basis  of  complete  industrial  democ- 
racy, requires  a  faith  surpassing  that  of   children. 
The  workers  would  lack  the  incentive  to  hard  work 
that  comes  from  fear  of  discharge,  and  would  be 
under  constant  temptation  to  assume  that  thev  were 
more  active  and  more  efficient  than  their  equally  paid 
fellows  in  other  workshops  of  the  same  class.     Hence 
sufficient  centralization  to  place  the  control  of  indus- 
try outside  of  the  local  unit  or  branch  would  seem  to 
be   indispensable.    This   means   a   combination   of 
industrial  and  political  power  that  could  easily  put 
an  end  to  freedom  of  action,  speech,  and  writing. 
Since  the  form  of  authority  would  be  democratic,  the 
people  could  no  doubt  vote  such  a  government  out 
of  power;  but  in  Uie  concrete  the  people  means  the 
majority,  and  a  majority  might  continue  for  a  long 
senes  of  years  to  impose  intmerable  conditions  on  a 
minority  almost  equal  in  numbers.    For  oollectivism 
there  seems  to  be  no  middle  rat)und  between  tnefii- 
ciency  and  despotism.     An  industrial  system  wbicb 


^lAjf-T-g 


107 


OQIiUBaS 


would  inoiease  rather  than  lessen  social  ills  is  obvi- 
ously contrary  to  the  interests  of  morality  and  relig- 
ion. Furthermore,  any  oollectivist  regime  which  should 
aeixe  private  land  or  capital  without  compensation 
IB  condemned  by  the  Catholic  doctrine  concerning 
the  lawfulness  of  private  ownership  and  the  unlaw- 
fuhiess  of  theft.  Setting  aside  these  questions  of 
feaaibility  and  compensation  are  we  obhged  to  sa^i 
or  peimitted  to  say,  that  collectivism  as  described  m 
this  article  has  been  formally  condemned  by  the 
Catholic  Church?  In  the  Encyclical  "  Rerum  Nova- 
rum  "  (On  the  Condition  of  Labour),  Pope  Leo  XIII 
cleariy  denounced  those  extreme  forms  of  socialism 
aad  communism  which  aim  at  the  abolition  of  all  or 
practically  all  private  property,  Periiaps  the  near- 
est approach  to  an  official  pronouncement  on  the  sub- 
ject  of  essential  and  purelv  economic  collectivism  is 
to  be  found  in  the  same  document,  where  the  Holy 
Father  declares  Uiat  man's  welfare  demands  private 
ownership  of  ''stable  possessions"  and  of  "lucrative 
property  .     (See  Socialism.) 

£lt.  Soeialum  and  Social  Reform  (New  York,  1894):  Van- 
DKXVBLDE,  CoUectivum  and  Indiutrial  kevolution,  tr.  (Chicago, 
1904):  Kadvult,  The  Social  UevUuHtm,  tr.  (Ohicaso.  1905) ; 
L.BO  AlII.  Rerum  Nwarwn;  Dbvas  in  The  IhMm  Renew 
(liondon,  Oot..  1906). 

John  A.  Ryan. 

OoUe  df  Val  d'SLut  (Collib  HsTRtmcus),  Diogesk 
OF  (Collenbis),  suffragan  to  Florence.  Colle  is  sit- 
uated in  the  province  of  Siena,  THiscany,  on  the  top 
of  a  lofty  hill  which  overlooks  the  River  Elsa.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  built  by  the  inhabitants  of  Gracchi- 
ano,  who  had  suffered  greatly  in  the  frequent  wars  be- 
tween Florence  and  Siena.  The  Gospel  is  supposed 
to  have  been  preached  there  by  St.  Martial,  a  reputed 
disciple  of  St.  Peter.  C^Ue  had  at  first  a  collepate 
church,  exempt  from  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  the 
neighbouring  oishop,  and  widely  Known  through  the 
merits  of  its  archpnest,  St.  Albert,  who  flourished 
about  1202.  In  1598,  Clement  VIII,  at  the  request 
of  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Tuscany,  erected  the  Di- 
ocese of  Colle,  the  first  bishop  being  tlsimbardo  Usim- 
bardi.  The  diocese  has  72  parishes,  1 17  churches  and 
chapels,  115  secular  and  20  regular  priests,  3  religious 
houses  of  men  and  3  of  women. 

CaFpcixxtti.  Le  thieee  dFltalia  (Venice,  1844),  27A-77;  Ann. 
tad.  (Rome,  1907),  40B-10. 

U.   BSNIONI. 

OoUege. — ^The  word  college  (Fr,  coUkge,  It.  coUegio, 
Sp.  colegio),  from  the  Latin  collegium,  originally  signi- 
fied a  community,  a  corporation,  an  organized  society, 
a  body  of  colleagues,  or  a  society  of  persons  engaged  in 
some  common  puiauit.  From  ancient  times  there  ex- 
isted in  Rome  corporations  called  collegia,  with  vari- 
ous ends  and  objects.  Thus  the  guilds  of  the  artisans 
were  known  as  collegia  or  todalicia;  in  other  collegia 
persons  associated  together  for  some  special  religious 
worship,  or  for  the  purpose  of  mutual  assistance.  This 
original  meaning  of  the  word  college  is  preserved  m 
some  modem  corporations,  as  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians, or  the  College  of  Surgeons  (London,  Edinburgh). 
There  were  in  Rome  other,  more  official  bodies  which 
bore  the  title  collegium,  as  the  Collegium  tribunorum, 
Collegium  augurum,  Collegium  pontificum,  etc.  In  a 
similar  sense  the  word  is  now  used  in  such  terms  as  the 
CoUege  of  Cardinals  (or  the  Sacred  Collej^e),  the  Col- 
lege of  Electora.  the  Colle^  of  Justice  (in  Scotland), 
the  College  of  Heralds  (in  £]ngland). 

From  the  fourteenth  century  on  the  word  college 
meant  in  particular  "a  communitv  or  corporation  of 
secular  cLergv  living  together  on  a  foundation  for  relig- 
ious service  .  The  church  supported  on  this  endow- 
ment was  called  a  collegiate  church,  because  the  eccle- 
siastical services  and  solemnities  were  performed  by  a 
college,  i.  e.  a  body  or  staff  of  clergymen,  consisting  of 
a  provost,  or  dean,  canons*  etc. ;  later,  the  term  "  col- 
legiate" or  "  college  church  "  was  usually  restricted  to  a 


church  connected  with  a  large  educational  institution. 
Some  of  these  iiistitutiuus,  l>eside8  carrying  out  the , 
Divine  service  in  their  church,  were  required  to  take 
charee  of  an  almshouse,  or  a  hospital,  or  some  educa- 
tional establishment.  It  is  here  that  we  find  the 
word  college  introduced  in  connexion  with  education, 
a  meaning  which  was  to  become  the  most  prominent 
during  succeeding  centuries.  It  seems  that  in  the 
English  universities  the  term  was  first  applied  to  the 
foundations  of  the  so-called  second  perioa,  t^ified  by 
New  College,  Oxford,  1379;  from  these  the  name 
firadually  spread  to  the  earlier  foundations  (Merton, 
Balliol)  which  originally  were  designated  by  the  term 
aula  or  domus;  then  it  was  taken  by  the  foundations 
of  the  third  period,  the  colleges  of  the  Renaissance. 
As  used  in  educational  history,  colleee  may  be  de- 
fined, in  general,  as  "  a  society  of  schomrs  formed  for 
the  purposes  of  study  or  instruction*';  and  in  particu- 
lar as  "a  self-governing  corporation,  either  independ- 
ent of  a  University,  or  m  connexion  with  a  university, 
as  the  College  of  the  Sorbonne  in  the  ancient  Univers- 
ity  of  Paris,  and  the  colleges  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge ' '.  In  some  instances,  where  in  a  university  only 
a  single  college  was  founded  or  survived,  the  terms 
"college"  ana  "university"  are  co-extensive  and  in- 
terchangeable. This  is  the  case  in  Scotiand  and«  to  a 
ereat  extent,  in  the  United  States.  Although  in  the 
United  States  many  small  institutions  claim  the  am- 
bitious titie  of  university,  it  b  more  appropriate  to  ap- 
ply this  term  to  those  institutions  which  have  sevenJ 
distinct  faculties  for  professional  study  and  thus  re- 
semble the  universities  of  Europe.  Tliey  differ,  how- 
ever, from  the  continental  universities  in  one  impor- 
tant point,  namely,  in  the  undergraduate  department 
which  is  connected  with  the  university  proper.  In 
some  places,  as  in  Harvard,  the  term  "  college  is  now 
in  a  special  sense  applied  to  the  undergraduate  school. 
This  is  the  most  common  and  most  proper  acceptation 
of  the  term:  an  institution  of  higher  learning  of  a 
general,  not  professional,  character,  where  after  a  reg- 
ular course  of  study  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  or, 
in  recent  years,  some  equivalent  degree,  e.  f;.  Bachelor 
of  Philosophy,  or  Bachelor  of  Science,  is  given.  (See 
Arts,  Bachelor  of,  and  Degrees,  Academic.)  It 
is  this  meaning  of  college  which  will  be  treated  in  this 
article;  all  professional  schools  called  colleges  axe  ex- 
cluded, such  as  teachers'  colleges  (training  schools  for 
teachers),  law  and  medical  colleges,  colleges  of  dentis- 
try, pharmacy,  mechanical  engineering,  agriculture, 
business,  mines,  etc.  Nor  will  coUe^ea  be  included 
which  are  divinity  schools  or  theological  seminaries, 
as  the  numerous  colleges  in  Rome,  e.  g.  the  Collegium 
Germanicum,  Collegium  Latino-Americanum,  Collet 
cium  GrsBcum,  or  the  English,  Irish,  Scotch,  North- 
American  Colleges,  and  many  other  similar  institu- 
tions. 

As  the  origin  and  evolution  of  the  college,  or  of  its 
equivalent,  have  not  been  the  same  in  different  coun- 
tries, it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  confusion, 
to  treat  separately  of  the  colleges  peculiar  to  England. 
These  deserve  special  attention  for  the  further  reason 
that  the  American  college  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  Eng- 
lish  college.  Even  at  the  present  day  the  distinguish- 
ing characteristic  of  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and 
(^ambridge  is  the  existence  of  the  colleges.  Nothing 
like  it  is  to  be  found  in  any  other  country,  and  the  re- 
lation between  these  colleges  and  the  university  is 
very  puzzling  to  foreigners.  The  colleges  are  disUnct 
corporations,  which  manage  their  own  property  and 
elect  their  own  officers;  the  university  has  no  legal 
power  over  the  colleges,  although  it  has  jurisdiction 
over  the  individual  members  of  the  colleges,  b^ 
cause  they  are  members  also  of  the  university.  Mr. 
Bryce  has  used  the  relation  between  the  university 
and  the  colleges  as  an  illustration  of  the  relations  be- 
tween the  Federal  Crovemment  and  the  separate 
States  of  the  American  Union.    But  one  great  differ* 


0OZ.L8OS 


108 


OOItUMNB 


enoe  has  been  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Rashdall:  "in 
place  of  the  strict  limitation  of  spheres  established  bv 
the  American  Constitution,  the  jurisdiction  of  both 
University  and  College,  if  either  chose  to  exercise  them, 
is  legally  unlimited.  Expulsion  from  a  College  would 
not  mvolve  expulsion  from  the  University,  unless  the 
University  chose  so  to  enact;  nor  coma  expulsion 
from  the  University  prevent  a  man  from  continuing  to 
be  a  member  or  even  a  Fellow  of  a  CoUe^.  The  TJni- 
versity's  monopoly  of  the  power  of  grantmp  degrees  is 
the  only  connecting  link  which  ensures  their  harmoni- 
ous co-operation"  (Universities  of  Europe,  II,  793). 
The  professors  at  Oxford  are  university  officials;  tu- 
tors and  lecturers  are  college  officials;  these  two 
bodies  form  two  different  systems.  The  majority  of 
students  receive  the  e;reater  part  of  their  education 
from  the  tutors  and  lecturers.  (For  fiuther  details 
see  "The  University  of  Oxford''  in  "Ir.  Eccl.  Rec.", 
Jan.,  1907.) 

Although  at  the  present  day  the  collegiate  system  is 
peculiar  to  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
it  was  not  so  formerly,  nor  can  England  claim  the  hon- 
our of  having  had  tne  first  colle^.  This  distinction 
.belongs  to  the  University  of  Pans,  the  greatest  school 
of  medieval  Europe.  To  understand  the  origin  of  the 
coUeges  and  their  character,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
the  social  conditions  in  which  the  medieval  students 
lived.  Large  numbers  of  youths  flocked  to  the  fa- 
mous university  towns;  there  may  have  been  6000  or 
7000  students  at  Paris,  5000  at  Bologna,  2000  at  Tou- 
louse, 3000  at  Prague,  and  between  2000  and  3000  at 
Oxford.  Writers  of  the  latter  part  of  the  Middle 
Ages  have,  it  is  true,  asserted  that  in  preceding  cen- 
turies Paris  had  over  30,000,  and  Oxford  from  20,000 
to  30,000  students;  some  popular  writers  of  our  days 
have  repeated  these  statements,  but  the  foremost  his- 
torians who  have  df&lt  with  this  subject,  as  Rashdall, 
Brodrick,  Paulsen,  Thorold  Rogers,  and  many  others, 
have  proved  that  these  fabulous  numbers  are  gross 
exaggerations  (Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  11,  581  sqq.).  Still 
the  numbers  were  large,  many  students  very  young, 
some  not  more  than  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  old; 
many  lived  in  private  houses,  others  in  halls  or  hostels ; 
the  discipline  was  lax,  and  excesses  and  riots  were  fre- 
quent* above  all,  the  poorer  students  were  badly 
lodgea  and  badly  fed,  and  were  at  the  mergr  of  un- 
scrupulous and  designing  men  and  women.  Generous 
persons,  inspired  by  the  spirit  of  active  charity,  which 
was  very  pronounced  during  these  centuries,  sought  to 
alleviate  the  lot  of  the  poor  students.  The  result  was 
the  foundation  of  the  "houses  of  scholars",  later 
called  coU^^es.  Originally  they  were  nothing  but  en- 
dowed hospteia^  or  lodging  and  boarding-houses  for 
poor  students;  the  idea  of  domestic  instruction  was 
absent  in  the  eariy  foundations.  The  first  Parisian 
colleges  were  homes  for  ecclesiastical  students,  "  aca^ 
demical  cloisters  specially  planned  for  the  education 
of  secular  clercy  .  About  1180  the  College  of  the 
Eighteen  was  founded  (so  called  from  the  number  of 
students)-  then  Saint-Thomas  de  Louvre  (1186),  and 
several  others  in  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  most  famous  of  the  colleges  in  Paris  was  the  Sor- 
bonne  (see  Sorbonne,  College  of  the)  founded 
about  1257,  and  intended  for  sixteen,  later  for  thirty- 
six,  students  of  theology.  In  succeeding  centuries 
the  Sorbonne  came  to  stand  for  the  whole  theological 
faculty  of  the  University  of  Paris.  In  the  course  of 
time  the  university  set  aside  the  original  autonomy  of 
the  coIle«^  and  gained  complete  control  over  them; 
in  this  the  colleges  of  Paris  differed  widely  from  the 
English  colleges.  Another  difference  lay  m  the  fact 
that  most  English  colleges  admitted  students  for  fac- 
ulties other  than  the  theological.  The  first  English 
oollece,  Balliol,  founded  about  1261,  at  Oxford,  was 
largely  an  imitation  of  the  earlier  foundations  of  Paris, 
and  differed  from  the  general  type  of  English  colleges. 
The  real  beginning  of  the  English  college  system  was 


the  foimdation  of  Walter  de  Merton,  who  afterwards 
became  Bishop  of  Rochester.  Merton  College,  estab- 
lished 1263 'Or  1264,  became  the  archetype  of  the  col- 
leges of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  The  schohirs  were 
to  begin  the  study  of  the  arts,  and  then  to  proceed  to 
theology,  a  few  to  the  study  of  canon  andT^vil  law. 
Besides  the  thirteen  full  members  of  the  soeiety  (the 
socii,  or  Fellows),  a  number  of  young  boys  were  to  be 
admitted  (twelve  at  first),  as  ''secondary^  sebolars", 
who  were  to  be  instructed  in  "grammar^*  tmtil  they 
were  enabled  to  begin  the  study  of  arts. 

The  foundation  of  the  secular  collies  was  greatly 
stimulated  by  the  presence  of  the  regular  cc^eges,  i.  e. 
the  establishments  of  the  religious  onlers  in  connexion 
with  the  universities.  The  rel^ous  orders  eariy  prof- 
ited by  the  advantages  offered  in  these  educational 
centres,  and  in  their  turn  had  a  considerable  share  in 
the  further  development  of  the  universities,  particu- 
larly the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans.  (See  UNrvER- 
BiTT.)  The  Dominicans  established  a  house  of  study 
in  the  University  of  Paris  in  1218,  the  Franciscans 

1219,  the  Benedictines  1229,  the  Augustinians  In 
1259.    At  Oxford  the  Dominicans  op<med  a  house 

1220,  the  Franciscans  1224.    Their  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  Benedictines,  who  founded  Gloucester 
Hall  and  Durham  College.     These  religious  houses 
formed  each  a  miniature  Studium  in  the  midst  of  a 
great  university.     The  young  members  of  the  orders 
fiVed  in  well-organized  communities  which  gave  free- 
dom from  cares  and  favoured  quiet  study,  whereas 
other  students  were  left  to  contend  with  the  many 
hardships  and  temptations  which  surrounded  them  on 
all  sides.    It  was  natural  that  men  who  realised  the 
advantages  of  such  a  well-regulated  life  should  en- 
deavour to  adapt  this  system  to  the  needs  of  students 
who  had  no  intention  of  entering  religious  copimuni- 
ties»     '*  The  secular  college  would  never  perhaps  have 
developed  into  the  important  institution  which  it  act- 
ually became  but  for  tne  example  set  by  the  colleges  of 
the  mendicants"  (Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  J,  47S)j     An  er- 
roneous view  has  been  expressed  by  some  writers,  viz*, 
that  the  foundation  of  the  colleges  was  a  symptom  oi 
the  growing  opposition  to  ecclesiastical  control  of  edu- 
cation, and  especially  a  sign  of  hostility  to  the  reli- 
gious orders.    The  majority  of  secular  colleges  were 
founded  by  zealous  ecclesiastics,  in  England  especially 
by  bishops,  most  of  whom  were  very  friendly  to  the 
religious  orders.     Mr.  Bass  Mullinger  admits  that 
Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  seems  to  have  been  founded 
with  the  intention  of  furthering  "Ultramontane  inter- 
ests "  (Hist,  of  Un.  of  Cambridge,  41).    Hugh  de  Bal- 
sham,  a  Benedictine,  was  the  founder  of  Peterhouse, 
the  first  college  at  Cambridge  (1284);  the  third  Cam- 
bridge college,  Pembroke  Hall,  was  founded  in  1347  by 
Marie  de  VSence,  a  friend  of  the  Franciscans;  one  of 
two  rectors  was  to  be  a  Friar  Minor,  and  the  foundress 
adjured  the  fellows  to  be  kind,  devoted;  and  grateful 
to  all  religious,  "especially  the  Friars  Minor".    Gon- 
ville  Hall,  Cambridge,  was  founded  in  1350  by  Ed- 
mund Gonville,  an  equally  warm  friend  of  the  Do- 
minicans, for  whom  he  made  a  foundation  at  Thet- 
ford.    The  same  can  be  shown  with  regard  to  Oxford. 
To  give  an  instance,  according  to  the  statutes  of  Bal- 
liol, one  of  the  outside  "procurators"  was  to  be  a 
Franciscan.    The  indirect  influence  of  rehgious  insti- 
tutions is  discernible  also  in  the  semi-monastic  fea- 
tures of  colleges,  some  of  which  have  survived  to  our 
own  times,  as  the  coirimon  life  and  obligatory  attend- 
ance at  chapel.    With  regard  to  the  latter  point  it  is 
surprising  to  learn  that  tne  earlier  collies  enjoined 
attendance  at  Mass  only  on  Sundays,  Holy  Days,  and 
vigils.    At  Oxford,  the  statutes  of  New  College  are,  as 
far  as  is  known,  the  first  which  require  dailv  attend- 
ance at  Mass ;  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
this  daily  attendance  was  enforced  also  on  the  stu- 
dents living  in  the  Halls  (Rashdall,  op.  dt.,  TI,  506, 
651). 


OOUJKW 


109 


OOLLMI 


Tiie  members  of  a  college  were  one  another's  socit, 
or  "Fellows''.  In  the  beginning  the  terms  "Schol- 
lars''  and  ''Fellows"  were  latercnangeable,  but  grad- 
ually the  term  '* Fellows"  wss  restricted  to  the  senior 
or  ^veraing  members,  the  term  "Scholars"  to  the 
junior  membeiB.  The  Senior  Scholars  or  Fellows 
were  largely  employ'ed  in  looking  after  college  b\isi- 
neesy  in  later  times  particularly  in  teaching  the  Junior 
Scholars.  In  the  eajiy.  foundations  it  was  understood 
that  the  inmates  should  receive  most  of  their  instruc- 
tion outside  the  walls  of  the  ooUege ;  but  where  young- 
er members  were  admittedi  it  was  necessary  to  exer- 
cise supervision  over  their  studies,  and  give  some  in- 
struction supplementing  the  public  lectures.  This 
supplementary  teaching  gradually  became  mora 
prooiinent;  iJthough  it  is  not  known  exactly  vHien 
this  important  educational  revolution  took  place,  it 
seems  to  belong  chiefly  to  the  fifteenth  century;  fi- 
nally the  colleges  praeticaliv  monopolized  instruction. 
The  number  of  students  Uving  in  the  colleges  was 
snudl  at  first;  most  statutes  provided  only  for  be- 
tween twelve  and  thirty  or  forty,  a  few  for  seventy  or 
mora.  Most  of  the  students  continued  to  live  outside 
the  ooUc^es  in  Uceneed  halls  or  private  lodmn£».  The 
'  iod^^ng-Jnouse  system  was  checked  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  later  the  colleges  absorbed  most  of  the 
student  population.  But  from  the  first  the  cdlleges 
reacted  tavouraUy  on  the  whole  student  body  and  ex- 
ercbed  a  most  salutar]^  influence  on  the  manners  and 
morals  of  the.  university  towns.  As  Cardinal  New- 
man has  said :  "  Colk^jes  tended  to  break  the  anarchi- 
cal spirit,  eave  the  example  of  laws,  and  trained  up  a 
set  of  atut^nts  who,  as  being  marally  and  intellectu- 
ally superior  to  other  members  of  the  academical  body 
became  the  depositaries  of  academical  power  and.  in- 
fluence" (Hist.  Sketches^  1X1,  22n.  Thus  the  uni- 
versity itself  was  largely  benefited  by  the  colleges;  it 
derived  &om  them  order,  strength,  and  stability.  It 
is  true^  at  a  much  later  date,  the  university  was  sacri- 
ficed to  the  colleges,,  and  the  colleges  themselves  be- 
came inactive;  contrary  to  the  intention  of  the  found- 
ers, who  had  estabhshed  them  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  poor,  thev  were  occupied  by  the  wealthy,  espe- 
cially after  the  paying  boarders,  ''commoners",  or 
"  pensioners ' ',  became  numerous.  They  were  at  times 
sinecures  and  clubs  rather  than  places  of  serious 
study. 

William  of  Wykeham,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  found- 
ed the  first  coll^  outside  a  university,  namely  Win- 
chester College^  in  137S^,  for  seventy  boys  who  were  to 
be  educated  in  ''^rrammar",  i.  e.  literature.  Gram- 
mar colleges  had  mdeed  existed  before,  in  connexion 
with  univeraities  and  cathedrals;  but  Winchester  was 
the  first  elaborate  foundation  for  grammatical  educa- 
tion, independent  of  either  a  cathedral  or  a  university. 
From  Winchester  College  the  students  were  to  enter 
New  College^  Oxford,  founded  by  the  same  patron  of 
education.  The  example  of  Winchester  was  imitated 
in  the  foundationa  of  £ton  (1440),  and  in  the  post- 
Refonnation  schools  of  Harrow,  Westminster  (both  on 
older  foundations),  Rugby,  Charterhouse,  Shrews- 
bury, and  Merchant  Taylors.  These  institutions  de- 
vdoped  into  the  famous  ''pubhc  schools".  During 
thii  period,  as  for  a  long  time  after  there  was  no  such 
hard  and  fast  line  between  the  higher  and  more  ele- 
mentary instruction  as  exists  at  the  present  day. 
Many  grammar  schools  of  England  did  partly  college 
work.  Contraiy  to  the  common  opinion,  as  voiced  by 
Green,  MulUnger,  and  othern^  the  number^  of  grammar 
schools  before  the  Reformation  was  very  great,  Mr. 
Leach  states  tfa&t  ''three  hundred  grammar  schools  is 
a  modetate  estimate  of  the  number  in  the  year  1535, 
when  the  floods  of  the  great  revolution  were  let  loose. 
Most  of  them  Were  swept  away  either  under  Henry  or 
his  son ;  or  if  not  swept  away,  they  were  plundered 
and  damaged"  (Englian  Schools  at  the  Reformation, 
5-6).    Be  it  remembered  that  the  term  ''grammar 


school"  is  used  in  the  sense  common  in  Ekigland,  de- 
noting a  higher  school  where  the  daasioal  languages 
form  the  staple  subject  of  instruction. 

A  most  powerful  mfluenoe  on  the  further  develops 
ment  of  the  colleges  was  exercised  by  the  humanistio 
movement.  It  cazmot  be  denied  that  during  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the  study  of  Uie  olas- 
sics  had  been  comparatively  neglected,  as  men's 
minds  were  absorbed  in  soholastic  studies.  John  of 
Salisbury  and  Roger  Baeon  complained  bitterly  about 
the  neglect  of  the  study  of  the  languages.  (Cf . 
Sandys,  Hist,  of  Class.  Scholarship,  568  sqq.)  This 
was  completely  changed  when  the  enthusiasm  for  the 
ancient  classics  began  to  spread  from  Italy  throughout 
Western  Christendom.  The  ''new  learning"  mdu- 
ally  made  its  victorious  entry  into  the  old  seats  onean>- 
ing,  while  new  schools  were  established  everywhere, 
until,  about  the  year  1500,  "Catholic  Europe  pre- 
sented the' aspect  of  a  vast  commonwealth  of  sdidars" 
(Professor  Hartfelder,  in  Schmid's  "Geschiohte  der 
Erziehung",  II,  ii,  140).  The  schools  of  Vittorino  da 
Peltre,  ''the  first  modem  schoolmaster",  and  of 
Guarino  da  Verona,  became  the  models  for  schools  in 
other  countries.  En^h  scholars  had  early  come  in 
contact  with  Italian  humanists  and  schools;  Grocjrn, 
Linacre,  William  Latimer,  William  Lily,  Dean  Colet 
were  humanists,  and  tried  to  introduce  the  new  learn- 
ing into  the  English  schools.  The  influence  of  the 
Renaissance  is  most  clearly  noticed  in  St.  Paul'^ 
School,  founded  by  Dean  Colet  in  1512,  and  in  the 
statutes  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  1516,  where 
greater  stress  is  laid  on  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek 
than  in  anv  previous  foundation.  When  humanism 
had  gainea  the  day,  largeljc  through  the  ^ficourage^ 
ment  and  influence  of  men  like  Bishop  John  Fisher, 
Thomas  More,  and  Cardinal  Wolsey,  jSnglish  college 
education  had  assumed  the  form  and  character  whioa 
were  to  remain  for  centuries.  The  medieval  curricu- 
lum of  the  trivium  and  ouadrivium  (see  Arts,  Ths 
Sevsn  Libsrai.)  had  not  been  entirely  abandoned;  it 
survived  in  the  new  scheme  of  education,  but  greatly 
changed  and  modified.  Henceforth  the  classical  lanr 
guages  were  the  principal  subject  of  instruction,  to 
which  mathematics  formed  the  most  important  addi- 
tion. "Letters"  were  the  essential  foundation;  the 
rest  were  considered  accessofr,  subsidiary.  This  hu- 
manistic type  of  schools  lasted  longer  in  England  than 
in  any  other  country. 

'  In  the  medieval  imiversities  outside  of  France  and 
England  there  existed  colleges,  but  nowhere  did  they 
obtain  the  importance  and  the  influence  which  they 
sained  in  Pans,  and  most  of  all  in  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge. The  colleges  in  the  German  univeraities,  e.  e. 
at  Prague,  Vienna,  Cologne,  as  well  as  Uie  Scotch  c^- 
leges,  were  primarily  intended  for  the  tead&ers,  and 
only  secondarily,  if  at  aU,  for  the  students.  For  the 
students  hostels,  called  buraae,  were  established  which 
were  merely  lodginc-houses.  The  colleges  of  the 
Netherlands,  especially  those  of  Louvain,  came  near- 
er the  English  type.  The  most  famous  coll^  was 
the  CoUe^um  Trilingue  at  Louvain,  founded  in  1517 
by  Busleiden,  after  the  model  of  the  College  of  the 
Inree  Languages  at  Alcald,  the  celebrated  founda^n 
of  CardinafXimenes  for  the  study  of  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew.  At  present,  there  is,  on  the  European  conti- 
nent, no  exact  ecjuivalent  of  the  English  colleges,  but 
as  far  as  the  subjects  of  instruction  are  concerned,  the 
French  lyc^  and  colUgey  the  German  mpnwuium^  and 
similar  institutions,  in  their  higher  dasses,  resemble 
the  English  colleges.  Many  celebrated  ^rmnosia  of 
Teutomc  coimtries  developed  from  pre-Reformation 
schools.  In  Schmid's  "Gesehichte  der  Ersiehung" 
(V,  i,  50  sqq.)  there  is  a  lon^  list  of  such  schools  whidi 
grew  out  of  medieval  institutions,  e.  g.  the  Elbing 

gymnasium  (Protestant),  established  in  1536,  which 
eveloped  from  a  Senatorial  school  founded  in  1300; 
the  Marienburg  gymnasium,  from  a  latin  school  es- 


OOLLSOS 


110 


fX>UJSC»B 


tablished  by  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  the  fourteenth 
centHiy;  the  Berlin  gymnasium  (1540),  formerly  St. 
Peter's  School  (1276);  the  Mary  Magdalen  Gymna- 
sium of  Breslau,  a  Protestant  school  (1628),  which 
grew  oiit  of  City  School  (1267);  the  Gynmasium  II- 
lu^tre  of  Brieg  (1669),  a  combination  of  the  ancient 
Cathedral  School  and  the  City  School ;  the  Lutheran 
school  of  Sagan  (1541),  originally  a  Franciscan  school 
(1294).  During  the  Renaissance  and  Reformation 
period  a  few  institutions  of  this  kind  went  by  the 
name  of  CoUegium^  but  more  were  styled  Oymnaxiumf 
Lyceum f  Athenceumf  Padagogiunij  or  Academia,  al- 
though these  names  in  some  cases  were  given  to 
schools  which  were  rather  universities.  Institutions 
of  collegiate  rank  were  also  termed  Studia  Particularta, 
to  distinguish  them  from  a  Siudium  Generdle,  or  uni- 
versity. In  its  character  the  gymnasium  was  a  hu- 
manistic school y  the  classical  languages  being  the 
main  subject  of  instruction.  Not  only  the  Catholic 
colleges  of  the  post-Reformation  period,  but  also  the 
Protestant  school  systems,  were  based  on  the  pre- 
"Reformation  schools,  particularly  those  of  the  Netner- 
lands.  The  famous  school  of  Zwickau  in  Saxony  was 
organized  between  1535  and  1546  by  Plateanus,  a  na- 
tive of  Li^ge,  on  the  model  of  the  school  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  in  Li^ge.  John  Sturm 
had  studied  in  the  same  school  at  Li^,  in  the  Col- 
l^um  Trilingue  at  Louvain,  and  in  the  University  of 
Paris,  and  from  these  schools  he  derived  most  of  the 
details  of  his  gymnasium  at  Strasburg,  which  was  one 
of  ttie  most  tvpical  and  most  celebrated  of  early  Prot- 
estant schoob.  Sturm's  ideas  in  turn  largely  influ- 
enced another  claset  of  German  institutions,  the  fa- 
mous Fttrstenschulen  of  Grimma,  Pforta.  etc.  Again, 
Metanchthon,  honoured  by  the  title  of  "founder  of  the 
German  pymnasium",  based  his  system  on  the  educa- 
tional principles  of  Erasmus  and  other  humanists. 

Many  features  of  college  life  are  legacies  of  the  past ; 
some  have  already  been  pointed  out,  namely  attend- 
ance at  chapel  and  the  common  life  in  the  great 
boarding-schools.  Various  forms  of  distinctly  aca- 
demical dress  have  grown  out  of  college  practices;  no 
particular  form  of  garment  was  prescribed  by  uni- 
versity authority  in  medieval  institutions,  but  in  col- 
leges they  soon  began  to  wear  a /'livery*'  of  uniform 
colour  and  material.  The  modem  viva  voce  examin- 
ation is  the  successor  of  the  fortner  oral  disputation, 
the  examiners  now  taking  the  place  of  the  "oppo- 
nents" of  olden  times.  -AS  has  been  shown,  the  sup- 
port of  poor  and  deserving  scholars  was  the  root  idea 
of  the  foundation  of  colleges ;  the  scholarships  in  Eng- 
lish and  American  schools,  the  bursarships  and  stip- 
^fidia  in  the  schools  of  Germany  and  other  countries, 
have  sprung  from,  and  perpetuate,  the  same  idea.  In 
the  provision  for  the  Senior  Scholars,  in  the  fellow- 
ships of  the  medieval  collq^,  and  in  the  practice  of 
enaowing  professorships  with  prebends,  there  was  an 
early  sy^matic  attempt  at  solving  the  question  of 
professors*  salaries.  In  these  and  other  features, 
modem  college  systems  are  intimately  linked  with  the 
(Catholic  past. 

Rashdall,  the  Vniveraitiea  of  Europe  in  ihe  Middle  Ages 
(Chrfoni,  1895),  I.  II;  Brodrictk,  Hvstorv  of  the  Univeniiyot 
Orford  (London.  18$a):  Mullinobr,  The  Univcteity  of  Cam- 
hrvdge  (2  vols..  CambriaKe,  1883);  Idem,  History  of  the  Vniver- 
tity  of  Cambridoe  (T^ondon,  1888);  Denifle  and  Chatelain. 
Chariularium  Vniversitatie  PariieimH*  (Paris,  1889-1896); 
BouQU]i/U>N,  The  VnivfreHy  of  Parie  in  Calholie  University 
BuUetinCJniy,  Oct.,  1895.  Jan..  1896);  Brother  Az arias,  Unt- 
veraity  Cotleces  in  Am.  Caih.  Q.  Rev.  (Oct..  1893.  Jan.,  1894); 
Woodward,  Vittorino  da  Feltre  and  other  Humaniet  Educaicrs 
(Cambridge,  1897);  It>BM.  Studie*  in  Educnium  during  the  Age 
of  Vie  Renaieeance  (Cambridge,  1906);  Einstein,  The  Italian 
Renaimdnce  in  England  (New  York,  1902V,  Rus^em^  Oerman 
Higher  Sehooh  ( New  York.  1 899 ) ;  Pa  ti t j*k n  ,  GfAch.  drs  nrlehrten 
Vnierriehie  cm/  dmt  deuinchen  Schiden  und  I  'nivrrfdUUen  (2nd  ed., 
2  roh^  Leipzig.  1890);  Schmjp,  Geschichte  dtr  Brziehunq  (Stutt- 

SMt,  1889  and  1901).  ll.  ii  and  V,  i;  Newman,  Hietoruxd 
MLche*,  III:  Riee  and  Progrens  of  Vntprrfiitiea  (channingiy 
written,  but  with  no  fcreat  value  an  hii^ory). — For  the  history 
of  the  wonl:  Nnv  English  Dictionary  on  Historical  Principlee, 
ed.  MiTRRAY  (Oxford.  1893),  II. 


The  American  College. — The  continuity  of  edu- 
cational ideals,  and  the  diversity  of  their  ap|>Iieation. 
according  to  national  needs  and  cliaractenAtics,  is 
well  illustrated  by  the  American  college.     As  regards 
its  origin,  it  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  EngliBh  college,  in 
particular  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  where 
John  Harvard  had  been  educated.    In  more  than  one 
respect,  especially  in  the  fundamental  idea  of  liberal 
training  as  the  proper  preparation  for  liie  higher  or 
professional  studies,  it  perpetuates  the  educational 
traditions  which  spread  from  Paris,  and  later  from  the 
humanistic  schools  of  Italy,  to  Oxford   and  Cam- 
bridge, and  thence  were  transplanted   to  the  New 
World.    However,  the  elements  derived  from  Europe 
were  modified  from  the  very  beginning  and  have  been 
still  more  changed  since  the  foundation  of  Harvard,  so 
much  so  that  at  present  there  is  no  exact  counterpart 
of  the  American  college  in  any  other  country.     Tnere 
are  at  present  (1908)  in  the  Uhited  States  over  four 
hundred  and  seventy  institutions  which  confer  de- 
crees and  are  called  universities  or  collies,  not  count- 
ing those  which  are  for  women  exclusively.     In  some 
cases,  as  has  well  been  said,  the  name  "  unrversity "  is 
but  a  ''majestic  synonym  for  college",  and  some  of 
the  colleges  are  only  small  high  schools.     Before  the 
American  Revolution  11  collies  were  founded,  chief 
among  them  Harvard   (163^,  Wflliam   and   Mary 
(1693),  Yale  (1701),  Princeton  (1746),  UniversHy  of 
Pennsylvania  (1751),  CJolumbia  (1754),  Brown  (1764), 
Dartmouth  (1770);  from  the  Revolution  to  1800, 12, 
one  of  them  Catholic,  at  Geoi«etown,  District  of  Co- 
lumbia;  33  from  1800  to  1830;   180  from  1830  to 
1865;  and  about  240  from  1865  to  1908.     The  older 
foundations  in  the  East  are  independent  of  State  con- 
trol, but  possess  charters  sanctioned  by  legislation. 
Many  of  the  more  recent  foundations,  especially  in 
Western  and  Southern  States,  are  supported  and  con- 
trolled by  the  State;  on  the  other  nand,  denonuna- 
tional  control  has  largelv  disappeared  from  the  old 
colleges  and  is  exclud^  from  most  new  foundations. 
At  present  about  one-half  of  the  colleges  are  roistered 
as  non-sectarian.    From  the  eariy  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  efforts  were  made  to  offer  t6  women 
the  same  educational  opportunities  as  to  men.  Mount 
Holyoke  Seminary,  Massachusetts  (1887),  and  Elmira 
College  (1865),  were  neariy  equivalent  to  the  colleges 
for  men.    Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  New  York 
(1865),  however,  has  been  styled  the  'legitimate  par- 
ent'' of  the  colleges  for  women,  as  it  established  the 
same  standard  as  that  of  colleges  for  men.     Vassar 
College,   Wellesley   CoU^    (1876),    Smith   CoUege 
(1875),  Mount  Holyoke  College  (1893),  Bryn  Mawr 
(1885),  and  the  Woman's  College,  Baltimore  (1886), 
are  the  most  important  women's  colleges   in  the 
United  States.    Others  are  affiliated  wit^  colleges  or 
universities  for  men,  as  Raddiffe,  with   Harvard. 
Many  Western  and  Southern  colteges  are  co-educar 
tional. 

The  American  college  has  been  the  main  repositoiy 
of  liberal  education,  of  an  advanced  education  of  gen- 
eral, not  technical  or  professional,  character.  The 
"old-fashioned"  collie  had  a  four-year  course  of 
prescribed  studies:  Latin  and  Greek,  the  inheritance 
of  the  humanistic  period,  and  matiiematics,  to  which 
had  been  added  in  the  course  of  time  natural  sdenoes, 
the  elements  of  philosophy,  and  still  later,  English  lit- 
erature. Modem  languages,  especially  Frendi,  were 
taught  to  some  small  extent.  Since  the  Civil  War 
changes  have  been  introduced  which  are  tmly  revolu- 
tionary. Some  collies  have  grown  into  univcreitieB 
with  different  faculties  after  the  model  of  EXiropean, 
especially  German,  universities;  these  institutions 
have  two  principal  departments,  the  univerwty 
proper,  for  graduate,  or  professional  work,  and  tihe 
collegiate  department  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the 
word.  But  this  very  collegiate  course  has  undergone 
a  far-reaching  transformation;  the  line  of  separation 


WLLmX 


lii 


OOLLIOE 


between  univefBity  and  college  proper  has  been  tartly 
effaced,  so'that  the  college  is  a  composite  institution, 
otf  a  secondaxy  and  higher  nature,  giving  instruction 
-vrliidi  in  Europe  is  given  partly  by  the  secondanr 
sdiools,  partly  by  the  universities.  The  causes  of  this 
and  other  changes  are  manifold.  Tiie  nineteenth  cen- 
tury saw  the  extraordinary  development  of  the  '^high 
school' ^  a  term,  which  in  the  United  States,  means  a 
seoondaiy  school  with  a  four-year  course  between  the 
elementary  (public)  school  and  the  collie.  In  1900, 
tliere  were  over  6000  public  and  nearly  2000  private 
schools  of  this  erade  with  over  630,000  pupils,  more 
tban  one-half  of  these  being  female  students.  Part  of 
the  work  of  these  schools  was  formerly  done  in  the 
coDege.  The  result  of  this  separation  and  develop- 
ment of  the  secondary  schools  was,  first,  an  increase  of 
the  age  of  applicants  for  college,  and,  secondhr,  hi^er 
entrance  requirements.  In  consequence  of  the  in- 
crease of  aee,  many  students  now  pass  directly  from 
the  high  school  to  professional  studies,  as  few  profes- 
sional schools  require  a  college  diploma  for  admission. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  order  to  gain  a  year  or  two, 
some  colleges  have  shortened  the  couree  from  four  to 
three  years  (Johns  Hopkins):  others  have  kept  the 
four-year  college  course,  but  allow  the  students  to  de- 
vote the  last  year,  or  even  the  last  two  vears  partly  to 
professional  work  (Harvard,  Columbia). 

A  second  caiise  of  the  modifications  mentioned,  and 
one  that  affected  the  college  seriously  was  the  exces- 
sive expansion  of  the  college  curriculum,  the  pressure 
of  many  new  subjects  for  recognition,  some  of  which 
p»ertain  rather  to  professional  schools.  The  advance 
m,  and  enthusiasm  for,  the  natural  sciences  during  the 
nineteenth  century  effected  changes  in  the  schools  of 
an  civilised  countries.  In  many  quarters  there  was  a 
clamour  for  '^ practical '*  studies,  and  the  old  classical 
course  was  decried  as  useless,  or  merely  ornamental;  its 
very  foundation,  the  theory  of  mental  or  formal  dis- 
cipune,  well  expressed  in  the  term  gymntuium  for 
classical  schools  in  Germany,  has  been  v^rously  as- 
sailed, but  not  disproved.  At  present  the  pendulum 
seems  to  swine  away  from  the  utilitarian  views  of 
Spencer  and  o^ers,  and  the  conviction  eains  ground 
that  the  classics,  although  they  can  no  longer  daim 
the  educational  monopoly,  are  after  all  a  most  valu- 
able means  of  liberal  culture  and  the  best  preparation 
for  professional  studies.  To  meet  the  dimcuHy  aris- 
ing from  the  multitude  of  new  studies  and  the  growing 
demand  for  "practical"  courses,  the  elective  system 
was  introduced.  This  system,  in  its  more  extreme 
form,  is  by  many  regarded  as  detrimental  to  serious 
work;  few  students  are  able  to  make  a  wise  choice; 
many  are  tempted  to  choose  subjects,  not  for  their  in- 
trinsic value,  but  because  they  are  more  easy  or  agree- 
able; they  follow  the  paths  of  least  resistance  and 
avoid  the  harder  studies  of  greater  educational  value. 
To  avoid  these  evils  a  compromise  has  been  invented 
in  some  colleges  in  the  form  of  a  modified  election, 
the  group  system,  which  allows  the  choice  of  a  certain 
fieldof  studies,  of  groupjs  of  subjects  regulated  by  the 
faculty.  Some  choice  in  certain  branches  has  been 
found  profitable,  but  it  is  now  a  very  general  opinion 
that  the  elective  system  can  be  employed  in  the  col- 
lege only  with  manv  limitations  and  safeguards,  and 
that  certain  valuable  literary,  or  "culture"  studies  in 
the  best  sense  of  the  term,  should  be  obligatory, 
^erican  educators  of  the  highest  repute  have  come 
to  regard  eariy  specialization  as  a  dangerous  pedagog- 
ical error,  ana  they  maintain  that  the  elective  princi- 
ple has  its  proper  place  in  the  university.  Another 
result  of  the  encroachment  of  the  univermty  on  the 
oollc^  is  the  disappearance  of  the  old-nushioned 
teacher  with  a  good  ^neral  knowledge  and  practical 
skill  as  an  educator ;  his  place  is  taken  by  the  speoialmt, 
who  more  resembles  the  university  professor,  who  lec- 
tures rather  than  teaches,  and  comes  little  in  contact 
with  the  individual  student;  the  classes  are  broken 


up,  and  oourees  take  their  plaoe.  This  means  the  loas 
or  an  important  educational  factor,  namely,  the  per- 
sonal influence  of  the  teacher  on  the  pupil.  The 
larger  coUeees  are  partioulariy  exposed  to  this  danger; 
in  the  smaBer  oolites  there  is  more  personal  inter- 
course between  the  faculty  and  the  students,  generally 
also  stricter  discipline. 

The  American  college  is,  at  the  present  time,  in  a 
state  of  transition,  in  a  condition  of  unrest  and  fer- 
mentation. The  questions  of  the  length  of  the  college 
course,  of  the  proper  function  of  the  college,  of  its  re- 
lation to  university  work,  of  the  elective  system,  of 
the  relative  value  of  classics  and  modem  languages, 
natural  and  social  sciences — all  tiiese  are  topics  of 
genera]  discussion  and  matters  of  vital  importance, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  questions  beset  with  great  diffi- 
culties. Hence  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  prominent 
educators  ranged  on  different  sides,  some  advocating 
far-reaching  changes,  others,  more  conservative,  warn- 
ing against  hazardous  experiments.  Modem  condi- 
tions undoubtedly  demand  changes  in  the  college;  it 
would  be  most  desirable  if  the  old  literary  curriculum 
and  instruction  in  sciences  and  other  new  subjeets 
could  be  combined  into  a  harmonious  system.  The 
present  tendency  of  the  college  seems  to  be  to  undei^ 
take  too  much  in  subjects  and  methods,  instead  of  re- 
maining the  culmination  of  secondary  training,  the 
final  stage  of  general  education. 

Monographa  on  Bdueation  tn  ihe  United  SUOm^  ed.  Nicholas 
MvRRAT  BvTLSB,  pAitictilariy  Wbbt,  The  iimmean  CeUepe 
iAXhaay,  1809);  Sgbwxckebath,  Jesuit  Bdueation  (St.  Louu, 
1905).  with  special  reference  to  American  college  conditions, 
chapter  x:  The  Intellectual  Scope;  xi:  Freecribed  Couraea  or 
Sleetive  Studieel;  xii:  CUueieal  Studiee:  Speeial  BepoHa  on 
edueaUomaJ,  Subjeeta  (London.  1902).  IX-XI;  Eduoatumal  Re- 
view (New  York.  Jan..  1901;  May.  1902:  Sept..  1906.  etc.); 
articles  in  The  Atlantic  Monthly  and  in  The  Forum. 

Robert  Schwickbrath. 


,  Oollere  (m  Canon  Law),  a  collection  (Lat.  coiU-' 
ffium)  of  persons  united  together  for  a  common  object 
so  as  to  form  one  body.  The  members  are  conse- 
quently said  to  be  incorporated,  or  to  form  a>oor- 
TOration.  Colleges  existed  aniong  the  Romans  and 
Greeks  from  the  earliest  times.  Tne  Roman  laws  re- 
quired at  least  three  persons  for  constituting  a 
college.  Legal  incorporation  was  made,  at  least 
in  some  cases,  bv  decrees  of  the  Senate,  edicts  of 
the  emperor,  or  by  special  laws.  There  were,  how- 
ever, general  laws  under  which  colleges  could  be 
formed  by  private  persons,  and  if  the  authorities 
judged  that  the  members  had  conformed  to  the  letter 
and  spirit  of  these  laws,  they  had  incontestable  rights 
as  collegia  legtHma;  if  the  remiisites  were  not  adhered 
to  they  coidd  be  suppressecl  by  administrative  act. 
The  colleges  could  hold  property  in  common  and  could 
sue  and  be  sued.  In  case  of  failure  this  common 
property  could  be  seised,  but  that  of  the  individual 
members  was  not  liable  to  seiaure.  The  Roman  coir 
2em'um  was  never  instituted  as  a  corporation  sole;  still, 
when  reduced  to  one  member,  that  individual  suc- 
ceeded to  all  the  rights  of  the  corporation  and  could 
employ  its  name  (J.  F.  Keating,  ''Roman  Ledsla- 
tion  on  Collegia  and  Sodalicia  "  in  '*  The  Agape '',  Lon- 
don, 1901,  p.  180  sqq.).  Colleges  were  formed  among 
the  ancient  Romans  for  various  purposes.  Some  o7 
these  had  a  religious  object,  as  the  college  of  the  Arval 
Brothers,  of  the  Augurs,  etc.;  others  were  for  admin- 
istrative purposes,  as  of  qusestors,  tribunes  of  the 
people;  others  aeain  were  trade  unions  or  guilds,  as 
the  colleges  of  beUcers,  carpenters.  Tiie  early  Roman 
Christians  are  said  to  have  sometimes  held  church 
property  during  times  of  persecution  under  the  title  of 
collegium.  Pbr  the  evidence  of  this,  see  H.  Leclercq, 
Manuel  d'Arch^logi  Chrdt.  (Paris,  1907,  I,  281-66). 
It  is  not  admitted  by  Mgr.  Duchesne,  Hist.  anc.  de 
I'Eglise  (Paris  1906,  I). 

Cttrum  Latfi. — ^Most   of  the  prescriptions   of  the 


OOZJkSOE 


112 


IKNUUmB 


ancient  civil  law  were  Feoelvedinto  the  church  law  and 
they  are  incorporated  in  the  "Corpiu  Juria",  By 
canonists,  a  college  has  been  defined  as  a  collection  of 
several  rational  bodies  forming  one  representative 
body.  Some  authors  consider  universAf  and  eam- 
tnunity  as  synonjnnous  terms  with  college,  but  others 
insist  that  there  are  points  of  difference.  Thus,  there 
are  canonists  who  define  universitv  as  a  collection  of 
bodies  distinct  from  one  another,  but  employii^  the 
same  name  specially  conferred  upon  them.  Pirhing 
remarks  that  a  community  of  priests  attached  to  the 
same  church  do  not  form  a  coUe^  imless  they  are  mem- 
bers of  one  body  whose  head  is  a  prelate  elected  by 
that  body.  According  to  6anon  law  three  persons  are 
required  to  form  a  college.  Some  authors  maintained 
that  two  were  sufficient  for  the  purpose,  because  Pope 
Innocent,  sdluding  to  St.  Matthew,  xviii,  20,  says  tbat 
no  presbyter  is  to  be  chosen  for  a  church  where  two  or 
throe  form  the  congregation,  except  by  their  canonical 
election.  As  congregation  here  evidently  means  col- 
lege, these  writers  contend  that  two  oan  therefore 
form  a  college.  As  a  mattef  of  fact>  however,  the 
pontiff  is  simplv  affirming  that  the  rig^t  of  election 
will  remain  with  an  already  constituted  college  even 
though  only  two  of  its  members  remain  alter  the  death 
of  the  prelate.  Pirhing  gives  as  the  reason  why  two 
cannot  constitute  a  college,  that  though  it  be  not  neces- 
sary that  the  college  actually  have  a  nead,  yet  it  must 
be  at  least  capable  of  giving  itself  a  presioing  officer, 
or  rector  of  the  college.  If,  then,  there  be  only  two 
members  and  one  be  constituted  the  head,  the  other 
can  not  form  the  body,  for  the  body  requires  several 
members,  and  the  head  is  distinct  from  the  body.  He 
does  not  mean  to  assert,  however,  that  if  a  college  be 
reduced  to  two  members,  it  can  not  preserve  its  cor- 
porate rifi^ts.  On  the  contrary,  the  canon  law  ex- 
plicitly aS^rms  that  one  survivmg  member  can  con- 
serve the  privileges  of  the  corporate  body,  not  for  him- 
self personally,  out  for  the  college.  When  a  legally 
constituted  college  has  been  reduced  to  two  members, 
one  can  elect  the  other  as  prelate.  If  the  college  be 
reduced  to  one  member,  it  becomes  a  virtual,  not  i^ 
actual,  corporation.  The  single  remaining  member 
can  exercise  ^e  acts  belonging  to  the  college,  and 
although  he  can  not  elect  himself  prelate,  yet  he  can 
choose  or  nominate  some  other  proper  person  to  the 
prelacy.  He  may  also  commit  the  election  to  other 
persons,  or  even  to  one,  as  the  bishop. 

The  ancient  canonists,  when  stating  that  three 
constitute  a  college,  give  also  the  numbers  requisite 
for  other  canonical  bodies,  thus:  five  are  necessary 
to  form  a  univeroity,  two  a  oongregation,  more  than 
two  a  family,  and  ten  a  parish.  Among  conspicuous 
eoclesiafltieal  colleges  may  be  mentioned  the  Sacred 
College  of  Cardinals  (see  Cardinal)  and  cathedral  and 
collegiate  chaptere  (see  Chapter  and  Collsgiate). 
The  name  college  is  specially  applied  also  to  corporate 
educational  bodies  within  the  Church,  as  without  it. 
Before  the  Reformation,  and  even  in  the  first  years  of 
Queen  Elisabeth,  the  collies  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
were  always  spoken  of  as  ecclesiastical  corporations. 
By  the  present  English  law  l^ey  are  purely  lay  cor- 
porationsy  even  though  all  their  membeis  be  cl^gy- 
men.  The  title  -'Apostolic  College''  is  applied  m 
Rome  to  those  institutions  which  are  immediately 
subject  to  and  controlled  by  the  Holy  See,  and  are 
consequenUy  exemnt  from  any  other  spiritual  or  tem- 
poral authority;  tne  students  are  declared  to  be 
under  the  direct  protection  of  the  pope.  Such  imti- 
tutions^are,  among  others^  the  College  of  the  Propa- 
ganda, the  German,  En^ish,  Irish,  and  Scotch  Col- 
leges, and  the  North  and.  South  American  ColLeg^. 
(For  the  Apostks  of  JesuB  Christ  as  a  collective 
authority,  s6e  CouuBcnt,  Apoarouo.) 

Pirhing.  /u«  Canonicwn  Univeraum  (VaDice.  1760),I;  Fer- 
raris, BMoth.  Canon.  (Rome.  1886),  II;  Smith.  Didionary  of 
Chreek  and  Raman  Antiquitiea  (London,  1901). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 


CtoUcge,  Apobtouc.— This  term  de<iipifttes  The 
Twelve  Apostles  as  the  body  of  men  com  mmaionad  by 
Christ  to  spread  the  Idngdom  of  God  over  the  whole 
world  and  to  give  it  the  stability  of  a  well-ordered 
society:  i.  e.  to  be  the  foimders,  the  foundation,  and 
pillars  of  the  visible  Church  on  earth.  The  name 
''  apostle  "  connotes  their  commission.  For  an  Apostle 
is  a  missionary,  sent  by  competent  authority,  to  ex- 
tend the  Gospel  to  new  lands:  a  tradition,  beginning 
with  the  sending  of  The  Twelve,  has  consecrated  this 
meaning  of  the  term  to  the  exclusion  of  all  othere 
which  it  might  derive  from  its  etymology.  When  we 
Kieak  of  the  Apostles  as  a  '' college",  we  inxply  that 
tney  worked  together  under  one  head  and  for  one 
purpose.  Referring  the  reader  to  the  article  Apos- 
TLS0  for  the  Scriptural  and  positive  treatment  of  the 
question,  we  may  now  deal  with  its  dogmatic  aspects. 

It  is  evident,  a  priori,  that  Revelation  must  be 
transmitted  and  communicated  by  means  of  envoys 
and  teachers  accredited  by  God.    The  consideration 
of  the.  nature  of  revelation  and  its  object  shows  that 
no  other  theory  is  practically  possible.     In   fact, 
Christ  founded  a  teaching,  ^oveminf;,  and  nxxnistering 
Apostolate,  whose  charter  is  contamed  in  Matthew, 
xxviii,  1^20.     "All  power  is  given  to  Me  in  Heaven 
and  in  earth.      Going  therefore   [in  virtue  of,  and 
endowed  with,  tliis  My  sovereign  power:    ''As   the 
Father  hath  sent  Me,  I  also  send  you^'  (Jolin,  xx,  21)], 
teach  ye  [>Ao^«>(rarf — make  to  yourselves  disciples, 
teach  sws  having  power — Mark,  i,  22}  all  nations;  bap- 
tiang  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  tbe  Son, 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.    Teaching  them  [diddo-Kotrreti 
to  observe  all  things  wliatsoever  I  have  commanded 
you  [her€iKi/i.iiv]:  and  behold  I  am  with   you  all 
days,  even  to  the  consununation  of  the  world. "  This 
ooUege  of  rulers,  teachers,  and  ministers  of  the  sacra- 
ments was  placed  under  the  headship  of  St.  Peter, 
the  rock  upon  whom  the  foundations  of  the  Church 
were  established.    The  many  texts  referring  >to  this 
subject  (see  Apostles)  may  be  summarised  as  fol- 
lows:   After  accomplishing  His  own  mission.  Jfssus 
Christ,  in  virtue  of  His  absolute  power  and  autnority, 
scaxt  into  the  wcMrld  a  body  of  tochers  and  preachers 
presided  over  by  one  head.    They  were  His  repre- 
sentatives, and  had  for  their  mission  to  publish  to  the 
world  all  revealed  truth  imtil  the  end  ot  time.     Their 
mission  was  not  exclusively  personal;  it  was  to  ex- 
tend to  their  successors.    Mankind  were  bound  to  re- 
ceive th»n  as  Christ  Himself.    That  their  word  might 
be  His  word,  and  might  be  recognized  as  such.  He 
promised  them  His  presence  and  the  aid  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  ^arantee  the  infallibility  of  their  doctrine; 
He  promised  external  and   supernatural  signs  as 
voucnera  of  its  authenticity;  He  gave  their  doctrine 
an  effective  sanction  by  holding  out  an  eternal  reward 
to  those  who  should  toithfuUy  adhere  to  it,  and  by 
threatening  with  eternal  punishments   those   who 
should  reject  it.    This  conception  of  the  Apostolate  is 
set  forth  m  the  writings  of  St.  Paul  and  realized  in  the 
practice  of  all  the  Apostles  (Rom.,  x,  8-19;  £pb., 
iVf  7-14).     It  runs  through  the  whole  Catholic  tradi- 
tion, and  is  the  very  soul  of  the  Church  at  the  present 
day.    The  CdOk^e  of  the  Apostles  lives  forth  in  the 
episcopate,  which  gradually  took  its  place  and  filled  its 
functions.    There  are,  however,  between  the  attri- 
butes of  the  original  Apostles  and  those  of  the  suc- 
ceeding hierarchy  some  differences  arising  from  the 
ciroumstance   tliat   the  Apostles    were    personally 
chosen  and  trained  by  Christ  to  lay  the  foundation  of 
the  Church.    That  circumstance  creates  for  them  an 
exceptioikal  and  intransmissible  eminence  over  their 
successors. 

(1)  Although  both,  bishops  and  Apostles,  are  ap- 
poioted  by  Divine  authority,  yet  the  Apostles  re- 
ceived their  commis^on  immediately  from  Christ, 
whereas  the  bishops  receive  theirs  but  mediately ^  j-  e. 
through   the   medium   of   human    authority.    The 


oauKW 


113 


QglililiffilS 


power  of  order  and  juruKliction  is  the  same  in  the 
Apostles  and  in  their  successors,  but,  whereas  the 
Apostles  received  it  from  the  Divine  Founder  Himself, 
tl^  bishops  receive  it  through  the  channel  of  other 
bishops.  Immediate  conmiission  implies,  in  the  mis- 
sionary, the  power  to  produce,  at  first  hand,  creden- 
tials to  prove  that  he  is  the  envoy  of  God  by  doing 
works  wnich  God  alone  can  work.  Hence  the  chax- 
isma,  or  gift,  of  miracles  granted  to  the  Apostles,  but 
withheld  from  the  generality  of  their  successors  whose 
mission  is  sufficienUv  accredited  through  their  oonnex- 
ion  with  the  original  Apostolate. 

(2)  Another  prerog^ative  of  the  Apostles  is  the  uni- 
versality of  their  mission.  They  were  sent  to  esta- 
blish the  Church  wherever  men  in  need  of  salvation 
were  to  be  found.  Their  field  of  action  had  no  limits 
but  those  of  their  own  convenience  and  choice,  at 
least  if  we  take  them  coUecUvelv;  directions  by  the 
chief  Apostle  are  not  excludeo,  for  on  them  may 
have  d^)ended  the  good  order  and  the  success  of 
their  work.  , 

(3)  A  third  Apostolic  prerogative  is  the  plenitude 
of  power.  As  planters  of  the  Church  the  Apostles 
required  and  possessed  the  power  to  speak  with  full 
authority  in  their  own  name,  without  appealing  to 
higher  authorities;  also  the  power  to  found  and  oi^ 
ganize  local  churches,  to  appoint  and  consecrate 
bishops  and  to  invest  them  with  jurisdiction.  The 
limit  to  their  powers  in  this  respect  was:  not  to  undo 
the  work  already  done  by  their  coUea^es.  Such 
power,  if  needed,  coul(l  have  been  exercised  only  by 
the  head  of  the  Church. 

(4)  A  fourth  privilege  of  the  Apostles  is  theirper- 
sonal  infallibility  in  preaching  the  Gospel  Their 
successors  in  the  hierarchy  owe  what  infalhbility  they 
possess  to  the  Divine  assistance  watching,  with  un- 
failing care,  over  the  nutgiMerium,  or  teaching  oi&ce, 
as  a  whole,  and  over  its  head:  the  Apostles  received, 
each  personally,  the  Holy  Gnost,  Who  revealed  to 
them  all  the  truth  they  had  to  preach.  This  Penter 
costal  Kift  was  necessary  in  order  to  establish  each 
particmar  church  on  the  solid  foundation  of  unshak- 
able truth. 

The  prerogatives  of  the  Apostles  as  founders  of  the 
Church  were,  of  course,  personal;  they  were  not  to  be 
transmitted  to  their  successors  because  to  these  they 
were  not  necessary.  What  was  passed  on  is  the  ordi- 
nary function  of  teaching,  ruling,  ministering,  i.  e.  the 
powers  of  order  and  jurisdiction.  The  Apostolate 
was  an  extraordinary  and  only  temporary  form  of  the 
episcopate;  it  was  supersede  by  an  ordinary  and 
permanent  hierarchy  as  soon  as  its  constitutional 
work  was  done.  There  is,  however,  one  Apostle  who 
has  a  successor  of  equal  ]>owers  in  the  Roman  pontiff. 
Above  the  prerogatives  of  his  colleagues  St.  Peter 
had  the  uniq[ue  distinction  of  being  the  principle  of  the 
Church's  umty  and  cohesion.  As  the  Church  has  to 
endure  to  the  end  of  time,  so  has  the  unifying  and 
preserving  office  of  St.  Peter.  Without  sucn  ajprin- 
ciple,  without  a  head,  the  body  of  the  Bride  of  Christ 
would  be  no  better  than  a  disjointed  congeries  of 
members,  unworthy  of  the  Divine  Bridegroom.  In 
&kct  the  connexion  of  the  Church  with  Christ  and  the 
Apostles  would  be  loosened'  and  wteakened  to  the 
breaking-point.  The  history  of  Churches  separated 
from  Kmne  affords  abundant  proof  of  this  statement. 
In  the  Roman  pontiffs,  then,  the  Apostolate  is  stiU 
living  and  acting.  Hence  from  the  earliest  times  the 
office  oT  the  pope  has  been  honoured  with  the  title  of 
Apostolate^  as  continuing  the  functions  of  the  Apos- 
tles; the  Roman  See  has,  in  the  same  order  of  ideas, 
been  styled  the  Apostolic  See,  and  the  reigning  pope, 
in^the  Middle  Ages,  used  to  be  addressed  Avastolatus 
vaster  and  ApoatoUcus.  In  the  Litany  of  the  Saints 
we  pray:  "That  Thou  wouldst  vouchsafe  to  preserve 
our  apostolic  prelate  [cioinnum  nostrum  apostolicuni] 
and  all  orders  of  the  Church  in  holy  religion." 
IV.— 8 


The  diffeieaoe  between  the  A|iostolate  of  St.  Peter 
and  that  of  his  successors  bears  on  two  points  only: 

(1)  St.  Pater  was  chosen  and  appointed  dirpctly  by 
Our  Lord;  the  pope  receives  the  same  Divine  appoint- 
ment through  the  channel  of  men:  the  electors  desig- 
nate the  person  on  whom  God  bestows  the  office. 

(2)  The  p^al  infallibility  also  differs  from  that  of  St. 
Peter.  The  pope  is  only  infallible  when,  in  the  full 
exercise  of  his  authority,  ex  cathedra,  he  defines  a  doc- 
trine concerning  faith  or  morals  to  be  held  by  the 
whole  Church.  His  infallibility  rests  on  the  Divine 
assistance,  on  the  permanent  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Church.  The  infallibility  of  St.  Peter  and  the  Aposr 
ties  rested  on  their  being  filled  and  penetrated  by  the 
light,  of  the  indwelling  Holy  Spint  of  truth.  The 
charitma  of  working  miracles,  granted  to  the  Apostles, 
is  not  continued  in  the  popes.  If  it  was  necessary  to 
convince  the  first  believers  that  the  hand  of  Go^  was 
buying  the  foundations  of  the  Cl^urch,  it  ceases  to  be 
so  when  the  strengfch,  the  beauty,  and  the  vastness  of 
the  structure  prodaims  to  the  world  that  none  but 
the  Father  in  Heaven  could  have  erected  it  for  the 
good  of  His  children. 

SCHBB9EN,  Monwfl  of  Cotholtc  Theology,  tr.  WiLiBslu  anp 
ScANNSLL  (London,  IdW).  I.  8,  9.  11. 

J!   Wn^HKLM. 

Oollege  de  Fraace,  Ths,  was  founded  in  the 
interest-  of  higher  ^ucation  by  Francis  I.  He  had 
planned  the  ei?ection  of  this  college  as  far  back  as 
1517,  but  not  until  1530,  and  then  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  Bud^  and  Jean  du  Bellay,  did  he  realize  liis 
idea.  As  the  University  of  Paris  taught  neither 
Hebrew  nor  Greek,  he  established  chairs  of  these  two 
languages,  and  secur^ed  for  them  the  best  teachers 
obtainable,  Paradisi  and  Guidacerio  Vatable  for 
Hebrew,  and  Peter  Danes  and  Jacques  Toussaint  for 
Greek.  Their  salaries  werd  paid  from  the  king's 
coffers,  and  they  were  to  receive  students  gratuitously, 
a  ruling  which  caused  great  rivaby  on  the  pait  of 
the  professors  of  th^  University  of  Paris,  who  de- 
pended on  tuition  fees.  The  professors  of  the  college 
were  accused  before  Parliament  by  No^l  Beda,  on 
the  plea  that  the  Vulgate  would  lose  its  authority 
since  Hebrew  and  Greek  were  taught  publicly. 
G.  de  Marcillac  defended  the  "Royal  Lectors",  as 
they  were  called,  and  won  their  case.  Later  on 
they  were  accused  of  a  leaning  towards  Calvinism, 
and  the  Parliament  forbade  them  to  read  or  interpret 
any  of  the  Sacred  Books  in  Hebrew  or  Greek;  how- 
ever, the  protection  of  the  king  prevented  the  execu- 
tion of  the  sentence. 

In  1534  a  chair  of  Latin  eloquence  was  added  to 
the  coU^.  The  succeeding  kings  favoured  tltc 
college.  During  the  Revolution  tne  courses  were 
unmolested;  the  Convention  even  raised  the  salaries, 
by  decree,  from  one  and  two  thousand  francs  to  three 
thousand.  The  College  de  France  was  first  ruled 
by  the  Grand  Aumonier  de  France,  who  appointed  the 
professors  until  1661,  when  it  became  a  part  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  from  which  it  was  afterwards 
separated  for  a  time,  and  finally  reaffiliated  in  176C. 
In  1744  the  king  himself  took  it  under  his  direct 
authority.  In  1795  the  minister  of  the  interior  was 
in  charge;  in  1831  the  minister  of  public  works; 
in  1832  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  who  has 
retained  the  charge  to  the  present  day.  It  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  university,  and  administered  by  its 
own  faculty.  The  college  has  been  known  by  differ- 
ent names:  in  1534  it  was  called  the  "College  of  the 
Three  Languages";  upder  Louis  XIII,  the  "College 
Royal";  during  the  Revolution,  the  "Collie  Na- 
tional"; Napoleon  called  it  the  ''CoUdge  Imperial", 
and  under  the  Restoration,  it  bore  the  name  of 
"College  Royal".  Through  the  munificence,  of 
kings  and  governments  the  college  grew  steadily 
In  1545  Francis  added  to  the  tluree  chairs  of  lan< 


00LL8OS 


114 


OOLMAN 


ffiiage  already  established  another  with  two  teachers 
for  mathematics,  one  teacher  for  medicine,  and  one 
for  philosophy.  Gharies  IX  introduced  surgery; 
Henry  III  gave  it  a  course  in  Arabic  langua^s; 
Heniy  IV,   botany  and   astronomy.    Louis  XIII 

gave  it  canon  law  and  Syriac;  Louis  XV,  French 
terature;  Louis  XVIII  endowed  it  for  the  Sanskrit 
and  Chinese  literatures.  In'  1831  political  economy 
was  introduced,  and  since  then  the  progress  of  the 
sciences  has  necessitated  new  chairs,  such  as  those 
of  organic  chemistry,  phymo-nsychology,  etc. 

Renan  clearly  clutracterisea  the  tendencies  and 
methods  of  the  Coll^  de  France.  In  comparing 
them  with  those  of  the  University  of  Paris,  he  wrote: 
"The  Sorbonne  guards  the  deposit  of  acquired  know- 
ledge— ^it  does  not  receive  sciences  before  they  have 
shown  the  life  in  them — on  the  contrary  the  Coll^ 
de  France  favours  the  sciences  in  the  process  of 
formation.  It  favours  scientific  research."  An  edict 
of  1572  forbade  any  but  Catholics  to  teach  in  the 
Coll^  de  France.  This  law  was  strictly  obeyed 
as  long  as  the  college  remained  under  Catholic  au- 
thority, but  in  recent  times  it  has  had  among  its 
g;x>fe8Sors  such  enemies  of  Catholicism  as  Michelet, 
enan,  and  Havet.  On  the  whole,  however,  the 
faculty  of  the  Colldge  de  France  has  counted  in  its 
ranks  brilliant  men  irrespective  of  creed,  such  as 
Aubert,  Labinde,  Daubenton,  Delille,  Cuvier,  Vau- 
QUelin,  Ampere,  Biot,  RoUin,  Sylvestre  de  Sacy, 
Abel  lUmusat,  Boissonade,  Daunou,  Bumouf,  Tissot, 
etc.  In  1907  there  were  fifty-nine  professors  and 
instructors. 

DvTAL,  L«  CMige  de  France  (Paris.  1044);  GonoBT.  Mimoire 
hiaknique  et  liUirain  tur  U  ColUge  royal  4e  France  (3  vols., 
PariM,  1763) ;  BoucHON  and  Brandex«t,  Le  CoU^  de  France 
(Paris.  1873);  Lemianc,  Histoire  du  CeUhQc  de  France  (Paris, 
1802);  Renan,  QneatUme  conlemporainiee  (Paris,  1868),  143 
0qq.;  Lbfranc.  Let  Orimnee  efu  CcUige  de  France  in  Remte 
Intern,  de  VEnaeiffn.  (15  May,  1890). 

J.  B.  Delaunay. 
OoUege  of  OardinaU.    See  Cardinal. 

OoUegiata  (Lat.  collegiat^Sf  from  coUeaium),  an  ad- 
jective applied  to  those  churches  and  institutions 
whose  members  form  a  colle^  (see  Colleob).  The 
origin  of  cathedral  and  collegiate  chapters,  springing 
from  the  common  life  of  clerics  attached  to  catheorals 
and  oUier  important  churches,  has  been  treated  in  the 
article  Chapter,  where  special  attention  is  given  to 
what  regards  cathedral  capitulars  (see  Chapter). 
Collegiate  churches  were  formed  on  the  model  of 
cathedral  churches,  and  the  coUe^te  canons  have 
rights  and  duties  similar  to  the  capitulars  of  a  cathe- 
dral, except  that  they  have  no  voice  in  the  govern- 
ment of  me  diocese,  even  when  the  see  is  vacant. 
Their  main  object  is  the  solemn  celebration  of  the 
Divine  Office  in  choir.  Already  in  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne many  wealthy  collegiate  churches  had  been 
founded  throughout  his  empire,  especially  in  Ger- 
many and  France,  of  which  that  at  Aachen  was  the 
most  celebrated.  In  England  there  was  also  a  large 
number  of  these  institutions,  and  at  the  Reformation, 
when  they  were  dissolved,  the  revenues  of  some  of 
them  were  used  for  founding  public  schools.  The 
founding  of  a  collegiate  churdi  gives  the  founder  no 
right  to  nominate  its  members  umess  he  have  received 
a  special  papal  indult  to  that  eff ecrt. 

For  the  erection  of  collegiate  institutions,  the  au- 
thority of  the  Holy  See  is  necessary.  The  pope  refers 
the  matter  to  the  consideration  of  the  Congre^tion 
of  the  Council,  which  makes  a  favourable  report  if  cer- 
tain conditions  are  found  fulfilled,  such  as:  the  dignity 
of  the  city,  the  large  number  of  clergy  and  people,  the 
sise  and  beauty  of  the  church  structure,  the  splendour 
of  its  belonging,  and  the  sufficiency  of  the  income. 
Although  ^e  bishop  cannot  erect  a  collegiate  church, 
yet,  if  the  college,  owing  to  the  death  of  canons  or 
other  similar  cause,  shouki  cease  as  an  active  corpora- 
tion but  still  retain,  de  jure,  its  status  as  a  college,  the 


bishop  can  restore  it,  for  this  would  not  be  a  canonical 
erection.     As  the  ordinary  cannot  erect  a  collegiate 
church,  so  neither  can  he  reduce  it  to  a  merely  paro- 
chial status,  and  still  less  has  he  the  power  to  suppress 
one.    Only  the  x)ope  can  formally  dissolve  a  collegiate 
foundation.    A  church  loses  its  collegiate  dignity  by 
the  will  of  the  members,  or  the  act  of  the  supreme  ec^ 
elesiastical  authority,  or  the  death  of  all  the  canons. 
When  the  ri^t  of  an  institution  which  claims  the  col- 
legiate dignity  is  disputed,  the  question  is  to  be  de- 
cided by  certain  signs  which  create  a  presumption  in 
its  favour.    These  are,  among  others,  an  immemorial 
reputation  as  a  collegiate  institution,  a  common  seal 
proper  to  a  oolleee,  capitular  meetings  of  the  members 
under  the  presidency  of  a  dean,  the  making  of  con- 
tracts in  the  name  of  the  college,  the  ri^t  of  electing 
a  prelate,  the  cure  of  souls  dependent  on  the  chapter. 
AlUiou^  collegiate  churches  are  ordinarily  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop,  yet  its  members  are  not 
obliged  to  render  any  service  to  the  ordinary  outside 
of  their  own  churches,  except  in  case  of  necessity  or 
through  contrary  custom.    Neither  can  the  cathedral 
chapter   interfere  with  the  chapter  of  _  a  collegiate 
church  when  the  latter  remains  within  its  own  ric^t 
and  privileges.    Collegiate  churches  are  distinguished 
into  ingignes  (famous)  and  non  ingignes.    There  are, 
however,  no  rules  given  in  canon  law  to  discern  one 
from  the  other.    Canonists  declare  that  a  church  is 
insignU  if  it  be  the  mother  church  of  the  locality,  have 
right  of  precedence  in  solenm  functions,  be  of  ancient 
foundation,  and  conspicuous  by  its  structure  and  the 
number  of  its  dignitaries  and  members,  and  likewise 
be  situated  in  a  mmous  or  well-populated  city.    The 
canons  of  a  church  which  is  inmgnis  have  precedence 
over  the  canons  of  other  collegiate  institutions  at 
synods  and  in  public  processions.    When  a  parochial 
cnurch  is  elevated  to  collegiate  rank,  the  right  to  the 
cure  of  souls  does  not  necessarily  pass  to  the  chapter, 
but  may  remain  with  the  parish  priest.    When  the 
chapter  has  the  right  of  presentation  and  its  votes  are 
equally  divided,  the  bishop  may  decide  as  to  which 
part  of  the  canons  has  presented  a  candidate  of  su- 
perior merit  to  the  other.    If,  however,  the  merits  of 
the  candidates  be  equal,  the  decision  must  be  referred 
to  the  pope,  if  the  chapter  cannot  agree  after  taking 
two  ballots.    The  chapters  of  collegiate  churches,  by 
common  law,  have  the  right  of  electing  or  presenting 
candidates  for  the  dignities  and  canonries  of  their 
chapter.    The  rights  (3  confirmation  and  installatbn 
belong  to  the  bishop.    Many  innovations  on  these 
ri^ts  have  been  made  by  special  decrees  or  customs, 
and,  according  to  the  prevailing  discipline,  account 
must  be  taken  of  the  so-called  pontifical  reservations, 
or  the  rights  which  the  pope  has  reserved  to  himsdf , 
especially  as  regards  the  highest  dignity  of  the  chap- 
ter, and  also  of  the  legitimate  privileges  possessed  by 
Spain,  Austria,  Bavaria,  etc.  of^  nominating 


These  privileges  are  still 


patrons  in  { ^ 

and  presenting  candidates. 

in  force  in  many  instances. 

Wernx.  /u»  Dtcretalium  (Rome,  1809)  II;  De  Luca,  PreeUc- 
tionea  Jur.  Can.  (Rome.  1897),  II;  Fbriiabi8,  BiMiotheca  Canon- 
tea  (Rome,  1836).  II;  Lvcaoi.  De  Visit.  S.  Liminum  (Rome, 

1899).  m.  William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

OolliiUt  Richard.  See  Hexham  and  New  Cas- 
tle, Diocese  <»*. 

Colman,  name  of  several  Irish  saints: — (1 )  Colman, 
Bishop  and  patron  of  Kilmacduagh,  b.  at  Kiltartan 
c.  560;  d.  29  October,  632.  He  lived  for  many 
years  as  a  hermit  in  Arranmore,  where  he  built  two 
churches,  both  forming  the  present  group  of  ruins 
at  Kilmurvy.  Thence  he  sought  greater  seclusion 
in  the  woods  of  Burrnn,  in  592,  and  at  length, 
in  610,  founded  a  monastery,  which  became  the 
centre  of  the  tribal  Diocese  of  Aidhne,  practically 
coextensive  with  the  present  See  of  Kilmacduaeh. 
Although  the  "Martyrology  of  Donegal"  assigns  his 
feast  to  2  February,  yet  the  weight  of  evidence  and 


OOLBIAM 


115 


OM.KAE 


the  tradition  of  the  diocese  point  to  29  October,  on 
which  day  his  festival  has  been  kept  from  time  im- 
memorial, and  which  was  fixed  by  a  rescript  of  Pope 
Benedict  XIV,  in  1747,  as  a  major  double. 

Mttrtvnloqy  of  Dtmegal.  ed.ToDD  and  RxsTsa  (Dublin,  1804) ; 
C-utiim%$  •/  £f|fF«acftme^ed.  O'  Donoyam;  Lanioan,  Eceh- 
WJoHical  HiUory  of  Jrekmd  (Dublin,  1820) ;  II:  Coloan,  Ada 
Sonet.  Hib.  (Louvain,  1645);  Pbtrix.  Round  Towen  (Dublin, 
1S4S> ;  Farxt,  Hiat.  wnd  Anl,  of  KUmaeduaoh  (1808). 

(2)  CoLMAN,  of  Templeshambo,  was  also  a  Con- 
nacht  saint,  and  has  been  confounded  with  the  patron 
of  Kilmacduagh,  but  he  lived  somewhat  earlier,  and 
the  sphere  of  his  ministry  lay  in  the  present  County 
Wex^rd.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Saint  Aidan, 
who  appointed  him  Abbot  of  Templeshambo,  the 
mother  church  of  Enniscorthy.  Many  leeends  are 
told  of  Saint  Cblman  and  of  his  holy  weU  with  its 
sacred  ducks,  but  certain  it  is  that  he  laboured  sseal- 
ously  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Leinster,  his  monastery 
being  known  as  Temple  Sean  Bothe.  He  died  c.  595 
on  27  October,  on  which  day  his  feast  is  recorded  in  the 
**  Martyrolo^  of  Donegal". 

Citstoms  ofWy-FiachntcK;  C!olgan,  Ada.  Sand.  Hib.;  Mar- 
turology  of  DanOffol;  Fahct,  Hist,  and  Ant.  of  KUmacduaoh 
(1893):  QBXTTAH-FhOOD,  Htd.  of  Ennitcarfhy  ilQ9S);  Shbab- 
UA.M,  lAKa  Pairiciana  (Dublin.  1882). 

(3)  CoiMAX  Mao  Lekine,' founder  and  patron  of 
the  See  of  Cloyne,  b.  in  Munster,  c.  510;  d.  24  Novem- 
ber, dOl.  He  was  endowed  with  extraordinsiry 
poetic  powers,  being  styled  by  his  contemporaries 
** Royal  Bard  of  Munster".  The  Ardrigh  of  Ireland 
gave  faim  Goyne,  in  the  present  County  Cork,  for 
his  cathednd  abbey,  in  5i30,  and  he  laboured  for 
more  than  forty  years  in  his  extensive  diocese. 
Several  of  his  Irish  poems  are  still  extant,  notably 
a  metrical  paneg^o  on  St.  Brendan.  Colgan  men- 
tions a  metrical  ufe  of  St.  Senan  by  him.  His  feast 
is  observed  on  24  November.  Another  St.  Colman 
ia  also  venerated  on  the  same  day,  as  recorded  by 
St.  AengUB  m  his  ''FeUre":— 

Mac  Lenine  the  most  excellent 
With  Colman  oi  Duth-chuilleann. 
Abokdaxjei,  Monaatietm  Hibemicwn,  ed.  Moban  (1873): 
CoiiOAJf .  Ada  Band,  Hib,;  Htdb,  Lilerary  History  of  Ireland 
(New  York,  1901);  Smith,  History  of  Cork;  Oldbn,  Some 
Notices  of  St.  Colman  of  Cloyno  (1881);  Sroxas,  Anocdda 
OxoH.  (1800). 

(4)  CoiiMAN,  founder  of  the  Abbey  and  Diocese  of 
Mayo,  b.  in  Connacht,  c.  605;  d.  8  August,  676.  He 
became  a  monk  of  lona^  and  so  famous  were  his 
virtues  and  leartung,  as  testified  by  St.  Bede,  that  on 
the  death  of  St.  Finan,  in  661,  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  lindisfame.  During  his  brief  episcopacy, 
the  Synod  of  Whitby  was  held,  in  664,  as  a  result  of 
which  (St.  Colman  being  a  determined  protagonist 
of  the  old  Irish  computation),  owing  to  the  decision  of 
King  Oswy  on  the  Paschal  controversy,  he  resigned 
his  see.  Between  the  years  66&  and  667  St.  Colman 
founded  several  chunohes  in  Scotland,  and,  at  length, 
accompanied  by  thirty  disciples,  sailed  for  Ireland, 
settling  down  at  InnidboflSn,  County  Mayo,  in  668. 
L^s  than  three  years  later  he  erected  an  abbey,  ex- 
cluavely  for  the  English  monks  in  Mayo,  subsequently 
known  as  "  Mayo  ofthe  Saxons  ".  His  last  days  w«pe 
spent  on  the  island  of  Innisboffin.  His  feast  is  cele- 
brated 8  August. 

HbAlt,  Msuta  Sandonan  d  Dodorum  (1902);  0*Hanu>n, 
Lives  of  the  hish  SainU,  VIH;  Mob^.  Irish  StmUs  w  gr«a< 
Brifotn  (1903);  Knox.  Notes  on  the  Dioceses  of  Tttam  (1904); 
Bed«,  Ecdesiastical  History  of  England,  ed.  Plummer  (Lon- 
don, 1907). 

(5)  (3oLMAK,  b.  in  Dalaradia,  c.  450*  date  of 
death  uncertain.  His  feast  is  celebrated  7  June.  He 
founded  the  See  of  Dromore,  of  which  he  is  patron  and 
over  which  he  presided  as  bishop.  He  studied  at 
Noendrum  (Mahee  Island),  under  St.  Mochae  or 
Coelan,  one  of  the  earKest  disciples  of  St.  Patrick. 
Maiw  interesting  stories  are  told  of  his  edifying  life 
at  Noendrum  and  the  miracles  he  worked  there.  To 
perfect  his  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  St.  Colman 


went  to  the  great  school  of  Emly,  c.  470  or  475,  and 
remained  there  some  vears.  At  ieneth  he  returned 
to  Mahee  Island  to  see  his  old  master,  St.  Mochae,  and 
remained  under  his  guidance  for  a  long  period,  acting 
as  astistant  in  the  school.  Among  his  many  pupils 
at  Mahee  Island,  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, was  St.  Finian  of  MoviUe. 

doiOAHt  Ada  Sand.  Hib.;  Hbalt.  Insula  Sandonan  d 
Dodorum  (4th  ed.);  0*Lav»bty,  Down  and  Connor,  I;  O'Ham- 
LOir,  Xjives  of  the  Irish  Saints,  VI;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints. 

(6)  Colman  Elo  and  Colman  MacCathbad  are 
also  famed  in  Irish  hagioloryr.  The  former  was 
founder  and  first  Abbot  of  MucKamore,  and  from  the 
fact  of  being  styled  '^Coarb  of  MacNisse",  is  regarded 
as  Bishop  ofConnor.  He  was  bom  c.  555  in  Glcnelljr, 
in  the  present  County  IVronc,  and  d.  at  Lynally  m 
61 1 ,  26  September,  on  which  day  his  feast  is  cdebrated. 
Hestudiea  under  his  maternal  uncle,  St.  Columciile, 
who  procured  for  him  the  site  of  a  monastery  now 
known  as  Lynally  (Lann  Elo).  Hence  his  designation 
of  0>lmanellus  or  (Ilolman  Elo.  Subsequently  he 
foimded  the  Abbey  of  Muckamore,  and  was  appomted 
Bishop  of  Connor.  He  ia  also  known  ss  St.  Ck)lman 
Macusailni.  The  latter  saint,  distinguished  as  Mac- 
Cathbad, whence  Kilmackevat,  CJounty  Antrim,  was 
Bishop  of  Kilroot,  a  minor  see  afterwards  incorpo- 
rated in  the  Diocese  of  Connor.  He  was  a  contcnn- 
f>orar^  of  St.  Ailbe,  and  his  feast  has  been  kept  from 
time  immemorial  on  16  October. 

(7)  St.  Colman,  one  of  the  patrons  of  Austria,  was 
also  an  Irish  saint,  who,  joumejring  to  Jerusalem,  was 
martyred  near  Vienna,  in  1012,  13  October,  on  which 
day  his  feast  is  observed.  His  life,  written  by  Erch- 
cnfrid  of  Melk,  is  in  "Acta  SS.",  VI,  357  and  '*  Mon. 
C5erm.  Hist.:  Script.",  IV,  647. 

AoAKNAN,  Life  of  St.  Columba;  0'LA.VBBTr,  Down  and  Con-, 
nor,  V;  Calendar  of  Doneqal;  CouiAX,  Ada  Sand.  Hib.; 
O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints,  IX;  Butlbr,  Lives  of 
the  Saints;  Hooan,  St.  Colman  of  Austria;  Urwalkx,  Der 
k^ifflicha  P^ger  St.  Cdomann  (yienn»,  1880). 

W,  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Oohnan,  Waivtbr,  Friar  Mmor  and  English  martyr; 
date  of  b.  uncertain;  d.  in  London,  1645.  He  came  of 
noble  and  wealthy  parents  and  when  quite  young  left 
En^and  to  study  at  the  English  College  at  Douai. 
In  1625  he  entered  the  Franciscan  Order  at  Douai, 
receiving  in  religion  the  name  of  (]3iristopher  of  St. 
Qare,  by  which  he  is  more  generally  known.  Having 
completed  his  year  of  novitiate,  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land at  the  call  of  the  provincial,  Father  John  Jen- 
nings, but  was  immediately  imprisoned  because  he 
refused  to  take  the  Oath  of  Allegiance.  Released 
through  the  efforts  of  his  friends,  he  went  to  London, 
where  he  was  employed  in  the  duties  of  the  sacred 
ministry  and  where,  during  his  leisure  moments,  he 
composed  "The  Duel  of  I5eath"  (London,  1632  or 
1633),  an  elegant  metrical  treatise  on  death,  which  he 
dedicated  to  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  consort  of 
Charles  I.  When  the  persecution  broke  out  anew  in 
1641,  Colman  returned  to  England  from  Douai, 
whither  he  had  gone  to  regain  his  health.  On  8  Dec. 
of  the  same  year  he  was  brought  to  trial,  together 
with  six  other  priests,  two  of  whom  were  Benedic- 
tines and  four  members  of  the  secular  clergy.  They 
were  all  condemned  to  be  haneed,  drawn,  and  Quar- 
tered on  13  Dec,  but  through  the  interposition  of  the 
French  ambassador  the  execution  was  stayed  indefin- 
itely. Colman  lingered  on  in  Newgate  for  several 
vears  until  he  died,  exhausted  bv  starvation  and  the 
hardships  of  the  dungecm  where  he  was  confined. 

Traddeus,  The  Franciseana  in  England  (London,  18d8>,>  62, 
72,  106;  Cooper  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  9.  v.  CoUnan;  Hopb, 
Franciscan  Martyrs  in  angland  (Ix>ndon.  1878),  xi,  123  sqq.; 
Mason,  Certamen  Seraphicum  (Quaracclii,  1885),  21 1 .  228 ;  Leo, 
Lives  of  the  SainU  and  Blesaed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St.  Francis 
CTaunton,  1887),  IV,  368. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Oolmar,  J4>seph  Ludwtq,  Bishop  of  Mains;  h. 
at  Strasburg,  22  June,  1760;  d.  at  Mainz,  15  Dec., 


oraocms 


116 


qoMmix 


lgl8.  After  his  ordination  (20  Dee.,  1783)  he  was 
professor  of  history  and  Greek  at  the  Royal  Seminary, 
and  curate  at  St.  Stephen's,  Strasburg.  During  the 
reign  of  terror,  Ixougbt  about  at  Strasburg  bv  the 
apostate  monk,  Euk>fl;ius  Sohneider,  he  secretfv  re- 
mained in  the  city,  and  under  various  disguises  acunin- 
istered  the  sacraments.  After  the  fall  of  Robespierre 
he  went  about  preaching  and  instructing,  and  worked 
so  successfully  for  the  restoration  of  religion  in  the 
city  of  Strasburg  that  Napoleon  appointed  him  Bishop 
of  Mains;  he  was  consecrated  at  Paris,  24  Aueust, 
1802.  The  metropolitan  see  of  St.  Boniface  had  been 
vacant  for  ten  years ;  the  cathedral  had  been  profaned 
and  partially  destroyed  in  1793;  a  new  diocese  had 
been  formed  under  the  old  title  of  Maims,  but  subject 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Mechlin;  revolution,  war,  and 
secularisation  of  convents,  monasteries,  and  the  prop- 
erty of  the  former  archdiocese  had  ruined  his  new  dio- 
cese spiritually  and  financiallv.  Cohnar  worked  like 
a  true  apostle;  he' rebuilt  ana  reconsecrated  the  pro- 
faned cathedral,  and  by  his  influence  saved  the  ca- 
thedral of  Speyer  which  was  about  to  be  destroyed  by 
order  of  the  Government.  After  many  difficulties  hie 
opened  a  seminary  (1804),  which  he  placed  under  the 
direction  of  the  Venerable  libermann;  he  visited 
every  pari^  and  school,  and  reorganized  the  litm^oaJ 
services,  confraternities,  devotions,  and  processions, 
which  the  Revolution  had  swept  away.  His  principal 
aim  was  to  organize  a  S3mtem  of  catechetical  instruc- 
tion, to  inspire  his  priests  with  apostolic  zeal^  and  to 
guard  them  against  the  false  enlightenment  of  that 
age.  He  was  an  active  adversary  of  Wessenberg  and 
the  rationalistic  liberal  tendencies  represented  by  him 
and  the  Uluminati.  He  tried  to  remtroduoe  8ev«»l 
religious  communities  in  his  diocese,  but  aocom- 
.plished,  however,  only  the  restoration  of  the  Institute 
of  Marv  Ward  (Dames  Anglaiaes),  Shortly  before  his 
death  he  established  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence 
in  the  Bavarian  part  of  his  diocese  (the  former  Dio- 
cese of  Speyer).  During  the  epidemic  of  1813  and 
1814,  aft^  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  he  personally  served 
the  sick  and  dying.  Colmar  ec&ted  a  collection  of  old 
German  churoi  h^ns  (1807)  and  several  excellent 
prayer  books.  His  sermons  were  published  in  seven 
volumes  (Mainz,  1836 ;  Ratisbon,  1879). 

Sklbot,  J.  L.  Colmar  (1902);  Remuno.  Gesch,  der  BiacHofe 
von  Speyer  (Speyer,  1867);  see  also  life  by  Sattbrn  in  both 
editioDA  of  Oolmar'a  sennoDS. 

Frederick  G.  Holw£CK. 

Ooloena  (Ger*  Kol;k  or  Coln),  German  city  and 
archbiwopric. 

The  CrrY. — Cologne,  in  siae  the  third  city  of  Prussia, 
and  the  capital  of  the  district  {Regierungsbezirk)  of 
Cologne,  is  situated  in  the  lowlands  of  the  lower 
Bhine  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  Its  area  is  45 
square  miles;  its  population  (1  December,  1905), 
428,722,  of  whom  339,790  are  Catholics,  76,718 
Protestants,  11,035  of  other  sects. 

The  histoiy  of  Cologne  goes  back  to  the  first  century 
before  Christ.  After  Marcus  Agrippa  transplantea 
the  Ubii  from  the  right  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Khine 
(38  B.  c),  Ara  Ubiorum,  the  centre  of  ihe  civU  and  re- 
ligious life  of  this  tribe,  occupied  the  site  of  the  mod- 
em Cologne.  In  a.  d.  50  Agrippina,  the  daughter  of 
Germanicus,  founded  here  a  colony  of  veterans  called 
Colonia  Agrippina;  the  inhabitants  of  the  two  settle- 
ments mingled  freely  with  each  other,  while  the  Ger- 
mans gradually  assumed  Roman  customs.  After  the 
revolt  of  the  Batavians,  Cologne  was  made  the  capital 
of  a  Roman  province  and  was  repeatedly  the  residence 
of  the  imperial  court.  At  an  early  dale  Christianity 
came  to  Cologne  w^ith  the  Roman  soldiers  and  traders; 
according  to  IrensBus  of  Lyons,  it  was  a  bishop's  see 
as  early  as  the  second  century.  However,  Saint  Mar 
temus,  a  contemporfiry  of  Constantine,  is  the  first 
historically  certain  Bishop  of  O>lo^e .  As  a  result  of  its 
favourable  situation,  the  eity  survived  the  stormy  per- 


iod of  the  DGUgrations  of  the  Teutonic  tribes.  When  the 
Ripuarian  Franks  took  possession  of  the  country  in 
the  fifth  century,  it  became  the  residence  of  their  king. 
On  account  of  the  services  of  the  Bishops  of  Ck>logne 
to  the  Merovingian  kings,  the  cit^  was  to  have  been 
the  metropolitan  see  of  Saint  Bonifaoe,  but  Main»  was 
chosen,  for  unknown  reasons,  and  Cologne  did  not  be- 
come an  archbishopric  until  the  time  ofC^iarleniagne. 
The  city  suffered  heavily  from  invasions  of  the  North- 
men, especially  in  the  autunm  of  881,  but  recovered 
quickly  from  these  calamities,  especially  during  the 
reign  of  the  Saxon  emperors  ana  of  such  vigorous 
archbishops  as  Bruno,  Heribert,  Pilicrim,  and  others. 

In  the  course  of  tne  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies O)logne  attained  great  prosperity.    The  basis 
of  this  prosperity  was  the  commercial  activity  of  the 
city,  which  placed  it  in  relation  not  only  with  North- 
em  Europe,  but  also  with  Hungary,  Venice,    and 
Genoa.    The  local  crafts  also  £k)uri^ed;  the  spinners, 
weavers,  and  dyers,  the  woollen-drapers,  goldsnuths, 
sword-cutlers,  and  armour-makers  of  Cologne  were  es- 
pecially celebrated.    The  ecclesiastical  importance  of 
the  city  was  equally  great;  no  city  north  of  the  Alps 
was  so  rich  in  great  churches,  sanctuaries,  relics,  and 
religious  communities.     It  was  known  as  the  "  German 
Rome ' ',  and  was  annually  visited  by  pilgrims,  especially 
after  Rainald  of  Dassel,  Archbishop  of  Cologne  (1 159- 
67),  brought  thither  the  remains  of  the  Tnree  Magi 
from  Milan.    Learning  was  z^ously  cultivated  in  the 
cathedral  school,  in  the  collegiate  chapters,  and  the 
cloisters;    famous  philosophers  taus^t  here,  among 
them  Rupert  of  Deutz,  Caesarius  of  I&isterbaeh,  Duns 
Scotus,  and  Blessed  Albertus  liagnus.    The  arts  also 
flourished,  on  account  of  the  numerous  diurches  and 
civil  buildings.    With  the  growth  of  the  munici{>al 
prosperity,  the  pride  of  the  citizens  and  their  denre 
for  independence  also  increased,  and  caused  them  to 
feel  more  dissatisfied  with  the  sovereignty  of  the  arch- 
bishop.   This  resulted  in  bitter  feuds  between  the 
archbishops  and  the  city,  which  lasted  for  two  cen- 
turies with  varying  fortunes.    The  first  uprising  oc- 
curred under  Anno  II,  at  Easter  of  the  year  1074;  the 
citizens  rose  against  the  archbishop,  but  were  de- 
feated within  three  days,  and  severely  punished. 
They  received  important  concessions  from  Archbishop 
Henry  I  of  Molenark  (1225-38)  and  his  suooessor,  the 
powerful  Conrad  of  Hostaden  (1238-1261),  who  laid 
the  comer-stone  of  the  cathedral.    The  bloody  battle 
of  Worringen  in  1288,  in  which  the  citisens  of  Colo^;ne 
allied  with  Brabant  took  prisoner  Archbishop  Sieg- 
fried of  WesterbuK  (1274-07),  resulted  in  an  almost 
complete  freedom  lor  the  city ;  to  regain  his  liberty, 
the  archbishop  recognised  the  political  ind^)endence 
of  Cologne,  but  reserved  certam  ri^ts,  notably  the 
administration  of  justice. 

A  Icxig  period  of  peace  witii  the  outeide  world  fol* 
lowed.  Cologne  joined  the  Hanseatic  League  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  became  an  imperial  free  city 
in  the  fourteenth.  On  the  other  hand  internal  dissen- 
sions  frequently  disturbed  the  city.  After  the  close  of 
the  twelfth  century  the  government  of  the  oitv  was  in 
the  hands  of  patrician  families,  who  filled  all  the  of- 
fices in  the  city  ^verament  with  members  of  their 
own  order.  In  tune  the  craft  organizations  (^ilds) 
increased  in  strength  and  demanded  a  share  m  the 
government.  As  early  as  1370,  in  the  uprising  of  the 
weavers,  they  gained  the  upper  hand  for  a  short  time, 
but  it  was  not  until  1396  that  the  rule  of  the  patri- 
cians was  finally  abolished.  On  14  Septemb^  of  that 
year  the  new  democratic  constitution  was  adopted,  in 
accordance  with  which  only  representatives  of  the 
guilds  sat  in  the  city  council.  The  last  act  of  the 
patricians  was  the  foundation  of  the  university 
(1388),  which  rapidly  began  to  prosper.  By  they 
fimmess  and  wisdom  the  new  rulers  maintained 
themselves  a^inst  the  patricians,  against  Arch 
bi^op  Dietricn  of  MOrs  (1419),  ana  against  Charle- 


OOIACOIB 


117 


CRnoQinB 


the  Bold,  who,  in  alliance  with  Archbishop  Ruprecht, 
sought  to  bring  the  city  again  under  arohiepiscopal 
rule.  It  also  suppregsed  dbmestic  uprisings  (for  inr 
stance  in  1481  and  1512).  Throu^ibut  tnis  period 
the  city  retained  its  place  as  the  first  city  of  the  Ger- 
man Eknpiie,  in  whidi  learning,  the  fine  arts,  and  the 
art  of  pnntin^  were  vigorously  cultivated. 

In  tne  religious  upheavals  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
GoloMKne  remained  true  to  Catholic  doctrine,  thanks 
chiefly  to  the  activity  of  the  imiversity,  where  such 
mea  as  Cochlaeus,  Ortwin  Gratiaaus,  Jacob  of  Hoog^ 
straeten,  and  others  tau^t.  Under  their  influence, 
the  city  council  held  fast  to  Catholic  tradition  and  en- 
ergeticttdlv  opposed  the  new  doctrines,  which  found 
many  adherents  among  the  people  and  the  deigy. 
Cologne  remained  a  stronghold  of  the  old  beliefs,  and 
gave  active  support  to  the  Coimter-Reformation 
(q.  v.),  which  found  earnest  champions  in  Johannes 
Gropper,  the  Jesuits,  Saint  Peter  Canisius,  and  others. 
The  seventeenth  and  ei^teenth  centuries  were  a  time 
of  decadence  for  the  city;  its  importance  diminished 
esTCoially  after  the  Thirty  Years  War  (1618-48)  in 
which  it  was  loyal  to  the  emperor  and  the  empire,  and 
was  never  captured.  Tbe  university  eventiially  lost 
its  prestige,  because  thiou^  over-caution  it  opposed 
the  most  justifiable  reforms;  trade  was  diverted  to 
other  channels;  only  its  ecclesiastical  glory  remained 
to  the  city,  which  was  governed  by  a  narrow-minded 
class  of  trsMiesmen  and  often  suffered  from  the  dissen- 
sions between  council  and  citizens  (in  1679-86  and  the 
bloody  trouUes  caused  by  Nicholas  GCklich).  The  out- 
break of  ihe  French  Revolution  found  it  a  community 
with  but  dig^t  power  of  resistance.  The  French  entered 
Cologne,  26  October.- 1794,  and  the  citizens  were  soon 
severely  oppressed  by  requisitions,  forced  loans,  and 
contributions.  On  27  September,  1797 ,  the  old  cit^r  con^ 
stitution  was  finally  annulled,  the  French  administra- 
tive omnization  established,  and  the  city  made  a  part 
of  the  French  department  of  the  Roer  of  which  Aix-la- 
Cliapelle  (Aachen)  was  the  capital.  The  university 
was  discontinued  in  1798;  it  had  dragged  out  a  mis- 
erable existence  owing  to  the  establishment  of  the 
University  of  JBonn  and  the  confused  policy  of  the  last 
archbishops.  After  the  downfall  of  French  domina- 
tion in  Germany,  Cologne  was  apportioned  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  to  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia.  It 
was  made  neither  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
Rhenish  Province,  nor  the  seat  of  the  university,  but 
it  was  restored  to  its  rank  of  metropolitan  see,  and  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  under  Prussian  rule,  became 
the  third  laigest  city  of  Prussia  and  attained  unusual 
prosperity,  economic,  intellectual,  and  ecclesiastical. 

Onlv  brief  ecclesiastical  statistics  can  be  given  here. 
In  19u7,  besides  the  archbishop  and  assistant  bishop, 
there  were  in  Cologne  214  pnests,  of  whom  24  were 
members  of  the  cainedral  chapter  and  38  were  parish 
priests,  and  128 others  engaged  m  pastoral  occupations. 
There  are  12  Dominicans  and  9  Franciscans.  The 
two  deaneries  of  the  city  embrace  39  parish,  and  .3 
military,  churches;  in  addition  to  the  39  parii^ 
churches,  there  are  22  lesser  churches  and  26  chapels. 
Religious  societies  are  numerous  and  powerful; 
among  more  than  400  religious  societies  and  brother- 
hoods we  may  mention:  Societies  of  Saint  Vincent, 
Saint  Elizabeth,  and  Saint  Charles  Borromed,  Marian 
congregations  for  young  men  and  for  voung  women, 
rosary  confraternities.  Associations  of  tne  Holy  Child- 
hood, Holy  Family,  of  Christian  Mothers,  etc.  Among 
the  trades  organizations  the  most  powerful  are  the 
four  Catholic  GeseUenvereine,  with  4  hospices  and  18 
Catholic  workingmens'  unions.  The  male  religious 
ardera  and  congregations  are  represented  by  Domini- 
cans, Franciscans,  Alexian  Brothers,  Brothers  of 
Charity,  and  Brothers  of  Saint  Francis;  the  female 
orders  and  congregations  bv  Sisters  of  Saint  Benedict, 
the  Borromean  Sisterhood,  the  Cellites,  Sisteis  of 
Saint  Dominic,  Sisters  of  Saint  Francis,  Sistere  of 


the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesu^ 
the  Ursuline  Sisters,  and  Sisters  of  Saint  Vincent;  a 
total  of  43  rdigiouB  houses  with  about  1140  inmates. 
Hie  Alexian  Brothers,  the  Brothers  of  Charity,  and 
the  Brothers  of  Saint  Francis,  as  well  as  almost  all  the 
female  reli^ous  orders,  conduct  numerous  charitable 
and  educational  institutions. 

Among  the  churches  of  Cologne,  the  foremost  is  the 
cathednu,  the  greatest  monmnent  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture in  Germanv.  Its  comeiHstone  was  laid  by 
Archbishop  Conrad  of  Hostaden,  14  August,  1248; 
the  sanctuary  was  dedicated  in  1322 ;  the  nave  made 
readv  for  religious  services  in  1388;  the  soutiiem  tower 
was  built  to  a  height  of  about  180  feet  in  1447;  then 
the  work  of  building  was  interrupted  for  almost  four 
hundred  years.  During  the  French  Revolution  the 
cathedral  was  degraded  to  a  hay  bam.  In  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  work  of  building  was  resumed, 
thanks  above  all  to  the  efforts  of  Sulpice  Boisserfe, 
who  excited  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Crown  Prince, 
afterwards  King  Frederick  William  IV,  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work.  The  restoration  was  begun 
m  1823;  in  1842  the  Cathedral  Building  Society  was 
foimded,  and  generous  contributions  from  all  parts 
of  Germany  resulted.  The  interior  was  finished  15 
October,  1863,  and  opened  for  Divine  service;  and 
15  October,  1880,  tne  completion  of  the  entire 
cathedral  was  appropriately  celebrated  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  German  emperor.  The  whole  edifice 
covers  an  area  of  about  7370  square  yards;  it  has 
a  nave  445  feet  long,  five  aisles,  and  a  transept 
282  feet  wide  with  three  aisles;  the  height  of  the  nave 
is  about  202  feet,  that  of  the  two  towers,  515  feet. 
Among  the  numerous  works  of  art,  the  most  famous 
are  the  picture  (Dombild)  painted  by  Stephen  Loch- 
ner  about  1450,  the  triptych  over  the  him  altar,  the 
96  choir  seats  of  the  sanctuary,  and  the  shrine  in 
which  are  kept  the  relics  of  the  Three  Kings  in  the 
treasuiy  of  the  sacristy.  The  last  is  considered  the 
most  remarkable  medieval  example  of  the  goldsmith's 
art  extant.  Among  the  other  churches  of  the  city, 
the  most  noteworthy  of  those  dating  from  the  Roman- 
esque period  are  Saint  Gereon,  Saint  Ursula,  Saint 
Maiv  in  the  Capitol,  Saint  Pantaleon,  and  the  church 
of  the  Apostles;  from  the  Transition  and  the  Gothic 
periods,  Saint  Cunibert,  Saint  Mary  in  Lyskirdien, 
and  the  church  of  the  Minorites;  from  more  recent 
times,  the  Jesuit  church,  Saint  Mary  Pantaleon,  and 
Saint  Mauritius.  The  city  contains  about  25  chari- 
table institutions  under  Catholic  management. 

Thb  Archbishopric. — ^According  to  ancient  legend 
adisciple  of  Saint  Peter  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Cologne, 
but  the  first  historically  authenticated  bishop  was 
Saint  Matemus,  who  was  present  in  314  at  the  Synod 
of  Aries.  Among  the  earhest  bishops  the  most  promi- 
nent are:  Euphrates,  who  took  part  in  the  Council  of 
Sardica  (344)  and  in  346  was  deposed  as  a  heretic  by  a 
general  synod  of  Gaul ;  Saint  Severinus  (347-400),  Saint 
Cunibert  (623-63?),  councillor  of  the  Prankish  kinos 
Dagobert  aiKi  Si^bert;  Anno  I  (711-15),  who  brou^t 
the  remains  of  Saint  Lambert  from  Maastricht  to  Li^; 
Saint  Agilulfus  (747-51) ;  Hildebold  (785-«19),  chanoei- 
lor  under  Charlema^e  and,  in  799,  first  metropolitan  of 
Cologne,  whose  suffragan  sees  were,  Li^,  Utrecht, 
Mtlnster,  Bremen,  OsnabrQck,  and,  after  829,  Minden. 
During  the  vacancy  of  the  archiepiscopal  office  (842- 
50)  Bremen  was  cut  off  from  the  Archdiocese  of  Co- 
logne, in  spite  of  the  protests  of  Gunthar  (850-71). 
Willibert  (870^9)  assisted  Ludwig  the  German  to 
overcome  Charles  the  Bald,  by  which  action  the  arch> 
bishopric  became  finally  a  part  of  the  G^man  Em- 
pire. Under  Hermann  I  ^90-924)  Bremen  was  defin- 
itively separated  from  Cologne.  In  954  Bruno  I 
(953-65)  was  made  Duke  of  Lorraine  by  his  brother, 
the  Emperor  Otto  the  Great;  in  this  way  the  founda- 
tion was  laid  for  the  temporal  power  of  the  archbish- 
opric  of  Cologne.     For  though  Bruno's  successors  did 


aOLOQHB 


118 


OOLOOKS 


not  inherit  the  ducal  rank,  they  retained  a  consider- 
able territory  (the  Kolngau,  or  district  of  Cologne),  in 
time  increased  by  the  family  possessions  and  acquisi- 
tions of  many  archbishops.  Saint  Heribert  (999-1021) 
was  very  active  in  promoting  the  welfare  of  his  dio- 
cese, was  made  chancellor  for  Italy  by  Otto  III,  and 
aided  Henry  II  at  the  time  of  his  expedition  to  Rome 
in  1004.  Piligrim  (1021-36),  wno  accompanied 
Henry  II  and  (k)nrad  II  on  their  expeditions  to  Italy, 
obtained  for  himself  and  for  his  successors  the  office  of 
imperial  chancellor  for  Italy.  Hermann  II  (1036-66) 
was  followed  bv  Saint  Anno  II,  who  did  much  for  the 
authority  and  honour  of  the  See  of  Cologne;  at  the 
same  time  he  was  ^e  Qnt  archbishop  to  come  into 
open  conflict  with  the  city,  now  rapidly  growing  in 
numbers  and  wealth. 

As  princes  of  the  German  Empire,  the  archbishops 
were  very  frequently  involved  in  dissensions  between 

gopes  and  emperors,  often  to  the  injury  of  tiieir 
hurch,  since  they  were  frequently  in  opposition  to 
the  pope.  Frederick  I  (llOO^l)  was  the  last  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne  to  be  invested  with  the  episcopal 
rinff  and  crosier;  in  1111,  during  the  three-days'  fight 
in  the  streets  of  Rome,  he  saved  the  Emperor  Henry 

V  from  defeat,  after  his  imprisonment  of  Pope  Pas- 
chal 1 1 ,  but  in  II 14  abandoned  the  imperial  party.  His 
successor,  Bruno  II  (1132-37),  was  agam  imperial 
chancellor  for  Italy,  which  office,  after  the  incumbency 
of  Arnold  II  of  Wied  (1151-^),  was  permanentlv  at- 
tached to  the  Archbisnopric  of  Col<^ne.  Rainald  of 
Dassel  (1159-67),  the  chancellor  of  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa,  and  Philip  I  of  Heinsberg  (1167-91)  increased 
the  prestige  of  the  see;  the  latter  prelate,  after  the 
fall  of  Heniy  the  Lion,  obtained  as  a  fief  for  himself 
and  his  suooessois  the  western  part  of  the  Duchy  of 
Saxony,  luuier  the  title  of  Duke  of  Westphalia  and 
Engem.  One  of  the  most  energetic  archbishops  in 
the  followii^  years  was  Saint  Engelbert  (q.  v.).  In 
his  short  reign  (1216-21)  he  furthered  the  moral  and 
religious  life  oy  several  synods,  and  by  the  favour  he 
showed  the  new  orders  of  Franciscans  and  Domini- 
cans; he  also  restored  order  within  the  limits  of  his 
see,  and  successfully  opposed  the  continued  efforts  for 
civic  independence.  The  long  political  conffict  be- 
tween the  archbishops  and  tne  city,  during  which 
Conrad  of  Hostaden  (1238^1)  and  Engelbert  ifofFalk- 
enbuig  (1261-74)  made  many  concessions,  was  finally, 
as  above  stated,  settled  in  favour  of  the  city»  under  Sieg- 
fried of  Westerbuig  (1274-97).  The  reconciliation  of 
the  archbishops  with  the  city  effected  by  Wikbold  of 
Holte  (1297-1304)  brought  with  it  increasing  influence 
in  the  affairs  of  tlie  German  Empire.  To  the  injury  of 
his  see,  Heniy  II  of  Virneburg  (1304-32)  allied  himself 
with  Frederick  the  Handsome,  while  Walram  of  JOlich 
(1332-49)  obtained  many  privil^es  from  the  Em- 
peror Charles  IV,  whom  he  had  raised  to  the  imperial 
dignity  against  Louis  of  Bavaria.  In  his  time  the 
B&ck  Death  spread  over  (jermany  and  entailed  great 
misery.  In  1356,  under  William  of  Gennep  (1349- 
62),  the  dignitv  of  imperial  elector,  recognized  since 
about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  as  belong- 
ing to  the  archiepiscopal  office,  was  formally  acknowl- 
edged by  the  Crolden  Bull.  Kuno  of  Falkenstein 
(1366-71),  also  Archbishop  of  Trier,  added  (1370)  to 
the  temporalities  of  the  see  the  County  of  Amsbeiv. 
After  his  resignation  he  was  succeeded  by  Frederick 
III  of  Saarweiden  (1370-1414),  who  adhered  to  Urban 

VI  on  the  occasion  of  the  Western  Schism;  after  Ur- 
ban's  death  he  followed  a  vacillating  policy.  His  suc- 
cessor, Dietrich  II  of  M6rs  (1414-63),  soui^t  to  make 
Cologne  the  strongest  territorial  power  in  Western 
(jrmnany,  but  he  was  unfortunate  in  his  political  en- 
terprises, and  brought  a  heavy  burden  of  debt  on  his 
see.  Under  him  the  city  of  Soest  was  lost  to  Cologne. 
After  his  death,  and  before  the  appointment  of  a  new 
ardibishop,  the  cathedral  chapter,  the  nobihty  (RU- 
knchafi),  and  the  cities  of  tne  archiepisoopai  state 


(EnsHft)  concluded  an  agreement  (Erhlandavernni' 
gung)  with  regard  to  the  aronbieAiop's  hereditary  landu, 
whereby  the  prelate's  rights  as  temporal  lord  were 
considerably  mnited  in  the  archiepisoopal  State,  whose 
territory,  it  must  be  remembered,  did  not  coincide 
with  the  ecclesiastical  liraits  of  the  archdiocese.  This 
agreement  was  heno^orth  sworn  to  by  each  arch- 
bishop at  his  election.  Buprec^t  von  der  Pf  ab  ( 1 463- 
80)  squandered  the  revenues  of  the  see,  sought  by 
force  to  gain  control  of  the  cities  and  castles  previ- 
ously mortgaged,  and  thereby  entered  into  conflicts 
with  the  holders  of  the  mortgages.  Violence,  arson, 
and  devastation  visited  the  diocese  in  consequence. 
In  1478  Ruprecht  was  captured  and  remained  a  pris- 
oner until  his  death.  His  successor,  Hermann  IV  of 
Hesse,  devoted  his  ener^  to  the  restoration  of  order, 
paid  a  part  of  the  public  debt,  and,  by  the  diocesan 
synod  of  1483,  whoise  decrees  he  vigorously  enforced 
furthered  the  intellectual  and  moral  elevation  of  clerg>' 
and  people.  Philip  II  of  Daun  (1608-15)  walked  in 
the  footsteps  of  his  predecessor. 

The  government  of  Hermaim  V  of  Wied  (1515-47) 
broujdit  trouble  and  disaster  on  his  see.  At  the  Diet 
of  Worms  he  at  flrst  opposed  the  reUgious  doctrines 
of  Luther.  He  urged  the  banning  of  the  Reformer 
and  held  a  provincial  synod  in  1536;  flpradualiy,  how- 
ever, he  turned  away  from  the  Cathouc  Faith,  chose 
adherents  of  Luther  for  his  counsellors,  and  adlowcd 
the  new  doctrines  to  be  preached  in  his  diocese. 
When  he  openly  favoured  the  spread  of  Protestant- 
ism, he  was  suspended  in  1546,  and  forced  to  resign 
(1547).  By  the  advice  of  excellent  men,  such  as 
Gropper,  Billick,  and  others,  Adolph  HI  of  Sehauen- 
burg  (1546-56)  took  strong  measures  against  the  prea- 
chers brought  in  by  Hermann,  and  published  vigorous 
decrees  against  immoral  priests.  His  brother  An- 
ton (1556-^)  followed  a  similar  course.  Under 
Johann  Gebhard  ci  Mansfeld  (1558-62)  Utrecht  (<(. 
V.)  ceased  to  be  a  suffragan  of  Cologoei  and  the  Dean- 
ery of  ZyfBkh  was  incorporated  with  the  newly 
founded  »ee  of  Boermond.  After  the  brief  reign  of 
Frederick  IV  of  Wied  (1562-67)  and  that  of  the  vig- 
orous Salentin  of  Isenburg(  1567-77),  who  resimed  be- 
cause he  did  not  wish  to  take  priest's  orders,  Gebhard 
II  Trudisess  of  Waldburg  (q .  v. ) ,  succeeded  to  the  office. 
He  foUowed  the  evil  course  of  Hermann  of  Wied.  At 
first  loyal  to  the  Church,  be  became  a  Calvinist  in 
1582,  owing  to  hja  passion  for  Agnes  von  Mansfeld, 
and  sought  to  Protestantise  the  see  in  1583;  he  was 

Sut  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  and  deposed,  and 
^uke  Ernest  of  Bavaria  diosen  as  his  successor. 
With  Protestant  aid  Gebhard  sought  to  keep  posses- 
sion of  his  diocese.  But  the  War  of  Cologae  (Kd- 
nUther  Krieg\  which  lasted  five  years,  and  brought 
untold  misery  on  the  land,  ended  in  victory  for  the 
Catholic  party.  These  attempts  of  Hermann  of 
Wied  and  (jebhard  to  alienate  the  archdiocese  from 
the  Catholic  Faith  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  per- 
manent papal  nunciature  in  Cologne  which  existed 
from  1584  to  the  extinction  of  the  archiepiscopal  State 
at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  (see  Nuncio; 
Secularization). 

Ernest  of  Bavaria  (1583-1612)  was  the  first  of  the 
five  princes  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach  who  held  the 
Electorate  of  Cologne  until  1761.  Ferdinand  of  Ba- 
varia (1612^50),  Maximilian  Henry  (1650-88),  Joseph 
aemens  (1688-1723),  and  Qemens  Augustus  I  (1727- 
61)  succeed  him.  Following  the  tradition  of  their 
princely  house,  these  five  archbishops  were  intensely 
loyal  to  the  Church,  and  upheld  Catholicism  in  the 
archdiocese,  which,  however,  had  lost  122  parishes  in 
consequence  of  the  Reformation.  However,  in  conse- 
auence  of  the  repeated  union  of  several  bishoprics  in 
tne  hands  of  these  Bavarian  prelates,  the  political  ad- 
ministration of  the  territory  was  held  to  be  of  primary, 
its  religious  government  of  'secondary,  importance. 
Moreover,  the  foreign  policy  of  these  five  Bavariao 


THE  CATHEDRAL.  COLOGNE 


ooLoau* 


119 


QOUMVE 


archbiahops  was  not  always  fortunate.  By  their  alli- 
ance with  France,  especially  during  the  Spanish  and 
Austrian  Wars  of  Succession,  they  turth^^  the  polit- 
ical dissolution  of  the  old  German  Empire  (b^un  in 
the  Thirty  Years  War)  and  encouraged  the  anti-Haps- 
burg  policy  of  France  which  aimed  at  the  final  over- 
throw of  Hie  German  imperial  power.  Similarly,  their 
friendly  rations  to  France  favoured  the  introductbn 
of  rationalism  into  Cologne.  This  spirit  of  opposition 
to  the  Church  and  to  the  authority  of  the  popes  had  a 
stfll  stroziger  hold  upon  Archbishop  Maximilian  Fred- 
erick of  KOnigseck  (1761-84).  In  1771  he  founded 
an  academy  at  Bonn  in  opposition  to  the  loyal  Cath- 
olic University  of  Cologne,  and  in  1781  issued  in  fav- 
our of  the  new  academy  an  order  according  to  which 
attendance  at  the  Universi'hr  of  Cologne  was  pimished 
by  inability  to  hold  any  office,  either  eoclesiastical  or 
civil,  in  the  diocese.  The  last  Elector  of  Cologne, 
Maitimilian  Francis  of  Austria  (1785-1801),  took  part 
in  the  anti-papal  Congress  of  Ems  (q.  v.),  nominated 
Eulogius  Schneider  as  professor  in  the  Academy  of 
Bonn,  whidi  he  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  University  in 
1786,  and  instituted  reforms  similar  to  those  enacted 
by  hts  broker,  the  Em^ror  Joseph  II ,  in  Austria.  As 
brother  of  Marie  Antomette,  he  was  at  first  opposed 
to  the  French  Revolution,  but  soon  adopted  a  policy 
of  inactivity  whic^  ultimatel;^  resulted  m  the  loss  of 
independcoice  both  bv  the  citjr  and  the  electorate. 
At  tne  approach  of  the  victorious  Frendi  anny  the 
elector  left  his  residence  at  Bonn,  never  to  see  it  again. 
The  French  entered  Cologne,  26  October,  1794,  and 
Bonn,  8  November.  Tte  conquered  territory  be- 
tween the  Meuse,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Mosdle  was  di- 
vided into  four  departments  governed  by  a  civil  com- 
missioner at  Mainz,  and  incorporated  with  France  by 
the  Peace  of  Lun^ville  in  1801 .  In  1796  all  the  ecclesi- 
astical property  in  the  part  of  the  archdiocese  held  by 
the  Frencii  was  seiased  by  the  civil  authority;  in  180l2 
all  religious  orders  and  congregations  were  suppressed 
and  their  property  confiscated.  By  the  Concordat 
of  1801  between  the  Apostolic  See  and  Napoleon  I, 
nearly  all  of  the  former  archdiocese  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine  was  given  to  the  newly  founded  See  of 
Aachen  (q.  v.).  The  old  eoclesiastical  organisation 
remained  undisturbed  in  the  archdiocesan  territory 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine.  After  the  death  of 
Maximilian  Francis  (1801),  the  cathedral  chapter, 
which  had  taken  refuge  in  Amsberg,  chose  the  Aus- 
trian Archduke  Anthony  as  his  successor,  but  he  never 
occupied  hi&  see,  owing  to  Prussian  opposition.  In 
1803  the  remainder  of  uie  electorate  was  secularized, 
an  inglorious  end  for  the  ancient  Archbishopric  of 
Cologne.  The  loss  to  the  Catiiolic  (Church  in  Ger- 
many was  great.  The  archbishopric,  i.  e.  the  territory 
in  which  the  archbishop  was  also  temporal  ruler,  in- 
cluded in  its  Rhenish  territory  alone  (without  West- 
phalia) 60  square  miles  and  about  199,000  inhabi- 
tants (in  1797),  of  whom  180,000  were  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine. 

In  1750  the  archdiocese  contained  860  parishes  with 
as  many  parish  churches,  300  benefices,  400  chapels, 
42  collegiate  chapters,  21  abbeys  (10  Benedictine,  4 
Premonstratensian,  7  Cistercian),  5  Benedictine  pro- 
vostships,  18  Minorite  and  24  Franciscan  monas- 
teries, 2  Franciscan  houses  of  the  Third  Order.  There 
were  also  20  Capuchin  houses,  6  Dominican,  3  Car- 
thusian, 11  Augustinian,  8  of  Knights  of  the  Cross,  9 
Jesuit  ^simpressed  in  1773),  2  Servite,  and  2  Alexian. 
The  Brothers  of  Saint  Anthony,  the  Carmelites,  the 
Zionites,  the  Brothers  of  Saint  Martm  had  each  one 
house.  There  were  five  establishments  of  the  Teu- 
tonic Order  and  nine  of  the  Knights  of  Malta.  Hie 
female  orders  had  a  total  of  146  nimneries  (see  below. 
Mooren,  II,  426  sqq.).  The  loss  in  costly  gold  and 
silver  church  plate,  vestments  and  the  treasures  of  the 
libraries  and  archives,  is  inciUculable.  When  the  dia- 
ocdera  of  the  Napoleonic  regime  had  passed,  the  arch- 


diooeee  was  re-established  by  Pius  VII.  Its  territory 
had  previously  been  made  a  part  of  Pnmia  by  the 
Conmas  of  Vienna,  in  1815.  On  16  July,  1821,  by 
the  Bull  ''De  Salute  animarum"  the  Archdiocese  of 
Aachen  was  abolished,  the  church  of  St.  Peter  in  Co; 
logne  was  aeiin  made  a  metropolitan  church,  and  the 
territories  ^  the  Archdiocese  of  Cologne  defined  anew, 
with  its  present  boundaries,  except  for  a  few  unim- 
portant changes.  It  then  included  44  deaneries  and 
685  parishes  (536  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  and 
149  on  the  right  bank).    On  the  20th  of  December, 

1824,  Ferdinand  August  von  Spiegel  was  named  by  the 
pope  as  the  first  archbishop  of  the  new  see  |  on  20  May, 

1825,  he  took  charge  of  the  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment, whieh  had  been  carried  on  by  the  vicar  capit- 
ular, Johann  Hermann  Joseph  von  Caspars  zn  Weiss, 
from  1801  till  his  death  (1^),  and  after  that  time 
by  Prol^onotary  Johann  WilhelmSchmiti.  Archbishop 
von  Spiegel's  administration  (1824-35)  was  in  many 
ways  beiMBficial.  He  alleviated  many  evils  which  had 
crept  in  during  the  previous  years  and  made  serious 
efforts  for  the  education  of  the  clergy  and  for  the  re- 
organization of  his  diocese;  nevertheless,  he  was  too 
subservient  to  the  Prussian  Government,  and  entered 
into  a  aecret  agreement  with  it  in  r^ard  to  mixed 
marriages,  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  eoclesiastical 
marriage  laws.  His  auooessor,  Clemens  Augustus, 
Freiherr  von  Droste  su  Vischenng,  who  vigorously 
opposed  the  enpread  of  the  Hermesian  heresy,  soon 
came  into  conflict  with  the  Prussian  Government  on 
the  question  of  mixed  marriages,  as  a  result  of  which 
he  V7as  taken  prisoner,  20  November^  1837,  and  con- 
fined in  the  castle  of  Minden.  This  event  caused 
great  excitement  throu^out  Germany,  and  helped  to 
revive  the  religious  life  and  activity  of  the  German 
Catholics.  When  Frederick  William  IV  came  to  the 
throne,  the  archbishop  resigned  his  otBee  in  favour  of 
his  coadjutor,  Johann  von  Geissel  (a.  v.).  Bishop  of 
Speyer.  Aa  archbi^iop  (1845-64),  ne  displayed  a 
inost  auspicious  activity  and  infused  fresh  religious 
vigour  into  his  diocese.  Great  injury  was  done  the 
Churdi  of  Cologne  bv  the'  Pruwian  KuUurkampf. 
During  its  course  Arcnbishop  Paul  Melchers  (1866- 
85)  was  imprisoned  by  the  (government  in  1874  (till 
9  October),  and  then  was  forced  to  leave  his  diocese. 
The  number  of  priests  fell  from  1947  to  about  1500, 
and  many  parishes  remained  for  years  without  a 
priest.  After  the  conclusion  of  peace  between  Rome 
and  Prussia,  Archbishop  Melchers  abdicated  his 
see.  His  successors,  FnHip  Krementz  (1885-99; 
cardinal,  1893),  Hubert  Simar  (1899-1902),  and  Anton 
Fischer  (since  6  November,  1902;  cardinal  since  22 
June,  1903)  devoted  themselves  to  repairing  the  evil 
done  by  the  Ktdtvrkampf  and  developing  to  a  prosper- 
ous state  the  religious  and  ecclesiastic  life  of  the 
diocese. 

Statiatica. — ^The  Archdiocese  of  Cologne  includes 
the  Prussian  administrative  districts  of  Cologne  and 
Aachen,  the  greater  part  of  the  district  of  DOsseldorf 
and  small  portions  of  the  districts  of  Coblena,  Trier, 
and  Amsberg,  altogether,  4219  square  miles,  with 
about  2,700,000  Catholics  (census  of  1  December, 
1900,  2.522,648).  The  parishes  in  1907  numbered 
917,  with  51  deaneries;  the  priests  included  1934  secu- 
lar priests  (of  whom  214  were  stationed  in  the  cathe- 
dral city),  208  r^lars,  and  about  60  priests  from 
other  dioceses.  Tne  metropolitan  chapter  consists 
of  1  cathedral  provost  (Domprobst),  1  cathedral  dean 
(DomdechaTU\  10  residential,  and  4  honorary  canons. 
The  archbishop  is  chosen  by  the  cathedral  chapter, 
the  Bishops  of  Trier,  MQnster,  and  Paderbom  are  his 
suffragans.  Within  the  city  of  Cologne  there  are  39 
parishes  and  3  military  churches  grouped  in  two  dean- 
eries. In  addition  to  the  cathedral  chapter  there  is  a 
ooll^ate  chapter  at  Aachen  (q.  v.).  The  educa- 
tions institutions  under  ecclesiastical  control  include 
the  arehiepisoopal  seminary  for  priests  at  Colop;ne, 


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with  83  Btudente  (1906-07),  the  OoUegitim  Alber- 
tinum  at  Borui  (176  students),  the  CoUe^um  Leoni- 
num  at  Bonn  (104  students),  the  archiepiseopal  semi- 
naries for  boys  at  Neuss,  Mtlnstereffel,  Rheinbach, 
and  Opiaden,  4  high  schools  and  boarding-colleges  for 
boys,  and  26  boarding-schools  for  girls  (the  latter  con- 
ducted by  female  orders).  For  the  higher  education 
of  the  cleijgy  there  is  the  Catholic  faculty  of  ttieology 
at  the  University  of  Bonn,  with  14  ecclesiastical  pro- 
lesfiom,  in  addition  to  the  (Cologne)  seminary  for 
priests  already  mentioned.  Ecclesiastical  teachers 
are  also  employed  at  102  secondary  schools  (gymnasia, 
technical  gymnasia, high  schools,  academies,  and  Latin 
schools,  etc.),  and  5  ("atholic  teachers'  seminaries,  at 
42  Catholic  giris'  high  Schools  and  5  CSatholic  training 
sdiooLs  for  women  teachers.  The  total  attendance  at 
all  the  intermediate  and  higher  schools  of  the  archdio- 
dese  averages  about  17,400  Catholic  bojns  and  11,700 
Catholic  girls.  The  attendance  at  the  primary  schools 
{Volkaackulen)  is  428,000  children  in  11,560  classes. 
(For  the  educational  relations  between  the  Church 
and  the  State  see  Pritssia.) 
The  religious  orders  of  men  in  the  archdiocese  havg 

42  establu^ments  with  abottt  1100  members,  and  the 
orders  and  congregations  of  women  have  401  with 
6200  sisters,  there  being  in  the  cathedral  city  alone 

43  religious  houses  with  1140  inmates.  The  follow- 
ing orders  or  congregations  arc  represented:  Benedic- 
tines (1  establisfcSnent),  Dominicans  (2),  Franciscans 
(9),  Camillians  (1),  Capuchhis  (2).  Carthusians  (1), 
Redemptorists  (2),  Trappists  (1),  Fathers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  (2),  Alexian 
Brothers  (9),  Brothers  of  Charity  (6;,  Brothers  of 
Saint  Francis  (6),  Betnedictine  Sisters  of  Perpetual 
Adoration  (3),  Borromean  Sisters  (18),  Cellites  (86), 
Sisters  of  Christ  (4),  Congregation  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin Mary  of  Saint  Peter  Fourier  (1).  Handmaids  of 
Christ  (69),  Sisters  of  Saint  Dominic  (lO), Order  of  Saint 
Elizabeth  (35),  Sistfers  of  Saint  Francis  (96),  Ladies  of 
the  Good  Shepherd  (3).  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus 
(10),  Carmelite  Sisters  (3),  Daughters  of  the  Holy  Cross 
(15),  Sisters  of  Christian  Chanty  (4),  Penitent  Recol- 
lects (1),  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  (2),  Ursulinos 
(9),  Sisters  of  Saint  Vincent  (31).  The  orders  of 
men  are  devoted  partly  to  nastoral  and  mission  work, 
partly  to  charitable  work ;  the  orders  of  women  devote 
themselves  almost  entirely  either  to  educational  work 
(Instruction  and  care  of  young  girls  in  various  es^ 
tablishments,  sewing  schools,  giris^  high  schools,  and 
boarding-schools)  or  to  charitable  work  in  refuges, 
working-women's  homes,  servant-prls'  homes,  the 
3are  of  the  sick  in  hospitals,  hospices,  etc. 

It  is  impossible  to  mention  here  all  the  numerous 
charities  and  organizations  found  within  the  limits  of 
the  archdiocese;  complete  statistics  are  given  in  M. 
Brandt's  book,  "Die  katholischen  Wohlthfttig- 
keits-Anstalten  und  Vereine  sowie  das  katholisch- 
sociale  Vereinswesen  insbesondere  in  der  Ensdidcese 
K6ln"  (Cologne,  1896).  In  the  cathedral  city  alone 
there  are  more  than  400  religious  societies  and  brother- 
hoods. The  most  important  of  the  organisations  and 
charitable  institutions  in  the  archdiocese  which  are 
not  limited  to  a  single  parish  are  as  follows:  182  con- 
gregations and  71  societies  for  young  men,  160  Catho- 
fic  working-men's  clubs,  74  Catholic  journeymen's  as- 
sociations {GesellenwTeine)y  26  miners*  associations, 
29  congregations  and  societies  of  merchants,  10  soci^ 
ties  for  women  employed  in  stores,  56  homes  and 
schools  for  working- women,  22  homes  for  the  insane 
and  idiots,  10  homes  for  servant  girls,  9'  refuges  for 
fallen  women,  90  orphanages;  also  tne  Elizabeth  soci^ 
ties  and  225  conferences  of  the  Society  of  Saint 
Vincent  de  Paul,  the  Saint  Regis  societies,  and 
others. 

The  most  important  churches  are  the  cathedral 
(Dom)  of  Cologne  (see  Above),  thec^thfedral  of  Aachen 
(q.  v.),  the  church(»«  at  Cologne  mentioned  above,  the 


cathedral  churches  at  Bonn  and  Essen,  the  church  of 
Saint  Quirinus  in  Neuss,  the  churches  of  the  former 
Abbots  of  Werden,  Knechtsteden,  ConxelimOnster, 
and  Steinfeld,  the  double  church  in  Schwaxz-Khein- 
dorf,  etc. 

A  complete  bibliogmphy  of  the  city  by  Kbttdxwio  ia  given  in 
Die  Kwutdenkmoler  der  Stadt  Ksln  (DQsaeldorf ,  1006).  T  Pt.  I. 
The  mctet  iiat^itant  works  are:  Biancx>,  Die  aUe  ImiverniAt 
Koln  (CokMne.  186^\  1;  KKvwmn,  Die  Matrikel  dn-  Vniver- 
stt&t  Km  (Bonn,  1892);  Enken,  Frankreich  und  der  Nieda- 
thein  oder  Oeaehiehte  von  Stadt  und  Kurataai  K6ln  sett  dem  SO 
jOhnpen  Krieoe  (2  vols.,  Ck>Iogne,  180^56);  Iokm,  Oeachiekie 
der  Stadt  KMn  (5  vpl0.,  Colokae  vid  NeUM,  1663-^);  Q^eUen 
zur  OeschicMe  der  Stadt  K^ln,  ed.  by  Ennbn  and  Cckebtz  (6 
vols..  Coloime,  1860-79);  Chivniken  der  deutthen  Stddie, 
vols.  XII'XIV  (Leipsig,  1875-77);  MitteUungen  aue  dem  Stadt- 
wr^iv  von  /S:difi.(32  vpta.,  GolocM,  1883-1904);  Kfilner 
Schretfuurkundendee  19.  Jahrhunderte,  ed.  by  Hojcniosb  (2  vols.. 
Bonn,  1884-04);  H^hlbauii-Lau,  Das  Bueh  Weinebera,  Kdlner 
DenkwQrdigkeiten  aua  dem  16.  JahrhundeH  (4  vols.,  Leipng  and 
Bonn.  1886-08):  Kdin  und  eeine  BatOen  (CoIocim.  1888): 
MoHR,  Die  Kirehen  von  Kdln  (Berlin,  1889);  Korth,  Koln  im 
Mittelalter  (Cologne,  1801  )♦  good  bibliography;  Stein,  Afcten  tur 
Oeaehiehte  der  VtrfoBeung  und  Verwaltuna  der  Stadt  KUln  im  74. 
umd  i£.  Jahrhundtfi  (2  vols..  Bonn,  1893-95);  Mbbi^  Kalnieche 
KUnailer  in  alter  und  neuer  Zeit  (DQsaeldoif .  1805):  Scheibleb 
Axo  Ai:j>EKHorBT;,  Oeadiiehte  der  Kdtner  Malere&iule  (2  vols., 
with  100  photogmvaree.  LQbeck.  1804-06);  KffiPPXNo,  Die 
K6lnerStadtraiJmwHfendee  MittMtere  (2  vols..  Bcon,  1807-08); 
Lau.  Die  Entwieklung  der  kommunaien  Verfaesung  und  Ver- 
waUuHo  der  Stadt  Keln  hie  xum  Jahre  1$9G  (Bonn,  1898); 
HELiffSBN.  Kdki  und  eeine  Sehenewicrdiokeiten  (20th  ed.,  Col- 
ogne«  1903);  H.  v.  Lcbsch,  Kdlner  Zunfturftunden  (2  voia^  Bonn, 
1905):  Keusskn,  Hietorieehe  Topographie  der  Stadt  Kbln  im 
Mittelalter  (Bonn,  1006);    I^EvrENB,  Ktslner  KirdienkaUnder 

Sir  doe  Jehr  1907  (Cologne,  1007).  For  the  eatfaedml  eonsult: 
oiasBRiB.  Oeaehiehte  und  BeeekreHnmo  dee  Dome  9U  Kdln  (2nd 
ed..  Munieh,  1842);  Bocx,  Der  Kunel-  und  ReliquienecftaU  dee 
Kdtner  Dome  (Cologne  and  Neuss,  1870);  Schmitz,  Der  Dom 
tu  KMn  (100  tables,  with  text  by  Ennbi4.  Cologne,  1808-76): 
WiRTHASE,  Der  Domjeu  Kdln  (40  plates  with  text,  Frankfort. 
1884-1889);  Helmken,  Der  Dom  tu  Kdln  (4th  ed.,  Cologne. 
1800);   LrNDNER.  Der  Dom  zu  Kdln  (plates.  Haarlem.  1004). 

The  older  soaroes  and  works  that  iieat  of  the  Archdioeeee  ai 
Cologne  are  given  by  Waltbb  in  Dae  aUe  Breetift  und  die 
Reieheetadt  OUn  (Bonn.  1866),  3-18.  FuU  bibliographical 
references,  especially  for  the  indtvidual  archbishops,  are  found 
in  the  Handbueh  der  SttdiUceae  Cdln  (lOth  ed.,  Colog&e,  1006). 
also  the  list  of  theastistaot  hishope,  general  vioars,  and  nuncios 
of  Cologne.  The  most  important  works  of  reference  are: 
BiNTERlM  and  Mooren.  Die  aUe  und  neue  Srzdi^ceee  Kdln  (4 
vols..  Mains,  1828-30;  2d  ed.  in  2  vols.,  DOsseldorf.  1802-03); 
Laoomblbt,  Urkundenbueh  fftr  die  Oeaehiehte  dee  Niederrheine 
(4  vols.,  DOsseldorf.  1840-58);  Laoomblet.  Archiv  far  die 
(ieet^ichU  dee  Niederrheine  (7  vols.,  Dfisseldorf,  1832-70); 
HKrBERTi,  UrkundenbuA  tur  Landee^  und  Reehteoeechichte  de* 
Hertogtume  Weetfaten  (3  vols.,  Arosberg.  1880-54);  Mbbino  abd 
Beischbrt,  Die  Bischdfe  una  ErAieehofe  von  Koln  (2  vols., 
Cologne.  1842-44);  Binterim.  Die  geieUichen  OerxchteinderErz- 
dioceee  tCfiln  (DOsseldorf.  1840);  Enken.  GeeehiehUderBeferma- 
iian  im  Bereiehe  der  alten  Eradideeae  Kdln  (Cologne.  1840),- 
Kampfschultr.  Kirchlich-poliiiache  SkUiatik  dee  vormah  tur 
ErzdideeseKdlngehfirigen  Weatfalen  (Lippstadt.  1860);  PontECH. 
Oeaehiehte  der  Brtdiiieeae  Kdln  (Mains,  1870);  DtJiiONr.  De- 
atripHo  Archidieteeeie  Colonieneia  (Ck>lagne,  1870);  Ibbm. 
Oeaehiehte  der  Pfarreien  der  Ertdidceee  Kdln  (Ck)lognc,  1883- 
1900).  I-X;  Let.  Die  kSlnief^  Kirchengeechichte  im  Anschluta 
an  die  Oeaehiehte  der  kdlniachen  BiachHie  und  ErtbiaMfe  (Col- 
1883);    Geaehiohaiisher  Atlaa  der  Rheinvrovin*   (Bonn. 


an 

(xne,  1883);  GeaehiohUither  Attaa  der  Hheinprovina  (Bonn, 
1804-1901 ):  Kleinbbmannb,  Die  Heiligen  auf  dem  biachdflichen 
bzw.  erzbischdflichen  Stuhle  von  Kdln  (Cologne,  1805),  I;  Jan- 
REN,  Die  Henegageivalt  der  Erdniaehofe  von  Kdln  in  Weatfalen 
(Munioh,  1805);  KmBpiNO,  Die  Regeeten  der  BrxbiachOfe  van  Kdln 
im  MUtdaJUer  (vol.  II.,  Bonn.lOOO;  vol.  til  in  press,  1007); Sad kr- 
LAND,  Urkxtnden  und  Regeaten  zur  Oeaehu^te  der  Rheirdtmde  aua 
dem  vatikaniachen  Archiv  (vol.  I-III.,  Bonn,  1002-05;  vol.  IV  in 

gress,  1007);  KoBTB.  Die  Patroeinien  der  Kirehen  und  Kapellen  im 
rtbiatum  Kdln  (DOsseldorf.  1904);  Kunatdenkmaler  der  Rhein- 
provim  (DOsseldorf.  1891 — );  Bau-  und  Kunatdenkmdler  von 
Weatfalen  (Paderbom.  1803 — );  WoiJ>-.  Aua  Kurkdln  im  18. 
JahrhundeH  (Berlin,  1906);  Ewaxd.  Die  Siepd  der  Erdnaehijft 
von  Koln  91*8-1795  (Bonn,  1906);  Weatfdliechea  Urkundenbudi, 
vol.  VII,  Die  Urkundendea  kdlniachen  Weatfalen  vom  Jahre  ttOO- 

ISOO  (Monster,  18 ^1907).     For  the  lUfoimation  period  see: 

DBOT7VBN.  Die  Reformation  in  der  kdlniachen  Kirdienprovina 
tur  Zeit  Hermanna  V,  von  Wied  (Bonn,  1876);  Losben,  Der 
kdlniache  Krieg  (I,  Ootha.  1882;  II.  Munich.  1897).  also 
sWunliaiutheriehte  aua  Deutachland  (Pt.  I.  Paderbom,  180S  snd 
1809;  Pt.  III.  vols.  I  and  II.  Berlin.  1892  and  1894).  The 
most  important  periodicals  are:  Annalen  dea  hiatoriaaten 
Vereine  fflr  den  Niederrhein  ina  beaondere  die  alte  Bndidceae  Kdln 
(at  present  83  vols.,  Cologne.  1855  — ).  Jahrhiicher  dea 
Vereme  von  AUertumafreunden  im  Rheintand  (Bonn,  1842 — ); 
Wealdeuteche  Zeitachrift  fiir  Oeaehiehte  und  Kunai  (Trier,  1882—). 
with  supplementary  volumes. 

Joseph  Lins. 

UmVERBiTT   OF    CoLOONE. — ^Though   famotiB  aD 
through  the  Middle  Ages  for  its  cathedral  and  cloister 


COLOMBA 


121 


<lO&MiBI4 


schools  and  for  eminent  scholars — Albertus  Magnus, 
Bt.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Duns  Sootus — Cologne  had 
no  university  imtil  necu*  the  end  of  the  fourteenth' 
century,  when  Urban  VI,  at  the  instance  of  the  Town 
Council,  issued  (21  May,  1388)  the  Bull  of  foundation. 
The  university  was  inaugurated  the  following  year 
with  twenty-one  magistri  and  737  matriculated 
students.  Further  pnvileges  were  granted  by  Boni- 
face IX  (1389,  1394),  Duke  Wiihehn  von  Geldem 
(1396),  and  Emperor  Frederick  III  (1442);  while 
speciad  favour  was  shown  the  university  by  Gregory 
XII  (1406),  Nicholas  V  (1447),  and  Pius  II;  the  last- 
named  pope  addressed  his  "Bull  of  Retractation" 
(In  minorious  agentes)  to  the  Rector  and  University 
of  Cologne  (26  April,  1463).  The  university  was 
represented  at  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle, 
and  was  involved  in  the  controversy  regarding  the 
authority  of  council  and  pope.  It  took  sides  with 
the  antipope  Felix  V,  but  eventually  submitted  to 
Nicholas  V.  The  Renaissance  movement  met  With 
opposition  at  Cologne,  though  amon^  its  professors 
were  the  humanists  Caesarius,  Buschius,  Glareanus^ 
Gratius,  Phrissemius,  and  Sobius.  During  the  same 
period  may  be  mentioned  the  theologians  Arnold  of 
Tongres  and  Hoogstraaten,  O.  P.  AU  these  were  in- 
volved in  the  conflict  which  centred  about  Reuchlin 
(q.  v.)  and  which  did  the  university  great  harm. 
Tlie  "EpistolfiB  obscurorum  virorum"  were  directed 
against  the  theologians  of  Ck)logne.  At  the  time  of 
the  Reformation,  but  few  of  the  professors  joined  the 
Protestant  movement;  the  university  as  a  whole  was 
strong  in  its  defence  of  the  Catholic  Faith  and  some 
of  its  stxidents,  as  Cochkeus  and  Eck,  were  afterwards 
foremost  champions  of  the  Church.  Failing  on  the 
other  h  And  to  introduce  the  reforms  needed  in  its  own 
work  and  organization,  the  university  declined  rapidly 
during  the  sixteenth  centurv.  The  vicissitudes  of 
war,  lack  of  means,  and  withdrawal  of  its  students 
reduced  it  to  a  nominal  existence  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries.  In  1786  the  founding  of 
the  University  of  Bonn  (a.  v.)  decided  the  fate  of 
Cologne,  which  was  unable  to  withstand  its  more 
vigorous  rival.  The  French  troops  entered  Cologne 
in  October,  1794;  in  April,  1796,  the  university  was 

dosed. 

Rabhoall,  Universities  of  Ewmpe  in  the  Middle  Ages  (Ox- 
ford. 1890).  II.  251;  Bianco,  Die  o/te  UnivenilAt  Kdln  (CqloKne. 
1865);  Kbussen,  Die  Matrikel  d.  UniversiUU  Kdln  1389  bis  1559 
CBonn,  1892);  Denifle,  Die  UniversiUUen  des  MiUelaUert 
(BerUn.  1886).  „ 

E.  A.  Page. 

Oolomba  of  Baeti,  Blessed,  b.  at  Rieti,  in  Urn- 
bria,  Italy,  1467;  d.  at  Perugia,  1601.  Blessed  Co- 
lomba  of  Rieti  is  always  called  after  her  birthplace, 
though  she  actually  spent  the  greater  part  of  her  life 
away  from  it.  Her  celebrity  is  based — as  it  was  even 
in  her  lifetime — ^mainly  on  two  things:  the  highly  mi- 
raculous nature  of  her  career  from  its  very  beginning, 
and  her  intense  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 
Sie  was  one  amongst  a  number  of  saintly  Domim'can 
women  who  seem  to  have  been  expressly  raised  up 
by  God  in  protest  against,  and  as  a  sharp  contrast  to, 
the  irreligion  and  immorality  prevalent  in  Italy 
during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  These 
women ,  nearly  all  of  the  Third  Order,  had  an  intense  de- 
votion to  St.  Catherine  of  Siena,  and  made  it  their 
aim  to  imitate  her  as  nearly  as  possible.  Many 
seculars,  men  as  well  as  women,  shared  this  devo- 
tion, amongst  these  being  Ercole  I,  Duke  of  Ferrara, 
who  had  a  deep  admiration  for  Colomba  and  for 
some  other  holy  Dominican  religious,  her  contempor- 
aries, the  most  notable  of  whom  were  Blessed 
Osanna  of  Mantua  and  Blessed  Lucy  of  Nami.  For- 
the  latter  Ercole's  veneration  was  so  great  that  he 
nev^r  rested  until  he  h^  got  her  to  come  with  some 
of  her  nuns  to  live  in  Ferrara,  where  he  built  her  a 
convent  and  where  she  died   after  many  troubles. 


She  b^an  when  quite  a  giri  to  practise  austere  pen- 
ances and  to  subsist  almost  entirely  on  the  super- 
natural food  of  the  Holy  Eucharist,  aftd  continued 
this  for  the  greater  part  of  her  life.    At  nineteen 
rfie  joined  the  Dominican  Tertiaries',  of  whom  there 
were  many  in  the  town,  though  still  living  at  home; 
and  she  soon  won  the -veneration  of  her  fellow  towns- 
people by  her  personal  holiness  a*  well  as  by  some 
miracles  that  sne  worked.    But  Colomba  was  not  des- 
tined to  remain  in  Rieti.     In  1488  she  left  home  and 
weht  to  Perugia,  where  the  inhabitants  received  her 
as  a  saint,  and  in  the  course  of  time  built  her  the 
convetrt  of  St.  Cathe- 
rine,   in  which    she 
assembled     all     the 
Third  Order  Domini- 
canesses, who  desired 
her    as    superior  in 
spite  of  her  youth. 
In  1494,  when  a  ter- 
rible pla^e  was  rag- 
ing in  Perugia,  she 
of^red  herself  as  vic- 
tim for  the  city.  The 
plague  was    stayed, 
but  Colomba  herself 
was  struck  down  by 
the    scourge.       She 
recovered    only     to 
have  her  sanctity  se- 
verely tried  by  wide- 
ly spread  calumnies, 
which  reached  Rome, 
whence    a   comthis- 
sion  was  sent  to  ex- 
amine into  her  life. 
She  was  treated  for 
some  time  as  an  im- 
postor, and  deposed 
from    her    office    of 
prioress;    but  finally 
ner  innocence  trium- 
phed. In  1495  Alex- 
ander    VI,     having 
heard   of  Colomba? 
holiness   and  mir- 
aeles   from  his    son 
the  Cardinal   Caesar 
Borgia,    who    had 
been  living  in  Per- 
ugia, went  himself  to  the  city  and  saw  her.    She 
is  said  to  have  gone  into   an  ecstasy  at  his  feet, 
and  also  to  have  boldly  told   him  of  all  personal 
sins.      The  pope  was  fully  satisfied  of  her  great 
sanctity,  and  set  the  seal  of  his  approval  on  her 
mode  of  life.     In  the  year  1499  she  was  consulted,  by 
authorities  who  were  examining  into  the  matter,  con-  • 
cerning  the  stigmata  of  Blessed  Lucy  of  Nami,  and 
spoke  warmly  m  favour  of  their  being  genuine,  and 
of  her  admiration  for  Blessed  Lucy's  noliness.     Her 
relics  are  still  venerated  at  Perugia,  and  her  feast  is 
kept  by  her  order  on  20  May. 

Albbrti,  Vila  delta  h.  Colomba  da  Rieti  sepolta  a  Perttgia 
(Boloma.  1621);  pAFBBBOcaii  Cowunent^  ptaev.  m  Acta  SS., 
May,  V,  31»-20:  .  Rotei^u,  Vit^  della  b.  Colomba  da  Rieti 
(Bionza.  1875);  Skbastiano  dkgu  Anoeu,  ed.  Viretti,  Vita 
della  b.  Colomba  da  Rieti  (Perugia.  1777),  tr.;  Qardnkr.  /\>fte 
and  Dukea  in  Ferrara  (London,  1904). 

F.  M.  Capes. 

Oolombia,  Republic  6p  (formerly  Uwpted  States 
OP  Colombia),  forms  the  north-west  tjomer  of  the 
South  American  Continent.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  the  east  by  Venezuela, 
on  the  south  by  Brazil  and  Peru,  on  the  south-west  by 
Ecuador.  The  Pacific  Ocean  bounds  it  on  the  west 
and  on  thenorth-^est  the  Republic  of  Panama  and  the 
Gulf  of  Darien.    Its  area  is  variously  calculated  at 


Bb.  Gk>LoicdA  OP  RiBTi 
Perugino  (7),  Pinaooteca,  Perugia 


OOLOBftBU. 


122 


COLOMBIA 


£rom  450,000  to  about  500,000  square  miles,  but  exact 
data  are  not  obtainable.  Colombia  has.  at  least  eleven 
active  or  dormant  volcanoes,  the  tallest  of  wfaioh, 
Huila,  rises  to  about  10,000  feet  and  seems  to  be  Uie 
highest  point  in  the  country.  Almost  on  the  Carib- 
bean shores  are  the  mud-volcanoes  of  Turbaco.  The 
re|>ublic  is  hi^y  favoured  by  nature  in  most  parts 
ofits  territory,  and  capable  of  producing  nearly  every 
staple.  It  is  very  rich  in  useful  tropical  plants.  The 
animal  kingdom,  too,  is  far  better  represented  than 
farther  south  along  the  Pacific  coast.  The  climate 
shows  all  possible  varieties,  from  the  moist  heat  of 
the  lowlands  to  the  bitter  cold  of  the  mountain  wastes,. 

Since  1870  no  census  of  the  population  has  been  at- 
tempted. To-day  the  number  of  inhabitants  is  vari- 
ously estimated,  four  millions  being  a  likely  conjecture. 
One  estimate  (made  in  1904)  gives  3,017,000  souls; 
another,  two  years  later,  4,680,000,  of  which  4,083,000 
for  the  sixteen  departments,  120,000  for  the  federal 
district,  and  427,000  for  the  intendanciee.  Four- 
fifths  at  least  of  this  population  resides  in  the  moun- 
tainous western  half,  tne  eastern  lowlands  being  mostly 
held  by  wild  Indian  bands.  H&e  number  of  aborigines 
b  given  at  about  150,000,  without  reliable  basis,  how- 
ever, for  this  estimate.  The  most  populous  city  is  the 
capital,  Bogota,  situated  at  an  altitude  of  9000  feet 
above  the  sea,  with  85,000  inhabitants;  Medellin,  in 
the  department  of  Antioquia  (4600  feet  above  the  sea) 
comes  next,  with  50,000  souls,  then  Barranquilla, 
Colombia's  most  active  seaport,  with  32,000  (later  ac- 
coimts  say  55,000).  Negroes  and  mulattoes  are  num- 
erous, and  mestizos  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  peo- 
ple. In  the  mountains  the  pure  Indian  has  been  re- 
duced by  amalgamation  to  a  small  proportion  of  the 
inhabitants  and  most  of  the  aboriginal  stocks  have 
completely  disappeared  as  such.  Near  the  Gulf  of 
Maracaibo  the  Goaiiros  still  maintain  autonomy,  but 
the  Tayronas,  Panchee,  Musos,  are  practically  extinct. 
Around  Bogoti  there  are  descendants  of  the  Chibchas 
(q.  v.),  a  sMentary  tribe  once  of  considerable  numeri- 
cal importance,  for  aborigmes. 

HiSTORT. — The  earliest  information  oonceming  the 
territory  which  was  to  become  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  Republic  of  Colombia  goes  back  to  the  Y^ftr 
1500  and  comes  down  to  us  from  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas 
and  Alonzo  de  Ojeda.  But  even  a  few  months  before 
these  explorers,  Christ6val  Guerra  and  Pero  Alonxo 
Nino  haa  coasted  Venezuela  and,  possibly,  the  north- 
em  shores  of  Colombia,  gathermg  pearls  and  gold. 
Bastidas  saw  the  snowy  range  of  Ssmta  Marta  in  1500, 
and  Ojeda  settled  on  the  coast  near  by.  The  Spanish 
colonies  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  (since  1903,  tne  Re- 

Eublic  of  Panama,  but  previously  a  province  of  Colom- 
ia)  and  the  discovery  of  the  South  Sea  by  Balboa 
(q.  V.)  directed  the  course  of  exploration  of  Colombia 
to  its  north-western  and  Pacific  sections.  The  banks 
of  large  rivers,  Atrato,  Cauca,  and  Magdalena,  were  also 
explored  and  oonqu^^  at  an  early  period.  The  val- 
leys, especially  that  of  the  Cauca,  were  inhabited  by 
comparatively  numerous  agricultural  tribes,  who  also 
gathered  gold  by  washing  and  worked  it  into  figures, 
ornaments,  and  sometimes  vessels.  Much  of  the  pre- 
cious metal  was  found  in  graves.  The  Indians  of  Antio- 
quia, Ancerma,  Call,  and  Lile,  Uiough  living  in  vil- 
lages, were  cannibals,  and  wars  of  extermination  had 
to  be  waged  against  them.  The  languages  of  these  peo- 
ples have  weUnigh  disappeared,  as  well  as  the  tnbes 
themselves,  and  their  classification  in  four  principal 
groups,  Catios,  Nutabes,  Tahamies,  and  Yamacies  (of 
whicn  the  first  two  held  both  banks  of  the  Cauca),  re- 
quires confirmation.  In  western  Colombia  the  Span- 
iards penetrated  to  the  northern  confines  of  Ecuador 
(Paste,  Popayan)  comparatively  eariy,  and  there  met 
other  explorers  from  their  own  people  coming  up  from 
Quito.    This  led  to  strife  and  even  to  bloodshed. 

The  valley  of  the  Magdalena  formed  the  natural 
route  into  the  interior.    The  Indian  tribee  around, 


and  to  the  south  of,  the  Santa  Marta  Mountains 
(Chimilas,  Panches,  Tayronas,  Musos)  were  of  a  sed- 
entaiy  and  warlike  character,  and  offered  a  protracted 
resistance.  It  eeems  that  they  belonged  to  ttie  lin- 
guistic stock  of  the  Chibcha  (or  Muysca),  and  consid- 
erable gold  was  found  among  them,  chiefly  in  burial 
places.  Up  to  1536,  Tamalameque  (about  9^  N.  lat.) 
had  been  tke  most  southern  point  reached  from  Santa 
Marta.  In  the  be^g^nning  or  that  year,  however,  an 
important  expedition  was  set  on  foot  under  the  com- 
mand of  Pedro  Fernandez  de  Lugo,  with  the  object  of 
penetrating  into  the  unknown  mountains  to  the  south. 
Luflo  soon  died,  but  his  lieutenant  Gonzalo  Xim^nez 
de  Qvesada  persevered  j  and  reached  the  plateau,  where 
he  found  the  numerous  tribes  of  the  Chibcha  estab- 
lished in  formal  settlements,  and  rich  in  gold  and 
in  emeralds  obtained  from  the  country  of  the  Musob 
where  they  are  still  obtained.  By  August,  1538,  Cun- 
dinamarca  (by  which  name  the  Chibcha  range  is  mostly 
known)  was  occupied  by  Quesada  after  considerable 
warfare  with  the  natives,  and  the  city  of  Santa  F6  de 
Bogota  was  founded  as  capital  of  the  "Kingdom  of 
New  Granada '\  which  continued  the  oflicial  designa- 
tion of  Colombia  until  its  independence  was  achieved. 
Upon  the  conquest  of  the  Chibcha  country  followed 
expeditions  to  the  east  and  south-east,  in  quest  of  the 
"Gilded  Man''  (el  Dorado)  with  little  more  Uian  geo- 
graphical results.  Tbe^e  expeditions  led  towards  the 
reoion  now  forming  the  Republic  of  Venezuela. 

The  establishment  of  a  German  administrati(xi  in 
Venezuela,  by  the  Welser  family,  in  1529,  also  led  the 
Spaniards  and  Germans  into  Colombia  from  the  £ast. 
Ainbrosius  Dalfinger  (1529-32)  reached  Tamalameq^ue 
and,  in  1538,  when  Quesada  was  beginning  to  orauaize 
his  recent  conquest  at  Bogota,  he  was  surprised  by  the 
arrival  of  a  force  from  Venezuela  commanded  by  the 
German  leader  Nicolas  Federmann.  Shortly  after 
this  another  body  of  Spaniards  reached  the  plateau  of 
Cundinamarca  from  the  Cauca  Valley.  This  was  the 
expedition  headed  by  Sebastian  Belalcazar  of  Quito. 
Each  of  the  three  conmianders  having  acted  independ- 
ently, each  claimed  the  territory  as  his  conquest,  but 
QuMada  succeeded  in  buying  his  rivals  on,  and  re- 
mained master  of  the  field,  thus  avoiding  bloodshed. 

New  Granada,  under  its  own  audiencia  established 
in  1563,  formed  part  of  the  Spanish  Viceroycdty  of  Peru 
until  1718,  was  then  severed  from  Peru  for  four  years, 
then  again  placed  under  an  audiencia,  and  finally,  in 
1751,  constituted  a  separate  viceroyalty.  During  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  ports  of  the  Colombian  coast 
were  exposed  to  the  formidable  attacks  of  pirates.  In 
1671  the  notorious  Morgan  took  Panama  and  sacked  it, 
and  the  most  horrible  cruelties  were  committed  upon 
its  inhabitants.  Two  years  later  it  was  the  turn  of 
Santa  Marta.  In  1679  the  French  Baron  de  Pointe 
took  and  pillaged  Cartagena  (founded  1510).  Relig- 
ious strife,  too,  between  the  secular  and  some  of  the 
regular  clergy,  and  between  the  bishops  and  the  civil 
authorities,  troubled  Cartagena,  Popayan,  and  other 
dioceses.  .  Extreme  measures  of  taxation,  exorbitant 
duties,  provoked  a  popular  uprising  in  1781.  The 
country  remained  in  a  state  of  ferment,  which  was  ag- 
gravated by  the  downfall  of  Spain  before  the  power  of 
Napoleon.  Miranda  made  in  1806  an  attempt  at  in- 
surrection, directed  in  the  first  instance  against  Ven- 
ezuela, but  threatening  New  Granada  as  well,  had  it 
succeeded.  Gn  20  July,  1810,  a  revolutionary  junta 
met  at  Bogota,  and  in  tne  following  year  "The  United 
Provinces  of  New  Granada '  *  were  proclaimed.  These 
embraced  also  Venezuela  and  Ek^uador,  and  soon  two 
parties  appeared  among  the  revolutionists,  so  that, 
TOevious  to  1816,  three  civil  wars  had  taken  place. 
Bolivar,  who  appeared  upon  the  scene  in  1810,  was  un- 
able to  establifui  harmony.  Spain  could  do  almost 
nothing  to  recover  its  colonies  until  1815,  when  a  re- 
spectable force  under  General  Morillo  landed  in  Ven- 
ezuela.   This  united  the  factions  again,  and  for  five 


}  ^iV  Anhbii.Kbi,.],»nC 

f     »«    **  PwlHrtur*  A|.KnfcQli« 

CbNm 
k    titaUH  IrilMt  In  iTALlC$ 


3  l>kuiJ*'-f<«  uf  ^iUf^v-M  P^rtplutia  , .  l'Aiii|tLuDa. 
i  Dioi'e*e  oX  Hocurro.   . .   .,       , . -  Sur<>ri-4j. 

jj^   mu  PRot.  or  nifTiOEKi 
III.    Ell  L,  rnnv^  hf  XKniiLi.n 

[IjifM.i'M}  tit  Afitir^iiulA     ........  Antln^inia. 

3  UiiKtspt.'  ut  MitnlsiueK,     MiliijihJlti 

it.    EcrL.  mciT.  iip  Mr*tJi:r 

pAi^Kti ....  pDrny&cw 

K  XT  RAO  It.    KlVI^    AfP.^tt^ft 

L^-,  7  —    4,  vie.  A  ti<>"f.  ot  CfiiMTiftrv ifjiinftrflL 

B.  Vic  AjiosL  at  Uoajtm i 


I — I  J  4i.       »i  I   1^     r  mk\f 

i  AftHilji-^hiiiirir  t>f  (.^ii 

Bi 

)    An'^ihi^hrtprir  at  Yfi\ 

a  liliKHHw  of  fksto 


COLOMBIA   rConUDued) 

C.   Vt%f.  Apiwt   4  'MqLl*^lJI , . .    SdtH^tJ^ 

1>.  Pief.  ApoA,  Lldmtt  ilati.  MJir- 

tlhu. . .      .  -  i 

El  Kritf.  ApuEiC  ^ntuDileiLia  Ort«< 

«nt4Je  ^ 

S.  B.— or  the  Hbovp.  A  ami  C  hiy  iiltujit«^  In 
the  T?rrltoi1(?fl  pT  th<^  nii.\nv  iiJiirt^v  Mttil  K  In  Lb« 
(Uiiiut«d  TflirltoTy  boi-di^rin^r  uii  tk^ii Hilar. 

ECUADOR 

ECTL.   CM  11%,  II r   ^l  ITU 
I  Arehb1?ih(HJrlcofyiUti> .......  Qult4>. 

t  UliX'THf  of  CmsTifd.   . , , CiiBtic*. 

J  tU>A.'i«ii«  af  IbLrrA  4. 1l«rnin 

4  liiwt'M  EjiT  LcijB     ....jLoJa. 

i  Uli>i?ew  of  <  •UH^'iuniM  'Gu^f^iuiiJlL 

(I  DNw^f1•e^^f  ^^tirtiUflrjo     Hcul^vkjo. 

'  iHfKxmm  of  HIatwiiiljJi , Ki<^ljttiial**. 

Vlil'AkUTU  APPflTOUO  rjCTHtn  TITF  JrBI!<lHfT|0» 

or  THC  I'ONii.  or  ExTH.^'Uk.  l^^xL.  Ari''iJ4t.H 

A.  C)lll«lQ»4ii[Jl  ,MAi>ai \  ,  vi.wi.H 

H.  Mm.d«and[j(uaiuial» I  ^*^  ^}  Mctirl^ 

D.  juS^^™:::::: ::::::::  ■":>"'  """^  '^'^'*^ 

Tbfl  KrwreCoiu-  ihre  ■fitinic^  ui  tb»"Provliuii* 


«OPTNianT.    IMS,  CT  AOiCIIT  APPkCTON  CO. 


TH»  IIATTMBW»-»IOHTi»IW  w^*-.* .   ^Wf  f  AU>,   1. 


OMOMBXA 


123 


00&OMBI4 


years  a  war  of  extermination  was  carried  on  in  the 
three  states.  During  that  period  the  Republic  of 
Colombia  was  proclaimed,  in  1819.  The  revolutionists 
suffered  manv  reverses^  for  Morillo  was  an  able  military 
leader.  Of  iJie  actions  fought  in  this  bloody  war,  that 
at  Sogamoeo  (12  June,  1819)  decided  the  fate  of  the 
remnants  of  the  Spanish  army,  and  the  engagement  at 
Carabobo,  near  Valencia  in  Venezuela  (24  June,  1821), 
was  the  last  of  any  conseauence.  The  Republics  of 
Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Venezuela  became  united 
under  the  name  of  Colombia.  In  1829.  however,  Ecua- 
dor and  Venezuela  seceded,  and  Colombia  was  left 
alone. 

In  1831  Colombia  became  "The  Republic  of  New 
Granada  *  \  Thirty  years  later  it  called  itself  "  United 
States  of  Colombia".  In  1886,  the  "sovereign  states" 
were  reduced  to  departments  of  a  "centrali^d  repub- 
lic" styled  "The  Republic  of  Colombia",  under  wnich 
name  it  is  known  to-day.  No  country  of  Spanish 
America  has  been,  since  its  independence,  so  often  and 
BO  violently  disturbed,  internally,  as  Colombia.  With 
a  single  exception  (Parra,  1876-80),  every  presidential 
term  has  been  marked  by  one  or  more  bloody  revolu- 
tions. Panama  seceded  for  a  while,  in  1856.  Tlie 
events  of  1903  made  the  separation  between  Colombia 
and  Panama  definitive.  Since  1904 ,  conditions  seem  to 
have  at  last  become  more  settled.  Reorganization, 
after  so  many  periods  of  disorder  and  anarchy,  seems 
to  be  the  aim  of  the  present  Government  of  Colombia. 

Hardly  was  the  territory  now  known  as  the  Repub- 
lic of  Colombia  discovered,  when  the  Church,  wt>rKing 
in  accord  witl^  the  King  of  Spain,  hastened  to  the 
natives.  In  spite  of  the  honest  mtentions  of  the  Span- 
ish kin^,  their  agents  were  in  many  cases  obstacles  to 
the  religious  progress  of  the  country.  What  progress 
was  attained  was  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  Dominican, 
Franciscan,  Jesmt,  and  other  missionaries.  This  great 
work  was  often  opposed  by  the  colonists  and  govern- 
ment officials  who  looked  solely  to  their  own  worldly 
prosperity.  The  religious  of  ^e  Society  of  Jesus,  with 
whose  history  the  name  of  the  Colombian  city  of  Carta- 
gena is  so  gloriously  associated  (see  Peter  Claver, 
Saint),  were  also  the  first  during  the  Colonial  period 
to  found  colleges  for  secondary  instruction;  ei^t  or 
ten  colleges  were  opened  in  which  the  youth  of  the 
country,  and  the  sons  of  the  Spaniards,  were  educated. 
In  the  Jesuit  College  of  Bogota  the  first  instruction  in 
mathematics  and  physics  was  given.  In  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Jesuits  oy  Charles  III  the  Church  in  New 
Granada  lost  her  principal  and  most  efficacious  aid  to 
the  civiliasation  of  the  country,  which  was  practically 
paralysed  for  many  vears.  To  this  day  the  traveller 
may  see  the  effects  of  this  arbitrary  act  in  the  immense 
plains  of  the  regions  of  Casanare,  converted  in  the 
space  of  one  century  iato  pasture  lands  for  cattle,  but 
which  were  once  a  source  of  great  wealth,  and  which 
would  have  been  even  more  so. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  ten  years  that  the  Catholic 
C!hurch,  owing  to  the  peace  and  liberty  which  she  now 
enjoys,  has  turned  her  eyes  once  more  to  Casanare- 
a  vicariate  Apostolic  has  been  erected  there,  govemea 
by  a  bishop  of  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine,  who  with 
the  memb^  of  his  order  labours  among  the  savages 
and  semi-savages  of  these  pj^^ins. 

Present  Conditions. — The  legislative  power  of  the 
nation  is  vested  in  a  Congress  consisting  of  the  Senate 
and  the  House  of  Representatives.  Senators  are 
elected  for  six  years.  Each  senator  has  two  substi- 
tutes elected  with  hiin.  Every  department  is  entitled 
to  three  senators,  and  the  whole  body  is  renewed,  upon 
the  completion  of  the  term  of  service  of  one-third  of  its 
members,  every  two  years.  One  representative  and  two 
substitutes  correspond  to  a  population  of  50,000,  and 
their  term  of  ofi^ce  is  four  years.  Congress,  besides 
legislation,  has  power  to  interfere  with  the  action  of  the 
executive  in  matters  of  contracts  aiul  treaties.  The 
executive  is  headed  by  the  president,  who  has  a  vice- 


president  and  a  substitute  (or  dssignadg);  the  last 
takes  office  in  case  both  president  and  vice-prendent 
become  incapacitated.  While  the  presidential  term 
has  varied  from  six  to  four  years,  the  actual  inoumbeat 
(1908),  Rafael  Reyes,  is  in  possession  of  the  office  for 
ten  years.  There  is  a  cabinet  of  ministers  and  a  con- 
sultative body  called  the  "Council  of  State",  com- 
posed of  six  members  with  the  vice-presideait  at  its 
head.  The  president  appoints  the  members  of  the 
Supreme  Court  for  life,  or  diuring  good  behaviour. 
The  judicial  districts  have  their  superior  as  well  a8< 
inferior  eourts.  Courts  of  Commerce  may  he  insti* 
tuted  when  necessary,  and  trial  by  jury  obtains  in 
criminal  cases.  The  Constitution  of  1886,  amended 
in  1904  and  1905,  explicitly  provides  (Art.  38)  that 
**  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Roman  Religion  is  that  of  the 
Nation;  the  public  authorities  wiil  protect  it  and 
cause  it  to  be  respected  as  an  essential  element  of 
social  order.  It  being  understood  that  the  Catholic 
Church  is  not  and  shfdl  not  be  ofiicial,  and  shall  pre- 
serve its  independence".  The  next  following  article 
guarantees  to  all  persons  freedom  from  molestation 
I'on  account  of  religious  opinions",  and  Art.  40  lays 
it  down  that  **  the  exercise  of  all  cults  not  contrary  to 
Christian  morality  or  the  laws  is  permitted  "•  A  con- 
cordat, entered  into  between  the  Holy  See  and  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  in  1887,  now  regulates  in  detail 
the  relations  between  Church  and  State.  These  relar 
tions  are  at  present  (1908)  thoroughly  cordial,  while 
dissenters  are  in  no  way  interfered  with  on  account  of 
their  religious  peculiarities.  The  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation of  Colombia  consists  of  four  provinces:  Bogotd, 
with  four  suffragans,  Ibagu^,  Nueva  Pamplona, 
Socorro,  and  Tunja;  Cfiutagena.  with  two  suffragans, 
Santa  Marta  and  Panama;  Meaellin,  with  two  suffra- 
gans, Antioquia  and  Manziales;  and  Popayan,  with 
two  suffragans,  Garzon  and  Pasto.  There  are  also 
two  vicariates  Apostolic:  Casanare  and  Goajira;  and 
three  prefectures  Apostolic:  Caqueta,  Piani  di  S. 
Martino,  and  Intenaenza  Orientate.  (See  BoootA, 
Cabtaqena,  etc.) 

Article  41  of  the  Constitution  provides  that ''  public 
education  shall  be  oiganized  and  directed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Catholic  Religion.  Primary  instruction 
at  the  expense  of  the  public  funds  shall  be  gratuitous 
and  not  obligatory. ' '  There  are  no  educational  statis- 
tics attainable  of  any  recent  date.  In  1897  it  was 
stated  there  were  2026  colleges  and  primary  sohoob 
with  143,076  pupils.  Of  pnvate  educational  estab- 
lishments no  data  exist.  Only  the  faculties  of  medi- 
cine and  natural  sciences  are  in  operation  at  the  na- 
tional capital.  A  School  of  Arts  and  Trades  is  con- 
ducted by  the  Salesians,  and  there  are  normal  schools 
in  five  departments.  Secondary  institutions  are  al- 
most exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  Catholic  clergy 
and  rel^ous  corporations.  The  minister  of  pubUc 
instruction  is  the  official  head  of  the  department  of 
education. 

The  material  development  of  Colombia  has  neces- 
sarily been  much  retarded  by  the  political  disturb- 
ances which  have  occurred  since  the  first  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century  and  have  made  its  history  a  contin- 
uous succession  of  civil  wars.  In  1898  Colombia  had 
8600  miles  of  telegraph,  but  the  service  is  very  defective. 
Railroad  lines  are  in  operation  with  an  aggre^te 
length  of  411  miles,  the  longest  being  only  65  miles. 
The  metric  system  has  been  in  use  for  weights  and 
measures  since  1857.  Metallic  currency  has  nearly 
disappeared,  inconvertible  paper  forming  the  circu- 
lating medium.  The  re-establishment  of  gold  coinage 
has  lately  been  proposed.  The  paper  currency,  in 
1906,  had  lost  99  per  cent  of  its  nominal  vadue,  10,000 
Colombian  pesos  (paper  currency)  being  eoual  to  100 
dollars.  It  is  hopea,  however,  that  with  internal 
peace  these  unfortunate  conditions  will  rapidly  change 
for  the  better,  since  Colombia  has  unlimited  natural 
resources.    The  history  of  the  foreign  debt  of  this 


OO&OMBO 


124 


<ioi.aiCB0 


repul^  IB  a  aeries  of  bonx>win&s  and  attempted  settle- 
ments of  accumulated  capital  and  interest,  rendered 
impossible  by  political  disturbanoes.  The  budget  for 
1905-1006  amounted  to  £4,203,823.  There  are  no 
ofiicial  or  general  statistics  of  either  exports  or  im- 
ports. Partial  data,  however,  may  give  some  general 
idea  of  the  principal  articles  of  GolomlHan  produce, 
"nie  Colombian  gold  mines  up  to  1845  yielded  £71,- 
200,000.  Another  source  states  it  at  £115,000,000 
up  to  1886.  The  same  authority  (Restrepo).  estimates 
tne  sDver-production  during  the  same  period  at  £6,* 
600,000.  The  average  output  of  rock-salt  from  1883  to 
1897  has  been  1 1 ,000  tons  per  year.  The  exploitation 
of  the  emerald  mines  in  the  Province  of  Musos  vielded 
the  Government,  in  1904,  £10,000,  but  the  production 
was  not  alwavs  so  high  in  former  times.  Among 
vegetable  products  coifeo  takes  tl^e  first  rank  for  ex> 
port,  but  tne  annual  figures  have  varied  according  to 
the  political  state  of  the  country.  Thus,  in  1899,  be- 
fore the  revolution,  254,410  bags  of  coffee  were  ex- 
ported from  BarranquilkL  In  the  year  following  only 
86,917.  Peace  being  restored,  574|270  bags  could  be 
shipped  from  the  same  port  in  1904.  In  the  same  year 
24,000  tons  of  bananas  left  Barranquilla  for  the  United 
States,  and  tobacco  and  india-rubber  may  soon  figure 
largely  in  Colombian  export  lists. 

ror  the  periods  embracing  the  stnigs^for  independence  see 
the  bibliogmphy  to  the  articles:  Bouvja.  Ec;uaj>or.  and  Vbnk- 
zuELA,  to  which  we  add:  Bgnedetti.  Historia  ae  Colombia 
(Lima.  1887);  alao  a  eonciee  but  quite  fair  sketch  in  the  vol. 
BrisA  of  the  Univera  jnUoreaque  (1888).  by  Famjn,  Col/mbie  ^ 
Ouyanu:  Pmus,  The  Republic  of  Cohmbia  (Londoa.  1906); 
Scnuoda,  Tlte  Colombian  and  Venetudan  Republioa  (Bostort, 
1902)  .—On  the  protracted  negotiations  as  to  the  Oolotnbia*Ooeta 
Rica  boundaries  see  Fbbnaji dbz,  Coleocidu.  de  Docttmento8  para 
la  hittoria  de  Coata  Rica  (San  Joe^,  1881-1886).  The  North 
American  Review  (New  York)  for  1902  contains  a  paper  by 
Morales,  ThePoUticalandBconomieal  Situalion  of  Colombia. — 
On  the  volcanoes  of  Colombia,  Stubel,  Die  VuUcanberge  von 
Colombia  (Dresden.  1906). — On  the  Panama  question,  Johnson, 
Four  Cenfuriea  of  the  Panama  Canal  (New  York,  1906).  Of  the 
numerous  books  of  trav^  in  Colombia  in  the  first  half  of  the 
past  century  may  be  mentioned  HuMBouyr,  ReUUitm  hietori- 
que  du  vayoife  aux  rigionB  Squinoxiaka  du  nouveau  eoniinenl 
(Paris,  1816-22);  Vues  dea  CordHUrea,  et  monuments  des  peuples 
tndiqjtnea  de  VAm£rigue  (Paris,  1816);  Molubn,  Voyage  dana  la 
riptMique  de  Col&m&ia  (Paxis.  1824).  For  the  boliticol  history 
of  the  past  century,  Conatitucidn  del  eatado  de  Cartagena  de  in- 
diaa  aancionada  enlUde  Junie  del  ana  de  1812,  aegundo  de  au  In- 
dependencia  (Cartagena,  1812);  Conatitucidn  de  la  repiblioa  de 
Colombia  (Bogoti,  1888).  In  Spanish  literatuie  from  the  six- 
teenth century  early  exploration^  and  colonization  cf  O)]ombia 
is  extensively  treated,  notably  in  Enciso,  Suma  de  geografUi 
(1519, 1530.  and  1549);  Gomara.  Hiatoria  general  de  laa  Indiaa 
(Antwerp,  1664)  ;  Hbrrbsa,  Hiatoria  general  Aea,  (Madrid, 
1601-15  and  1726-30;  Antwerp,  1728).  Colombian  writers 
from  the  sixteenth  century:  db  Qdxsada,  Tree  ratoa  de  Suezca 
(1568);  Castellanob,  Blegiaa  de  varonea  Uuatrta  de  Indiaa; 
PlEDRAarvA.  Hiatoria  qeneral  de  laa  oonquiakia  del  Nuevo  Regno 
de  Granada  (Antwerp.  1688);  de  Zamora,  Hiatoria  dc  la  prouin- 
da  de  San  Antonio  del  Nuevo  Regno  de  Granada  del  orden  de  Prc- 
dicadorea  (Barcelona,  1701);  Casbani,  Hiatoria  de  la  provincia 
de  la  eompaHia  de  Jeaiia  del  Nuevo  Regno  de  Granada  (Madrid, 
1741);  JuUAN,  La  Perladela  Amirioa  (Madrid,  1787)— import- 
ant especially  on  the  Goajiros  Indians.  From  the  nineteenth 
oentuiy :  Docum.  tnSditoa  de  Indiaa  and  Documenloa  para  la  hia- 
toria da  EapaAa,  Of  the  hig^iest  value  foe  the  extinct  Indian 
tribes  of  the  Rio  Cauca  and  its  valleys  as  well  as  for  the  west 
coast  of  Colombia  in  general,  Cieza  db  Leon.  Cr&nica  del  Peni 
(Part  I,  Antwerp,  1554):  Andaoota,  Relacion  de  loi^truceeoe  de 
Pedrariaa  D&tnla,  tr.  in  Haekiuyt  8oc.,  XXXIV. 

Ad.  F.  Bandeues. 

OolombO,  Archdiocese  of,  situated  on  the  western 
seaboard  of  the  Island  of  Cevlon,  includes  two  of  the 
nine  provinces  into  which  the  island  is  diyided,  viz. 
the  Western  and  the  Northwestern.  The  history  of 
the  see  be^ns  in  1518,  when  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Franciscans.  The  religion  spread  rap- 
idly, the  town  and  the  surrounding  districts  were  soon 
erected  into  a  diooese,  and  Don  Juan  de  Monteiro  was 
created  first  Bishop  of  Colombo,  This  prelate  re- 
ceived into  the  church  Don  Juan  Dharmapala,  the 
grandson  of  the  Cingalese  King  Buwenekabahu  VII* 
The  young  prince  succeeded  his  grandfather  in  1542. 
Six  yeaiB  after  his  accession,  Colombo  contained  a 
Catholic  population  of  12,000,  with  two  parish 
churches,  Our  Lady's  and  St.  Laurence's,  four  monas- 


teries or  convents  under  the  CoirdeUeiB,  Dominicans, 
Augustinians,  and  Capuchins^  and  a  ooUege  conducted 
by  the  Jesuits. 

In  1597  Don  Juan  Dhaimapala  died.  By  that  time 
the  Portuguese  had  estabhahed  their  authority 
throughout  the  whole  island  except  in  the  Kin^om  of 
Kandy  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  and  religion  was 
free  to  develop  in  Jaffna  and  in  the  other  parts  of  Cey- 
lon. But  peace  was  of  short  duration,  for  the  Dutdi 
arrived  in  the  island  an4,  after  a  struggle  of  more  than 
fifty  years,  succeeded  in  obtaining  posseasion  of  all  the 
territory  tiiat  had  been  held  by  the  Fortugaese;  Co- 
lombo fell  in  1656  and  Jaffna  in  1658.  The  new  rulers 
made  no  secret  cf  their  attitude  towaxda  the  Church, 
for  in  1642  thev  ooncluded  with  the  Kins  of  Kandy  a 
treaty  by  whion  "all  priests,  friars  ana  clergymen" 
were  to  be  banished  from  Ceylon.  The  Reformed 
Church  of  Holland  was  declared  established,  and  a 
series  of  severe  penal  enactments  agahvst  CaUioUcs 
followed.  Catholic  education  was  forbidden,  Catho- 
lio  worship  abolished,  and  harbouring  a  priest  was  de- 
clared a  capital  offence.  lo  1796  Colombo  was  taken 
bv  the  English,  and  one  of  their  first  acts  was  to  repeal 
all  the  Dutch  laws  against  the  Catholics  (1806);  soon 
afterwards  the  rights  restored  to  the  CatJaoIics  of  the 
United  Kingdom  oy  the  Emancipation  Act  were  con- 
ceded to  their  ooreugioniBts  in  Ceylon. 

During  the  Dutch  period  the  ecclesiastical  adminis- 
tration of  the  island  had  been  in  the  hands  of  the 
Bishop  of  Cochin  on  the  neighbouring  continent ;  but 
in  1830  Gregory  XVI  constituted  Ceylon  a  vicariate 
Apostolic  and  tne  first  vicar  Apostolic,  .Don  Vincente 
de  Eozario,  was  consecrated  in  1836.  In  1845  Propa- 
ganda found  it  necessary  to  indrease  the  number  of 
missionaries  in  the  island,  and  sent  the  Sylvestrinc 
Benedictines  for  that  purpose.  In  1847  Janna  in  the 
north  of  the  island,  was  severed  from  the  Vicariate  of 
Colombo,  and  erected  into  a  separate  vicariate  with 
Bishop  U.  Bettachini  as  vicar  Apostolic.  At  his 
death  in  1857,  the  northern  vicariate  was  given  over 
to  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate  whs  hadarrived  in 
Ceylon  two  years  after  the  Benedictines.  Bishop 
Semeria,  O.  M.  I.,  was  ^pointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Jaffna,  while  Bishop  Bravi,  O.  S.  B.,  succeeaed  Bishop 
Caetano  Antonio  (1843-57)  as  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Co- 
lombo. 

A  further  partition  was  made  in  1883,  when  the 
southern  vicariate  was  divided  into  two,  Colombo  and 
Kandy.  The  Benedictines  retained  the  latter,  the 
former  being  given  to  the  Oblates,  in  whose  hands  it 
has  since  remained,  and  Bishop  C.  Bonjean,  O.  M.  I., 
was  transferred  from  Jaffna  to  Uolombo.  Tnree  years 
later  (1886)  the  hierarchy  was  established  in  Ceylon, 
and  the  above-mentioned  Bishop  of  Colombo,  Dr. 
Bonjean,  was  made  metropolitan  with  two  suffragan 
sees,  JaJOtna  and  Kandy.  In  1893  two  new  dioceses 
were  created  and  entrusted  to  the  Jesuits,  Galle  in  the 
South  being  severed  from  Colombo,  and  Trincomali  in 
the  East,  separated  from  Jaffna.  In  the  same  year 
Bishop  Melizan,  0.  M.  I.,  was  transferred  from  Jaffna 
to  C])oiombo  as  successor  to  Bishop  Bonjean  who  had 
died  in  1892;  Bishop  Melizan  was  succeeded  in  1905 
by  Bishop  Antoine  Coudert,  0.  M.  I.,  from  1898  coad- 
jutor, with  right  of  succession. 
.  According  to  the  last  census  returns  the  ^o^^^^popu- 
lation  of  the  archdiocese  is  1,274,000,  of  whom  206,000 
are  Catholics.  There  are  100  missionaries,  91  Ob- 
lates and  9  secular  priests,  and  295  churdies  and 
diapels.  The  Cathedral  of  Santa  Lucia,  a  fine  build- 
ing in  the  Renaissance  style,  has  accommodations  for 
6000.  Attached  to  the  cathedral  are  an  English 
school  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  the  former  with  over 
a  thousand  pupils,  being  taught  by  the  brothers  of  tfa« 
Christian  Schools,  while  in  the  latter,  the  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  give  instruction  to  500  girls.  AH  the 
charitable  inHtitutions  in  the  archdiocese,  and  many 
educational  institutions  of  the  archdiocese  are  in  the 


125 


hands  of  religions  congregations.  These  are  as  fol- 
lows: Brothers  of  Christian  Schools,  47  engaged  in 
teaching;  native  Brothers  of  St.  Vincent  de  rani,  20, 
teaching;  Sisters  of  the  Qood  Shepherd,  23.  over 
flchook  and  orphanages;  Sisters  of  the  Holv  Family, 
23,  schools,  orphanages,  and  hospitals;  Franciscan 
SiaterB  (Missionaries  of  Maiy),  49,  school^  orphanageS) 
and  hospitals;  native  Sisters  of  St.  Frands  Xavier, 
117,  teaching;  native  Sisten  of  St.  Peter,  106,  teadi* 
ing.  Three  of  the  principal  government  faospitais 
have  been  entrusted  to  the  sisters.  A  government 
reformatory  for  youthful  offenders  is  in  charge  of  the 
Oblates,  the  number  of  boyB  varying  from  150  to  200. 
About  the  same  number  of  old  people  are  provided 
with  a  home  by  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Pcx>r  in  Co- 
lombo.  In  the  397  schools  of  the  arohdioeese  36,520 
children  are  educated.  Of  these  schools  202  are  for 
boys,  with  20,826  pupils,  and  195  for  giris  with  14,094 
pupiis.  TBe  mana^ment  of  the  schools  is  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  the  missionaries;  but  there  is  a  govern- 
ment examination  every  year,  on  the  results  or  which 
a  grant  is  paid  to  the  superintendent  of  schools.  The 
archdiooese  maintains  for  teadiers  of  both  sexes  nor* 
Rial  schools  recognised  by  the  Government.  Higher 
education  in  English  is  provided  for  girls  at  the  vari>* 
ous  convents  in  Colombo,  and  for  boys  at  St^  Joseph's 
College  (800  students)  conducted  by  the  Oblate 
Fathers.  The  training  of  aspirants  for  the  priesthood 
is  carried  on  in  two  seminaries:  the  preparatory  sem^ 
inarv  of  St.  Aloyslus  with  24  students  and  BU  Ber- 
nard's theological  seminary  with  20  students.  There 
are  9  orphanages,  1  for  boys  and  8  for  ^iris,  which  pro- 
vide education  for  673  or()hans  (104  boys  and  ,509 
girls).  Two  papers,  both  bi-weekly,  are  published  at 
the  Colombo  CSeitholic  Press,  the  ''Ceylon  Catholic 
Messenger"  in  English,  and  the  ''Nanartha  Prad>* 
paya"  in  Cingalese.  The  management  and  editorial 
control  of  both  papers  are  in  the  hands  of  the  mission'' 
aries.  A  Cingalese  monthly  of  a  religious  character  is 
issued  from  the  press  of  the  boys'  orphanage.  Co- 
lombo has  conferences  of  St.  Vinoent  de  Paul  and  of 
the  Ladies  of  Charitv.  The  Bonjean  Memorial  HaU  is 
the  head-quarters  of  the Oeylon  Catholic  Union,  estab^ 
lished  in  1902,  with  branches  in  all  the  principal  parts 
of  the  island.     A  Catholic  Club  was  opened  in  1900. 

Battandxkb,  Arm.  porU.  etUh.  (1908);  Cotholie  Direetarv 
Oiadam.  1908);  Ceylon  Handbook  €md  Directory  (Colombo. 
1906);  TENNENT,  A  HUtory  of  Ceylon  (London.  1860). 

AxTOlNf5   COITDERT. 

Colombo,  Mattbo  Realdo,  Italian  anatomist  and 
dsBcoverer  of  i^he  pulmonary  circulation,  b.  at  Cre^ 
mona  in  1616;  d.  at  Rome,  1559.  He  studied  medi-- 
cine  at  Padua  with  Vesalius,  became  his  assistant,  and 
in  1644  his  successor  as  lecturer  on  surgery  and  anat- 
omy. In  1646  Cosimo  de'  Medici,  who  was  reoigania- 
ing  the  Univemitv  of  Pisa,  held  out  such  inducements 
to  Colombo  that  he  became  the  first  professor  of  anat^ 
omy  there.  Colombo  occupied  this  post  until  1648, 
when  he  reodved  a  call  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  the 
Papal  Umversity  at  Rome.  This  he  held  until  his 
death.  During  all  his  years  of  teaching  at  Padua, 
Pisa,  and  Rome,  he  continued  to  make  original  re- 
searches in  anatomy.  The  results  of  his  investigar' 
tion  were  published  under  the  title,  ''De  Re  Anato- 
micA  libri  XV"  (Venice,  1659).  The  most  important 
feature  of  this  book  is  an  accurate  and  complete  de- 
scription of  the  pulmonary  circulation.  Colombo 
■ayt:  *^Thfi  blood  is  carried  by  the  artery-lifce  vein 
to  the  kingn,  and  being  there  made  thin  is  brought' 
back  thence  together  with  air  by  the  vein-like  artery 
to  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart."  Colombo  knew 
that  this  was  an  original  observatiott.  for  he  adds: 
"This  fact  no  one  has  hitherto  observed  or  recorded* 
in  writiair;  yet,  it  may  be  most  readily  observed  by 
«py  one."  Harvey,  in  his  work,  "On  the  Motion  of 
the  Heart  and  Blood  in  Animals",  quotes  Cok>mbo' 
>*ore  than  once  and  pvn  Mm  credit  for  many  origi- 


nal observations  in  anatomy.  Afipatently  lest  thers 
should  be  any  diminution  of  Harvey's  glory,  Eugliiih 
writers  on  the  history  of  medicine  have,  as  a  rule, 
failed  to  give  Colombo  the  credit  which  be  deserves 
B^nd  which  Harvey  so  readily  accorded  him.  Cok>mbo 
made  as  many  as  fourteen  dissections  in  one  year  at 
Rome.  Several  hundred  people  sometimes  attended 
his  anatomical  demonstrations,  and  cardinals,  arch* 
bishops,  and  other  hi^  ecclesiastics  were  often  pres* 
ent.  Colombo  is  famous  as  a  teacher  of  anatomy  and 
physiology,  and  first  used  livine  animals  to  demon- 
strate various  functions,  especiafiy  the  movements  of 
the  heart  and  lungs.  He  said  one  could  learn  more  in 
an  hour  in  this  way  than  in  three  months  from  Galen. 
His  book  was  dedicated  to  Pope  Paul  IV,  of  whom  he 
was  an  intimate  personal  friend. 

The  best  authority  for  Colombo's  work  in  anatomy  is  his 
De  Re  Anaiomicd  (Venice,  1559;  Paris,  1562).     The  most  com- 

flete  life  is  that  by  Tolltn  in  PflUffen  Archiv,  XXI-XXII. 
n  English  there  is  a  good  sketch  by  Fuhxb,  AnnaU  of  Anai" 
omy  and  Surgery  (Brooklyn,  1880). 

James  J.  Walsh. 

Ooloniftj  a  titular  see  of  Armenia.  Prooopius  (De 
»dif.,  Ill,  iv)  informs  us  that  Justinian  restored  a 
fortress  which  had  been  captured  b^  Pompey,  then 
fortified  it  and  called  it  Colonia.  This  city  figures  in 
the  "Synecdemus**  of  Hierocles  and  in  the  "Notitia 
episcopatuum"  as  a  suffra^n  of  Sebaste,  metropolis 
of  Armenia  Prima.  Lequien  (I,  429)  mentions  five 
bishops:  Eupihrbnius,  later  transferred  to  Nicopolis, 
a  friend  and  correspondent  of  St.  Basil;  Eustathius 
in  458;  St.  John  the  Silent,  who  died  a  monk  at  St. 
SabaiB,  near  Jerusalem,  in  S<57;  Proelus,  exiled  by 
the  Emperor  Justin  in  518  as  a  Severian;  Callinicus 
in  660  and  692.  B^nay  published  in ''Echosd'Orient" 
(IV,  93)  a  curious  Byvantine  inscription  concerning 
a  drungofiu^  of  Colonia.  In  the  mnth  oentiuy  the 
city  was  the  capital  of  a  Byzantine  theme.  Its 
modern  name  is  Koilu  Hissar ;  it  is  the  chief  town  of 
s.  caza  in  the  vilayet  of  Sivas,  and  has  about  1800 
inhabitants,  among  them  600  Greeks,  200  Armenians^ 
and  a  few  Protestairt  «nd  Catholic  Armenians  (Cuinet, 
Turquie  d^Asie,  I,  792).  Another  Colonia,  later  Tax- 
ara,  situated  in  Cappadoda  Tertia,  was  a  suffragan  of 
Mocessus;  seven  bishops  are  mentioDed  by  Lequien 

(I,  413).  S.   P6TR1DE8. 

Oolonia,  DoBnmQOii  db.    See  Drama,  Jobutt. 

Oolonna,  a  celebrated  family  which  played  an  im- 
portant sQle  in  Italy  during  medieval  and  Renais* 
sance  times,  and  which  still  flourishes  in  several 
branches  in  Rome  and  Naples.  It  is  oommoniv  sup- 
posed to  have  been  originaiiy  an  offshoot  of  the  Counts 
of  TuBculum,  deriving  the  family  name  from  the  castle 
of  Colonna  situated  On  a  spur  of  the  Alban  hills,  some 
five  miles  from  Tusculiun.  The  name  makes  its  first 
appearance  in  authenlio  history  in  the  person  of 
Betrus  de  Cokioana,  owner  of  Colonna,  Monte  Porzio, 
and  Zagarolo,  and  claimant  of  Palestiina,  whose  cas- 
tles were  seized  by  Paschal  II,  a.  d.  1X01,  in  punish- 
ment of  his. lawless  depredations.  With  the  aestruc- 
tion  of  Tusculum  by  the  Romans  in  1191,  the  name  of 
the  ancient  counts  disappears  forever,  whilst  the 
Colonna  come  prominently  to  the  front.  From  the 
first  their  poUcy  was  anti-papal  and  Ghibelline,  not  so 
much  ifom  love  of  the  emperors  as  from  the  desire  to 
maintain  towards  the  popes  an  attitude  of  <}uasi- 
independence.  They  exercised  plenary  jurisdiction 
over  their  vassals  in  matters  civil  and  criminal  and 
frequ^tly  contracted  alliances  with  foreign  potentates 
witnout  ■  consulting  the  wishes  or  interests  of  their 
sovereign.  They  were  in  perpetual  feud  with  their 
Quelph  neighbours,  in  particular  with  the  rival  house 
of  the  Ondni.  They  so  frequently  incurred  the  papal 
censures  on  account  of  their  rebellious  conduct,  tnat  it 
became  the  general  but  erroneous  opinion  of  the  Ro« 
man  people  that  the  yearly  excommunication  of  the 


WLOKK4 


126 


Ooloima  waB  cfoA  of  the  main  purposes  of  the  Bull  "In 
Oosna  Domini".  Nevertheless,  members  of  the  fam- 
ily were  quite  often  appointed  by  friendly  pontiffs  to 
high  offices  of  Church  and  State.  Rarely  were  thev 
without  at  least  one  representative  in  the  Sacred  Cot 
lege,  and  at  one  of  the  most  critical  Junctures  in  the 
annals  of  the  Church,  the  election  to  the  papacy  of 
Cardinal  Odo  Colonna,  Martin  V,  put  an  end  to  the  dis- 
astrous Western  Schism.  Twice  in  the  course  of  its 
history  this  powerful  house  was  threatened  with  anni- 
hilation (seeBoNiFACB  VIII;  Alexander  VI),  but  on 
both  occasions  the  restoration  of  its  members  was  as 
speedy  as  their  fall. 

The  long  line  of  Colonnese  cardinals  was  opened  in 
1192,  when  Giovanni  the  Elder  was  created  Cardinal- 
Priest  of  S.  Prisca  by  Celestine  III.  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Sabina  by  Innocent  III,  and  was  employed 
on  important  legations  to  Germany,  Spain,  Sicily,  and 
France.  He  was  the  powerful  fneud  of  St.  Francis, 
and  was  largely  instrumental  in  obtaining  from  the 
pope  the  approval  of  the  Franciscan  Rule.  He  is  re- 
membered at  Amalfi  for  his  munificence  in  building 
and  endowing  a  spacious  hospital.  He  died  at  Rome, 
1209.  Three  yearn  later  Pope  Innocent  elevated  to 
the  cardinalate  a  nephew  of  the  cardinal,  known  as 
Giovanni  the  Younger,  Cardinal-Priest  of  S.  Prassede. 
He  was  sent  to  the  Orient  as  legate  in  1217  and  re- 
turned to  Rome  in  1222  bringing  with  him  the  Pillar 
of  the  Soourging,  which  remains  to  the  present  day  in 
the  chapel  he  built  for  it  in  his  titular  church.  He 
also  built  and  endowed  two  hospitals  near  the  Lateran 
for  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  of  pilgrims.  In  1240, 
after  a  futile  attempt  to  reconcile  Pope  Gr^ry  iX 
and  Frederick  II,  the  cardinal,  as  head  of  his  family, 
together  with  the  other  Ghibellines  of  Rome,  went 
over  to  the  emperor  and  openly  rebelled  a^inst  the 
Holy  See.  He  died  in  1245.  Matthew  Pans  (ad,  an. 
1244)  describes  him  as  ''a  vessel  filled  with  pride  and 
insolence;  who,  as  he  was  the  most  illustrious  and 
powerful  in  secular  possessions  of  all  the  cardinals, 
was  the  most  efficacious  author  and  fosterer  of  discord 
between  t^e  emperor  and  the  pope". 

As  a  punishment  of  their  GhibeUinism,  no  scion  of 
the  house  was  admitted  into  the  Sacred  College  until 
1278,  when  the  magnanimous  Orsini  pope,  Nicholas 
III,  the  son  of  that  Matteo  Rosso  who  had  razed  all 
the  Colonna  strongholds  in  Rome,  in  token  of  amnesty 
elevated  to  the  dignity  of  the  purple  Giacomo  Colonna 
with  the  title  of  Cardinal-Deacon  of  S.  Maiia  in  Via 
Lata.  About  ten  years  later,  Honorius  IV  created 
FSetro,  nephew  of  Qiaoomo,  Cardinal-Deacon  of  the 
Title  of  S.  Eustachio.  These  were  the  two  cardinals 
whose  bitter  quarrel  with  Boniface  VIII  ended  so  dis- 
astrously for  that  pontiff  and  for  the  prestige  of  the 
medieval  papacy.  Deposed  and  degraded  in  1297, 
they  were  reinstated  in  their  dignities  and  possessions 
by  Clement  V  in  1305.  Both  died  at  Avignon,  Gia- 
como in  1318,  Pietro  in  1326.  These  unruly  cardi- 
nals continued  the  deeply  reli^ous  traditions  of  their 
family,  founding  and  endowmg  the  hospital  of  S. 
Giaoomo  for  incurables  and  the  Franciscan  convent  o| 
S.  Silvestro  in  Capite,  in  which  they  deposed  the  re- 
mains of  the  saintly  sister  of  Giacomo,  tne  nun  Beata 
Margarita.  Their  munificence  as  patrons  of  art  is  at- 
test^ by  many  masterpieces  in  the  Roman  diurches, 
notably  Turrita's  mosaics  in  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  pro- 
nounced by  Gregorovius  ^the  finest  workof  all  the 
mosaic  pamtings  in  Rome".  The  learned  Cardinal 
E^dio  Colonna  well  deserves  a  special  article  (see 
Colonna,  Egidio).  One  year  after  Pietro's  death, 
his  nephew  Giovanni,  a  son  of  the  noble  Senator  Stef- 
ano,  whose  immediate  familv  remained  faithful  to 
the  Holy  See  during  the  troublous  times  of  Louis  the 
Bavarian,  whilst  his  kinsman  Sciarra,  led  the  schis- 
matical  party,  was  raised  to  the  caidi^ialate  by  John 
XXI I ,  with  the  title  of  S.  Angelo.  He  was  univenally 
Qlrteemed,  especially  by  men  of  letters.    He  wrote  iM 


*'  Lives  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  from  St.  Peter  to  Boni* 
face  VIII'\  At  his  death,  1348,  his  intimate  friend, 
Petrarch,  wrote  the  beautiful  sonnet,  "Rotta  h  Talta 
Colonna".  At  the  beginning  of  the  Great  Schism 
Urban  created  two  CoMMma  cardinals,  Agapito  and 
Stefano,  but  they  both  died  shortly  after.  Then  fol- 
fowed  Odo  Colonna,  later  Pope  Martin  V  (a.  v.),  who, 
in  1430  bestowed  the  purple  upon  his  youthiul  nephew 
Prospero.  The  latter,  becoming  involved  in  the  re- 
bellion of  his  family  against  Eugene  IV,  was  da>rived 
of  his  benefices  and  sentenced  to  perpetual  exile,  but 
was  reinstated  by  Nicholas  V,  and  died  in  1463, 
lauded  by  the  Humamsts  as  a  M»cenas  of  arts  and 
letters.  In  the  heated  conclave  of  1^8  it  was  Pros- 
pero Colonna  who  decided  the  election  of  Piocolomini 
m  the  famous  words,  ''I  also  vote  for  the  Cardinal  of 
Siena,  and  make  him  pope''. 

Prosperous  nephew^  Giovanni,  was  iAxe  representa- 
tive of  nis  family  dunns  the  pontificates  of  Sixtus  IV, 
Innocent  VIII,  Alexander  VI,  Pius  III,  and  Julius  II. 
Created  Cardinal-Deaoon  of  S.  Maria  in  Aquiro  in  his 
twenty-fourth  year  by  Pope  Sixtus,  ho  was  committed 
to  theCastle  of  Sant'  Aneelo  two  years  later,  when  that 
pontiff  and  the  Colonna  oegan  their  bitter  feud.  After 
an  imprisonment  of  over  a  year,  he  regained  his  lib- 
erty. One  cannot  feel  mucn  sympathy  with  him  in 
his  misfortunes  during  the  pontifisate  of  the  Boma 
pope,  who  could  not  nave  been  eleeted  without  bis 
vote.  When  Alexander  VZ  began  his  war  of  extermi- 
nation against  the  Roman  barons,  Colonna,  more  for- 
tunate than  Cardinal  Orsini,  made  his  escape  and  did 
not  return  to  Rome  till  the  pope  had  paosed  away. 
He  himself  died  in  1508.  Although  Julius  II  restored 
to  the  Colonna  their  possessions  and  dignities,  and  by 
the  Pax  Romanay  1511,  put  an  end  to  the  hereditary 
feuds  of  the  rival  houses,  yet,  their  old-time  position  of 
quasi-independence  was  never  again  attained.  The 
two  secular  heads  of  the  family,  Prospero  and  Fabrixio, 
acquired  great  fame  as  generals  in  the  armies  of  the 
Cliurch  and  of  Cliarles  V.  Fabrizio's  daughter  was 
the  highly  gifted  Vittoria  (q.  v.).  Prospero'a  nephew, 
Pompeo,  was  ehoeen  to  represent  the  family  in  the 
Chuzt^.  He  consented  veiy  reluctantly^  for  the 
sword  was  more  congenial  to  him  than  the  Breviary. 
He  received  a  large  accumulation  of  benefices,  was 
created  cardinal  by  Leo  X,  in  1517,  and  vice-chan- 
cellor by  Clement  VII.  In  return,  he  took  the  side  of 
the  emperor  in  his  quarrel  with  the  pope.  On  20 
Sept.,  1526,  took  place  the  onslaught  on  Rome,  and 
the  de8ecratk>n  of  St.  Peter's  and  tne  Vatioafi,  which 
covers  his  memory  with  eternal  infamy.  He  also 
joined  with  Constable  Bourbon  in  the  capture  ctf 
Rome,  May,  1527;  but,  horrified  by  the  brutality  of 
the  sack  of  his  native  city,  he  did  his  best  to  shield  his 
unfortunate  countrymen  wit^iin  the  waUs  of  the  Caa- 
oellaria.  The  indulgent  Clement  absolved  and  rein- 
stated him  three  years  later.  He  became  viceroy  of 
Naples  and  died  in  1532.  The  good  name  of  tJie  house 
was  redeemed  by  the  next  Colonnese  cardinal,  Marcan- 
tonio,  who  was  carefully  trained  in  pietv  and  learning 
by  the  Franciscan  friar,  Felice  Peretti,  later  Sixtus  V. 
He  was  created  Cardinal*Priest  of  SS.  Xll  Apostoli,  in 
1565,  closely  imitated  St.  Charles  Borromeoin  estab- 
lishing semmaries  and  restorinff  discipline,  was  libra- 
rian of  the  Vatican,  fostered  Teaming,  and  was  ex- 
tremely charitable  to  the  poor.  Before  his  death,  in 
1597,  nis  kinsman  Ascanio  Colonna  was  elevated  to 
the  puiple  by  Sixtus  V  in  1586.  Althou^  he  owed 
his  carmnalate  lareely  to  the  favour  of  Philip  II,  yet 
he  did  not  permit,  nis  gratitude  to  extinguish  his  pa- 
triotism. It  was  his  defection  from  the  ^>anish  ranks 
at  a  critical  moment  during  the  ccMiclave  ol  1592  that 
defeated  the  aspirations  of  Philip's  candidate.  Cardi- 
nal Sanseverina  and  led  to  the  election  of  Clement 
VIII.  In  his  well-known  exclamation:  "I  see  that 
God  will  not  have  Sanseverina,  nehker  will  Asoanio 
Colonna ' ',  breathes  the  haughty  spirit  of  his  raea.     He 


QOfLOmfA 


127 


died  in  1606,  making  the  Lateran  his  heir.  Suooeed- 
ing  p^tylinala  of  the  houne  of  Colonna  were  Giro* 
lamo,  created  by  Urban  VIII  in  1628,  d.  1666;  Carlo, 
treated  by  Clement  XI  in  1?06,  d.  1739;  Fromro, 
created  by  aement  XII  in  1739,  d.  1743;  Gnro- 
lamo,  created  by  Benedict  XIV  1743,  d.  1763; 
Proepero,  of  the  Sdarra  branch,  created  simultaneously 
with  his  kinsman  in  1743,  d.  Prefect  of  the  Pr<>pa^ 
ganda  in  1765;  finally,  Marcantonio,  created  by  Cle- 
ment XIII  in  1750,  d.  in  1803.  Though  all  were  con- 
spicuous for  learning  and  piety  and  for  filling  hig^ 
offices  at  the  Roman  court  or  in  the  most  important 
dioceses  of  Italy,  they  need  only  a  passing  notice. 
The  most  illustrious  lay  prince  of  the  Colonna  was 
Marcantonio,  who  at  the  great  sea-fi^t  of  Leponto, 
7  Oct,  1571,  commanded  the  papal  gaueys  and  on  his 
return  to  Rome  was  awarded  a  memorable  triumph. 
To  cement  l^e  friendship  between  the  houses  of  Co- 
lonna and  Oreini,  Sixtus  V  married  their  chiefs  to  his 
nieces  auod  ordained  that  they  and  their  descendants 
should  enjoY  the  dignity  of  Assistant  Princes  at  the 
Pontifical  Tnrone. 

LarTAtFamiglie  cdebri  Ualiane,  s.  v. ;  Coppx.  Memorie  Ccl* 
onneti  (Kome.  1857),  with  genealogical  tables:  von  Rbu< 
MONT.  Beitrdge  zur  xtoL.  Oeseh.  (1867),  V,  3-117,  an  excel- 
lent accotint;  the  histories  of  the  city  of  Rome  by  von 
KeuitoNT,  Greoorovius.  Gribar,  etc. 

Jamks  F.  Louohun. 

Ooloima,  £on>io  (.Aksinius  a  Column  a),  a  Scho- 
lastic philosopher  and  theologian,  b.  about  the  mid^ 
die  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy,  probably  1247,  in 
Rome;  hence  the  name  iEoinius  RovANds,  or  Giuqb 
OP  Rome,  by  which  he  is  generally  known;  d.  at 
Aviffnon,  22  Dec.,  1316.  Having  entered  the  Order 
of  the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine  at  Rome,  he  was 
sent  to  Paris  for  his  philosophical  and  theologieal 
studies,  and  became  tneie  the  disciple  of  Thomas 
Aquinas.  Egidio  Colonna  was  the  first  Augustinian 
appointed  to  teach  in  the  Univerat^  of  Paris,  and  hJiA 
deep  learning  earned  for  him  the  title  of  Doctor  ftmr- 
dat%89ijmu.  In  1281,  at  the  Thirty-sixth  Council  of 
Paris,  in  which  several  differences  between  bishops 
and  mendicant  orders  were  arranged,  he  sided  with 
the  bishops  against  the  regulars.  Referring  to  this, 
a  contemporary  philosopher,  Godfrey  of  Fontaines, 
mentioned  him  as  the  most  renowned  theolon^n  of 
the  whole  city  (qui  modo  melior  de  totA  vilUl  in 
omnibus  reputatur).  King  Philip  III  entrusted  to 
him  the  education  of  his  son,  who  later,  in  1285, 
ascended  the  throne  as  Philip  IV.  When  the  new 
king,  after  his  coronation  at  Reims,  entered  Paris, 
Egidio  gave  the  address  of  welcome  in  the  name  of 
the  university,  insisting  on  justice  as  tile  most  im- 
portant virtue  of  a  king.  (For  the  text,  see  Osqnger. 
in  work  cited  below.)  Some  time  before  this  several 
of  his  opinions  had  been  found  reprehensihle  by- 
Archbishop  Etienne  Tempier  of  Paris,  and  in  i2& 
Pope  Honorius  IV  asked  him  for  a  public  retracti^ 
tion.  This,  however,  was  far  from  lessening  his 
reputation,  for  in  1287  a  deoree  ci  the  general  chapter 
of  the  Au^^ustinians  held  in  Florence,  after  rematking 
that  £gidio's  doctrine  "shines  throughout  the  whole 
world"  (venerabiUs  magistri  noetri  ifigidii  doctrina 
mundum  universum  illustrat),  commanded  all  mem- 
bers of  the  order  to  accept  and  defend  all  his  opin- 
ions, written  or  to  be  written.  After  filling  several 
important  positions  in  his  order  he  was  elected  supei^ 
ior  general  in  1202.  Three  ^ears  later  Pope  Bonifilce 
Vin  appointed  him  Archbishop  of  Bouives,  France, 
although  Jean  de  Savigny  had  abeady  been  desig* 
nated  for  this  see  by  Pope  Celestine  V.  The  Frenen 
nobility  protested  on  the  ground  that  Colonna  wafa  an 
Italian,  out  his  appointment  was  maintained  and  a|>- 
proved  by  the  kuig.  He  was  present  at  the  Council 
of  Vienne  (1311-1312)  in  which  the  Order  of  Knights 
Templars  was  suppreraed. 

The  writings  ol  Egidio  Colonna  cover  the  fields  of 


Dfay  and  the<dogy.  There  is  no  complete  edi- 
tion of  his  works,  but  several  treatises  have  been  pub- 
lished separately.  In  Holy  Scripture  and  theology 
he  wrote  commentaries  on  the  '^Hexameron" ,  t& 
'^Oanticle  of  Cantides'',  and  the  "Epistle  to  the 
Romans";  several  ••Opuscula"  and  "Quodlibeta", 
various  treatises,  and  especially  commentaries  on 
Peter  the  Lombard's  ''Four  Bocika  of  Sentences". 
In  philosophy,  besides  commentaries  on  almost  all 
the  works  of  Aristotle,  he  wrote  several  special  trea- 
tises. But  his  main  work  is  the  treatise  "  De  regimine 
principum",  written  for,  and  dedicated  to^  his  pupil, 
Phil^  IV.  It  passed  through  many  editions  (the 
first,  Aug»bunr,  1473)  and  was  translated  into  several 
lanpiages.  The  Roman  .edition  of  1607  contains  a 
life  of  ^dio.  The  woric  is  divided  into  three  books: 
the  first  treats  of  the  individual  conduct  of  the  king, 
the  nature  of  Us  true  happiness,  the  choice  and  ac- 
quisition of  virtues,  and  the  ruling  of  passions;  the 
second  de^  with  family  life  and  the  relations  with 
wife,  chi)dzeKi,  and  servants;  the  third  considers  the 
State,  its  origin,  and  the  proper  mode  of  governing  in 
times  ol  peace  and  war.  £gidio's  pedagi^oal  writ- 
ings have  been  published  in  German  by  Kaufmann 
(Freiburg,  1904). 

The  attitude  of  Egidio  Colonna  in  the  difficulties 
between  Pope  Bonitoce  VIII  and  King  Philip  IV 
wa«  long  believed  to  have  been  favourable  to  the 
king.  But  the  contrary  is  now  certain,  since  it  has 
been  proved  that  he  is  the  author  of  the  treatise  **  De 
pote8tateeccle6iastic&",  in  which  the  rights  of  the 
pope  are  vindicated.  The  similarity  between  this 
treatise  and  the  BuU  "Unam  Sanctam"  seems  to 
support  the  view  taken  by  some  writers  that  Egidio 
was  the  author  of  the  Bull.  He  had  already  taken 
an  active  part  in  ending  the  discussions  and  contro- 
versies concerning  the  validity  of  Boniface's  election 
to  the  papacy.  In  his  treatise  ''De  renunciatione 
PapsB  sive  Apologia  pro  Bonifacio  VIII"  he  shows 
the  Imtimaoy  of  Celestine'sreffliniation  and  conse- 
ouently  of  Boniface's  election.  In  philosophy  and 
tneology  he  generally  follows  the  opinions  of  his 
master,  St.  Thomas,  whose  works  ne  quotes  as 
scripta  commtmia.  The  "Defensorium  seu  Correc- 
torium  eorruptorii  librorum  Sancti  ThomsB  Aquina- 
tis"  against  the  Franciscan  William  de  la  Mare  of 
CzConf  is  by  some  attrUmted  to  E^dio;  but  this 
remaina  uncertain.  Nevertheless,  on  manv  points 
he  holds  independent  views  and  abandons  the 
Thomistio  doctrine  to  follow  the  opinions  of  St. 
Aiq;uBtine  and  of  the  Franciscan  School.  He  even 
ens  in  asserting  that,  before  the  fidl,  grace  had  not 
been  ^iven  to  Adam,  an  opinion  which  he  wrongly 
attributes  U>  St.  Augustine.  After  the  decree  of  tKe 
pneral  ehapter  of  1287,  mentioned  above,  the  opin- 
ions of  E^fuaae  Colonna  were  generally  accepted  in  the 
Augustinian  Order.  He  thus  became  the  founder 
of  tbe  .£gidian  School.  Among  the  most  prominent 
repceaentatives  of  this  school  must  be  mentioned 
Qiaoomo  Capooeio  of  Viterbo  (d.  1307)  and  Augus- 
tinus  Triumpbus  (d.  1328),  both  contemporaries  of 
Egidio,  and  also  students  and  professors  in  the  Uni- 
vensity  of  Paris;  Prosper  of  Regno,  Albert  of  Padua, 
Gerard  of  Siena,  Henry  of  Frimar,  Thomas  of 
Strasburg — all  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tunr.  For  some  time  after  this  other  opinions  pre- 
vailed in  the  Augustinian  Order.  But  as  late  as  the 
seventeenfch  century  should  be  mentioned  Raffaello 
Bonherba  (d.  1681)  who  wrote '' Disputationes  totius 
philoflophin  .  .  .  iii  quibus  omnee  philosophicie  in- 
ter D.  Thomam  et  Scotum  oontroversifB  prmcipaKter 
cum  doctrinA  nostri  iE^ii  Columns  iUustrantur" 
(Palermo,  1645, 1671);  and  Augustino  Arpe  (d.  1704) 
who  wrote  "Summa  totius  theologke  JS^dii  Co- 
Immue"  (Bc^ogna,  1701,  and  Genoa,  1704).  Federioo 
N!icol6  Qavanii  (d.  1716),  the  most  important  inter- 
preter of  Golonna,  compofMsd  *^Theologia  exantiquata- 


MMinu 


128 


ooummm 


inxta  oirthodQzain  S.  P.  Augi^itixd  doctnnaia  ab  JEgi- 
dio  Column^  doctore  fundatiasimo  ezpofiitam  .  .  . '' 
(6  vols,  fol.,  Naples  and  Rame>  1^8^-1696);  this  wotrk 
was  abridged  by  Ansehn  Hdnoannseder  in  his  ''  He* 
catombe  thedogica"  (Pre^fouig;  1737).  Beoignus 
Sichrowsky  (d.  1737)  wrote  aiso  '' Pbilosopbda  vin* 
dicata  ab  erroribus  philosophorum  ^entilium  iuxta 
doctrinam  S.  Augustini  et  B.  u£gidii  Columns" 
(Nuremberg^  1701). 

OseiNGER,  Bibi.  AuguMmiana  CbieoUtBdXmad  Vjonns,  l^^S^ 
Denifle  anp  Caatelain.  Chart.  Untv.  Parisienais  (Faria,  18w 
— ),  I,  II,  nee  Indeae;  F6r£T,  La  facuM  de  tJUd.  de  Paris 
ei  MS  doct.  Us  pbte  c&k^rf  au  moyot  doe  (Paris.  1800),  III, 
459-475;  Horteb,  Nomendatar  (3d  ed..  Iiuu>bnick.  1906).  II. 
481-4S6  and  passim  for  ./Gfi^idian  School;  Lajaiuk  Oiues  de 


Rome  in  Hud.m.de  la  France  (Paris,  1888).  XXX!*.  421-606; 
M ATTioUt  Studio  criHoo  sopra  Baidio  Romano  Colonata  in  Antol* 
ogia  Agotliniana  (Rome,  1896),  I;  ScHOia*  Mgidiue  von  Ram 
^tuttgarl,  1902):  Wisrner.  Die  Scholastik  des  HpAt.  M.  A.,  Ill, 
Dvr  Aupuslini^meua  dee  spat.  M.  A.  (Vienna,  1^);  ScREfeBBN 
'  1  Kirekenlex.,  n.  v.     8ee  also  CSrevaukb,  Rip.  des  a 


(2d  ed.,  Paris,  1905).  s.  v.  Gille^. 


oourMsfust. 
C.  A.  DUBRAY. 

Ooloniui,  GiovAKNi  Paolo,  b.  at  Botoena,  ld37; 
d.  in  the  same  city,  28  Ndvembet,  1©95.  After  study- 
ing under  Agostino  Fillipncci  in  his  native  city.  An- 
tonio Abbatini  and  Oragio  Benevoli  in  Rome,  Go(onna 
became  organist  at  the  church  of  S.  Apollimttis  in  the 
latter  city.  In  1669  he  accepted  the  post  of  eh6ir- 
master  at  the  ohur«h  of  S.  Pelnronio  in  ooloena.  He 
not  only  was  a  charter  member  of  the  Accaoemia  Fil- 
armonica  but  founded  a  school  of  his  own  which  has 
produced  distinguished  musicians,  among  them  Gio- 
vanni Maria  Buononcini.  Colonna  was  one  of  the 
most  noted  church  composers  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury and  has  left  a  large  number  of  works  (masses, 
psalms,  motets,  litanies,  antlphons,  requiems,  lamen- 
tations) for  from  one  to  eight  voices  with  either  organ 
or  orchestra  accompaniment.  These  compositions 
are  but  seldom  peif  ormed  at  present,  both  on  account 
of  their  not  having  the  form  or  the  spirit  of  the  great 
period  of  church  music,  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  and  because  of  the  elaborate  apparatus 
required  for  their  performance. 

RiBMANN.  Mtiaik  Lesnlamr  RocMrao,  Hist&ru  of  Musus 
(New  York,  1886);.  KoBirMtiuLR^  KirchenmimkaUschss  Leapin 
kon;  WooLDJUDOE,  The  Oxford  ai8t(fni  ofMusic  (Oxford,  1901- 
05);   Oabpaiq,  Dex  musxcisH  Bologne^  (BotoRna,  1876-80). 

J0SBI>H  OmfcN. 

Ctolonna,  Vittobia^.  Italian  poet^  b.  at  Marino, 
1490;  d.  at  Rome,  February  25,  1547.:  She  was  ^e 
daughter  of  Fabrinio  Colonna,  lord  of  varioua  Roman 
fiefs  and  grand  constable  of  Naples.  Her  mother^ 
Agnese  da  Montefeltro,  wm  a  daughter  of  Federigo 
da  MonteCeltro,  fiiBt  Duke  of  Urbinb.  In  1509  Vitto- 
ria  waa  married  to  Ferrante  Franeesoo  d'Avakw, 
Marquis  of  Peseara,  a  Neapolitan  nobleman  of  Span- 
ish orig^l,  who  was  one  of  the  chief  generals  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  Pescara's  militanr  career  culmi- 
nated in  the  victory  of  Pavia  (24  February,  1585), 
after  which  he  becaiae  involved  in  Morone's  oonspir«- 
aoy  for  the  liberation  of  Italy,  and  was  tempted  from 
his  allegiance  to  the  emperor  by  the  offer  of  the  crown 
of  Naples.  Vittoria  earnestly  c&suaded  him  from 
this  scheme,  declaiing  (as  her  cousin,*  Cardinal  Pom- 
peo  Colonna*  teUs  us)  tiiat  she  ''prefemd  to  die  the 
wife  of  a  most  brave  marquis  and  a  most  upright  gen- 
eral,  than  to  live  the  oonsort  of  a  kin^  du^onoured 
with  any  stain  of  infamy '\  Pesoara  died  in  the  fol^ 
lowing  November,  leaving  his  young  heir  and  cousin, 
Alfonso  d'AvaloB^  .Marohese  del  Vasto^  under  Vitto* 
ria's  care. 

Vittoria  hendeforth  deroted  herself  entirely  to 
religion  and  literature.  We  find  her  usually  m  vari- 
ous mooastcories,  at  Romtt  \^terbo,  and  ebewhere, 
livii^  in  conventual  simplicity,  the  centre  of  all  iktbX 
was  noblest  in  the  intellectual  Wnd  spiritual  life  of  the 
times:  8he  hiui  a  peculiar  senilis  for  friendship,  and 
the  wonderful  spiritual  tils  tnat  united  her  to  Miehel- 
^ngelo  Buonarroti  made  the  romance  of  that  great' 


artist's  life.  Pietro  Bembo,  the  literaiy  dictator  of 
the  age,  was  among  her  most  fervent  admirers.  She 
was  closely  in  touch  with  Ghiberti,  Contarini,  Gio- 
vanni Morone,  and  all  fliat  group  of  men  and  women 
who  were  working 
for  the  reformation 
of  the  Church  from 
within.  For  a  while 
she  had  been  drawn 
into  the  oontrovernr 
ooneemine  justifi- 
cation  by  faith,  but 
was  kept  within  the 
limits  of  orthodoxy 
by  the  influence  of 
the  beloved  friend 
of  her  last  years. 
Cardinal  Reginald 
Pole,  to  whom  she 
declared  she  owed 
her  salvation.  Her 
last  wish  was  to  be 
buried  among  the 
nuns  of  S.  Anna  dfc' 
Funari  at  Rome ; 
but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  her  body  /^X"™*^^.9®"^^''^'  x 

ultimately   rested  (Colonna  Gallery.  R.>me) 

there,  or  was  removed  to  the  side  of  her  husband  at 
San  Domenico  in  Naples. 

Vittoria  is  undoubtedly  greater  as  a  personality 
tiian  as  a  poet.  Her  earlier  "Rime",  which  are 
mainly  devoted  to  the  glorification  of  her  husband, 
are  somewhat  monotonous.  Her  later  sonnets  are 
almost  exclusively  religious,  and  strike  a  deeper  note. 
A  longer  poem  in  terza-rima,  the  ''Trionfo  di  Cristo", 
shows  the  influence  of  Dante  and  Savonarola,  as  well 
as  that  of  Petrarch.  Her  latest  and  best  biographer, 
Mrs.  Jerrold,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  number 
of  beautiful  and  faithful  translations  of  Vittoria 's 
poetrv,  has  drawn  a  suggestive  analogy  between  it 
and  the  work  of  Christina  Rossetti.  Many  of  Vitto- 
ria's  letters,  and  a  prose  meditation  upon  the  Passion 
of  Christ,  have  also  been  preserved. 

ViaootfTi,  Rims  di  Vittoria  Cdomna  (Rome,  1840);  Luuo, 
ViUoria  C«<onna  (Man t\ia,  1884);  Fsbreiio  and  MCixer,  Cart- 
eggio  di  Vtttoriq  Colonna,  Marchesa  di  Peacara  (Florence,  1892); 
ReuuoNT.  tr.  by  MOllbr  and  Ferrbro,  Vittoria  Colonna, 
Viia^  Feds,  sPoesia  net  secoto  dedmosesto  (Turin,  1892);  Toxdi, 
Vittoria  Colonna  in  Orvieio  (Perugia,  1895);  Jerbold,  Vittoria 
Colohna,  with  some  account  of  her  Friends  and  her  Times  (Lon- 
don and  New  York.  1906). 

EnifUND  G.  Gardner. 

Oolonnade,  a  number  of  columns  symmetrically 
arranged  in  one  or  more  rows.  It  is  termed  mono- 
st3rle  when  of  one  row,  pol3r8tyle  when  of  many.  If 
surroonding  a  building  or  court,  it  is  called  a  peri- 
style; when  projecting  beyond  the  line  of  the  build- 
ing a  portico.  Sometimes  it  supports  a  building, 
sometimes  a  roof  only.  For  ecclesiastical  architec- 
ture the  most  famous  specimen  is  the  oolonnade  of 
St.  Peter^,  erected  16&-67  by  Bernini,  with  284 
eolomns  and  162  statues  of  saints  on  balustrades 
(seeTHB  Catholic  Encyclopbma,  II,  s.  v.  Bernini). 

Ainmisoir  and  SnaRS,  The  Arehttecture  of  Qroscs  and  Rmne 
(London,  1903) ;  Gwix/r,  Sneyclopadia  of  Architecture  (London. 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

'  Colophon,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  one 
of  the  twelve  Ionian  cities,  between  Lebedos  (ruins 
near  HypsiK-Hissar)  and  Ephesus  (Aysb-Solouk).  In 
Greek  antiquity  two  sons  ot  Codrus,  King  of  Athens, 
established  a  colony  there.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  frfiilosopher  Xenophanes  and  the  poet  Mimner- 
mus.  It  was  destroved  by  Lysimachus,  one  of  the 
sucoessors  of  Alexander.  Notium  served  as  the  port, 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  was  the  village  of  Olarus, 
with  its  famous  temple  and  oraole  of  Apollo  Gbnus, 


OOLORAtM) 


129 


COLORADO 


vfh&ee  Calchas  vied  with  Mopsus  in  divinatory  science. 
The  cavalry  oi  Colophon  was  renowned.  Its  pine- 
trees  supphed  a  rosin  or  colophony  highly  valued  for 
the  strings  of  musical  instruments.  In  Roman  times 
Colophon  lost  its  importance;  the  name  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  site  of  I^otium,  and  the  latter  name  dis- 
appeared between  the  Pelopoimesian  War  and  the 
tmie  of  Cicero.  The  "Notiti®  episcopatuum"  men- 
tions Colophon  or  Colophone,  as  late  as  the  twelfth  or 
thirteenth  century,  as  a  suffragan  of  Ephesus.  Le- 
quien  (I,  723)  gives  the  names  of  only  four  bishops: 
St.  Sosthenes  (I  Cor.,  i,  1)  and  St.  Tychicus  (Tit.,  iii, 
12)  are  merely  legendary;  Euthalius  was  present  at 
the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431,  and  Alexander  was 
alive  in  451.  The  ruins  of  the  city  are  at  the  Castro 
of  Ghiaour-Keui,  an  insignificant  village  in  the  vilayet 
of  Smyrna,  caza  of  Koush-Adasi. 

Chandlbb.  Trcufds  in  Asia  Minor,  XXXI;  Arrundbl, 
Seven  Churches  in  Asia,  303;  Tbxibr,  Asie  Mineure,  356; 
FoNTRiBR,  in  MustBon  and  Library  of  the  Evangdical  School  at 
Smwiia  (Greek),  III,  187;   Scbuchhardt,  in  Athen.  Mitteil. 

S.  P^TRIDES. 

Oolorado,  the  thirty-fifth,  in  point  of  admission,  of 
the  United  States  of  America.  It  lies  between  the 
37th  and  41st  d^rees  of  N.  latitude  and  the  102nd  and 
109th  degrees  of  W.  longitude,  the  meridian  lines 
making  its  shape  a  parallelogram  as  exact  as  the  curva- 
ture of  the  eartn  will  allow. 
When  its  original  terri- 
torial limits  were  discussed 
it  was  suggested  that  the 
crest  of  tES  Rocky  Moun- 
tains was  a  natural  bound- 
ary, and  it  was  on  the 


reply  of  Colonel  William 
Gilpin 


Qpin»  who  became  its 
drst  governor,  that  rail- 
roads and  political  unity 
bad  superseded  iiatural 
boimdanes,    that  it  was 

placed  squarely  across  the  Seal  of  Colorado 

divide  and  so  has  its  moun- 
tain centre  with  a  slope  to  either  ocean.  After  the 
Cliff-dwellers,  its  Indian  tribes  were  the  Utes  and 
Arapahoes.  It  became  part  of  French  and  Spanish 
America,  and  was  covered  by  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase (1803),  the  Texas  cession  (1850),  and  the  cession 
from  Mexico  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo 
(1848).  Its  area  is  103,900  square  miles.  The  third 
of  the  State  east  of  Denver  is  a  part  of  the  great 
plains,  level  and  arid.  The  altitude  at  the  base  of  the 
State  capitol  is  exactly  one  mile;  ^ing  east,  it  falls 
to  about  4000  feet  at  the  State  hne.  Through  the 
centre,  north  and  south,  runs  the  main  Rocky  Moun- 
tain range  containing  the  highest  peaks  of  these 
mountains,  thirty-two  of  which  exceed  14,000  feet  and 
several  so  nearly  the  same  height  that  it  is  a  matter 
of  dispute  as  to  which  is  the  hi^heist,  probably  Mount 
Massive,  14,498  feet.  On  their  western  slope  they 
form  a  plateau  country.  Between  encircling  ranges 
are  natural  parks  (South,  Middle,  North,  San  Luis, 
Estes)  at  an  altitude  of  about  9000  feet,  which  are 
notable  stock-raising  lands.  The  Rio  Grande,  Arlcan- 
sas,  and  Platte  Rivers  all  rise  in  this  State,  flowing 
south  and  east,  and  the  Great  Colorado  River  fiowins 
west  has  its  headwaters  here.  The  Grand  (^afion  of 
the  Arkansas,  Mount  of  the  Holy  Cross,  and  the  Gar- 
den of  the  Gods,  are  the  principal  scenic  attractions. 
Climate. — The  climate  is  exceptionally  dry,  health- 
ful, and  invigorating.  The  summers  are  cool  and  the 
winters  moderate.  There  is  an  average  of  181  clear 
days  out  of  365.  Manitou,  Glenwooof,  and  Sulphur 
Springs  are  noted  sanatoria.  The  aimual  rainfall  is 
low,  but  so  widely  variant  in  localities  that  no  intel- 
U^le  average  can  be  stated.  Extremes  are  12  and 
2Sinche& 

IV.-9 


Population. — By  the  census  of  1900  the  population 
was  539,700:  whites,  529,046;  negroes,  8570;  Indians, 
1437 ;  Chinese,  599.  The  estimate  by  the  State  Board 
of  Health  for  1906  was  615,570.  The  greatest  num- 
ber of  inmiigranta  are  from  States  on  the  same  parallel. 
There  are  many  native-bom  citizens  of  Spanish  de- 
scent in  the  southern  counties.  Representatives  from 
every  country  in  Europe  are  included  among  the  popu- 
lation, but  none  localized  in  colonies  to  any  extent; 
88  per  cent  of  the  population  are  native-bom ;  4  per 
cent  are  illiterate.  Denver,  the  State  capital  and 
largest  citv,  has  a  population  approximating  200,000. 
Pueblo,  Colorado  Springy,  Leadville,  Trinidad,  and 
Greeley  are  the  lai^r  cities. 

Resources. — Mining  and  agriculture  are  the  princi- 
pal industries.  The  manufacture  of  steel  has  been 
started,  and  oonuneroe  is  incident  to  all  other  indus- 
tries, but  the  mine  and  ranch  are  the  exploited  feat- 
ures of  the  commonwealth.  In  both  gold  and  silver, 
Colorado  is  the  largest  producer  of  any  of  the  States. 
In  1906,  gold  to  the  value  of  $23,506,069,  and  13,381,- 
575  ounces  of  silver  were  mined.  There  was  also  a 
heavy  production  of  lead,  zinc,  and  iron.  Coal  under- 
lies a  very  large  area,  much  larger  than  in  Pennsyl- 
vania; the  output  for  1906  being  11,240,078  tons  bi- 
tuminous and  68,343  tons  anthracite.  Cripple  Creek, 
Guray,  and  Leadville  are  the  most  active  mining 
camps,  but  the  mineral  belt  covers  every  mountain 
county  from  Routt  in  the  north-west  comer  to  the 
New  Mexico  line.  The  Georgetown  district  claims 
to  produce  the  highest  grade  oisilver  ore  mined  in  the 
United  States. 

The  average  wheat  yield  is  about  twenty-one 
bushels  to  the  acre.  East  of  the  foothills  is  a  deep 
loam  overlying  a  gravel  subsoil,  and  wherever  water 
can  be  got  the  land  is  very  productive.  The  western 
slope,  including  the  valleys  between  the  mountain 
ranges,  has  an  even  richer  soil,  especially  adapted  to 
fruit  production.  All  the  grains  and  fruits  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  are  produced,  but  those  crops  which  seem 
best  adapted  to  local  conditions  are  wheat,  apples, 
potatoes,  cantaloupes,  and  the  su^r-beet.  The  value 
of  the  output  of  agriculture,  dairy,  and  poultry  for 
1906  was  $72,600,000;  fmit,  $7,000,000.  Until  re- 
cently norland  not  under  ditch  was  considerdd  safe  to 
farm,  the  aimual  rainfall  not  ensuring  a  crop.  But 
such  land  is  now  cultivated  under  scientific  methods 
called  ''dry  farmins",  so  that  the  value  of  this  land  in 
flastem  Colorado  nas  doubled  within  the  last  three 
years.  Nevertheless  irrigation  is  the  specific  incident 
of  (Colorado  farming.  It  has  been  studied  to  secure 
the  most  economic  results,  and  ultimately  no  water 
will  leave  the  State,  all  being  caught  and  stored  in 
reservoirs.  In  1900  there  were  7374  miles  of  main 
ditches  covering  by  laterals  390  acres  to  the  mile. 
The  estimated  value  of  the  manufactures,  outside  of 
smelting,  for  1906  is  $15,000,000.  Six  railroad  lines 
enter  the  State  from  the  east  and  two  cross  its  west- 
em  boundary.  Every  town  of  any  size  in  the  State 
has  railroad  cormexion.  The  railway  mileage  in  1905 
was  5081. 

Education. — Public  education  with  compulsory  at- 
tendance is  provided  for  the  whole  State,  with  a  high 
school  in  every  large  town.  The  university,  located  at 
Boulder,  is  supported  by  an  annual  two-fifths  of  a  mill 
State  tax  which  gives  it  an  ample  foundation.    It 

f;ives  law,  medical,  engineering,  and  academic  courses, 
n  1906  it  had  840  students,  besides  525  in  the  prepar- 
atory school.  There  are  also  the  University  of  Denver 
(Methodist),  Colorado  College  at  Colorado  Springs 
(secular),  the  Jesuit  College  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and 
the  Loretto  Heights  Academy  at  Denver.  The  State 
Normal  School  is  at  Greeley.  Other  schools  are  the 
Aj^cultural  College  at  Fort  Collins  and  the  School  of 
Mmes  at  Golden,  with  special  State  institutions  for  the 
deaf  and  blind.  The  principal  school  support  comes 
from  the  ownership  of  the  16th  and  36th  sections  of 


OOLOBAl^O 


130 


dOLd&ADO 


each  non-mineral  township,  the  value  of  which  is  be- 
yond accurate  approximation,  besides  school  district 
ownership  of  over  19,000,000.  The  total  number  of 
pupils  enrolled  in  1906  was  144,007.  The  teachers 
numbered  4600  and  the  sdioolhouses  2010.  The 
expenditure  for  that  year  was  $4,486,226.78.  The 
pupils  attending  parochial  schools  number  5905 
students;  in  Catholic  collies,  261 ;  girls  in  academies, 
595;  total  youth  under  Catholic  care  7574.  There 
is  a  total  of  537  sisters  in  charge  of  hospitals  and 
schools. 

History. — Coronado  (q.  v.)  probablv  crossed  ihe 
south-east  comer  of  the  State  m  his  celebrated  expedi- 
tion of  1541-2,  and  Francisco  Esoalante  explored  its 
southern  border  in  1776.  The  first  immi^tion  was 
Spanish  from  New  Mexico,  at  Pueblo,  Tnnidad,  and 
other  places  south  of  the  Arkansas  River.  In  1806 
Zebulon  M.  Pike  crossed  the  plains  on  an  official  ex- 
ploration and  gave  his  name  to  Pike's  Peak.  Lons^s 
expedition  was  in  1819.  John  C.  Fremont  and  mt 
Carson  explored  the  mountain  passes  in  the  forties. 
In  1858  gold  was  discovered  in  Cherry  Creek,  which  led 
to  the  Pike's  Peak  excitement  and  immigration  of  1859. 
That  year  is  the  date  of  the  first  real  settlement  of  the 
country  by  English-speaking  people.  Colorado  was 
organized  as  a  Territory  in  1861,  and  admitted  as  a 
State  in  1876,  with  a  constitution  formed  in  that  year. 
This  explains  its  sentimental  title  of  "The  Centen- 
nial State".    The  State  motto  is  NH  Sine  Numine, 

Colorado  coming  in  as  an  organized  territory  just 
as  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  the  question  of  loysuty  or 
secession  agitated  the  population,  but  the  Union  men 
were  in  overwhelming  majority.  The  Territory  con- 
tributed two  regiments  to  the  Union  Army.  Since 
1876  the  State  has  generally  eone  Republican,  but 
being  so  large  a  producer  ot  silver  it  supported  the 
Democratic  ticket  so  long  as  the  double  standard  of 
money  remained  an  issue.  There  have  been  two  or 
three  occasions  since  admission  when  the  State  has 
paid  the  price  for  encouraging  innovations  parading 
themselves  as  reforms.  In  1^4  Governor  Uavis  H. 
Waite,  elected  as  a  Populist  but  really  a  Socialist, 
ordered  out  the  State  troops  in  opposition  to  the 
armed  police  of  Denver;  cannon  were  trained  on  the 
City  Hall  and  only  his  yielding  at  the  last  moment 

f)revcnted  what  threatened  to  be  a  serious  civil  revo- 
ution.  Under  his  administration  the  militia  were  or- 
dered out  in  the  interest  of  the  striking  miners  at 
Cripple  Creek,  and  later  in  1904  they  were  ordered  to 
the  same  district  under  Governor  Peabody  in  support 
of  the  mine-owners.  Drastic  deportations  and  vigi- 
lance-committee violence  were  conunitted  by  the 
State  authorities^  excusable^  as  they  alleged,  owing  to 
the  extreme  conditicms.  This  led  to  an  exciting  election 
in  the  fall  of  that  year,  in  which  Alva  Adams,  the 
Democratic  candidate  for  governor,  was  undoubtedly 
elected  and  received  his  certificate,  but  was  allowed 
to  hold  office  only  until  a  recount  by  the  legislature 
was  decided  against  him  and  Jesse  McDonald,  the 
Republican  candidate  for  lieutenant-governor,  was 
given  the  seat. 

Woman  suffrage  was  adopted  by  popular  vote  in 
1893.  It  has  since  been  in  full  operation,  but  its 
results  for  good  have  been  nil.  Only  during  the  first 
few  sessions  were  one,  two,  and,  at  most,  three  women 
elected  to  the  legislature  out  of  its  100  members.  No 
woman  has  been  elected  to  any  State  office  except  to 
that  of  superintendent  of  pubuo  instruction.  Instead 
of  being  represented  in  conventions  by  nearly  half, 
women  delegates  now  are  scarcely  seen  in  such  bodies. 
As  a  political  factor  they  have  not  made  either  of  the 
great  parties  stronger  or  weaker. 

Religioxis  Factors. — The  State  constitutes  one  dio- 
cese, with  its  see  at  Denver.  Citizens  of  Spanish 
descent,  about  20,000,  are  practically  all  CatnoUes, 
and  there  are  8,000  to  10,000  Catholic  Austrians  and 
Poles  at  Trinidad,  Denver,  and  Pueblo,    l^e  CathoKo 


population  is  estimated  (1908)  at  about  100,000. 
Among  the  Catholics  prominent  in  the  development 
of  Colorado  may  be  mentioned  Gen.  Bela  M.  Hughes, 
the  Democratic  candidate  for  governor  at  the  first 
State  election;  Casimiro  Barela  and  James  T.  Smith, 
both  in  the  legislature  or  executive  departments  of 
the  State  Government  for  over  thirty  years ;  Peter  W. 
Breene  and  Francis  Carney,  who  held  the  lieutenant- 
eovemoTship;  Senator  H.  A.  W.  Tabor,  Hon.  Bernard 
J.  O'Connell  of  Georgetown,  Martin  Currigan,  and  John 
K.  Mullen  of  Denver.  John  H.  Reddin,  an  attorney 
of  Denver,  was  the  oi^nizer  of  the  Kniehts  of  Colum- 
bus in  this  State.  Tne  Catholic  Church  numerically 
exceeds  any  one  of  the  Protestant  denominations. 
Hie  next  in  numbers  is  the  Methodist,  and  then  comes 
the  Presbyterian.  Although  the  State  adjoins  Utah 
there  are  very  few  Mormons. 

Absolute  freedom  of  worship  is  guaranteed  by  the 
Constitution,  and  there  is  apparently  no  disposition 
to  infringe  this  law.  In  no  State  is  there  better 'feel- 
ing between  the  Church  and  non-Catholic  denomina- 
tions. The  common  law  of  Sunday  prevails  with  no 
specific  statutoiy  change.  In  the  cities  the  matter  is 
left  to  local  ordinance.  Stores  in  all  towns  large  and 
small  are  generally  closed.  In  nearly  all  the  cities 
liquor  is  sold  under  licence.  In  Colorado  Springs, 
Boulder,  and  Greeley  it  is  prohibited.  In  1907  a  local 
option  law  was  passed  allowing  any  city,  ward,  or 
precinct  to  prohibit  all  sales  of  liquor  except  by  dnig- 
pists  on  prescription.  Little  or  no  attempt  is  maae 
m  the  la^  cities  and  the  mountain  towns  to  enforce 
the  Sunday  liquor  law;  but  the  reverse  is  the  rule  in 
most  of  the  smaller  towns  in  Eastern  Colorado. 

Legal  OcUhs. — A  statutory  form  of  oath  is  pre- 
scribed: the  affiant  shall  with  his  or  her  huid  up- 
lifted swear  "by  the  ever  living  God".  It  has  been 
unchanged  since  the  first  revision  of  the  statutes. 
Any  person  having  conscientious  scruples  against  tak- 
ing an  oath  is  allowed  to  solemnly  affirm.  Interrupt- 
ing religious  meetings  by  profane  swearing  is  made  a 
misdemeanour  by  statute.  The  use  of  profane  lan- 
guage is  everywhere  prohibited  by  city  or  town 
ordinance. 

The  State  Penitentiary  is  at  Canon  City.  Each 
county  has  its  jail  for  confinement  of  persons  held  for 
trial  or  convicted  of  misdemeanours.  Theine  is  a 
State  School  of  Reform  for  boys  and  another  for  girls. 
The  latter  was  created  by  an  Act  providing  substan- 
tially that  all  its  officers  must  be  women,  and  has  b€«n 
as  conspicuous  for  mismanagement  as  the  school  for 
boys  has  been  for  successful  results.  The  legislature 
in  1907  created  a  Juvenile  Court  for  the  care  of  neg- 
lected children. 

Charitable  Institutions  and  Bequests. — Charitable 
institutions  of  any  sort  may  be  incorporated  under 
the  Acts  relating  to  corporations  not  organised  for 

f>rofit.  Barring  the  question  whether  the  old  Eng- 
ish  statutes  of  mortmain  would  be  held  in  force  under  a 
Colorado  statute  adopting,  with  limitations,  the  com- 
mon law  and  Acts  of  the  British  Parliament  prior  to 
the  fourth  year  of  James  I  (1607),  which  point  has 
never  been  decided  in  this  State,  there  is  no  limitation 
on  the  power  of  such  institutions  to  take  property  by 
deed  or  will  and  no  limitations  on  the  power  or  a  testa- 
tor to  bequeath  his  property  to  them,  except  that 
neither  husband  nor  wiie  can  by  will  deprive  the 
survivor  of  one  half  of  his  or  her  estate. 

Church  Properly  ExempHons.-^Any  church  organi- 
zation may  incorporate  under  provisions  relating  to 
religious  societies  (Rev.  Stats,  of  1908,  §§  1018  to 
1033) ;  but  title  to  Catholic  Church  property  as  a  rule 
is  held  by  the  bishop  and  the  parishes  have  ordinarily 
no  need  to  organize  under  these  laws.  Churches, 
schools,  hospitals,  and  cemeteries  not  organized  for 
profit  are  exempt  from  taxation.  Public  aid  to  any 
sectarian  purpose  is  prohibited  by  the  Constitution. 
Clergymen  are  not  in  terms  exempt  from  juiy  duty, 


OOLOBBiB 


131 


OOLOSSZAirS 


but  are  idwavs  excused  as  a  matter  of  eustom.  They 
are  specificallv  exempt  from  military  duty.  Each 
brancn  of  the  legislature 'selects  a  chaplain  who  opens 
sessions  with  prayer.  Christmas  is  a  l^al  holiday; 
Good  Friday  is  not.  Confessions  made  to  any  clergy- 
man or  priest  are  protected  against  disclosuYe. 

Marriage  and  Divorce, — ^Marriage  is  a  civil  contract 
but  may  be  performed  by  a  clergyman  of  anv  denomi- 
nation. The  law  of  divorce  is  extremely  loose.  It 
may  be  granted  for  any  of  the  usual  statutorv  reasons, 
but  the  greatest  abuse  of  the  law  is  under  the  phrase 
called  the  sentimental  cruelty  clause,  where  the  stat- 
ute says  it  may  be  granted  where  either  partv  has  been 
guilty  of  acts  of  cruelty  and  that  'such  acts  of 
cruelty  may  consist  as  well  in  the  infliction  of  mental 
suffering  as  of  bodily  violence".  Under  this  clause 
any  discontented  man  or  wife  can  frame  a  complaint 
which  will  state  a  case  for  divorce.  The  number  of 
divorces  has  greatlv  increased  since  the  adoption  of 
woman  suffrage.  Ko  one  thine  has  done  more  to 
strengthen  the  moral  influence  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  this  State  and  command  respect  and  gather  con- 
verts from  the  denominations  than  its  firm  stand 
against  divorce. 

The  ratio  of  deaths  by  suicide  in  1906  was  one  in 
every  84,  or  1.18  per  cent,  and  the  statistics  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health  do  not  indicate  any  notable 
increase  since  1000. 

Robert  S.  Morrison. 

Oolos88B»  a  titular  see  of  Phrygia  in  Asia  Minor, 
suppressed  in  1894.  Little  is  known  about  its  his- 
tory. The  later  name,  Coiass®,  is  probably  the  old 
Phnrgian  form.  Colossse  was  at  one  time  the  chief  city 
of  &mth- Western  Phrygia,  lying  on  the  trade-route 
from  Sardis  to  Celsense ;  it  produced  fine  wool ,  the  colour 
of  which  was  called  colossinus.  The  ruin  of  the  city 
was  brought  about  by  the  change  of  road  system,  the 
foundation  of  Laodicea,  eleven  miles  distant,  and 
severe  earthquakes.  It  retained  municipal  indepen- 
dence, but  at  the  time  of  Strabo  (XII,  viii,  4)  it  was 
*'a  small  town".  It  had  its  own  coinage  under  the 
empire.  St.  Paul  (probably  about  61)  addressed  an 
epistle  from  Rome  to  the  inhabitants  of  CoIosssb,  who 
had  perhaps  been  evangelized  by  him.  Coloss®  was 
the  home  of  his  companions,  Archippus  and  Philemon, 
of  his  very  dear  sister,  Appia,  and  of  Onesimus  and 
Epaphras,  who  probably  foimaed  the  Church  of  Colos- 
ss.  The  ruins  of  the  city  are  visible  near  Chons,  in 
the  vilayet  of  Smyrna,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lycus 
(Tchuruk  Su);  they  include  the  acropolis,  an  aqu^ 
duct,  theatre,  etc.  There  is  also  a  curious  petrifying 
river,  the  Ak  Su.  Under  the  Byzantine  Empire  the 
territory  of  Colossse  rose  again  to  importance,  and  a 
strong  fortress  was  built  (perhaps  by  Justinian)  at 
Chonffi,  three  miles  south-south-east  of  Colosss.  The 
centre  of  population  long  remained  at  the  old  site, 
but  about  the  eighth  century  it  was  moved  to  a  shelf 
of  land  beneath  the  castle.  Chonse  (vulgar  Greek 
Khon^s,  Turk.  Honas)  is  still  a  little  village,  twelve 
miles  east  of  Denizli;  it  has  been  rendered  famous  by 
its  miraculous  church  of  St.  Michael.  Colossse  was  a 
suffragan  of  Laodicea  in  Phrygia  Pacatiana.  Besides 
St.  Epaphras,  two  bishops  are  mentioned:  Epiphanius 
in  451  and  Cosmas  in  692;  Archippus  and  Plulemon, 
especially  the  latter,  are  very  doubtful.  Chonse  was 
made  an  archbishopric  about  858-60,  and  in  some 
later  "  Notitise  episcopatuum"  appears  as  a  metropolis 
without  suffragans.  Mamr  titulars  are  known:  Dosi- 
theus  at  Nicsea,  in  787;  Samuel,  a  friend  of  Photius, 
who  sent  him  to  Rome,  was  present  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  in  866;  Constantine,  in  1028;  Nicho- 
las, in  1066  and  1080;  in  1143  Nicetas,  the  godfather 
of  the  historian  Nicetas  Acominatus,  who  was  bom  at 
Chonse,  as  was  his  brother  Michael,  the  famous  Metro- 
politan of  Athens. 

LBquiEif.  I,  813;    Hamilton,  Reaear^e^  in  AHa  Minor 


(London,  1842),  I,  fi07-14;  Rahoat,  Tht  CiHte  and  BiAonrtM 
of  Phrjugia,  208-34;  loxit,  The  Ltttera  to  the  Seven  Chvrd^ee  of 
Aeia  (ijQxxaon  and  New  York,  1905);  Lb  Camus,  Voyage  aux 
eept  Egiieee;  Bokitst,  Narratio  de  minumlo  a  Mtehade  arcA>- 
angeio  Chonia  palrato  (Paris,  1880). 

S.  PirTRinis. 

OolosBians,  Epistle  to  the,  is  one  of  the  four  Cap- 
tivity Epistles  written  by  St.  Paul  during  his  fiwt 
imprisonment  in  Rome — the  other  three  bemg  Ephe- 
sians,  Philemon,  and  Philippians.  That  they  were 
written  in  prison  is  stated  in  the  Epistles  themselves. 
The  writer  mentions  his  "chain"  and  his  "bonds'* 
(Eph.,  vi,  20;  Coloss.,  iv,  3,  18;  Philip.,  i,  7,  13,  17); 
he  names  his  fellow  prisoners  (Coloss.,  iv,  10 ;  Philem., 
23)*  he  calls  himself  a  prisoner  (EpL.,  iii,  1;  iv,  1; 
Philem.,  9):  "Paul  an  old  man,  and  now  a  prisoner". 
It  was  supposed  by  some  that  these  letters  were  writ- 
ten during  the  two  years'  captivity  at  Csesarea;  but  it 
is  now  generally  acknowled^d  (by  all  who  admit  their 
authenticity)  that  they  were  written  during  the  years 
immediately  following,  in  Rome,  during  the  time  that 
"  Paul  was  suffered  to  dwell  by  himself,  with  a  soldier 
that  kept  him.  .  .  .  And  he  remained  two  whole  years 
in  his  own  hired  lodging;  and  he  received  all  that  came 
in  to  him"  (Acts,  xxviii.  16-30).  As  St.  Paul  had  ap- 
pealed to  the  emperor,  he  was  handed  over,  to  await 
nis  trial,  to  the  prefect  of  the  Prcetorian  Guard,  who 
was  at  that  time  probably  the  famous  Burrhus,  the 
friend  of  Seneca,  lie  allowed  the  Apostle  to  live  near 
tiie  imperial  palace  in  what  was  known  as  custmdia 
mUitans,  his  right  wrist  being  connected  day  and 
night,  by  means  of  a  diain,  to  the  left  arm  of  a  soldier, 
who  was  relieved  at  regular  intervals  (Conybeare, 
Howson,  Lewin).  It  was  in  such  circumstances  that 
these  Epistles  were  written,  some  time  between  a.  d. 
61  and  63.  It  cannot  be  objected  that  there  is  no 
mention  in  them  of  the  earthauake  spoken  of  by  Taci- 
tus and  Busebitis  as  having  aestroyed  Laodicea;  for 
there  is  no  evidence  that  its  effects  reached  Colossae, 
and  Eusebius  fixes  the  date  later  than  these  letters. 
Colossians,  Ephesians,  and  Philemon  were  written  and 
despatched  at  one  and  the  same  time,  while  Philip- 
pians was  composed  at  a  somewhat  different  period  of 
the  captivity.  The  first  three  are  all  very  closely  con- 
nected. Tychicus  is  the  messenger  in  Eph.,  vi,  21  and 
Coloss.,  iv,  7, 8, 9.  In  the  latter  he  is  accompanied  by 
Onesimus,  in  whose  favour  the  Epistle  to  Philemon 
was  writt^i.  In  both  Colossians  and  Philemon  ereet- 
ings  are  sent  from  Aristarohus,  Mark,  Epaphras,  Luke, 
and  Demas,  and  Utiere  is  the  closest  literary  affinity 
between  Ephesians  and  Colossians  (see  AuTHBNTicrrr 
OF  the  EpiaTLE  below). 

Readers  Addressed. — ^Three  cities  are  mentioned 
in  Colossians,  Colossse  (i,  2),  Laodicea,  and  Hierapolis 
(iv,  13.)  These  were  situated  about  120  miles  east 
from  Ephesus  in  Phry^,  in  Western  Asia  Minor, 
ColoM»  and  Laodicea  bemg  on  the  banks  of  the  Lycus, 
a  tributary  of  the  Mssander.  All  three  were  within  two 
or  three  hours'  walk  from  one  another.  Sir  William 
Hamsay  has  shown  that  these  towns  lay  alto^ther 
outside  the  routes  followed  by  St.  Paul  in  his  mission- 
ary journeys;  and  it  is  inferred  from  Coloss.,  i,  4,  6,  7, 
8  and  ii,  1,  that  they  were  never  visited  by  the  Apostle 
himself.  The  great  majority  of  the  Cblossian  Chris- 
tians appear  to  have  been  (Entile  converts  of  Greek 
and  Phrygian  extraction  (i,  26,  27 ;  ii,  13),  though  it  is 
probable  that  there  was  a  small  proportion  of  Jews 
living  amongst  them,  as  it  is  known  that  there  were 
many  scattered  over  the  surrounding  districts  (Jose- 
phus,  Ant.,  XII,  iii,  4,  and  Lightfoot). 

Why  WRiTTEN,--Colo8sians  was  written  as  a  warn- 
ing agaiost  certain  false  teachers,  about  whom  St.  Paul 
had  probably  heard  from  Epaphras,  his  "  fellow-pris- 
oner" and  the  foimder  of  the  Cnurch  of  the  Colossians. 
The  most  diverse  opinions  have  been  held  regardmg 
these  seducers.  They  were  called  philosophers  by 
Tertullian,  Epicureans  by  St.  Clement  of  Alexandria, 


0OLOSSIAN8 


132 


001.08814X8 


Jews  by  Eichhorn,  heathen  followers  of  Pythagoras  b^ 
Orotius.  Tliey  have  also  been  called  Chaldean  magi- 
cians, Judaizing  Christians,  Essenes,  Ebionites.  Cabbal- 
ists,  Gnostics,  or  varying  combinations  of  all  tnese  (see 
Jacquier,  Histoire,  I,  316;  Comely,  Introduction, 
III,  514).  The  main  outlines  of  their  errors  are,  how- 
ever, stated  with  sufficient  clearness  in  the  Epistle, 
which  contains  a  two  fold  refutation  of  them:  first,  by 
a  direct  statement  of  the  true  doctrine  on  Christ,  by 
which  tiie  very  foundations  of  tlieir  erroneous  teaching 
are  shown  to  be  bas^ess;  and  secondly,  by  a  direct 
polemic  in  which  is  laid  bare  the  hollowness  of  what 
they  put  forth  under  the  si>ecious  name  of  "  philos- 
ophy''. Here,  philosophy  in  general  is  not  con- 
demned, but  only  the  philosophy  of  those  false  teach- 
ers (Hort,  Jud.  Chr.,  118).  This  was  not  ''according 
to  dbrist'',  but  according  to  the  ''tradition  of  men  , 
and  was  in  keeping  only  witn  the  very  alphabet  of 
worldly  speculation  (itaTA  rd  ^Toixttd  row  ida/Mv — see 
Gal.,  IV,  3).  Josephus  and  Philo  apply  the  word 
"philosophy ''to  Jewish  teaching,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  was  applied  so  in  Coloss.,  ii;  some  of  its 
details  are  given  in  16-23:  (1)  The  false  teachers 
wished  to  introduce  the  observance  of  Sabbaths,  new 
moons,  and  other  such  days.  (2)  They  forbade  the 
eating  and  drinking  and  even  the  very  tasting  and 
touchinc  of  certain  things.  (3)  Under  the  false  pre- 
tence of  humility  they  inculcated  the  worship  (Bfyif^Ktla) 
of  angels,  whom  they  regarded  as  equal  or  superior  to 
Christ.  The  best  modem  commentators.  Catholic  and 
non-Catholic,  acree  with  St.  Jerome  that  all  these 
rrrors  were  of  Jewish  origin.  The  Essenes  held  the 
most  exaggerated  ideas  on  Sabbath  observance  and 
external  purism,  and  they  appear  to  have  employed 
the  names  of  the  angels  for  mi^cal  purposes  (Bel. 
Jud.,  II,  vii,  2-13;  Lightfoot,  Col.  and  Dissertations). 
Many  scholars  are  of  opinion  that  the  "elements  of 
this  world"  (<rTOix«Mt  roO  Kdaijuw)  mean  elemental 
spirits;  as,  at  that  time,  many  Jews  held  that  all  ma- 
terial things  had  special  angels.  In  the  Book  of 
Henoch  and  the  Book  of  Jubilees  we  read  of  angels  of 
the  stars,  seasons,  months,  days  of  the  year,  heat,  cold, 
frost,  hail,  winds,  clouds,  etc.  Abbott  (Eph.  and 
Coloss.,  p.  248)  says  that  "the  term  properly  used  of 
the  elements  ruled  by  these  spirits  mi^t  readily  be 
applied  to  the  spirits  themselves,  especially  as  there 
was  no  other  convenient  term".  At  any  rate,  ansels 
play  an  important  part  in  most  of  early  apocryphal 
books  of  the  Jews,  e.  g.  in  the  two  books  just  men- 
tioned, the  Book  of  the  Secrets  of  Henoch,  the  Test- 
ament of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  etc. 

It  may  be  noted  in  passing^  that  the  words  of  the 
Epistle  against  the  superstitious  worship  of  angels 
cannot  be  taken  as  condemning  the  Catholic  invocar 
tion  of  angels.  Dr.  T.  K.  Abbott,  a  candid  non-Cath- 
olic scholar,  has  a  very  pertinent  passage  which  bears 
on  this  point  (Eph.  and  Coloss.,  p.  26^):  "Zonaras 
.  .  .  says  there  was  an  ancient  heresy  of  some  who 
said  that  we  should  not  call  on  Christ  for  help  or 
access  to  God,  but  on  the  aneels.  .  .  .  This  latter 
view,  however,  would  place  Christ  high  above  the 
angels,  and  therefore  cannot  have  been  that  of  Colos- 
sians,  who  required  to  be  taught  the  superiority  of 
Christ."  The  objection  sometimes  brousht  from  a 
passage  of  Theodoret,  on  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  is 
clearly  and  completely  refuted  by  Estius  (Comm.  in 
Coloss.,  II,  18).  Another  difficulty  may  be  mentioned 
in  connexion  with  this  portion  of  the  Epistle.  The 
statement  that  the  vain  philosophy  was  in  accordance 
with  "  the  tradition  of  men"  is  not  any  disparagement 
of  Apostolic  traditions,  of  which  St.  Paul  himself 
speaks  a^  follows:  "Therefore,  brethren,  stand  fast; 
and  hold  the  traditions  which  you  have  learned, 
whether  by  word  or  by  our  Epistle^'  (II  Thess.,  ii,  14). 
"  Now  I  praise  you.  brethren,  that  in  all  things  you  are 
mindful  of  me:  and  keep  my  ordinances  asT have  de- 
livered them  to  you"  (I  Cor.,  xi,  2.-<See  also  II 


Thea.,iii,6:  I  Cor.,  vii,  17 ;  xi,23;  xiv,33;  II  Cor.,  i, 
IS;  Gal.,  i,  8;  Coloss.,  ii,  6,  7;  II  Tim.,  i,  13, 14;  ii,  2; 
iii,  14;  II  John,  i,  12;  III  John,  13).  Finally,  the 
very  last  verse,  dealing  with  the  errors  (ii,  23),  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  difficult  passages  in  tne  whole 
of  the  Scriptures.  "  Which  things  have  indeed  a  shew 
of  wisdom  in  superstition  and  humility,  and  not  spar- 
ing the  body;  not  in  any  honour  to  the  filling  of  the 
flesh. "  The  last  words  of  this  verse  have  given  rise  to 
a  multitude  of  the  most  conflicting  interpretations. 
They  have  been  taken  as  a  condemnation  of  bodily 
mortification,  and  as  an  exhortation  to  it.  Modern 
commentators  devote  much  space  to  an  enumeration 
of  the  many  opinions  and  to  an  exhaustive  study  of 
these  words  without  any  satisfactory  result .  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  opinion  of  Hort,  Haupt,  and 
Peake  (Exp.  Greek  Test.,  635)  is  the  right  one,  viz. 
that  the  correct  reading  of  this  verse  becune  irrevocar 
bly  lost,  in  transcription,  in  very  early  times. 

CoNTBNTS. — Firti  Part  (i,  ii). — The  Epistle  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  the  first  two  chapters  being  dog- 
matico-polemical,  and  the  last  two  practical  or  moru. 
In  the  nrst  part  the  writer  shows  the  absurdity  of  the 
errors  by  a  direct  statement  of  the  supereminent  d^- 
nity  of  Christ,  by  Whose  blood  we  have  the  redemp- 
tion of  sins.  He  is  the  perfect  image  of  the  invisible 
God,  begotten  before  all  creatures.  By  Him  and  for 
Him  were  created  all  things  in  heaven  and  on  earth, 
visible  and  invisible,  spiritual  as  well  as  material,  and 
by  Him  are  all  things  upheld.  He  is  the  Head  of  the 
Cihuroh  and  He  has  reconciled  all  things  throu^  the 
blood  of  His  cross,  and  the  Ck>lossians  "also  he  hath 
reconciled . . .  through  death  ".  St.  Paul,  as  the  Apos- 
tle of  the  Gentiles  and  a  prisoner  for  their  sakes,  ex- 
horts them  to  hold  fast  to  (Jhrist  in  Whom  the  pleni- 
tude of  the  Godhead  dwells,  and  not  to  allow  them- 
selves under  the  plausible  name  of  philosophy,  to  be 
re-enslaved  by  Jewish  traditions  based  on  the  Law  of 
Moses,  which  was  but  the  shadow  of  which  Christ 
was  the  reality  and  which  was  abrogated  by  His  com- 
ing. They  are  not  to  listen  to  vain  and  rudimentaiy 
speculations  of  the  false  teachers,  nor  are  they  to  suf- 
fer themselves  to  be  deluded  by  a  specious  plea  of  hu- 
mility to  put  angels  or  demons  on  a  level  with  CJhrist, 
the  creator  of  all,  the  master  of  angels^  and  conqueror 
of  demons. 

Second  Part  (m,  tv). — ^In  this  portion  of  the  Epistle 
St.  Paul  draws  some  practical  lessons  from  the  fore- 
going teaching.  He  appeals  to  them  that  as  they  are 
risen  with  Christ  they  should  mind  the  things  that  are 
above;  put  off  the  old  man  and  put  on  the  new.  In 
Christ  there  is  to  be  neither  Gentile  nor  Jew,  barbarian 
nor  Scythian,  bond  nor  free.  The  duties  of  wives  and 
husbands,  children  and  servants  are  next  ^ven.  Hp 
recommends  constant  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  and 
teUs  them  to  walk  with  wisdom  towards  them  that  are 
without,  letting  their  speech  be  always  in  grace  sea- 
soned with  salt,  that  they  may  know  how  to  answer 
every  man.  Alter  the  final  greeting,  the  Apostle  ends 
with:  '"Hie  salutation  of  Paul  with  my  own  hand. 
Be  mindful  of  my  bands.  Grace  be  with  you. 
Amen". 

Authenticity  of  the  Epistle. — External  Evi- 
dence.— The  external  evidence  for  the  Epistle  is  so 
strong  that  even  Davidson  has  gone  to  the  extent  of 
saying  that  "it  was  unanimously  attested  in  ancient 
times".  Considering  its  brevity,  controversial  char- 
acter, and  the  local  and  ephemeral  nature  of  the  errors 
dealt  with,  it  is  surprising  how  frequently  it  was  used 
by  early  writers.  There  are  traces  of  it  in  some  of  the 
Apostolic  Fathers,  and  it  was  known  to  the  writer  of 
the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  to  St.  Polycarp,  and  Theo- 

fhilus  <rf  Antioch.  It  was  quoted  by  Justin  Martyr, 
ren«U8,  TertuUian,  CJlement  of  Alexandria,  etc. 
From  the  Muratorian  Fragment  and  early  versions  it 
is  evident  that  it  was  contained  in  the  veiy  first  col- 
lections of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,    It  was  used  as  Scrip- 


0OLO8SIANS 


133 


0OLO8BIAN8 


lure  eaxly  in  the  second  century,  by  Marcion,  the  VaJ^ 
entinians,  and  by  other  heretics  mentioned  in  the 
"Philosophoumena";  and  they  would  not  have  ac- 
cepted it  had  it  originated  among  their  opponents 
after  they  broke  away  from  the  Church. 

Internal  Evidence, — The  Epistle  claims  to  have  been 
written  by  St.  Paul,  and  the  internal  evidence  shows 
close  connexion  with  Fhilippians  (von  Soden)  and  Phil- 
emon, which  are  admittea  to  be  genuine  letters  of  St. 
Paul.  Renan  concedes  that  it  presents  several  traits 
which  are  opposed  to  the  hypothesis  of  its  bein^  a  for- 
creiy,  and  01  this  number  is  its  connexion  with  the 
Epistle  to  Philemon.  It  has  to  be  noted,  too,  that 
the  moral  portion  of  the  Epistle,  consisting  of  the 
last  two  chapters,  has  the  closest  affinity  with  similar 
portions  of  other  Epistles,  while  the  whole  admirably 
fits  in  with  the  known  details  of  St.  Paul's  life,  and 
throws  considerable  light  upon  them. 

Objections. — As  the  historical  evidence  is  much 
strong  than  that  for  the  majority  of  classical  writ- 
ings, it  may  be  asked  why  its  genuineness  was  ever 
called  in  question.  It  was  never  doubted  until  1838, 
when  Meyerhoflf,  followed  by  others,  be^n  to  raise 
objections  against  it.  It  wul  be  convenient  to  deal 
with  these  objections  under  the  following  four  heads: 
(I)  Style;  (2)  Christology;  (3)  Errors  dealt  with;  and 
(4)  Similarity  to  Ephesians. 

(1)  Style. — (a)  In  general,  on  comparing  the  Epistle 
with  Ck)rinthians,  Itomans,  and  Galatians,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  style,  especially  in  the  earlier  part,  is 
heavy  and  complicated.  It  contains  no  sudden  ques- 
tions, no  crushing  dilemmas,  no  vehement  outbursts  of 
sweeping  Pauline  eloauence.  Some  of  the  sentences 
are  long  and  involved,  and  though  the  whole  is  set 
forth  in  a  lofty  and  noble  strain,  the  presentment  is 
uniform,  and  not  quite  in  the  manner,  say,  of  Gala- 
tians. Hence  it  is  objected  that  it  could  not  have 
been  written  by  St.  Paul.  But  all  this  can  be  very 
naturally  explained  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the 
Epistle  was  written  after  several  years  of  monotonous 
confinement,  when  Christianity  had  taken  firm  root, 
when  the  old  type  of  Judaizer  had  become  extinct  and 
St.  Paul's  position  securely  established.  His  advanc- 
ing years,  also,  should  be  taken  into  account.  It  is 
unfair,  moreover,  to  compare  this  Epistle,  or  but  parts 
of  it,  with  anlycertain  portions  of  one  or  two  of  the 
earher  ones.  There  are  long  and  involved  sentences 
scattered  throughout  Romans,  I  and  I^  Corinthians, 
and  Galatians,  and  the  generally  admitted  Epistie  to 
the  Philippians.  It  has  also  to  be  observed  that 
many  of  the  old  Pauline  expressions  and  methods  of 
reasoning  are  most  naturally  and  inextricably  inter- 
woven with  the  very  tissue  and  substance  of  the  Epis- 
tle. Ample  proofs  for  all  these  staten^nts  and  others 
throu^out  this  article,  are  given  in  works  mentioned 
in  the  bibliography.  Dr.  Sanday  has  voiced  the 
opinion  of  fair-minded  critics  when  he  says  that  no- 
body can  view  the  Epistle  as  a  whole,  without  being 
impressed  by  its  unbreakable  unity  and  genuine  Paul- 
ine character. 

(b)  Many  of  St.  Paul's  favourite  expressions  are 
wanting.    From  eipht  to  a  dozen  woros  not  unfre- 

?[uently  used  by  him  in  earlier  writings  are  absent 
rom  this  short  Epistle ;  and  about  a  dozen  connecting 
particles,  which  he  employs  elsewhere,  are  also  miss- 
ing. One  or  two  instances  will  show  how  such  objec- 
tions ma^  readily  be  solved,  with  the  aid  of  a  concord- 
ance. The  words  SUaios,  fftarifpla,  and  v^/un  are 
not  found  in  the  Epistle.  Therefore,  etc. — But 
9Uatot  is  wanting  both  in  I  Cor.  and  I  Thess. ;  irwrifpta, 
is  not  contained  either  in  I  Cor.  or  Gal. ;  p6ftof  is  not 
found  at  all  in  I  Thess.  or  II  Cor.  In  the  same  way 
(with  r^ard  to  connecting  particles)  dpa.  which  is  not 
in  this  Epistle,  is  not  found  either  in  Pnilipp.  or  the 
first  hundred  verses  of  I  Cor.,  a  space  mucn  longer 
than  the  whole  of  tlie  Epistle;  dpa  otv,  which  is  fre- 
quent in  Romans^  is  not  met  with  in  I  and  II  Cor.  and 


onlr  once  in  Gal.    (See  the  details  of  the  argument  iii 
Abbott  and  Jaoquier.) 

(c)  It  is  objected  that  the  Epistle  contains  many 
strange  words,  nowhere  else  used  by  St.  Paul.  That, 
however,  is  precisely  what  we  should  expect  in  an 
Epistle  of  St.  Paul.  Every  Epistle  written  by  him 
contains  many  words  employed  by  him  nowhere  else. 
Alf ord  gives  a  list  of  thirtv-two  4ira^  Xry6|ici«  in  this 
Epistle,  and  of  these  eignteen  occur  in  the  second 
chapter,  where  the  errors  are  dealt  with.  The  same 
thing' occurs  in  the  earlier  Epistles,  where  the  Apostle 
is  speaking  of  new  subjects  or  peculiar  errors,  and 
there  Aira|  \eyhpjtva,  most  abound.  This  Epistle  does 
not  show  more  than  the  ordinary  proportion  of  new 
words  and  in  this  respect  compares  favourably  with 
the  genuine  II  Cor.  Furthermore,  the  compound 
words  found  in  the  Epistle  have  their  analogues  in 
similar  passages  of  the  authentic  Epistle  to  tne  Ro- 
mans. It  would  be  most  absurd  to  bind  down  to  a 
narrow  and  set  vocabulary  a  writer  of  such  intellec- 
tual vigour  and  literary  versatility  as  St.  Paul.  The 
vocabmary  of  all  writers  chances  with  time,  place,  and 
subject-matter.  Salmon,  Msmaffy.  and  others  nave 
pointed  out  that  Similar  changes  of  vocabulary  occur 
m  the  writings  of  Xenophon,  who  was  a  traveUer  like 
St.  Paul.  (Jompare  the  earlier  and  later  letters  of 
Lord  Acton  (edited  by  Abbot  Gasquet)  or  of  Cardinal 
Newman. 

(2)  Christohgy. — It  has  been  objected  that  the  ex- 
alted idea  of  Christ  presented  in  the  Epistle  could  not 
have  been  written  by  St.  Paul.  In  answer  to  this  it 
will  be  sufficient  to  quote  the  following  passage  from 
the  genuine  Epistle  to  the  Philippians:  "Who  [Christ 
Jesus]  being  in  the  form  of  Grod,  thought  it  not  robbery 
to  be  equal  with  God:  but  emptied  himself,  taking  the 
form  of  a  servant"  (ii,  6,  7,  etc.  See  Romans,  i,  3,  4; 
Gr.  text,  viii,  3;  I  Cor.,  viii,  6;  II  Cor.^iii,  9;  Gal.,  iv, 
6,  etc.).  That  the  Christology  of  the  Epistle  does  not 
chflfer  in  any  essential  point  from  that  of  St.  Paul's 
other  Epistles  is  seen  from  an  impartial  study  of  these 
latter.  The  subj  ect  has  been  scientifically  worked  out 
by  P6re  Rose  (Rev.  bibl.,  1903),  M.  Upin  (J6sus  Mes- 
sie,  341),  Sanday  (Criticism  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  lect. 
vii,  Oxford,  1905),  Knowling  (The  Testimony  of  St. 
Paul  to  Christ,  London,  1905),  Lacey  (The  Historic 
Christ,  London,  1905),  etc.  Nor  can  the  words  (i,  24) : 
I  .  .  .  "fill  up  those  thinas  that  are  wanting  of  the 
sufferings  of  (Jhrist,  in  my  flesh,  for  Ms  body,  which  is 
the  church",  present  any  difficulty  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  he  had  just  said  that  (jnrist  had  reconciled 
all  through  the  blood  of  His  cross,  and  that  the  correct 
meaning  of  drrapairXripQ  rd  iMrrep'ljpara  r(av  ffKlypttav  roO 
XpiaroO  ip  ri  aapxt  fwv  dr^p  roO  tnbfJuiTOS  a^o0,  8  ^rw 
^  iKxXriffla  is:  "I  am  filling  up  those  CJhristian 
sufferings  that  remain  for  me  to  endure  for  the 
sake  of  the  C!hurch  of  Christ",  etc.  Compare  II  Cor., 
i,  5,  ''For  as  the  sufferings  of  Christ  abound  in  us" 
(rA  Ta9i/jfULTa  roO  XpurroO), 

(3)  Errors  dealt  with. — ^The  objection  under  this 
heading  need  not  detain  us  long.  Some  years  ago  it 
was  frequently  asserted  that  the  errors  combated  in 
this  Epistle  were  Gnostic  errors  of  the  second  century, 
and  that  the  Epistle  was  therefore  written  many  years 
after  St.  Paul's  death.  But  this  opinion  is  now  con- 
sidered, even  by  the  most  advanced  critics,  as  ex- 
ploded and  antiquated.  Nobody  can  read  the  writ- 
ings of  these  Gnostics  without  becoming  convmced 
that  terms  employed  by  them  were  used  in  a  ouite  dif- 
ferent sense  from  that  attached  to  them  in  me  Epis- 
tle. Baur  himself  appears  to  have  had  considerable 
misgivings  on  the  pomt.  The  errors  of  Judaic  Gnos- 
ticism, condemned  in  the  Epistle,  were  quite  embry- 
onic when  compared  with  the  full-blown  Greek  Gnos- 
ticism of  the  second  century  (see  Lightfoot,  Coloes., 
etc.). 

(4)  Similarity  to  Ephesians. — ^The  principal  objec- 
tion to  the  Epistle  is  its  great  similarity  to  Ephesians. 


COLOURS 


134 


OOIiOUES 


Davidson  stated  that  out  of  155  verses  in  the  latter 
Epistle  78  were  identical  with  Colossians.  De  Wette 
hSd  that  Ephesians  was  but  a  verbose  amplification 
ofCk>lo6sians.  Baur  thought  Ephesians  the  superior  let- 
ter, and  Renan  asked  how  can  we  suppose  the  Apostle 
spending  his  time  in  making  a  bald  transcription  of 
himself.  But,  as  Dr.  Salmon  nointed  out,  an  Apostle 
might  write  a  circular  letter,  tnat  is,  he  might  send  to 
different  places  letters  couched  in  identical  words. 
Many  theories  have  been  elaborated,  to  exptlain  these 
undoubted  resemblances.  Ewald  maintained  that 
the  substance  was  St.  Paul's,  while  the  composition 
was  left  to  Timothy.  Weiss  and  Hitzig  had  recourse 
to  a  theory  of  interpolations.  But  the  theory  that 
has  gained  the  greatest  amount  of  notoriety  is  that  of 
H.  J.  Holtzmann.  In  his  "  Kritik  der  Epheser-  und 
Kolosser-Briefe''  (1872)  he  instituted  a  most  elaborate 
and  exhaustive  comparison  between  the  two  Epistles. 
He  took  a  number  of  passages  which  seemed  to  prove 
the  priority  of  Ephesians  and  an  equal  number  which 
were  just  as  conclusive  that  Colossians  was  the  earlier. 
The  natural  conclusion  would  be  that  all  these  simi- 
larities were  due  to  the  same  author  writing  and 
dispatching  these  Epistles  at  one  and  the  same  time. 
But  Holtzmann's  explanation  was  auite  different.  He 
supposed  that  St.  raul  wrote  a  snort  epistle  to  the 
Colossians..  From  the  study  of  this  epistle  a  later 
writer  composed  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.  Then 
taking  St.  Paul's  short  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  he 
made  interpolations  and  additions  to  it  from  his  own 
composition  to  the  Ephesians,  and  thus  built  up  our 
present  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  and  that  with  such 
success  that  the  thing  was  never  suspected  until  the 
nineteenth  century.  This  intricate  and  comphcated 
theory  did  not  gam  a  single  adherent,  even  amongst 
the  most  advanced  critical  school.  HUgenfeld  re- 
jected it  in  1873;  but  its  best  refutation  is  von  So- 
den's  detailed  criticism  of  1885.  He  held  that  only 
about  eight  verses  could  be  regarded  as  interpolations. 
Sanday  in  Smith's  "Diet,  of  the  Bible"  (I,  625) 
pointed  out  that  von  Soden's  lines  of  demarcation 
were  purely  imaginary,  and  Pfleiderer  showed  the  in- 
consistency involved  in  his  rejection  of  these  verses. 
The  results  of  these  criticisms  and  of  further  study 
convinced  von  Soden,  in  1891,  that  the  whole  Episti[e 
was  genuine,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  verse — ^a 
verse  now  generally  held  to  oe  genuine.  In  1894  Jii- 
Ucher  stated  that  the  best  solution  was  to  admit  the 
authenticity  of  both  Epistles,  though  he  speaks  more 
hesitatingly  in  "Encyc.  Bibl.",  1889.  J.  Weiss  made 
an  abortive  attempt  to  resuscitate  Holtzmann's  mori- 
bund theory  in  1900. 

Whilst  Holtzmann's  facts  are  incontestable,  and  only 
go  to  prove  the  commimity  of  authorship,  his  explana- 
tion (in  which  he  seems  to  have  lost  faith)  is  rejected 
bv  scholars  as  artificial  and  unreal.  It  affords  no  ex- 
planation of  many  things  connected  with  these  Epis- 
tles. It  does  not  explain  how  the  early  Christians 
allowed  a  genuine  letter  of  St.  Paul  to  become  com- 
pletely lost,  without  trace  or  mention,  for  the  sake  of 
two  forgeries  of  much  later  date.  Each  Epistle,  taken 
by  itseu,  shows  such  unity  and  connexion  of  ar;^- 
ment  and  language,  that  if  the  other  were  not  in  exist- 
ence no  one  would  have  suspected  the  slightest  degree 
of  interpolation.  The  parts  rejected  as  interpola- 
tions break  the  unity  of  argument  and  flow  of  ideas. 
Whv  should  a  forger,  capable  of  writing  the  bulk  of 
botn  Epistles,  take  the  trouble  to  interpolate  verses 
and  half  of  his  own  production  from  one  Epistle  into 
the  other,  and  that  in  quite  a  different  connexion? 
Besides,  as  Principal  Salmond  observes,  there  is  not  a 
dull  sameness  of  style  in  both  Epistles.  Ephesians  is 
round,  full,  rhythmical:  Colossians  more  pointed, 
logical,  and  concise.  Ephesians  has  several  references 
to  the  O.  T. ;  Colossians  only  one.  There  are  different 
new  words  in  each,  and  there  are  whole  parages  in 
the  one  and  nothing  like  them  found  m  the  other. 


The  expressions  supposed  to  have  come  from  Colos- 
sians occur  quite  naturally  in  Ephesians,  but  by  no 
means  in  the  same  context  and  connexion,  and  vice 
versa.  As  Holtzmann's  hypothesis  has  completelv 
broken  down,  his  study  of  the  Epistles  shows  such 
close  relationship  between  them  that  there  can  be  only 
one  other  possible  explanation:  that  both  are  the  gen- 
uine writings  of  one  man,  and  that  man  was  St.  PauL 
Paley,  who  wrote  his  "Horse  Paulina"  in  1790,  set 
forth  this  side  of  the  argument  long  before  these  ob- 
jections were  thought  of;  and  the  fact  that  he  can  still 
be  quoted,  without  qualification,  in  this  connexion,  is 
the  best  proof  of  the  futility  of  all  su<^  objections. 
He  says  (HorsB  Paulime,  london,  1790,  215): — 

"Whoever  writes  two  letters  or  discourses  nearly 
upon  the  same  subject  and  at  no  great  distance  of 
time,  but  without  any  express  recollection  of  what  he 
had  written  before  will  nnd  himself  repeating  some 
sentences  in  the  very  order  of  the  words  in  which  he 
had  already  used  them;  but  he  will  more  frequently 
find  himself  employing  some  principal  terms,  with  the 
order  inadvertently  changed,  or  with  the  order  dis- 
turbed by  the  intermixture  of  other  words  and 
phrases  expressive  of  ideas  rising  up  at  the  time,  or  in 
manv  instances  repeating  not  single  words,  nor  yet 
whole  sentences,  but  parts  and  fragments  of  sentences. 
Of  all  these  varieties  the  examination  of  our  two  epis- 
tles will  furnish  plain  examples,  and  I  should  rely  on 
this  class  of  instances  more  than  on  the  last,  because 
although  an  impostor  might  transcribe  into  a  forgery 
entire  sentences  and  phrases,  yet  the  dislocation  of 
words,  the  partial  recollection  of  phrases  and  sen- 
tences, the  intermixture  of  new  terms  and  new  ideas 
with  terms  and  ideas  before  used,  which  will  appear 
in  the  examples  that  follow,  and  which  are  the  natural 
products  of  writing  produced  under  the  cireumstances 
m  which  these  epistles  are  represented  to  have  been 
composed — ^would  not,  I  think,  have  occurred  to  the 
invention  of  a  foiger,  nor,  if  they  had  occurred  would 
they  have  been  so  easily  executed.  This  studied  vari- 
ation was  a  refinement  in  forgery  which  I  believe  did 
not  exist,  or  if  we  can  suppose  it  to  have  been  prac- 
tised in  the  instances  adduced  below,  why,  it  mav  be 
asked,  was  not  the  same  art  exercised  upon  those 
which  we  have  collected  in  the  preceding  class?"  He 
then  goes  on  to  illustrate  all  these  points  by  numerous 
examples  taken  from  all  parts  of  these  Epistles. 

St.  Jebomk,  Ep.  oxxi.  Ad  Algaa.,  q.  x  in  Opera  (Venioe. 
1766),  I,  Pt.  I.  878;  Cornely,  Introd.  (Paria.  1897),  III; 
Salmon,  Introd,  to  New  Test.  (London,  1807);  Jaoquxbb.  ^u- 
touro  dsa  Livret  du  Nouveau  Test.  (Paris,  1906),  I;  Esnus,  Com- 
merUariue  (MainB.  1844) ;  Bibping,  ErkUirung  der  Brief e  an  die 
Eph.,  Phmp.,  Kol.  (Monster,  1866);  McEvilly,  Erpovition 
(Dublin,  I860);  Ai^woud,  New  Test.  Crilieal  and  ExegetiaU  Com- 
mentary (London,  1866);  ELUCxyrr,  Critical  and  Grammatical 
Comm,  (London,  1867);  Lightpoot,  Colossians  and  PhUemon 
(London,  1879) ;  locii.  Dissertations  on  the  Apostolic  Age  (Lon- 
don, 1876):  SANt>AY  in  Suitb.  Diet,  of  the  Bible  (London,  1893); 


VON  SoDKN.  Die  Brief e  an  die  Kolosser,  eto.  jLeiprig,  1893); 
Sauiond,  Ephesians;  Peaks,  Colossians  in  Exp.  Greek  Test. 
(London,  1903).      One  of  the  best  books  on  the  subject  is 


Abbott,  Ephenems  and  Colossians.  See  abo  The  international 
Critical  Commeniary,  ed.  Ciask  (Edinburgh,  1907);  Host, 
Judaic  ChristianUy  (London,  1898).  C.  Aherne. 

Oolours,  Liturgical. — ^By  a  law  of  her  liturgy  the 
Church  directs  that  the  vestments  worn  by  her  sacred 
ministers,  and  the  drapery  used  in  the  decoration  of 
the  altar  shoidd  correspond  in  colour  to  that  which  is 
prescribed  for  the  Office  of  the  day.  The  colours  thus 
sanctioned  by  the  Church  in  connexion  with  her  pub- 
lic worship  are  called  the  litiu-gical  colours.  Here  it 
will  be  enough  to  examine  (1)  their  number;  (2)  the 
drapery  and  vestments  affected  by  them;  (3)  their 
obligation;  (4)  their  antiquity,  and  (5)  their  S3rmbol- 
ism. 

I.  Number. — ^In  the  Roman  Rite,  since  Pius  V,  col- 
ours are  five  in  number,  viz. :  white,  red,  green,  violet, 
and  black.  Rose  colour  is  employed  only  on  La^tare 
and  Oaudete  Sundays.  Blue  is  prescribea  in  some  dio- 
ceses of  Spain  for  the  Mass  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 


OOLTOK 


135 


COLtTMBA 


tion.  White  is  the  colour  proper  to  Trinity  i;iunday, 
the  feasts  of  Our  Lord,  except  those  of  His  Passion, 
the  feasts  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  angels,  confessors^vii^ 
gins  and  women,  who  are  not  martyrs,  the  Nativity  of 
»t.  John  the  Baptist,  the  chief  feast  of  St.  John  the 
Evangelist,  the  feast  of  the  Chains  and  of  the  Chair  of 
St.  Peter,  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,  All  Saints,  to  the 
consecration  of  churches  and  altars,  the  anniversaries 
of  the  election  and  coronation  of  the  pope  and  of  the 
election  and  consecration  of  bishops;  also  for  the  oc- 
taves of  these  feasts  and  the  Offices  de  tempore  from 
Holy  Saturday  to  the  viml  of  Pentecost ;  it  is  used  for 
votive  Masses  when  the  feasts  have  white,  and  for  the 
nuptial  Mass;  also  in  services  in  connexion  with  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  at  the  burial  of  children,  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  baptism,  Holy  Viaticum,  and  matri- 
mony. 

Red  is  used  the  week  of  Pentecost,  on  the  feasts  of 
Christ's  Passion  and  His  Precious  Blood,  the  Finding 
and  Elevation  of  the  Cross,  the  feasts  of  Apostles  and 
martyrs;  and  in  votive  Masses  of  these  feasts.  It  is 
used  on  Holy  Innocents  if  the  feast  occur  on  Simday 
and  always  on  its  octave. 

Green  is  employed  in  Offices  de  tempore  from  the 
octave  of  the  Epiphany  to  Septuagesima,  and  from 
the  octave  of  Pentecost  to  Advent,  except  on  ember- 
days  and  vi^  during  that  time,  and  on  Simdays  oc- 
curring witmn  an  octave. 

Violet  is  used  during  Advent  and  from  Septuages- 
ima to  Easter,  on  vigils  that  are  fast  days,  and  on 
ember-days,  except  uie  vigil  of  Pentecost  and  the 
ember-days  during  the  octave  of  Pentecost.  Violet  is 
also  used  for  Mass  on  rogation-days,  for  votive  Masses 
of  the  Passion  and  of  penitential  character,  at  the 
blessing  of  candles  and  of  holy  water.  The  stole  used 
in  the  administration  of  penance  and  of  extreme  uno^ 
tion  and  in  the  first  part  of  the  baptismal  ceremonies 
must  be  violet. 

Black  is  used  in  offices  for  the  dead,  and  on  Good 
Friday. 

II. — ^The  drapery  and  vestments  affected  by  the 
law  of  liturgical  oolotu^  are  (a)  the  antependium  of  the 
altar,  and  as  a  matter  of  appropriateness,  the  taber- 
nacle vefl;  (b)  the  burse  and  chalice  veil ;  (c)  maniple, 
stole,  chasuble,  cope,  and  humeral  veil;  (d^  maniple, 
stole,  tunic,  and  dalmatic  of  the  sacred  ministers,  and 
also  the  broad  .stole  and  folded  chasuble  when  em- 
ployed. All  these  must  correspond  with  the  rules 
prescribing  the  use  of  each  colour.  The  rubrical  pre- 
scriptions regard  the  main  or  constitutive  portion  of 
each  vestment,  so  that  the  borders  or  otber  orna- 
mental accessories  do  not  determine  the  quality  of 
colour.  Neither  does  the  lining,  but  the  Roman  prac- 
tice is  to  have  it  in  harmony  with  the  vestment  itself, 
yellow  however  being  generally  adopted  instead  of 
pure  white. 

III.  Obuqation. — ^The  obligation  of  using  any  par- 
ticular colour  begins  with  the  First  Vespers  of  the 
Office  of  which  it  is  characteristic,  or  with  the  Matins 
if  the  Office  has  no  First  Vespers,  and  ceases  as  soon  as 
the  foUowing  Office  begins.  Vestments  made  of  pure 
doth  of  gold  may  be  employed  for  red,  white,  and  green 
colours  (Decret,  Authent.,  nn.  3H5,  3646,  ed.  1900); 
doth  of  silver  may  be  useid  instead  of  white.  Multi- 
coloured vestments  cannot  be  used  except  for  the  pre- 
dominant colour. 

IV.  ANTiQunr. — ^Benedict  XIV  (De  Sacro  Sacri- 
ficio  Missse  I,  VIII,  n.  16)  says  that  up  to  thefourth 
century  white  was  the  only  liturgical  colour  in  use. 
Other  colours  were  introduced  soon  afterwards.  In- 
nocent III  (d.  1216)  is  among  the  first  to  emphasise  a 
distinction.  He  mentions  four  principal  colours, 
white,  red,  green,  black  (De  Sac.  Alt.  Msrs.,  I,  Ixv)  as  of 
general  use.  and  one,  viz.  violet,  as  occasionally  em- 
ployed. This  latter  was  rq^arly  used  from  tlie  thh-- 
teenth  century.  An  "Onto  Romanus"  of  the  fotir-* 
teenth  oenttny  enumerates  five.    Between  the  twelfth 


and  sixteenth  centuries  blue  and  yellow  were  common 
but  they  may  not  be  used  without  very  special  authori* 
zation  (Cong,  of  Rites,  Sept.,  1837). 

V.  Stmboubm. — Outside  of  Rome  uniformity  of 
observance  was  effected  in  the  second  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century  by  the  abrogation  of  other  uses. 
In  the  Western  Church  only  Sie  Ambrosian  Rite 
(q.  V.)  retains  ite  peculiar  colours.  Most  of  l^e  Ori- 
ental rites  have  no  prescribed  liturgical  colours.  The 
Greek  Rite  (c^.  v.)  alone  has  a  fixed  usage  but  even 
among  them  it  is  not  of  strict  obligation.  The  Ruthe- 
nians  follow  the  Roman  regulation  since  1891.  The 
variety  of  liturgical  colours  in  the  Church  arose  from 
the  mystical  meaning  attached  to  them.  Thus  white, 
the  symbol  of  light,  typifies  innocence  and  purity,  joy 
and  glory;  red,  the  language  of  fire  and  blood,  indi- 
cates burning  charity  and  the  martyrs*  generous  sacri- 
fice; green,  the  hue  of  plants  and  trees,  bespeaks  the 
hope  of  life  eternal;  violet,  the  gloomy  cast  of  the 
mortified,  denotes  affliction  and  melancholy*  while 
black,  the  universal  emblem  of  moumins,  signifies  the 
sorrow  of  death  and  the  sombreness  of  the  tomb. 

Leoo,  Nole9  on  History  at  Liturgical  Colourt  (London,  1882); 
Van  deb  Stappbn,  De  Cdehraiiane  MiaacB  (Mechlin,  1902),  120- 
133;  Macauster,  Bcdesiaatical  Veatmenta  (London.  1896);  pp. 
223-28) ;  Braun,  Vie  liturginthe  Oewandung  (Freiburg  im  Br. 
1907).  pp.  728-60;  Gxhb.  The  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Maea  (tr.,  St. 
Louis,  1902).  297-312;  Rock,  Church  of  Our  FatKera  (2nd 
edition,  London,  1904),  II,  213  sq.;  Wilpert,  Gewandung  der 
Christen  (Freiburg.  1898). 

Patrick  Morrisroe. 
Ooltoiiy  Charles  H.    See  Buffalo,  Diocese  of. 

Oolnmba,  Saint,  of  Terrtolass,  son  of  Crinthainn 
and  a  disciple  of  St.  Finnian  of  Clonard.  When  the 
lattor  was  in  extremist  from  the  plague,  Columba  admin- 
istered Holy  Viaticum.  Having  completed  his  stud- 
ies, he  took  chaige  of  Caemhan,  Fintan,  and  Mocumin, 
who  are  numbered  among  the  saints.  He  founded  the 
celebrated  monasteiy  of  Tirdaglas,  or  Terryglass,  548. 
It  is  said  that  he  visited  Tours  and  brought  thence 
relics  of  St.  Martin.  He  died  of  the  plague,  13  De- 
cember, 552,  and  was  buried  within  the  precincts  of 
his  own  monasten^  at  Terrvglass.  Some  fifteen  other 
saints  of  Ireland,  bearing  the  name  Columba,  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Martyrologv  of  Gonnan. 

BirrLEa,  Livea  ofSatnta,  All;  h\mQAr9,  Ecdeaiaatieal  History 
of  Ireland  (Dublin.  1829). II,  71;  Henrt  Bradshaw  Soo.,  Mar- 
tyroloffU€^  Gorman  (1895),  p.  345;  Ussher,  Works  (Dublin, 
1847y,^T.r- 


,533. 


Columba  Edmonds. 


Oolnmba,  Saint, — ^There  are  two  saints  of  this 
name,  vir^ns  and  martyrs. 

(1)  St.  Columba  of  Sens,  who  suffered  towards  the 
end  of  the  third  century,  probably  under  the  Em- 
peror Aurelian.  She  is  said  to  have  been  beheaded 
near  a  foimtain  called  d'Azon;  and  the  tradition  is 
that  her  body  was  left  by  her  murderers  on  the  ground, 
until  it  was  buried  by  a  man  called  Aubertus,  in 
thanksgiving  for  his  restoration  to  sight  on  his  in- 
voking her.  A  chapel  was  afterwards  ouilt  over  her 
relics;  and,  later  on,  rose  the  Abbey  of  Sens,  which  at 
one  time  was  a  place  of  pilgrimage  m  her  honour.  She 
is  also  said  to  have  been  patroness  of  the  parish  church 
of  Chevilly  in  the  Diocese  of  Paris,  but  ner  whole  his- 
tory is  somewhat  legendary. 

BuTZ^a,  Livea  of  the  Saints,  IV,  592;  Brulz.£b,  Riatoire  de 
VAbbaye  royale  de  Sena  (1852),  containing  a  rhymed  life  of  the 
martyr  published  at  Parid  in  1660.  This  book  was  written 
partly  in  the  hope  of  restoring  popular  derotion  to  St.  Columba. 

(2)  St.  Columba,  a  Spanish  nun,  of  whom  it  is  ve- 
lated  that  she  was  oeheaded  bv  the  Moors  at  the  mon- 
astery of  Tabanos  in  853.  Her  body  is  said  to  have 
been  thrown  into  the  Giiadalquivir,  but  was  rescued 
by  the  Christians.  Her  relics  were  kept  and  vener- 
ated in  Old  Castile  at  two  churches,  the  priorv  of  St. 
Columba  and  the  royal  Abbey  of  Our  Lady  at  Nagara. 

Butler.  lAves  of  the  Saints.  Ill,  491;  Sutsken  in  Ada  SS., 
Sept.,  V,  618  sqq.;  Bibl  hagioQr.  lot.  (1899).  283  sq. 

F.  M.  Capes. 


OOLUMBA 


136 


OOLVBCBA 


Oolumba,  Saint,  Abbot  of  Iona,  b.  at  Gartan, 
CountyDonegal,  Ireland,  7  Decemberi 521 ; d.  9  June, 
597.  He  belonged  to  the  Clan  O'Donnell.  and  was  of 
royal  descent.  His  father's  name  was  Feahlimdh  and 
that  of  his  mother  Eithne.  On  his  father's  side  he 
was  great-great-grandson  of  Niall  of  the  Nine  Hos- 
tages, an  Irish  king  of  the  fourth  century.  His  bap- 
tismal name  was  Colum,  which  signifies  a  dove,  hence 
the  latinized  form  Columba.  It  assumes  another 
form  in  Colum-cille,  the  suffix  meaning  "of  the 
Chmrches  ".  He  was  baptized  at  Tulach-Dubh^laise, 
now  Temple-Douglas,  by  a  priest  named  Crmthne- 
chan,  who  afterwards  became  his  tutor  or  foster- 
father.  When  sufficiently  advanced  in  letters  he 
entered  the  monastic  school  of  Moville  under  St.  Fin- 
nian,  who  had  studied  at  St.  Ninian's  "Magnum  Mon- 
asterium"  on  the  shores  of  Galloway.  Columba  at 
Moville  embraced  monastic  life  and  received  the  diao- 
onate.  In  the  same  place  his  sanctity  first  manifested  it- 
self by  miracles.  B^  his  prayers,  tradition  says,  he  con- 
verted water  into  wine  for  the  Holy  Sacrifice  (Adam., 
II,  i).  Having  completed  his  training  at  Moville,  he 
travelled  southwards  into  Leinster,  where  he  became  a 
pupil  of  an  aged  bard  named  Gemman.  On  leaving 
him,  Columba  entered  the  monastery  of  Clonard,  gov- 
erned at  that  time  by  Finnian,  a  man  remarkable,  like 
his  namesake  of  Moville,  for  sanctity  and  learning. 
Here  he  imbibed  the  traditions  of  the  Welsh  Church, 
for  Finnian  had  been  trained  in  the  schools  of  St. 
David.  Here  also  he  became  one  of  those  twelve 
Clonard  disciples  known  in  subsequent  history  as  the 
Twelve  Apostles  of  Ireland.  About  this  same  time 
he  was  promoted  to  the  priesthood  by  Bishop  Etchen 
of  Clonf ad.  The  story  that  St.  Finnian  wished  Co- 
lumba to  be  consecrated  bishop,  but  through  a  mis- 
take only  priest's  orders  were  conferred,  is  regarded  by 
competent  authorities  as  the  invention  of  a  later  age 
(Reeves,  Adam.,  226). 

Another  preceptor  of  Columba  was  St.  Mobhi, 
whose  monastery  at  Glasnevin  was  frequented  by 
such  famous  men  as  St.  Canice,  St.  Com^l,  and  St. 
Ciaran.  A  pestilence  which  devastated  Ireland  in  544 
caused  the  dispersion  of  Mobhi 's  disciples,  and  Co- 
lumba returned  to  Ulster,  the  land  of  his  kindred. 
The  following  years  were  marked  by  the  foundation 
of  several  important  monasteries.  Deny,  Durrow,  and 
Kells.  Deny  and  Durrow  were  always  specially  dear 
to  Columba.  While  at  Deny  it  is  saia  that  he  planned 
a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  and  Jerusalem,  but  did  not  pro- 
ceed farther  than  Tours.  Thence  he  brought  a  copy 
of  the  Gospels  that  had  lain  on  the  bosom  of  St.  Martin 
for  the  space  of  100  years.  This  relic  was  deposited 
in  Deny  (Skene,  Celtic  Scotland,  II,  483).  Columba 
left  Ireland  and  passed  over  into  Scotland  in  563.  The 
motives  for  this  migration  have  been  frequently  dis- 
cussed. Bede  simply  says:  ''Venit  de  Hibenua  . . . 
prsedicaturus  verbum  Dei"  (H.  E.,  Ill,  iv) ;  Adamnan: 
"pro  Christo  i)erigrinari  voiens  enavigavit"  (Praef., 
TI).  Later  writers  state  that  his  departure  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  he  had  induced  the  clan  Neill  to  rise 
and  engage  in  battle  against  King  Diarmait  at  Cool- 
drevny  m  561.  The  reasons  alleeed  for  this  action  of 
Columba  are:  (1)  The  king's  violation  of  the  right  of ' 
sanctuary  belonging  to  Columba's  person  as  a  monk, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  murder  of  Prince  Cuman,  the 
saint's  Idnsman;  (2)  Diarmait 's  adverse  judgment 
concerning  the  copy  Columba  had  secretly  made  of  St. 
Finnian's  psalter.  Columba  is  said  to  have  supported 
by  his  prajrers  the  men  of  the  North  who  were  nghting, 
while  Finnian  did  the  same  for  Diarmait's  men.  The 
latter  were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  three  thousand. 
Columba's  conscience  smote  him,  and  he  had  recourse 
to  his  confessor,  St.  Molaise,  who  imposed  this  severe 
penance:  to  leave  Ireland  and  preach  the  Gospel  so  as 
to  gain  as  many  souls  to  Christ  as  lives  lost  at  Cool- 
drevny,  and  never  more  to  look  upon  his  native  land. 
Some  writers  hold  that  these  are  legends  invented  by 


the  bards  and  romancers  of  a  later  age,  becaUH«*  there 
is  no  mention  of  them  by  the  earliest  authorities 
(O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the  Ir.  Saints,  VI,  353).  Cardi- 
nal Moran  accepts  no  other  motive  than  that  assigned 
by  Adamnan,  ''a  desire  to  carry  the  Gospel  to  a  pagan 
nation  and  to  win  souls  to  God".  (Lives  of  Irish 
Saints  in  Great  Britain,  67).  Archbishop  Healy,  on 
the  contrary,  considers  that  the  saint  did  incite  to 
battle,  and  exclaims:  ''0  fdix  culpa  .  .  .  which  pro- 
duced so  much  good  both  for  Erin  and  Alba"  (Schools 
and.Scholars,  311). 

loNA. — Columba  was  in  his  forty-fourth  year  when 
he  departed  from  Ireland.  He  and  his  twelve  com- 
panions crossed  the  sea  in  a  currach  of  wickerwork 
covered  with  hides.  They  landed  at  lona  on  the  eve 
of  Pentecost,  12  May,  563.  The  island,  according 
to  Irish  authorities,  was  granted  to  the  monastic  colon- 
ists by  King  Conall  of  Dalriada,  Columba's  kinsman. 
Bede  attributes  the  ^ft  to  the  Picts  (Fowler,  p.  Ixv). 
It  was  a  convenient  situation,  being  midwav  between 
his  countrymen  along  the  western  coast  and  the  Picts 
of  Caledonia.  He  and  his  brethren  proceeded  at  once 
to  erect  their  humble  dwellings,  consisting  of  a  church, 
refectory,  and  cells,  constructed  of  wattles  and  rough 
planks.  After  spending  some  years  among  the  Scots 
of  Dalriada,  Columba  began  the  ^at  work  of  his  life, 
the  conversion  of  the  Northern  Picts.  Toother  with 
St.  Comgall  and  St.  Canice  (Kenneth)  he  visited  King 
Brude  in  his  royal  residence  near  Inverness.  Adnoit- 
tance  was  refused  to  the  missionaries,  and  the  gates 
were  closed  and  bolted ;  but  before  the  sign  of  the  cross 
the  bolts  flew  back,  the  doors  stood  open,  and  the 
monks  entered  the  castle.  Awe-struck  by  so  evident 
a  miracle,  the  king  listened  to  Columba  with  reverence 
and  was  baptiased.  The  people  soon  followed  the  ex- 
afnple  set  tnem,  and  thus  was  inaugurated  a  move- 
ment that  extended  itself  to  the  whole  of  Caledonia. 
Opposition  was  not  wanting,  and  it  came  chiefly  from 
the  Druids,  who  officially  represented  the  paganism  of 
the  nation. 

The  thirty-two  remaining  years  of  Columba's  lifo 
were  mainly  spent  in  preaching  the  Christian  Faith  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  glens  and  wooded  straths  of 
Northern  Scotland.  His  steps  can  be  followed  not 
only  through  the  Great  Glen,  but  eastwards  also,  into 
Aberdeenshke.  The  ''Book  of  Deer"  (p.  91)  tells  us 
how  he  and  Drostan  came,  as  God  haxl  shown  them, 
to  Aberdour  in  Buchan,  and  how  Bede,  a  Pict,  who 
was  high  steward  of  Buchan,  gave  them  the  town  in 
freedom  forever.  The  preaching  of  the  saint  was  con- 
firmed by  many  miracles,  and  he  provided  for  the  in- 
struction of  his  converts  by  the  erection  of  numer- 
ous churches  and  monastenes.  One  of  his  journevs 
broueht  him  to  Glasgow,  where  he  met  St.  Mungo,  the 
apostle  of  Strathclyde.  He  frequently  visited  Ire- 
land; in  575  he  attended  the  synod  of  Drumceatt,  in 
company  with  the  Scottish  King  Aidan,  whom  shortly 
before  he  had  inaugurated  successor  of  Conall  of  Dal 
riada.  When  not  engaged  in  missionary  journeys,  ha 
sUways  resided  at  lona.  Numerous  strangers  souglit 
him  there,  and  they  received  help  for  soul  and  body. 
From  lona  he  governed  those  numerous  communities 
in  Ireland  and  Caledonia,  which  regarded  him  as  their 
father  and  founder.  This  accounts  for  the  unique 
position  occupied  by  the  successors  of  Columba,  who 
governed  the  entire  province  of  the  Northern  Picts, 
although  they  had  received  priest's  orders  only.  It 
was  considered  unbecoming  that  any  successor  in  the 
office  of  Abbot  of  lona  should  possess  a  dignity  higher 
than  that  of  the  founder.  The  bishops  were  regarded 
as  bein^  of  a  superior  order,  but  subject  nevertheless 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  abbot.  At  Lindisfamc  the 
monks  reverted  to  the  ordinary  law  and  were  subject 
to  a  bishop  (Bede,  H.  E.,  IV,  xxvii). 

Columba  is  said  never  to  have  spent  an  hour  indth- 
out  tftudy,  prayer,  writing,  or  similar  occupations. 
When  at  home  he  was  frequently  engaged  in  trans- 


OOLUBSBANUS 


137 


OOLTTMBAHUS 


scribing.  On  the  eve  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  in 
the  work  of  transcription.  It  is  stated  that  he  wrote 
300  books  with  his  own  hand,  two  of  which,  "The 
Book  of  Durrow"  and  the  psalter  called  "The  Ca- 
thach",  have  been  preserved  to  the  present  time. 
The  peaher,  enclosed  in  a  shrine,  was  orieinally  carried 
into  battle  by  the  O'Donnells  as  a  pledge  of  victory. 
Seveial  of  ms  compositions  in  Latm  and  Irish  have 
come  down  to  us,  the  best  known  being  the  poem 
"Altus  Proeator",  published  in  the  "Liber  Hym- 
norum  '^  and  also  in  another  form  by  the  late  Marquess 
of  Bute.  There  is  not  sufficient  evidence  to  prove 
that  the  rule  attributed  to  him  was  really  his  work. 

In  the  spring  of  697  he  knew  that  his  end  was  ap- 
proaching. On  Saturday,  8  June,  he  ascended  the 
nill  overlooking  his  monastery  and  blessed  for  the  last 
time  the  home  so  dear  to  bam.  That  afternoon  he 
was  present  at  Vespers,  and  later,  when  the  bell  sum- 
moned the  community  to  the  midnight  service,  he 
forestalled  the  others  and  entered  the  church  without 
assistanoe.  But  he  sank  before  the  altar,  and  in  that 
place  breathed  forth  his  soul  to  God,  surrounded  by 
nis  discifJes.  This  happened  a  little  after  midnight 
between  the  8th  and  9tn  of  June,  597.  He  was  in  the 
seventynseventh  year  of  his  age.  The  monks  buried 
him  within  the  monastic  enclosure.  After  the  lapse 
of  a  centurjr  or  more  his  bones  were  disinterred  and 
placed  within  a  suitable  shrine.  But  as  Northmen 
and  Danes  more  than  once  invaded  the  island,  the 
relics  of  St.  Columba  were  carried  for  purposes  of 
safety  into  Ireland  and  deposited  in  the  church  of 
Downpatrick.  Since  the  twelfth  century  history  is 
silent  regarding  them.  His  books  and  garments  were 
held  in  veneration  at  lona,  they  were  exposed  and 
carried  in  procession,  and  were  the  means  of  working 
miracles  (Aoam.,  II,  xlv).  His  feast  is  kept  in  Scot- 
land and  Ireland  on  the  9th  of  June.  In  the  Scottish 
Province  of  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh  there  is  a 
Mass  and  Office,  proper  to  the  festival,  which  ranks  as 
a  double  of  the  second  class  with  an  octave.  He  is 
patron  of  two  Scottish  dioceses,  Ar^le  and  the  Isles 
and  Dunkeld.  According  to  tradition  St.  Ck)lumba 
was  tali  and  of  dignified  mien.  Adamnan  says: 
''He  was  angelic  in. appearance,  graceful  in  speech, 
holy  in  woik"  (Pr»f.,  II).  His  voice  was  strong, 
sweet,  and  sonorous,  capable  at  times  of  being  heard  at 
a  great  distance.  He  inherited  the  ardent  tempera- 
ment and  strong  passions  of  his  race.  It  has  been 
sometimes  said  that  he  was  of  an  angry  and  vindic- 
tive spirit,  not  only  because  of  his  supposed  part  in 
the  battle  of  Gooldrevny ,  but  also  because  of  instances 
related  by  Adamnan  (II,  xxiii  sq.).  But  the  deeds 
that  roused  his  indignation  were  wrongs  done  to 
others,  and  the  retribution  that  overtook  the  perpe- 
trators was  rather  predicted  than  actually  invoked. 
Whatever  faults  were  inherent  in  his  nature  he  over- 
came, and  he  stands  before  the  world  conspicuous  for 
humility  and  charity  not  only  towards  his  brethren, 
but  towards  strangers  also.  He  was  generous  and 
warm-hearted,  tender  and  kind  even  to  dumb  crea- 
tures. He  was  ever  ready  to  sympathize  with  the  joys 
and  sorrows  of  others.  His  fasts  and  vigils  were  car- 
ried to  a  great  extent.  The  stone  pillow  on  which  he 
slept  is  said  to  be  still  preserved  in  lona.  His  chas- 
tity of  body  and  purity  of  mind  are  extolled  by  all 
his  biographers.  Notwithstanding  his  wonderful  au- 
sterities, Adamnan  assures  us  he  was  beloved  by  all, 
"for  a  holy  joyousness  that  ever  beamed  from  his 
countenance  revealed  the  gladness  with  which  the 
Holy  Spirit  filled  his  soul ".    (Pr»f .,  II.) 

Influence,  and  Attitude  towards  Rome. — He 
was  not  only  a  g^reat  missionary  saint  who  won  a  whole 
Idngdom  to  Chnst,  but  he  was  a  statesman,  a  scholar,  a 
poet,  and  the  founder  of  numerous  churches  and  mon- 
asteries. His  name  is  dear  to  Scotsmen  and  Irishmen 
alike.  And  because  of  his  great  and  noble  work  even 
non-Catholics  hold  his  memory  in  veneration.     For 


the  purposes  of  controversy  it  has  been  maintained  by 
some  that  St.  Columba  ippiored  papal  supremacy,  be- 
cause he  entered  upon  his  mission  without  the  pope's 
authorization.  Aaamnan  is  silent  on  the  subject;  out 
his  work  is  neither  exhaustive  as  to  Columba's  life, 
nor  does  it  pretend  to  catalogue  the  implicit  and  ex- 
plicit belief  of  his  patron.  Indeed,  in  those  days  a 
mandate  from  the  pope  was  not  deemed  essential  for 
the  work  which  St.  Uolumba  undertook.  This  may  be 
gathered  from  the  words  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
relative  to  the  neglect  of  the  British  deigy  towards 
the  pagan  Saxons  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  III,  10). 
Ck)lumbii  was  a  son  of  the  Irish  Church,  which  taught 
from  the  days  of  St.  Patrick  that  matters  of  greater 
moment  should  be  referred  to  the  Holy  See  for  set- 
tlement. St.  Columbanus,  Columba's  fellow-country- 
man and  fellow-churchman,  asked  for  papal  judg- 
ment (jtuHcittm)  on  the  Easter  question;  so  did  the 
bishops  and  abbots  of  Ireland.  There  is  not  the 
slightest  evidence  to  prove  that  St.  Columba  differed 
on  this  point  from  his  fellow-countrymen.  Moreover, 
the  Stowe  Missal,  which,  according  to  the  best  au- 
thority, represents  the  Mass  of  the  Celtic  Church  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  seventh  century,  contains  in 
its  Canon  prayers  for  the  pope  more  emphatic  than 
even  those  of  tne  Roman  Liturgy.  To  the  further  ob- 
jection as  to  the  supposed  absence  of  the  cultus  of 
Our  Lady,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  same 
Stowe  Missal  contains  before  its  Canon  the  invoca- 
tion " Sancta  Maria,  ora  pro  nobis'',  which  epitomizes 
all  Catholic  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Viigin.  As  to 
the  Easter  difficulty,  Bede  thus  sums  up  the  reasons 
for  the  discrepancy:  "He  [Columba]  left  successors 
distin^ished  for  great  charity.  Divine  love,  and  strict 
attention  to  the  rules  of  discipline;  following  indeed 
uncertain  cycles  in  the  computation  of  the  great  fes- 
tival of  Easter,  because,  far  away  as  they  were  out  of 
the  world,  no  one  had  supplied  them  witn  the  ^odal 
decrees  relating  to  the  Paschal  observance"  (H.  E., 
Ill ,  i  v) .  As  far  as  can  be  ascertained ,  no  proper  sym- 
bolical representation  of  St.  Columba  exists.  The 
few  attempts  that  have  been  made  are  for  the  most 
part  mistaken.  A  suitable  pictorial  representation 
would  exhibit  him  clothed  in  the  habit  and  cowl  usu- 
ally worn  by  the  Basilian  or  Benedictine  monks,  with 
Celtic  tonsure  and  crosier.  His  identity  could  be  best 
determined  by  showing  him  standing  near  the  shell- 
strewn  shore,  with  currach  hard  by,  and  the  Celtic 
cross  and  ruins  of  lona  in  the  background. 

Rbeves,  St.  Columba  by  Adamnan  (EtUnbursh,  1874);  Fow- 
LBB.  Aikmmani  Vita  S.  Columba  (Oxford,  1^);  Lanioan. 
Bcdetiaatical' Hut.  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  182Q);  Skene,  Celtic 
Scotland  (Edinburfl^,  1807);  Healt,  Ireiand'a  Ancient  Schools 
and  Sdujlara  (Dublin,  1800);  Mohan,  Irish  Saints  in  Orwt 
Britain  (Dublin,  1003);  O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints 
(Dublin,  1875),  Vl;  Edmonds,  Early  ScoUish  Church.  Doctrine 
and  Discipline  (Edinburgh,  1006):  Dowden,  CeWc  Church 
(London,  1804);  Montalembbrt,  Monks  of  the  West  (Edin- 
burgh. 1861).  Columba  Edmonims. 

Oolumbanns,  Saint^  Abbot  of  Luxeuil  and  Bobbio, 
b.  in  West  Leinster,  Ireland,  in  543;  d.  at  Bobbio, 
Italy,  21  Nov.,  615.  His  life  was  written  by  Jonas, 
an  Italian  monk  of  the  Columban  community,  at 
Bobbio,  c.  643.  This  author  lived  during  the  abbacy 
of  Attala,  Columbanus's  immediate  successor,  and  his 
inf  onnants  had  been  companions  of  the  saint.  Mabil- 
lon  in  the  second  volume  of  his  "  Acta  Sanctorum  O.  S. 
B."  gives  the  life  in  full,  together  with  an  appendix  on 
the  miracles  of  the  saint,  written  by  an  anonymous 
member  of  the  Bobbio  community. 

Columbanus,  whose  birth  took  place  the  year  St. 
Benedict  died,  was  from  childhocxi  well  instructed. 
He  was  handsome  and  prepossessing  in  appearance, 
and  this  exposed  him  to  the  shameless  temptations 
of  several  of  his  countrywomen.  He  also  had  to 
struggle  with  his  own  temptations.  At  last  he  betook 
himself  to  a  religious  woman,  who  advised  him  thus: 
"Twelve  years  ago  I  fled  from  the  world,  and  shut 


OOLUMBAMUS 


j;i8 


00LUMBAIIU8 


myself  up  in  this  cell.  Hast  thou  forgotten  Samson, 
David  and  Solomon,  all  led  astray  by  the  love  of 
women?  There  is  no  safety  for  thee,  young  man,  ex- 
cept in  flight."  He  thereupon  decided  to  act  on  this 
actvice  and  retire  from  the  world.  He  encountered 
opposition,  especially  from  his  mother,  who  strove  to 
detain  him  by  casting  herself  before  him  on  the  thresh- 
old of  the  door.  But,  conquering  the  feelings  of 
nature,  he  passed  over  the  prostrate  form  and  left  his 
home  forever.  His  first  master  was  Sinell,  Abbot  of 
Cluaninis  in  Lough  Erne.  Under  his  tuition  he  com- 
posed a  commentary  on  the  Psalms.  He  then  betook 
nimself  to  the  cdebrated  monastery  of  Bangor  on  the 
coast  of  Down,  which  at  that  time  had  for  its  abbot 
St.  Comgall.  There  he  embraced  the  monastic  state, 
and  for  many  years  led  a  life  conspicuous  for  fervour, 
regularity,  and  learning.  At  about  the  age  of  forty 
he  seemed  to  hear  incessantly  the  voice  of  God  biddinjg 
him  preach  the  Gospel  in  foreign  lands.  At  first  his 
abbot  declined  to  let  him  go,  but  at  length  he  gave 
consent. 

Columbanus  set  sail  with  twelve  companions;  their 
names  have  tiius  come  down  to  us:  St.  Attala,  Colum- 
banus the  Younger,  Cummain,  Domgal,  Eogain, 
Eiman,  St.  Gall,  Gurgano,  Libran,  Lua,  Sigisbert,  and 
Waldoleno  (Stokes,  '^Apennmes",  p.  112).  The  httle 
band  passed  over  to  Britain,  landing  probably  on  the 
Scottish  coast.  They  remained  but  a  short  time  in 
En^and,  and  then  crossed  over  to  France,  where  they 
amved  probably  in  585.  At  once  they  began  their 
apostolic  mission.  Wherever  they  went  the  people 
were  struck  by  their  modesty,  patience,  and  humility. 
France  at  that  period  needed  such  a  band  of  monks 
and  preachers.  Owing  partly  to  the  incursions  of 
barbarians,  and  partly  to  the  remissness  of  the  clergy, 
vice  and  impiety  were  prevalent.  Columbanus,  by 
his  holiness,  zeal,  and  learning,  was  eminently  fitted 
for  the  work  that  lay  before  J^im.  He  and  nis  fol- 
lowers soon  made  their  way  to  the  court  of  Gontram, 
King  of  Burgundy.  Jonas  calls  it  the  court  of  Sigis- 
bert,  King  of  Austrasia  and  Burgundy,  but  this  is 
manifestly  a  blunder,  for  Sigisbert  had  been  slain  in 
575.  The  fame  of  Columbanus  had  preceded  him. 
Gontram  gave  him  a  gracious  reception,  inviting  him 
to  remain  in  his  kingdom.  The  saint  complied,  and 
selected  for  his  abode  the  half-ruined  Roman  fortress 
of  Annegray  in  the  solitudes  of  the  Vosges  Mountains. 
Here  the  abbot  and  his  monks  led  the  simplest  of 
lives,  their  food  oftentimes  consisting  of  notmng  but 
forest  herbs,  berries,  and  the  bark  of  young  trees. 
The  fame  of  Columbanus's  sanctity  drew  crowds  to  his 
monastery.  Many,  both  nobles  and  rustics,  asked  to 
be  admitted  into  the  community.  Sick  persons  came 
to  be  cured  through  his  prayers.  But  Columbanus 
loved  solitude.  C^ten  he  would  withdraw  to  a  cave 
seven  miles  distant,  with  a  single  companion,  who 
acted  as  messenger  between  himself  and  ms  brethren. 
After  a  few  years  the  ever-increasing  number  of  his 
disciples  obliged  him  to  build  anoSier  monast^iy. 
Columbanus  accordingly  obtained  from  King  Gontram 
the  Gallo-Roman  castle  named  Luxeuil,  some  ei^t 
miles  distant  from  Annegray.  It  was  in  a  wild  dis- 
trict, thickly  covered  with  pine  forests  and  brushwood. 
This  foundation  of  the  celebrated  Abbey  of  Luxeuil 
took  place  in  590.  But  these  two  monasteries  did  not 
suffice  for  the  numbers  who  came,  and  a  third  had  to 
be  erected  at  Fontaines.  The  superiors  of  these  houses 
always  remained  subordinate  to  Columbanus.  It  is 
said  that  at  this  time  he  was  able  to  institute  a  per- 
petual service  of  praise,  known  as  Laos  perenniSf  by 
which  choir  succeeded  choir,  both  diy  and  night 
(Montalembert,  Monks  of  the  West,  II,  405).  For 
these  flourishing  communities  he  wrote  his  rule, 
whic^  embodies  the  customs  of  Bangor  and  other 
Celtic  monasteries. 

For  wellnigh  twenty  years  Columbanus  resided  in 
France  and  during  that  time  ol^served  the  unrcformcd 


paschal  computation.  But  a  dispute  arose.  Hie 
Frankish  bishops  were  not  too  well  disposed  towards 
this  stranger  abbot,  because  of  his  ever-increasing  in- 
fluence; and  at  last  they  showed  their  hoetuity. 
They  objected  to  his  Celtic  Easter  and  his  exclusion 
of  men  as  well  as  women  from  the  precincts  of  his 
monasteries.  The  councils  of  Gaul  held  in  the  first 
half  of  the  sixth  century  had  given  to  bishops  absolute 
authority  over  religious  communities,  even  going  so 
far  as  to  order  the  abbots  to  appear  periodical^  hSore 
their  respective  bishops  to  receive  reproof  or  advice, 
as  might  be  considered  necessary.  These  enactments, 
being  contrary  to  the  custom  of  the  Celtic  monasteries, 
were  not  readily  acoeptted  by  Columbanus.  In  602  the 
bishops  assembled  to  jud^  him.  He  did  not  appear, 
lest,  as  he  tells  us,  "he  nught  contend  in  words  ,  but 
instead  addressed  a  letter  to  the  prelates  in  which  he 
speaks  with  a  strange  mixture  of  freedom,  reverence, 
and  charity.  In  it  he  admonishes  th^n  to  hold 
synods  more  frequently,  and  advises  that  they  pay 
attention  to  matters  equally  important  with  that  of 
the  date  of  Easter.  As  to  his  paschsd  cycle  he  says: 
"  I  am  not  the  author  c^  this  divergence.  I  came  as  a 
poor  stranger  into  these  parts  for  the  cause  of  Christ, 
Our  Saviour.  One  thing  alone  I  ask  of  you,  holy 
Fathers,  permit  me  to  live  in  silence  in  these  forests, 
near  the  bones  of  seventeen  of  my  brethren  now 
dead."  When  the  Frankish  bishops  still  insisted  that 
the  abbot  was  wrong,  then,  in  obedience  to  St.  Pat- 
rick's canon,  he  laid  the  question  before  Pope  St. 
Gregory.  He  dispatched  two  letters  to  that  pontiff, 
but  they  never  reached  him,  "through  Satan's  inter- 
vention .  The  third  letter  is  extant,  but  no  trace  of 
an  answer  appears  in  St.  Gregory's  correspondence, 
owing  probably  to  the  fact  that  the  pope  died  in  604, 
about  the  time  it  reached  Rome.  In  this  letter  be  de- 
fends the  Celtic  custom  with  considerable  freedom, 
but  the  tone  is  affectionate.  He  prays  "the  holy 
Pope,  his  Father",  to  direct  towards  him  "the  strong 
support  of  his  authority,  to  transmit  the  verdict  of  his 
favour".  Moreover,  he  apologizes  "for  presuming  to 
ai^e,  as  it  were,  with  him  who  sits  in  the  Chair  of 
Peter,  Apostle  and  Bearer  of  the  Keys  ".  He  directed 
another  epistle  to  Pope  Boniface  IV,  in  which  he  pravs 
that,  if  it  DC  not  contrary  to  the  Faith,  he  confirm  the 
tradition  of  his  elders,  so  that  by  the  papal  decision 
(nuiicium)  he  and  his  monks  may  be  enabled  to  follow 
tne  rites  oi  their  ancestors.  Before  Pope  Boniface's 
answer  (which  has  been  lost)  was  given,  Columbanus 
was  outside  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Frankish  bidiops. 
As  we  hear  no  further  accusations  on  the  Easter  ques- 
tion— not  even  in  those  brought  against  his  successor, 
Eustasius  of  Luxeuil  in  624 — it  would  appear  that 
after  Columbanus  had  removed  into  Italy  ne  gave  up 
the  Celtic  Easter  (cf.  Acta  SS.  O.  8.  B.,  II,  p.  7). 

In  addition  to  the  Easter  question  Columbanus  had 
to  wage  war  agftinst  vice  in  the  royal  household.  The 
voung  King  Thierry,  to  whose  kingdom  Luxeuil  be- 
longed, was  living  a  life  of  debauchery.  He  was  com- 
Eletely  in  the  hands  of  his  grandmother.  Queen  Brune- 
auH  (Bnmehild).  On  the  death  of  Kmg  Gontram 
the  sueoession  passed  to  his  nephew,  Childeoert  II,  son 
of  Brunehault.  At  his  death  the  latter  left  two  sons, 
Hieodebert  II  and  Thierry  II,  both  minors.  Theode- 
bert  succeeded  to  Austrasia,  Thierry  to  Burgundy,  but 
Brunehault  constituted  herself  their  guardian,  and 
held  in  her  own  power  the  government  of  the  two 
kingdoms.  As  she  advancea  in  years  she  sacrificed 
everything  to  the  passion  for  sovereignty,  hence  she 
encouraged  Thierry  in  the  practice  of  concubinage  in 
order  that  there  might  be  no  rival  queen.  Thierry, 
however,  had  a  veneration  for  Columbanus,  and  often 
visited  him.  On  these  occasions  the  saint  admonished 
and  rebuked  him,  but  in  vain.  Brunehault  became 
enrag^  with  Columbanus,  and  stirred  up  the  bishops 
and  nobles  to  find  fault  with  his  rules  r^arding  mon- 
astic enclosure.    Finally,  Thieny  and  his  party  went 


OOLUMBAiraS 


139 


GOLXTMBAirOS 


to  Luxeuil  and  ordared  the  abbot  to  conform  to  the 
usages  of  the  oountrjr.  Columbaniis  refused,  where- 
upon he  was  taken  prisoner  to  Besan^n  to  await  fur- 
ther orders.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence  of  re- 
straint he  speedily  returned  to  his  monasteir.  On 
hearing  this,  Thierry  and  Brunehault  sent  soloiers  to 
drivehim  back  to  Ireland.  None  but  Irish  monks 
were  to  accompany  him.  Accordingly,  he  was  hurried 
to  Nevers,  made  to  embark  on  the  Loire,  and  thus  pro- 
ceed to  Nantes.  At  Tours  he  visited  the  tomb  of  St. 
Martin  and  sent  a  message  to  lluerry  that  within  three 
years  he  and  his  children  would  perish.  At  Nantes, 
before  the  embarkation,  he  addressed  a  letter  to  his 
monks,  full  61  affection.  It  is  a  memorial  of  the  love 
and  tenderness  which  existed  in  that  otherwise  austere 
and  passionate  soul.  In  it  he  desires  all  to  obey 
Attala,  whom  he  reouests  to  abide  with  the  com- 
mimity  unless  strife  snould  arise  on  the  Easter  ques- 
tion. His  letter  concludes  thus:  "They  come  to  tell 
me  the  ship  is  ready.  .  .  .  The  end  of  my  parchment 
compels  me  to  finish  my  letter.  Love  is  not  orderly; 
it  is  this  which  has  made  it  confused.  Farewell,  dear 
hearts  of  mine;  pray  for  me  that  I  may  live  in  God." 
As  soon  as  they  set  sail,  such  a  storm  arose  that  the 
ship  was  driven  ashore.  The  captain  would  have 
noming  more  to  do  with  these  holy  men :  they  were 
thus  free  to  go  where  they  pleased.  Coliunbanus 
made  his  way  to  the  friendly  King  Clothaire  at  Sois- 
sons  in  Neustriay  where  he  was  gladly  welcomed* 
Clothaire  in  vain  pressed  him  to  remain  in  his  terri- 
tory. Columbanus  left  Neustria  in  611  for  the  court 
of  King  Th^ebert  of  Austrasia,  At  Metz  he  re- 
ceived an  honourable  welcome,  and  then  proceeding 
to  Mains,  he  embarked  upon  the  Rhine  in  order  to 
reach  the  Suevi  and  Alamanni,  to  whom  he  wished 
to  pieach  the  Gospel.  Ascending  the  river  and  its 
tributaries,  the  Aar  and  the  Limmat,  he  came  to  the 
Lake  of  Zimch.  Tuegen  was  chosen  as  a  centre  from 
whidi  to  evangelize,  Dut  the  work  was  not  successful. 
Instead  of  producing  fruit,  the  seal  of  Columbanus 
only  excited  persecution.  In  despair  he  resolved  to 
pass  on  by  way  of  Arbon  to  Bregenz  on  Lake  Con- 
stance, where  there  were  still  some  traces  of  Chris- 
tianity. Here  the  saint  found  an  oratoiy  dedicated 
to  St.  Aurelia,  into  which  the  people  had  brought  three 
brass  images  of  their  tutelary  deities.  He  commanded 
St.  Gall,  who  knew  the  language,  to  preach  to  the 
inhabitants,  and  many  were  converted.  The  images 
were  destroyed,  and  Columbanus  blessed  the  little 
church,  placing  the  relics  of  St.  Aurelia  beneath  the 
altar.  A  monastery  was  erected,  and  the  brethren 
forthwith  observed  their  regular  life.  After  about  a 
year,  in  conseauence  of  another  rising  against  the 
conmiunity,  Columbanus  resolved  to  cross  the  Alps 
into  Italy.  An  additional  reason  for  his  departure 
was  the  fact  that  the  arms  of  Thierry  had  prevailed 
against  Theodebert,  and  thus  the  country  on  the 
banks  of  the  Upper  Rhine  had  become  the  property 
of  his  enemy. 

On  his  arrival  at  Milan  in  612,  Columbanus  met 
with  a  kindly  welcome>  from  King  Agilulf  and  Queen 
Theodelinda.  He  immediately  began  to  confute  the 
Ariims  and  wrote  a  treatise  against  their  teaching, 
which  has  been  lost.  At  the  request  of  the  king,  he 
wrote  a  letter  to  Pope  Boniface  on  the  debated  sub- 
ject of  '"Hie  Three  Chapters".  These  writings  were 
considered  to  favour  Nestorianism.  Pope  St.  Gregory, 
however,  tolerated  in  Lombardy  those  persons  who 
defended  them,  among  whom  was  King  Agilulf.  Col- 
umbanus would  probably  have  taken  no  active  part 
in  this  matter  had  not  the  kins  pressed  him  so  to  do. 
But  on  this  occasion  his  zeaf  certainly  outran  his 
knowled^.  The  letter  opens  with  an  apology  that  a 
"foolish  Scot''  should  be  charged  to  write  for  a  Lorn-* 
bard  king.  He  acquaints  the  pope  with  the  imputa*- 
tions  brought  against  him,  and  he  is  particularly  severe 
with  the  memory  of  Pope  Vigilius.    He  entreats  the 


gmtiff  to  prove  his  orthodoxy  and  assemble  a  coundL 
e  says  tnat  his  freedom  of  speech  accords  with  the 
usage  ci  his  country.  "Doubtless",  Montalembert 
remarks,  "some  of  the  expressions  which  he  employs 
would  be  now  regarded  as  disrespectful  and  justly 
rejected.  But  in  those  young  and  vigorous  times, 
faith  and  austerity  ooula  be  more  indulgent"  (II, 
440).  On  the  other  hand,  the  letter  expresses  tiie 
most  affectionate  and  impassioned  devotion  to  the 
Holy  See.  The  whole,  however,  may  be  judged  from 
this  fragment:  "We  Irish,  though  dwelling  at  the  far 
ends  of  the  earth,  are  all  disciples  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul .  .  .  Neither  heretic,  nor  Jew,  nor  schismatic  has 
ever  beon  among  us;  but  the  Catholic  Faith,  just  as 
it  was  first  delivered  to  us  by  yourselves,  the  succes- 
sors of  the  Apostles,  is  held  by  us  unchanged  . .  .  We 
are  bound  [deinncti\  to  the  Chair  of  Peter,  and  although 
Rome  is  great  and  renowned,  through  that  Chair  alone 
IB  she  locked  on  as  great  and  illustrious  among  us . . . 
On  account  of  the  two  Apostles  of  Christ,  you  [the 
pope]  are  almost  celestial,  and  Rome  is  the  head  of 
the  whole  world,  and  of  the  Churches".  If  zeal  for 
orthodoxy  caused  him  to  overstep  the  limits  of  discre- 
tion, his  real  attitude  towards  Rome  is  sufficiently 
clear.  He  declares  the  pope  to  be:  ''his  Lord  and 
Father  in  Christ",  "The  Chosen  Watchman",  "The 
Prelate  most  dear  to  all  the  Faithful",  "The  most 
beautiful  Head  of  all  the  Churches  of  the  whole  of 
Europe",  "Pastor of  Pastora",  "The  Hirfiest",  "The 
First*^',  "The  First  Pastor,  set  higher  than  all  mor- 
tals", "Raised  near  unto  all  the  Celestial  Beings", 
"Prince  of  the  Leaders",  "IDs  Father",  "His  imme- 
diate Patron",  "The  Steersman",  "The  PUot  of  the 
Spiritual  Ship"  (AUnatt,  "Cathedra  Petri",  106). 

But  it  was  necessary  that,  in  Italy,  Columbanus 
should  have  a  settled  abode,  so  the  king  gave  him  a 
tract  of  land  called  Bobbio,  between  Milan  and  Genoa, 
near  the  River  Treblua,  situated  in  a  defile  of  the 
Apennines.  On  his  way  thither  he  taught  the  Faith 
in  the  town  of  Mombrione,  which  is  called  San  Colom- 
bano  to  this  day.  Padre  della  Torre  considers  that 
the  saint  made  two  journeys  into  Italy,  and  that  these 
have  been  conf  oimded  by  Jonas.  On  the  first  occasion 
he  went  to  Rome  and  received  from  Pope  Gregory 
many  sacred  relics  (Stokes,  Apennines,  132).  This 
may  possibly  explain  the  traditional  spot  in  St. 
Peter's,  where  St.  Gregory  and  St.  Columba  are  sup- 
posed to  have  met  (Moran,  Irish  SS.  in  Great  Britain, 
105).  At  Bobbio  the  saint  repaired  the  half-ruined 
churdi  of  St.  Peter,  and  erected  his  celebrated  abbey, 
which  for  centuries  was  a  stronghold  of  orthodoxy  m 
Northern  Italy.  Thither  came  Clothaire's  messen- 
gers  inviting  the  aged  -abbot  to  return,  now  that  his 
enemies  were  dead.  But  he  could  jiot  go.  He  sent 
a  request  that  the  kii^  would  always  protect  his  dear 
monks  at  Luxeuil.  He  prepared  for  death  by  retiring 
to  his  cave  on  the  mountain*side  overlooking  the 
Trebbia,  where,  according  to  a  tradition,  he  had  dedi* 
cat^  an  oratory  to  Our  Lady  (Montalembert,  "  Monks 
of  the  West",  II,  444).  His  body  has  been  preserved 
in  the  abbey  church  at  Bobbio,  and  many  miracles  are 
said  to  have  been  wrought  there  through  his  interces- 
sion. In  1482  the  relics  were  placed  in  a  new  shrine 
and  laid  beneath  the  altar  of  the  crypt,  where  they  ars 
still  venerated.  But  the  altar  ana  shrine  are  once 
more  to  be  restored,  and  for  this  end  in  1907  an  appeal 
was  made  by  Cardinal  Logue,  and  there  is  every  pros- 
pect of  the  work  being  speedily  accomplished.  The 
sacristy  at  Bobbio  possesses  a  portion  of  the  ricull  of 
the  saint,  his  knife,  wooden  cup,  bell,  and  an  ancient 
water  vessel,  formerly  containing  sacred  relics  and 
said  to  have  been  given  him  by  St.  Gregory.  Accord* 
ing  to  certain  authorities,  twelve  teeth  of  the  saint 
were  taken  from  the  tomb  in  the  fifteenth  century  and 
kept  in  the  treasury,  but  these  have  now  disappeared 
(Stokes,  Apnnines,  p.  183).  St.  Columbanus  is 
named  in  tne  Roman  Martyiology  on  21  November, 


COLUMBUS 


140 


OQLUMBUS 


but  his  feast  is  kept  by  the  Benedictines  and  through- 
out Ireland  on  24  November.  Among  his  principal 
miracles  are :  ( 1 )  procuring  of  food  for  a  sick  monk  and 
curing  the  wife  of  his  benefactor;  (2)  escape  from  hurt 
when  surrounded  by  wolves;  (3)  obedience  of  a  bear 
which  evacuated  a  cave  at  his  bidding;  (4)  producing 
a  sprixig  of  water  near  his  cave;  (6)  repletion  of  the 
LuxeuiT  granary  when  empty;  (6)  multiplication  of 
bread  and  beer  for  his  community;  (7)  curing  of  the 
sick  monks,  who  rose  from  their  beds  at  his  request 
to  reap  the  harvest;  (8)  givins  sight  to  a  blind  man 
at  Orleans ;  (9)  destruction  by  his  breath  of  a  cauldron 
of  beer  prepared  for  a  pagan  festival;  (10)  taming  a 
bear,  and  yoking  it  to  a  plough. 

Like  other  men,  Columbanus  was  not  faultless.  In 
the  cause  of  God  he  was  impetuous  and  even  head- 
strong, for  by  nattu^  he  was  eager,  passionate,  and 
dauntless.  These  qualities  were  both  the  source  of 
his  power  and  the  cause  of  mistakes.  But  his  virtues 
were  very  remarkable.  He  shared  with  other  saints 
a  great  love  for  God's  creatures.  As  he  walked  in  the 
woods,  the  birds  woidd  alight  upon  his  shoulder  that 
he  mieht  caress  them,  and  the  squirrels  would  run 
down  from  the  trees  and  nestle  in  the  folds  of  his  cowl. 
The  fascination  of  his  saintly  personality  drew  numer- 
ous communities  around  him.  Hiat  he  possessed  real 
affection  for  others  is  abundantly  manifest  in  his  letter 
to  his  brethren.  Archbishop  Healy  eulogizes  him 
thus:  ''A  man  more  holy,  more  chaste,  more  self- 
denying,  a  man  with  loftier  aims  and  purer  heart  than 
Ck)lumbanus  was  never  bom  in  the  Island  of  Saints" 
(Ireland's  Ancient  Schools,  378).  Regarding  his  atti- 
tude towards  the  Holy  See,  although  with  Celtic 
warmth  and  flow  of  words  he  oould  defend  mere  cus- 
tom, there  is  nothing  in  his  strongest  expressions 
which  implies  that,  in  matters  of  faith,  he  for  a  mo- 
ment doubted  Rome's  supreme  authority.  His  influ- 
ence in  Europe  was  due  to  the  conversions  he  effected, 
and  to  the  nile  that  he  composed.  What  gave  rise 
to  his  apostolate?  Possibly  tne  restless  energy  of  the 
Geitic  character,  which,  not  finding  sufficient  scope  in 
Ireland,  directed  itself  in  the  cause  of  Christ  to  foreign 
lands.  It  may  be  that  the  example  and  success  of 
St.  0>lumba  in  Caledonia  stimulated  him  to  similar 
exertions.  The  example,  however,  of  Columbanus  in 
the  sixth  century  staxids  out  as  the  prototype  of  mis- 
sionary enterprise  towards  the  countries  of  Europe, 
so  eagerly  followed  up  from  England  and  Ireland  dv 
such  men  as  Killian,  Virgilius,  Donatus,  Wilfrid, 
Willibrord,  Swithbert,  and  Boniface.  If  Colum- 
banus's  abbey  in  Italy  became  a  citadel  of  faith  and 
learning,  Luxeuil  in  France  became  the  nursery  of 
saints  and  apostles.  From  its  walls  went  forth  men 
who  carried  nis  rule,  together  with  the  Gospel,  into 
France,  Germany,  Switzeriand,  and  Italy.  There  are 
said  to  have  been  sixty-three  such  apostles  (Stokes, 
Forests  of  France,  254).  These  disciples  of  Colum- 
banus are  accredited  with  founding  over  one  hundred 
different  monasteries  (ib.,  74).  The  canton  and  town 
still  bearing  the  name  of  St.  GaU  testify  how  well  one 
disciple  succeeded. 

Ccuumbanus  has  left  us  his  own  writings.  They 
demonstrate  that  his  attainments  were  of  no  mean 
order.  He  continued  his  literary  studies  till  the  venr 
eve  of  his  death.  His  works  (Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXa) 
include :  ( 1 )  "  Penitential '  *  which  prescribes  penances 
according  to  guilt,  a  useful  guide  in  the  absence  of 
elaborate  treatises  on  moral  theology ;  (2)  "  Seventeen 
Short  Sermons";  (3)  *'Six  Epistles";  (4)  ''Latin 
Poems";  (6)  "A  Monastic  Rule".  This  last  is 
much  shorter  than  that  of  St.  Benedict,  consisting  of 
only  ten  chapters.  The  first  six  of  these  treat  of 
obedience,  silence,  food,  poverty,  humility,  and  chas- 
tity. In  these  there  is  much  in  common  with  the 
Benedictine  code,  except  that  the  fasting  is  more 
rigorous.  Chapter  vii  deals  with  the  choir  Offices. 
Sunday  Matins  in  winter  consisted  of  seventy-five 


psalms  and  twenty-five  antiphons — throe  psalms  to 
each  antiphon.  In  spring  and  autumn  these  were  re- 
duced to  thirty-six,  and  in  summer  to  twenty-four. 
Fewer  were  said  on  weekdays.  The  day  hours  con- 
sisted of  Terce,  Sext,  None,  and  Vespers.  Three 
psalms  were  said  at  each  of  these  Offices,  except  Ves- 
pers, when  twelve  psalms  were  said.  Chapter  x  regu- 
lates penances  for  offences,  and  it  is  here  tliat  the  Rule 
of  St.  C!olumbanus  differs  so  widely  from  that  of  St. 
Benedict.  Stripes  or  fasts  were  enjoined  for  the 
smallest  faults.  The  habit  of  the  monks  consisted  of 
a  tunic  of  undyed  wool,  over  which  was  worn  the 
cucuUaf  or  cowl,  of  the  same  material.  A  great  deal 
of  tune  was  devoted  to  various  kinds  of  manual  labour. 
The  Rule  of  St.  Columbanus  was  approved  of  by  the 
Council  of  M^Ux>n  in  627,  but  it  was  aestined  before  the 
close  of  the  century  to  be  superseded  by  that  of  St. 
Benedict.  For  several  centuries  in  some  of  the 
^^ter  monasteries  the  two  rules  were  observed  con- 
jointly. In  art  St.  Columbanus  is  represented  bearded 
wearing  the  monastic  cowl;  he  holds  in  his  hand  a 
book  within  an  Irish  satchel,  and  stands  in  the  midst 
of  wolves.  Sometimes  he  is  depicted  in  the  attitude 
of  taming  a  bear,  or  with  sunoeams  over  his  head 
(Husenbeth,  "Emblems",  d*.  33). 

liABiLLON,  Ada  Sanctorum  0.  S.  B.,  II;  Mionb,  Patrofoffia 
Lattna.  LXXXj  Laniqan,  Ecclesiastical  Hist,  of  IrdOnd  (Pub- 
lin,  1829),  II,  IV;  Montaleiibbkt,  Mimks  of  the  West  (Edin- 
bunh,  1861),  II;  Moran,  Essays  on  Batiy  Irish  Ch.  (Dublin, 
1864);  Vauoajmss,  Apostles  of  Europe  (London,  lo76).  I; 
BCann,  Lives  of  the  Popes  (London,  1902),  I;  Butler,  Lives  of 
the  iSatfifo.  IV,  383  sqq.;  Hbalt,  Ireland^ s  Ancient  SOumAs  and 
Scholars  (DaUin,  1890);  Stokes.  Six  Months  inthe  Apenrnnes 
(London,  1892);  Idbii,  Three  Months  in  the  Forests  of  France 
(London,  1895);  see  Hole  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog..  s.  v.,  and 
HtTNT  in  Dtd.  Nai.  Biog.,  b.  v.  Martin.  SaiiU  Colomban  {5i/>- 
015)  in  Le&  Saints  (Paris,  1908).  There  is  lacking  a  aatisfae- 
toi^  edition  of  the  works  of  Cblumbanus.  Valuable  contri- 
butions have  been  made  in  the  paires  of  the  Zeitschrifi  fur 
Kirchenffeschichte  by  Sebbabs,  notably  his  addition  of  the 
Panitentiale  of  Columbanus.  the  rule  of  the  saint  (no  longer 


extant  in  its  original  form),  in  same  review  (Leipsig,  1S$4. 
XITT 441  sqq.,  and  1895,  XV,  366  sqq.).  Cf.  the  cfisaertation 
of  Sbebass,  Veber  Columbems  Klosterregd  und  Busthitch  (Dres- 


den, 1883);  Chbyaubr,  Bio-bibl.,  9.  v.,  and  Topo-biH.,  a.  w. 
Bobbiot  Luxeuil. 

COLUMBA  EdMONBS. 

Oolumbus,  Christopher  (It.  Cristoforo  Colom- 
bo; Sp.  Crista VAJi  Colon),  d.  at  Genoa,  or  on  Geno- 
ese territory,  probably  1451;  d.  at  Valladolid,  Spain, 
20  May,  1506.  His  family  was  respectable,  but  of 
limited  means,  so  that  the  early  education  of  Colum«> 
bus  was  defective.  Up  to  his  arrival  in  Spain  (1485) 
only  one  date  has  been  preserved.  His  son  Fernando, 
quoting  from  his  father's  writings  says  that  in  Febru- 
ary, 1467,  he  navigated  the  seas  about  ''TUe'*  (proba- 
bly Iceland).  Columbus  himself  in  a  letter  to  Kins 
Ferdinand  says  that  he  began  to  navigate  at  the  age  of 
fourteen,  though  in  the  journal  of  his  first  voyage  (no 
longer  in  existence),  in  1493,  he  was  said  to  have  been 
on  the  sea  twenty-three  years,  which  would  make  him 
nineteen  when  he  first  became  a  mariner.  The  early 
age  at  which  he  began  his  career  as  a  sailor  is  not  sur- 
prising for  a  native  of  Genoa,  as  the  Genoese  were 
most  enterprisine  and  daring  seamen.  Columbus  is 
said  in  his  early  days  to  have  been  a  corsair,  especially 
in  the  war  a^nst  the  Moore,  themselves  merciless 
pirates.  He  is  aJso  supposed  to  have  sailed  as  far 
south  as  the  coast  of  Guinea  before  he  was  sixteen 
vears  of  age.  Certain  it  is  that  while  quite  young  he 
became  a  thoroufi^  and  practical  navigator,  and  later 
acquired  a  fair  Knowiedge  of  astronomy.  He  also 
gained  a  wide  acquaintance  with  works  on  cosmo- 
graphy such  as  Ptolemy  and  the  ''Imago  Mundi"  of 
Cardinal  d'Ailly,  besides  entering  into  communication 
with  the  oosmographers  of  his  time.  The  fragment  of 
a  treatise  written  W  him  and  called  by  his  son  Fer- 
nando "The  Five  Habitable  Zones  of  the  Earth" 
shows  a  degree  of  information  unusual  for  a  saOor  of 
his  day.  As  in  the  case  of  most  of  the  documents  re- 
lating to  the  life  of  GolumbuB  the  genuineness  of  the 


•  COLUMBUS 


141 


COLUMBUS 


letters  written  in  1474  by  Paolo  Toscanelli,  a  renowned 
physicist  of  Florence,  to  Columbus  and  a  member  of 
the  household  of  King  Alfonso  V  of  Portugal,  has  been 
attacked  on  the  ground  of  the  youth  of  Columbus,  al- 
though they  bear  signs  of  authenticity.  The  experi- 
ences and  researches  referred  to  fit  in  satisfactorily 
with  the  subsequent  achievements  of  Columbus.  For 
the  rest,  the  early  part  of  Columbus's  life  is  inter- 
woven with  incidents,  most  of  which  are  unsupported 
by  evidence,  though  quite  possible.  His  marriage 
about  1475  to  a  Portuguese  lady  whose  name  is  given 


Cell  of  Prior  Juan  Perez.  La  Rabida 

sometimes  as  Dofia  Felipa  Moniz  and  sometimes  as 
Dona  Felipa  Perestrella  seems  certain. 

Columbus  seems  to  have  arrived  in  Portugal  about 
1471,  although  1474  is  also  mentioned  and  supported 
by  certain  indications.  He  vainly  tried  to  obtain  the 
support  of  the  King  of  Portu^  for  his  scheme  to  dis- 
cover the  Far  East  by  sailmg  westward,  a  scheme 
supposed  to  have  been  suggest^  by  his  brother  Bar- 
tholomew, who  is  said  to  nave  been  earning  a  liveli- 
hood at  Losbon  by  designing  marine  charts.  Colum- 
bus went  to  Spam  in  1485,  and  probably  the  first 
assistance  he  obtained  there  was  from  the  Duke  of 
Medina  Celi,  Don  Luis  de  la  Cerda,  for  whom  he  {)er- 
formed  some  service  that  brought  him  a  compensation 
of  3000  maravedis  in  May,  1487.  He  lived  about  two 
years  at  the  home  of  the  duke  and  made  unsuccessful 
endeavours  to  interest  him  in  his  scheme  of  maritime 
exploration.  His  attempts  to  secure  the  help  of  the 
Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia  were  equally  unproductive  bf 
results.  No  blame  attaches  to  these  noblemen  for  de- 
clining to  imdertake  an  enterprise  which  only  rulers  of 
nations  could  properly  carry  out.  Between  1485  and 
1488  Colimibus  began  his  relations  with  Doila  Beatriz 
Enriquez  de  Arana,  or  Harana,  of  a  good  family  of  the 
city  of  Cordova,  from  which  sprang  his  much  beloved 
son  Fernando,  next  to  Christopher  and  his  brother 
Bartholomew  the  most  gifted  of  the  Colombos. 

Late  in  1485  or  early  in  1486  Columbus  appeared 
twice  before  the  court  to  submit  his  plans  and  while 
the  Duke  of  Medina  Celi  may  have  assisted  him  to 
some  extent,  the  chief  support  came  from  the  royal 
treasurer,  Alonzo  de  Quintanilla,  Friar  Antonio  de 
Marchena  (confounded  by  Irving  with  Father  Perez 
of  La  Rabida),  and  Diego  de  Deza,  Bishop  of  Placen- 
cia.  Columbus  himself  declared  that  these  two  priests 
were  always  his  faithful  friends.  Marchena  also  ob- 
tained for  him  the  valuable  sympathy  of  Cardinal 
Gonzalez  de  Mendoza.  Through  the  influence  of  these 
men  the  Government  appointed  a  junta  or  commission 
of  ecclesiastics  that  met  at  Salamanca  late  in  1486  or 
early  in  1487,  in  the  Dominican  convent  of  SanEst^ 
ban  to  investigate  the  scheme,  which  they  finally  re- 
jected. The  commission  had  no  connexion  with  the 
celebrated  University  of  Salamanca,  but  was  imder  the 
guidance  of  the  prior  of  Prado.  It  seems  that  Colum- 
bus ^ve  but  scant  and  unsatisfactory  information  to 


the  commission,  probably  through  fear  that  his  ideas 
might  be  improperly  made  use  of  and  he  be  robbed  of 
the  glory  and  advantages  that  he  expected  to  derive 
from  his  project.  This  may  account  for  the  rejection 
of  his  proposals.  The  prior  of  Prado  was  a  Hierony- 
mite,  white  Colimibus  was  under  the  especial  protec- 
tion of  the  Dominicans.  Among  his  early  friends  in 
Spain  was  Luis  de  Santangel,  whom  Irving  calls  "re- 
ceiver of  the  ecclesiastical  revenues  of  Ar^n'^  and 
who  afterwards  advanced  to  the  queen  the  fimds  nec- 
essary for  the  first  voyage.  If  Santangel  was  receiver 
of  the  church  revenues  and  probably  treasurer  and 
administrator,  it  was  the  Church  that  furnished  the 
means  (17,000  ducats)  for  the  admiral's  first  voyage. 
It  would  be  unjust  to  blame  King  Ferdinand  for  de- 
clining the  proposals  of  Colimibus  after  the  adverse 
report  of  the  Salamanca  commission,  which  was  based 
upon  objections  drawn  from  Seneca  and  Ptolemy 
rather  than  upon  the  opinion  of  St.  Augustine  in  the 
** De  Civitate  Dei".  Tne  king  was  then  preparing  to 
deal  the  final  blow  to  Moori^  domination  in  Spain 
after  the  struggle  of  seven  centuries,  and  his  financial 
resources  were  taxed  to  the  utmost.  Moreover,  he 
was  not  easily  carried  away  by  enthusiasm  and,  though 
we  now  recognize  the  practical  value  of  the  plans  of 
Columbus,  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  it 
seemed  dubious,  to  say  the  least,  to  a  cool-headed 
ruler,  wont  to  attend  first  to  immediate  necessities. 
The  crushing  of  the  Moorish  power  in  the  peninsula 
was  then  of  greater  moment  than  the  search  after  dis- 
tant lands  for  which,  furthermore,  there  were  not  the 
means  in  the  royal  treasury.  Under  these  conditions 
Columbus,  always  in  financial  straits  himself  and  sup- 
ported by  the  liberality  of  friends,  bethought  himself 
of  the  rulers  of  France  and  England.  In  1488  his 
brother  Bartholomew,  as  faithful  as  sagacious,  tried  to 
induce  one  or  the 

other  of  them  to  ^ 

accept  the  plans  •  ^  • 

of    Christopher,  "^ 

but  failed.    The  f        /I      ^S   ^ 

idea     was    too  •  •/•      ^^ 

novel  to  appeal 
to  either.  Henry 
VII  of  England 
was  too  cautious 
to  entertain  pro- 
posals from  a 
comparatively 
unknown  sea- 
farer of  a  foreign  nation,  and  Charles  VIII  of  France 
was  too  much  involved  in  Italian  affairs.  The  pros- 
pect was  disheartening.  Nevertheless,  Columbus, 
with  the  assistance  of  his  friends,  concluded  to  make 
another  attempt  in  Spain.  He  proceeded  to  court 
again  in  1491,  taking  with  him  his  son  Diego.  The 
court  being  then  in  camp  before  Granada,  the  last 
Moorish  stronghold,  the  time  could  not  have  been 
more  inopportune.  Another  junta  was  called  before 
Granada  while  the  siege  was  going  on,  but  the  commis- 
sion again  reported  unfavourably.  This  is  not  sur- 
prising, as  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  could  not  undertake 
schemes  that  would  involve  a  great  outlay,  and  divert 
his  attention  from  the  momentous  task  he  was  en- 
gaged in.  Columbus  always  directed  his  proposals  to 
the  king  and  as  yet  the  queen  had  taken  no  official 
notice  ol  them,  as  she  too  was  heart  and  soul  in  the  en- 
terprise destined  to  restore  Spain  wholly  to  Christian 
rule. 

The  junta  before  Granada  took  place  towards  the 
end  of  1491,  and  its  decision  was  such  a  blow  to  Colum- 
bus that  he  left  the  court  and  wandered  away  with  his 
boy.  Before  leaving,  however,  he  witnessed  the  fall  of 
Granada,  2  January,  1492.  His  intention  was  to  re- 
turn to  Cordova  and  then,  perhaps,  to  go  to  France. 
On  foot  and  reduced  almost  to  beggary,  he  reached 
<he  Francwnan  convent  of  La  Rdmda  probalily  in 


X    ^  / 

Signature  of  Columbus 


OOLUMBUB 


142 


OOLUMBUS 


January,  1492.  The  prior  was  Father  Juan  Peres,  the 
confessor  of  the  queen,  frequently  confounded  with 
Fray  Antonio  Marchena  by  historians  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  who  also  erroneously  place  the  arrival 
of  Columbus  at  La  Rdbida  in  the  early  part  of  his  so- 
journ in  Spain.  Columbus  begged  the  friar  who  acted 
as  dooi^keeper  to  let  his  tired  son  rest  at  the  convent 
over  night.  While  he  was  pleading  his  cause  the  prior 
was  standing  near  by  and  listening.  Something 
struck  him  in  the  appearance  of  this  man,  with  a  for- 
eign accent,  who  appeared  to  be  superior  to  his  actual 
condition.  After  providing  for  his  immediate  wants 
Father  Pereis  took  him  to  his  cell,  where  Columbus 
told  him  all  his  aspirations  and  blighted  hopes.  The 
result  was  that  Columbus  and  his  son  stayed  at  the 
convent  as  guests  and  Father  Perez  hurried  to  Santa 
F^  near  Granada,  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  the 
queen  to  take  a  personal  interest  in  the  proposed 
undertaking  of  the  Italian  navigator. 


the  Nifia,  both  caravels,  L  e.  undecked,  with  cabins 
and  forecastles.  These  three  ships  carried  altogether 
120  men.  Two  seamen  of  repute,  Martin  Alonso  Pin- 
zon  and  his  brother  Vicente  Yafiez  Pinzon,  well-to-do- 
residents  of  Palos  commanded,  the  former  the  Pinta, 
the  latter  the  Nifia,  and  experienced  pilots  were 
placed  on  both  ships.  Before  leaving,  Columbus  re- 
ceived the  Sacraments  of  Penance  and  Holy  Eucharist, 
at  the  hands  (it  is  stated)  of  Father  Juan  Perez,  the 
officers  and  crews  of  the  little  squadron  following  his 
example.  On  3  August,  1 492,  the  people  of  Palos  with 
heavy  hearts  saw  Qiem  depart  on  an  expedition  re- 
garded by  many  as  foolhardy. 

Las  Casas  claims  to  have  used  the  journal  of  Colum- 
bus's first  voysjpe,  but  he  admits  that  he  made  an 
abridged  copy  of  it.  What  and  how  much  he  left  out, 
of  course^  ia  not  known.  But  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind 
that  the  journal,  as  published,  is  not  the  original  in  its 
entirety.    The  vessels  touched  at  the  Canaries,  and 


Ths  Santa  Maria,  Nij^a.  A2n>  Pinta 
(Restored  from  the  models  in  the  Marine  Museum,  Madrid) 


Circimist€mces  had  changed  with  the  fall  of  Gra- 
nada, and  the  Franciscan's  appeal  was  favourably  re- 
ceived by  Isabella,  who,  in  turn,  influenced  her  nus- 
band.  Columbus  was  called  to  court  at  once,  and 
20,000  maravedis  were  assigned  him  out  of  the  queen's 
private  resources  that  he  might  appear  in  proper  con- 
dition before  the  monarch.  Some  historians  assert 
that  Luis  de  Santangel  decided  the  queen  to  espouse 
the  cause  of  Columbus,  but  the  credit  seems  rather  to 
belong  to  the  prior  of  La  Rdbida.  The  way  had  been 
well  prepared  by  the  other  steadfast  friends  of  Colum- 
bus, not  improbably  Cardinal  Mendoza  among  others. 
At  all  events  negotiations  progressed  so  rapidly  that 
Ml  17  April  the  first  agreement  with  the  Crown  was 
signed,  and  on  30  Apnl  the  second.  Both  show  an 
unwise  liberality  on  the  part  of  the  monarchs,  who 
made  the  highest  office  in  what  was  afterwards  the 
West  Indies  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Columbus. 
Preparations  w^ere  immediately  begun  for  the  equip- 
ment of  the  expedition.  The  squadron  with  wnich 
Columbus  set  out  on  his  first  voyage  consisted  of  three 
vessels — tlie  Santa  Maria,  completely  decked,  which 
carried  the  flag  of  Columbus  as  admiral,  the  Pinta,  and 


then  proceeded  on  the  voyage.  Conditions  were  most 
favourable.  Hardly  a  wind  ruffled  the  waters  of  the 
ocean.  The  dramatic  incident  of  the  mutiny,  in  which 
the  discouragement  of  the  crews  is  said  to  have  cul- 
minated before  land  was  discovered,  is  a  pure  inven- 
tion. That  there  was  dissatisfaction  and  grumbling 
at  the  failure  to  reach  land  seems  to  be  certain,  but  no 
acts  of  insubordination  are  mentioned  either  by  Col- 
umbus, his  commentator  Las  Casas,  or  his  son  Fer- 
nando. Perhaps  the  most  important  event  during  the 
voya^  was  the  observation,  17  September,  by  Colum- 
bus himself,  of  the  declination  of  tne  magnetic  needle, 
which  Las  Casas  attributes  to  a  motion  of  the  polar 
star.  T)ie  same  author  intimates  that  two  distinct 
journals  were  kept  by  the  admiral,  ''because  he  al- 
ways represented  [feigned]  to  the  people  that  he  was 
maidng  little  headway  in  order  that  the  voyage  should 
not  seem  long  to  them,  so  that  he  kept  a  recora  by  two 
routes,  the  snorter  being  the  fictitious  one,  and  the 
longer  the  trie  one".  He  must  therefore  either  have 
kept  two  log-books,  or  he  must  have  made  two  differ- 
ent entries  m  the  same  b«ok.  At  any  rate  Las  Casas 
^ms  to  have  had  at  his  conamand  both  sets  of  data, 


OOLUMBUft 


143 


OOLUMBUS 


since  he  gives  them  ahnost  from  day  to  day.  This 
precautionaiy  measure  indicates  that  Columbus 
teared  insubordination  and  even  revolt  on  the  part  of 
the  crews,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  any  mutiny 
really  broke  out.  Finally,  at  ten  o'clock,  p.  m.,  1 1  Oc- 
tober, Columbus  himself  descried  a  light  which  indi- 
cated land  and  was  so  recognized  by  the  crew  of  his 
vessel.  It  reappeared  several  times,  and  Columbus 
felt  sure  that  the  shores  so  eagerly  expected  were  near. 
At  2  a.  m.  on  12  October  the  land  was  seen  plainly  by 
one  of  the  Pinta's  crew,  and  in  the  forenoon  Columbus 
landed,  on  what  is  now  called  Watling's  Island  in  the 
Bahama  group,  West  Indies.  The  discoverers  named 
the  island  San  Salvador.  The  Indians  inhabiting  it 
belonged  to  the  widespread  Arawak  stock  (q.  v.)  and 
are  said  to  have  called  the  island  Guanahani.  Imme- 
diately after  landing  Columbus  took  possession  of  the 
island  for  the  Spani3i  sovereigns. 

The  results  of  the  first  voyage,  aside  from  the  dis- 
covery of  what  the  admiral  regarded  as  being  ap- 
proacnes  to  India  and  China,  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows:  partial  recognition  of  the  Bahamas;  the  dis- 
covery and  exploration  of  a  part  of  Cuba,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  Spani^  settlement  on  the  coast  of 
what  is  now  the  Island  of  Haiti  or  Santo  Domingo. 
Cuba  Columbus  named  Juana,  and  Santo  Domingo,. 
Hispaniola. 

It  was  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  large  island  of 
Santo  Domingo  that  Columbus  met  with  the  only  seri- 
ous mishap  of  his  first  voyage.  Having  established 
the  nucleus  of  the  first  permanent  Spanish  settlement 
in  the  Indies,  he  left  about  three  score  men  to  hold  it. 
The  vicinity  was  comparatively  well  peopled  by  na- 
tives, Arawaks  like  those  of  the  Bahamas,  out  slightly 
more  advanced  in  culture.  A  few  days  previous  to  the 
foundation  Martin  Alonso  Pinzon  disappeared  with  the 
caravel  Pinta  which  he  conmianded  and  only  rejoined 
the  admiral  on  6  January,  1493,  an  act,  to  say  the 
least,  of  disobedience,  if  not  of  treachery.  The  first 
settlement  was  officially  established  on  Christmas 
Day,  1492,  and  hence  christened  "La  Navidad".  On 
the  same  day  the  admiral's  ship  ran  aground.  It  was  a  . 
total  loss,  and  Columbus  was  reduced  for  the  time  be- 
ing to  the  Nina,  as  the  Pinta  had  temporarily  deserted. 
Happily  the  natives  were  friendly.  After  ensuring,  as 
well  as  he  might,  the  safety  of  the  little  colony  by  the 
establishment  of  friendly  relations  with  the  Indians, 
Columbus  left  for  Spain,  where,  after  weathering  a 
frightful  storm  during  which  he  was  again  separated 
from  the  Pinta,  he  arrived  at  Palos,  15  March,  1493. 

From  the  journal  mentioned  we  also  eather  (what 
is  not  stated  m  the  letters  of  Columbus)  tnat  while  on 
the  northern  shores  of  Santo  Domingo  (Hispaniola) 
the  admiral  "learned  that  behind  the  Island  Juana 
[Cuba]  towards  the  South,  there  is  another  large  island 
in  which  there  is  much  more  gold.  They  call  that 
island  Yamaye.  .  .  .  And  that  the  island  Sspanola  or 
the  other  island  Yamaye  was  near  the  mainland,  ten 
days  distant  by  canoe,  which  might  be  sixty  or  seventy 
leagues,  and  that  tJiere  the  people  were  clothed 
[dressed]".  Yamaye  is  Jamaica,  and  the  mainland 
alluded  to  as  sixty  or  seventy  leagues  distant  to  the 
south  (by  south  the  west  is  meant),  or  150  to  175  Eng- 
lish miles  (the  league,  at  that  time,  being  counted  at 
four  mtUas  of  3000  Spanish  feet),  was  either  Yucatan  or 
Honduras.  Hence  the  admiral  brought  the  news  of 
the  existence  of  the  American  continent  to  Europe  as 
early  as  1493.  That  he  believed  the  continent  to  be 
Eastern  Asia  does  not  diminish  the  importance  of  his 
information. 

Columbus  had  been  careful  to  load  his  ships  with  all 
manner  of  products  of  the  newly  discoverecl  countries 
and  he  also  took  some  of  the  natives.  Whether, 
among  the  samples  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  tobacco 
was  included,  is  not  yet  satisfactorily  aHcortained. 
Nor  is  it  certain  that,  when  upon  his  return  he  pre- 
sented himself  to  the  monarchs  at  Barcelona,  an  impos- 


ing public  demonstration  took  place  in  his  honour. 
That  he  was  received  with  due  distinction  at  court  and 
that  he  displayed  the  proofs  of  his  discovery  can  not 
be  doubted.  The  best  evidence  of  the  high  apprecia- 
tion of  the  King  and  Queen  of  Spain  is  the  fact,  that 
the  prerogatives  granted  to  him  were  confirmed,  and 
eveiything  possible  was  done  to  enable  him  to  con- 
tinue his  explorations.  The  fact  that  Columbus  had 
found  a  country  that  appeared  to  be  rich  in  precious 
metals  was  of  the  utmost  importance.  Spain  was 
poor,  having  been  robbed,  ages  before,  of  its  metallic 
wealth  by  the  Romans.  As  gold  was  needed  the  dis- 
covery of  a  new  source  of  that  precious  metal  made  a 
strong  impression  on  the  people  of  Spain,  and  a  rush  to 
the  new  regions  was  inevitable. 

Columbus  started  on  his  second  voyage  to  the  Indies 
from  Cadiz,  25  September,  1493,  with  tnree  large  ves- 
seb  and  thirteen  caravels,  carr^'ing  in  aU  about  1500 
men.  On  his  first  trip  he  had  heard  about  other, 
smaller  islands  lyin^  some  distance  south  of  Hispani- 
ola, and  said  to  be  inhabited  by  ferocious  tribes  who 
had  the  advantage  over  the  Arawaks  of  being  intrepid 
seafarers,  and  who  made  constant  war  upon  the  in^ 
habitants  of  the  Greater  Antilles  and  the  Bahamas, 
carrying  off  women  and  children  into  captivity.  They 
were  believed  to  practise  cannibalism.  These  were 
the  Caribs  (q.  v.)  and  the  reports  about  them  were 
true,  outside  of  some  exaggerations  and  fables  like  the 
story  of  the  Amazons.  Previous  to«the  arrival  of  Col- 
umbus the  Caribs  had  driven  the  Arawaks  steadily 
north,  depopulated  some  of  the  smaller  islands,  and 
w^ere  sorely  pressing  the  people  of  Hispaniola,  parts  of 
Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  ana  even  Jamaica.  Columbus 
wished  to  learn  more  about  these  people.  The  help- 
less condition  of  the  Arawaks  made  him  eager  to  pro- 
tect them  against  their  enemies.  The  first  land 
sighted,  3  November,  was  the  island  now^  known  as 
Dominica,  and  almost  at  the  same  time  that  of  Marie 
Galante  was  descried.  Geographically  the  second 
voyage  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  Caribbean  Is- 
lands (including  the  French  Antilles),  Jamaica,  and 
minor  groups.  Columbus  having  obtained  conclusive 
evidence  ot  the  ferocious  customs  of  the  Caribs,  re- 
garded them  as  dangerous  to  the  settlements  he  pro- 
posed to  make  among  the  Arawaks  and  as  obstacles  to 
the  Christianization  and  civilization  of  these  Indians. 
The  latter  he  intended  to  make  use  of  as  labourers,  as 
he  soon  perceived  that  for  some  time  to  come  Euro- 
pean settlers  would  be  too  few  in  numbers  and  too 
new  to  the  climate  to  take  advantage  of  the  resources 
of  the  island.  The  Caribs  he  purposed  to  convert 
eventually,  but  for  the  time  being  they  must  be  con- 
sidered as  enemies,  and  according  to  the  customs  of 
the  age,  their  captors  had  the  right  to  reduce  them  to 
slavery.  The  Arawaks  were  to  be  treated  in  a  concili- 
atory manner,  as  long  as  they  did  not  show  open  hos- 
tility. Before  long,  nowever,  there  was  a  change  in 
these  relations. 

After  a  rapid  survey  of  Jamaica,  Columbus  hastened 
to  the  northern  coast  of  Haiti,  where  he  had  planted 
the  colony  of  La  Navidad.  To  his  surprise  the  little 
fort  had  disappeared.  There  were  to  be  seen  only 
smouldering  rums  and  some  corpses  which  were  identi- 
fied as  Spanish.  The  natives,  previously  so  friendly, 
were  shy,  and  upon  being  questioned  were  either  mute 
or  contradictory  in  their  replies.  It  was  finally  ascer- 
tained that  another  tribe,  living  farther  inland  and 
hostile  to  those  on  the  coast,  haafallen  upon  the  fort, 
killed  most  of  the  inmates,  and  burnt  the  buildings. 
Those  who  escaped  had  perished  in  their  flight.  But 
it  also  transi^ired  that  the  coast-people  themselves  had 
taken  part  in  the  massacre.  Columbus,  while  out- 
wardly on  good  terms  "with  them,  was  on  his  guard 
and,  in  consequence  of  the  aversion  of  his  peojile  to  a 
site  where  only  disaster  had  befallen  them,  moved 
some  distance  farther  east  and  established  on  the  coast 
the  larger  settlement  of  Isabella,    This  stood  ten 


OOLUMBUfi 


144 


OOLUMBUS 


leagues  to  the  east  of  Cape  Monte  Cristo,  where  the 
ruins  are  still  to  be  seen. 

The  existence  of  gold  on  Haiti  having  been  amply 
demonstrated  on  the  first  voyage,  Columbus  inaugu- 
rated a  diligent  search  for  places  where  it  might  be 
found.  The  gold  trinkets  worn  by  the  Indians  were 
washings  or  placereSy  but  mention  is  also  made,  on  the 
first  voyage,  of  quartz  rock  containing  the  precious 
metal.  But  it  is  likely  that  the  yellow  mineral  was 
iron  pyrites,  probably  gold-bearing  but,  in  the  back- 
ward state  of  metallurgy,  worthless  at  the  time.  Soon 
after  the  settlement  was  made  at  Isabella  the  colonists 
began  to  complain  that  the  mineral  wealth  of  the 
newly  discovered  lands  had  been  vastly  exaggerated 
and  one,  who  accompanied  the  expedition  as  expert  in 
metallurgy,  claimed  that  the  larger  nuggets  held  by 
the  natives  had  been  accumulated  in  the  course  of  a 
long  period  of  time.  This  very  sensible  supposition 
was  unjustly  criticized  by  Irvmg,  for  since  Irving's 
time  it  has  been  clearly  proved  that  pieces  of  metal  of 
unusual  size  and  shape  were  often  kept  for  generations 
by  the  Indians  as  fetishes. 

A  more  important  factor  which  disturbed  the  Span- 
iards was  the  unhealthiness  of  the  climate.  The  set- 
tlers had  to  go  through  the  slow  and  often  fatal  pro- 
cess of  acclimatization.  Columbus  himself  suffered 
considerably  from  ill-health.  Again,  the  island  was 
not  well  provided  with  food  suitable  for  the  newcomers. 
The  population,  nbtwithstanding  the  exaggerations  of 

*^.,...  -f*    Las  Uasas   and 

■"'''' '  -'^^^=^^-  ""^  others,  was  sparse. 
Isabella  with  its 
fifteen  hundred 
Spanish  immi- 
grants was  certain- 
ty the  most  popu- 
lous settlement.  At 
first  there  was  no 
clash  with  the  na- 
tives, but  parties 
sent  by  Colvunbus 
into  the  interior 
came  in  contact 
with  hostile  tribes. 
For  the  protection 
of  the  colonists 
Columbus  built  in 
the  interior  a  little 
fort  called  Santo 
Tomds.  He  also  sent  West  Indian  products  and  some 
Carib  prisoners  back  to  Spain  in  a  vessel  under  the 
command  of  Antonio  de  Torres.  Columbus  suggested 
that  the  Caribs  be  sold  as  slaves  in  order  that  they 
might  be  instructed  in  the  Christian  Faith.  This  sug- 
gestion was  not  adopted  by  the  Spanish  monarchs, 
and  the  prisoners  were  treated  as  kindly  in  Spain  as 
the  friendly  Arawaks  who  had  been  sent  over. 

The  condition  of  affairs  on  Hispaniola  (Haiti)  was 
not  promising.  At  Isabella  and  on  the  coast  there 
was  grumbling  against  the  admiral,  in  which  the  Bene- 
dictine Father  Buil  (Boil)  and  the  other  priests  joined, 
or  which,  at  least,  they  did  not  discourage.  In  the  in- 
terior there  was  trouble  with  the  natives.  The  com- 
mander at  Santo  Tomds,  Pedro  Margarite,  is  usually  ac- 
cused of  cruelty  to  the  Indians,  but  Columbus  himself 
in  his  Memorial  of  30  January,  1494,  commends  the 
conduct  of  that  oflicer.  However,  he  had  to  send  him 
reinforcements,  which  were  commanded  by  Alonzo  de 
Ojeda. 

Anxiously  following  up  his  theory  that  the  newly 
discovered  islands  were  but  outlying  posts  of  Eastern 
Asia  and  that  further  explorations  would  soon  lead 
him  to  the  coast  of  China  or  to  the  Moluccas,  Colum- 
bus, notwithstanding  the  precarious  condition  of  the 
colony,  left  it  in  charge  of  his  brother  Diego  and  four 
counsellors  (one  of  whom  was  Father  Buil),  and  with 
three  vessels  set  sail  towards  Cuba.    During  his  ab- 


The  Landing  of  Ck>LUicBT7S 

(Wood-4ngrsvin|E,  printed  at  Florence, 

1493.     Origmafin  British  Museum) 


sence  of  five  months  he  explored  parts  of  Cuba,  discov- 
ered the  Isle  of  Pines  and  several  ^ups  of  smaller 
islands,  and  made  the  circuit  of  Jamaica,  landing  there 
almost  every  day.  When  he  returned  to  Isabdla  (29 
September,  1494),  he  was  dangerously  ill  and  in  a  stu- 
por. Meanwhile  his  brother  Bartholomew  had  ar- 
rived from  Spain  with  a  small  squadron  and  supplies. 
He  proved  a  welcome  auxiliary  to  the  weak  Diego,  but 
could  not  prevent  serious  trouble.  Margarite,  an- 
gered by  interference  with  his  administration  in  ^e  in- 
terior, returned  to  the  coast,  and  there  was  joined  by 
Father  Buil  and  other  malcontents.  They  seized  the 
three  caravels  that  had  arrived  under  the  command  of 
Bartholomew  Columbus,  and  set  sail  in  them  for  Spain 
to  lay  before  the  Government  what  they  considered 
their  grievances  against  Columbus  and  his  administra- 
tion. 

That  there  was  cause  for  complaint  there  seems  to 
be  no  doubt,  but  it  is  almost  impossible  now  to  detei^ 
mine  who  was  most  at  fault,  Coliunbus  or  his  accusers. 
He  was  certainly  not  as  able  an  administrator  as  he 
was  a  navigator.  Still,  taking  into  consideration  the 
difficulties,  the  novelty  of  the  conditions,  and  the  class 
of  men  Columbus  had  to  handle,  and  placing  over 
against  this  what  he  had  already  achieved  on  Haiti, 
there  is  not  so  much  ground  for  criticism.  The 
charges  of  cruelty  towards  the  natives  are  based  upon 
rather  suspicious  authority,  Las  Casas  being  the  prin- 
cipal source.  There  were  errors  and  misdeeds  on  both 
sides,  which,  however,  might  not  have  brought  about 
a  crisis  had  not  disappointment  angered  the  settlers, 
who  had  based  their  expectations  on  the  glowing  re- 
ports of  Columbus  himself,  and  disposed  tnem  to  at- 
tribute all  their  troubles  to  their  opponents. 

Before  the  return  of  Columbus  to  Isabella,  Ojeda  had 
repulsed  an  attempt  of  the  natives  to  surprise  Santo 
Tom^.  Thereupon  the  Indians  of  various  tribes  of 
the  interior  now  formed  a  confederation  and  threat- 
ened Isabella.  Columbus,  however,  on  his  return, 
with  the  aid  of  fire-arms,  sixteen  horses,  and  about 
twenty  blood-hounds  easily  broke  up  the  Indian  league. 
Ojeda  captured  the  leader,  and  the  policy  of  kindness 
hitherto  pursued  towards  the  natives  was  replaced  by 
repression  and  chastisement.  According  to  the  cus- 
toms of  the  times  the  prisoners  of  war  were  r^arded  as 
rebels,  reduced  to  slavery,  and  five  hundred  of  them 
were  sent  to  Spain  to  be  sold.  It  is  certain  that  the 
condition  of  the  Indians  became  much  worse  there- 
after, that  they  were  forced  into  unaccustomed  la- 
bours, and  that  their  numbers  began  to  diminish  rap- 
idly. That  these  harsh  measures  were  authorized  by 
Columbus  there  can  be  no  doubt. 

While  the  Spanish  monarchs  in  their  dispatches  to 
Coliunbus  continued  to  show  the  same  confidence  and 
friendliness  they  could  not  help  hearing  the  accusa- 
tions made  against  him  by  Fatner  Buil,  Pedro  Mar- 
garite, and  the  other  malcontents,  upon  their  return 
to  Spain.  It  was  clear  that  there  were  two  factions 
among  the  Spaniards  in  Haiti,  one  headed  by  the  ad- 
miral, the  other  composed  of  perhaps  a  majonty  of  the 
settlers  including  ecclesiastics.  Still  the  monarchs  en- 
joined the  colonists  by  letter  to  obey  Colmnbus  in 
everything  and  confirmed  his  authority  and  privileges. 
The  incriminations,  however,  continued,  and  charges 
were  made  of  nepotism  and  spoliation  of  royal  revenue. 
There  was  probably  some  foundation  for  Uiese  charges, 
though  also  much  wilful  misrepresentation.  Unable 
to  ascertain  the  true  condition  of  affairs,  the  sovereign 
finally  decided  to  send  to  the  Indies  a  special  commis- 
sioner to  investigate  and  report.  Their  choice  fell 
upon  Juan  de  Aguado  who  had  gone  with  Columbus  on 
his  first  voyage  and  with  whom  he  always  had  been  on 
friendly  terms.  Aeuado  arrived  at  Isabella  in  Octo- 
ber, 1495,  while  Columbus  was  absent  on  a  journey  of 
exploration  across  the  island.  No  clash  appears  to 
have  occurred  between  Aguado  and  Bartholomew  Col- 
umbus, who  was  in  charge  of  the  colony  during  his 


SOME  PORTRAITS  OF  COLUMBUS 

NAVAL    MUSEUM,  MADRID  (PAINTER  UNKNOWN THE  CEVASCO  PORTRAIT,  GENOA 

SEVILLE,   1504) 
MADRID,  THE  KING's  LIBRARY  (aNTONIO  DEL  UFFIZI  G  \LLERY.  FLORENCE 

rincon) 

THE  SO-CALLED  "  DE  ERY"  PORTRAIT  (VERSAILLES)  MARBLE  BUST.   PINACOTHECA,  ROME 


OOLUMBXTSn 


145 


OOLUMBtrS 


brother's  abeence,  much  less  with  the  admiral  himself 
u{)on  the  latter's  retmn.  Soon  after,  reports  of  im- 
portant gold  dkcoveries  came  from  a  remote  quarter 
of  the  island  accompanied  bv  specimens.  The  arrival 
of  Aguado  convinced  CoIimiDus  of  the  necessity  for  his 
appearance  in  Spain  and  that  new  discoveries  of  gold 
would  strengthen  his  position  there.  So  he  fitted  out 
two  ships,  one  for  himself  and  one  for  A^ado,  placing 
in  them  two  hundred  dissatisfied  colonists,  a  captive 
Indian  chief  (who  died  on  the  voyage),  and  thirty  In- 
dian prisoners,  and  set  sail  for  Spain  on  10  March, 
1496,  leaving  his  brother  Bartholomew  at  Isabella  as 
temporary  governor.  As  intercourse  between  Spain 
and  the  Indies  was  now  carried  on  at  almost  regular  in- 
tervals Bartholomew  was  in  communication  with  the 
mother  country  and  was  at  least  tacitly  recognized  as 
his  brother's  substitute  in  the  government  of  the  In- 
dies.    Columbus  reached  Cadiz  11  June,  1496. 

The  story  of  his  landing  is  quite  dramatic.  He  is  re- 
ported to  have  gone  ashore,  clothed  in  the  Franciscan 
garb,  and  to  have  manifested  a  dejection  which  was 
wholly  uncalled  for.  His  health,  it  is  true,  was  greatly 
impaired,  and  his  companions  bore  the  marks  of  great 
physical  suffering.  The  impression  created  by  their 
appearance  was  of  course  not  favourable  and  tended  to 
confirm  the  reports  of  the  opponents  of  Columbus 
about  the  nature  of  the  new  country.  This,  as  well  as 
the  disappointizig  results  of  the  search  for  precious 
metals,  aid  not  rail  to  have  its  influence.  The  mon- 
archs  saw  that  the  first  enthusiastic  reports  had  been 
exaggerated  and  that  the  enterprise  while  possibly 
lucrative  in  the  end,  would  entau  large  expenditures 
for  some  time  to  come.  Bishop  Fonseca,  who  was  at 
the  head  of  colonial  affairs,  urged  that  great  caution 
should  be  exercised.  What  was  imputed  to  Bishop 
Fonseca  as  jealousy  was  only  the  sincere  desire  of  an 
honest  functionary  to  guard  the  interests  of  the  Crown 
without  blocking  the  way  of  an  enthusiastic  but  some- 
what visionary  genius  who  had  been  unsuccessful  as  an 
administrator.  Later  expressions  ( 1 506)  of  Columbus 
indicate  that  his  personal  relations  to  Fonseca  were  at 
the  time  far  from  unfriendly.  But  the  fact  that  Col- 
umbus had  proposed  the  enslaving  of  American  na- 
tives and  actually  sent  a  number  of  them  over  to  Spain 
had  alienated  the  sympathy  of  the  queen  to  a  certain 
d^ree,  and  thus  weakened  his  position  at  court. 

Nevertheless,  it  was  not  difficult  for  Coliunbus  to  or- 
ganize a  third  expedition.  Columbus  started  on  his 
third  V(mige  from  Seville  \rtth  six  vessels  on  30  May, 
1498.  He  directed  his  course  more  southward  than 
before,  owing  to  reports  of  a  great  land  lying  west  and 
south  of  the  Antilles  and  his  belief  that  it  was  the  con- 
tinent of  Asia.  He  touched  at  the  Island  of  Madeira, 
and  later  at  Gomera,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands  (q.  v.); 
whence  he  sent  to  Haiti  three  vessels.  Sailing  south- 
ward, he  went  to  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  and,  turning 
tli»»nce  almost  due  west,  arrived  on  31  July,  1498,  in 
sight  of  what  is  now  the  Island  of  Trinidad  which  was 
so  named  by  him.  Opposite,  on  the  other  side  of  a 
turbulent  channel,  lay  the  lowlands  of  north-eastern 
South  America.  Alarmed  by  the  turmoil  caused  by 
the  meeting  of  the  waters  of  the  Orinoco  (which  emp- 
ties through  several  channels  into  the  Atlantic  oppo- 
site Trinidad)  with  the  Guiana  current,  Columous 
kept  close  to  the  southern  shore  of  Trinidad  as  far  as 
its  south-western  extremity,  where  he  found  the  water 
still  more  turbulent.  He  therefore  gave  that  place 
the  name  of  Boca  del  Drago,  or  Dragon's  Mouth.  Be- 
fore venturing  into  the  seething  waters  Columbus 
crossed  over  to  the  mainland  and  cast  anchor.  He 
was  under  the  impression  that  this  was  an  island,  but  a 
vast  stream  of  fresh  water  gave  evidence  of  a  conti- 
nent. Columbus  landed,  he  and  his  crew  being  thus 
^e  first  Europeans  to  set  foot  on  South  American  soil. 
The  natives  were  friendly  and  gladly  exchanged  pearls 
for  European  trinkets.  This  discovery  of  pearls  in 
American  waters  was  important  and  very  welcome. 
IV.— 10 


A  few  days  later  the  admiral,  settine  sail  again,  was 
borne  by  the  currents  safely  to  the  Island  ofMargar- 
ita,  where  he  found  the  natives  fishing  for  pearls,  of 
which  he  obtained  three  bags  by  barter. 

Some  of  the  letters  of  Columbus  concerning  his  third 
voyage  are  written  in  a  tone  of  despondency.  Owing 
to  nis  physical  condition,  he  viewed  things  with  a  dis^ 
content  far  from  justifiable.  And,  as  already  said,  bis 
views  of  the  geographical  situation  were  somewhat 
fanciful.  The  ereat  outpour  opposite  Trinidad  he 
justly  attributed  to  the  emptying  of  a  mighty  river 
coming  from  the  west,  a  river,  so  large  that  only  a  con^ 
tinent  could  afford  it  space.  In  this  he  was  right,  but 
in  his  eyes  that  continent  was  Asia,  and  the  sources  of 
that  river  must  be  on  the  highest  point  of  the  ^obe« 
He  was  confirmed  in  this  idea  by  his  belief  that  Trini- 
dad was  nearer  the  Eauator  than  it  actually  is  and 
that  near  the  Equator  the  highest  land  on  earth  should 
be  found.  He  thought  also  that  the  sources  of  the 
Orinoco  lay  in  the  Earthly  Paradise  and  that  the  great 
river  was  one  of  the  four  streams  that  according  to 
Scripture  flowed  from  the  Garden  of  Eden.  He  had 
no  accurate  knowledge  of  the  form  of  the  earth,  and 
conjectured  that  it  was  pear-shaped. 

Chi  15  August,  fearing  a  lack  of  supplies,  and  suffer 
ing  severely  from  what  his  biographers  call  gout  and 
from  impaired  eyesight,  he  left  his  new  discoveries  and 
steered  for  Haiti.  On  19  August  he  sighted  that  is- 
land some  distance  west  of  where  the  present  capital  of 
the  Republic  of  Santo  Domingo  now  stands.  During 
his  absence  his  brother  Bartholomew  had  abandoned 
Isabella  and  established  his  head-quarters  at  Santo 
Domingo  so  called  after  his  father  Domenico.  During 
the  absence  of  Columbus  events  on  Haiti  had  been  far 
from  satisfactory.  His  brother  Bartholomew,  who 
was  then  known  as  the  adelantado,  had  to  cont^end 
with  several  Indian  outbreaks,  which  he  subdued 
partly  by  force,  partly  by  wise  temporizing.  These 
outbreaks  were,  at  least  in  part,  due  to  a  chan^  in  the 
class  of  settlers  by  whom  the  colony  was  reinforced. 
The  results  of  the  first  settlement  far  from  justified  the 
buoyant  hopes  based  on  the  exaggerated  reports  of  the 
first  voyage,  and  the  pendulum  of  public  opinion 
swun^  back  to  the  opposite  extreme.  The  clamour  of 
opposition  to  Columbus  in  the  colonies  and  the  dis- 
couraging reports  greatly  increased  in  Spain  the 
disappointment  with  the  new  territorial  acquisitions. 
That  the  climate  was  not  healthful  seemed  proved  by 
the  appearance  of  Columbus  and  his  companions  on 
his  return  from  the  second  voyage.  Hence  no  one 
was  willing  to  go  to  the  newly  discovered  country,  and 
convicts,  suspects,  and  doubtful  characters  in  general 
who  were  glad  to  escape  the  regulations  of  justice  were 
the  only  reinforcements  that  could  be  obtained  for  the 
colony  on  Hispaniola.  As  a  result  there  were  con- 
flicts with  the  aborigines,  sedition  in  the  colony,  and 
finally  open  rebellion  against  the  authority  of  the  ade- 
lantado and  his  brother  Die^.  Columbus  and  his 
brothers  were  Italians,  and  this  fact  told  against  them 
among  the  malcontents  and  lower  officials,  but  that  it 
influenced  the  monarchs  and  the  court  authorities  is  a 
gratuitous  charge. 

As  long  as  they  had  not  a  common  leader  Bartholo- 
mew had  little  to  fear  from  the  malcontents,  who  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  colony,  and  formed  a  settle- 
ment apart.  They  abused  the  Indians,  thus  causing 
almost  uninterrupted  trouble.  However,  they  soon 
found  a  leader  in  the  person  of  one  Roldan,  to  whom 
the  admiral  had  entrusted  a  prominent  office  in  the 
colony.  There  must  have  been  some  cause  for  com- 
plaint against  the  government  of  Bartholomew  and 
Diego,  else  Roldan  could  not  have  so  increased  the 
number  of  his  followers  as  to  make  himself  fonnidabl* 
to  the  brothers,  undermining  their  authority  at  their 
own  head-quarters  and  even  among  the  garrison  of 
Santo  Domingo.  Bartholomew  was  forced  to  com- 
promise on  unfavourable  terms.    So,  when  tha  ad- 


OOLUMBUS 


146 


OOLUMBUS 


miral  arrived  from  Spain  he  found  the  Spanish  settlers 
on  Haiti  divided  into  two  camps,  the  stronger  of 
which,  headed  by  Roldan,  was  hostile  to  his  authority. 
That  Koldan  was  an  utterly  unprincipled  man,  but 
energetic  and  above  all,  shrewd  and  artful,  appears 
from  the  following  incident.  Soon  after  the  amval  of 
Columbus  the  three  caravels  he  had  sent  from  Gomera 
with  stores  and  ammunition  struck  the  Haitian  coast 
where  Roldan  had  established  himself.  The  latter 
represented  to  the  commanders  of  the  vessels  that  he 
was  there  by  Columbus's  authority  and  easily  obtained 
from  them  military  stores  as  well  as  reinforcements  in 
men.  On  their  arrival  shortly  afterwards  at  Santo 
Domingo  the  caravels  were  sent  back  to  Spain  by  Col- 
umbus. Alarmed  at  the  condition  of  anairs  and  his 
own  impotence,  he  informed  the  monarchs  of  his  criti- 
cal situation  and  asked  for  immediate  help.  Then  he 
entered  into  negotiations  with  Roldan.  The  latter 
not  only  held  fim  control  in  the  settlement  which  he 
commanded,  but  had  the  sympathy  of  most  of  themili- 


Vessel  on  Dry  Dock 
(End  of  fifteenth  century) 

tary  garrisons  that  Columbus  and  his  brothers  relied 
upon  as  well  as  of  the  majority  of  the  colonists.  How 
Columbus  and  his  brother  could  have  made  them- 
selves so  unpopular  is  explained  in  various  ways. 
There  was  certainly  much  unjustifiable  ill  will  against 
t^em,  but  there  was  also  legitimate  cause  for  discon- 
tent, which  was  adroitly  exploited  by  Roldan  and  his 
followers. 

Seeing  himself  almost  powerless  against  his  oppo- 
nents on  the  island,  the  admiral  stooped  to  a  compro- 
mise. Roldan  finally  imposed  his  own  conditions. 
He  was  reinstated  in  his  office  and  all  offenders  were 
pardoned;  and  a  number  of  them  returned  to  Santo 
Dominffo.  Columbus  also  freed  manv  of  the  Indian 
tribes  m>m  tribute,  but  in  order  still  further  to  ap- 
pease the  former  mutineers,  he  instituted  the  system 
of  repartimienloSy  by  which  not  only  grants  of  land  were 
made  to  the  whites,  but  the  Indians  holding  these  lands 
or  living  on  them  were  made  perpetual  serfs  to  the 
new  owners,  and  full  jurisdiction  over  life  and  prop- 
erty of  these  Indians  became  vested  in  the  white  set- 
tlers. This  measure  had  the  most  disastrous  effect  on 
the  aborigines,  and  Columbus  has  been  severely  blamed 
for  it,  but  he  was  then  in  such  straits  that  he  had  to  go 
to  any  extreme  to  pacify  his  opponents  until  assistance 
could  reach  him  from  Spain.  By  the  middle  of  the 
year  1500  peace  apparently  reigned  again  in  the  col- 
ony, though  largely  at  the  expense  of  tne  prestige  and 
authority  of  Columbus. 

Meanwhile  reports  and  accusations  had  reached  the 
court  of  Spain  from  both  parties  in  Haiti.  It  became 
constantly  more  evident  that  Columbus  was  no  longer 
master  of  the  situation  in  the  Indies,  and  that  some 
steps'  were  necessary  to  save  the  situation.  It  might 
be  said  that  the  Court  had  merely  to  support  Colitm- 
bus  whether  right  or  wrong.  But  the  West  Indian 
colony  had  grown,  and  its  settlers  had  their  connex- 
ions and  supporters  in  Spain,  who  claimed  some  atten- 
tion and  prudent  consideration.    The  clergy  wlio  were 


familiar  with  the  circumstances  through  personal  eX' 
perience  for  the  most  part  disapproved  of  the  manage- 
ment of  affairs  by  Columbus  ana  his  brothers.  Queen 
Isabella's  irritation  at  the  sending  of  Indian  captives 
for  sale  as  slaves  had  by  this  time  been  allayed  by  a 
reminder  of  the  custom  tnen  in  vo^ue  of  enslaving  cap- 
tive rebels  or  prisoners  of  war  addicted  to  speciaSy  in- 
human customs,  as  was  the  case  with  the  Csjibs. 
Anxious  to  be  just,  the  monarchs  decided  upon  send- 
ing to  Haiti  an  officer  to  investigate  and  to  punish  all 
offenders.  This  visUador  was  invested  with  full  pow- 
ers, and  was  to  have  the  same  authority  as  the  monarchs 
themselves  for  the  time  being,  superaeding  Columbus 
himself,  though  the  latter  was  Viceroy  of  the  Indies. 
The  visita  was  a  mode  of  procedure  employed  by  the 
Spanish  monarchs  for  the  adjustment  of  critical  mat- 
ters, chiefly  in  the  colonies.  The  visitador  was  selected 
irrespective  of  rank  or  office,  solely  from  the  standpoint 
of  fitness,  and  not  infrequently  his  mission  was  kept 
secret  from  the  viceroy  or  other  high  official  whose  con- 
duct he  was  sent  to  investigate ;  there  are  indications 
that  sometimes  he  had  summary  power  over  life  and 
death.  A  visita  was  a  much  dreaded  measure,  and  for 
very  good  reasons. 

Tne  investigation  in  the  West  Indies  was  not  called 
a  visita  at  the  time,  but  such  it  was  in  fact.  The  visi- 
tador chosen  was  Francisco  de  Bobadilla,  of  whom  both 
Las  Casas  and  Oviedo  (friends  and  admirers  of  Colum- 
bus) speak  in  favourable  terms.  His  instructions 
were,  as  his  office  required,  general,  and  his  faculties,  of 
course,  discretionary ;  there  is  no  need  of  supposing  se- 
cret orders  inimical  to  Columbus  to  explain  what  after- 
wards happened.  The  admiral  was  directed,  in  a  letter 
addressee  to  him  and  entrusted  to  Bobadilla,  to  turn 
over  to  the  latter,  at  least  temporarily,  the  forts  and  all 
public  property  on  the  island.  No  blame  can  be  at- 
tached to  the  monarchs  for  this  measure.  After  an  ex- 
perimei\^  of  five  years  the  administrative  capacity  of 
Columbus  had  failed  to  prove  satisfactory.  Yet,  the 
vice-regal  power  had  been  vested  in  him  as  an  hereditary 
right.  To  continue  adhering  to  that  clause  of  the  ori- 
ginal contract  was  irnpracticable,  since  the  colony  re- 
fused to  pay  heed  to  Columbus  and  his  orders.  Hence 
the  suspension  of  the  viceregal  authority  of  Columbus 
was  Indefinitely  prolonged,  so  that  the  office  was  re- 
duced to  a  mere  title  and  finally  fell  into  disuse.  The 
curtailment  of  revenue  resulting  from  it  was  compara- 
tively small,  as  all  the  emoluments  proceeding  from 
his  other  titles  and  prerogatives  were  left  untouched. 
The  tale  of  his  being  reduced  to  indigence  is  a  baseless 
fabrication. 

A  man  suddenly  clothed  with  unusual  and  discre- 
tionary faculties  is  liable  to  be  led  astray  by  unex- 
pectea  circumstances  and  tempted  to  ^o  to  extremes. 
Bobadilla  had  a  right  to  expect  implicit  obedience  to 
royal  orders  on  the  part  of  all  and,  above  all,  from  Col- 
umbus as  the  chief  servant  of  the  Crown.  When  on  24 
August,  1500,  Bobadilla  landed  at  Santo  Doming^  and 
demanded  of  Diego  Columbus  compliance  wiui  the 
royal  orders,  the  latter  declined  to  obey  until  directed 
by  the  admiral  who  was  then  absent.  Bobadilla,  pos- 
sibly predisposed  asainst  Columbus  and  his  brotners 
by  the  reports  of  others  and  by  the  sight  of  the  bodies 
of  Spaniards  dangling  from  gibbets  in  full  view  of  the 
port,  considered  the  refusal  of  Diego  as  an  act  of  direct 
insubordination.  The  action  of  Diego  was  certainly 
unwise  and  gave  colour  to  an  assumption  that  Colum- 
bus and  his  orothers  considered  themselves  masters  of 
the  country.  This  Implied  rebelUon  and  furnished  a 
pretext  to  Bobadilla  for  measures  unjustifiably  harsh. 
As  visitador  he  had  absolute  authority  to  do  as  he 
thought  best,  especially  against  the  rebels,  of  whom 
Columbus  appeared  in  his  eyes  as  the  chief. 

Within  a  few  days  after  the  landing  of  Bobadilla, 
Diego  and  Bartholomew  Columbus  were  imprisoned 
and  put  in  irons.  The  admiral  himself,  who  returned 
with  the  greatest  possible  speed,  shared  their  fate. 


COLUMBUS 


147 


OQLUMBUS 


The  three  brothers  were  separated  and  kept  m  close 
confinement,  but  they  could  hear  from  their  cells  the 
imprecations  of  the  i)eople  against  their  rule.  Boba- 
dilla  charged  them  with  being  rebeUious  subjects  and 
seized  their  private  property  to  pay  their  personal 
debts.  He  liberated  prisoners,  reduced  or  aoolished 
imposts,  in  short  did  all  he  could  to  place  the  new  order 
of  things  in  favourable  contrast  to  the  previous  man- 
agement.  No  explanation  was  offered  to  Columbus 
for  the  harsh  treatment  to  which  he  was  subiected,  for 
a  visitador  had  only  to  render  account  to  the  king  or 
according  to  his  special  orders.  Early  in  October, 
1500,  the  three  brothers,  still  in  fetters,  were  placed  on 
board  ship,  and  sent  to  Spain,  arriving  at  Cadiz  at  the 
end  of  tne  month.  Their  treatment  while  aboard 
seems  to  have  been  considerate;  Villejo,  the  comman- 
der, offered  to  remove  the  manacles  from  Columbus's 
hands  and  reUeve  him  from  the  chains,  an  offer,  how- 
ever, which  Columbus  refused  to  accept.  It  seems, 
nevertheless,  that  he  did  not  remain  manacled,  else  he 
could  not  have  written  the  long  and  piteous  letter  to 
the  nurse  of  Prince  Juan,  recounting  his  misfortunes 
on  the  vessel.  He  dispatched  this  letter  to  the  court 
at  Granada  before  the  reports  of  Bobadilla  were  sent. 

The  news  of  the  arrival  of  Columbus  as  a  prisoner 
was  received  with  unfeigned  indignation  by  tne  mon- 
archs,  who  ssiw  that  their  agent  BobadiUa  had  abused 
the  trust  placed  in  him.  The  people  also  saw  the  injus- 
tice, and  everything  was  done  to  relieve  Columbus  from 
his  humiliating  condition  and  assure  him  of  the  royal 
favour,  that  is,  everything  except  to  reinstate  him  as 
Governor  of  ^e  Indies.  This  fact  is  mainlv  responsi- 
ble for  the  accusation  of  duplicity  and  treachery  which 
is  made  against  King  Ferdinand.  Critics  overlook  the 
fact  that  m  addition  to  the  reasons  alreadv  mentioned 
no  new  colonists  could  be  obtained  from  Spain,  if  Col- 
umbus were  to  continue  in  office,  and  that  the  expedi- 
ent of  sending  convicts  to  Haiti  had  failed  disastrously. 
Moreover,  the  removal  of  Columbus  was  practicaUv  im- 
plied in  the  instructions  and  powers  given  to  Boba- 
dilla, and  the  conduct  of  the  aomiral  dunne  Aguado's 
mission  left  no  room  for  doubt  that  he  would  submit  to 
the  second  investigation.  He  would  have  done  so,  but 
Bobadilla,  anxious  to  make  a  display  and  angered  at 
the  delay  of  Diego  Columbus,  exceeded  the  spirit  of  his 
instructions,  expecting  thereby  to  rise  in  royal  as  well 
as  in  popular  favour. 

In  r^ard  to  the  former  he  soon  found  out  his  mis- 
take. His  successor  in  the  governorship  of  Haiti  was 
soon  appointed  in  the  person  of  Nicolas  de  Ovando. 
Bobadula  was  condemned  to  restore  to  Columbus  the 

Erty  he  had  sequestered,  and  was  recalled.  The 
t  fleet  sent  to  the  Indies  up  to  that  time  sailed 
Ovando  on  13  February,  1502.  It  is  not  withr 
out  significance  that  2500  people,  some  of  high  rank, 
flockeid  to  the  vessels  that  were  to  transport  the  new 
governor  to  the  Indies.  This  shows  that  with  the 
change  in  l^e  administration  of  the  colony  faith  in  its 
future  was  restored  among  the  Spanish  people. 

By  this  time  the  mental  condition  of  Columbus  had 
become  greatly  impaired.  While  at  court  for  ei^teen 
months  vainly  attempting  to  obtain  his  restoration  to 
a  position  for  which  ne  was  becoming  more  and  more 
unfitted,  he  was  planning  new  schemes.  Convinced 
that  his  third  voyage  had  brought  him  nearer  to  Asia,  he 
proposed  to  the  monarchs  a  project  to  recover  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  by  the  western  route,  that  would  have  led 
him  across  South  America  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  He 
fancied  that  the  lai^ge  river  he  had  discovered  west  of 
'I^rinidad  flowed  in  a  direction  opposite  to  its  real 
course,  and  thought  ^at  by  following  it  he  could  reach 
the  Red  Sea  andwence  cross  over  U)  Jerusalem.  So 
preoccupied  was  he  with  these  ideas  that  he  made  ar- 
I'&Deements  for  depositing  part  of  his  revenue  with  the 
t'&QK  of  Genoa  to  be  used  m  the  reconquest  of  the  Holv 
I^&nd.  This  alone  disposes  of  the  allegation  that  Col- 
*        as  left  without  resources  after  his  liberation 


from  captivity.  He  was  enabled  to  maintain  a  posi- 
tion at  court  corresponding  to  his  exalted  rank,  and 
favours  and  privileges  were  bestowed  on  both  of  his 
sons.  The  project  of  testing  the  views  of  Columbus  in 
regard  to  direct  communication  with  Asia  was  seri- 
ously considered,  and  finally  a  fourth  voyage  of  ex- 
ploration at  the  expense  of  the  Spanish  Government 
was  conceded  to  Columbus.  That  there  were  some 
misgiving  in  regard  to  his  physical  and  mental  condi- 
tion is  intimatedfby  the  fact  that  he  was  given  as  com- 
§  anions  his  brother  Bartholomew,  who  had  great  in- 
uence  with  him,  and  his  favourite  son  Fernando. 
Four  vessels  carrying,  besides  these  three  and  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Crown  to  receive  any  treasure  that 
might  be  found,  about  150  men,  set  sail  from  San 
Lucar  early  in  May,  1502.  Columbus  was  enjoined 
not  to  stop  at  Haiti,  a  wise  measure,  for  had  the  ad- 
miral landed  there  so  soon  after  the  arrival  of  Ovando, 
there  would  have  been  danger  of  new  disturbances. 


OcBjQ}  Boat,  End  op  Fifteenth  Century 
(Contemporaneous  wood-engraving) 

Disobeving  these  instructions,  Columbus  attempted  to 
enter  tne  port  of  Santo  Domingo,  but  was  refused  ad- 
mission. He  gave  proof  of  his  Knowledge  and  experi- 
ence as  a  mariner  by  warning  Ovando  ofan  approach- 
ing hurricane,  but  was  not  listened  to.  He  nimself 
sheltered  his  vessels  at  some  distance  from  the  har- 
bour. The  punishment  for  disregarding  the  friendly 
warning  came  swiftly;  the  large  fleet  which  had 
brought  Ovando  over  was,  on  sauing  for  Spain,  over- 
taken by  the  tempest,  and  twenty  ships  were  lost,  with 
them  Bobadilla,  Roldan,  and  the  cold  destined  for  the 
Crown.  The  admiral's  share  in  the  gold  obtained  on 
Haiti,  four  thousand  pieces  directly  sent  to  him  by  his 
representative  on  the  island,  was  not  lost,  and  on  be- 
ing delivered  in  Spain,  was  not  confiscated.  Hence  it 
is  difficult  to  see  how  Columbus  could  have  been  in 
need  during  the  last  years  of  his  life. 

The  vessels  of  Columbus  having  suffered  compara,- 
tively  Httle  from  the  tempest,  he  left  the  coast  of  Haiti 
in  July,  1502,  and  was  carried  by  wind  and  current  to 
the  coast  of  Honduras.  From  30  July,  1502,  to  the 
end  of  the  following  April  he  coasted  Central  America 
beyond  Colon  to  Cape  Tiburon  on  the  South  American 
Continent.  On  his  frequent  landings  he  found  traces 
of  gold,  heard  reports  of  more  civilized  tribes  of  na- 
tives farther  inland,  and  persistent  statements  about 
another  ocean  lying  west  and  south  of  the  land  he  was 
coasting,  the  latter  being  represented  to  him  as  a  nar- 
row strip  dividing  two  vast  seas.    The  mental  condi- 


OOLUMBtTS 


148 


OOLtTMBirS 


tion  of  Columbus,  coupled  with  his  physical  disabili- 
ties, prevented  him  from  interpreting  these  important 
indications  otherwise  than  as  confirmations  of  his 
vague  theories  and  fatal  visions.  Instead  of  sending 
an  exploring  party  across  the  isthmus  to  satisfy  him- 
self oi  the  truth  of  these  reports,  he  accepted  this  tes- 
timony to  the  existence  of  a  sea  beyond,  which  he 
firmly  believed  to  be  the  Indian  Ocean,  basing  his  con- 
fidence on  a  dream  in  which  he  had  seen  a  strait  he 
supposed  to  be  the  Strait  of  Malacca.  As  his  crews 
were  exasperated  by  the  hardships  and  deceptions,  his 
ships  worm-eaten,  and  he  himself  emaciated,  he 
turned  back  towards  Haiti  with  what  he  thought  to  be 


Monument  to  Columbus.  Genoa  (Canuo.  1862). 

the  tidings  of  a  near  approach  to  the  Asiatic  continent. 
It  had  been  a  disastrous  voyage;  violent  storms  con- 
tinuously harassed  the  little  sauadron,  two  ships  had 
been  lost,  and  the  treasure  obtained  far  from  com- 
pensated for  the  toil  and  suffering  endured.  This  was 
all  the  more  exasperating  when  it  became  evident  that 
a  much  richer  reward  could  be  obtained  by  penetrating 
inland,  to  which,  however,  Columbus  would  not  or 
perhaps  could  not  consent. 

On  23  June,  1503,  Colimibus  and  his  men,  crowded 
on  two  almost  sinking  caravels,  finally  landed  on  the 
inhospitable  coast  of  Jamaica.  After  dismantling  his 
useless  craft,  and  using  the  material  for  temporary 
shelter,  he  sent  a  boat  to  Haiti  to  ask  for  assistance 
and  to  dispatch  thence  to  Spain  a  vessel  with  ajpitifid 
letter  ^vmg  a  fantastic  accoimt  of  his  sufferings 
which  m  itself  cave  evidence  of  an  over-excited  and 
disordered  mind. 

Ovando  to  whom  Columbus's  request  for  help  was 
delivered  at  Jaragua  (Haiti)  cannot  be  acquitted  of 
imjustifiable  delay  in  sending  assistance  to  the  ship- 
wrecked and  forsaken  admiral.  There  is  no  founda- 
tion for  assimiing  that  he  acted  mider  the  orders  or  in 
accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  sovereigns.    Colum- 


bus had  become  useless,  the  colonists  in  Haiti  would 
not  tolerate  his  presence  there.  The  only  practical 
course  was  to  take  him  back  to  Spain  directly  and  re- 
move him  forever  from  the  lands  the  discovery  of 
which  had  made  him  immortal.  In  spite  of  his  man^ 
sufferings,  Columbus  was  not  utterly  helpless.  His 
greatest  trouble  came  from  the  mutinous  spirit  of  his 
men  who  roamed  about,  plundering  and  maltreating 
the  natives,  who,  in  consequence,  became  hostile  and 
refused  to  furnish  supplies.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon 
predicted  by  Columbus  finally  brought  them  to  terms 
and  thus  prevented  starvation.  Ovando,  though  in- 
formed of  the  admirars  critical  condition,  did  nothing 
for  his  relief  except  to  permit  Columbus's  representa- 
tive in  Haiti  to  fit  out  a  caravel  with  stores  at  the  ad- 
miral's expense  and  send  it  to  Jamaica;  but  even  this 
tardy  relief  did  not  reach  Columbus  until  June,  1504. 
He  also  permitted  Mendez,  who  had  been  the  chief 
messenger  of  Columbus  to  Haiti,  to  take  passage  for 
Spain,  where  he  was  to  inform  the  sovereignis  of  the  ad- 
miral's forlorn  condition.  There  seems  to  be  no  ex- 
cuse for  the  conduct  of  Ovando  on  this  occasion.  The 
relief  expedition  finally  organized  in  Haiti,  after  a 
tedious  and  somewhat  dangerous  voyage,  landed  the 
admiral  and  his  companions  in  Spam,  7  November, 
1504. 

A  few  weeks  later  Queen  Isabella  died,  and  grave 
difficulties  beset  the  king.  Columbus,  now  in  very 
feeble  health,  remained  at  Seville  until  May,  1505, 
when  he  was  at  last  able  to  attend  court  at  Valladolid. 
His  reception  by  the  kin^  was  decorous,  but  without 
warmth.  His  importunities  to  be  restored  to  his  posi- 
tion as  governor  were  put  off  with  future  promises  of 
redress,  but  no  immediate  steps  were  taken.  The 
story  of  the  utter  destitution  in  which  the  admiral  is 
said  to  have  died  is  one  of  the  many  legends  with  which 
his  biography  has  been  distorted.  Columbus  is  said  to 
have  b^n  buried  at  Valladolid.  His  son  Diego  is  au- 
thority for  the  statement  that  his  remains  were  buried  in 
the  Carthusian  Convent  of  Las  Cuevas,  Seville,  within 
three  years  after  his  death.  According  to  the  records 
of  the  convent,  the  remains  were  given  up  for  trans- 
portation to  Haiti  in  1536,  though  other  documents 
place  this  event  in  1537.  It  is  conjectured,  however, 
that  the  removal  did  not  take  place  till  1541,  when  the 
cathedral  of  Santo  Doming  was  completed,  though 
there  are  no  records  of  this  entombment.  When,  m 
1795,  Haiti  passed  imder  French  control,  Spanish  au- 
thorities removed  the  supposed  remains  of  Columbus 
to  Havana.  On  the  occupation  of  Cuba  by  the  United 
States  they  were  once  more  removed  to  Seville  (1898). 

Columbus  was  unquestionably  a  man  of  genius.  He 
was  a  bold,  skilful  navigator,  better  acquainted  with 
the  principles  of  cosmography  and  astronomy  than  the 
average  skipper  of  his  time,  a  man  of  original  ideas, 
fertile  in  his  plans,  and  persistent  in  carrying  them 
into  execution.  The  impression  he  made  on  those 
with  whom  he  came  in  contact  even  in  the  days  of  his 
poverty,  such  as  Fray  Juan  Perez,  the  treasurer  Luis 
de  Santangel,  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  and  Queen 
Isabella  herself,  shows  that  he  had  great  powers  of 

girsuasion  and  was  possessed  of  personal  magnetism, 
is  success  in  overcoming  the  obstacles  to  his  expedi- 
tions and  surmounting  the  difficulties  of  his  voyages 
exhibit  him  as  a  man  of  unusual  resources  and  of  un- 
flinching determination.  Columbus  was  also  of  a 
deeply  religious  nature.  Whatever  influence  scientific 
theories  and  the  ambition  for  fame  and  wealth  may 
have  had  over  him,  in  advocating  his  enterprise  he 
never  failed  to  insist  on  the  conversion  of  the  pagan 
peoples  that  he  would  discover  as  one  of  the  primary 
objects  of  his  undertaking.  Even  when  clouds  had 
settled  over  his  career,  after  his  return  as  a  prisoner 
from  the  lands  he  had  discovered,  he  was  ready  to  de- 
vote all  his  possessions  and  the  remaining  years  of  his 
life  to  set  sail  again  for  the  purpose  of  rescuing  Christ's 
Sepulchre  from  the  hands  of  the  infidel. 


OOLUMBUS 


149 


OOLUMBUS 


Other  members  of  the  Columbus  family  also  ac- 
quired fame: — 

Diego,  the  first  son  of  Christopher  and  heir  to  his 
titles  and  prerogatives,  was  b.  at  Lisbon,  1476,  and  d. 
at  Montalvan,  near  Toledo,  23  February,  1526.  He 
was  made  a  page  to  Queen  Isabella  in  1492,  and  re- 
mained at  court  until  1508.  Having  obtained  confir- 
mation of  t^e  privileges  originally  conceded  to  his 
father  (the  title  of  viceroy  of  the  newly  discovered 
countries  excepted)  he  went  to  Santo  Domingo  in 
1509  as  Admiral  of  the  Indies  and  Governor  of  Hispani- 
oLa.  The  authority  of  Diego  Velazquez  as  governor, 
however,  had  become  too  firmly  established,  and 
Diego  was  met  by  open  and  secret  opposition,  especi- 
ally from  the  royal  Audienda.  Visiting  Spain  in  1520 
he  was  favourably  received  and  new  honours  bestowed 
upon  him.  However,  in  1523,  he  had  to  return  again 
to  Spain  to  answer  charges  against  him.  The  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  taken  up  by  the  suit  of  the  heirs 
of  Columbus  against  the  royal  treasury,  a  memorable 
legal  contest  only  terminated  in  1564.  Di^o  seems  to 
have  been  a  man  of  no  extraordinary  attainments,  but 
of  considerable  tenacity  of  character. 

Ferdinand,  better  known  as  Fernando  Colon, 
second  son  of  Christopher,  by  Dofia  Beatrix  Enriquez, 
a  lady  of  a  noble  family  of  Cordova  in  Spain,  was 
b.  at  Cordova,  15  August,  1488;  d.  at  Seville, 
12  July,  1539.  As  he  was  naturally  far  more 
gifted  than  his  half-brother  Diego,  he  was  a  fa- 
vourite with  his  father,  whom  he  accompanied  on 
the  last  voya^.  As  early  as  1498  Queen  Isabella 
had  made  him  one  of  her  pages  and  Columbus 
in  his  will  (1505)  left  him  an  ample  income,  which 
was  subs«iuently  increased  by  royal  grants.  Fer- 
nando had  decided  literary  tastes  and  wrote  well  in 
Spanish.  While  it  is  stated  that  he  wrote  a  history  of 
the  West  Indies,  there  are  now  extant  only  two  works 
by  him :  **  De8cripci6n  y  cosmograf  f  a  de  Espaiia ' ',  a  de- 
tailed eeo^phical  itinerary  begun  in  1517,  published 
at  Madrid  in  the  "  Boletin  de  la  Real  Sociedad  geogr^ 
fica"  (1906-07) ;  and  the  life  of  the  admiral,  his  father, 
written  about  1534,  the  Spanish  original  of  which  has 
been  lost.  It  was  published  in  an  Italian  translation 
by  Ulloa  in  1571  as  '*  Vita  dell'  ammiraglio",  and  re- 
translated into  Spanish  by  Barcia,  '^Historiadores 
primitivos  de  Indias''  (Madrid,  1749).  As  mieht  be 
expected  this  biography  is  sometimes  partial,  tnoush 
Fernando  often  sides  with  the  Spaiush  monarchs 
agunst  his  father.  Of  the  highest  value  is  the  report 
by  Fray  Roman  Pane  on  the  customs  of  the  Haitian 
Indians  which  is  incorporated  into  the  text.  (See 
Ar A WAKs. )  Fernando  left  to  the  cathedral  chapter  of 
Seville  a  Ubrary  of  20,000  volumes,  a  part  of  which  still 
exists  and  is  known  as  the  Biblioteca  Colombina. 

Bartholomew,  elder  brother  of  Christopher,  b.  pos- 
sibly in  1445at  Genoa;  d.  at  Santo  Domingo,  May,  1515. 
Like  Christopher  he  became  a  seafarer  at  an  early  age. 
After  his  attempts  to  interest  the  Kings  of  France  and 
England  in  his  brother's  projects,  his  life  was  bound 
up  with  that  of  his  brother.  It  was  during  his  time 
that  bloodhounds  were  introduced  into  the  West  In- 
des.  He  was  a  man  of  great  energy  and  some  military 
talent,  uid  during  Christopher's  last  voyage  took  the 
leadership  at  critical  moments.  After  1506  he  prob- 
ably went  to  Rome  and  in  1509  bade  to  the  West  In- 
dies with  his  nephew  Diego. 

DiEOo,  younger  brother  of  Christopher  and  his 
companion  on  the  second  voyage,  b.  probably  at 
Genoa;  d.  at  Santo  Domingo  after  1509.  After  his 
release  from  chains  in  Spain  (1500)  he  became  a 
priest  and  returned  to  the  West  Indies  in  1509. 

Tbe  tract  of  CHBisTonnBR  Columbus.  Dt  prima  in  mari 
Indico  lustraiione,  waa  publiahed  with  the  Bellum  ChruUianorum 
prindpum  of  Robert.  Abbot  of  SAiNT-RiMi  (Basle,  1533). — 
CodioedijAtrnMHcO'Calombo- Americano,  OMta  Racedta  di  docu- 
meTiH  rpeUanH  a  Cr.  Col.,  etc.  (Genoa,  1823);  Anon.,  Cr.  Col. 
otiilato  dei  minority  nella  aeoperia  del  nuovo  mcndo  (Genoa, 
1848);  Sanottinbtti,  Vita  di  Colombo  (Genoa.  1846);  Boasi, 
Yitadi  Cr.Col.  (Milan,  1818);  Qpotorso,  Delia  origine  e  deUa 


patria  di  Cr.  Col.  (Genoa,  1819):  NAVAiiiwrrK.  Cohccum  de  Ina 
viajea  V  deicubrimdenlos  .  . .  desde  fines  del  »iglo  X  V  (Madrid, 
1825),  I,  II:  Avbzac-Macaya,  Annie  veritable  de  la  naisionoe 
de  Chr.  Col.  (Paris,  1873);  Rosblly  de  Lorgnes.  Vie  et 
voyage*  de  Chr.  Col.  (Paris,  1861).  from  which  was  compiled 
by  Ba&bt,  Life  of  Chr.  Col.  (New  York,  1869);  Rosexxy  ob 
LoRG^fEs,  Satan  contre  Chr.  Col.  (Genoa,  1846);  Columbus, 
Ferdinand,  French  tr.  by  MttLLER,  Hist,  de  la  vie  et  dea  dicow 
vertes  de  Chr.  Col.  (Paris,  s.  d.);  Major  (tr.),  Seleet  Letters  of 
Chr.  Col.  (London,  1847  and  1870);  Habribbb,  Fernando  Col&n 
historiador  de  eu  padre  (Seville,  1871);  Vignaud,  La  maiaon 
d^Alba  et  lea  ardiivea  colomlnennea  (Paris,  1904);  Uhagon,  La 
Patria  de  Coldn  aegun  loa  documentca  de  las  ordenea  mUitarea 
(Madrid,  1892);  Uuello  in  Congresao  aeografico  italiano:  Atti 
for  April,  1901,  Tosoanelli,  Colombo  e  Veamicci  (Milan.  1902); 
WiNsoR,  Christopher  Columbus  (Boston,  1891);  Adams,  Christo- 
pher Columbus,  in  Makers  of  America  (New  York,  1892);  Duro, 
Coldn  V  la  Hiatoria  Pdatuma  (Madrid,  1885) ;  ThachBr,  Chria- 
topher  Cciumbua:  Hia  Life,  Hia  Work,  His  Remaina  (3  vols., 
New  York,  1903-1904) :  Irving,  Life  and  Voyagea  of  Christo- 
pher Columbus  C3  vols.,  New  York,  1868) ;  Peter  Martyr,  De 
arbe  naoo  (Aleali,  1530) :  Las  Casas,  Historia  de  las  Indiaa  in 
DocumerUos  para  la  historia  de  Espaiia;  Oviedo,  HvA.  general 
(Madrid,  1850).  The  last  three  authors  had  personal  inter- 
eourse  with  Columbus,  and  their  works  are  the  chief  source  of 
information  eonoeminc  him.  Clarke.  Christopher  Columbus 
in  The  Am.  Cath.  Quart.  Rev.  (1892)  •  Shea.  Columbua,  This  Cen- 
tury* a  Estimate  of  His  Life  and  Work  (ibid.) ;  U.  S.  Cath.  Hist. 
Soc.,  The  Cosmographim  Jntroductio  of  Martin  WaldseemiUler 
(New  York.  1908!i.  ^^    p    Bandelieb. 

Oolumbus  I  Diocese  of. — ^The  Diocese  of  Columbus 
comprises  that  part  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  south  of  40 
degrees  and  41  minutes,  lying  between  the  Ohio  River 
on  the  east  and  the  Scioto  River  on  the  west,  and  also 
the  Counties  of  Delaware,  FrankUn,  and  Morrow, 
twenty-nine  counties  of  the  eighty-eight  into  which 
the  State  of  Ohio  is  divided;  it  contains  13,685  square 
miles.  This  portion  of  the  State  belonged  originally 
to  the  Diocese  of  Cincinnati,  and  was  recommended 
to  Rome  for  erection  as  a  see  by  the  Fathers  of  the 
Second  Plenary  Council,  of  Baltimore,  held  in  1866. 
It  was  not  until  3  March,  1868,  that  the  official  docu- 
ments were  issued  erecting  the  diocese  and  naming  as 
its  first  bishop  Svlvester  ftorton  Rosecrans,  who  had 
been  consecrated  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Cincinnati  arid 
Titular  Bishop  of  Pompeiopolis,  2.5  March,  1862.  The 
portion  of  Ohio  assigned  to  this  diocese  was  in  1868 
to  a  large  extent  but  sparsely  populated;  no  railroad 
had  as  yet  penetrated  some  of  the  counties,  and  the 
bishop  was  forced  to  make  many  of  the  journeys  on 
his  visitations  by  stage,  wagon,  or  steamboat.  The 
Dominican  Fathers  were  the  earliest  missionaries  in 
Ohio,  locating  at  St.  Joseph's,  Perry  County,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  from  their 
number  was  chosen  the  first  Bishop  of  Cincinnati, 
Edward  Fenwick.  The  first  place  of  Catholic  wor- 
ship in  Ohio  was  at  St.  Joseph's,  Perry  County.  This 
chapel  was  built  of  logs  ana  was  ble£»ed  6  December, 
1818,  by  Rev.  Edwarof  Fenwick  and  his  nephew,  Rev. 
N.  D.  Young,  both  natives  of  Maryland,  and  receiving 
their  jurisdiction  from  Bishop  Flaget,  who  was  then 
the  only  bishop  between  the  Alleghenies  and  the  Miss- 
issippi. The  congregation  consisted  of  ten  families. 
An  numble  convent  was  built  near  by,  and  its  inmates 
were  one  American,  N.  D.  Young,  one  Irishman,  Thos. 
Martin,  and  one  Belgian,  Vincent  De  Rymacher.  The 
second  chapel  erected  in  Ohio  was  also  in  this  diocese, 
blessed  in  1822,  near  what  is  now  Danville,  Knox 
County,  then  known  as  Sapp's  Settlement,  a  colony 
from  near  Cumberland,  Maryland,  many  of  its  members 
direct  descendants  of  the  colonists  of  Lord  Baltimore. 
This  chapel  was  built  of  logs  and  was  blessed  by 
Dominican  Fathers  and  the  humble  congregation 
ministered  to  by  them.  Within  a  few  miles  of  this 
second  Catholic  settlement  in  Ohio  is  the  college  town 
of  Gambler,  seat  of  Kenyon  0)llege  and  the  Episcopa- 
lian Seminary  of  the  Diocese  of  Ohio,  over  which  in 
1868  presided,  before  his  conversion.  Dr.  James  Kent 
Stone,  afterwards  Father  Fidelis  of  the  Congregation  of 
St.  Paul  of  the  Cross.  From  its  walls  have  gone  forth 
many  illustrious  men  who  in  after-life  turned  their 
eyes  to  the  Qiurch,  among  them  Bishop  Rosecrans 
and  his  brother,  General  Rosecrans,  Henry  Riohards, 


COLUD^IN 


150 


GOLUMK 


father  of  Rev.  James  Havens  Richards,  S.  J.,  and 
William  Richards. 

In  its  early  da3rs  the  diocese  was  largely  an  a^cul- 
tural  district,  the  first  settlers  from  Pennsylvama  and 
Maryland  being  tillers  of  the  soil.  Later  came  the 
emigrants  from  Ireland  and  Germany,  who  were  fol- 
lowed by  priests  of  their  native  lands.  At  the  present 
time  mining  and  manufacturing  have  so  far  advanced 
as  to  predominate  and  control.  Immigration  has  also 
added  to  the  variety  of  races  among  the  Catholic 
population;  notably  Poles,  Hungarians,  Greeks,  Lith- 
uanians, and  Slavs  may  be  found  among  the  mining 
population  of  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
diocese:  while  Belgians  are  numerous  among  the  work- 
men employed  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  an  indus- 
trv  that  has  risen  of  late  years  to  prominence  in 
Ohio,  owing  to  the  discovery  of  natural  ras,  which  is 
an  important  feature  in  this  business.  The  native- 
born  descendants  of  the  pioneer  Catholics  have  taken 
a  notable  pla<;e  in  the  walks  of  business  and  profes- 
sional life,  especially  in  the  larger  centres  of  ix>pular 
tion.  The  bishop  and  a  large  number  of  the  clerey 
are  natives  of  the  State.  All  this  has  worked  a  de- 
cided change  in  the  attitude  of  non-Cathohcs  towards 
the  Church  and  their  Catholic  fellow-citizens. 

Svlvester  Horton  Rosecrans,  the  first  bishop,  died 
21  October,  1878.  He  was  succeeded  by  John  Am- 
brose Watterson,  who  was  consecrated  8  August, 
1880,  and  died  17  April,  1899.  The  next  bishop  was 
Henry  Moeller,  consecrated  25  August,  1900,  pro- 
moted to  the  Archiepiscopal  See  of  Areopolis  and 
made  Coadjutor  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cincmnati,  27 
April,  1903.  The  fourth  bishop,  James  Joseph  Hart- 
ley, was  consecrated  25  February,  1904. 

There  are  142  priests — 105  secular  and  37  regular — 
in  the  diocese,  with  34  brothers  and  450  sisters.  The 
total  population  of  the  diocese  is  about  1,000,000;  of 
this  number  80,000  are  Catholics.  The  parishes  num- 
ber 75,  with  45  parochial  schools  and  9361  pupils, 
4520  boys  and  4841  girls.  There  are  two  orphan 
asylums,  wi  th  460  orphans ;  a  Convent  of  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, with  207  inmates;  four  hospitals,  treating  4000 
patients  annually;  a  preparatory  seminary,  with  22 
students;    a  theological  seminary,   "The  Pontifical 


Joseph's  Cathedral,  Oolttmbub 


College  Josephinum  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith",  with  161  students;  a  col- 
lege, with  100  students;  and  three  academies,  with 
430  pupils. 

The  Diocese  of  Columbus  has  riven  to  the  Church  two 
bishops,  Fitzgerald  of  Little  Ro^  and  Gallagher  of  Gal- 
veston; while  the  names  of  Henni,  Archbishop  of  Mil- 
waukee, Lamy,  Archbishop  of  Santa  F^,  De  Goesbri- 
and,  Bishop  of  Burlington,  Vermont,  may  be  found  on 
the  baptismal  registers  of  the  early  miflsioii  churcheB 


of  the  diocese.  The  State  and  nation  also  have  per- 
ceived many  a  notable  service,  both  in  war  and  peace, 
from  sons  of  the  diocese.  General  Philip  H.  Sheridan 
was  in  his  boyhood  a  resident  of  Somerset,  Peny  Co., 
the  cradle  of  Catholicity  in  Ohio.  General  W.  S. 
Rosecrans,  brother  of  the  first  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
both  converts.  General  Don  Carlos  Bueli,  Generals 
Hugh  and  Charles  Ewing  of  the  Ewing  family  of  Lan- 


PoNTiFicAL  College  Josephinum 

caster;  Frank  Hurd,  Constitutional  lawyer.  Rep- 
resentative in  Congress,  and  free  trade  advocate,  J. 
A.  MacGahan,  Bulgaria's  liberator,  whose  remains 
were  brought  by  the  United  States  Government  from 
Constantinople  to  Perry  County,  are  a  few  of  the 
names  on  the  diocesan  roll  of  honour. 

HowB.  Historical  CoUediona  of  Ohio  (Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
1900) ;  American  Catholic  Historical  Researches  (Philadelphia, 
July,  1896);  files  of  Catholic  Tdaaraph  (Cincinnati),  and  Cath- 
olic Columbian  (OJumbus)- C/.  S.  Catholic  Mapazine  (Balti> 
more,  January,  1847),  The  Catholic  Church  in  Ohio. 

L.   W.   MULHANB. 

Oolumn,  in  architecture  a  round  pillar,  a  cylindrical 
solid  body,  or  a  many-sided  prism,  the  body  of  which 
is  sometimes  reeded  or  fluted,  but  practically  cylin- 
drical in  shape,  and  which  supports  another  body  in 
a  vertical  direction.  A  column  has,  as  its  most  essen- 
tial portion,  a  long  solid  body,  called  the  shaft,  set 
vertically  on  a  stylobate,  or  on  a  conj^ries  of  mould- 
ings which  forms  its  base,  the  shaft  being  surmounted 
by  a  more  or  less  bulky  mass,  which  forms  its  capital. 
Columns  are  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  styles 
of  architecture  to  which  they  belong;  thus  there  are 
Hindu,  Egyptian,  Grecian,  Roman,  and  Gothic  col- 
umns. In  classic  architecture  they  are  further  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  the  order  to  which  they 
belong,  as  Doric,  Ionic,  Composite,  or  Tuscan  col- 
umns. They  may  also  be  characterized  by  some 
peculiarity  of  position,  of  construction,  of  form,  or 
of  ornament,  as  attached,  twisted,  cabled,  etc.  Col- 
umns are  either  insulated  or  attached.  They  are  said 
to  be  attached  or  engaged  when  they  form  part  of  a 
wall,  projecting  one-half  or  more,  but  not  the  whole, 
of  their  substance.  Cabled  or  rudented  columns  arc 
such  as  have  their  flutings  filled  with  cables  or  astrar 
gals  to  about  the  third  of  the  height.  Carolitic  col- 
umns have  their  shafts  foliated.  In  the  earliest  col- 
umnar architecture,  that  of  the  Egyptians,  and  in  the 
Greek  Doric,  there  were  no  bases.  Capitals,  how- 
ever, are  universal,  but  are  mainly  decorative  in  char- 
acter. In  Grecian  and  Roman  architecture  the  pro- 
portions are  settled,  and  vary  according  to  the  oixier. 
The  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  pillars  or  piers 
in  Norman  and  Gothic  arcliitecture.  In  modem 
usage  the  term*  is  applied  to  supports  of  iron  or  wood. 

Fletcher,  A  History  of  Architecture,  690;  Gwilt,  Encvc. 
of  Architecture,  12QI;  Pauk^ik,  Glossary  of  Architecture  I,  10& 
Wealb,  DicL  of  Terms:  Bond,  Gothic  Architecture  in  Englana, 
233;  Stuboib,  Did.  of  Architecture  and  Building  (London,  1904). 

Thomas  H.  Pools. 


OOMACMIHXO 


151 


OOMATAOUA 


Oomacehio,  Diocbse  of  (Coicaclensis),  suffragan 
of  Ravenna.  Comacchio  is  a  town  in  the  province 
of  Ferrara  in  the  Romagna,  Italv,  situated  on  islands 
near  the  mouths  of  the  Po,  and  connected  with  the 
sea  by  a  canal  built  by  Cardinal  Palotta.  The  an- 
cient name  of  the  town  was  Cymadum,  The  first 
known  Bishop  of  Ck)macchio  was  Pacatianus,  present 
in  503  at  a  synod  held  in  Rome  under  Pope  Symma- 
chus.  St.  Gregorv  the  Great  reckons  the  see  among 
the  suffragans  of  Ravenna.  In  708  a  certain  Vincen- 
tius  is  mentioned  as  Bishop  of  Comacchio.  In  the 
seventh  century  Gregory,  the  youthfxil  son  of  Isaac, 
Exarch  of  Ravenna,  died  at  Comacchio  in  a  monas- 
tery dedicated  to  St.  Maurus,  as  is  recorded  in  a  Greek 
inscription.  During  the  fifteenth  century  the  town 
was  held  by  the  Venetians,  but  was  retaken  in  1500 
by  Alfonso  II,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  and  fortified  by  him. 
At  the  dbath  of  Alfonso  in  1597,  Comacchio,  with  the 
rest  of  the  Duchy  of  Ferrara  psuased  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Holy  See.  One  of  its  bishops,  Alfonso 
Pandolfo  (1631),  was  a  polished  writer  and  poet,  and 
establishea  the  Accademia  dd  FltUittantu  In  the 
vicinity  of  Comacchio  is  the  ancient  shrine  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Aula  Regia,  approached  by  &  long  portico 
of  142  arches,  built  in  1647  by  the  papal  legate,  Cardi- 
nal Giovanni  Stefano  Dongo.  In  1708  Emperor 
Joseph  I,  on  the  pretence  of  having  an  ancient  claim 
on  tne  city  seix^  Comacchio,  which  was,  however, 
restored  in  1724.  In  1796  the  town  was  occupied  by 
the  French.  The  famous  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Pom- 
posa  is  in  the  Diocese  of  Comacchio.  The  diocese  has 
a  population  of  40,630,  with  114  parishes,  24  churches 
and  oratories,  26  secular  and  6  regular  priests,  1  re- 
ligious house  of  men,  and  1  of  women. 

Cappblubtti.  Le  chime  (Fltalia  CVenioe,  1844),  II,  570; 
CoRKAOiNDB,  Rdotio  juHum  sedis  apo9t.  in  civil.  Comadensem 
(Rome.  1741V,  Chevalier,  Topo-BM.  (Paris,  1894-99),  s.  r.; 
Ann.  ecd.  (Rome,  1907). 

U.  BSNIGNI. 


,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor.  According  to 
ancient  geographers,  Comaha  was  ^tuated  in  Cappa- 
doda  (Oitaonia).  Eustathius  (Comment,  ad  Dionjrs., 
604)  surnames  it  CArw«e,  '* Golden".  Another  sur- 
name in  epigraphy  is  Hieropolis,  owing  to  a  famous 
temple  of  the  Syrian  goddess  Envo  or  M&.  Strabo 
and  Cnsar  visited  it;  the  former  (XI,  521 ;  XII,  535, 
537)  enters  into  long  details  about  its  position  on  the 
Sarus  (Seihoun),  the  temple  and  its  hierodtdi,  St. 
Basilisous  was  put  to  death  at  Comana  and  was  buried 
there;  according  to  Palladius,  the  historian  of  St. 
ChrvBostom,  he  was  bishop  of  the  city,  but  this  is  very 
doubtful.  Its  bishop,  Eipidius,  was  present  at  the 
Gouncil  of  Nicsea,  in  325.  Leontius,  a  Semi-Arian,  held 
the  see  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Jovian.  Heraclius 
appeared  at  Chalcedon  in  451:  Comana  was  then  a 
suffragan  of  Melitene,  the  metropolis  of  Armenia  Se- 
cunda;  since  then  it  figures  as  such  in  most  of  the 
'  *  Notitiae  episcopatuum  * '  to  the  twelfth  century.  Two 
other  bishops  are  known:  Hormizes,  or  Hormisdas, 
about  458  (letter  to  the  Emperor  Leo;  see  also 
Photius,  Biblioth.,  Cod.  51)  and  Theodorus  at  the 
Fifth  (Ecumenical  Council,  in  553.  The  ruins  of 
Comana  are  visible  ten  miles  north-west  of  Guksun 
(Cocussus),  in  the  vilayet  of  Adana  (Lequien,  I,  447; 
Kamsay,  Hist.  Geogr.  of  Asia  Minor,  passim).  An- 
other Comana,  suffragan  of  Neocsesarea,  was  situatc<l 
in  Pontus  Polemiacus;  it  had  also  a  temple  of  Ma, 
and  was  sumamed  Hierocaesarea.  It  was  captun^d 
by  Sulla,  83  b.  c.  Six  bishops  are  mentioned  by 
lisauien  (I,  517);  the  first  is  St.  Alexander  the  Char- 
eoaJ-Seller,  consecrated  by  St.  Gregorv  the  Wonder- 
worker. This  town  is  to-day  G5menek,  or  Gomanak, 
a  village  south-west  of  NeocsBsarea  (Niksar),  in  the 
vilayet  of  Sivas.  Lequien  (I,  1009)  gives  another 
Comana  in  Pamphylia  Prima,  suffragan  of  Side;'  the 
true  name  is  Conana.  Zoticus.  who  lived  at  the  tim«? 
of  Montanus,  was  Bishop  of  Conana,  or  of  Comama, 


not  of  Comana  in  Cappadocia.  C^osmas  of  Conana 
appeared  at  Constantinople  in  680.  Conana  is  to-day 
C^unen,  in  the  vilayet  of  Adana. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Geogr.  (London.  1878),  I,  649. 

S.  Petrides. 

Oomaya«niA>  Diocese  of,  suffragan  to  Guatemala, 
includes  the  entire  Republic  of  Honduras  in  Central 
America,  a  territory  of  about  46,250  square  miles,  and 
a  population  (1902),  exclusive  of  uncivilized  Indians, 
of  684,400,  mostly  baptized  Catholics.  It  also  in- 
dudes  a  group  of  islets  in  the  Bay  of  Honduras  (Rua- 
tdn,  Bonacca,  Utila,  Barbareta,  and  Moret).  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  with  many  fertile  plains  and 
plateaux.  Communication  is  difficult,  as  there  are 
tew  good  roads,  but  a  railroad  from  Puerto  Cortez  to 
La  rimienta  (sixty  miles)  is  destined  to  reach  the 
Pacific.  The  mineral  wealth  is  great,  and  the  trade 
in  bananas  very  lucrative.  The  climate  in  the  in- 
terior is  usually  nealthy,  but  fevers  are  frequent  along 
the  low  coast.  The  capital  of  the  State,  Tegucigalpa, 
has  17,000  inhabitants.  The  first  missionaries  were 
Franciscans,  though  the  records  of  their  labours  have 
disappeared  in  the  dLsastrous  conflagrations  that  the 
wars  of  the  nineteenth  century  visited  on  Comayagua, 
and  in  which  the  archives  of  the  cathedral  perished. 
The  diocese  was  established  in  1527  by  Clement  VII, 
and  confirmed  in  1539  by  Paul  III.  It  is  supposed 
that  Bishop  Pedrasa,  who  went  in  that  year  to  Tru- 
jillo,  was  the  first  bishop.  Under  the  fourth,  Jeronimo 
de  Corella,  Pius  IV  transferred  (1561)  the  see  to 
Nueva  Valladolid,  now  Comayagua.  The  prosperous 
missions  among  the  savage  Indians  on  the  north  coast 
were  broken  up  in  1601  by  English  pirates;  colonists 
and  missionaries  were  scattered,  and  the  Indians  (now 
about  90,000)  relapsed  into  their  original  savagery. 
The  revolution  of  1821  did  great  damage  to  the 
Church.  Before  that  time  there  were  more  than  300 
ecclesiastical  foundations,  and  public  worship  was 
everywhere  carried  on  with  dignity.  The  revolution- 
ary (government  confiscated  the  ecclesiastical  property 
to  the  value  of  more  than  a  million  pesos,  according  to 
a  presidential  message  of  1842.  Since  then  parishes 
depended  for  public  worship  on  precarious  alms,  and 
the  clergy  diminiBhed  in  number.  Nevertheless, 
tithes  were  still  paid  to  the  Church,  and  from  them 
the  bishop,  the  cathedral  services,  and  the  seminary 
were  supported.  The  latter  was  open  only  to  extems 
and  only  tlie  sciences  were  taught;  ecclesiastics  and 
yoimg  men  destined  for  the  law  were  educated  there 
together. 

Between  1878  and  1880  the  new  president  of  Hon- 
duras, imposed  by  Guatemala,  confiscated  anew  the 
ecclesiastical  resources  put  together  by  the  faithful, 
the  parochial  properties,  residences  of  clergy  and 
churches,  abolished  the  tithes,  and,  to  complete  the 
ruin  of  the  ecclesiastical  order,  suppressed  in  the  uni- 
versity the  courses  of  canon  law  and  moral  theology, 
and  in  the  colleges  even  the  study  of  Latin.  These 
oppressive  acts  hampered  greatly  the  proper  forma- 
tion of  the  clergy,  public  worship,  and  the  administrar 
tion  of  the  diocese.  Lately  the  seminanr  has  been  re- 
opened, but  despite  the  separation  of  Church  and 
State  the  former  is  subject  to  many  restrictions.  The 
civil  government  is  no  longer  hostile,  but  in  its  name 
provincial  and  local  authorities  exhibit  no  little  hos- 
tility to  the  parish  priests.  The  episcopal  city,  which 
has  80(X)  inhabitants,  suffered  much  from  the  civil 
wars  of  the  period  of  federation  (1823-39)  and  has 
never  regained  its  former  siae  or  prosperity.  Bishop 
Joseph  Maria  Martinez  Cabafias  (1908)  is  the 
twenty-eighth  or  twenty-ninth  of  the  line.    The  five 


iop 


parish  priests  of  the  Department  of  Comayagua  repi 
sent  the  former  cathedral  canons,  and  assist  the  bisn<  . 
on  occasions;  at  his  death  they  elect  the  vicar  capitu- 
lar.    There  are  seventy  secular  priests,  and  no  reg  i- 
lars;  the  Government  has  never  tolerated  the  rt;tum 


OOMBSnS 


152 


OOMOALL 


of  the  latter  since  their  expulsion  (1821).  There  is  a 
missionary  on  the  northern  coast  and  at  Comayagua 
a  Salesian  Father.  The  wealthier  classes  of  the  dio- 
cese, witib  very  few  exceptions,  are  indifferent  to  reli- 
gion. There  are  no  parochial  schools,  as  the  people 
of  the  pueblos  are  unable  to  support  them,  after  pay- 
ing taxes  for  the  public  schools;  moreover  the  clergy 
are  unable  to  conduct  l^em,  being  obliged  at  all  times 
to  move  about  from  one  small  town  to  another  and 
among  the  widely  scattered  villages  and  the  moun- 
tains.    (See  Guatemala.) 

WEBKEkt,  Orbia  Urrarum  Catholicus  (Freiburff,  1800); 
Stbeit,  Kalholiacher  MiaaionsaUas  (Steyl,  1907);  The  Statea- 
man*a  Year-Book  (London,  1907). 

Feliciano  Herrera. 

Oombefls,  Franjjois,  patrologist,  b.  November, 
1605,  at  Marmande  in  Gu^enne;  d.  at  Paris,  23  March, 
1679.  He  made  his  prehminary  studies  in  che  Jesuit 
College  at  Bordeaux,  and  joined  the  Dominican  Order 
in  1624.  After  finishing  his  theological  course,  he  be- 
came professor  of  theology,  and  taught  in  several 
houses  of  his  order.  In  1640  he  was  transferred  to 
Paris  where  the  opportunities  for  research  afforded  by 
the  libraries  led  him  to  abandon  teaching  and  to  undeiv 
take  the  publication  of  patristic  texts.  He  published 
successively  the  works  of  Amphilochius  of  Iconium, 
of  Methodius  of  Patara,  and  ot  Andreas  of  Crete,  to- 

f ether  with  some  hitherto  unedited  writings  of  St. 
ohn  Chrysostom.  In  1648  appeared  his  "Novum 
Auctarium  Grceco-Latinse  Bibliothec»  Patjum"  in 
two  parts,  exegetical  and  histonco-dogmatic.  The 
"  Historia  hseresis  monothelitarum  sanctaeque  in  eam 
sextse  synodi  actorum  vindicisB",  which  formed  part 
of  the  historical  section  of  this  work,  met  with 
much  opposition  in  Rome,  principally  because  it  was 
at  variance  with  the  opinions  of  Bellarmine  and  Bar- 
onius.  The  character  of  the  work  in  which  Combefis 
was  engaged  met  so  thoroughly  the  approval  of  the 
French  cleMQr  that  in  an  assembly  of  the  French 
bishops  held  in  Paris,  1655,  an  annual  subsidy  was 
voted  to  enable  him  to  carry  on  his  publications,  the 
sum  voted  being  subsequently  doubled.  This  gener- 
ous action  produced  the  most  fruitful  results,  and  the 
number  of  nis  publications  increased  every  year.  In 
1656  he  edited  St.  John  Chrysostom'^  "De  edu- 
candis  Liberis",  in  1660  a  collection  of  Acts  of  the 
martyrs.  In  1662  there  appeared  the  "Bibliotheca 
Patrum  Concionatoria",  or  "Preachers'  Library  of 
the  Fathers ",  a  rich  and  comprehensive  work,  pre- 
pared in  the  most  painstaking  manner  from  all  the 
available  manuscripts,  and  containing  a  short  his- 
torical account  of  all  the  authors  whose  names  ap- 
peared in  the  work.  Another  important  work,  "  Auc- 
tarium Novisaimmn  BibliothecsB  Patrum'^  appeared 
at  Paris  in  1672.  The  three  following  years  saw 
many  publications  from  the  pen  of  Combefis.  In 
1674  appeared  ''  Ecclesiastes  Grrsecus,  i.  e.  illustrium 
Graecorum  Patrum  ac  oratorum  dig^ti  sermones  ac 
tractatus",  etc.  In  1675  appeared  "Theodoti  Ancy- 
rani  adv.  Nestbrium  liber  et  S.  German!  patriarchas 
Constantinop.  in  S.  Maris  Dormitionem  et  Transla- 
tionem  oratio  historica'',  and  in  the  same  year  an 
edition  of  the  works  of  Maximus  Confessor  in  two  vol- 
umes with  a  Latin  translation.  A  third  volume  of 
the  works  of  Maximus  Confessor  was  ready  when 
Combefis  died.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of 
the  works  of  Combefis  is  his  edition  of  St.  Basil  in 
two  volumes,  "  Basilius  magnus  ex  integro  recensitus, 
textus  ex  fide  optimorum  codicum  ubique  castigatus, 
auctus,  illustratus,  baud  incertd  quandoque  conjec- 
ture emendat  us.  VersionesTecognitae",  etc.  (Paris, 
1679).  This  is  a  work  of  the  highest  merit  and  shows 
the  critical  skill  of  Combefis  at  its  best,  though  later 
surpassed  by  the  famous  Maurist  edition  (Paris, 
1721-30).  Besides  these  and  several  other  critical 
editions  of  works  of  the  Fathers,  tliere  are  in  exist- 
ence some  polemical  works  of  Coniliefis  wliich  have 


little  value  for  the  present  time.  Thou«di  known  to 
all  the  learned  men  of  his  time,  and  widely  celebrated 
even  in  his  lifetime  for  his  great  learning,  Combefis 
always  remained  a  mild  and  obedient  monk. 

QuiTiF-EcHARD,  Scvivt.  Ovd,  Prod.,  II,  678  sq.;  PsxAUur. 
RecueU  dea  Uogea  dea  hommea  iUuatrea  du  27*  nMe:  Dupin, 
BitUiotfieca,  XIII,  90;  Nici:RON.  Mhnoirea.  XI,  1850;  Ittig,  />e 
bibliothecia  et  catenia  Patrum  (Leipiig,  1707),  145  aq. 

Patrick  J.  Healy. 

Oomboni,  Daniel,  missionary,  b.  15  March,  1831,  in 
Limone  San  Giovanni  near  Brescia,  Italy;  d.  10  Oct., 
1881,  at  Khartoum.  Educated  in  Mazza's  Institute, 
Verona,  he  learned,  in  addition  to  theolo^,  several 
languages  and  medicine.  Ordained  priest  m  1854,  he 
was  sent  (1857)  by  Don  Mazza  to  Central  Africa,  but 
returned  (1859)  because  of  ill  health.  After  teaching 
in  Mazza's  Institute  from  1861-64  he  published  "  Pi- 
ano per  la  rieenerazione  dell'  Africa''  (Turin,  1864) 
and  visited  France,  Spain,  England,  Germany,  and 
Austria  to  collect  funds.  In  Verona  Comboni  estab- 
lished (1867)  his  IgtittUo  deUe  Missioni  per  la  Nigrizia 
to  educate  priests  and  brothers  for  the  missions,  and 
the  IstittUo  delle  Pie  Madri  to  supply  female  help;  he 
also  opened  similar  institutions  in  Cairo,  Egypt,  to  ac- 
climatize missionaries  for  the  fever-stricken  regions  of 
Central  Africa.  Appointed  (1872)  Pro-vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  Central  Africa  (vicariate  since  1846),  embrac- 
ing Nubia,  Egyptian  Sudan,  and  the  territory  south  to 
the  Lakes  (with  neariy  100,000,000  inhabitants)  Com- 
boni began  his  great  work  with  only  two  missions,  £1- 
Obeid  (Kordofan)  and  Khartoum.  Others  rapidly 
followed:  Berber,  Delen,  Malbes  (near  £l-Obeid).  In 
1877  Comboni  was  made  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Central 
Africa  and  titular  Bishop  of  Claudiopolis.  His  death 
was  pronounced  a  "great  loss"  by  Leo  XIII. 

Comboni  aroused  the  interest  of  Europe  in  n^ro 
missions,  and  journeyed  five  times  from  Africa  to  Eu- 
rope to  secure  missionaries  and  funds.  By  means  of 
his  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  khedive  and  th^ 
Governor  of  the  Sudan'  he  effectually  diecked  thb 
slave-trade.  Besides  his  "Quadro  storico  delle  Sco- 
perte  Africane"  (1880)  he  contributed  material  for 
scientific  works,  notablv  on  geography.  Mittemitz- 
ner's  works  on  the  Dinka  and  Ban  dialects  (Brixen, 
1866, 1867)  are  based  on  Comboni's  manuscripts.  He 
was  a  "language  genius"  (Cardinal  Simeoni),  master 
of  six  European  tongues,  of  Arabic,  and  the  dialects  of 
the  Dinka,  Bari,  and  Nuba  negroes.  His  ^l8iituto^\ 
since  1894  the  CJongregation  of  the  Sons  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  continues  his  work  in  Central  Africa.  Mgr. 
Geyer  (appointed  vicar  Apostolic  in  1903)  was  assisted 
in  1907  by  29  priests,  23  brothers,  and  35  sisters  minis- 
tering to  11  churches,  9  schools,  and  6  orphanages. 

Comboni's  account  of  his  work  is  in  Annalen  d.  Verbreitune 
d.  Glaubma  (Munich.  1878).  XLVI.  94-114,  233-266;  Geybr, 
Danid  Comboni,  eine  Lebcnaskizze  in  Annalen,  etc.  (Munich, 
1882).  L,  172-238:  Kaihotiache  Miaaionen  (Freibtur.  1882), 
159-162;  GcTBB,  Khartoum,  ein  Zentrum  d.  Kultur  %n  Inner- 
Africa  (Vienna.  1907). 

John  M.  Lenhart. 
Oomforter.    See  Paraclete. 

Oomgall,  Saimt,  founder  and  abbot  of  the  great 
Irish  monastery  at  Bangor,  flourished  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. The  year  of  his  birth  is  uncertain,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  testimony  of  the  Irish  annals  it  must  be 
placed  between  510  and  520;  his  leath  is  said  to  have 
occurred  in  602  {**  Annals  of  Tighemach"  and  "  Chron- 
icon  Scotorum*')»  or  597  (Annals  of  Innisf alien). 
He  was  bom  in  Dalaradia  in  Ulster  near  the  place  now 
known  as  Magheramome  m  the  present  Goimty  An- 
trim. He  seems  to  have  served  nrst  as  a  soldier,  and 
on  hb  release  from  military  service  he  is  said  to  have 
studied  at  Clonard  with  St.  Finnian,  and  at  Gonmac- 
noise  with  St.  Ciaran,  who  died  in  549.  We  next  find 
him  in  Ulst^  in  an  island  on  Lough  Erne  accom- 
panied by  a  fe  A  friends  following  a  very  severe  form    • 


OOMIIA 


153 


OOMMAMDKIHTS 


of  monastic  life.  He  intended  to  go  to  Britain,  but 
was  dissuaded  from  this  step  b^r  Lugidius,  the  bishop 
who  ordained  him,  at  whose.advice  he  remained  in  Ire- 
land and  set  himself  to  spi^ead  the  monastic  life 
throughout  the  country.  The  most  famous  of  the 
many  monasteries  said  to  have  been  founded  by  St. 
Comgall  is  Bangor,  situated  in  the  present  County 
Down,  on  the  southern  shore  of  Belfast  Lough  and  di- 
rectly opposite  to  Carrickfereus.  Accorduig  to  the 
Irish  annab  Bangor  was  founded  not  later  than  552, 
though  Ussher  and  most  of  the  later  writers  on  the 
subject  assign  the  foundation  to  the  year  555.  Ac- 
cording to  Adamnan's  "Life  of  Columba",  there  was 
a  very  close  connexion  between  Ck)mgall  and  Columba, 
though  there  does  not  appear  to  be  sufficient  author- 
ity for  stating  that  Comgall  was  the  disciple  of  Col- 
umba  in  any  strict  sense.  He  is  also  said  to  have  been 
the  friend  of  St.  Brendan,  St.  Cormac,  St.  Cainnech, 
and  Finbarr  of  Moville.  After  intense  suffering  he 
received  the  i  'ucharist  from  St.  Fiacra  and  expir^  in 
the  monastery  at  Bangor. 

Comgall  belonged  to  what  is  known  .is  the  Second 
Order  of  Iriedi  Saints.  These  flourished  in  the  Irish 
Church  during  the  sixth  century.  They  were  for  the 
most  part  educated  in  Britain,  or  received  their  train- 
ing from  those  who  had  0x>wn  up  under  the  influence 
of  the  British  schools,  Iney  were  the  founders  of  the 
gr^at  Irish  monastic  schools,  and  contributed  much  to 
the  spread  of  monasticism  in  the  Irish  Church.  It  is 
an  interesting  question  how  far  Comgall,  or  men  like 
him,  had  advanced  in  their  establishments  at  Bangor 
and  elsewhere  in  introducing  the  last  stages  of  monas- 
ticism  then  developed  on  the  Continent  by  St.  Bene- 
dict. In  other  words,  did  St.  Comgall  give  his  monks 
at  Bailor  a  strict  monastic  rule  resembling  the  Rule 
of  St.  Benedict?  There  has  come  down  to  us  a  Rule  of 
St.  Comgall  in  Irish,  but  the  evidence  would  not  war- 
rant us  m.  saying  that  as  it  stands  at  present  it  could 
be  attributed  to  him.  The  fact,  however,  that  Col- 
umbanuSy  a  disciple  of  Comgall  and  himself  a  monk 
of  Bangor,  drew  up  for  his  Continental  monasteries  a 
"Regu^  Monachorum"  would  lead  us  to  believe  that 
there  had  been  a  similar  organization  in  Bangor  in  his 
time.  This,  however,  is  not  conclusive,  since  Colum- 
banus  might  have  derived  inspiration  from  the  Bene- 
dictine Rule  then  widely  spread  over  South- Western 
Europe.  St.  Comgall  is  mentioned  in  the  "Life  of 
Columbanus"  by  Jonas,  as  the  superior  of  Bangor, 
under  whom  St.  Columbanus  had  studied.  He  is  also 
mentioned  under  10  May,  his  feast-d^  in  the  "  Felire ' ' 
of  Oengus  the  Culdee  published  by  Whitley  Stokes  for 
the  Henry  Bradshaw  Society  (2nd  ed.),  and  his  name 
is  commemorated  in  the  Stowe  Missal  (MacCarthy), 
and  in  the  Martyrology  of  Tallaght. 

Two  lires  of  St.  Comgall  are  published  in  the  Ada  SS.,  10 
Mtky;  Ada  Scmdorum  O.  S.  Benedidi,  II;  MS.  lives  of  the 
aunt  are  found  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Rawlinson,  B.  505, 
485.  and  in  the  British  Miueum,  Harley  6576;  Oengu*  the 
Ctddee,  ed.  Stokes,  for  the  Henry  Bradshaw  Society  (London, 
1905);  Umhbr,  AntiquUaiea  Ecdesiar.  BrxU.  (Dablin,  1635); 
0'Hanu>n,  LivM  of  the  Irieh  SavnU  (DubKn),  10  May. 

Jambs  MacCaffrby. 

Oomma  Johaimeum.    See  Three  Witnesses. 

Oommandments  of  God,  called  also  simply  The 
Commandments,  or  Decalogue  (Gr.  d^Ka,  ten,  and 
X^j,  a  word),  tiie  Ten  Words  or  Sayings,  the  latter 
name  generally  appUed  by  the  Greek  Fathers;  ten  pre- 
cepts bearing  on  the  fundamental  obligations  of  re- 
ligion and  morality  and  embodyii^  the  revealed  ex- 
pression of  the  Creator's  will  in  relation  to  man's  whole 
duty  to  God  and  to  his  fellow-creatures.  They  are 
found  twice  recorded  in  the  Pentateuch,  in  Ex.,  xx  and 
Deut.,  V,  but  are  given  in  an  abridged  form  in  the  cate- 
chisms. Written  by  the  finger  of  Uod  on  two  tables  of 
stone,  this  Divine  code  was  received  from  the  Almighty 
by  Moses  amid  the  thunders  of  Mount  Sinai,  and  by 
him  made  the  ground- work  of  the  Mosaic  Law.  Christ 
resumed  these  Commandments  in  the  double  precept 


of  charity — love  of  God  and  of  the  neighbour;  He  pro- 
claimed them  as  binding  under  the  New  Law  in  Matt., 
xix  and  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt.,  v).  He 
also  amplified  or  interpreted  them.  e.  s.  by  declaring 
unnecessary  oaths  eaually  unlawful  with  false,  by  con- 
demning hatred  ana  calumny  as  well  as  murder,  by 
enjoining  even  love  of  enemies,  and  by  condemning  in- 
dulgence of  evil  desires  as  fraught  with  the  same  mal- 
ice as  adultery  (Matt.,  v).  The  Church,  on  the  other 
hand,  after  changing  the  day  of  rest  from  the  Jewish 
Sabbath,  or  seventh  day  of  the  week,  to  the  first,  made 
the  Third  Conmiandment  refer  to  Sunday  as  the 
day  to  be  kept  holy  as  the  Lord's  Day.  The  Council 
of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  can.  xix)  condemns  those  who  deny 
that  the  Ten  Commandments  are  binding  on  Chris- 
tians. 

There  is  no  numerical  division  of  the  Command- 
ments in  the  Books  of  Moses,  but  the  injunctions  are 
dbtinctly  tenfold,  and  are  found  almost  identical  in 
both  sources.  The  order,  too,  is  the  same,  except  for 
the  final  prohibitions  pronounced  against  concupis- 
cence, that  of  Deuteronomy  being  adopted  in  prefer- 
ence to  Exodus.  A  confusion,  however,  exists  in  the 
mimbering,  which  is  due  to  a  difference  of  opinion  con- 
cerning the  initial  precept  on  Divine  worship.  The 
system  of  numeration  found  in  Catholic  Bibles  is  based 
on  the  Hebrew  text,  was  made  by  St.  Augustine 
(fifth  century)  in  his  book  of  "Quesjtions  on  Exodus" 
("  Quffistionum  in  Heptateuchum  libri  VII ",  Bk.  II, 
Question  Ixxi),  and  was  adopted  by  the  Council  of 
Trent.  It  is  followed  also  by  the  German  Lutherans, 
except  those  of  the  school  of  Bucer.  This  arrange- 
ment makes  the  First  Commandment  relate  to  false 
worship  and  to  the  worship  of  false  gods  as  to  a  single 
subject  and  a  single  class  of  sins  to  be  guarded  against 
— the  reference  to  idols  being  regarded  as  a  mere  ap- 
plication of  the  precept  to  adore  but  one  God  and  the 
prohibition  as  directed  against  the  particular  offence 
of  idolatry  alone.  According  to  this  manner  of  reck- 
oning, the  injunction  forbidding  the  use  of  the  Lord's 
Name  in  vain  comes  second  in  order;  and  the  decimal 
number  is  safeguarded  by  making  a  division  of  the  final 
precept  on  concupiscence — the  Ninth  pointing  to  sins 
of  the  flesh  and  the  Tenth  to  desires  for  the  unlawful 
possession  of  goods.  Another  division  has  been 
adopted  by  the  English  and  Helvetian  Protestant 
Churches  on  the  authority  of  Philo  Judaeus,  Josephus 
Origen,  and  others,  whereby  two  Commandments  are 
made  to  cover  the  matter  of  worship,  and  thus  the 
numbering  of  the  rest  is  advanced  one  higher;  and  the 
Tenth  embraces  both  the  Ninth  and  Tenth  of  the 
Catholic  division.  It  seems,  however,  as  lo^cal  to 
separate  at  the  end  as  to  group  at  the  beginning,  for, 
while  one  single  object  is  aimed  at  under  worship,  two 
specifically  different  sins  are  forbidden  under  covet- 
ousness;  if  adultery  and  theft  belong  to  two  distinct 
species  of  moral  wrong,  the  same  must  be  said  of  the 
oesire  to  commit  these  evils. 

The  Supreme  Law-Giver  begins  by  proclaiming  His 
Name  ana  His  Titles  to  the  obedience  of  the  creature 
man:  "I  am  the  Lord,  thy  God.  .  .  ."  The  laws 
which  follow  have  regard  to  God  and  His  representa- 
tives on  earth  (first  four)  and  to  our  fellow-man  (last 
six).  Being  the  one  true  God,  He  alone  is  to  be 
adored,  and  all  rendering  to  creatures  of  the  worship 
which  belongs  to  Him  falls  under  the  ban  of  His  dis- 
pleasure; the  making  of  "graven  things"  is  con- 
demned: not  all  pictures,  images,  and  works  of  art,  but 
such  as  are  intended  to  be  adored  and  served  (First). 
Associated  with  God  in  the  minds  of  men  and  repre- 
senting Him,  is  His  Holy  Name,  which  by  the  Second 
Commandment  is  declared  worthy  of  all  veneration 
and  respect  and  its  profanation  reprobated.  And  He 
claims  one  day  out  of  the  seven  as  a  memorial  to  Him- 
self, and  this  must  be  kept  holy  (Third).  Finally, 
parents  being  the  natural  providence  of  their  offspring, 
mvested  with  authority  for  their  guidance  and  correo- 


OOMMAKDMSKTS 


154 


OOMMANDMENTS 


tion.  and  holding  the  place  of  God  before  them,  the 
child  is  bidden  to  honour  and  respect  them  as  His  law- 
ful representatives  (Fourth).  The  precepts  which 
follow  are  meant  to  protect  man  in  his  natural  rights 
against  the  injustice  of  his  fellows.  His  life  is  the  ob- 
ject of  the  Fifth ;  the  honour  of  his  body  as  well  as  the 
source  of  life,  of  the  Sixth;  his  lawful  possessions,  of 
the  Seventh;  his  good  name,  of  the  Eighth.  And  in 
order  to  make  him  still  more  secure  in  the  enjoyment 
of  his  rights,  it  is  declared  an  offence  against  God  to 
desire  to  wrong  him:  in  his  family  rights  by  the  Ninth 
and  in  his  property  rights  by  the  Tenth. 

Tliis  legislation  expresses  not  only  the  Maker's  posi- 
tive will,  but  the  voice  of  nature  as  well — the  laws 
which  govern  our  being  and  are  written  more  or  less 
clearly  in  every  human  heart.  The  necessity  of  the 
written  law  is  explained  by  the  obscuring  of  the  un- 
written in  men's  souls  by  sin.  These  Divine  mandates 
are  regarded  as  binding  on  every  human  creature,  and 
their  violation,  with  sufl&cient  reflection  and  consent 
of  the  will,  if  the  matter  be  grave,  is  considered  a  griev- 
ous or  mortal  oflFence  against  God.  They  hr.  ve  always 
been  esteemed  as  the  most  precious  rules  of  life  and  are 
the  basis  of  all  Christian  legislation. 

HuMMELAUEB,  Comment,  in  Ex.  et  Lev.  (Paris,  1897),  196 
sqq.;  Idem,  Comment,  in  Deut.  (Paris,  1901),  290  sqq. — For  ex- 
planations of  the  Commandments,  see  CtUechiam  of  ike  Council 
of  Trent,  Pt.  Ill,  ch.  i,  and  other  catechisms;  Slateb,  Manual  of 
Moral  Theoloay  (New  York,  1908),  I. 

John  H.  Stapleton. 

Oomznandments  of  the  Ohnrch. — We  shall  con- 
sider: I.  the  nature  of  the  Commandments  of  the 
Church  in  eeneral;  II.  the  history  of  the  Command- 
ments of  the  Church;  III.  their  classification. 

I.  Nature  of  these  Commandments. — The  au- 
thority to  enact  laws  obligatoiy  on  all  the  faithful  be- 
longs to  the  Church  bv  the  very  nature  of  her  constitu- 
tion. Entrusted  with  the  original  deposit  of  Christian 
revelation,  she  is  the  appointed  nublic  orean  and  in- 
terpreter of  that  revelation  for  all  time.  For  the  ef- 
fective discharge  of  her  high  office,  she  must  be  em- 
powered to  give  to  her  laws  the  gravest  sanction. 
These  laws,  when  they  bind  imiversaTly,  have  for  their 
object:  (1)  the  definition  or  explanation  of  some  doc- 
trine, either  by  way  of  positive  pronouncement  or  by 
the  condemnation  of  opposing  error;  (2)  the  prescrip- 
tion of  the  time  and  manner  in  which  a  Divine  law, 
more  or  less  general  and  indeterminate,  is  to  be  ob- 
served, e.  g.  the  precept  obliging  the  faithful  to  receive 
the  Holy  Eucharist  during  the  paschal  season  and  to 
confess  their  sins  annually;  (3)  the  defining  of  the 
sense  of  the  moral  law  in  its  application  to  difficult 
cases  of  conscience,  e.  g.  many  of  the  decisions  of  the 
Roman  Congregations ;  (4)  some  matter  of  mere  dis- 
cipline serving  to  safeguard  the  observance  of  the 
higher  law,  e.  g.  the  Commandment  to  contribute  to 
the  support  of  one's  pastors  (Vacant,  Diet,  de  th^l. 
cath.,  s.  v.).  All  these  laws  when  binding  on  the  faith- 
ful xmiversally  are  truly  commandments  of  the  Church. 
In  the  technical  sense,  however,  the  table  of  these 
Commandments  does  not  contain  doctrinal  pronounce- 
ments. Such  an  inclusion  would  render  it  too  com- 
plex. The  Commandments  of  the  Church  (in  this  re- 
stricted sense)  are  moral  and  ecclesiastical,  and  as  a 
particular  code  of  precepts  are  necessarily  broad  in 
character  and  limited  in  number. 

II.  History  of  the  Commandments. — We  outline 
here  only  in  a  general  way  the  history  of  the  form  and 
number  of  the  precepts  of  the  Church.  The  discussion 
of  the  content  of  the  several  Commandments  and  of 
the  penalties  imposed  by  the  Church  for  violation  of 
these  Commandments  will  be  found  under  the  various 
subjects  to  which  they  refer.  We  do  not  find  in  the 
eariy  history  of  the  Church  any  fixed  and  formal  body 
of  Cnurch  Commandments.  As  early,  however,  as  the 
time  of  Constantine,  especial  insistence  was  put  upon 
the  obligation  to  hear  Mas8onSunda3rsand  Holy  Days, 


U)  receive  the  sacraments  and  to  abstain  from  oon- 
tracting  marriage  at  certain  seasons.  In  the  seventh- 
century  Penitentiary  of  Theodore  of  Canterbury  we  find 
penalties  imposed  on  those  who  contemn  the  Sunday 
and  fail  to  keep  the  fasts  of  the  Church  as  well  as  legis- 
lation r^arding  the  reception  of  the  Eucharist;  but 
no  reference  is  here  made  to  any  precepts  of  the 
Church  accepted  in  a  particular  sense.  Neither  do  we 
discover  sucn  special  reference  in  one  of  the  short  ser- 
mons addressed  to  neophytes  and  attributed  to  St. 
Boniface,  but  probably  of  later  date,  in  which  the 
hearers  are  urged  to  observe  Sunday,  pay  tithes  to  the 
Church,  observe  the  fasts,  and  receive  at  times  the 
Holy  Eucharist.  In  German  books  of  popular  in- 
struction and  devotion  from  the  ninth  century  on- 
wards special  emphasis  was  laid  on  the  obli^tion  to 
discharge  these  duties.  Particularly  does  this  appear 
in  the  forms  prepared  for  the  examination  of  con- 
science. According  to  a  work  written  at  this  time  bv 
Regino,  Abbot  of  Priim  (d.  915),  entitled  **  Libri  duo  de 
synodalibus  causis  et  disciplinis*',  the  bishop  in  his 
visitation  is,  among  other  inquiries,  to  ask  *'if  any  one 
has  not  kept  the  fast  of  Lent,  or  of  the  ember-days,  or 
of  the  rogations,  or  that  which  may  have  been  ap- 
pointed by  the  bishop  for  the  stajring  of  any  plague ; 
if  there  be  any  one  who  has  not  gone  to  Holy  Commu- 
nion three  times  in  the  year,  that  is  at  Easter,  Pente- 
cost and  Christmas ;  if  tnere  be  any  one  who  has  with- 
held tithes  from  God  and  His  saints ;  if  there  be  any- 
one so  perverse  and  so  alienated  from  God  as  not  to 
come  to  Church  at  least  on  Sundays ;  if  there  be  any- 
one who  has  not  gone  to  confession  once  in  the  year, 
that  is  at  the  beginning  of  Lent,  and  has  not  done  pen- 
ance for  his  sins  '  {Hslner,  Zur  Geschichte  der  Kirch- 
engebote,  in  Theologische  Quartalschrift,  LXXX,  104). 
jftie  insistence  on  the  precepts  here  implied,  and 
the  fact  that  they  were  almost  invariably  grouped  to- 
gether in  the  books  already  referred  to,  had  the  inevi- 
table effect  of  giving  them  a  distinct  character.  They 
came  to  be  regard^  as  special  Commandments  of  the 
Church.  Thus  in  a  book  of  tracts  of  the  thirteenth 
century  attributed  to  Celestinc  V  (though  the  authen- 
ticity of  this  work  has  been  denied)  a  separate  tractate 
is  given  to  the  precepts  of  the  Church  and  is  divided 
into  four  chapters,  the  first  of  which  treats  of  fasting, 
the  second  of  confession  and  paschal  Communion,  the 
third  of  interdicts  on  mamage,  and  the  fourth  of 
tithes.  In  the  fourteenth  century  Ernest  von  Pardu- 
vitz.  Archbishop  of  Prague,  instructed  his  priests  to 
explain  in  popular  sermons  the  principal  points  of  the 
catechism,  the  Our  Father,  the  Creed,  the  Command- 
ments of  God  and  of  the  Church  (Hafner,  loc.  cit., 
115).  A  centuiy  later  (1470)  the  catechism  of  Diet- 
rich Coelde,  the  first,  it  is  said,  to  be  written  in  Ger- 
man, explicitly  set  forth  that  there  were  five  Com- 
mandments of  the  Cliurch.  In  his  "  Summa  Theolo- 
gica"(part  I,  tit.  xvii,  p.  12)  St.  Antoninus  of  Flor- 
ence (1439)  enumerates  ten  precepts  of  the  Church 
universally  binding  on  the  faithful.  These  are:  to 
observe  certain  feasts,  to  keep  the  prescribed  fasts,  to 
attend  Mass  on  Sundays  and  Holy  Days,  to  confess  once 
a  year,  to  receive  Holy  Communion  during  paschal 
time,  to  pay  tithes,  to  abstain  from  any  act  upon 
which  an  int-erdict  has  been  placed  entailing  excom- 
munication, if)  refrain  also  from  any  act  interdicted 
under  pain  of  excommunication  ujUb  serUentuBy  to 
avoid  association  with  the  excommunicated,  finally 
not  to  attend  Mass  or  other  religious  functions  cele- 
brated by  a  priest  living  in  open  concubinage.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  the  Spanish  canonist,  Martin  Aspil- 
cueta  (1586),  gives  a  list  of  five  principal  precepts  of 
the  Church.  These  are:  to  hear  Mass  on  Holy  Days  of 
obligation,  to  fast  at  certain  prescribed  times,  to  j)&y 
tithes,  to  go  to  confession  once  a  year  and  to  receive 
Holy  Communion  at  Easter  (Enchiridion,  sive  man- 
uale  confessariorum  et  poenitentium,  Rome,  1588, 
ch.xxi,  n.  1).     At  this  time,  owing  to  the  prevalence  of 


OOMMSMOSATZON 


155 


0OMlfUfDA.TOKY 


heresy,  there  appeared  many  popular  wotks  m  defence 
of  the  authority  of  the  Church  and  setting  forth  in  a 
special  manner  her  precepts.  Su<^  among  others 
were  the  "SummaDoctrinieChiJstiame"  (1555)  of  1^. 
Peter  Canisius  and  the  ''Doctrina  Christiana"  of 
Bellarmine  (1589).  It  is  plam,  however,  that  the 
precepts  of  the  Church,  as  a  particular  and  distinct 
body  of  laws,  were  reoognisea  long  before  the  six- 
teenth century;  the  contention  that  they  were  first 
definitely  formulated  by  St.  Peter  Canisius  is  un- 
warranted. 

III.  Clasbificatiok. — The  Chiirch  in  feer  supreme 
authority  has  defined  nothing  regarding  the  form  and 
ntunber  of  the  Commandments  of  the  Church.  The 
Council  of  Trent  while  recommending  in  a  genend  way 
in  its  twenty-fifth  session  the  observance  of  these  pre- 
cepts says  nothing  regarding  them  as  a  particular  body 
of  laws.  Neither  is  any  specific  mention  made  of  them 
in  the  ''Catechismus  ad  parochos"  published  by  order 
of  the  council  and  known  as  the  **  Catechism  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent "  or  '^  Roman  Catechism ' '.  We  have  seen 
that  St.  Antoninus  of  Florence  enumerates  ten  such 
commandments  while  Martin  Aspilcueta  mentions 
onl^  five.  This  last  number  is  that  eiven  by  St.  Peter 
Canisius.  According  to  this  author  uie  precei)ts  of  the 
Church  are:  To  observe  the  feast  days  appointed  by 
the  Church;  to  hear  Mass  reverently  on  these  feast 
days;  to  observe  the  fasts  on  the  days  during  the  sea- 
sons appointed ;  to  confess  to  one's  pastor  annually ;  to 
receive  Holy  Commimion  at  least  once  a  year  and  that 
around  the  feast  of  Easter.  Owing  undoubtedly  to 
the  influence  of  Canisius,  the  catechisms  generally 
used  at  present  throughout  Germany  and  Austria- 
Huncary  have  adopted  the  above  enumeration.  The 
fourth  precept  has,  however,  been  amended  so  as  to 
allow  of  confession  being  made  to  any  duly  authorised 
priest. 

In  Spanish  America  the  number  of  church  pre- 
cepts is  also  five;  this  being  the  number,  as  we  have 
seen,  set  down  bv  Aspilcueta  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Here,  however,  tne  First  and  Second  commandment  m 
the  table  of  Canisius  are  combined  into  one,  and  the 
precept  to  pay  tithes  appears.  It  is  to  be  noted,  also, 
that  the  precept  of  annual  confession  is  more  specific; 
it  enjoins  that  this  confession  be  made  in  Lent,  or  be- 
fore, if  there  be  danger  of  death.  (Svnod  of  Mexico, 
1585.Lib.I,tit.i,inHardouin,Conc.,X,  1506.)  French 
and  Italian  catechists  reckon  six  precepts  of  the  church, 
the  enumeration  given  bv  Bellarmine.  According  to 
this  writer  the  (Commandments  of  the  C!hurch  are:  To 
hear  Mass  on  Sundays  and  Holy  Days;  to  fast  during 
Lent,  on  prescribed  vigils,  and  the  ember-days;  to  ab- 
stain from  meat  on  Fridays  and  Saturdays;  to  go  to 
confession  once  a  year;  to  receive  Holy  Communion  at 
Easter ;  to  pay  tithes ;  and  finally  not  to  solemnise  mar- 
m^  during  the  prohibited  times. 

The  French  catechisms,  following  that  of  Bossuet, 
omit  the  last  two  precepts,  but  retain  the  same 
number  as  that  given  by  Bellarmine.  This  they 
do  by  making  two  Commandments  cover  the  ol>- 
ligations  to  observe  Sunday  and  the  Holy  Days, 
and  two  also  regarding  the  obligations  of  fast  and 
abstinence.  It  will  be  readily  observed  that  the 
omission  by  French  writers  of  the  Commandment  to 
pay  ttthee  was  owingto  local  conditions.  In  a  "Ca- 
techism of  C!hristine  Doctrine  "  approved  by  Cardinal 
Vaughan  and  the  bishops  of  England,  six  Command- 
ments of  the  (])hurch  are  enumerated.  These  are:  (1) 
To  keep  the  Sundays  and  Holy  Days  of  obligation  holy, 
by  hearing  Mass  and  resting  from  servile  work;  (2)  to 
keep  the  days  of  fasting  ana  abstinence  appointed  by 
the  Church  J  (3)  to  ro  to  confession  at  least  once  a  year; 
(4)  to  receive  the^lessed  Sacrament  at  least  once  a 
year  and  that  at  Easter  or  thereabouts;  (5)  to  contri- 
bute to  the  support  of  our  pastors;  (6)  not  to  marry 
within  a  certain  de^rree  of  kindred  nor  to  solemnize 
nnarriage  at  the  forbidden  t imes.    This  list  is  the  same 


as  that  which  the  Fathers  of  the  Third  Plenary  (coun- 
cil of  Baltimore  (1886)  prescribed  for  the  United  States. 
Antoninus,  Summa  Theolooica,  i>art  I,  tit.  xvii,  p.  12  (Ve- 
rona, 1740);  AsnvcuvTK.  Enchiridion  aive  manuaU  confet' 
Bariorum  et  pcentienHum  (Rozne,  1588),  c.  xxi,  n.  I,  p.  289  sqq.; 
Saint  Pstkr  Canuiub,  ^umma  DoetrinaChriatianm  (ed.  1833), 
I,  387;  Bellabminb.  Doctrina  Chriatiana  (1614);  Saint  Ad- 
PHON8US  IJiQVOn^Theoloaia  Moralia,  III,  n.  1(X)4;  Ballerini- 
PALiaxBt,  Opua  TKeoloffteum  Morale  (Prato.  1890).  II,  776; 
HAnfBR  m  Thealo0iBeh§  QuarialachrifU  (1898),  LXXX  99; 
Vacant  in  Dietumnairt  d$  UUologie  caihoHque  article  Command- 
ments de  VBaliae;  Slates,  Manual  of  Moral  Theotogy  (Sev 
York,  1908),  I. 

John  Webster  Melody. 

Commemoration  (in  LrruROY)  is  the  recital  of  a 
part  of  the  Office  or  Mass  assigned  to  a  certain  feast  or 
d^  when  the  whole  cannot  be  said.  V^en  two 
Offices  fall  on  the  same  day  and  when,  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  rubrics,  one  of  them  cannot  be  transferred 
to  another  day,  it  is  in  part  celebrated  by  way  of  a 
commemoration.  Offices  have  different  degrees  of 
importance  (doubles,  semi-doubles,  etc.)  assigned 
them  at  their  institution,  and  it  is  this  that  mainly 
determines  precedence  in  cases  of  conffict. 

At  Majss  a  commemoration  consists  in  saying  the 
collect,  Secret,  and  Poet-Communion  proper  to  the 
feast  or  day  which  is  being  commemorated.  In  the 
Office  commemorations  occur  at  Lauds  and  Vespers 
and  consist  in  reciting  the  antiphons,  with  their  ver- 
sicles  and  responses,  of  the  Benedictus  and  Magnificat 
respectively,  adding  in  each  case  an  oremus  with  the 
oratio  proper.  These'are  called  special  commemorar 
tions  as  oistinguished  from  the  common,  which  are 
certain  nrayers  said  in  Mass  with  corre8ix>nding  ones 
in  the  Office  when  the  latter  is  of  an  Inferior  rite. 
These  commemorative  prayers  of  the  Mass  vary 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  When  two  or 
more  special  commemorations  have  to  be  made,  the 
order  is  determined  by  the  rank  or  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  feasts  and  Offices.  When  two  Offices  fall 
on  the  same  day  there  is  said  to  be  "occurrence"; 
and  when  the  second  Vespers  of  a  preceding  Office 
coincides  with  the  first  Vespers  of  the  following  there 
is  "  concurrence."  When  one  of  the  two  occurring, 
or  concurring,  Offices  is  very  solemn  and  the  other 
relatively  unimportant,  all  mention  of  the  latter  is 
omitted. 

Rvibricae  generalea  Breviarii  Romani,  IX;  Rubricce  generalet 
Misaali*  Vll;  de  Herot,  Sacrce  LUutqub  Praxis  (Louvain, 
1903),  II,  326  sq.  Gatantus,  De  Commemorationibxie,  sect, 
iii,  11,  33;  K680INO  in  KircherUexikon,  III,  693. 

Patrick  Morrisroe. 

Oommemoration  of  St.  Panl.    See  Paul,  Saint. 

Oommemoration  of  the  Dead.  See  Canon  of 
THE  Mass.,  under  III,  Commemoratio  pro  defunclis, 

Oommemoration  of  the  Faithful  Departed.  See 
All  Souls'  Day. 

Oommemoration  of  the  Living.  See  Canon  of 
THE  Mass,  under  III,  Commemoratio  pro  vivis, 

OommendAtory  Abbot,  an  ecclesiastic,  or  some- 
times a  layman,  who  holds  an  abbey  in  commendam, 
that  is,  who  draws  its  revenues  and,  if  an  ecclesiastic, 
may  alao  have  some  jurisdiction,  but  does  not  exercise 
any  authority  over  its  inner  monastic  discipline. 
Originally  only  vacant  abbeys,  or  such  as  were  tem- 
porarily without  an  actual  superior,  were  given  in 
commendam,  in  the  latter  case  onlv  imtil  an  actual 
superior  was  elected  or  apijointea.  An  abbey  is 
held  in  commendam^  i.  e.  provisorily,  in  distinction  to 
one  held  in  titulum,  which  is  a  permanent  benefice. 
As  early  as  the  time  of  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (590- 
604)  vacant  abbeys  were  given  in  commendam  to 
bishops  who  had  been  driven  from  their  episcopal  seea 
by  the  invading  barbarians.  The  practice  began  to 
be  serioudy  abused  in  the  eighth  century  when  the 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Prankish  kings  assumed  the  right  to 
set  commendatory  ablwte  over  monfwt<^ries  that  wor«* 


OOMMANBMEirrS 


154 


OOMMANDMENTS 


tion.  and  holding  the  place  of  God  before  them,  the 
child  is  bidden  to  nonour  and  i^^P^t  them  as  His  law- 
ful representatives  (Fourth).  The  precepts  which 
follow  are  meant  to  protect  man  in  his  natural  ri^ts 
against  the  injustice  of  his  fellows.  His  life  is  the  ob- 
ject of  the  Fifth ;  the  honour  of  his  body  as  well  as  the 
source  of  life,  of  the  Sixth;  his  lawful  possessions,  of 
the  Seventh;  his  good  name,  of  the  Eighth.  And  in 
order  to  make  him  still  more  secure  in  the  enj(yvment 
of  his  rights,  it  is  declared  an  offence  against  God  to 
desire  to  wrong  him:  in  his  family  rights  by  the  Ninth 
and  in  his  property  rights  by  the  Tenth. 

Tliis  legislation  expresses  not  only  the  Maker's  posi- 
tive will,  but  the  voice  of  nature  as  well — the  laws 
which  ^vem  our  being  and  are  written  more  or  less 
clearly  in  every  human  heart.  The  necessity  of  the 
written  law  is  explained  by  the  obscuring  of  the  un- 
written in  men's  souls  by  sin.  These  Divine  mandates 
are  regarded  as  binding  on  every  human  creature,  and 
their  violation,  with  sufficient  reflection  and  consent 
of  the  will,  if  the  matter  be  grave,  is  considered  a  griev- 
ous or  mortal  offence  against  Goa.  They  hrwe  always 
been  esteemed  as  the  most  precious  rules  of  life  and  are 
the  basis  of  all  Christian  legislation. 

HuMMELAUEB,  Comment,  in  Ex.  et  Lev.  (Paris.  1897),  196 
sqq.;  Idem,  Comment,  in  Deut.  (Paris,  1901),  230  sqq. — For  ex- 
planations of  the  Commandments,  see  Catechism  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  Pt.  Ill,  ch.  i,  and  other  catechisms;  Slatbb.  Manual  of 
Moral  Theoloay  (New  York.  1908),  I. 

John  H.  Staplbton. 

Oozmnandments  of  the  Ohnrch.— We  shall  con- 
sider: I.  the  natiu^  of  the  Commandments  of  the 
Church  in  general;  II.  the  history  of  the  Command- 
ments of  the  Church;  III.  their  classification. 

I.  Nature  of  these  Commandments. — The  au- 
thority to  enact  laws  obligatoiy  on  all  the  faithful  be- 
longs to  the  Chureh  bv  the  very  nature  of  her  constitu- 
tion. Entrusted  witn  the  original  deposit  of  Christian 
revelation,  she  is  the  appointed  public  organ  and  in- 
terpreter of  that  revelation  for  all  time.  For  the  ef- 
fective discharge  of  her  high  office,  she  must  be  em- 
powered to  give  to  her  laws  the  gravest  sanction. 
These  laws,  when  they  bind  universally,  have  for  their 
object:  (1)  the  definition  or  explanation  of  some  doc- 
trine, either  by  way  of  positive  pronouncement  or  by 
the  condemnation  of  opposing  error;  (2)  the  prescrip- 
tion of  the  time  and  manner  in  which  a  Divine  law, 
more  or  less  general  and  indeterminate,  is  to  be  ob- 
served, e.  g.  the  precept  obliging  the  faithful  to  receive 
the  Holy  Eucharist  during  the  paschal  season  and  to 
confess  their  sins  annually;  (3)  the  defining  of  the 
sense  of  the  moral  law  in  its  application  to  difficult 
cases  of  conscience,  e.  g.  many  of  the  decisions  of  the 
Roman  Congregations;  (4)  some  matter  of  mere  dis- 
cipline serving  to  safeguard  the  observance  of  the 
higher  law,  e.  g.  the  Commandment  to  contribute  to 
the  support  of  one's  pastors  (Vacant,  Diet,  de  th^jl. 
cath.,  s.  v.).  All  these  laws  when  binding  on  the  faith- 
ful xmiversally  are  truly  commandments  of  the  Church. 
In  the  technical  sense,  however,  the  table  of  these 
Commandments  does  not  contain  doctrinal  pronounce- 
ments. Such  Em  inclusion  would  render  it  too  com- 
plex. The  Commandments  of  the  Church  (in  this  re- 
stricted sense)  are  moral  and  ecclesiastical,  and  as  a 
particular  code  of  precepts  are  necessarily  broad  in 
character  and  limited  in  number. 

II.  History  op  the  C'Ommandmbntb. — We  outline 
here  only  in  a  general  way  the  history  of  the  form  and 
number  of  the  precepts  of  the  Church.  The  discussioii 
of  the  content  of  the  several  Commandments  and  of 
the  penalties  imposed  by  the  Church  for  violation  of 
these  Commandments  will  be  f  otmd  under  the  various 
subjects  to  which  they  refer.  We  do  not  find  in  the 
eariy  history  of  the  Church  any  fixed  and  formal  body 
of  Church  Commandments.  As  early,  however,  as  the 
time  of  Constantine,  especial  insistence  was  put  upon 
the  obligation  to  hear  Mas8onSunda3rsand  Holy  Days, 


U)  receive  the  sacraments  and  to  abstain  from  con- 
tracting marriage  at  certain  seasons.  In  the  seventh- 
century  Penitentiary  of  TTieodore  of  Canterbury  we  find 
penalties  imposed  on  those  who  contemn  the  Sunday 
and  fail  to  keep  the  fasts  of  the  Church  as  well  as  legis- 
lation regarding  the  reception  of  the  Eucharist;  but 
no  reference  is  here  made  to  any  precepts  of  the 
Church  accepted  in  a  particular  sense.  Neither  do  we 
discover  sucn  special  reference  in  one  of  the  short  ser- 
mons addressed  to  neophytes  and  attributed  to  St. 
Boniface,  but  probably  of  later  date,  in  which  the 
hearers  are  urged  to  observe  Sunday,  pay  tithes  to  the 
Church,  observe  the  fasts,  and  receive  at  times  the 
Holy  Eucharist.  In  German  books  of  popular  in- 
struction and  devotion  from  the  ninth  century  on- 
wards special  emphasis  was  laid  on  the  obligation  to 
discharge  these  duties.  Particularly  does  tins  appear 
in  the  forms  prepared  for  the  examination  of  con- 
science. According  to  a  work  written  at  this  time  bv 
Regino,  Abbot  of  Prtim  (d.  915),  entitled  "  Libri  duo  de 
synodaiibus  causis  et  disciplinis",  the  bishop  in  his 
visitation  is,  among  other  inquiries,  to  ask  '*if  any  one 
has  not  kept  the  fast  of  Lent,  or  of  the  ember-days,  or 
of  the  rogations,  or  that  which  may  have  been  ap- 
pointed by  the  bishop  for  the  stajring  of  any  plague; 
if  there  be  any  one  who  has  not  gone  to  Holy  Commu- 
nion three  times  in  the  year,  that  is  at  Blaster,  Pente- 
cost and  Christmas ;  if  there  be  any  one  who  has  with- 
held tithes  from  God  and  His  saints ;  if  there  be  any- 
one so  perverse  and  so  alienated  from  God  as  not  to 
come  to  Church  at  least  on  Sundays;  if  there  be  any- 
one who  has  not  gone  to  confession  once  in  the  year, 
that  is  at  the  beginning  of  Lent,  and  has  not  done  pen- 
ance for  his  sins  (Hafner,  Zur  Geschichte  der  Kirch- 
en^bote,  in  Theologische  Quartalschrift,  LXXX,  104). 
The  insistence  on  the  precepts  here  implied,  and 
the  fact  that  they  were  almost  invariably  grouped  to- 
gether in  the  books  already  referred  to,  had  the  inevi- 
table effect  of  giving  them  a  distinct  character.  They 
came  to  be  regarded  as  special  Commandments  of  the 
Church.  Thus  in  a  book  of  tracts  of  the  thirteenth 
century  attributed  to  Celestine  V  (though  the  authen- 
ticity of  this  work  has  been  denied)  a  separate  tractate 
is  given  to  the  precepts  of  the  Church  and  is  divided 
into  four  chapters,  the  first  of  which  treats  of  fasting, 
the  second  of  confession  and  paschal  Communion,  the 
third  of  interdicts  on  marriage,  and  the  fourth  of 
tithes.  In  the  fourteenth  century  Ernest  von  Pardu- 
vitz,  Archbishop  of  Prague,  instructed  his  priests  to 
explain  in  popular  sermons  the  principal  points  of  the 
catechism,  the  Our  Father,  the  Creed,  the  Command- 
ments of  God  and  of  the  Church  (Hafner,  loc.  cit., 
115).  A  century  later  (1470)  the  catechism  of  Diet- 
rich Ccelde,  the  first,  it  is  said,  to  be  written  in  Ger- 
man, explicitly  set  forth  that  there  were  five  Com- 
mandments of  the  Church.  In  his  "  Summa  Theolo- 
gica"(part  I,  tit.  xvii,  p.  12)  St.  Antoninus  of  Floi^ 
ence  (1439)  enumerates  ten  precepts  of  the  Churdi 
universally  binding  on  the  faithful.  These  are:  to 
observe  certain  feasts,  to  keep  the  prescribed  fasts,  to 
attend  Mass  on  Sundays  and  Holy  Days,  to  confess  once 
a  year,  to  receive  Holy  Communion  during  paschal 
time,  to  pay  tithes,  to  abstain  from  any  act  upon 
which  an  interdict  has  been  placed  entailing  excom- 
munication, to  refrain  also  from  any  act  interdicted 
under  pain  of  excommunication  Uxt/B  BentenHte^  to 
avoid  association  with  the  excommunicated,  &ially 
not  to  attend  Mass  or  other  religious  functions  cele- 
brated by  a  priest  living  in  open  concubinage.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  the  Spanish  canonist,  Martin  Aspil- 
cueta  (1586),  gives  a  list  of  five  principal  precepts  of 
the  Church.  These  are :  to  hear  Mass  on  Holy  Days  of 
obligation,  to  fast  at  certain  prescribed  times,  to  |>ay 
tithes,  to  go  to  confession  once  a  year  and  to  receive 
Holy  Communion  at  Easter  (Enchiridion,  sive  maa- 
uale  confessariorum  et  pcenitentium,  Rome,  1588, 
ch.xxi,  n.  1).     At  this  time,  owing  to  the  prevalence  of 


OOMMSMOSATION 


155 


OOMBUNDATOKY 


heresy,  there  appeared  many  popular  woika  m  defence 
of  the  authority  of  the  Church  and  setting  forth  in  a 
special  manner  her  precepts.  Sudi  amcxig  others 
were  the  '^SummaDoctrinieChristiame"  (1555)  of  St. 
Peter  Canisius  and  the  ''Doctrina  Christiana"  of 
Bellannine  (1589).  It  is  plain,  however,  that  the 
precepts  of  the  Church,  as  a  particular  and  distinct 
body  of  laws,  were  recognlEea  long  before  the  six* 
teenth  century;  the  contention  that  they  were  first 
definitely  formulated  by  St.  Peter  Canisius  is  un- 
warranted. 

III.  Classification. — ^The  C^iu*ch  in  her  supreme 
authority  has  defined  nothing  regarding  the  form  and 
number  of  the  Commandments  of  the  Church.  The 
Council  of  Trent  while  recommending  in  a  genend  way 
in  its  twenty-fifth  session  the  observance  of  these  pre- 
cepts says  nothing  regarding  them  as  a  particular  body 
of  laws.  Neither  is  any  specific  mention  made  of  them 
in  the  ''Catechismus  ad  parochos"  published  by  order 
of  the  council  and  known  as  the ''  Catechism  of  theCoun- 
cil  of  Trent "  or  ^  Roman  Catechism ' '.  We  have  seen 
that  St.  Antoninus  of  Florence  enumerates  ten  such 
commandments  while  Martin  Aspilcueta  mentions 
only  five.  This  last  number  is  that  given  by  St.  Peter 
Canisius.  According  to  this  author  uie  precepts  of  the 
Church  are:  To  observe  the  feast  days  appointed  by 
the  Church;  to  hear  Mass  reverently  on  these  feast 
days;  to  observe  the  fasts  on  the  days  during  the  sea* 
sons  appointed ;  to  confess  to  one's  pastor  annually;  to 
receive  JEIoly  Communion  at  least  once  a  year  and  that 
around  the  feast  of  Easter.  Owing  undoubtedly  to 
the  influence  of  Canisius,  the  catechisms  generally 
used  at  present  throughout  Germany  and  Austria- 
Huncary  have  adopted  the  above  enumeration.  The 
fourth  precept  has,  however,  been  amended  so  as  to 
allow  of  confession  being  made  to  any  duly  authorised 
priest. 

In  Spanish  America  the  number  of  church  pre- 
cepts is  also  five;  this  being  the  number,  as  we  have 
seen,  set  down  bv  Aspilcueta  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Here,  however,  the  First  and  Second  commandment  m 
the  table  of  Canisius  are  combined  into  one,  and  the 
precept  to  pay  tithes  appears.  It  is  to  be  noted,  also, 
that  the  precept  of  annual  confession  is  more  specific; 
it  enjoins  that  this  confession  be  made  in  Lent,  or  be- 
fore, if  there  be  danger  of  death.  (Synod  of  Mexico, 
1585,  Lib.  I,  tit. i,  in Hardouin,  Cone,  X,  1596.)  French 
and  Italian  catechists  reckon  six  precepts  of  the  church, 
the  enumeration  given  by  Bellannine.  According  to 
this  writer  the  Commandments  of  the  Church  are:  To 
hear  Mass  on  Simdays  and  Holy  Days;  to  fast  during 
Lent,  on  prescribed  vigils,  and  the  ember-days ;  to  ab- 
stain from  meat  on  Fridays  and  Saturdays ;  to  go  to 
confession  once  a  year;  to  receive  Holy  Communion  at 
Easter ;  to  pay  tithes;  and  finally  not  to  solemnize  mar- 
riage during  the  prohibited  times. 

The  French  catechisms,  following  that  of  Bossuet, 
omit  the  last  two  precepts,  but  retain  the  same 
number  as  that  given  by  Bellarmine.  This  they 
do  by  making  two  Commandments  cover  the  ob- 
ligations to  observe  Sunday  and  the  Holy  Days, 
and  two  also  regarding  the  obligations  of  fast  ana 
abstinence.  It  will  be  readily  observed  that  the 
omission  by  French  writers  of  the  Commandment  to 
pay  tithes  was  owingto  local  conditions.  In  a  '^  Ca- 
techism of  Christine  Doctrine"  approved  by  Cardinal 
Vaughan  and  the  bishops  of  England,  six  Command- 
ments of  the  Church  are  enumerated.  These  are:  (1) 
To  keep  the  Sundays  and  Holy  Days  of  obligation  holv, 
by  hearing  Mass  and  restine  from  servile  work;  (2)  to 
keep  the  days  of  fasting  and  abstinence  appointed  by 
the  Church  j  (3)  to  go  to  confession  at  least  once  a  year; 
(4)  to  receive  the  Blessed  Sacrament  at  least  once  a 
vear  and  that  at  Easter  or  thereabouts;  (5)  to  contri- 
bute to  the  support  of  our  pastors;  (6)  not  to  many 
within  a  certain  de^ifree  of  kindred  nor  to  solemnize 
marriage  at  the  forbwMon  times.    This  list  is  the  same 


as  that  whfeh  the  Fathers  of  the  Third  Plenary  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore  (1886)  prescribed  for  the  United  States. 
Antoninus,  Summa  Theolopiea,  iwrt  I,  tit.  xvii,  p.  12  (Ve- 
rona, 1740);  Abpilcubta,  Enchiridion  aive  manuaU  confe»- 
aariorum  et  panUienlium  (Home,  1588),  o.  xxi,  n.  I,  p.  289  sqq.; 
Saint  Pstkr  Canisius,  ^umma  DoctrinaChriatiana  (ed.  1833), 
I,  387;  BBLLABiaNiL  Doctrina  Chriatiana  (1614);  Saint  Ad- 
phonsus  lAQTiOm^Theciogia  Moralia,  III,  n.  1004;  Ballebini- 
Palmibri,  Ovua  Theologieum  Morale  (Prato,  1890),  II,  776; 
Hafnesh  in  Theoloifiaelu  QuartaUchrift,  (1898).  LXXX  99; 
Vacant  in  Dietionnaira  da  thialogie  ceUholique  article  Command- 
menta  de  VEfdise;  Slates.  Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New 
York.  1908).  I. 

John  Webster  Melody. 

Oommemoration  (tn  LrruROT)  is  the  recital  of  a 
part  of  the  Office  or  Mass  assigned  to  a  certain  feast  or 
d^  when  the  whole  cannot  be  said.  When  two 
Offices  fall  on  the  same  d^  and  when,  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  rubrics,  one  of  them  cannot  be  transferred 
to  another  day,  it  is  in  part  celebrated  by  way  of  a 
commemoration.  Offices  have  different  degrees  of 
importance  (doubles,  semi-doubles,  etc.)  assigned 
them  at  their  institution,  and  it  is  this  that  mainly 
determines  precedence  in  cases  of  conflict. 

At  Mass  a  commemoration  consists  in  saying  the 
collect.  Secret,  and  Post-Ck>mmunion  proper  to  the 
feast  or  day  which  is  being  commemorated.  In  the 
Office  commemorations  occur  at  Lauds  and  Vespers 
and  consist  in  reciting  the  antiphons,  with  their  ver- 
sicles  and  responses,  of  the  Ben^ictus  and  Magnificat 
respectively,  adding  in  each  case  an  oremua  with  the 
oro^  proper.  These 'are  called  special  commemora- 
tions as  distinguished  from  the  common,  which  are 
certain  nrayers  said  in  Mass  with  corresponding  ones 
in  the  Office  when  the  latter  is  of  an  Inferior  rite. 
These  commemorative  prayers  of  the  Mass  vary 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  When  two  or 
more  special  commemorations  have  to  be  made,  the 
order  is  determined  by  the  rank  or  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  feasts  and  Offices.  When  two  Offices  fall 
on  the  same  day  there  is  said  to  be  "occurrence"; 
and  when  the  second  Vespers  of  a  preceding  Office 
coincides  with  the  first  Vespers  of  the  following  there 
is  "  concurrence."  When  one  of  the  two  occurring, 
or  concurring,  Offices  is  very  solemn  and  the  other 
relatively  ummportant,  all  mention  of  the  latter  is 
omitted. 

Rubrictt  oeneraUa  Breviarii  Romani,  IX;  Rubritca  generalea 
Miaaalia  VII;  db  Herdt,  Sacrrn  Liturgia  Praxia  (Lou vain, 
1903),  II.  326  Bq.  Gatantus.  Da  Commemoralxonibua,  sect, 
iii.  11,  33;  KdssiNQ  in  KircherUexikon,  III,  093. 

Patrick  Morrisroe. 

Oommemoration  of  St.  Panl.    See  Paul,  Saint. 

Oommemoration  of  the  Dead.  See  Canon  of 
THE  Mass.,  imder  III,  Commemoratio  pro  defunctis. 

Oommemoration  of  the  Faithful  Departed.  See 
All  Souls'  Day. 

Oommemoration  of  the  Living.  See  Canon  of 
THE  Mass,  under  III,  Commemoratio  pro  vims, 

OommendAtory  Abbot,  an  ecclesiastic,  or  some- 
times a  layman,  who  holds  an  abbey  in  commendam, 
that  is,  who  draws  its  revenues  and,  if  an  ecclesiastic, 
may  also  have  some  jurisdiction,  but  does  not  exercise 
any  authority  over  its  inner  monastic  discipline. 
Originally  only  vacant  abbeys,  or  such  as  were  tem- 
porarily without  an  actual  superior,  were  given  in 
commendam,  in  the  latter  case  only  imtil  an  actual 
superior  was  elected  or  api)ointea.  An  abbey  is 
held  in  commendam^  i.  e.  provisorily,  in  distinction  to 
one  held  in  tihdum^  which  is  a  permanent  benefice. 
As  early  as  the  time  of  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (590- 
604)  vacant  abbeys  were  given  in  commendam  to 
bishops  who  had  been  driven  from  their  episcopal  sees 
by  the  invading  barbarians.  The  practice  began  to 
be  seriously  abused  in  the  eighth  century  when  the 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Prankish  kings  assumed  the  ri^t  to 
set  commendatory  abbots  over  mona.st'eries  that  wore 


OOMMENDOHS 


156 


OOMBIXVDOnS 


occupied  by  religiouB  commiinities.  Often  these  com- 
menoatory  abbots  were  la^en^  vassals  of  the  kings, 
or  others  who  were  authorized  to  draw  the  revenues 
and  manage  the  temporal  affairs  of  the  monasteries  in 
reward  for  military  services.  While  the  notorious 
Marozia  was  influential  in  Rome  and  Italy,  and  during 
the  reigns  of  Henry  IV  of  Germany,  Philip  I  of  France. 
William  the  Conaueror,  William  Ruf us,  Henry  I  ana 
II  of  England,  tne  abuse  reached  its  climax.  The 
most  worthless  persons  were  often  made  commenda- 
tory abbots,  who  in  many  cases  brought  about  the 
temporal  and  spiritual  ruin  of  the  monasteries.  When 
in  1122  the  dispute  concerning  investiture  was  settled 
in  favour  of  the  Church,  the  appointment  of  laymen 
as  commendatory  abbots  and  many  other  abuses  were 
abolished.  The  abuses  again  increased  while  the 
popes  resided  at  Avignon  (1309-1377)  and  especially 
during'the  schism  (1378-1417),  when  the  popes,  as 
well  as  the  antipopes,  gave  ntimerous  abbeys  in  com- 
mendam  in  order  to  increase  the  number  of  their  ad- 
herents. 

After  the  eighth  century  various  attempts  were 
made  by  popes  and  coimcils  to  rebate  the  appoint- 
ment of  commendatory  abbots,  still  the  abuses  con- 
tinued. Boniface  VIII  (1294-1303)  decreed  that  a 
benefice  with  the  cure  of  souls  attached  should  be 
granted  in  commendam  only  in  great  necessity  or 
when  evident  advantage  would  accrue  to  the  Church, 
but  never  for  more  than  six  months  (c.  15.  VI,  De 
elect.,  1,  6).  Clement  V  (1305-44)  revoked  benefices 
which  had  been  granted  by  him  in  commendam  at  an 
earlier  date  (Extr.  comm.,  c.  2,  De  prseb.,  3,  2).  The 
Council  of  TVent  (Sess.  XXV,  cap.  xxi,  de  Regulari- 
bus)  determined  that  vacant  monasteries  should  be 
bestowed  only  on  pious  and  virtuous  regulars,  and  that 
the  principal  or  mother-house  of  an  order  and  the 
abbevs  and  priories  founded  immediately  therefrom 
should  no  longer  be  granted  in  commendam.  The 
succeeding  BuU  "Superna"  of  Gregory  XIIL  and  the 
Constitution  "Pastoralis''  of  Innocent  A  greatly 
checked  the  abuses,  but  did  not  abolish  them  entirely. 
Especially  in  France  they  continued  to  flourish  to  tne 
detriment  of  the  monasteries.  Finally,  the  Fi*ench 
Revolution  and  the  general  secularization  of  monas- 
teries in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  de- 
stroyed the  evil  with  tne  good.  Since  that  time  com- 
mendatory abbots  have  become  very  rare,  and  the 
former  abuses  have  been  abolished  by  wise  regular 
tions.  There  are  still  a  few  commendatory  aboots 
among  the  ceirdinals,  and  Pope  Pius  X  is  Commenda- 
tory Abbot  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Subiaco 
near  Rome.  The  powers  of  a  commendatory  abbot 
are  as  follows:  If  the  monastery  is  occupied  by  a 
religious  community  where  there  is  a  separate  mensa 
abbatialis,  i.  e.  where  the  abbot  and  the  convent  have 
each  a  separate  income,  the  conmiendatory  abbot, 
who  must  then  be  an  ecclesiastic,  has  jurisdiction  in 
foro  extemo  over  the  members  of  the  community  and 
enjoys  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  an  actual  abbot, 
and  if.  as  is  generally  the  case,  the  monastery  has  a 
special  superior,  he  is  subject  to  the  commendatory 
abbot  as  a  daustral  prior  is  subject  to  his  actual  abbot. 
If  there  is  no  separate  mensa  abbatialis,  the  power  of 
the  commendatory  abbot  extends  only  over  the  tem- 
poral affairs  of  the  monaster^'.  In  case  of  vacant 
monasteries  the  commendatory  abbot  generally  has 
all  the  ri^ts  and  privileges  of  an  actual  abbot. 

THOMA.8BIN.  Vettu  tt  fiova  Ecdeaia  disciplina  circa  beneficia 
(Venice,  1730),  Pt.  II.  lib.  II,  capp.  x-xxi;  BXnuEB,  Johannes 
MabUlon  (Augsburg,  1892),  31  sqq.;  Gatrio,  Die  AhUi  Mur- 
bach  (StrasbuFK,  189*))  II,  247  sqq.;  Szcttgiiclsky,  Liber  pen- 
thicus  de  eommendatariit  regularium  pralati$  (Wilna,  1681); 
Devoti,  JntlihU.  canon.  (Ghent,  1852),  I,  683  sqq. 

Michael  Ott. 

Oommendone,  Giovanxi  Francesco,  Cardinal  and 
Papal  Nuncio,  b.  at  Venice,  17  March,  1523;  d.  at 
Padua,  26  l^ec,  1581.    After  receiving  a  thorough 


education  In  the  humanities  and  in  jurisprudence  at 
the  University  of  Padua,  he  came  to  Rome  in  1550. 
The  ambassador  of  Venice  presented  him  to  Pope 
Julius  III,  who  was  so  favourably  impressed  by  the 
imusual  learning  of  the  youthful  scholar  that  he 
appointed  him  one  of  his  secretaries.  After  suc- 
cessfully performing  various  papal  missions  of  minor 
importance,  he  accompanied  Cardinal  L^te  Dandino 
to  the  Netherlands,  whence  Pope  JuUus  in  sent  him  in 
1553  on  an  important  mission  to  Queen  Mary  Tudor, 
who  had  just  succeeded  Edward  VI  on  the  English 
throne.  He  was  to  treat  with  the  new  queen  concern- 
ing the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  Faitn  in  Eng^knd. 
Accompanied  by  Penning,  a  servant  and  confidant  of 
Cardinal  Reginald  Pole,  Commendone  arrived  in  Lon- 
don on  8  Aug.,  1553.  Though  Mary  Tudor  was  a 
loyal  Catholic,  she  was  surroimded  at  court  by  nuxQer- 
ous  opponents  of  papal  authority,  who  made  it  ex* 
tremely  difficult  for  Commendone  to  obtain  a  secret 
interview  with  her.  By  chance  he  met  John  Lee,  a 
relation  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  and  an  attendant  at 
court,  with  whom  he  had  become  acquainted  in  Italy, 
and  Lee  succeeded  in  arrax^ing  the  mterview.  Muy 
received  Commendone  kindhr,  and  expressed  her  desire 
to  restore  the  Catholic  Faith  and  to  acknowied^  the 
spiritual  authority  of  the  pope,  but  considered  it  pru- 
aent  to  act  slowly  on  account  of  her  powerful  oppo- 
nents. Commendone  hastened  to  Home,  arriving 
there  on  11  September,  and  informed  the  pope  of  the 
joyful  news,  at  the  same  time  handing  him  a  personal 
letter  from  the  queen.  Commendone  contmued  to 
hold  the  office  of  papal  secretary  under  Paul  IV,  who 
esteemed  him  very  hi^y  and  in  return  for  his  services 
appointed  hhn  Bishop  of  Zante  in  1555.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1556  he  accompanied  Cardinal  Legate  Scipione 
Rebiba  on  a  papal  mission  to  the  Nethenands,  to  the 
courts  of  Emperor  Charles  V  and  King  PhiUp  II,  the 
consort  of  Queen  Mary  of  England.  Commendone 
had  received  instructions  to  remain  as  nuncio  at  the 
court  of  Philip,  but  he  was  recalled  to  Rome  soon 
after  his  arrival  in  the  Netherlands.  On  16  Septem- 
ber of  the  same  year  the  pope  sent  him  as  extraordi- 
nary legate  to  tne  Qovemments  of  Urbino,  Ferrara, 
Venice,  and  P&rma  in  order  to  obtain  help  against  the 
Spanish  troops  who  were  occupying  the  Qmipagna 
and  threatening  Rome. 

In  1560,  when  Pius  IV  determined  to  reopen  the 
Council  of  Trent,  Commendone  was  sent  as  legate  to 
Germany  to  invite  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  Es- 
tates to  the  council.  He  arrived  in  Vienna  on  3  Jan., 
1561,  and  after  consulting  with  Emperor  Ferdinand, 
set  out  on  14  January  f  or  Naumburg,  where  the  Prot- 
estant Estates  were  holding  a  religious  convention. 
He  was  accompanied  by  Delfino,  Bishop  of  Lesina, 
who  had  been  sent  as  papal  nuncio  to  Ferdinand  four 
months  previously  ana  was  still  at  the  imperial  court. 
Having  arrived  at  Naumburg  on  28  January,  they 
were  admitted  to  the  convention  on  5  February  and 
urged  upon  the  assembled  Protestant  Estates  the 
necessity  of  a  Protestant  representation  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  in  order  to  restore  religious  union,  but  all 
their  efforts  were  of  no  avail.  From  Naumburg, 
Commendone  traveled  northward  to  invite  the  Es- 
tates of  Northern  Germany.  He  went  by  way  of 
Leipzie  and  Magdeburg  to  Berlin,  where  he  arrived  on 
19  February  and  was  well  received  by  Joachim  of 
MUnsterberg,  the  Elector  of  Brandenbuiv.  Joachim 
spoke  respectfully  of  the  pope  and  the  Catholic 
CWrch  and  expressed  his  desire  for  a  religious  recon- 
ciliation, but  did  not  promise  to  appear  at  the  council. 
Here  Commendone  met  also  the  son  of  Joachim,  the 
young  Archbishop  Sigismund  of  Magdeburg,  who 
promised  to  appear  at  the  council  but  did  not  keep 
his  word.  Irving  Berlin,  Commendone  visited 
Beeskow,  Wolfenbtittel,  Hanover,  Hildesheim,  Iburg. 
Paderbom,  Cologne,  Cleves,  the  Netherlands,  anti 
Aachen,  inviting  all  the  Estates  he  met  in  these 


00MMENTABIB8 


157 


OOMMEMTABIBS 


places.  From  Aachen  he  turned  to  Lttbeck  with  the 
intention  of  crossing  the  sea  to  invite  Kings  Frederick 
II  of  Denmark  andEric  XIV  of  Sweden.  The  King 
of  Denmark,  however,  refused  to  receive  the  legate, 
while  the  King  of  Sweden  invited  him  to  En^nd, 
whither  he  haS  planned  to  go  in  the  near  future. 
Queen  EUzabeth  of  England  had  forbidden  the  papal 
nuncio  Hieronimo  Martinengo  to  cross  the  English 
Channel  when  he  was  sent  to  invite  the  queen  to  the 
coimcil,  hence  it  was  very  improbable  that  she  would 
allow  Commcndone  to  come  to  England.  He  there- 
fore repaired  to  Antwerp,  awaiting  further  instruc- 
tions from  Rome.  Being  recalled  by  the  pope,  he  re- 
turned to  Italy  in  Dec,  1561,  by  way  of  Lorraine  and 
Western  Germany.  Althoujzh  nis  mission  was  with- 
out any  results  as  regards  ftx)testant  representation 
at  the  Coimcil  of  Trent,  still  his  spotless  character 
and  his  strong  and  unselfish  pleas  for  a  return  to 
Catholic  unity  made  a  deep  impression  upon  many 
Protestant  Estates.  The  numerous  letters  which 
Commendone  wrote  during  this  mission  to  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  present  a  sad  but  faithful  picture  of  the 
ecclesiastical  conditions  in  Germany  durins  those 
tinies.  These  and  others  were  publiabed  in  "Miscel- 
lanea di  Storia  Italiana"  (Turin,  1869,  VI,  1-240). 

In  Jan.,  1563,  the  le^tes  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
sent  Commendone  to  Emperor  Ferdinand  at  Inns- 
bruck, to  treat  with  him  regarding  some  demands 
which  he  had  made  upon  the  council  in  his  "Libel  of 
Reformation".  In  October  of  the  same  year  Pius 
IV  sent  him  as  legate  to  King  Sigismund  of  Poland 
with  instruction  to  induce  this  ruler  to  give  political 
recognition  to  the  Tridentine  decrees.  Yielding  to 
the  requests  of  Commendone  and  of  Hosius,  Bishop 
of  Ermland,  Sigismund  not  only  enforced  the  Triden- 
tine reforms,  but  also  allowed  the  Jesuits,  the  most 
hated  enemies  of  the  Reformers,  to  enter  Poland. 
While  still  in  Poland,  on  the  recommendation  of  St. 
Charles  Borromeo,  Commendone  was  created  cardinal 
on  12  March,  1565.  He  remained  in  Poland  until  the 
death  of  Pius  IV  (9  Dec.,  1565),  and  before  returning 
to  Italy  he  went  as  legate  of  the  new  pope,  Pius  V,  to 
the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  which  was  opened  by  Maximilian 
II  on  23  March,  1566.  He  had  previously  warned  the 
emperor  under  pain  o^  excommunication  not  to  dis- 
cuss religion  at  the  diet.  He  also  seized  the  opportu- 
nity to  exhort  the  assembled  Estates  to  carry  uito  exe- 
cution the  Tridentine  decrees.  In  Sept.,  1568.  Pius  V 
sent  him  a  second  time  as  legate  to  Maximilian  II.  In 
union  with  Biglia,  the  resident  nuncio  at  Vienna,  he 
was  to  induce  the  emperor  to  make  no  new  religious 
concessions  to  the  Protestant  Estates  of  Lower  Aus- 
tria and  to  recall  several  concessions  which  he  had 
already  made.  While  engaged  in  this  mission,  Com- 
mendone was  also  empowered  by  a  papal  Brief  dated 
10  Oct.,  1568,  to  make  an  apostolic  visitation  of  the 
churches  and  monasteries  of  Germany  and  the  adja- 
cent provinces.  An  account  of  this  visitation  in  the 
Dioceses  of  Passau  and  Salzburg  in  the  year  1569  is 
published  in  "Studien  und  Mittheiluncen  aus  dem 
Benedictiner  und  Cistercienser  Orden''  (Brunn,  1893, 
XIV,  385-398  and  567-589).  In  Nov.,  1571,  Pius  V 
sent  him  as  legate  to  the  emperor  and  to  King  Sigis- 
mund of  Poland  in  the  interest  of  a  crusade.  After 
the  death  of  King  Sigismund,  m  1572,  he  promoted 
the  election  of  Henry,  Duke  of  Anjou,  as  King  of 
Poland,  thereby  incurring  the  displeasure  of  the  em- 
peror. Upon  his  return  to  Italy  in  1573,  Gregory 
aIII  appointed  him  a  member  of  the  newly  founded 
Congr^gatio  Germanica^  the  purpose  of  which  was  to 
safeguard  Catholic  interests  m  Germany.  He  was  so 
hij^y  esteemed  by  the  Sacred  College  that,  when 
Gregory  XIII  fell  dangerously  ill.  it  was  generally  be- 
lieved that  CoHMnendone  would  be  elected  pope,  but 
he  was  outlived  by  Gregory. 

ChlAUANi.  Vita  Cirmmendoni  Cardinalia  (Pari«,  1669),  P'r.  tr. 
by  Pt.vc&nsR  (Paris,  1671,  and  Lyt>n8.  1702);  The  Cambridge 
JMcm  HUUny  iLondon  and  New  York,  1907),  Ij  «q()  (1906)» 


III,  paasim;  pALLxviaNO, /«torta  dd,  ConcUio  di  Trento  (Rom«, 
1846).  II,  13,  15,  III,  24;  Prisac,  Die  Legaten  Commendone  und 
Capaeini  in  Berlin  (N«U88,  1846):  Rciman,  Die  Sendung  dea 
Nuntiue  Commendone  naah  DeuUcHl.  im  Jahre  1561  in  Foneh" 
unaen  zur  deuteeh.  Oeeeh.  (CdttiaKen.  1867).  237-80;  Subta, 
Die  rOmieehe  Kurie  und  das  Konzit  von  Trient  unt^r  Pius  IV. 
(Wien,  1904),  I;  Schwarz,  Der  Briefwecheel  dee  K.  Maximilian 
IL  mit  Papat  Piue  V,  (Paderbora.  1889);  Qrauani,  De  eeriptie 
invUa  Minerva^  eum  tidnotaiionwue  H.  Lagomareini  (Florence^ 
1746HJ). 

Michael  Orr. 

Oommentaries  on  the  Bible.— ''To  write  a  full 
history  of  exegesis",  says  Farrar,  "would  require  the 
space  of  many  volumes."  Nor  is  this  surprising 
when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the  number  of  commen- 
taries on  such  a  recent  writer  as  Dante  reached  the 
grand  total  of  thirteen  hundred  at  the  beginning  of 
the  twentieth  century.  As  the  ground  to  be  covered 
is  so  extensive,  only  the  barest  outline  can  be  given 
here.  The  bibliography  at  the  end  will  enable  the 
reader  to  pursue  ^e  subject  further.  We  touch  upon 
the  saUent  points  of  Jewish,  patristic,  medieval,  and 
modem  (Catholic  and  non-Catholic)  commentaries. 
We  begin  with  the  Jewish  writers,  and  deal  briefly 
with  the  Targums,  Mi^na,  and  Talmuds;  for,  thou^ 
these  cannot  be  regarded  as  Bible  commentaries,  m 
the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  they  naturally  lead  up  to 
these  latter.  Those  who  require  further  information 
on  liiis  head  may  be  referred  to  the  special  articles 
in  The  Catholic  Enctclopeoia,  and  to  the  works 
mentioned  in  the  bibliography.  Special  attention  is 
directed  to  the  list  of  the  best  modern  non-Catholic 
commentaries  in  English  [V  (3)).  The  article  is  divi- 
ded as  follows:  I.  Jewish  Commentaries;  II.  Patristic; 
III.  Medieval;  IV.  Modem  CathoUc;  V.  Non- 
Catiiolic. 

I.  Jewish  Commentaries. — (1)  Phih, — ^There  was 
a  story  among  the  Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  the 
effect  that  .^istotle  accompanied  Alexander  the 
Great  to  Jerusalem,  and,  with  characteristic  Greek 
craftiness,  obtained  possession  of  the  wisdom  of  Solo- 
mon, which  he  subseouently  palmed  off  on  his  coun- 
trymen as  his  own.  This  accounted  for  everything 
that  was  good  in  Aristotle;  the  defects  were  the  only 
thing  peculiar  to  the  philosopher.  That  Greek  litera- 
ture, in  general,  got  its  inspiration  from  Moses  was  an 
uncritical  idea  that  dated  back  as  far  as  Philo,  the 
great  Jewish  writer  of  Alexandria.  A  visitor  to  Alex- 
andria at  the  time  when  Christ  was  preaching  in  Gali- 
lee would  find  there  and  in  its  vicinity  a  mUBon  Jews 
using  the  Septuagint  as  their  Bible,  and  could  enter 
their  ma^nincent  Great  Synagogue  of  which  they 
were  just^^  proud.  Whoever  had  not  seen  it  was  not 
supposed  to  have  beheld  the  glory  of  Israel.  The 
members  of  their  Sanhedrin,  according  to  Sukkah, 
were  seated  on  seventy-one  golden  thrones  valued  at 
tens  of  Uiousands  of  talents  of  gold;  and  the  building 
was  so  vast  that  a  flae  had  to  oe  waved  to  show  the 
people  when  to  respond.  At  the  head  of  this  assembly, 
on  the  h^hest  throne,  was  seated  the  alabarch,  the 
brother  ^Philo.  Philo  himself  was  a  man  of  wealth 
and  learning,  who  mingled  with  all  classes  of  men  and 
frequented  the  tiieatre  and  the  great  library.  Equally 
at  home  in  the  Septuagint  and  the  Greek  classics,  he 
was  struck  and  perplexed  by  the  many  beautiful  and 
noble  thou^ts  contained  in  the  latter,  which  could 
bear  comparison  with  many  passages  of  the  Bible. 
As  this  difficulty  must  have  frequently  presented  it- 
self to  the  minds  of  his  coreligionists,  he  endeavoured 
to  meet  it  by  saying  that  all  that  was  great  in  So- 
crates, Plato,  etc.  originated  with  Moses.  He  set 
about  reconciling  Pagan  philosophy  with  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  for  this  purpose  he  made  extensive  use  of 
the  alle^rical  method  of  interpretation.  Many  pas- 
sages of  the  Pentateuch  were  not  intended  to  be  taken 
literally.  They  were  literally  false,  but  allegorically 
true.  He  did  not  hit  upon  the  distinction,  made 
later  by   St.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  other  Catholic 


OOMBiENTABin 


158 


OOMMENTABIKS 


thinkers,  between  natural  and  revealed  religion.  The 
Bible  contains  not  only  revealed  but  also  natural 
religion,  free  from  error  and  with  Divine  sanction. 
Pagan  systems  may  have  natural  religion  highly 
developed,  but  with  much  concomitant  error.  Though 
this  distinction  did  not  occur  to  Philo,  his  exegesis 
served  to  tide  over  the  difficulty  for  the  time  amongst 
the  Hellenistic  Jews,  and  had  great  influence  on 
Origen  and  other  Alexandrian  Christian  writers. 

(2)  The  Tarqums. — In  order  to  get  on  the  main 
lines  of  Jewish  mterpretation  it  is  necessarv  to  turn  to 
the  Holy  Land.  Farrar,  in  his  "Life  of  Christ",  says 
that  it  has  been  suggested  that  when  Christ  visited 
the  Temple,  at  twelve  years  of  age,  there  may  have 
been  present  among  the  doctors  Jonathan  ben  TJzziel, 
once  thought  the  author  of  the  Yonathan  Targum, 
and  the  venerable  teachers  Hillel  and  Shammai,  the 
handers-on  of  the  Mishna.  The  Taigums  (the  most 
famous  of  which  is  that  on  the  Pentateuch  erroneously 
attributed  to  Onkelos,  a  misnomer  for  Aquila,  accord- 
ing to  Abrahams)  were  the  only  approach  to  anythine 
like  a  commentary  on  the  Bible  before  the  tmfie  c? 
Christ.  They  were  interpretative  translations  or 
paraphrases  from  Hebrew  mto  Aramaic  for  the  use  of 
the  synagogues  when,  after  the  Exile,  the  people  had 
lost  the  knowledge  of  Hebrew.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  any  of  them  were  committed  to  writing  be- 
fore the  Christian  Era.  They  are  important  as  indi- 
cating the  character  of  the  Hebrew  text  used,  and  be- 
cause they  agree  with  the  New  Testament  in  inter- 
preting certain  passages  Messianically  which  later 
Jews  denied  to  have  any  Messianic  bearing. 

(3)  The  Mishna  and  Talmuds. — Hillel  and  Shammai 
were  the  last  ''pair*'  of  several  generations  of  *' pairs" 
of  teachers.  These  pairs  were  the  successors  of  the 
early  scribes  who  lived  after  the  Exile.  These  teach- 
ers are  said  to  have  handed  down  and  expanded  the 
Oral  Law,  which,  according  to  the  uncritical  view  of 
many  Jews,  began  with  Moses.  This  Oral  Law, 
whose  origin  is  biu-ied  in  obscurity,  consists  of  legal 
and  liturgical  interpretations  and  applications  of  we 
Pentateuch.  As  no  part  of  it  was  written  down,  it 
was  preserved  by  constant  repetition  (Mishna),  On 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  several  rabbis,  learned  in 
this  Law,  settled  at  Jamnia,  near  the  sea,  twenty- 
eight  miles  west  of  Jerusalem.  Jamnia  became  the 
h^ul-quarters  of  Jewish  learning  until  135.  Then 
sdiools  were  opened  at  Sepphoris  and  Tiberias  to  the 
west  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The  rabbis  comforted 
their  countrymen  by  teaching  that  the  study  of  the 
Law  (Oral  as  well  as  Written)  took  the  place  of  the 
sacrifices.  Th^  devoted  their  energies  to  arranging 
the  Unwritten  Torah,  or  Law.  One  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful at  this  was  Rabbi  Akiba  who  took  part  in  the 
revolt  of  Bar-Kokba,  against  the  Romans,  and  lost 
his  life  (136).     The  work  of  systematization  was  com- 

Sleted  and  probably  committed  to  writing  by  the 
ewish  patriarch  at  Tiberias,  Rabbi  Jehudah  ha-Nasi 
"The  Prince"  (150-210).  He  was  of  noble  birth, 
wealthy,  learned,  and  is  called  by  the  Jews  "  Our  Mas- 
ter the  Saint"  or  simply  Rabbi  par  excellence.  The 
compilation  made  by  tins  Rabbi  is  the  Mishna.  It  is 
written  in  New  Hebrew,  and  consists  of  six  great  divi- 
sions or  orders,  each  division  containing,  on  an  aver- 
age, about  ten  tractates,  each  tractate  being  made  up 
of  several  chapters.  The  Mishna  may  be  said  to  be  a 
compilation  of  Jewish  traditional  moral  theology, 
liturgy,  law,  etc.  There  were  other  traditions  not 
embodied  in  the  work  of  Rabbi,  and  these  are  called 
additional  Mishna. 

The  discussions  of  later  generations  of  rabbis  all 
centred  round  the  text  of  tne  Mishna.  Interpreters 
or  "speakers"  laboured  upon  it  both  in  Palestine  and 
Babylonia  (until  500),  and  the  results  are  comprised 
in  the  Palestinian  and  Babylonian  Talmuds.  The 
word  Talmud  means  teaching,  doctrine.  Each  Tal- 
mud consists  of  two  parts,  the  Mishna  (in  Hebrew),  in 


sixty-three  tractates,  and  an  explanation  of  the  same 
(Gemarc),  ten  or  twelve  times  as  long.  The  explana- 
tory portion  of  the  Palestinian  Talmud  is  written  in 
Western  Aramaic  and  that  of  the  Babylonian  Tidmud 
in  Eastern  Aramaic,  which  is  closely  allied  to  Syiiac 
or  Mandaic.  The  passages  in  the  Gemara  containing 
additional  Mishna  are,  however,  given  in  New  He* 
brew.  Only  thirty-nine  tractates  of  the  Mishna  have 
Gemara.  The  Talmud,  then,  consists  of  the  Mishna 
(traditions  from  460  b.  c.  till  a.  d.  200),  together  with 
a  commentary  thereon,  Gemara,  the  latter  being 
composed  about  a.  d.  200*500.  Next  to  the  Bible 
the  Babylonian  Talmud  is  the  great  religious  book  of 
orthodox  Jews,  though  the  Palestinian  Talmud  is 
more  highly  prized  by  modem  scholars.  From  the 
year  500  till  the  Middle  Ages  the  rabbis  {geomm)  in 
Babylonia  and  elsewhere  were  engaged  in  comment- 
ing on  the  Talmud  and  reconciling  it  with  the  Bible. 
A  list  of  such  commentaries  is  given  in  "The  Jewish 
Encyclopedia  ". 

(4)  The  MtidrcMMm.— Simultaneously  with  the 
Mislma  and  Talmud  there  grew  up  a  number  of 
Midrashim,  or  commentaries  on  the  Bible.  Some  of 
these  were  1^9,li8tic,  like  the  Gemara  of  the  Talmud; 
but  the  most  important  were  of  an  edifying,  homi- 
letic  character  (Midrash  Haggadah).  These  latter 
are  important  for  the  corroborative  light  which  they 
throw  on  the  language  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
Gospel  of  St.  Jonn  is  seen  to  be  steeped  in  early 
Jewish  phraseology,  and  the  words  of  Ps.  cix,  "The 
Lord  said  to  my  Lord",  etc.  are  in  one  place  applied 
to  the  Messias,  as  they  are  in  St.  Matthew,  tnou^ 
Rashi  and  later  Jews  deprived  them  of  their  Messianic 
sense  by  applying  them  to  Abraham. 

(5)  Karaite  Commentators. — ^When  the  nature  of 
the  Talmud  and  other  such  writings  is  considered,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  they  produced  a  violent  reaction 
against  Rabbinism  even  among  the  Jews  themselves. 
In  spite  of  the  few  gems  of  thoiu^ht  scattered  through 
it  at  long  intervals,  there  is  nothing  in  anyliterature 
so  entirdy  uninviting  as  the  Talmud.  The  oppos- 
ition to  these  "  traditions  of  men"  finally  took  shape. 
Anan  ben  David,  a  prominent  Babylonian  Jew  in  the 
eighth  century,  rejected  Rabbinism  for  the  written 
Old  Testament  and  became  the  founder  of  the  sect 
known  as  Karaites  (a  word  indicating  their  preference 
for  the  written  Bible).  This  schism  produced  great 
energy  and  ability  on  both  sides.  The  principal 
Karaite  Bible  commentators  were  Mahavenoi  (ninth 
century) ;  Abul-Faraj  Harun  (ninth  century),  exegete 
and  Hebrew  grammarian;  Solomon  ben  Yerucham 
(tenth  century) ;  Sahal-ben  Mazliach  (d.  960),  Hebrew 
grammarian  and  lexicographer;  Joseph  al-Bazir  (d. 
930) ;  Japhet  ben  Ali,  the  greatest  Karaite  commen- 
tator of  the  tenth  century;  and  Judah  Hadassi  (d. 
1160). 

(6)  Middle  Ayes.— Saadiah  of  Faytoi  (d.  892),  the 
most  powerful  writer  against  the  Karaites,  translated 
the  Bible  into  Arabic  and  added  notes.  Besides  com- 
mentaries on  the  Bible,  Saadiah  wrote  a  systematic 
treatise  bringing  revealed  religion  into  harmony  with 
Greek  philosopny.  He  thus  oecame  the  forerunner 
of  Maimonides  and  the  Catholic  Schoolmen.  Solomon 
ben  Isaac,  called  Rashi  (b.  1040)  wrote  very  popular 
explanations  of  the  Talmud  and  the  Bible.  Abraham 
Ibn  Ezra  of  Toledo  (d.  1168)  had  a  good  knowledge  of 
Oriental  languages  and  wrote  learned  commentaries 
on  the  Old  Testament.  He  was  the  first  to  maintain 
that  Isaias  contains  the  work  of  two  prophets.  Moses 
Maimonides  (d.  1204).  the  greatest  Jewish  scholar  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  of  whom  his  coreligionists  said  that 
''from  Moses  to  Moses  there  was  none  like  Moees'j 
wrote  his  "Guide  to  the  Perplexed",  which  was  read 
by  St.  Thomas.  He  was  a  great  admirer  of  Aristotle, 
who  was  to  him  the  representative  of  natural  knowl- 
edge as  the  Bible  was  of  the  supernatural.  There 
were  the  two  Kimchis,  especially  David  (d.  1236)  of 


OOMMENTABISS 


159 


OOMMENTABISS 


Narbonne,  who  was  a  celebrated  grammarian^  lexicog^ 
rapher,  and  commentator  inclined  to  the  literal  sense. 
He  was  followed  by  Nachmanides  of  Catalonia  (d. 
1270),  a  doctor  of  medicine  who  wrote  commentaries 
of  a  cabbalistic  tendency;  Immanuel  of  Rome  (b. 
1270);  and  the  Karaites,  Aaron  ben  Joseph  (1294), 
and  Aaron  ben  Elias  (fourteenth  century). 

(7)  Modem, — Isaac  Abarbanel  (b.  Lisbon,  1437;  d. 
Venice,  1508)  was  a  statesman  and  scholar.  None  of 
his  predecessors  came  so  near  the  modem  ideal  of  a 
commentator  as  he  did.  He  prefixed  general  intro- 
ductions to  each  book,  and  was  the  first  Jew  to  make 
extensive  use  of  Christian  commentaries.  Elias 
Levita  (d.  1549)  and  Asanas  de  Rossi  (d.  1577)  have 
also  to  be  mentioned.  Moses  Mendelssohn  of  Beritn 
(d.  1786),  a  friend  of  Lessing,  translated  the  Penta- 
teuch into  German.  His  commentaries  (in  Hebrew) 
are  close,  learned,  critical,  and  acute.  He  has  had 
much  infiuence  in  modernizing  Jewish  methods. 
Mendelssohn  has  been  followed  by  Wessely,  Jaroslaw, 
Homberg,  Euchel,  Friedlander,  Hertz,  Herxheimer, 
Philippson,  etc.,  called  "Biurists",  or  expositors. 
The  modem  liberal  school  amoxu|  the  Jews  is  repre- 
sented by  Munk,  Luzzato,  Zunz,  Geiger,  Ftlrst,  etc.  In 
past  a^  the  Jews  attributed  both  the  Written  and  the 
Unwritten  Torahs  to  Moses;  some  modem  Jews  seem 
disposed  to  deny  that  he  had  anything  to  do  with  either. 

II.  Patristic  Commentaries. — ^The  history  of 
Christian  exegesis  may  be  roughly  divided  into  three 
periods:  the  Age  of  tne  Fathers,  the  Age  of  Catenie 
and  Scholia  (seventh  to  sixteenth  century),  and  the 
Age  of  Modem  Commentaries  (sixteenth  to  twentieth 
century).  Most  of  the  patristic  commentaries  are  in 
the  form  of  homilies,  or  discourses  to  the  faithful,  and 
range  over  the  whole  of  Scripture.  There  are  two 
schools  of  interpretation,  that  of  Alexandria  and  that 
of  Antioch. 

(1)  Alexandrian  School. — ^The  chief  writers  of  the 
Alexandrian  School  were  Pantsenus,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Origen,  Dioiwsius  of  Alexandria,  Didy- 
mus  the  blind  priest,  Cjnril  of  Alexandria,  and 
Pierius.  To  these  may  be  added  St.  Ambrose,  who, 
in  a  moderate  degree,  adopted  their  system.  Its  chief 
characteristic  was  the  allegorical  method.  This  was, 
doubtless,  founded  on  passages  in  the  (Gospels  and  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  but  it  received  a  strong  iinpulse 
from  the  writings  of  Alexandrian  Jews,  especially  of 
Philo.  The  great  representative  of  this  school  was 
Origen  (d.  254).  From  his  very  earliest  years  Origen 
manifested  such  extraordinary  marks  of  piety  and 

genius  that  he  was  held  in  the  very  highest  reverence 
y  his  father,  himself  a  saint  and  martyr.  Origen 
became  the  master  of  many  great  saints  and  scholars, 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  Deicug  St.  Gregory  Thauma> 
turgus;  he  was  known  as  the  ''Adamantine"  on 
account  of  his  incessant  application  to  study,  writing, 
lecturing,  and  works  of  piety.  He  frequently  kept 
seven  amanuenses  actively  employed;  it  was  said  he 
became  the  author  of  6000  works  (Epiphanius,  Hser., 
Ixiv,  63);  according  to  St.  Jerome,  who  reduced  the 
number  to  2000  (Contra.  Rufin.,  ii,  22),  he  left  more 
writings  than  any  man  could  read  in  a  lifetime 
(E2p.  xxxiii,  ad  Paulam).  Besides  his  peat  labours 
on  the  Hexapla  he  wrote  scholia,  homilies,  and  com- 
mentaries on  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament.  In 
his  scholia  he  gave  short  explanations  of  difficult 
passages  after  the  manner  of  his  contemporaries, 
the  annotators  of  the  Greek  classics.  Most  of  the 
scholia,  in  which  he  chiefly  sought  the  literal  sense, 
are  unfortunateljy  lost,  but  it  is  supposed  that 
their  substance  is  embodied  in  the  writings  of  St. 
John  Chrysostom  and  other  Fathers.  In  his  other 
works  Ongen  pushed  the  allegorical  interpretation  to 
the  utanost  extreme.  In  spite  of  this,  however,  his 
writings  were  of  great  value,  and  with  the  exception 
of  St.  Augustine,  no  writer  of  ancient  times  had  such 
influenoe.    It  is  lamentable  that  this  great  man  fell 


into  serious  error  on  the  origin  of  souls,  the  eternity 
of  hell,  etc. 

(2)  Antiochene  School. — The  writers  of  the  Anti- 
ochene  School  disliked  the  allegorical  method,  and 
sought  almost  exclusively  the  literal,  primary,  or 
historical  sense  of  Holy  Scripture.  The  principal 
writers  of  this  school  were  St.  Lucian,  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia,  Maris  of  Chalcedon,  Eudoxius,  Theognis 
of  Nieaea,  Asterius,  Anus  the  heresiarch,  Diodorus  of 
Antioch  (Bishop  of  Tarsus),  and  his  three  great  pupils, 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  Theodore's  brother  Poly- 
chromius,  and  St.  John  Chrysostom.  With  these 
may  be  counted  St.  Ephraem  on  account  of  his 
preference  for  the  literal  sense.  The  great  represen- 
tatives of  this  school  were  Diodorus,  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  and  St.  John  ChryBOstom.  Diodorus. 
who  died  Bishop  of  Tarsus  (394),  followed  the  literal 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  myBtical  or  allegorical  sense. 
Theodore  was  born  at  Antioch,  in  347,  b^ame  Bishop 
of  Mopsuestia,  and  died  in  the  communion  of  the 
Church,  429.  He  was  a  powerful  thinker,  but  an 
obscure  and  prolix  writer.  He  felt  intense  dislike  for 
the  mystical  sense,  and  explained  the  Scriptures  in 
an  extremely  literal  and  almost  rationalistic  manner. 
His  pupil,  Nestorius,  became  a  founder  of  heresy: 
the  ifestorians  translated  his  books  into  Syriac  ana 
regarded  Theodore  as  their  g^e&t  "Doctor".  This 
made  Catholics  suspicious  of  ms  writings,  which  were 
finallycondemned  after  the  famous  controversy  on 
The  Three  Chapters.  Theodore's  commentary  on 
St.  John's  Gospel,  in  Syriac,  has  recently  been  pub- 
lished, with  a  Latin  translation,  by  a  Catholic  scholar. 
Dr.  C^habot.  St.  John  Chrysostom,  priest  of  Antioch, 
became  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  398.  As  an 
interpreter  of  Holy  Scripture  he  stands  in  the  very 
first  rank  of  the  Fathers.  He  left  homilies  on  most 
of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments 
There  is  nothing  in  the  whole  of  antiquity  to  equal 
his  writings  on  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  and  St.  Paul's 
Epistles.  When  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  was  asked  by 
one  of  his  brethren  whether  he  would  not  like  to  be 
the  owner  of  Paris,  so  that  he  could  dispose  of  it  to 
the  King  of  France  and  with  the  proceeds  promote 
the  good  works  of  his  order,  he  answered  that  he 
would  prefer  to  be  the  possessor  of  Chrysostom's 
"Super  Matthseum".  This  reply  may  be  taken  as 
the  true  expression  of  the  high  admiration  in.  which 
the  writings  of  St.  Chrysostom  have  ever  been  held 
in  the  Church.  St.  Isidore  of  Pelusium  said  of  him 
that  if  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  could  have  used  Attic 
speech  he  would  have  explained  his  own  Epistles  in 
the  identical  words  of  St.  John  Chrysostom. 

(3)  Intermedtaie  School. — The  other  Fathers  com- 
bined what  was  best  in  both  these  systems,  some  lean- 
ing more  to  the  allegorical  and  some  to  the  literal  sense. 
The  principal  were  Isidore  of  Pelusium,  Theodoret,  St. 
Basil,  St.  (jrregory  of  Nazianzus,  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Ambrosiaater,  St.  Jerome,  St. 
Augustine,  St.  Gregoiy  the  Great,  and  Pelagius.  St. 
Jerome,  perhaps  the  greatest  Biblical  scholar  of  an- 
cient times,  besides  his  famous  translations  of  the 
Scripture,  and  other  works,  left  many  useful  commen- 
taries, some  of  great  merit.  In  others  he  departed  too 
much  from  the  literal  meaning  of  the  text.  In  the 
hurry  of  composition  he  did  not  always  sufficiently 
indicate  when  he  was  quoting  from  different  authors, 
and  this,  according  to  Richard  Simon,  accounts  for  his 
apparent  discrepancies. 

III.  Medieval  Commentaries. — ^The  medieval 
writers  were  content  to  draw  from  the  rich  treasures 
left  them  by  their  predecessors.  Their  commentaries 
consisted,  for  the  most  part,  of  passages  from  the 
Fathers,  which  they  connected  together  as  in  a  chain, 
catena  (q.  v.).  We  cannot  give  more  than  the  names 
of  the  principal  writers,  with  the  century  after  each. 
Though  they  are  not  all  known  as  catenists  they  may 
be  regarded  as  such,  for  all  practical  purposes. 


OOMMENTABlXft 


160 


OOMHtHrTABItt 


(1)  Greek  Caienists, — Procopius  of  Gaza  (sixth  cen- 
utry)  was  one  of  the  first  to  write  a  catena.  He  was 
followed  by  St.  Maximus,  Martyr  (seventh),  St.  John 
Damascene  (eighth),  Olynipiodorus  (tenth),  (Ecnme- 
nius  (tenth),  Nicetas  of  Constantinople  (eleventh), 
Thcoph;y[lactus,  Archbishop  in  Bulgaria  (eleventh), 
Euthymius  Zigabenus  (twelfth),  and  the  writers  of 
anonymous  catena  edited  by  Cramer  and  Cardinal 
Mai. 

(2)  Latin  CatenisiSj  ScholiatiSf  etc, — The  principal 
Latin  conmientators  of  this  period  were  the  Venerable 
Bede,  Walafrid  Strabo,  Anseun  of  Laon,  Hugh  of  Saint- 
Cher,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Nicholas  de  Lyra. 
The  Venerable  Bede  (seventh  to  eighth  century),  a 
good  Greek  and  Hebrew  scholar,  wrote  a  useful  com- 
mentary on  most  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testament.  It  is  in  reahty  a  catena  of  passages  from 
Greek  and  Latin  Fathers  judiciously  selected  and  di- 
gested. Walafrid  Strabo  (ninth  century),  a  Bene- 
dictine, wrote  the  "Glossa  Ordinaria"  on  the  entire 
Bible.  It  is  a  brief  explanation  of  the  literal  and 
mystical  sense,  based  on  Rabanus  Maurus  and  other 
Latin  writers,  and  was  one  of  the  most  popular  works 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  being  as  well  known  as  "  The 
Sentences*'  of  Peter  Lombard.  Anselm,  Dean  of 
Laon,  and  professor  at  Paris  (twelfth  century),  wrote 
the  ''Glossa  Interlinearis",  so  called  because  the  ex- 
planation was  inserted  between  the  lines  of  the  Vulgate. 
The  Dominican  cardinal,  Hugh  of  Saint-Cher  (Hugo  de 
Sancto  Caro,  thirteenth  century),  besides  his  famous 
''Concordance",  composed  a  short  commentary  on 
the  whole  of  the  Scriptures,  explaining  the  literal, 
allegorical,  analogical,  and  moral  sense  of  the  text. 
His  work  was  called  "Postillse",  i.  e.  post  iUa  (verba 
textus),  because  the  explanation  followed  the  words  of 
the  text.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (thirteenth  centuty) 
left  commentaries  on  Job,  Psalms, .  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul,  and  was  the  author  of  the  well-known  ''Catena 
Aurea*'  on  the  Gospels.  This  consists  of  quotations 
from  over  eighty  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers.  He 
throws  much  light  on  the  literal  sense  and  is  most 
happy  in  illustrating  difficult  points  by  parallel  pas- 
sages from  other  parts  of  the  Bible.  Nicholas  de 
Lyra  (thirteenth  century),  a  converted  Jew,  joined 
the  Franciscans  in  1291,  and  brought  to  the  service  of 
the  Church  his  great  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  rab- 
binicaUeaming.  He  wrote  short  notes  or  *'  Postillae ' ' 
on  the  entire  Bible,  and  set  forth  the  literal  meaning 
with  great  ability,  especially  of  the  books  written 
in  Hebrew.  This  work  was  most  popular,  and  in 
frequent  use  during  the  late  Middle  Ages,  and 
Luther  was  indebted  to  it  for  his  display  of  learning. 
A  great  impulse  was  given  to  exegetical  studies  by 
the  Council  of  Vienne  which  decreed,  in  1311,  that 
chairs  of  Hebrew,  Chaldean,  and  Arabic  should 
be  established  at  Paris,  Oxford,  Bologna,  and  Sala- 
manca. 

Besides  the  great  writers  already  mentioned  the 
following  are  some  of  the  principal  exegetes,  many  of 
them  Benedictines,  from  patristic  times  till  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent:  Cassiodonis  (sixth  century);  St.  Isidore 
of  Seville  (seventh) ;  St.  Julian  of  Toledo  (seventh) ; 
Alcuin  (eighth) ;  Rabanus  Maurus  (ninth) ;  Dmthmar 
(ninth) ;  Remigius  of  Auxerre  (ninth) ;  St.  Bnmo  of 
Wtlrzburg,  a  distinguished  Greek  and  Hebrew  scholar; 
St.  Bruno,  founder  of  the  Carthusians  (eleventh)* 
Gilbert  of  Poir6e;  St.  Rupert  (twelfth);  Alexander  oi 
Hales  (thirteenth);  Albertus  Magnus  (thirteenth); 
Paul  of  Burgos  (fourteenth  to  fifteenth);  Alphonsus 
Tostatus  of  Avila  (fifteenth);  Ludolph  of  Saxony; 
and  Dionysius  the  Carthusian,  who  wrote  a  pious 
commentary  on  the  whole  of  the  Bible;  Jacobus 
Faber  Stapulensis  (fifteenth  to  sixteenth);  Gagnieus 
(fifteenth  to  sixteenth).  Erasmus  and  Cardinal  Ca- 
ietan  (sixteenth)  wrote  in  a  scientific  spirit,  but  have 
been  justly  blamed  for  some  rash  opinions. 

IV.  Modern  Catholic  Commkntariss. — The  in- 


flux oi  Greek  scholars  into  Italy  on  the  fall  of  Con- 
stantinople, the  Christian  and  anti-Christian  Renais- 
sance, the  invention  of  printing,  the  controversial  ex- 
citement caused  bv  the  rise  of  Protestantism,  and  the 
publication  of  polyglot  Bibles  by  Cardinal  Ximenes 
and  others,  gave  renewed  interest  to  the  study  of  the 
Bible  among  Catholic  scholars.  ,  Controversy  showed 
them  the  necessity  of  devoting  more  attention  to  the 
literal  meaning  of  the  text,  according  to  the  wise  prin- 
ciple laid  down  by  St.  Thomas  in  the  beginning  <m  his 
''Sununa  Theologica". 

It  was  then  that  the  sons-  of  St.  Ignatius,  who 
founded  his  order  in  1534,  stepped  into  t£e  front  rank 
to  repel  the  attacks  on  the  Church.  The  Katio  Studi- 
orum  of  the  Jesuits  made  it  incumbent  on  their  pro- 
fessors of  Scripture  to  acquire  a  mastery  of  Greek, 
Hebrew,  and  other  Oriental  languages.  Salmeron, 
one  of  the  first  companions  of  St.  Ignatius,  and  the 
pope's  theolc^an  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  Was  a  dis* 
tinguished  Hebrew  scholar  and  voluminous  commen- 
tator. Bellarmine,  one  of  the  first  Christians  to 
write  a  Hebrew  grammar,  composed  a  valuable  com- 
mentaiy  on  the  Psalms,  giving  an  exposition  of  the 
Hebrew,  Septuagint,  and  Vulgate  texts.  It  was  pub- 
lished as  part  of  Cornelius  a  Lapide's  commentaiy  on 
the  whole  Bible.  Cornelius  a  Lapide,  S.  J.  (b.  1566), 
was  a  native  of  the  Low  Countries,  and  was  well 
versed  in  Greek  and  Hebrew.  During  forty  years  he 
devoted  himself  to  teaching  and  to  the  composition  of 
his  great  work,  which  has  been  highly  praised  by 
Protestants  as  well  as  CathoUcs.  Maidonatus,  a 
Spanish  Jesuit,  bom  1534,  wrote  commentaries  on 
Isaias,  Baruch,  Ezechiel,  Daniel,  Psalms,  Proverbs. 
Canticles  (Song  of  Solomon),  and  Ecclesiastes.  His 
best  work,  however,  is  his  Latin  commentary  on  the 
Four  Gospels,  which  is  generally  acknowledged  to  be 
one  of  the  best  ever  written.  When  Maidonatus  was 
teaching  at  the  University  of  Paris  the  hall  was  filled 
with  eager  students  before  the  lecture  b«zan,  and  he 
had  frequently  to  speak  in  the  open  air.  Great  as  was 
the  merit  of  the  work  of  Maidonatus,  it  was  equalled 
by  the  commentary  on  the  Epistles  by  Estius  (b.  at 
Gioreum,  Holland,  1542),  a  secular  priest,  and  superior 
of  the  College  at  Douai.  These  two  works  are  still  of 
the  greatest  help  to  the  student.  Many  other  Jesuits 
were  the  authors  of  valuable  ex^tical  works,  e.  g.: 
Francis  Ribera  of  Castile  (b.  1514);  Cardinal  Toletus 
of  Cordova  (b.  1532);  Manuel  Sa  (d.  1596);  Bon- 
fi^re  of  Dinant  (b.  1573):  Mariana  of  Talavera 
(b.  1537);  Alcazar  of  Sevflle  (b.  1554):  Bajradius 
"the  Apostle  of  PortugsJ";  SAnches  of  AlcalA  (d. 
1628);  Serarius  of  Lorraine  (d.  1609);  Lorinus  of 
Avignon  (b.  1559);  Tirinus  of  Antwerp  (b.  1580); 
Menochius  of  Pavia;  Pereira  of  Valencia  (d.  1610); 
and  Pineda  of  Seville. 

The  Jesuits  were  rivalled  by  Arias  Montanus  (d. 
1598),  the  editor  of  the  Antwerp  Polyglot  Bible;  Six- 
tus  of  Siena,  O.  P.  (d.  1569) ;  John  Wfld  (Ferus),  O.  S. 
F.;  Dominic  Soto,  O.P.  (d.  1560);  Masius  (d.  1573); 
Jansen  of  Ghent  (d.  1576);  G^n6brard  of  Quny  (d. 
1597);  Agellius  (d.  1608);  Luke  of  Bruges  (d.  1619); 
Calasius,  O.  S.  F.  (d.  1620) ;  Malvenda,  O.  P.  (d.  1628); 
Jansen  of  Ypres;  Simeon  de  Muis  (d.  1644);  Jean 
MMn,  Gratorian  (d.  1659);  Isaac  Le  Maistre  (de 
Sacy) ;  JohnSjdveira,  Carmelite  (d.  1687) ;  Bossuet  (d. 
1704);  Richard  Simon,  Gratorian  (d.  1712);  Calmet, 
Gratorian,  who  wrote  a  valuable  dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  of  which  there  is  an  English  translation,  and  a 
hif^y  esteemed  conmientary  on  all  the  books  of 
Scripture  (d.  1757);  Louis  de  Carri^sres,  Gratorian  (d. 
1717);  Piconio,  Capuchm  (d.  1709);  Lamy,  Gratorian 
(d.  1715);  Guarin,  O,  S.B.  (d.  1729);  HoubiKmt,  Gra- 
torian (d.  1783);  Smits,  RecoUect  (1770);  Le  Long, 
Gratorian  (d.  1721);  Brentano  (d.  1797).  During 
the  nineteenth  centuiy  the  following  were  a  few  of  the 
Catholic  writers  on  the  Bible:  Schds,  Hug,  Jahn,  Le 
Hir,  AUk)li,  Mayer,  van  Essen,  Glaire,  Beelin,  Hane- 


ooHuwnMsaB 


161 


OOMMUrfABIIB 


berg,  Meigoan,  Reithmayr,  Patrizi,  Loch,  Biasing 
(his  oommentary  on  the  New  Testaoient  styled  ^ex* 
oellent"  by  Vigpuroiu;:),  Coriuy,  Fillion,  Les^tre,  Tro- 
chon  (Introductions  and  Oomm.  on  Old  and  New 
Test.,  ''La  Sainte  Bible '\  27  vols.),  Schegg,  Bacues, 
Kenrick,  McEvilly,  Amauld,  Schanz  (a  roost  valuable 
work,  in  German,  on  the  Gospels),  Fouard,  Maas, 
Vigouroux  (works  of  Introduction),  Ward,  Mclntyre, 
etc.  Catholics  have  also  published  important  scientif- 
i<»l  books.  There  is  the  aeat  Latin  '^Cursus "  on  the 
whole  of  the  Bible  by  the  Jesuit  Fathered  Comely, 
Knabenbauer,  and  Hummelauer.  The  writing  of 
Lagrange  (Les  Juges),  Condamin  (Isale),  Oalmes  (Saint 
Jean),  Van  Hoonacker  (Les  Douze  Petits  Proph^tes), 
etc.,  are  all  valuable  works.  For  a  list  of  modem 
CathoUc  publications  on  the  Scripture,  the  reader 
may  be  referred  to  the  "Revue  biblique'',  edited  by 
Lagrange  f  Jerusalem  and  Paris),  and  the  "Biblische 
Zeitschrift  ,  published  by  Herder  (Freiburg  im 
Breisgau).  For  further  information  concerning  the 
principal  Catholic  commentators  see  respective 
articles. 

V.  Non-Cathouc  CoiiMSNTARiES. — (1)  Ifi  Gen- 
eral.— The  commentaries  of  the  first  Reformers, 
Luther,  Melanchthon,  Calvin,  Zwingli,  etc..  are  mostly 
controversial,  and  are  now  seldom  quoted  by  scholars. 
Their  immediate  successors  were  t<x>  energetically  en- 
gaged in  polemics  among  themselves  to  devote  much 
time  to  regular  works  of  exegesis.  The  following- 
wrote  on  Holy  Scripture  during  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies. LutheranJB :  Gerhard ;  Geier ;  Calo v ;  S.  Schmid ; 
J .  H.  Michaelis ;  Lauge.  Cal  vinists ;  Drusius ;  Louis  de 
Dieu  (jareaX  Oriental  scholar);  Cappel;  Bochart;  Coo> 
oeius;  vitring^.  Socinians:  John  Crell  and  Jonaa 
Schllchting.  Arminians:  Hugo  Grotius  (a  man  of 
great  erudition) ;  Liinbroch ;  John  le  Qerc  (rationalis- 
tic). En^ish  Writers:  Brian  Walton  (London  Poly- 
glot), John  li^htfoot  (HorsB  Heb.  et  Talm.),  both 
mines  of  learnme;  Pearson,  etc.,  editors  of  '^Critici 
Sacri''  (oompUea  f  rom  the  best  Continental  writers, 
Catholic  and  Protestant);  Mayer*  S.  Clarke  (brief 
judicious  notes);  Wells;  Gill;  John  Wesley;  Dodd;  W, 
Lowth;  R.  Lowth;  and  the  editors  of  the  Reformer's 
Bible.  During  the  nineteenth  century:  Priestly 
(1803);  Burder  (1809);  D'Oyly  and  Mant  (1820);  A. 
Clarke  (1826,  leamed);  Boothroyd  (1823,  Hebrew 
scholar);  Thomas  Scott  (1822,  popular);  Matthew 
Henry  (1827,  a  practical  oomm.  on  Old  and  New 
Test.;;  Bloomfield  (Greek  Test.,  with  Eng.  notes, 
1832,  good  for  the  time) :  Kuinoel  (Philological  Comm. 
on  New  Test.,  1828);  Oldshausen  (1839);  Haevemick 
(1845);  Baumgarten  (1859);  Tholuck  (1843);  Trench 
(Parables,  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  Miracles,  N.  T.  Syn. 
— veiy  useful);  ''The  Speakers  Commentai^''  (still 
valui^le);  Alford  (Greelc  Test.,  with  critical  and 
exeg.  oomm.,  1856,  good);  Franz  Delitzsch  (1870), 
Ebrard  Hengstenberg  (1869);  Wordsworth  (The 
Greek  Test.,  with  notes,  1877);  Keil;  Ellicott  (Epp, 
of  St.  Paul,  highly  esteemed);  Conybeare  and 
Howson  (St.  Paul,  containing  much  useful  informa- 
tion) ;  Lange,  together  with  Schroeder,  Fay,  Cassel, 
Bacher,  Zoeckler,  Moll,  etc.  (Old  and  N.  Test.,  1864> 
78);  Lewin  (St,  Paul,  1878);  Beet;  Cook;  Gloag; 
Perowne; Bishop  lightfoot  (Epp.  of  St.  Paul);  West- 
oott.  There  were  many  commentaries  published  at 
Cambridge,  Oxford,  London,  etc.  (see  publishers' 
catalogues,  and  notices  in  ''Expositor'',  "Expository 
Times^',  and  "Journal  of  Theological  Studies"). 
Other  writers  are  Farrar,  A.  B.  Davidson,  Fausset, 
Plunuoer,  Plumptre,  Salmon, '  Swete,  Bruce,  Dods, 
Stanley,  Driver,  ICirkpatrick,  Sanday,  Green,  Hovey, 
Robinson,  SchafiT^  l^ngflB,  Moore,  Goulds  etc.  "The 
International  Cntical^mmentary"  is  a  work  by 
many  distinguished  American  and  Endish  scholars. 
There  are  also  the  Bible  dictionaries  of  ICitto,  Smith, 
and  Hastings.  Many  of  these  works,  especially  the 
later  ones,  are  valuable  for  their  scientific  method, 
IV  —11 


though  not  of  equal  value  for  their  views  or  conclusiDDa* 
[See  below  (3)  The  beet  modem  {rum-C.)  Commeniariee 
in  English.] 

(2)  Rationalistic  Commentaries,  —  The  English 
deists.  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  (d.  1648),  Hobbes, 
Blount,  Toland,  Lord  Shaftesbury  (d.  1713),  Mande- 
ville,  CoUins,  Woolston  (1731),  Tindal,  Moiigafu 
Chubb,  Lord  Bolingbroke  (d.  1751),  Annet,  and  David 
Hume  (d.  1776),  while  admittine  the  existence  of  God, 
rejected  the  supernatural,  and  made  desperate  at- 
tacks on  diif erent  parts  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment. They  were  ably  refuted  by  such  men  as  New- 
ton, Cudworth,  Boyle,  Bentley,  Lesley,  Locke,  Ibbot, 
Whiston,  S.  Clarke,  Sherlock,  Chandler,  Gilbert  West, 
Georgs  Lord  IMton,  Waterland,  Foster,  Warburton, 
Leland,  Law,  Lardner,  Watt,  Butler.  These  replies 
were  so  effective  that  in  Enigland  deism  practically 
died  with  Hume.  In  the  meantime,  unfortunatdy, 
the  opinions  of  the  English  rationalists  were  dissemi* 
nated  on  the  Continent  by  Voltaire  and  others.  In 
Germany  the  sraund  was  prepared  by  the  philosophy 
of  Christian  Wolff  and  the  writings  of  his  disciple 
Semler.  Greaib  scandal  was  caused  by  the.  posthu- 
mous writings  of  Raimarus,  which  were  published  by 
Leasing  between  1774-78  (The  Fragments  of  Wolfen- 
battel).  Lessing  pretended  that  he  discovered  the 
manuscript  in  the  ducal  library  of  WolfenbOttel  and 
that  the  author  was  unknown.  According  to  the 
"Fragments",  Moses,  Christ,  and  the  AposUes  were 
impostors.  Lessing  was  vigorously  attacked,  espe- 
cially by  Gdtze;  but  Lessing,  instead  of  meeting  nis 
opponent's  argiunents,  with  great  literary  skUl 
turned  him  to  ridicule.  The  rationalists,  however, 
soon  realised  that  the  Scriptures  had  too  genuine  a 
ring  to  be  treated  as  the  results  of  imposture.  Eich- 
horn,  in  his  "Introd.  to  the  OldTest.^'  (1789),  main- 
tained that  the  Scriptures  were  genuine  productions, 
but  that,  as  the  Jews  saw  the  intervention  of  God  in 
the  most  ordinary  natural  occurrences,  the  mirades 
should  be  explained  naturally,  and  he  proceeded  to 
show  how.  Paulus  (1761-1850),  following  the  lead 
.of  Eichhorn,  applied  to  the  Gospels  the  naturalistic 
method  of  explaining  miracles.  When  Paulus  was  a 
boy,  his  father's  mina  became  deranged,  he  constantly 
saw  his  deceased  wife  and  other  ministering  ang^s, 
and  he  perceived  miracles  everywhere.  After  a  time 
the  young  Paulus  began  to  shake  off  this  nifi^tmare 
and  amufim  himself  by  taking  advantage  of  his  fath- 
er's weakness,  and  playing  practical  jokes  upon  him. 
He  grew  up  with  the  most  bitter  disUke  f<»r  every- 
^ing  supernatural,  and  his  judgment  became  almost 
as  warped  as  that  of  his  father,  but  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  Apostles  and  earl^r  Christians  ap- 
peared to  him  to  be  people  just  like  his  worthy  parent, 
and  he  thou^t  that  they  distorted  natural  facts 
through  the  medium  of  their  excited  ima^nations. 
This  led  him  to  give  a  naturalistic  explanation  of  the 
Gospel  miracles. 

Tne  common  sense  of  the  Ciennan  rationalists  soon 
perceived,  however,  that  if  the  authenticity  of  the 
Sacred  Books  were  admitted,  with  Eichhorn  and 
Paulus,  the  naturalistic  explanation  of  these  two 
writers  was  ouite  as  absurd  as  the  impostor  system  of 
Raimarus.  In  order  to  do  away  with  the  superna- 
tural it  was  necessary  to  eet  rid  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  books;  and  to  this  the  observations  of  Richard 
Simon  and  Astruc  readily  lent  themselves.  G.  L 
Bauer,  Heyne  (d.  1812),  and  Creuser  denied  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  greater  portion  of  the  Pentateuch 
and  compared  it  to  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  The  greatest  advocate  of  suc^  views  was 
de  Wette  (1780-1849),  a  pupil  of  Paulus»  of  the  hol- 
Iqwneas  of  whose  method  he  soon  becan^  convinced. 
In  his  "Introd.  to  the  Old  Test."  (1806)  he  main- 
tained that  the  miraculous  narratives  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment were  but  popular  legends,  which,  in  passing 
from  mouth  to  mouth,  in  the  course  of  oenturies,  bo- 


001IMSlrt'A&tt» 


162 


0OMM»tTAltXB8 


came  transformed  and  transfused  with  the  marvellous 
and  the  supernatural;  and  were  finally  committed  to 
writing  in  perfectly  good  faith.  Strauss  (1808-74), 
in  his  ^Das  Leben  Jesu"  (1835)  applied  this  mythical 
explanation  to  the  Gospels.  He  showed  most  dearly 
that  if  with  Paulus  the  Crospels  are  allowed  to  be  au- 
thentici  the  attempt  to  exi^ain  the  miracles  naturally 
breaks  down  completelv.  Strauss  rejected  the  au- 
thenticity and  recorded  the  miraculous  accotmts  in 
the  Gospels  as  naive  legends,  the  productions  of  the 
pious  imaginations  of  the  early  generations  of  Chris- 
tians. The  views  of  Strauss  were  severely  criticized 
by  the  Catholics,  Kuhn,  Mack,  Hug,  and  Sepp,  and  by 
the  Protestants  Neander,  Tholuck,  XJllman,  Lange, 
Ewald,  Riggenbach,  Weiss,  and  Keim.  Baur  es- 
pecially, the  founder  of  the  Tubingen  School,  proved 
that  Strauss  ran  counter  to  the  most  cleariy  estab- 
lished facts  of  eariy  Christian  history,  and  showed  the 
folly  of  denying  the  historical  existence  of  Christ  and 
His  transcendent  personality.  Even  Strauss  lost  all 
confidence  in  his  own  sjrstem.  Baur,  unfortunately, 
originated  a  theory  which  was  for  a  time  in  great 
vo^e,  but  which  was  afterwards  abandoned  by  the 
majority  of  critics.  He  hdd  that  the  New  Testa- 
ment contains  the  writing?  of  two  antajgonistic  par- 
ties amongst  the  Apostles  and  eariy  Christians.  His 
principal  followers  were  Zeller.  Schw^er,  Planck, 
Kdslin,  Ritsch,  Hilgenfeld,  Volkmar,  '^bler,  Keim, 
Hosten.  some  of  whom,  however,  emancipated  them- 
selves from  their  master. 

Besides  the  writers  already  mentioned,  the  follow- 
ing wrote  in  a  rationalistic  spirit:  Emesti  (d.  1781), 
Semler  (1791),  Berthold  (1822),  the  RosemnttUers, 
Crusius  (1843),  Bertheau,  De  Wette,  Hupfeld,  Ewald, 
Thenius,  Fritzsche,  Justi,  Gesenius  (d.  1842),  Lon- 
gerke,  Bleek,  Bunsen  (1860),  Umbreit,  Kleinert, 
Knobel,  Nicolas,  Hirzel,  Kuenen,  J.  C.  K.  von  Hoff- 
mann, Hitzig  (d.  1875),  Sohulz  (1869),  B.  Weiss, 
Renan,  Tuch,  H.  A.  W.  Meyer  (and  his  continuators 
Huther,  Luneman,  Dusterdieck,  BrOckner,  etc.), 
Wellhausen,  Wieseler,  jQlicher,  Beyschlag,  H.  Holtz- 
nuinn,  and  his  collaborators  Schmiedel,  von  Soden, 
etc.  Holtzmann,  while  practicaU^  admitting  the 
authenticity  of  the  Gospels,  especially  of  St.  Mark, 
endeavours  to  explain  away  the  miracles.  He  ap- 
proaches the  subject  with  his  mind  made  up  that 
miracles  do  not  happen,  and  he  tries  to  get  rid  of 
them  by  cleverly  attempting  to  show  that  they  are 
merely  echoes  of  Old  Testament  miracle  stories.  In 
this  he  is  quite  as  unsuccessful  as  Paulus,  who  saw  in 
them  only  the  counterpart  of  the  distorted  imaginings 
of  his  unfortunate  father.  Holtzmann  is  severely 
taken  to  task  by  several  writers  in  the  *'  International 
Critical  Commentary".  The  attempt  to  get  rid  of 
the  supernatural  Ivs  completely  failed;  but  the 
activity  of  so  many  acute  minds  has  thrown  great 
lig^t  on  the  language  and  literature  of  the  Bible. 

(3)  The  Best  Modem  (norirCatholic)  C&mmerUanesin 
Englxth. — ^There  is  a  very  useful  list  of  such  commen- 
taries in  "The  Expository  Times"  (vol.  XIV,  Jan. 
and  Feb.,  1903,  151,  203),  by  Henry  Bond,  Librarian 
of  Woolwich.  It  is  the  result  of  opinions  which  he 
obtained  from  manv  of  the  most  renowned  English 
scholars.  The  number  of  votes  given  for  the  different 
works  is  printed  after  each  name;  but  no  name  ap- 
peara  on  the  list  unless  it  received  more  than  five 
votes.  The  editor.  Dr.  James  Hastings,  added  judi- 
cious notes  and  observations  (270,  358).  The  follow- 
ing list  is  based,  in  great  measure,  on  these  papers, 
supplemented  from  other  sources.  The  woncs  are 
distm^ished  as  follows:  (e)  excellent;  (g)  good; 
(f)  fair.  Some  of  those  marked  (g)  and  (f)  were 
ezodlent  for  the  time  in  which  they  were  published; 
and  they  ma^  still  be  re^rded  as  serviceable.  The 
characterization  of  each  is,  of  course,  from  the  non- 
Catholic  point  of  view. 

Old  Testament. — Introduction:    Driver,  "Introd. 


to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Test.",  written  from 
a  ''Higher  Critical"  standpoint;  on  tne  other  side  is 
the  powerful  book  by  Orr,  "The  Problem  of  the  Old 
Testament"  (London,  1906).  Both  contain  ample 
literatures. — Genesis:  Skinner,  in  "International 
Critical  Commentanr";  Spurrell  (g)  (notes  on  the 
text);  Delitzsch  (g),  and  EHllmann  (g);  Dods  in 
"Handbook  Series  . — Exodus:  There  is,  at  present, 
no  firstrclass  commentanr  on  Exod.;  Kennedy  in 
"Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Chadwick  fe). -—Leviticus:  Sten- 
ning  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Kalish  (g)  the  best  in 
English;  Driver  and  White  (f)  in  Polychrome 
Bible;  Ginsburg  (London);  Keuog  (f)  (London). — 
Numbers:  Buchanan  Gray  (e)  in  "int.  Crit.  Comm.": 
Kittell,  "History  of  the  Hebrews";  there  is  little  else 
to  refer  to,  as  the  others  are  out  of  date. — ^Deuter- 
onomy: Driver  (e)  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Harper 
(g).— -Josue:  Smith  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Maclear 
(0.--Judges:  Moore  (e)  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm."; 
Watson  (f);  Lias  (0— Ruth:  Briggs  in  "Int.  Crit. 
Comm. ".--Samuel:  Smith  (e)  in  "Et.  Crit.  Comm."; 
Kirkpatrick  (e). — Kings:  Brown  in  "Int.  Crit. 
Comm.";  Lumby,  an  excellent  popular  work. — 
Chronicles  (Paralip.):  Curtis  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm."; 
also  his  article  in  Hastily,  "  Diet,  of  the  Bible";  Ben- 
nett (g) ;  Barnes  (g). — E^ras  and  Nehemias:  Batten 
in  "  Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Kyle's  is  an  excellent  popular 
commentary:  Adeney  (f). — Esther:  Paton  in  "Int. 
Crit.  Comm.";  Lange  (f);  Adeney  (0- — ^Job:  There 
appears  to  be  no  first-rate  students'  commentary  on 
Job;  Davidson's  is  an  excellent  popular  book;  earlier 
works  of  Driver,  Gibson,  and  Cox  are  fair. — Psakns: 
Briggs  (e)  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Delitzsch  (c); 
Kirl^atrick  (e);  Perowne  (g);  Cheyne  (f). — Prov- 
erbs: Toy  (e)  in  "Int.  Crit.  ()omm.''. — Ecclesiastes: 
Barton  (e)  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Strong  (e);  Tyler 
(g);  Plumptre,  agoodpopular  coram.'  I^litzsch  (f); 
Wright  (0. — Song  of  Solomon  (Canticles):  Brigra  in 
"Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Harper,  a  valuable  work;  Gins- 
burg (f). — Isaias:  Driver  and  Gray  in  "Int.  Crit. 
Comm.";  Smith  (e);  Delitzsch  (g);  Cheyne  (f).— 
Jeremias:  Kirkpatrick  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm."; 
Streane  an  excellent  popular  work;  that  of  Ball 
and  Bennett  is  ^ood;  Orelli  (f). — Lamentations: 
Bri^  in  "Int.  Cnt.  Comm.";  Streane  and  Adeney, 
goc^  popular  books. — Ezechiel:  Cooke  and  Bur- 
ney  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Cobem  (g);  Toy  (f)  m 
"rolychrome  Bible";  Davidson  (e),  an  exceUent 
popular  commentary. — Daniel:  Peters  in  "Int.  Crit. 
Comm.";  Kennedy  (g);  Bevan  (g);  Driver  has  a 
first-class  popular  conunentary. — Amos  and  Osee: 
Harper  (e)  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  three  excellent 
popular  works  are  by  Smith,  Driver,  and  Cheyne. — 
Otner  Minor  Prophets:  Smith,  etc.,  in  "Int. 
Crit.  Comm.";  Smith  (e);  Davidson  (g),  and 
Perowne  (g);  Orelli  (f);  Dods,  "Post-exilian  Proph- 


fets",  in  Handbook  Series;  Low  (g);  Zechariah  (g); 
Pusey  (f). 

New  Testament. — Introduction:  Salmon,  "Introd. 
to  the  New  Test.",  an  excellent  book;  Westcott. 
"Canon  of  the  New  Test."  (7th  ed.,  1896);  Li^tfoot, 
''Essays  on  Supernatural  Religion"  (1893),  a  power- 
ful reply  to  the  attacks  of  an  anonymous  rationalist 
on  the  New  Test.;  also  his  "Dissertations  on  the 
Apostolic  Age",  and  Biblical  Essays;  Ramsay,  "St. 
Paul  the  Traveller",  "Was  Christ  bom  in  Bethle- 
hem?", etc.;  Hamack,  "St.  Luke  the  Physician", 
defends  the  authenticity  of  the  Gospel  and  Acts; 
Hawkins,  "  Howe  Synoptic®".  Text:  "variorum  New 
Test.";  Weymouth,  '^The  Resultant  Greek  Test.", 
showing  the  Greek  readings  of  eleven  great  editions; 
Westcott  and  Hort,  "The  New  Test,  m  Greek",  vol. 
11,  Introd.;  Salmon,  "Some  Criticism  of  the  Text" 
(1897),  a  criticism  of  Westcott  and  Hort;  "The  Ox- 
ford D^>ate  on  the  Textual  Criticism  of  the  New 
Test."  (Oxfofd,  1897):  Kenyon.  "Our  Bible  and  the 
Ancient  Manuscripts",  an  invaluable  book;  also  his 


OOMMniSS 


163 


OOMMIltlS 


'^Handbook  of  the  Textual  Criticiam  of  the  New 
Teat."  (1901);  Hammond,  "Outlines  of  Text.  Crit. 
applied  to  N.  Test. ''(Oxford);  Nestle  (also  tr.),andthe 
exnaustive  work  by  von  Soden  (both  in  Oennan).— St. 
Matthew's  Gospel:  Allen  (e)  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm."; 
Meyer  (e),  one  of  the  older  works,  but  still  used,  Dr. 
Hastings  says,  by  some  of  the  finest  scholars,  who 


(g)  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Hort  (g)  lindsay,  an  ex« 
cellent  little  book. — St.  Luke:  Plummer  (e)  in  "Int. 
Crit.  Coram.";  Wright  (g),  "St.  Luke's  Go^  in 
Greek";  Godet  (g)- Farrar  (g).— St.  John:  Westcott 
(e)  in  "Speaker's  Comm.",  the  most  highly  praised 
of  all  the  commentaries  on  St.  John's  Gospel;  Ber- 
nard in  "Int.  Crit.  Cbmm.";  Godet  (g);  Milligan  and 
Moulton  (g) ;  Dods  in  "  Exp.  Gr.  Test?'  (g) ;  Reith  (g). 
Acts:  fijiowling  (e),  "Exp.  Gr.  Test/',  one  of  the 
best  commentaries  on  Acts  m  any  language;  Turner 
in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Rendall  (g);  Lumby  (g) 
RackiuL*n  (g);  Page  (g). — ^Romans:  Sanday  and  Head- 
lam  (e)  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.",  one  of  the  best  com- 
mentaries in  existence  on  Romans,  rendering  all  other 
Ensiish  commentaries  superfluous. — ^I  Corinthians: 
Robertson  and  Walker  in  "  Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Evana 
(g)  in  J^Sp^MikOT's  Comm.";  Findlay  (g)  in  "Exp. 

(g);  G 


Greek  Test.";  Edwards  (g);  EUicott  (gj;  Godet  (f^; 

■      '         Meyer 
"Exp. 


Massie  in  Century  Bible  (g). — ^11  Corinthians:  Meyer 

(g),  m^Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Bernard  (g)  in  "Exp. 

Waite  (g)  in  "Speakers  Commen- 


% 


reek  Test.'  , 
tary". — Galatians:  Liglitfoot_(e)  (London,  1874),  a 


a  masterpiece  of  e: 
Comm."; Rendall  (g) in" 


Burton   in  "Int.   Crit. 
K  Greek,  Test.";  EUicott 


(g);  Ramsaj  (r);  Sanday  (^). — ^Ephesians:  Abbott  (e) 
in  "Int.  Cnt.  Comm."  (Edmbuigh);  Armitage  Robin- 
son (e);  Macpheraon  (g);  EUicott  (g)*6almond  (g)  in 
"Exp.  Greek  Test.";  Alford  (0  (London);  Meyer  (f); 
Miller,  good  but  daring. — ^PhiUppians  and  Philemon: 
Ughtfoot  (e),  another  masterpiece ;  Vincent  (e)  in  "  Int. 
Cnt.  Comm.";  EUicott  (0;  Moule  (g),  "PhUippian 
Studies",  and  in  "Camb.  Greek  Test."— Oolossians: 
Li^tfoot  (e). another  great  work;  Abbott  (e)  in  "Int. 
Cnt.  Comm."  (in  the  same  volume  as  Epheaians); 
Peake  (g)  in  "Exp.  Greek  Test.";  Maclaren  (g); 
EUicott  (0;  Fmdlay  (0  in  "Pulpit Comm."-  Moule 
(g),  "Colossian  Studies". — ^Thessalonians:  MUligan 
(e),  hi^ly  esteemed;  Frame  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm."; 
EUicott  (e);  Meyer  and  Alford  (0;  Findlay  (c); 
Denney  (g);  Mason  (g). — ^Pastoral  Epiatles:  Lock  in 
"Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  EUicott  (e);  Bernard  (g)  in 
"Camb.GieekTest.";  Meyer  (0;  LillCTr  (g)  in  "Hand- 
book Series";  to  these  must  be  added  the  valuable 
book  by  James,  "The  Genuineness  and  Authorship  of 
the  Pastoral  Epistles"  (1906).— Hebrews:  Westcott 
(e),  on  a  level  with  Lightfoot,  the  greatest  work  on 
H^rews;  Naime  in  **Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Davidson 
(g):  Farrar  (g). — Ep.  of  St.  James:  Mayor  (e);  Ropes 
in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm.";  Alford  and  Meyer  (f);  Plump- 
tre  (g).— Epp.  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Jude:  Bigg  (e)  in 
"Int.  Crit.  (5omm.":  Hort  (e),  a  splendid  framient: 
Masterman  (g),  "I  Peter";  Saknon  (g),  "I  Peter'* 
in  "Popular  Commentary". — Epp.  of  St.  John:  West- 
cott (e),  another  of  his  great  works;  Haupt  (g)  and 
Huther  (g);  Watson  (g),  "I  John".— Revelation 
(Apocalypse):  Swete  (e),  the  greatest  commentary 

on  the  ApOCa'^"^"** •     nharlA«  m  '*Tnf.,  r!rif_  rinmin.''" 

MUligan  (e); 


Charles  in  "Int.  Crit.  Comm 
^  ,  _  ^imcox  (g);  Hort(e). 
Jewish  Gbmmentaton. — Abrahams,  Short  Hiatary  at  Jewish 
LUemtitTt  (London,  1006);  Grastz,  HUtory  of  the  Jews 
(Philmdelphia,  1801-06) ;  Oesterubt  and  Box.  The  Relimon  and 
Worship  of  the  Synaooffue  (London,  1907);  Bacrer,  B\ble  £za- 
oeeie  in  Jevrish  Eneye.;  Schbchtbr,  Talmud  in  Hiat.  Diet.  Bib.; 
V ABMxn,  Hietory  of  biterpntation  (liondon,  1886);  yonSchOrbr, 
The  Jeifiiah  PeopUintheTimeofJeaua  Christ  (Edinburgh.  1902). 
Patiistio  Commentariei. — ^Bardbnuewer,  Oea^.  der  aUkireh" 
lichen  LitUratur  (PrMburg,  1902-3);  Idem,  Patrdogie  (1804; 
Fr.  Uj,  Palis.  1890);  Turnbb  in  Hast.,  Did.  of  the  Bible,  extra 
vol.;  Ehrharh,  AUchr.  Litteratur  (FreiburK.  1900).  lAter  Ck)m- 
nwntators.— €ALM»rr,  Did.  Bib.,  I;  Dixon,  Otnerei  hUfod.  to  the 


S,  Serwturea  (DubUn.  1872),  II:  Gioor,  Cfenerai  Inlrod.  to  0ie 
Holy  Scripturee  (New  York,  1900);  Richard  Simom.  Hiatoire 
erUiqne  dee  principaux  commerUateura  du  N.  T.  (Rotterdam, 
1689);  HoRNB,  ItUrod.  to  the  Scripturaa  (London.  1834).  U; 
HuRTER.  Nomenclator;  Vioouaoux,  Manuel  biblique  (Paris, 
1882);  Idem.  Lea  Livrea  aainla  et  la  critique  rationaltate  (ParL% 
1886),  IL 

C.  Ahbrke. 

Oommines  (also  Comines  or  Ck>MTNBs),  PHiLiPPfi 
DB,  French  historian  and  statesman,  b.  in  Flanders 
probably  before  1447;  d.  at  the  ChAteau  d'Argenton, 
France,  about  1511.  He  was  the  son  of  Coliutl  van 
den  Clyte,  chief  bafliff  of  Flanders  for  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy,  and  of  Marguerite  d'Armuyden.  His 
family  owned  the  seigniory  of  Commines  on  the  Lys, 
and  some  of  his  ancestors  had  been  aldermen  of  Ypres. 
He  was  brought  up  as  a  knight,  spoke  Flemish  and 
French,  but  complains  that  he  had  never  learned 
Latin — in  the  course  of  his  travels  he  had  learned 
Italian.  In  1464  Commines  was  presented  at  the 
court  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  in  Ldlle  and  became 
squire  to  the  duke's  son,  the  Coimt  of  Chatolais,  after- 
wards C^iarles  the  Bold.  From  1464  to  1472  he  was 
in  the  service  of  Charles,  took  part  in  his  eapeditions, 
and  in  1465  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Montlh^: 
After  the  death  of  Philip  the  Good  he  was  made 
chamberlain  to  the  new  Duke  of  Burgundy  (1467). 
During  the  interview  held  at  P^ronne  (1468)  0>m- 
mines  was  taken  into  C!harles  the  Bold's  cor^dence 
and  then  turned  to  Louis  XI  whom  he  secretly  in- 
formed of  his  master's  intentions.  He  nevertheless 
remained  in  the  service  of  CJharles  who  entrusted  him 
with  various  missions  to  the  governor  of  Calais  (1470), 
to  Brittany,  and  to  Spain  (1471).  Nevertheless,  on 
8  August,  1472,  he  suddenly  abandoned  Charles  the 
Bold  during  the  duke's  expedition  in  Normandy 
and  went  to  Ponts-de-C6  to  join  Louis  XI.  The 
latter  loaded  him  with  favours  and  estates,  and  in 
1473  arranged  his  marriage  with  Heldne  de  Chaxa- 
bes,  a  wealthy  heiress  whose  dowry  was  the  seig- 
niory of  Argenton  in  Poitou.  Commines  now  became 
one  of  the  king's  confidants  and  chief  diplomatic 
agents. 

However,  after  the  death  of  Charle*  the  Bold,  the 
frankness  with  which  Commines  urgei  moderation 
upon  the  king  aroused  passing  disfavour,  but  in  1478. 
Louis  XI  appointed  hun  to  conduct  lome  difficult 
nep^tiations  with  the  princes  of  Italy.  After  the  con- 
spn-acy  of  the  Pazzi  he  saved  the  power  (if  the  Medici, 
auies  of  France,  who  were  threatened  by  the  pope  and 
l^e  dukes  of  Milan;  in  1479  he  protected  tne  youne 
Duke  of  Savoy  ap^ainst  Lodovico  il  Moro^  and  in  1481 
succeeded  in  mamtaixiing  French  influence  in  Savoy. 
Upon  the  death  of  Louis  XI,  however,  in  1 4S3,  at  which 
event  he  was  present,  Commines  pexinitted  himself, 
however,  to  be  drawn  into  the  faction  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans  and  conspired  against  the  r^;ent,  Anne  of  Beau- 
jeu.  In  1487  he  was  arrested,  confined  at  Loches  in 
one  of  the  iron  cages  used  by  Louis  XI,  and  after- 
waids  banished  by  rarliament  to  his  own  estates;  he 
was  also  deprived  of  his  principality  of  Talmont  which 
was  reclaimed  by  the  La  Tr6moilIe  family.  In  1491 
he  returned  to  court  and,  although  opposed  to  the  ex- 
pedition of  CJharles  VIII  into  Italy,  ne  nevertheless 
accompanied  it  and  was  sent  to  Venice,  where  he  was 
utterly  powerless  to  prevent  the  intrigues  that  cul- 
minated in  the  league  against  Charles  VIII  (1495). 
After  the  battle  of  Fomovo,  he  retioned  to  Venice 
and  Milan,  where  he  was  totally  uni»uccessful. 

On  the  accession  of  Louis  XII  in  1498,  (]!ommine8, 
for  some  unknown  reason,  lost  caste  at  court  and  only 
reappeared  there  in  1505,  thanks  to  the  influence  of 
Anne  of  Brittany.  His  "  M^moires"  give  but  meagre 
information  as  to  himself  and  leave  many  points  in 
doubt;  even  the  exact  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are 
uncertain,  and  but  little  is  known  of  the  part  he  played 
at  P^ronne,  of  his  defection  in  1472,  his  retirement  at 
the  accession  of  Louis  XII,  and  of  other  mattera.  Ibe 


OOMMlSSAftUT 


164 


OOMMISSXMIS 


''M^moires'*  constitute  a  political  history  of  Europe 
from  1464  to  1498  and,  according  to  the  preface,  are 
material  intended  exclusively  for  the  use  of  Angelo 
Cato,  Archbishopof  Vienne,  who  was  to  write  a  Latin 
histoiy  of  Louis  XL  The  first  part  of  the  work,  deal- 
ing with  the  period  between  1464  and  1483,  was  pre- 
pared between  1489  and  1491,  that  containing  the  ao- 
count  of  the  reign  of  Charies  VIII  being  completed  in 
1498.  Ck>mmines  is  rather  analytic  than  graphic,  de- 
votes himself  more  to  ascertaining  the  causes  of  events 
than  to  describing  the  events  themselves;  his  language 
seems  inferior  to  his  thought  and  his  style  is  abrupt 
and  periphrastic.  The  thought  bears  the  impress  of 
the  realistic  politics  of  the  Remussance,  but  tne  man- 
ner of  expression  is  still  medieval.  The  work  has  been 
I>reserved  in  manuscript  and  in  sixteenth-centiuy  edi- 
tions, the  first  edition  being  that  of  Galliot  du  Pr6 
(Paris,  1524,  foL).  A  manuscript,  written  about 
1530,  and  recovered  by  de  Mandrot,  is  the  only  one 
eontaininff  the  complete  text.  The  chief  editions  are 
those  of  Mile  Dupont  in  the  publications  of  the  So- 
ci^t^  de  THistoire  de  France  (Paris,  1847,  3  vols.)* 
Chantelauze  (Paris,  1881),  and  de  Mandnit  (Paris, 
1903, 2  vols.).  Gonmiines'  tomb,  on  which  is  a  kneel- 
ing figure  of  him  and  also  one  of  his  wife,  Htidne  de 
Chanmes,  is  preserved  in  the  Louvre. 

Introduction  to  the  editions  of  Mllb  Dupont  and  na 
Mandbot:  Kbbvtn  db  Lkitbnhotb.  iMtru  et  fUgoHatums  de 
Philippe  ae  Comminee  ffinunels,  1874);  Fibrvii«ub,  Documenia 
itMite  eur  Philippe  de  Uomminea  (Paiu,  1881);  CHANTRLAnEB, 
PhUippe  de  Commynet  in  the  dnreepandtuU  (1880-81);  Sooblb, 
tr.  in  Bohn*a  Library  of  French  Memoin  (London.  1856).  I,  II. 
Commines'  tomb  is  reproduced  in  Pbttt  db  Jullbvillb,  niatoire 
de  la  litUnUun  fntn^aiee  (Pfeuis,  1896).  II.  330. 

Louis  BRfeHIKB. 

OommlBsatiat  of  the  Hohr  Land,  in  the  Order  of 
Friars  Minor  the  territory  or  district  assigned  to  a  com- 
missary, whose  duty  it  is  to  collect  alms  for  the  noain- 
tenance  of  the  Holy  Places  in  Palestine  committed  to 
the  care  of  the  Friars  Minor :  also,  in  a  more  restricted 
sense,  the  convent  where  the  aforesaid  commissary 
resides.  The  commissary,  who  is  always  a  member 
of  the  order,  receives  his  appointment  by  letters 
patent  from  the  minister  general,  to  whom  he  is  bound 
to  transmit  eveiy  year  a  detailed  account  of  the  alms 
received.  These  alms  may  not,  under  any  circum- 
stances, without  express  permission  of  the  Holy  See, 
be  appbed  to  other  purposes,  however  pious  and  meri- 
torious, under  grave  ecclesiastical  penalties.  The 
alms  taJcen  up  by  the  bishops  at  the  annual  collections 
for  the  Holy  Land  are  conveyed  to  the  custos  in  Jeru- 
salem thioudi  the  commissary  in  whose  district  the 
dioceses  of  uie  bishops  are  situated.  There  are  at 
present  forty  commissariats  throughout  the  Christian 
world.  The  most  ancient  is  that  of  Naples,  founded 
in  1333,  when  Robert  of  Anjou  redeemed  the  Holy 
Places  from  the  Sultan  cf  Egypt.  In  English-epeak- 
ing  countries  there  are  seven — ^three  in  the  United 
States,  one  in  Canada,  one  in  Great  Britain,  one  in 
Irdand,  and  one  in  Australia.  The  Commissariat  of 
the  Umted  States  was  founded  in  1882,  and  the  com- 
missary resides  in  the  new  convent  of  Mount  St. 
Sqyulchre,  Washington,  D.  C.  In  1902,  commissariats 
were  erected  in  Cidifomia  and  at  St.  Louis. 

Conepeehte  Omnium  Miaeimwm  Ord.  FF,  Minarum  exhibitue 
CapUuioOtnerali  Rama  hainUy  die  80  Maii,  1908  (Rome,  1903); 
R^ula  et  ConatUuHonee  Oeneralea  Frair.  Minorum  (Rome, 
1887);  sevenJ  Bulls  and  Briefs  issued  at  different  periods  by 
the  Holy  See,  of  which  the  following  are  the  principal:  Sxxtub 

V,  Noatn  pakanaie  (13  Deo.,  1580);  Paul  Y.  Ccsfeflfts  Regie 
m  Jan.,  lSl8):  Ubban  VIII,  Aliae  a  Mide  OS  June,  1634)  in 
Bull.  Rom.,  Xv,  320  sqq. ;  Benedict  XlV.  Bmanarunt  nuper 

go  Auff.,  1743)  in  BtiUor.  Benedict.  XIV  (Prnto,  1846).  1. 313; 
us  VL  hder  ccetera  (31  July.  1778)  in  BuU.  Rom.  Cont.  (Turin), 

VI,  pt.  I.  606;  Leo  XIII,  Sdealorie  (20  Dec.,  1887).  Bee  also 
S.  C.  S.  btHcixi^  June,  1876);  S.  C.  Prop^  Fide  (20  Feb..  1801) 
in  CoUectanea  3,  C.  Prop.,  n.  1632,  1638. 

Grjbgort  Clkart. 

Oomniissinr  Apostotte  (Lat.  Commi99ariia  Apoa- 
foliciis),  one  who  has  received  power  from  a  legitinmte 


superior  authority  to  pass  judgment  in  a  eertain  cause 
or  to  take  informations  concerning  it.  When  such  a 
delegate  has  been  appointed  by  the  pope,  he  is  called 
a  commissary  Apostolia  The  custom  of  i^pointing 
such  commissaries  by  the  Holy  See  is  a  vei^  ancient 
one.  A  noteworthy  mstanoe  is  the  commission  issued 
to  St.  Cryil  of  Alexandria  by  Pope  Gelestine  I,  in  the 
eariy  part  of  the  fifth  century,  by  which  that  hoLy 
patriarch  was  empowered  to  judge  Nestorius  in  the 
pope's  name.  English  history  furnishes,  among  other 
instances,  that  of  the  commission  which  constituted 
CaidinalB  Wolsey  and  Campeggio  papal  r^reeenta- 
tives  for  the  juoicial  hearing  (M  the  divorce  ease  of 
Henry  VIII.  Sometimes  Apostolic  commissions  are 
constituted  permanently  by  the  Holy  See.  Such  are 
the  various  Roman  congregations  presided  over  by 
the  cardinals.  The  full  extent  of  the  authority  of 
commissaries  Apostolic  must  be  leamt  from  the  di- 
ploma of  their  appointment.  The  usual  powers 
which  they  possess,  nowever,  are  defined  in  the  com- 
mon law  of  the  Church.  Commissaries  are  empow- 
ered not  oxdy  for  judicial  but  also  for  executive  pur- 
poses. When  a  papal  commission  mentions  explicitly 
certain  persons  and  certain  thinos  as  subject  to  the 
authority  of  a  commissaiy,  and  taen  adds  in  general 
that  "otner  persons  and  other  things"  (quidam  alii  H 
re8  oIub)  are  also  included,  it  is  umierstood  that  the 
latter  phrase  refers  only  to  persons  and  things  of  equal 
or  lower  importance  than  those  that  are  expressly 
named,  and  under  no  circumstances  can  the  commis- 
sarVs  power  extend  to  what  is  higher  or  more  digni- 
fied (Ci^.  XV,  de  rescript.).  If  a  bishop  be  appointed 
commissary  Apostolic  m  natters  that  already  belong 
to  his  ordmaiy  jurisdiction,  he  does  not  thereby  re- 
ceive a  delegated  jurisdiction  superadded  to  that 
which  he  already  possessed;  such  an  Apostolic  com- 
mission is  said  to  excite,  not  to  alter,  the  prelate's 
ordinary  jurisdiction. 

As  a  commissary  Apostolic  is  a  del^^ate  of  the  HoFf 
See,  an  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  pope  against  his 
judgments  or  administrative  acts.  When  several 
commissaries  have  been  appointed  for  the  same  case, 
they  are  to  act  together  as  one;  but  if.  owing  to  death 
or  any  other  cause,  one  or  other  of  the  commissaries 
shoidd  be  hindered  from  acting,  the  remaining  mem- 
bers have  full  power  to  execute  their  commission.  In 
case  the  commissaries  be  two  in  number  and  they  dis- 
agree in  the  judgment  to  be  given,  the  matter  must  be 
decided  by  the  Holv  See.  A  commissary  Apostolic 
has  the  power  to  subdelegate  another  p^son  for  the 
cause  committed  to  him,  unless  it  has  been  expressly 
stated  in  his  diploma  that,  owing  to  the  importance  of 
the  matter  at  issue,  he  is  to  exercise  jurisdiction  per- 
sonally. By  the  plenitude  of  his  power,  the  pope  can 
constitute  a  layman  commissary  Apostolic  for  ecclesi- 
astical affairs,  out  according  to  the  common  law  only 
prelates  or  clerics  of  the  h^er  orders  should  receive 
such  a  commission  (Lib.  S^.,  c  II,  de  rescr.,  1,  3). 
The  Council  of  TVent  (Sess.  XXV,  c  xvi,  de  Ref.)pre- 
scribes  that  each  bishop  should  transmit  to  tiie  Holy 
See  the  names  of  four  persons  capable  of  receiving 
such  delegation  for  his  diocese.  It  has  conse(]uently 
become  customary  for  the  pope  to  choose  commissariee 
Apostolic  from  the  locality  where  they  are  to  investi- 
gate or  pass  judgment  or  execute  a  mandate. 

HuifFHBBT,  Urbe  el  Orbia  (London,  1880);  ANDtdb-WApNER. 
Did.  de  droit  canon.  (Paris,  1001),  I;  Pxgnatixu,  ConauU 
Canon,  (Venice,  1894),  IX. 

WiLUAM  H.  W.  FxNNINa. 

OommiBsionB,  Ecclesiastical,  bodies  of  eccleslaa- 
tics  juridically  established  and  to  whom  are  com- 
mitted certain  specified  functions  or  chaiees.  They 
are:  I.  Pontifical;  11.  Roman  Prelatltial;  IIL 
Diocesan. 

I.  Pontifical  commisdons  are  special  committees  of 
cardinals  created  by  the  pope  lor  some  particular 


OOXXODIAVUS 


165 


ooxxoDXAinni 


,  e.  g.  f or  the  proper  interpretation  and  de- 
fence of  Sacred  Scripture  (see  Biblical  Commission), 
for  historiisJ  studies  {^se  Ecclesiastical  History), 
for  the  codification  of  the  canon  law  (see  Law),  for 
the  supervision,  correction,  etc.  of  the  liturgical  books 
of  the  Roman  Church,  e.  g.  the  Breviary,  Missal, 
Pontifical,  Ritual,  etc.  (see  Brsviart;  Liturot),  for 
the  restoration  and  perfection  of  ecclesiastical  music 
(see  Gregorian  Chant),  for  the  reunion  of  dissenting 
churches  (see  Eastern  Church),  for  the  preservation 
of  the  Faith  (see  Italy;  Rome). 

11.  Frdatitial  commissions  are  composed  of  Roman 
prelates,  secretaries,  oonsultors,  etc.,  and  may  be 
presidea  over  by  a  cardinal.  Such,  e.  g.,  are  the  Uon^ 
mission  of  Sacred  Archaeology  (see  Arcosology),  for 
the  preservation  and  illustration  of  the  Christian 
antic]uities  of  Rome,  the  commission  for  the  adminis- 
faration  of  Peter's-pence  (q.  v.),  and  tiie  Palatine 
Conunission  (estabushed  bv  Leo  XIII)  for  the  settle- 
ment of  controversies  or  lawsuits  between  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  Vatican  or  other  papal  residences.  Most 
of  these  commissions,  however,  are  attached  to  the 
Roman  Congregations,  as  special  departments  or 
sections,  and  are  described  in  the  article  Congrega- 
tions, Roman,  e.  g.  the  Litur^cal  Commission  at- 
tached to  the  Con£p!egation  of  Rites;  the  commissions 
for  the  examination  of  episcopal  reports,  for  the 
revision  and  correction  of  the  liturgictu  books  of  the 
Eastern  CSiurch  (q.  v.),  and  for  the  examination  of 
rdigious  institutes  in  Iropaganda  territory,  all  three 
attached  to  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda;  for  the 
examination  of  new  reuKious  institutes  attached  to 
the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars;  for  the 
selection  of  bishops  in  Itahr  (now  suppressed  and 
its  attributions  vested  in  the  Congregation  of  the 
Inquisition). 

ni.  The  diocesan  commissions  provided  for  by  gen- 
eral ecclesiastical  law  are  four:  the  commission  for 
seminaries  (in  two  sections  for  spiritual  and  temporal 
oonoemst  respectively),  according  to  the  Council  of 
IVent  (Sess.  XXIII,  cap.  xviii,  De  ref.),  for  which  see 
Seminary.  Ecclesiastical;  the  commission  of  ex- 
aminers of  the  clergy  (see  Examiners,  Synodal),  to 
aid  in  the  control  of  all  competition  for  vacant  paro- 
chial benefices;  the  commission  on  sacred  music  (Motu 
proprio  of  Pius  X,  22  Nov.,  1903)  for  the  improvement 
of  tne  character  and  execution  of  ecclesiastical  mosio 
in  the  churches:  a  vigilance  committee  (CansUium  a 
vManiia)  for  tne  repression  of  modernism  (Pius  X, 
"Pascendi  Dominici  Qregis",  8  Sept,  1907).  In 
many  dioceses  of  England  there  exist  diocesan  school 
oommissioDS  or  associations.  There  exists  also  in 
En^and  (since  1853)  for  each  diocese  a  commission 
of  mvestigation  for  criminal  and  disciplinarv  causes 
of  ecdenastios  (Taunton,  210-213);  a  similar  com- 
mission for  the  dioceses  of  the  United  States,  estab- 
lished by  Propaganda  in  1878,  was  abrogated  in  1884 
in  favour  of  a  new  form  of  procedure,  detailed  in  the 
Instruction  of  that  year,  ''Cum  Magnopere".  For 
Irdand  see  "Acta  et  Decreta",  by  the  Synod  of 
Ifaynooth  (1900),  p.  75;  and  for  Scotland,  Taunton, 
op.  dt..  214-20.  The  scope,  authority,  and  attribu- 
tions ot  Uiese  bodies  are  described  either  in  the  pontifi- 
csd  documents  that  create  them,  or  in  the  legislation 
pertainiiig  to  the  Roman  congregations,  or  in  the 
common  ecclesiastical  law  and  its  authoritative  inter- 
pretations. 

BATTANDir 

DerPap9t,di 

Rem  (Muniah^  im); 


Ann.  pent,  oath.  (PaHs.  1890);   Bauiigarten, 
r  und  VertpaUuno  dtr  HeiliQen  KircKe  in 
Mwwn  ijnuiuuu,  ^vw/,    a'aunton,  Th»  Low  of  the  Church  (Lon- 
doo,  1906).  209-22. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 


Oommodiaaiu,  a  Christian  poet,  the  date  of  whose 
birth  18  uncertain,  but  generally  placed  at  about  the 
middle  of  the  third  century,  or  oetween  the  end  of 
Diocletian's  persecution  and  the  issuing  of  the  edict 
of  Maxcntius  (305-11),    It  has  lately  been  asserted, 


however,  that  Commodianus  lived  under  Julian  or 
even  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  He  is  not 
known  outside  of  his  own  writinfls  except  through  a 
notice  by  Qennadius,  "De  Vlris  lUustribus"  (ch.  xv), 
and  the  condemnation  of  Pseudo-Gelasius,  who  pro- 
hibits the  reading  of  his  books  C'  De  Libris  recipiendis 
et  non  recipiendis",  in  Mipie,  P.  L.,  LIX,  lfi3)  Qen- 
nadius seems  to  draw  his  mformation  chiefly  from  the 
works  themselves,  and  claims  that  Commodianus  in^ 
itated  Tertullian,  Lactantius,  and  Papias.  From  two 
passages  in  his  manuscripts  it  was  gleaned  that  Com- 
modianus came  from  Gasa  in  Palestine  and  had  been 
invested  with  the  episcopal  dignity,  but  the  first  of 
these  passages  has  a  very  uncertain  meaning,  and  the 
second  has  been  attributed  to  the  mistake  of  a  copy- 
ist. Commodianus  declares  that  he  is  not  a  "cfoo- 
tor'',  which  has  led  to  the  belief  that  he  was  a  layman. 
He  styles  himself  "mendicant  of  Christ",  mendicus 
ChrisHf  but  that  could  also  mean  "one  who  implorea^ 
(Christ"  or  "one  who  begs  for  Christ".  What  is  cer- 
tain, however,  is  that,  after  various  religious  expe- 
riences, such  as  associating  with  pagans  and  practis- 
ing the  occult  sciences,  and  probably  conforming  to 
the  religious  doctrines  and  rites  of  the  Jews,  he 
adopted  Christianity,  having  been  converted  by  read- 
ing the  Bible. 

His  works  are  a  collection  of  "Instructions"  and  a 
"Carmen  apologeticum''.  The  former  consists  of 
eighty  acrostic,  or  abecedarian,  essays,  divided  into 
two  books.  The  plan  of  this  work  and  the  Biblical 
quotations  introduced  therein  reveal  the  influence  of 
St.  Cvprian's ' '  Testimonia  ".  The  first  book  is  against 
the  Jews  and  pagans,  the  second  being  addressed  to 
different  categories  of  the  faithful:  catechumens,  bap- 
tised Christians,  penitents,  maironea,  clerks,  priests, 
and  bishops.  In  parts  its  tone  is  decidedly  satirical. 
The  author  is  manifestly  engrossed  with  ethics,  and 
recommends  alms-deeds  above  all  else.  The  "Car- 
men apologeticum"  has  a  misleading  title,  thanks  to 
Pitra,  its  first  editor  ^1852).  It  mav  be  divided  into 
four  parts:  a  preamble  (1-88);  a  rMum6  of  the  doc- 
trine on  (jod  and  Christ  (89-578);  a  demonstration 
of  the  necessity  of  faith  for  salvation  (579-790);  and 
a  description  of  the  end  of  the  world  (791-1060).  It 
is  principally  this  picture  that  has  made  the  name  of 
Commooianiis  famous.  According  to  it  the  Chris- 
tians are  a  prey  to  a  seventh  persecution — ^the  num- 
ber is  symbolical  and  indicates  the  last  persecution. 
The  Goths  surprise  and  destroy  Rome.  Suddenly 
Nero,  the  Antichrist  of  the  West,  reappears,  recap- 
tures Rome  from  the  Goths,  associates  nimself  with 
two  Cssans  and  maltreats  the  Christians  for  three 
and  a  half  years.  Then  a  second  Antichrist,  the  man 
from  Persia,  comes  from  the  East,  conquers  Nero, 
bums  Rome,  establishes  himself  in  Judea,  and  works 
wonders.  But  God,  with  an  army  of  the  blessed,  ad- 
vances from  beyond  Persia  in  a  triumphal  march; 
Ajitichrist  is  overcome,  and  Christ  ana  His  saints 
settle  in  Jerusalem.  To  learn  what  follows  we  must 
consult  the  "  Instructions  "  (II,  1-4).  First  of  all  the 
elect  rise  from  the  dead  and  for  1000  years  lead  lives 
of  pleasure  and  happiness.  At  the  end  of  that  time 
the  world  is  destroyed  by  fire,  Christ  appears,  and  all 
the  dead  arise  for  the  Last  Judgment,  which  leads 
either  to  the  joys  of  Paradise  or  the  pains  of  Hell. 

The  sources  of  Commodianus's  information  were 
the  Bible — ^principally  the  Apocalypse,  the  Prophets, 
and  the  Fourth  Book  of  Esdras— the  Sibylline  oracles, 
Tertullian,  Minucius  Felix,  Cyprian^  and  Lactantius. 
From  Terence,  Lucretius,  Horace,  Cicero,  and  most  of 
all  from  Virgil,  he  borrows  modes  of  expression.  His 
theology  is  not  reliable;  besides  Millenarianism,  he 
seems  to  profess  Monarchianism  and  Patripassianism, 
two  heresies  in  regard  to  the  Trinity.  His  language 
is  not  only  crude,  but  incorrect,  and  it  would  be  a 
mistake  to  seek  in  Commodianus  the  origin  of  versi- 
fication based  on  accent.    Although  unacquainted 


OOMMODUS 


166 


OOMMOR 


with  prosody,  he  tries  to  write  in  dactylic  hexameter, 
and  succeeds  in  only  63  out  of  more  tHan  2000  verses. 
However,  his  shortcomings  are  somewhat  atoned  for 
by  his  use  of  parallelism,  rhyme,  and  the  acrostic, 
and  the  regular  division  of  his  verses;  moreover,  in 

Sdte  of  its  defects,  his  work  is  decidedly  energetic, 
e  has  well-defined  formulae,  he  conjures  up  magnifi- 
cent pictures,  and  among  the  many  artists  and  writers 
^o  nave  attempted  a  portrayal  of  the  end  of  the 
world,  Commodianus  occupies  a  prominent  place. 
His  works  have  been  edited  by  Ludwig  (Leipzig, 
1877-78)  and  by  Dombart  (Vienna,  1877,  m  "Corpus 
scriptorum  eccles.  latinorum",  XV).  The  poem 
against  Marcio,  attributed  by  some  critics  to  Com- 
modianus, is  the  work  of  an  imitator. 

ScHANZ,  OeachicfUe  der  rdmiachen  Literatur  in  the  Handbuch 
der  kUuaischai  AUertumtwissenschafl  of  von  Mi^ujeb  (Munich, 
1905),  VIII,  pt.  Ill,  427-36;  Monceaujc,  Hiatoire  liUiraire  de 
VAfrique  ehritienne  (Paris,  1005),  III,  451-89:  Breweb,  Kom- 
tnodian  von  Qaaa,  tin  areUUensiacher  Laiendichter  aus  der  Mitte 
dM  fUnften  Jahrhunderta  (Paderboin,  1906) — the  thesis  implied 
in  this  title  is  very  uncertain,  see  Revue  critique  d' hiatoire  et  de 
mirature  (Pftris,  1907),  II,  199. 

Paul  Lejat. 

Oommodufl  (Marcus  AureuusCommgdus  Antoni- 
nus), Roman  Emperor,  b.  161 ;  d.  at  Rome,  31  Decem- 
ber, 192.     He  was  the  son  of  Marcus  Aurelius  and 

Annia  Faustina, 
and  was  the  first 
among  the  Roman 
emperors  to  enjoy 
the  distinction  of 
being  bom  in  the 
purple.  His  reign, 
180-193,  was  the 
turning-point  in 
the  greatness  of 
Rome.  Some  his- 
torians have  at- 
tempted to  exon- 
erate Commodus 
from  the  charge 
of  innate  deprav- 
ity and  to  attrib- 
ute the  failure 
of  his  career  to 
weakness  of  char- 
acter and  vicious 
associates.  It  is, 
however,  undeni- 
able that  a  con- 
dition, which  re- 
sulted in  the  slow 
but  inevitable  de- 
struction of  the  Roman  power,  was  brought  about  by 
the  lack  of  capacity  and  evil  life  of  Commodus,  coupled 
with  the  overcentralization  in  Roman  administration 
by  which,  since  the  time  of  Augustus,  the  most  absolute 
power  in  the  State  and  religious  affairs  had  been  gradu- 
ally vested  in  the  person  of  the  emperor.  Every  stage 
in  the  career  of  Commodus  was  marked  by  greed  and 
suspicion,. producing,  as  might  be  expected  in  those 
times,  wholesale  confiscation  and  numerous  murders. 
One  result  of  his  cruel  policy  was  to  divert  attention 
for  a  time  from  the  Christians  and  to  lead  to  a  partial 
cessation  of  j>ersecution.  No  edicts  were  issued 
against  the  Christians  who,  though  persecuted  by  the 
proconsuls  in  some  provinces,  enjoyed  a  period  of 
respite  and  comparative  immunity  from  oursuit. 
There  were  many  Christians  at  the  court  of  Commo- 
dus and  in  the  person  of  Marcia,  the  concubine  or 
morganatic  wife  of  the  emperor,  they  had  a  powerful 
advocate  through  whose  kind  offices  on  one  occasion 
many  Christian  prisoners  were  released  from  the 
mines  in  Sardinia.  Commodus  was  murdered  by 
strangling,  one  of  the  conspirators  being  Marcia. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  Christiaiw  were  in  any 
way  connected  with  his  death. 


Emperor  Osmiiodus  as  Hercules 
(Capitoline  Museum,  Rome) 


The  works  of  Dig  Cabsius,  Hkrodian,  Aubeuus  Vicroi^ 
and  EuTSOPiua,  and  the  Scnptores  Historia  Auguaim  are  tha 
principal  pagan  sources.  Tebtoluan,  Hippolttus,  and  Eu- 
SEBius  are  toe  principal  Christian  sources.  The  Roman  histo- 
ries of  GiQBOK,  Mbbxyalb,  Duruy,  and  Scbiluer  should  abo 
be  consulted. 

Patrick  J.  Healy. 

Oommon.    See  Breviary. 

Oommon  Law.    See  Law. 

Ctommon  Life»  Brethren  of  the,  a  community 
founded  by  Geert  De  Groote,  of  rich  burgher  stock,  b. 
at  Deventer  in  Gelderland  in  1340;  d.  1384.  Having 
read  at  Cologne,  at  the  SorbonnOi  and  at  Prague,  he 
took  orders  and  obtained  preferment — a  canon's  stall 
at  Utrecht  and  another  at  Aachen.  His  relations 
with  the  German  GoUesfreunde  and  the  writings  of 
Ruysbroek,  who  later  became  his  friend,  gradually 
inclined  him  to  mysticism,  and  on  recovering  from 
an  illness  in  1373  he  resigned  his  prebends,  bestowed 
his  goods  on  the  Carthusians  of  Amheim,  and  lived 
in  solitude  for  seven  vears.  Then,  feeling  himself 
constrained  to  go  fortn  and  preach,  he  went  from 
place  to  place  calling  men  to  repentance,  proclaiming 
the  beauty  of  Divine  love,  and  bewailing  the  relaxa- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  the  degradation  of 
the  clergy.  The  effect  of  nis  sermons  was  marvellous ; 
thousands  hung  on  his  lips.  ''The  towns'',  says 
Moll,  "were  filled  with  devotees;  you  mipht  know 
them  by  their  silence,  their  ecstasies  during  Mass, 
their  mean  attire,  their  eyes,  flaming  or  full  of  sweet- 
A  little  band  of  these  attached  themselves  to 


Groote  and  became  his  fellow-workers,  thus  becoming 
the  first  "Brethren  of  the  Common  Life".  The  re- 
former, of  course,  was  opposed  by  the  clerks  whose  evil 
Uves  he  denounced,  but  the  cry  of  heresy  was  raised 
in  vain  against  one  who  was  no  less  zealous  for  purity 
of  faith  than  for  purity  of  morals.  The  best  of  the 
secular  clergy  enrolled  themselves  in  his  brotheriiood, 
which  in  due  course  was  approved  by  the  Holy  See. 
Groote,  however,  did  not  Uve  long  enough  to  perfect 
the  work  he  had  begun.  He  died  in  1^4,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Florence  Radewjms,  who  two  years  later 
founded  the  famous  monastery  of  Windesheim  which 
was  thenceforth  the  centre  of  the  nev  association. 

Tlie  Confraternity  of  the  Common  Life  resembled 
in  several  respects  the  B^hard  and  Beguine  communi- 
ties which  had  flourished  two  centuries  earlier  and 
were  then  decadent.  The  members  took  no  vows, 
neither  asked  nor  received  alms;  their  first  aim  was 
to  cultivate  the  interior  life,  and  they  worked  for  their 
daily  bread.  The  houses  of  the  Brethren  were  more 
closely  knit  together,  and  the  brothers  and  sisters 
alike  occupied  tnemselves  exclusively  with  literature 
and  education,  and  priests  also  with  preaching. 
When  Groote  began,  learning  in  the  Netherlands  was 
as  rare  as  virtue;  the  University  of  Louvain  had  not 
yet  been  founded,  and  the  fame  of  the  schools  of 
Lidge  was  only  a  memory.  Save  for  a  clerk  here  and 
there  who  had  studied  at  Paris  or  Cologne,  there  were 
no  scholars  in  the  land;  even  amongst  the  higher 
clergy  there  were  many  who  were  ignorant  of  Latin, 
and  the  bureher  was  quite  content  if  when  his  children 
left  school  they  were  able  to  read  and  write.  Groote 
determined  to  change  all  this,  and  his  disciples  accom- 
plished much.  Through  their  unflagging  toil  in  the 
scriptorium  and  afterwards  at  the  press  they  were 
able  to  multiply  their  spiritual  writings  and  to  scatter 
them  broadcast  throughout  the  land,  instinct  with 
the  spirit  of  the  "Imitation".  Amongst  them  are  to 
be  found  the  choicest  flowers  of  fifteenth-century 
Flemish  prose.  The  Brethren  spared  no  pains  to 
obtain  good  masters,  if  necessary  from  foreign  parts, 
for  their  schools,  which  became  centres  of  spiritual 
and  intellectual  life;  amongst  those  whom  they 
trained  or  who  were  associated  with  them  were  men 
like  Thomas  h  Kerapis,  Dierick  Maertens,  Gabrid 
Bif'l.  and  the  Dutch  Pope  Adrian  VI. 


OOMXOH 


167 


OOMXOV 


Before  the  fifteenth  centuiy  cloBed,  the  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life  had  studded  all  Germany  and 
the  Netherlands  with  schools  in  which  the  teaching 
was  given  for  the  love  of  God  alone.  Gradualljr  the 
course,  at  first  elementary,  embraced  the  humanities, 
philoeophv,  and  theology.  The  religious  orders 
looked  askance  at  these  Brethren,  who  were  neither 
monks  nor  friars,  but  the  Brethren  found  protectors 
in  Popes  Eugenius  IV,  Pius  II,  and  Sixtus  IV.  The 
great  Cardinal  Nicholas  of  Cusa  had  been  their  pupil 
and  became  their  stanch  protector  and  benefactor. 
He  was  likewise  the  patron  of  Rudolph  Agricola,  who 
in  his  youth  at  Zwoue  had  sat  at  the  feet  of  Thomas 
k  Kempis:  and  so  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life/ 
throu^  Cusa  and  Asricola,  influenced  Erasmus  and 
other  adepts  in  the  New  Learning.  More  than  half 
of  the  crowded  schools — ^in  1500  Deventer  counted 
over  two  thousand  students — ^were  swept  away  in  the 
religious  troubles  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Others 
languished  until  the  French  Revolution,  while  the 
rise  of  universities,  the  creation  of  diocesan  seminaries, 
and  the  competition  of  new  teaching  orders  gradually 
extinguished  the  schools  that  regarded  Deventer  and 
WincMheim  as  their  parent  establishments.  A  life 
of  De  Groote  is  to  be  found  among  Hie  works  of 
Tliomaa  k  Kempis. 

Delpbat,  Over  <U  Broedenchap  van  Oroot  (Utrecht.  1830); 
Kettlcwell,  Thamaa  h  Kempia  and  the  Brothera  of  tke  Com- 
mam  Life  (London,  1882). 

Ernest  Gilliat-Smith. 

Oommon  Sense,  Phjlosopht  of. — The  term  com- 
mon sense  designates  (1)  a  special  facultv,  the  aenme 
communis  of  the  Aristotelean  and  Scholastic  philos- 
ophy; (2)  the  sum  of  original  principles  found  in 
all  normal  minds;  (3)  the  ability  to  judge  and  reason 
in  accordance  with  those  principles  (recta  ratio,  good 
sense).  It  is  the  second  of  these  meanings  that  is 
implied  in  the  philosophy  of  common  sense — a  mean- 
ing well  expressed  by  F^nelon  when  he  identifies 
common  sense  with  ''those  general  ideas  or  notions 
which  I  can  neither  contradict  nor  examine,  but 
according  to  which  I  examine  and  decide  on  every- 
thing; so  that  I  smile  rather  than  answer  whenever 
anyuiing  is  proposed  to  me  that  obviousl^r  runs 
counter  to  those  unchangeable  ideas''  (De  Texistence 
de  Dieu,  p.  XXII,  c.  ii).  The  philosophy  of  common 
sense  sometimes  called  Scottisn  philosophy  from  the 
nationality  of  its  exponents  (though  not  all  Scottish 
phflosophers  were  adherents  of  the  Common  Sense 
School),  represents  one  phase  of  the  reaction  against 
the  ideahsm  of  Berkeley  and  Hume  which  in  Germany 
was  represented  by  £ant.  The  doctrine  of  ideas, 
which  Locke  had  adopted  from  Descartes,  had  been 
made  use  of  by  Berkeley  as  the  foundation  of  his 
theonr  of  i)ure  idealism,  which  resolved  the  external 
world  into  ideas,  without  external  reality,  but  directly 
impressed  on  the  mind  by  Divine  power.  Hume,  on  the 
other  hand,  had  contended  that  there  was  no  ground 
for  assuming  the  existence  of  any  mental  su^tance 
as  the  subjective  recipient  of  impressions  and  ideas, 
all  that  we  know  of  mind  being  a  succession  of  states 
produced  by  experience.  Thus,  between  the  two, 
both  subject  and  object  disappeared,  and  philosophy 
ended  in  mere  scepticism. 

Thomas  Reid  (1710-1796).  whose  dissent  from 
Locke's  doctrine  of  ideas  had  been  to  some  extent 
anticipated  by  Francis  Hutcheson  (1694-1746),  set 
out  to  vindicate  the  oommon  sense,  or  natural  judg- 
ment, of  mankind,  by  which  the  real  existence  of  both 
subject  and  object  is  held  to  be  directly  known 
(natural  realism).  He  argued  that  if  it  cannot  be 
proved  that  there  is  anv  real  external  world  or  con- 
tinuously existing  mina,  the  true  conclusion  is  not 
that  these  have  no  existence  or  are  unknowable,  but 
that  our  consciousness  of  them  is  an  ultimate  fact, 
which  neither  needs  nor  is  capable  of  proof,  but  is 
itself  the  ground  of  all  proof.    "All  knowledge  and 


all  science  must  be  built  upon  principles  that  are  self- 
evident;  and  of  such  principles  every  man  who  has 
common  sense  is  a  competent  judge"  (Works,  ed. 
1863,  p.  422).  Dugald  Stewart  (1753-1828),  who 
followed  Reid's  method  without  serious  modification, 
was  more  precise,  and  gave  greater  prominence  than 
Reid  to  his  doctrine  ol" suggestion'',  or  the  associa- 
tion of  ideas.  Dr.  Thomas  Brown  (1778-1820),  while 
acceptins  Reid's  main  principle,  carried  the  analysis 
of  the  pnenomena  of  perception  further  than  either 
Reid  or  Stewart,  resolving  some  of  their  first  princi- 
ples into  elements  of  experience,  particularly  in  his 
treatment  of  the  notion  of  causality.  Sir  James 
Mackintosh  (1765-1832)  adopted  the  principles  of 
common  sense,  but  accepted  the  utilitarian  criterion 
of  moralitjr,  held  by  the  school  of  Hartley,  and  applied 
the  analyuc  method  to  the  moral  faculfy  which  Reid 
had  taken  to  be  ''an  original  power  in  man".  Sir 
William  Hamilton  (1788-1856)  illustrated  the  prin- 
ciple of  common  sense  with  wider  learning  and  greater 
philosophical  acmnen  than  any  of  his  predecessors. 
He  was  much  influenced  by  Kant,  and  he  introduced 
into  his  system  distinctions  which  the  Common  Sense 
School  had  not  recognised.  While  professing  himself 
a  natural  realist,  he  held  a  somewhat  extreme  doctrine 
of  the  relativity  of  knowled^.  His  comments  on 
Reid  indicate  many  ambiguities  and  inaccuracies  on 
the  part  of  that  author.  James  Oswald  (1727-1793) 
made  use  of  Reid's  principles  in  support  of  religious 
belief,  and  James  Beattie  (1735-1803)  in  defence  of 
the  existence  of  a  moral  faculty. 

The  common  sense  philosophv,  adopting  the  Bacon- 
ian method  of  "inteirogation  ,  or  analysis,  rejects, 
as  contrary  to  the  universal  convictions  of  mankind, 
the  notion  of  ideas  as  a  iertium  quid  intervening  be- 
tween the  object  perceived  and  the  perceiving  subject. 
All  knowledge  comes  by  way  of  sensation;  and  the 
realitv  of  the  external  object  is  implied  in  sensation, 
tocher  with  the  metaphysical  principles  of  the 
existence  of  bodily  and  mental  substance,  of  causality, 
and  of  desi^  and  intelli^nce  in  causation.  What 
sensation  is  in  itself  it  is  impossible  to  say;  it  is  an 
ultimate  fact,  and  cannot  be  described  or  defined. 
But  sensations  are  clearly  not  ima^  or  ideas  of  the 
objects  which  cause  them;  there  is  no  resemblance 
between  the  pain  of  a  wound  and  the  point  of  a  sword. 
Reid  and  his  successors  insist  on  the  distinction  be- 
tween primary  and  secondary  qualities,  the  former 
(extension,  figure,  hardness,  etc.;  being  "suggested" 
by  sensations  as  essentially  belon^ng  to  the  object 
perceived,  and  the  latter  (as  colour,  taste,  smell,  etc.) 
Deing  no  more  than  sensations  in  the  subject  arisine 
from  qualities  of  the  object  which  are  only  accidental 
or  contingent.  Hamilton,  however,  subdivides  sec- 
ondary qualities  into  secondary  and  seoundo-primary, 
a  distinction  now  generally  ~  considered  to  be  ill- 
founded.  The  mental  powers  are  divided  into  intel- 
lectual and  active,  a  distinction  corresponding  to  the 
peripatetic  classification  of  cognitive  and  appetitive. 
All  cognition  has  thus  an  intellectual  element,  and 
takes  place  by  way  of  suggestion,  or  association  (a 
theory  in  which  Reid  was  anticipated  by  Hutcheson). 
In  cognition  the  mind  is  partly  active  and  partly 
passive;  the  notion  that  it  is  a  mere  receptacle  for 
ideas  is  rejected.  Ck>nsciousue8s  is  regardea  by  Reid 
as  a  separate  faculty,  somewhat  resembling  the  scho- 
lastic sensus  communis;  Brown  and  Hamilton  dissent 
from  this  view,  holding  "consciousness"  to  be  merely 
a  eeneral  expression  for  the  fundamental  condition  of 
all  mental  activity.  The  idea  of  causality,  which 
implies  the  universal  necessity  of  causation,  cannot 
be  educed  from  experience,  since  necessity  (as  opposed 
to  mere  invariabfeness)  cannot  be  known  by  expe- 
rience; it  is  therefore  an  original  principle  in  the 
mind.  In  like  manner,  the  will  is  known  imme- 
diately as  free;  its  freedom  is  not  susceptible  of  proof 
but  is  intuitively  recognized;  and  it  is  from  the  con- 


OOXMUHS 


168 


ooMxuirs 


sciousness  of  wQl-power  in  ourselves  that  we  derive 
our  notion  of  causation.  Brown,  however,  while  ac- 
cepting Reid's  intuitional  view  of  the  idea  of  eauBality, 
inclines  towards  Hume  in  his  definition  of  causation 
as  no  more  than  invariable  sequence;  he  also  differs 
from  Reid  in  making  will  a  modification  of  desire  or 
appetite.  The  belief  in  the  imiformity  of  nature,  on 
which  all  scientific  discovery  is  based,  is  held  by  Reid 
to  be  an  original  principle  m  the  mind.  Conscience, 
or  the  moral  sense,  is  taken  to  be  an  origin^  faculty 
by  the  Common  Sense  School  in  general,  with  the 
exception  of  Mackintosh,  who  derives  the  so-called 
faculty  in  great  measure  from  the  influence  of  social 
experience  upon  the  wiU. 

The  psychological  analysis  of  this  school  is  valu- 
able; but  its  main  principle  has  been  considerably 
weakened  by  contact  with  Kantian  criticism  and  the 
evolutionist  doctrine,  and  with  Hamilton  lost  much 
of  its  polemical  effectiveness.  *The  philosophy  of 
Common  Sense,  devised  by  Reid  as  a  safeguard  against 
Scepticism  and  Idealism,  was  so  transmuted  by 
Hamilton  as  to  lead  back  again  to  the  conclusion  that 
nothing  can  be  known,  and  consequently  that  nothing 
can  be  affirmed  or  denied,  beyond  the  fleeting  phenom- 
ena of  consciousness"  (Laurie,  Scottish  Philosophy, 
p.  291).  In  France,  IloyeivCollard  (1763-1846)  in- 
troduced the  principles  of  the  Scottish  School ;  Jouffroy 
(1796-1842)  translated  the  works  of  Reid;  and 
Cousin  (1792-1867)  in  his  "Philosophie  ^cossaise" 
praised  Reid's  philosophy  in  the  hi^nest  terms.  It 
may  be  safely  said  that  the  materialistic  tendency  of 
French  speculation  was  checked  by  the  influences 
derived  from  the  philosophy  of  common  sense. 

HuTCHEaoK,  BB9ay  on  the  PoMums  and  Affeetioru  (London. 
1728);  Idkm,  Metaphysical  Synapeia  (London,  1742);  Iobm, 
Sv8tem  of  Moral  Phu.  (Glas^w,  1755);  lUin.  WorkSf  with 
preface,  notes,  and  duaertation  by  Hamilton  (Edinburgh, 
1846);  new  ed.  by  Manbel  (1863);  BnmBR.  Premihes  V^niia 
(tr.  London.  1781),  * '  with  a  detection  of  the  piagiaTism,  conoeai- 
ment  and  inKiatitude  of  \>n.  Reid,  BeatUe  and  Oswald". 
JouFPROT,  d^tretf  eomplHea  de  Reid  (Paris,  1820);  Oswald, 
AppealtoCammtm Sense  (Edinburgh,  1768);  BEArnB,  Bssoff  on 
Truth  (Aberdeen,  1770);  Idem,  Elements  of  Moral  Science 
(1700);  Priestlbt,  Bxamvnalum  of  Reid,  etc.  (London,  1774); 
Stewabt^  Complete  Works  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1820-31);  ed. 
with  additions  and  memoir  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton  and  com- 
peted by  Veitcb  (Ekiinbundi,  1858);  Brown,  inquiry  into 
Relation  of  Cause  and  Effect  (Edinburp^,  1804);  Idem,  Lectures 
on  the  Phu.  of  the  Human  Mind  (Edinburgh,  1820);  Mackin- 
tosh, On  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy  in  Encyc.  Bril. 
(1830);  ed.  with  preface  by  Whewell  (Fhiladelphia,  1882); 
Idem,  two  papers  in  Edinburgh  Review,  XXVII,  XXXVI:  Ham- 
ilton, Ijeclures,  ed.  Hansel  and  Veitch  (London,  Edinburgh, 
and  Boston,  1860);  Idem,  Bssays  in  Edinburgh  Review  (1820- 
30-^2);  Idem,  Metaphysics,  ed.  Bowen  ((Cambridge,  Mass., 
1870);  see  Mill,  Exam,  of  Hamilton's  Philosophy  (Loudon, 
1865);  McCosH,  SeoUish  Philosophy  (London,  1875):  Seth  (A. 
8.  Prinolb-Pattison),  Scottish  Philosophy  (Edinburgh  and 
London,  1885  and  1000);  Febjoer,  Reid  and  the  Philosophy  of 
Common  Sense  (1847)  in  Ferribr'b  Works  (Edinburgh  and 
London,  1883),  III,  407;  see  also  Maher,  Psychology  (London, 
1003),  33,  40,  102  sqq.;  James,  Pragmatism  (London  and  New 
York.  1007),  lect  v.;  Laurie.  Scottish  Philosophy  in  ils  Na- 
tional Development  (London  and  Glasgow,  1002). 

A.  B.  Sharpe. 

Ooimnune,  Martyrs  of  the  Paris,  the  secu- 
lar priests  and  the  religious  who  were  murdered  in 
Pans,  in  May,  1871,  on  account  of  their  sacred  calling. 
They  may  be  divided  into  three  groups:  (1)  those  who 
on  the  24th  of  May  were  executed  within  the  prison  of 
La  Roquette;  (2)  the  Dominican  Fathers,  who,  on  the 
following  day,  were  shot  down  at  the  Barri^re  d  'Italic ; 
(3)  the  priests  and  religious,  who,  on  the  26th  of  May, 
were  massacred  at  Belleville.  The  revolutionary 
party  which  took  possession  of  the  city  after  the  siege 
of  Paris  by  the  Prussians  began,  in  the  last  days  of 
March,  to  arrest  the  priests  and  religious  to  whom 
personal  character  or  official  position  gave  a  certain 
prominence.  No  reason  was  gjven  for  these  arbitrary 
measures,  except  the  hatred  with  which  the  leaders  of 
the  Commune  regarded  the  Catholic  Church  and  her 
ministers. 

(1)  At  the  head  of  the  first  group  of  martyrs  is  the 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  Monscigneur  Georgps  Darboy,  to 


whom  the  discomforts  of  hn  prison  life  were  pecol- 
iai^  trying  on  account  of  his  feeble  health.  His  rellow 
sufferers  were:  the  Abbd  Deguerry,  cur6  of  the  im- 
portant parish  of  La  Madeleine,  an  old  man,  well  ad- 
vanced m  years,  but  brieht  and  vigorous;  the  Abb^ 
Allard,  a  secular  priest,  who  had  rendered  good  service 
to  the  wounded  durine  the  siege,  and  two  Jesuits, 
Fathers  Ducoudray  and  Clerc.  The  first  was  rector 
of  the  Ecole  Sainte-Geneviftve,  a  well  known  prepara- 
tory school  for  the  army;  the  second  had  been  a  dis- 
tinguished naval  officer:  bolii  were  gifted  and  holy 
men.  To  these  five  ecclesiastics  was  added  a  magis- 
trate, Senator  Bonjean.  After  several  weeks  of  con- 
finement, first  in  the  prison  of  Mazas,  then  at  La  Ro- 
quette, these  six  prisoners  were  executed  on  24  May. 
There  was  no  pretence  made  of  judging  them,  neither 
was  any  accusation  brought  against  them.  Tlie  revo- 
lutionary party  still  held  possession  of  the  east  side  of 
Paris,  but  the  regular  army,  whose  head-quarters  were 
at  Versailles,  was  fast  approaching,  and  the  leaders  of 
the  Commune,  made  desperate  by  failure,  wished  to 
inflict  what  evil  they  could  on  an  enemy  they  no  longer 
hoped  to  conquer.  The  priests  had,  one  and  all,  en- 
dured their  captivity  witn  patience  and  dipnity;  the 
Jesuits,  their  letters  prove  it,  had  no  illusions  as  to 
their  probable  fate;  Archbishop  Darboy  and  the  AbM 
Degueny  were  more  sanguine.  "What  have  they  to 
gain  by  killing  us?  What  harm  have  we  done  them? " 
often  said  the  latter.  The  execution  took  place  in  the 
evening.  The  archbishop  absolved  his  companions, 
who  were  calm  and  recollected.  They  were  told  to 
stand  against  a  wall,  within  the  precincts  of  the  prison, 
and  here  they  were  shot  down  at  close  quarters  by 
twenty  men,  enlisted  for  the  purpose.  The  ardi- 
bishop's  hand  was  raised  to  ^ive  a  last  blessing: 
"Here,  take  my  blessing",  exclaimed  one  of  the  mur- 
derers and  by  dischargmg  his  gun  he  gave  the  signal 
for  the  execution. 

(2)  The  Dominican  Fathers,  who  perished  the  fol- 
lowing day,  25  May^  belong  to  the  Coll^  of 
Arcueu,  close  to  Paris.  Their  superior  was  !^ther 
Captier,  who  founded  the  college  and  imder  whose 
government  it  had  prospered,  ^ith  him  were  four 
religious  of  his  order:  Fathers  Bourard,  DcJhorme, 
Cottrault,  and  Chatagneret,  and  ei^^t  laymen,  who 
belonged  to  the  college,  either  as  professors  or  as  serv- 
ants. The^r  were  arrested  on  the  19th  of  May  and 
imprisoned  in  the  outlying  fort  of  Bic^tre,  where  they 
sunered  from  hunger  and  thirst.  On  the  25th  of  May 
they  were  transferred  from  Bic^re  to  a  prison  within 
the  city,  situated  on  the  Avenue  d'ltalie.  The  ex- 
citement and  anarchy  that  reigned  in  Paris,  and  the 
insults  that  were  levelled  at  tne  prisoners  as  they 
were  led  from  one  prison  to  another  prepared  them 
for  the  worst;  they  made  their  confession  and  pre- 
pared for  death.  Towards  five  in  the  afternoon,  tney 
were  commanded  to  go  into  the  street  one  by  one: 
Father  Captier,  whose  strong  faith  sustained  his  com- 
panions' courage,  turned  to  them:  "Let  us  go,  my 
friends,  for  the  sake  of  God".  The  street  was  filled 
with  armed  men  who  discharged  their  guns  at  the 
prisoners  as  they  passed.  Father  Captier  was  mor- 
tally wounded;  his  companions  fell  here  and  there; 
some  were  killed  on  the  spot;  others  lingered  on  till 
their  assassins  put  them  out  of  pain.  Their  dead 
bodies  remained  for  twenty-four  hours  on  the  ground, 
exposed  to  every  insult;  onlv  the  next  morning,  when 
the  troops  from  Versailles  nad  conquered  the  Com- 
mune, were  they  claimed  by  the  victims'  friends  and 
conveyed  to  Arcueil. 

(3)  Tlie  third  group  of  martyrs  perished  on  the  26th 
of  May;  the  revolutionists  were  now  driven  back  by 
the  steady  advance  of  the  regiilar  troops,  and  onlv  the 
heights  of  Belleville  were  still  in  possession  of  the 
Commune.  Over  fifty  prisoners  were  taken  from  the 
prison  of  La  Roauette  and  conducted  on  foot  to  this 
last  stronghold  of  the  revolution.    Among  them  were 


ooMitmnaAno 


169 


eoMMtnnoir 


eleven  ecdesiastics:  three  Jesuits,  four  members  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and 
Marjr,  three  secuiar  priests,  and  one  seminarist.  Ail 
displayed  heroie  courajge;  the  best  known  among 
than  was  Father  Olivaint,  rector  of  the  Jesuit  house 
of  the  Rue  de  Sevres,  who  thirsted  for  mart3rrdom. 
After  a  painful  joiune^  through  the  streets,  which 
were  filled  with  an  infuriated  rabble,  the  prisoners 
were  driven  into  an  enclosure,  callea  the  oiU  FtV 
eennes,  on  the  heights  of  Belleville.  Here  they  were 
literally  hacked  to  pieces  by  a  crowd  of  men,  women, 
and  even  children.  There  was  no  attexnpt  to  organize 
a  regular  execution  like  the  one  at  La  Roquette;  the 
massacre  lasted  an  hour,  and  most  of  the  bodies  were 
disfigured  beyond  recognition.  Only  a  few  hours 
later  the  r^;ular  troops  forced  their  wa^  to  La  Ro- 
Quette,  ddivered  the  prisoners  that  still  remained 
tnere,  and  took  possession  of  Belleville,  the  last 
stronghold  of  the  Oommune. 

va  Camp,  Conmdtunu  <U  Piarit  (Pftrii,  1883);  KmrmvMt,  Vie 
du  R,  P.  Captier,  lomdaUur  de  I'EcoU.d'ArcueU  (Paris,  1875); 
DE  PoKU:voT,  Adea  de  la  capiivite  et  de  la  moH  det  RR.  PP. 
OHvaint,  Dueoudray,  Cauberi,  Clerc,  de  Bengy  (P&rio,  1S94); 
FOT7L0K,  Hiat.  de  la  vie  et  dea  teuvree  de  Mgr  Darboy  (Paria, 

lSSO)»  Barbara  db  Oguhson. 

Oomsmnieatio  Idiomatcim,  a  technical  expression 
in  the  theology  of  the  Incarnation.  It  means  that 
the  properties  of  the  Divine  Word  can  be  ascribed  to 
the  man  Christ,  and  that  the  properties  of  the  man 
Christ  can  be  predicated  of  the  Word.  The  language 
of  Scripture  and  of  the  Fathers  shows  that  such  a 
mutual  interchange  of  predicates  is  le^timate;  in  this 
artide  its  source  and  the  rules  determming  its  use  will 
be  briefly  considered. 

I.  SouHCB. — ^The  source  of  the  oommunicatio  idio- 
matum  is  not  to  be  sought  in  the  dose  moral  union 
between  Christ  and  God  as  maintained  by  the  Nesto- 
rians,  nor  in  Christ's  fullness  of  grace  and  supernatural 


I  Hol^  Qhost  have  the  same  right 
interest  aa  the  Son  m  all  created  thin^  except  in  the 
human  nature  of  Jesus  Christ.  This  the  Son  by 
Assumption  has  made  His  own  in  a  way  that  it  is  not 
theirs,  L  e.  by  the  incommunicable  property  of  per^ 
sonal  union.  In  Christ  there  is  one  person  with  two 
natures,  the  human  and  the  Divine.  In  ordinary 
language  all  the  properties  of  a  subject  are  predicated 
of  its  person;  consequently  the  properties  of  Qirist's 
two  natures  must  be  preoioatea  or  His  one  person, 
since  they  have  only  one  subject  of  predication.  He 
Who  is  the  Word  of  God  on  account  of  His  eternal 
generation  is  also  the  subject  of  human  properties; 
and  He  Who  is  the  man  Cnrist  on  account  of  having 
assumed  human  nature  is  the  subject  of  Divine 
attributes.    Christ  is  God;  God  is  man. 

n.  UsB. — The  conmiunicatio  idiomatum  is  based 
on  the  oneness  of  ipenon  sobsistang  in  the  two  natures 
of  Jesus  CSiriBt.  Hence  it  can  be  used  as  long  as  both 
the  subject  and  the  predicate  of  a  sentence  stand  for 
the  person  of  Jesus  Christ,  or  present  a  common  sub- 
ject of  predication.  For  in  this  ease  we  simply  affirm 
that  He  Who  subsists  in  the  Divine  nature  and  pos- 
sesses certain  Divine  properties  is  the  isame  as  He  Who 
subsists  in  the  human  nature  and  possesses  certain 
human  properties.  The  following  considerations  will 
show  ^e  api^cation  of  this  principle  more  in  detail: — 

(1)  In  general,  concrete  terms  stand  for  the  person: 
hence,  statements  interchanging  the  Divine  and  hu- 
man properties  of  Christ  are,  generally  speaking,  cor- 
rect if  both  their  subjects  ana  predicates  be  concrete 
terms.  We  may  safely  say,  "  God  is  man ' ',  though  we 
must  observe  certain  cautions:  (a)  The  concrete 
human  names  of  Christ  describe  His  penon  according 
to  His  human  nature.  They  presuppose  the  Incarna- 
tion, and  their  application  to  Christ  previously  to  the 
completion  of  the  nypostatic  union  would  involve  the 


Nestorian  view  that  Christ's  human  nature  had  its 
own  subsistence.  Consequently,  such  expressions  as 
''man  became  God"  are  to  be  avoided,  (d)  Concrete 
terms  used  reduplicatively  emphasize  the  nature 
rather  than  the  person.  The  statement "  God  as  God 
has  suffered''  means  that  God  according  to  His  Divine 
nature  has  suffered;  needless  to  say,  such  statements 
are  false.  <c)  Certain  expressions,  though  correct  in 
themselves,  are  for  extrinsic  reasons,  inadunciissible;  the 
statement  ''One  of  the  TVinity  was  crucified"  was 
misapplied  in  a  Monophysite  sense  and  was  therefore 
forbidden  by  Pope  Hormisdas;  the  Arians  misinter- 
preted the  words  "Christ  is  a  creature";  both  Ariana 
and  Nestorians  misused  the  expressions  "Christ  had  a 
beginning"  and  "Christ  is  less  than  the  Father"  or 
'Mess  than  God":  the  Docetists  abused  the  terms 
"incorporeal"  ana  "impassible". 

(2)  Abstract  terms  generally  stand  for  their  re- 
spective nature.  Now  m  Christ  there  are  two  natures. 
Hence  statements  interchanging  the  Divine  and 
human  properties  of  Christ  are,  ^nerally  speaking, 
incorrect  if  their  subject  and  predicate,  either  one  or 
both,  be  abstract  terms.  We  cannot  say,  "the 
Divinity  is  mortal",  or,  "the  humanity  is  increated". 
The  following  cautions,  however,  must  be  added: 
(a)  Aside  from  the  peisonal  relations  in  God  there  is 
no  real  distinction  admissible  in  Him.  Hence  ab- 
stract names  and  attributes  of  God,  though  standing 
formally  for  the  Divine  nature,  imply  reiuly  also  the 
Divine  pereons.  Absolutely  speaking,  we  may  re- 
place a  concrete  Divine  name  by  its  corresponding 
abstract  one  and  still  keep  the  oommunicatio  idio- 
matum. Thus  we  may  say,  "  Omnipotence  was  cruci- 
fied", in  the  sense  that  He  Who  is  omnipotent 
(Omnipotence)  is  the  same  as  He  Who  was  crucified. 
But  such  expressions  are  liable  to  be  misunderstood 
and  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  their  use.  (b) 
There  is  less  danger  in  the  use  of  those  abstract  terms 
which  eiroresB  attributes  appropriated  to  the  Second 
Person  oi  the  Trinity.  We  may  say,  "  Eternal  Wis- 
dom became  man",  (c)  There  is  no  oommunicatio 
idiomatum  between  the  two  natures  of  Christ,  or 
between  the  Word  and  the  human  nature  as  such  or 
its  parts.  The  fundamental  error  of  the  Ubiquitists 
(a.  V.)  consists  in  predicating  of  the  human  nature  or 
or  humanity  the  properties  of  the  Divine  nature.  We 
cannot  say  that  "tne  Word  is  the  humanity",  and 
still  less  that  "the  Word  is  the  soul"  or  "the  body  of 
Christ". 

(3)  In  statements  whidi  interchange  the  Divine  and 
the  human  properties  of  Christ,  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  deny  or  destroy  one  of  Christ's  natures  or  its  prop- 
erties. This  is  apt  to  be  done:  (a)  In  ne^ive  sen- 
tences: though  it  be  true  that  Christ  did  not  die 
aoeordinff  to  His  Divine  nature,  we  cannot  say, 
"Christ  aid  not  die",  without  impairing  His  human 
nature;  (b)  in  exclusive  sentences:  if  we  say,  "Christ 
is  only  God"  or  "Christ  is  only  man",  we  destroy 
either  His  human  or  His  Divine  nature ;  (c)  in  the  use 
of  ambiguous  terms:  the  Arians,  the  Nestorians,  and 
the  Adoptionists  misused  the  term  "servant",  infer- 
ring from  the  expression,  "Christ  is  the  servant  of 
God",  conclusions  agreeing  with  their  respective 
heresies.  (For  the  use  of  the  communicatio  idioma- 
tum in  a  wider  sense,  i.  e.  as  applied  to  the  Body  of 
Christ  and  the  Sacramental  Species,  see  Eucharist. 
See  also  Incarnation;  Jesxts  Chrkt.) 

St.  Thomab,  Summa  TheoL.,  Ill,  Q.  xvi;  Idcm,  Led,  it  in  I 
Cor.,  ii;  Petaviub,  De  Jneamatione,  IV,  15-16  (especially  for 
doctrine  of  the  Fathers);  Wilhelm  and  Scankell,  A  Manual 
of  Catholie  Tkeolom  (London,  1808).  II;  Franzklin.  De  Verba 
ineamato  (Rome,  1881);  Pohlb,  LehrbfucK  d.  Dogmaiik  (Fader- 
bom,  1903),  n.  A.  J.  Maas. 

Oommunion,  Holy.    See  Holy  CoMafUNioN. 

Oommunion-Antiphon. — ^The  term  Communion 
(Communio)  is  used,  not  only  for  the  reception  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist,  but  also  as  a  8tK>rtened  form  for  the 


OOMMUMIOH 


170 


OOMMtJHIOH 


antiphon  {Antij^na  ad  Communionem)  that  was 
originally  sung  while  the  people  were  receiving  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  but  which  has  now  been  displaced^ 
so  as  to  follow  that  moment.  In  the  Ambrosian  Rite 
this  antiphon  is  called  the  Tranntorium,  apparently 
because  the  celebrant  after  the  Communion  g^ses  over 
(transit)  to  the  Epistle  side  of  the  altar  to  read  it.  It 
is  the  fourth  and  last  of  the  changeable  parts  of  the 
Mass  {Ptoprium)  stmg  by  the  choir  (Introit,  Gradual, 
Offertory,  Communion),  and  is  at  least  as  old  as  the 
fourth  century.  In  St.  Augustine's  time  (d.  430), 
together  with  the  Offertory-Antiphon,  it  haid  lately 
]>een  introduced  into  Africa;  he  wrote  a  treatise  (Con- 
tra Hilarium)  to  defend  their  use  (Duchesne,  Origines, 
166, 179).  But  the  present  Communion  is  only  a  frag- 
ment of  the  older  cnant.  It  was  originally  a  psalm, 
with  the  Gloria  Patri,  preceded  and  concluded  by  an 
antiphon.  The  First  Roman  Ordo  (about  770)  con- 
tains the  direction:  "As  soon  as  the  pontiff  begins 
to  give  Communion  in  the  Senatorium  [where  the 
most  distinguished  people  stood]  at  once  the  choir 
begins  the  antiphon  for  the  Communion,  singing  it 
alternately  with  the  subdeacons;  and  they  go  on  until 
all  the  people  have  received  Communion.  Then  the 
pontiff  makes  a  sign  to  them  to  sine  the  Gloria  Patri ; 
and  so,  when  they  have  repeated  tne  antiphon  [repe- 
tilo  verm]  they  stop"  (ed.  Atchley,  144).  This  is  the 
first  definite  rubric  we  have  about  the  Commumo,  It 
shows  us  that  it  was  to  be  sung'  while  the  celebrant 
goes  around  to  Communicate  the  people;  and  that  if 
consisted  of  a  psalm,  sung  alternately  with  its  anti- 
phon, as  were,  at  that  time,  also  the  Introit  and  Offer- 
tory. So  also  Micrologus  (Remold  of  Constance,  d. 
1100)  says  that  when  the  people  Communicate, 
"meanwhile  the  antiphon  is  sung  which  takes  its 
name  from  the  Communion,  to  which  a  psalm  must 
be  added  with  its  Gloria  Patri  if  need  be''  (ch.  xviii  in 
Migne,  P.  L.,  CLI,  973  so.).  It  was.  then,  like  the 
other  three  parts  that  make  up  the  Projnium  of  the 
choir,  a  chant  to  be  suns  so  as  to  fill  up  tne  time  while 
the  clergy  were  engs^ged  in  some  action. 

The  two  changes  in  its  history  are  that  it  has  been 
removed  to  its  place  after  the  Communion  and  has 
been  shortened.  Its  postponement  began  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Abbot  Rupert  of  Deut?  (d.  1135) 
says:  "  The  chant  that  we  call  the  Communion,  which 
we  sing  after  the  heavenly  food,  is  a  thanksgiving" 
(De  div.  off.,  II,  xviii,  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  CLXX,  13  sq.), 
and  Durandus:  "The  antipnon,  which  is  called  Post- 
communion  by  many  because  it  is  sung  after  the  Com- 
munion ..."  (Rationale,  IV,  56).  But  he  goes  on  to 
describe  the  fiinal  collect  as  that  which  "is  properly 
called  Post-communion"  (ib.,  57).  There  are  otber 
instances  of  this  antiphon  occasionally  being  called 
Post-Communion.  The  reason  of  its  removsa  seems 
to  have  been,  on  the  one  hand,  the  place  of  the  Agnus 
Dei,  which  at  that  time  began  to  be  sung  during  the 
Communion,  and  to  be  repeated  thrice,  thus  taking  up 
more  time  (Gihr,  Messopter,  671);  on  the  other  hand, 
'the  ^adual  lessening  of  the  number  of  communicants 
at  high  Mass.  Its  shortened  form  is  part  of  the  cur- 
tailing of  all  the  prayers  of  the  Mass  that  was  the  re- 
sult of  the  multiplication  of  low  Masses.  Only  in 
requiems  have  we  a  remnant  of  the  older  form.  Here 
after  the  first  verse  (Lux  sterna)  follows  an  antiphon 
(Cum  Sanctis  tuis),  then  the  "Reauiem  etemam" — 
last  vestifi«  of  the  psalm — and  tne  antiphon  is  re- 
peated. Otherwise  the  Communion  is  always  one 
short  antiphon,  sun^  by  the  choir  immediately  after 
the  Agnus  Dei,  ana  said  by  the  celebrant  after  the 
Commimion.  It  is  generally  a  verse  from  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, referring,  not  to  the  nolv  Eucharist,  but  rather 
to  the  feast  which  is  celebrated  or  to  the  special  season 
{de  tempore)  or  to  the  purpose  (in  votives)  for  which  the 
Mass  is  offered.  But  not  sddom  it  is  a  text  taken 
from  some  other  source,  or  specially  composed  for  this 
use.    It  is  always  saki  by  the  priest  at  the  altar.  Since 


the  conunon  use  of  low  Mass,  in  which  he  substitutes 
the  choir's  part  himself,  the  rule  is  that  the  priest  alao 
says  whatever  is  sung  by  them.  As  soon  as  ne  has  ar- 
ransed  the  chalice  and  paten  in  the  middle  of  the  altar 
(at  nigh  Mass  the  subdeaoon  does  this,  uui  takes  them 
to  the  credence-table)  he  goes  with  joined  hands  to  Uie 
Missal,  which  has  been  r^laoed  at  the  Epistle  side, 
and  there,  the  hands  still  joined,  reads  the  Commun- 
ion from  the  Promium.  He  then  comes  back  to  the 
middle  for  the  Dominus  vobiscum  before  the  Post- 
Communion. 

Rubriea  Oenendea,  XIII.  1;  RUua  ed.,  XI,  1:  Atchlet,  Ordo 
Romcnu8  Primus  (London,  1005):  Benedict  XiV,  DeSS.  AftMcp 
SacriAcio,  II,  xxiv;  Gihr,  Das  heUige  Messopter  (FreiburK  im 
Br..  1807).  II.  171,  70fr-708;  Duchisne,  Ortmnes  du  cuiU  chri- 
lien  (2nd  ed..  Pans,  1808),  Idd,  170;  Db  Hbbdt.  8,  IMuroia 
Praxis  (0th  ed..  I^uvain,  1804).  380-300.  480-483:  Moran. 
Essays  on  the  Origin,  Doctrine  and  Discipline  of  the  Early  Irish 
Church  (Dublin  1864)  165-66;  alao  P.  £..,  LXX,  680. 

Adrian  Fobtbscue. 

Oommunion-Bench,  an  adaptation  of  the  sanctu- 
ary-guard or  altar-rail.  [See  sub-title  Altar-Rail  s.  v. 
Altar  (In  LrruROY).]  Standing  in  front  of  this  bar- 
rier, in  a  space  called  the  chancel,  or  pectoral,  the 
faithful  were  wont  in  early  times  to  receive  Holy  Com- 
munion, the  men  taking  the  Consecrated  Bread  into 
their  hands  and  the  women  receiving  it  on  a  white 
cloth,  called  the  domenical,  while  deacons  adminis- 
tered the  Precious  Blood  which  each  took  through  a 
reed  of  gold  or  silver.  About  the  twelfth  century 
when  the  custom  arose  of  receiving  imder  one  kind 
only,  the  priests  placed  the  small  Hosts  on  the  tongues 
of  the  communicants  at  the  chanoel-rail.  Later  on, 
about  the  fifteenth  century  the  practice  was  intro- 
duced of  receiving  Holy  Communion  kneeling,  and  so 
the  altar-rail  gradually  came  to  assume  a  form  better 
suited  to  its  modem  use,  and  like  what  it  is  at  present 
(Bourass^,  Diet.  D'Arch.,  Paris,  1851).  When  large 
crowds  approach  the  altar  on  special  oocask>n8  so  that 
the  ordinal  accommodation  for  receiving  is  not  ade- 

Suate,  a  row  of  prie-Dieu  or  benches  provided  with 
ommunion  cloths  or  cards,  with  a  lighted  candle  at 
the  end  of  each  row,  may  be  arranged  around  the 
chancel.     (Cong,  of  Rites,  Deer.  3086,  Nov.  ed.) 

Patrick  Morribroe. 

Oommtmion-Oloth.    See  Altar,  under  AUar-RaxL 

Oommniiion  of  Ohildren. — In  order  to  get  some 
insight  into  the  historical  aspect  of  this  subject  it  will 
be  useful  to  dwell  upon  (1)  the  ancient  practice,  and 
(2)  the  present  discipline  of  the  Church  in  regard  to  the 
Communion  of  children. 

(1)  Ancient  Practice. — It  is  now  well  established 
that  in  the  earlv  dajrs  of  Christianity  it  was  not  un- 
common for  infants  to  teceive  Communion  immedi- 
ately after  thev  were  baptised.  Among  others  St. 
Cyprian  (Lib.  ae  Lapsis,  c.  xxv)  makes  reference  to 
the  practice.  In  the  East  the  custom  waa  pretty  uni- 
versal, and  even  to  this  day  exists  in  some  places,  but 
in  the  West  infant  Communion  was  not  so  general. 
Here,  moreover,  it  was  restrict^^l  to  the  occasions  of 
baptism  and  dangerous  illness.  Probably  it  origi- 
nated in  a  mistaken  notion  of  the  absolute  necessity  of 
the  Blessed  Eucharist  for  salvation,  founded  on  the 
words  of  St.  John  (vi,  54).  In  the  reign  of  Charle- 
magne an  edict  was  published  bv  a  Coimdl  of  Tours 
(813)  prohibitins  the  reception  by  young  children  of 
Communion  untess  they  were  in  daneer  of  death 
(Zaccaria,  Bibl.  Hit.,  II,  p.  161)  and  Odo,  Bishop  of 
Paris,  renewed  this  prohibition  in  1175.  Still  the 
custom  died  hard,  for  we  find  traces  of  it  in  Hugh  of 
St.  Victor  (De  Sacr.,  I,  c.  20)  and  2klart^e  (De  Ant.  Ecc. 
Rit.,  I  bk.,  I,  c.  15)  allies  that  it  had  not  altogether 
disappeared  in  his  own  da;^.  The  manner  of  Commu- 
nicatmg  infants  was  by  dipping  the  finger  in  the  con- 
secrated chalice  and  then  applying  it  to  the  tongue  of 
the  child.  This  would  seem  to  imply  that  it  was  onlv 
the  Precious  Blood  that  was  administered,  but  evi- 


ooMMtmioir 


171 


OOMMimiON 


denoe  is  not  wanting  to  show  that  the  other  Conse- 
crated Species  was  also  eiven  in  similar  circumstances 
(cf.  Sebastiano  Giribaldi,  Op.  Mor.,  I,  c.  72).  That  in- 
fants and  children  not  yet  come  to  the  use  of  reason 
may  not  only  validly  but  even  fruitfully  receive  the 
Blessed  Eiucharist  is  now  the  universally  received 
opinion,  but  it  is  opposed  to  Catholic  teachmg  to  hold 
that  this  sacrament  is  necessary  for  their  salvation 
(Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXI,  can.  iv). 

II.  Present  Discipline. — ^The  existing  legislation 
with  regard  to  the  Communion  of  children  has  been 
definiteiy  settled  by  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council,  which 
was  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  authority  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  According  to  its  provisions  chil- 
dren may  not  be  admitted  to  the  Blessed  Eucharist 
until  they  have  attained  to  years  of  discretion,  but 
when  this  period  is  reached  then  they  are  bound  to  re- 
ceive this  sacrament.  When  may  they  be  said  to  have 
attained  the  age  of  discretion?  In  the  best-supported 
view  of  theologians  this  phrase  means,  not  the  attain- 
ment of  a  definite  number  of  years,  but  rather  the  ar- 
rivai  at  a  certain  stage  in  mental  development,  when 
children  become  able  to  discern  the  Eucharistic  from 
ordinary  bread,  to  realize  in  some  measure  the  dignity 
and  excellence  of  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  to  be- 
lieve in  the  Real  Presence,  and  adore  Christ  under  the 
sacramental  veils.  De  Lugo  (De  Euch.,  disp.  xiii,  n. 
36,  Ben.  XIV,  De  Syn.,  vii)  says  that  if  children  are 
observed  to  assist  at  Mass  with  devotion  and  attention 
it  is  a  sign  that  they  are  come  to  this  discretion. 

Thus  it  is  seen  tliat  a  keener  religious  sense,  so  to 
speak,  is  demanded  for  the  reception  of  Ck)mmunion 
than  for  confession.  Moreover,  it  is  agreed  that  children 
in  danger  of  death  ought  to  be  admitted  to  Communion 
even  though  they  may  not  have  the  same  decree  of 
fitness  that  would  be  required  in  ordinary  circum- 
stances. In  answer  to  a  Question  as  to  whether  a  cer- 
tain episcopal  ordinance  snould  be  upheld  that  fixed  a 
definite  age-limit  under  which  chilaren  could  not  be 
admitted  to  First  Communion,  the  Congregation  of 
the  Council  replied  in  the  affirmative,  proviofed,  how- 
ever, that  those  children  adjudged  to  have  reached  the 
discretion  required  by  the  Councils  of  Lateran  and 
Trent  might  not  be  excluded  (21  Julv,  1888).  This 
reply  bears  out  the  interpretation  already  given  of 
"the  years  of  discretion"  and  it  may  be  said  in  the 
words  of  the  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (pt.  II,  & 
iv,  a.  03)  that  ''no  one  can  better  determine  the  age 
at  wnich  the  sacred  mysteries  should  be  given  to  young 
children  than  their  parents  and  confessor". 

The  duty  of  preparing  candidates  for  First  Commu- 
nion is  the  most  important  that  can  fall  to  the  lot  of  a 
pastor  (O'Kane,  Rubrics  of  Rom.  Rit.,  p.  391).  This  is 
amply  recognized  by  the  Church  in  every  country,  for 
almost  every  diocese  has  its  statutes  regulating  with 
scrupulous  exactness  all  the  preliminaries  of  this 
sacred  and  solemn  event  (cf.  Deer,  of  III  Plen.  Bait, 
no.  217,  218,  etc.).  A  long  course  of  religious  instruc- 
tion 18  usuiUly  prescribed  while  the  moraftraining  and 
virtuous  formation  of  the  mind  is  also  urgently  in- 
sisted upon.  In  regard  to  First  Communion  it  may 
be  observed:  (1)  that  ft  should  take  place  during  pas- 
cal time;  (2)  that  it  should  be  received  as  a  rule  m  the 
parochial  church,  unless  the  consent  of  the  pastor  is 
nad  for  receiving  it  elsewhere;  (3)  that  no  effort 
should  be  spared  to  fix  the  occasion  indelibly  on  the 
mind  of  the  young  communicant;  and  (4)  that  for 
this  purpose  toe  Mass  at  which  it  is  received  should  be 
celebrated  with  special  solemnity,  boys  and  girls  being 
suitably  attired  and  assigned  to  separate  sections  of 
the  church.  A  short  aodress  may  be  given  in  this 
case  immediately  before  the  distribution  of  Commu- 
nion (De  Herdt,  Praxis  Lit.,  I,  277;  Rom.  Rit.,  De 
Euch.,  t.  XXIII).  The  decree  "Sacra  Tridentina 
Synodus",  published  Dec,  1905,  about  daily  Commu- 
nion applies  to  all  persons,  young  and  old,  who  have 
made  their  First  Communion  (Anal.  Eccl.,  1906,  p.  833). 


In  addidoD  to  the  ordinmry  handbooks  on  ChrisiUn  doetrina, 
pee  also:  Db  Lugo,  De  Sand.  Ettch.  Sacr.,  disp.  ziu;  Lxauoai, 
Theol.  Mar.,  I.  lib.  VI;  Lkhmkuhl.  Thed.  Mor.  Camp.,  II; 
Gabpabbx,  Traicl.  Can.  de  Euch.,  II;  Gihr.  L" Eueharistie. 

Patrick  Morrisrob. 

OoTnmqnlon  of  Saints  (communio  sanctorum, 
KtHPtavla  iyLwWj  a  fellowship  of,  or  with,  the  saints),  the 
doctrine  expressed  in  the  second  clause  of  the  ninth 
article  in  the  received  text  of  the  Apostles'  Creed:  I 
believe  .  .  .  the  Holy  Catholic  Church,  the  Commu- 
nion of  Saints.  This,  probably  the  latest,  addition  to 
the  old  Roman  Symbol,  is  found  in  the  Gallican  Lit- 
urgy of  the  seventh  century  (P.  L.,  LXXII,  349,  597); 
in  some  letters  of  the  Pseudo- Augustine  (P.  L., 
XXXIX,  2189,  2191,  2194),  now  credited  to  St. 
Caesarius  of  Aries  (c.  543) ;  in  the  *'  De  Spiritu  Sancto" 
(P.  L.,  LXII,  11),  ascribed  to  Faustus  of  Riez  (c.  460): 
in  the  "Explanatio  Symboli"  (P.  L.,  LII,  871)  of 
Nicetas  of  Hemesiana  (c.  400);  and  in  two  documents 
of  uncertain  date,  the  "Fides  Hieronymi"  (Analecta 
Maredsolana,  1903),  and  an  Armenian  confession 
rHahn,  Bibliothek  der  Symbole,  §  128).  On  these 
facts  critics  have  built  various  theories.  Hamack 
(Das  apost.  Glaubensbekenntniss,  Berlin,  1892,  p.  31) 
holds  tno  addition  to  be  a  protest  against  Vigilantius, 
wlio  condemned  the  veneration  of  wie  saints;  and  he 
connects  that  protest  with  Faustus  in  Southern  Gaul 
and  probably  also  with  Nicetas  in  Pannonia,  who  was 
influenced  by  the  "Catecheses"  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusa- 
lem. Swete  (Tlie  Apostles'  Creed,  London,  1894) 
sees  in  it  at  first  a  reaction  against  the  separatism  of 
the  Donatiflts,  therefore  an  African  and  Augustinian 
conception  bearing  only  on  church  memberehip,  the 
higher  meaning  of  fellowship  with  the  departed  saints 
having  been  mtroduced  later  by  Faustus.  Morin 
thinks  that  it  originated,  with  an  anti-Donatist  mean- 
ing, in  Armenia,  whence  it  passed  to  Pannonia,  Gaul, 
the  British  Isles,  Spain,  etc.,  gathering  new  meanings 
in  the  course  of  its  travels  till  it  finally  resulted  in  the 
Catholic  synthesis  of  medieval  theologians.  These 
and  many  other  conjectures  leave  undisturbed  the 
traditional  doctrine,  ably  represented  by  Kirsch,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  communion  of  saints,  whereso- 
ever it  was  introduced  into  the  Creed,  is  the  natural 
outgrowth  of  Scriptural  teachmg,  and  chiefly  of 
the  baptismal  formula;  still  the  value  of  the  dogma 
does  not  rest  on  the  solution  of  that  historical  prob- 
lem. 

Catholic  Doctrine. — ^The  communion  of  saints  is 
the  spiritual  solidarity  which  binds  together  the  faith- 
ful on  earth,  the  souls  in  purgatory,  and  the  saints  in 
heaven  in  the  organic  unity  of  the  same  mystical  body 
under  Christ  its  head,  and  in  a  constant  interchange  of 
supernatural  ofl[ices.  The  participants  in  that  soli- 
darity are  called  saints  by  reason  of  their  destination 
and  of  their  partaking  of  the  fruits  of  the  Redemption 
(I  Cor.,  i,  2--Greek  Text).  The  damned  are  thus  ex- 
cluded from  the  communion  of  saints.  The  living, 
even  if  they  do  not  belong  to  the  body  of  the  true 
Church,  share  in  it  according  to  the  measure  of  their 
union  with  Christ  and  with  the  soul  of  the  Cliurch. 
St.  Thomas  teaches  (III,  Q.  viii,  a.  4)  that  the  angels, 
though  not  redeemed,  enter  the  commimion  of  saints 
because  they  come  under  Christ's  power  and  receive  of 
His  gratia  capitis.  The  solidarity  itself  implies  a  vari- 
ety of  inter-relations:  within  the  Church  Militant,  not 
onlv  the  participation  in  the  same  faith,  sacraments, 
and  government,  but  also  a  mutual  exchange  of  ex- 
amples, prayers,  merits,  and  satisfactions;  between 
the  Church  on  earth  on  the  one  hand,  and  purgatory 
and  heaven  on  the  other,  suffrages,  invocation,  inter- 
cession, veneration.  These  connotations  belong  here 
only  in  so  far  as  they  integrate  the  transcendent  idea 
of  spiritual  solidarity  between  all  the  children  of  God. 
Thus  understood,  the  communion  of  saints,  though 
formally  defined  only  in  its  particular  bearings  (Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  Sess.  XXV,  decrees  on  purgatory;  cm  the 


OOMMUNION 


172 


OOMMUHIOH 


invocaiioiii  veneration,  and  relics  of  saints  and  on 
sacred  images;  on  indulgences),  is,  nevertheless,  a 
dogma  commonly  tau^t  and  accepted  in  the  Church. 
(S^  Holden, "  DivinsB  fidei  analysis  "  in  Migne, "  Theo- 
logiffi  Cursus  Completus",  VI,  803;  Natalis  Alexan- 
der, "De  Symbolo^',  ibid.,  333;  Christmann,  "CoUeo- 
tio  dofl;matum  credendorum",  ibid.,  d97.)  It  is  true 
that  we  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  IVent  (Pt.  I, 
ch.  x)  seems  at  first  sight  to  limit  to  the  living  the  bear- 
ing of  the  phrase  contained  in  the  Creed,  but  by  niak- 
ing  the  conmiunion  of  saints  an  exponent  and  function, 
as  it  were,  of  the  preceding  clause,  "the  Holy  Catholic 
Church",  it  really  extends  to  what  it  calls  the  Church's 
"constituent  parts,  one  gone  before,  the  other  follow- 
ing every  day";  the  broad  principle  it  enimciates 
thus:  "every  pious  and  holy  action  done  b^  one  be- 
longs and  is  profitable  to  all,  through  chanty  which 
seeketh  not  her  own". 

In  this  vast  Catholic  conception  rationalists  see  not 
oi^y  a  late  creation,  but  also  an  ill-disguised  reversion 
to  a  lower  religious  type,  a  ptirely  mechanical  process 
of  justification,  the  suDstitution  of  impersonal  moral 
value  in  lieu  of  personal  responsibility.  Such  state- 
ments are  met  best  by  the  presentation  of  the  dogma 
in  its  Scriptural  basis  and  its  theological  formulation. 
Ilie  first  spare  yet  clear  outline  of  the  communion  of 
saints  is  found  in  the  "kingdom  of  God "  of  the  Synop- 
tics, not  the  individualistic  creation  of  Hamack  nor 
the  purely  eschatological  conception  of  Loisy,  but  an 
organic  whole  (Matt.,  xiii,  31),  which  embraces  in  the 
bonds  of  charity  (Matt.,  xxii,  39)  all  the  children  of 
God  (Matt.,  xix,  28;  Luke,  xx,  36)  on  earth  and  in 
heaven  (Matt.,  yi,  20),  the  angels  Uiemselves  joining 
in  that  fraternity  of  souls  (Luke,  xv,  10).  One  cannot 
read  the  parables  of  the  kingdom  (Matt.,  xiii)  without 
perceiving  its  corporate  nature  and  the  continuity 
whidi  links  together  the  kingdom  in  our  midst  and  the 
kingdom  to  come.  (See  Rose,  Studies  on  the  Gospel.) 
llie  nature  of  that  communion,  called  by  St.  John  a 
feUowship  with  one  another  ("a  fellowship  with  us " — 
I  John,  1,  3)  because  it  is  "a  fellowship  with  the 
Father,  and  with  his  Son",  and  compared  by  him  to 
the  organic  and  vital  union  of  the  vine  and  its 
branches  (John,  xv),  stands  out  in  bold  relief  in  the 
Paulme  conception  of  the  mystical  body.  Repeatedly 
St.  Paul  speaks  of  the  one  body  whose  head  is  Christ 
(Col.,  i,  18),  whose  energizing  principle  is  charity 
(Eph.,  iv,  16),  whose  members  are  the  saints,  not  only 
of  this  worid,  but  also  of  the  world  to  come  (Eph^  i, 
20;  Heb.,  xii,  22).  In  that  communion  there  is  no  loss 
of  individuality,  yet  such  an  interdependence  that  the 
sahdts  are  "members  one  of  another"  (Rom.,  xii,  5), 
not  only  sharing  the  same  blessing  (I  Cor.,  xii,  13)  and 
exchanging  good  offices  (ibid.,  xii,  25)  and  prayers 
(Eph.,  vi,  18),  but  also  partaldng  of  the  same  corpor- 
ate life,  for  "the  whole  body  ...  by  what  every 
joint  supplieth  .  .  .  maketh  increase  .  .  .  unto  the 
edifying  of  itself  in  charity"  (Eph.,  iv,  16). 

Recent  well-known  researches  in  Christian  epi- 
naphy  have  brought  out  clear  and  abundant  proof  of 
ttxe  principal  manifestations  of  the  communion  of 
saints  in  the  early  Church.  Similar  evidence,  care- 
fully sifted  by  Kiiisch,  is  to  be  found  in  the  Apostolic 
Fathers  with  an  occasional  allusion  to  the  Pauline 
conception.  For  an  attempt  at  the  formulation  of 
the  dogma  we  have  to  come  down  to  the  Alexandrian 
School.  Clement  of  Alexandria  shows  the  "gnos- 
tic's" intimate  relations  with  the  angels  (Strom.,  VI, 
xii,  10)  and  the  departed  souls  (ibidT,  VIII,  xii,  78); 
and  he  all  but  formulates  the  (heMitrus  ecdeaug  in  his 
presentation  of  the  vicarious  martyrdom,  not  of  Christ 
alone,  but  also  of  the  Apostles  and  other  martyrs 
(ibid.,  IV,  xii,  87).  Ori^n  enlarges,  almost  to  exag- 
geratk>n,  on  the  idea  of  vicarious  martyrdom  (Exhort. 
ad  mar^.,  ch.  1)  and  of  communion  between  man  and 
an^k  (De  orat.,  xxxi) ;  and  accounts  for  it  by  the  uni- 
fying power  of  Christ's  Redemption,  tU  ccdesHbua  ier- 


rena  aoeiaret  (In  Levit.,  horn,  iv)  and  the  force  of  char- 
ity, stran^r  in  heaven  than  upon  earth  (De  orat.,  xi). 
With  St.  Basil  and  St.  John  Chrysostom  the  commu- 
nion of  saints  has  become  an  obvious  tenet  used  as  an 
answer  to  such  popular  objections  as  these:  what  need 
of  a  communion  with  others?  (Basil,  Ep.  ociii) ;  an- 
other has  sinned  and  I  shall  atone?  (Chrysostom, 
Hom.  i,  de  pcenit.).  St.  John  Damascene  has  only  to 
collect  the  sayings  of  the  Fathers  in  order  to  support 
the  dogma  of  the  invocation  of  the  saints  and  the 
prayers  for  the  dead. 

But  the  complete  presentation  of  the  dogma  oomea 
from  the  later  Fathers.  After  the  statements  of  Ter- 
tullian,  speakinffof  "common  hope,  fear,  joy,  sorrow, 
and  suffering"  (l>e  pcenit.,  ix  ana  x);  of  St.  Cyprian, 
explicitly  settine  forth  the  communion  of  ments  (De 
lapsis,  xvii);  of  St.  Hilary,  giving  the  Euch^uistic 
Communion  as  a  means  and  symbol  of  the  communion 
of  saints  (in  Ps.  Ixiv,  14),  we  come  to  the  teaching  of  St. 
Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine.  From  the  former,  the 
theBanma  ecdesim,  the  best  practical  test  of  the  com- 
munion of  saints,  receives  a  definite  explanation  (De 
pcenit.,  I,  XV ;  De  officiis,  I,  xix).  In  l^e  transcendent 
view  of  the  Church  taken  by  the  latter  (Enchir.,  Ivi) 
the  communion  of  saints,  though  never  so  called  by 
him,  IB  a  necessity;  to  the  Civiiaa  Dei  must  needs  cor- 
respond the  unHoB  oariiaiis  (De  unitate  eccL,  ii), 
which  embraces  in  an  effective  union  the  saints  and 
.  angels  in  heaven  (Enarr.  in  Psalmos,  XXXVI,  iii,  4), 
the  just  on  earth  (De  bapt.,  Ill,  xvii),  and,  in  a  lower 
degree,  the  sinners  themselves,  the  mUrida  membra  of 
the  mystic  body;  only  the  declared  neretics,  schismat- 
ics, and  apostates  are  excluded  from  the  society, 
though  not  from  the  prayers,  of  the  saints  (Serm. 
cxxxvii).  The  Augustinian  concept,  thou^  some- 
what obscured  in  l£e  catechetical  expositions  of  the 
Oeed  by  the  Carlovingian  and  later  theologians  (P. 
L.,  XCIX,  CI,  CVIII,  CX,  CLII,  CLXXXmtakes 
its  place  in  the  medieval  synthesis  of  Peter  Lombard, 
St.  Bonaventure,  St.  Thomas,  etc.  (See  Schwane- 
D^rt,  Hist,  des  dosmes,  V,  229.) 

Influenced  no  douot  by  early  writers  like  Yvo  of 
Chartres  (P.  L.,  CLXII,  6061),  Abelard  (P.  L., 
CLXXXIII,  630),  and  probably  Alexand^  of  Hales 
(III,  Q.  bcix,  a.  1),  St.  Thomas  (Expos,  in  symb.,  10) 
reads  in  the  neuter  the  phrase  of  the  Creed,  commvnio 
sanctorum  (participation  of  spiritual  goods),  but  apart 
from  the  point  of  grammar  his  conception  of  the  dog- 
ma is  thorough.  General  principle:  t^e  merits  of 
C!hrist  are  communicated  to  all,  and  the  merits  of  eadi 
one  are  communicated  to  the  others  (ibid.).  The 
manner  of  participation:  both  objective  and  inten- 
tional, in  radice  operiSf  ex  inteniione  faaentia  (SuppL, 
Ixxi,  a.  1).  The  measure:  the  degree  of  charity  (Ex- 
pos, in  symb.,  10).  The  benefits  communicated:  not 
the  sacraments  alone  but  the  superabundant  merits  of 
Christ  and  the  saints  formii^  the  theeawruB  ecdeeim 
(ibid,  and  Quodlib.,  II,  Q.  viii,  a.  16).  The  partici- 
pants: the  three  parts  of  the  Church  (Expos,  in 
symb.,  9);  consequently  the  faithful  on  earth  ex- 
changing merits  and  satisfactions  (I-II,  Q.  cxiii,  a.  6, 
and  Suppl.,  Q.  xiii,  a.  2),  the  souls  in  purgatory  profit- 
ing by  tne  suffrages  of  itte  living  ana  the  intercession 
of  the  saints  (SuppL,  Q.  Ixxi),  the  saints  themselves 
receiving  honour  and  giving  intercession  (II-II,  Q. 
Ixxxiii,  aa.  4, 11 ;  III,  Q.  xxv,  a.  6),  and  also  itte  angels, 
as  noted  above.  Later  Scholastics  and  post-Reforma- 
tion thedogians  have  added  little  to  the  Thomistic 
presentation  of  the  dognia.  They  worked  rather 
around  than  into  it,  defending  such  points  as  were  at- 
tacked by  heretics,  showing  uie  reli^ous,  ethical,  and 
socisd  value  of  the  Catholic  conception;  and  they  in- 
troduced the  distinction  between  the  body  and  the 
soul  of  the  Church,  between  actual  membership  and 
membership  in  desire,  completing  the  theoiy  of  the 
relations  between  church  membership  and  the  com- 
munion of  saints  which  had  already  been  outlined  by 


ooxMxnixoir 


173 


St.  Optattia  of  Mileve  and  St.  AngUBtine  at  the  time  of 
the  Dooatist  controversv.  (See  Church.)  One  mav 
r^;ret  that  the  plan  adopted  by  the  SchooUnen  at- 
foraed  no  oomprehensiye  view  of  the  whole  dogma, 
but  rather  scattered  the  various  components  of  it 
thiou^  a  vast  synthesis.  This  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  a  compact  exposition  of  the  commimion  of  saints 
is  to  be  sou^t  less  in  the  works  of  our  standard  theo- 
logians than  in  our  catechetical,  apologetic,  pastoral, 
and  even  ascetic  literature.  It  may  also  partly  ez« 
plain,  without  excusing  than,  the  gross  misrepresenta- 
tions noticed  above. 

Ik  the  Anglo-Saxok  Chttscr. — That  the  An^o- 
Saxons  hdd  the  doctrine  of  the  communion  of  saints 
may  be  jud^  from  the  following  account  given  by 
Lingard  m  his  ''  History  and  Antiauities  of  the  An^o- 
Saxon  Church".  They  received  tlie  practice  of  vene* 
rating  the  saints,  he  says,  together  with  the  rudimoits 
of  the  Christian  religion;  and  they  manifested  their 
devotion  to  them  boui  in  public  and  private  worship: 
In  public,  by  celebrating  the  anniversaries  of  indi* 
vidua!  saints,  and  keeping  annually  the  feast  of  All- 
Hallows  as  a  solemnity  of  the  first  class;  and  in  their 
private  devotions,  by  observing  the  instructions  to 
worship  God  and  then  to  "pray,  first  to  Saint  Mary, 
and  the  holy  apostles,  ana  the  holy  martyrs,  and 
all  God's  saints,  that  they  would  intercede  for  them 
to  God".  In  this  way  they  learned  to  look  up  to  the 
saints  in  heaven  with  feeling  of  confidence  and  affec- 
tion, to  consider  them  as  friends  and  protectors,  and 
to  implore  their  aid  in  the  hour  of  distress,  with  the 
hope  that  God  would  grant  to  the  patron  what  he 
mi^t  oUierwise  refuse  to  the  supplicant. 

Like  all  other  Christians,  the  Anglo-Saxons  held  in 
special  veneration  'Hhe  most  holy  mother  of  God, 
the  perpetual  virgin  Saint  Mary  (Beatissima  Dei  geni- 
trix  et  perpetua  virgo. — Bede,  Hom.  in  Purif.).  Her 
praises  were  simg  by  the  Saxon  poets;  hymns  in  her 
honour  were  chanted  in  the  public  service;  churches 
and  altars  were  placed  under  her  patronage;  miracu- 
lous cures  were  ascribed  to  her;  and  four  annual 
feasts  were  observed  commemorating  the  principal 
events  of  her  mortal  life:  her  nativity,  the  Ajmuncia- 
tipn,  her  purification,  and  assumption.  Next  to  the 
Blemed  virgin  in  their  devotion  was  Saint  Peter, 
whom  Christ  had  chosen  for  the  leader  of  the  Apostles 
and  to  whom  he  had  given  the  keys  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Heaven,  "with  the  chief  exercise  of  judicial  power 
in  the  Church;  to  the  end  that  all  might  know  that 
whosoever  should  separate  himself  from  the  unity  of 
Peter's  faith  or  of  Peter's  fellowship,  that  man  could 
never  attain  absolution  from  the  oonds  of  sin.  nor 
admission  throu^  the  gates  of  the  heavenly  king- 
dom'* (Bede).  ^^ese  words  of  the  Venerable  Bede 
refer,  it  is  true,  to  Peter's  successors  as  well  as  to 
Peter  himself,  but  they  also  evidence  the  veneration 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons  for  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles,  a 
veneration  which  they  manifested  in  the  number  of 
churches  dedicated  to  his  memory,  in  the  pilgrimages 
made  to  his  tomb,  and  by  the  presents  sent  to  the 
church  in  which  his  remains  rested  and  to  the  bishop 
who  sat  in  his  chair.  Particular  honours  were  paid 
also  to  Saints  Gregory  and  Augustine,  to  whom  they 
were  chiefly  indebted  for  their  knowledge  of  Chris- 
tianity, liiey  called  Gregory  their  "fostex^father  in 
Christ"  and  tiiemselves  "nis  foster-children  in  bap- 
tism"; and  spoke  of  Augustine  as  "  the  first  to  bring 
to  them  the  doctrine  of  faith,  the  sacrament  of  bap- 
tism, and  the  knowledge  of  their  heavenly  coimtry^'. 
While  these  saints  were  honoured  by  the  whole  people, 
each  B^arate  nation  revered  the  memory  of  its  own 
apostle.  Thus  Ssdnt  Aidan  in  Northumbria,  Saint 
Birinus  in  Wessex,  and  Saint  Felix  in  East  An^ia 
were  venerated  as  the  protectors  of  the  countries 
which  had  been  tiie  scenes  of  their  labours.  All  the 
saints  so  far  mentioned  were  of  foreign  extraction; 
but  the  Anglo-Saxons  soon  extended  their  devotion 


to  men  who  had  been  bom  and  educated  among  them 
and  who  by  their  virtues  and  zeal  in  propagating 
Christianity  had  merited  the  honours  of  sanctity. 

This  account  of  the  devotion  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
to  those  whom  they  looked  up  to  as  their  friends  and 
protectors  in  heaven  is  necessarily  brief,  but  it  is 
amply  sufficient  to  show  that  they  believed  and  loved 
the  doctrine  of  the  communion  of  saints. 

Protbstamt  Vibwb. — Sporadic  errors  against  sp^ 
cial  points  of  the  communion  of  saints  are  pointed  out 
by  the  Synod  of  Gangra  (Mansi,  II,  1103),  St.  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem  (P.  G.,  XXXIII,  1116),  St.  Epiphanius 
(ibid.,  XLII,  504),  Asterius  Amaaensis  (ibid.,  XL, 
332),  and  St.  Jerome  (P.  L.,  XXIII.  362).  From  the 
forty-second  proposition  condemned,  and  the  twenty* 
ninth  question  asked,  by  Martin  V  at  Constance  (Den- 
sineer,  nos.  518  and  573),  we  also  know  that  Wyclif 
and  Hus  had  gone  far  towards  denying  the  dojgma 
itself.  But  the  communion  of  saints  became  a  direct 
issue  only  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  The  Lu- 
theran Churches,  although  commonly  adopting  the 
Apostles'  Creed,  still  in  their  original  confessions, 
either  pass  over  in  silence  the  communion  of  saints  or 
explain  it  as  the  Church's  ''union  with  Jesus  Christ  in 
the  one  true  faith"  (Luther's  Small  Catechism  in 
Schaff,  "The  Creeds  of  Christendom",  III,  80),  or  as 
**  the  congregation  of  saints  and  true  beUevers"  (Augs- 
burg Confession,  ibid..  Ill,  12),  carefully  exclu<hng,  if 
not  the  memory,  at  least  the  invocation  of  the  saints, 
because  Scripture  ''propoundeth  unto  us  one  Christ, 
the  Mediator,  Propitiatory,  Hish-Priest.  and  Interces- 
sor" (ibid..  Ill,  26).  The  Reformed  Churches  gener- 
ally maintain  the  Lutheran  identification  of  the  com- 
munion of  saints  with  the  body  of  believers  but  do  not 
limit  its  meaning  to  that  body.  Calvin  (Inst,  dir^t., 
IV,  1,  3)  insists  that  the  phrase  of  the  C!reed  is  more 
than  a  definition  of  the  Church ;  it  conveys  the  mean- 
ing of  such  a  fellowship  that  whatever  benefits  God 
bestows  upon  the  believers  th^  should  mutually  com- 
municate to  one  another.  That  view  is  followed  in 
tiie  Heidelberg  Catechism  (Schaff,  op.  cit..  Ill,  325), 
and  emphasised  in  the  Gallioan  Confession,  wherein 
communion  is  made  to  mean  the  efforts  of  believers  to 
mutufiJly  strengthen  themselves  in  the  fear  of  God 
(ibid:,  III,  375).  Zwingli  in  his  articles  admits  an  ex- 
change of  prayers  between  the  faithful  and  hesitates 
to  condemn  prayers  for  the  dead,  rejecting  only  the 
saints'  intercession  as  injurious  to  Clirist  (ibid.,  Ill, 
200  and  206).  Both  the  Scotch  and  Second  Helvetic 
Confessions  bring  together  the  MiUtant  and  the  Tri- 
umphant (Church,  but,  whereas  the  former  is  silent  on 
^e  signification  of  the  fact,  the  latter  sa^  that  they 
hold  communion  with  each  other:  "nihilomizius  ha- 
bent  ilLe  inter  sese  communionem,  vel  oonjunctionem" 
(ibid.,  in,  272  and  459). 

The  double  and  (tf  ten  conflicting  influence  of  Luther 
and  Calvin,  with  a  lingering  memory  of  Catholic  or- 
thodoxy, is  felt  in  the  Anglican  Confessions.  On  this 
point  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  are  decidedly  Lutheran, 
rejecting  as  they  do  "the  Romish  Doctrine  concerning 
Purgatory,  Pardons,  Worshipping  and  Adoration  as 
wc^  of  Images  as  <^  Relics,  and  also  Invocation  of 
Saints  ",  because  they  see  in  it "  a  fond  thing,  vainly  in- 
vented, and  grounded  upon  no  warrant  of  Scripture, 
but  rather  repugnant  to  the  Word  of  God"  (Schaff, 
III,  501).  On  the  other  hand,  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession, while  ignoring  the  Suffering  and  the  Trium- 
phant Church,  goes  beyond  the  Calvinistio  view  and 
falls  little  short  of  the  Catholic  doctrine  with  regard  to 
the  faithful  on  earth,  who,  it  says,  ''being  umted  to 
one  another  in  love,  nave  communion  in  each  other's 
gifts  and  graces"  (ibid..  Ill,  659).  In  the  United 
States,  the  Methodist  Articles  of  Religion,  1784  (ibid., 
Ill,  807),  as  well  as  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Articles 
of  Relig^n,  1875  (ibid.,  Ill,  814),  follow  the  teachings 
of  the  Tliirty-nine  Articles,  whereas  the  teaching  of 
the  Westminster  Confession  is  adopted  in  the  Plula* 


eoMMtmioN 


174 


OOMMUNION 


delphia  Baptist  Ckinfeasion,  1688,  and  in  the  Confes* 
Bion  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Churchi  1829 
(ibid.,  Ill,  771).  Protestant  theologians,  just  as 
Protestant  confessions,  waver  between  the  Lutheran 
and  the  Calvinistic  view.  There  is,  however,  in  the 
present  instanoe  a  decided  leaning  towards  the  Cath- 
olic  doctrine  pure  and  siniple  in  such  English  or  Amer^ 
ican  divines  as  Pearson  (Exposition  of  the  Creed,  Ox- 
ford, 1843),  Luckock  (Intermediate  State,  New  York, 
1891),  Mortimer  (The  Creeds,  New  York,  1902), 
Waudrey  (The  Meaning  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Com- 
munion of  Saints,  London,  1904),  etc. 

The  cause  of  the  perversion  by-  Protestants  of  the 
traditional  concept  of  the  communion  of  saints  is  not 
to  be  found  in  the  alleged  lack  of  Scriptural  and  earlv 
Christian  evidence  in  favour  of  that  concept;  well- 
informed  Protestant  writers  have  long  since  ceased  to 
press  that  argument.  (See  Lange  and  Martensen 
Quoted  by  Hettinger,  op.  cit.  below,  p.  381.)  Nor  is 
there  any  force  in  the  oft-repeated  ailment  that  the 
Catholic  dogma  detracts  from  Christ's  mediatorship,  for 
it  is  plain,  as  St.  Thomas  had  already  shown  (SuppL, 
Q.  Ixxii,  a.  2,  ad  1),  that  the  ministerial  mediator- 
ship  of  the  saints  does  not  detract  from,  but  only  en- 
hances, the  magisterial  mediatorship  of  Christ.  Some 
writers  have  traced  that  perversion  to  the  Protestant 
concept  of  the  Church  as  an  aggregation  of  souls  and  a 
multitude  of  units  bound  together  by  a  community  of 
faith  and  pursuit  and  by  the  ties  of  Christian  sym- 
pathv,  but  in  no  way  organized  or  interdependent  as 
memoers  of  the  same  body.  This  explanation  is  de- 
fective because  the  Protestant  concept  of  the  Church 
is  a  fact  parallel  to,  but  in  no  way  causative  of,  their 
view  of  the  communion  of  saints.  The  true  cause 
must  be  found  elsewhere.  As  early  as  1519,  Luther, 
the  better  to  defend  his  condemned  theses  on  the 
papacy,  used  the  clause  of  the  Creed  to  show  that  the 
communion  of  saints,  and  not  the  papacy,  was  the 
Church:  "non,  ut  aliqui  somniant,  (redo  ecclesiam 
esse  prselatum  .  .  .  sed  .  .  .  communionem  sanc- 
torum^' (Werke,  II,  190,  Weimar,  1884).  This  was 
simply  playing  on  the  words  of  the  Symbol.  At  that 
time  Luther  still  held  the  traditional  communion  of 
saints,  little  dreaming  that  he  would  one  dav  give  it 
up.  But  he  did  give  it  up  when  he  formulat5&d  his 
theory  on  justification.  The  substitution  of  the  Prot- 
estant motto,  "Christ  for  all  and  each  one  for  him- 
self", in  place  of  the  old  axiom  of  Hugh  of  St.  Victor, 
''Singula  sint  omnium  et  omnia  singulorum"  (each 
for  afl  and  all  for  each— -P.  L.,  CLXXV,  416),  is  a  logi- 
cal outcome  of  their  concept  of  justification:  not  an 
interior  renovation  of  the  soul,  nor  a  veritable  regen- 
eration from  a  common  Father,  the  second  Adam,  nor 
yet  an  incorporation  with  Christ,  the  head  of  the  mys- 
tical body,  but  an  essentially  individualistic  act  of 
fiducial  faith.  In  such  a  theology  there  is  obviously 
no  room  for  that  reciprocal  action  of  the  saints,  that 
corporate  circulation  of  spiritual  blessings  through  the 
members  of  the  same  family,  that  domesticity  and 
saintly  citizenship  which  lie  at  the  very  core  of  the 
Catholic  commimion  of  saints.  Justification  and  the 
communion  of  saints  go  hand  in  hand.  The  efforts 
which  are  being  made  towards  reviving  in  Protestant- 
ism the  old  and  still  cherished  dogma  of  the  commu- 
nion of  saints  must  remain  futile  unless  the  true  doc- 
trine of  justification  be  also  restored.  (See  Dead, 
Prayers  for  the;  Justification;  Saints.) 

Berides  references  in  the  text,  see  Nataus  Alkxander,  Theol. 
doom,  et  moral,  secundum  ordinem  Catech.  Trid.  (Parw,  1714); 
Wovwivz^LeSywboU  des  Apdtres expose  et  difendu  (Paris,  1861); 
BiiUNGER,  Les  Indulgences  (Paris,  1890),  I.  20;  Moehlkr,  tr. 
RoBEBTBON,  Symbolism  (New  York,  1894);  HxTTiNaER,  tr. 
Felcoubt,  Apoloaie  du  christianiame  (Pans,  a.  d.),  II,  380; 
Ttbrblu  The  Afystical  Body  in  Hard  Sayings  (New  York, 
1902);  WiftEMAN,  Principal  Doctrines  and  Practices  of  the  Catholic 
Church  (New  York,  a.  d.);  De  Waal, /i  simboloapostolico  Ultts. 
trato  daUs  iscrizumi  dei  primi  aecoli  (Home.  1896);  KiRSCii,  Die 
Lehre  von  der  Oevwinschafttier  HeUiqen  (Mainz.  1900>:  Morin, 
Sandorum  Communionem  in  Rev.  a  hist,  et  Hit.  relig,  (1904); 
Bsmt Atu>  and  Dour,  Communion  dea Saints  in  Diet,  de  thM.  eath. 


Barkillc,  Ls  SumhaiU  in  Le  Calichisme  Remain  (Montr^ 
jeau,  1906),  II,  648.  AIbo  dogmatic  theologies  of  Schoufpe, 
JuNOif  ANN,  HuBTBR.  Paqubt,  etc.,  and  sermons  of  Newmam, 
Manning.  Monsabb£,  etc  J.  F.  SoLLlER. 

Oommunion  of  the  Sick.— This  differs  from  ordi- 
nary Communion  as  to  the  class  of  persons  to  whom  it  is 
administered,  as  to  the  dispositions  with  which  it  may 
be  received,  and  as  to  the  place  and  ceremonies  of  ad- 
ministration. In  her  anxious  solicitude  for  the  spir- 
itual welfare  of  her  children  the  Church  earnestly 
desires  that  those  who  are  unable  through  illnesB  to 
receive  the  Blessed  Eucharist  in  the  usual  way  at  the 
altar,  should  not  be  deprived  of  the  consolations  of 
this  sacrament,  and,  accordingly,  she  exhorts  her  pas- 
tors to  satisfy  alwa>[s  the  pious  desires,  not  only  of  all 
who  are  stricken  with  a  dangerous  sickness  and  re- 
quire strength  to  prepare  them  for  the  final  struggle, 
but  also  of  those  who  may  wish  to  comply  with  the 
paschal  precept  and  cannot  do  so  in  church,  and,  in 
nne,  of  everyone  who  hungers  after  this  life-giving 
bread  even  from  mere  devotion.  When  Communion 
is  administered  to  persons  in  danger  of  death  and  likely 
to  receive  it  for  the  last  time  it  is  called  the  Viaticum. 
With  this  form  of  Communion  there  is  no  need  to  deal 
at  present,  as  everything  concerning  it  wiU  be  treated 
afterwards  in  its  own  place  (see  Viaticum).  The 
present  article  is  concerned  with  Communion  which  is 

S'ven  to  persons  in  their  own  houses  who,  thou^  not 
mgerously  ill,  yet  are  so  physically  indisposed  that 
they  cannot  without  very  grave  inconvenience  go  to 
church  to  receive  in  the  ordinary  way.  In  the  first 
place,  then,  the  pastor  is  bound  to  minister  Communion 
in  their  homes  to  such  as  have  to  fulfil  their  paschal 
duty  and  cannot  do  so  in  church  owing  to  illness. 
The  pastor's  obligation  in  the  matter  is  not,  of  course, 
purely  personal,  and  hence  it  can  be  discharged  vicari- 
ously. Again  he  is  bound,  though  not  so  strictly,  to 
satisfy  the  reasonable  desires  of  all  sick  persons  who 
are  confined  to  their  homes  by  infirmity  of  any  kind 
and  who  wish  to  receive  the  Blessed  Eucharist.  The 
Roman  Ritual  observes  that  these  pious  wishes  should 
be  especially  gratified  on  the  occasion  of  a  solemn  festi- 
val or  other  celebration  of  the  kind  (Tit.  IV,  cap.  iv). 

Dispositions. — ^The  sick  who  desire  to  receive 
Communion  out  of  mere  devotion  were  hitherto  boufid 
to  receive  it  before  tasting  any  food  or  drink.  Even 
those  who  had  to  fufil  their  paschal  duty  and  who 
could  not  fast  up  to  a  suitable  hour  in  the  morning 
would  not  be  exempted  from  the  obligation  of  fasting, 
according  to  many  theologians.  A  recent  Instruction 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Coimcil,  dated  7  Decem- 
ber, 1906,  has  modified  very  considerably  the  regu- 
lations hitherto  prevailing  in  regard  to  the  obligation 
of  observing  the  natural  fast  from  the  previous  mid- 
night, as  far  at  least  as  the  sick  are  concerned.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  this  new  decree  all 
persons  confined  to  their  homes  by  reason  of  indispo- 
sition may  be  Communicated  even  thou^  not  fasting, 
provided  (1)  that  they  have  been  sick  for  a  month ;  (2) 
that  they  have  medicid  testimony  as  to  their  inability 
to  fast;  C3)  that  there  is  no  certain  hope  of  a  speedy 
recoverv;  and  (4)  that  only  liquid  lood  is  taken. 
When  these  specified  conditions  are  present  Commu- 
nion may  be  given  once  or  twice  a  week  to  those  who 
live  in  houses  where  Mass  is  celebrated  daily,  as  in 
convents,  and  once  or  twioe  a  month  to  others  not  so 
placed.  It  is  unnecessary  to  observe  that  the  same  dis- 
positions of  soul  are  required  in  the  sick  as  in  all  other 
persons  for  the  fruitful  reception  of  Holy  Communion. 

Ceremonies. — The  Roman  Ritual  (Tit.  IV,  c.  iv) 
prescribes,  in  detail,  all  the  ceremonies  to  be  observed 
when  Communion  is  given  to  the  sick.  The  manner 
of  carrying  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  of  administer- 
ing it  is  accurately  described.  The  Consecrated  Species 
sliould  be  borne  with  all  due  honour,  reverence,  and 
dignity,  in  solemn  procession,  witli  lights,  and  all  the 
other  customary  formalities.    This,  oowever,  is  ac- 


OOMMUNIOK 


175 


OOMMUNIOK 


cording  to  the  general  law  of  the  Chinch.  Many  coun- 
tries, at  the  present  day,  in  which  this  solemn  and 
public  oonve^noe  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  not  pos- 
sible, have  obtained  an  Apostolic  indult  in  virtue  of 
which  the  Sacred  Species  mav  be  carried  privately  and 
without  any  pomp  or  external  ceremonial  (Second  Plen. 
Counc.  of  Bait.,  n.  264),  but  it  must  always  be  enclosed 
in  a  silver  box  or  pyx,  which  shouJd  be  securely  fast- 
ened around  the  person.  Other  cases  of  exception 
are  also  recognized  (Ben.  XIV,  '*  Inter  Unigenas''). 
Whilst  carrying  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  this  private 
manner,  the  pnest  need  not  wear  anv  sacred  vestment, 
but  in  the  actual  administration  ne  should  wear  at 
least  a  stole,  soutane,  and  surplioe  (Cong,  ci  Bites,  n. 
2650).  The  sick  chamber  should  be  neatly  and 
chastely  arranged.  Near  the  bed  there  ought  to  be  a 
table  covered  with  a  white  cloth,  with  a  crucifix,  two 
candles,  small  vessel  of  clean  water.  Holy  Water  and 
vprinkler,  and  communion-card.  It  only  remains  to 
«ay  that  the  form  used  in  giving  Communion  in  pri- 
vate houses  should  be  the  usual  one,  the  Accipe 
frater  or  goror,  etc.  being  restricted  to  the  administra- 
tion oC  the  Viaticum. 

Rit.  Ram.f  De  Cam.  inf..  Tit.  IV,  Gap.  iv:  Catalani.  Com- 
mentanum  m  Rit.  Rom.  (Rome,  1850),  I;  BABurrAU>i,  Rii. 
Rom.,  Com.  Inf.  (Florence,  1847) ;  O'Kank,  N0U9  on  Rubrie» 
of  Rom.  Rit.  (Dublin,  1867);  Van  Dbr  ^tappen,  De  Adm. 
AuT.  (Meehlin,  1902) ;  Qabparri.  Tract.  Can.  de  Eueh.  (Pari8, 
1900),  II:  Lehmkuhl,  Comp.  Thool.  Mar.  (Freiburg,  1896).  II; 
GiBR.  L*jEuchari9tie. 

Patrick  Morrisroe. 


Oommnnion  under  Both  Kinds. — (Communion 
under  one  kind  is  the  reception  of  the  Saoament  of 
the  Eucharist  under  the  species  or  ai)pearance  of  bread 
alone,  or  of  wine  alone;  (Communion  under  two  or 
both  kinds,  the  distinct  reception  under  the  two  or 
both  species,  nth  utrdque  specie,  at  the  same  time.  In 
the  present  article  we  shall  treat  the  subject  under  the 
following  heads:  I.  Catholic  Doctrine  and  Modem 
Discipline;  II.  History  of  Disciplinary  Variations; 
III.  Theological  Speculation. 

I.  Catholic  Doctrine  and  Modern  Discipline. — 
(1)  Under  this  head  the  following  points  are  to  be 
noted:  (a)  In  reference  to  the  Eucharist  as  a  sacrifice, 
the  Communion,  under  both  kinds,  of  the  celebrating 
priest  belongs  at  least  to  the  integrity,  and,  according 
to  some  theologians,  to  the  essence,  of  the  sacrificial 
rite,  and  may  not,  therefore,  be  omitted  without  vio- 
lating the  sacrificial  precept  of  Christ:  ''Do  this  for 
a  commemoration  of  me"  (Luke,  xxii,  19).  This  is 
tau^t  implicitly  by  the  Council  of  IVent  (Sees.  XXI, 
c.  i;  XXiI,  c.  1).  (b)  There  is  no  Divine  precept 
binding  the  laity  or  non-celebrating  priests  to  receive 
the  sacrament  under  both  kinds  (Trent,  Sess.  XXI, 
c.  i).  (c)  B^r  reason  of  the  hypostatic  union  and  of 
the  indivisibility  of  His  ^lorined  humanity,  Christ  is 
really  present  and  is  received  whole  and  entire,  body 
and  blood,  soul  and  Divinity,  under  either  species 
alone;  nor,  as  regards  the  fruits  of  the  sacrament,  is 
the  communicant  under  one  kind  deprived  of  any 
grace  necessary  for  salvation  (Trent,  Sess.  XXI,  c.  iii). 
(d)  In  reference  to  the  sacraments  generally,  apart 
from  their  substance,  Mlvd  eorum  subBtantih,  1.  e. 
apart  from  what  has  been  strictly  determined  by  Di- 
vine institution  or  precept,  the  Chureh  has  authority 
to  detennine  or  modify  tne  rites  and  usa^  employed 
in  their  administration,  according  as  she  judges  it  ex- 
pedient for  the  greater  profit  of  the  recipients  or  the 
better  protection  of  the  sacraments  themselves  against 
irreverence.  Hence  "although  the  usage  of  Com- 
munion under  two  kinds  was  not  infrequent  in  the 
early  ages  [ab  initio]  of  the  Christian  religion,  yet,  the 
custom  in  this  respect  having  changed  almost  uni- 
versally [UUiMsime]  m  the  course  of  time,  holy  mother 
the  Churdi,  mindiful  of  her  authority  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Sacraments,  and  influenced  by  weighty 
and  just  reasons,  has  approved  the  custom  of  com- 


municating under  one  kind,  and  decreed  it  to  have  the 
force  of  a  uw,  which  may  not  be  set  aside  or  changed 
but  by  the  Church's  own  authoritv''  (Trent,  Sess. 
XXI,  c.  ii).  Not  only,  therefore,  is  Communion  under 
both  kinds  not  obligatory  on  the  faithful,  but  the 
chalice  is  strictljr  forbidden  bv  ecclesiastical  law  to  any 
but  the  celebrating  priest.  Tnese  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  were  directed  against  the  Reformers  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  who,  on  the  strength  of  John,  vi, 
54,  Matt.,  xxvi,  27,  and  Luke,  xxii,  17,  19,  enforced 
in  most  cases  by  a  denial  of  the  Real  Presence  and  of 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  maintained  the  existence  of 
a  Divine  precept  obliging  the  faithful  to  receive  under 
both  kinds,  and  denounced  the  Catholic  practice  of 
withholding  the  cup  from  the  laity  as  a  sacrilegious 
mutilation  of  the  sacrament.  A  century  earlier  the 
Hussites,  particularly  the  partv  of  the  Csuixtines,  had 
asserted  the  same  doctrine,  without  denying,  however, 
the  Real  Presence  or  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  on 
the  strength  principally  of  John,  vi,  54;  and  the 
Council  01  Constance  in  its  thirteenth  session  (1415) 
had  already  condemned  their  position  and  affirmed  the 
binding  force  of  the  existing  discipline  in  terms  prac- 
tically identical  with  those  of  Trent  (see  decree  ap- 
proved by  Martin  V,  1418,  in  Denzin^r,  Endiiridion, 
n.  585).  It  is  to  be  observed  that  neither  council  in- 
troduced any  new  l^islation  on  the  subject;  both 
were  content  with  declarins  that  the  existing  custoAi 
had  idready  acquired  the  force  of  law.  A  few  priv- 
ileged exceptions  to  the  law  and  a  few  instances  of  ex- 
Eress  dispensation,  occurring  later,  will  be  noticed 
elow  (II). 

(2)  Regarding  the  merits  of  the  Utraquist  contro- 
versy, if  we  assume  the  doctrinal  points  involved — ^viz. 
the  absence  of  a  Divine  precept  imposing  Ck>mmunion 
under  both  kinds,  the  integral  presence  and  reception 
of  Christ  under  either  species,  and  the  discretionarv 
power  of  the  Churoh  over  ever^hing  connected  with 
the  sacraments  that  is  not  Divmely  determined — the 
question  of  giving  or  refusing  the  dialice  to  the  laity 
becomes  purelv  practical  and  disciplinary,  and  is  to  be 
decided  bv  a  reference  to  the  twofold  purpose  to  be  at- 
tained, of  safeguuding  the  reverence  due  to  this  most 
august  sacrament  and  of  facilitating  and  encouraging 
its  frequent  and  fervent  reception.  Nor  can  it  be 
doubted  that  the  modem  Catholic  discipline  best  se- 
cures these  ends.  The  danger  of  spilling  the  Precious 
Blood  and  of  other  forms  of  irreverence;  the  incon- 
venience and  delay  in  administering  the  chalice  to 
large  numbers;  the  difficulty  of  reservation  for  Com- 
munion outside  of  Mass;  the  not  unreasonable  objec- 
tion, on  hygienic  and  other  ^unds,  to  promiscuous 
drinking  from  the  same  chalice,  which  01  itself  alone 
would  act  as  a  strong  deterrent  to  frequent  Commu- 
nion in  the  case  of  a  great  many  otherwise  well-dis- 
posed people;  these  and  similar  "weighty  and  iust 
reasons"  s^inst  the  Utraquist  practice  are  more  than 
sufficient  to  justify  the  Church  in  forbidding  it.  Of 
the  doctrinal  points  mentioned  above,  the  only  one  that 
need  be  discussed  here  is  the  question  of  the  existence 
or  non-existence  of  a  Divine  precept  imposing  Com- 
munion sttb  tttrdque.  Of  the  texts  brought  forward  by 
Utraquists  in  proof  of  such  a  precept,  the  command, 
"  Drink  ye  all  of  this"  (Matt.,  xxvi,  27),  and  its  equiv- 
alent in  St.  Luke  (xxii,  17,  i.  e.  supposing  the  reference 
here  to  be  to  the  Eucharistic  and  not  to  the  paschal 
cup),  cannot  fairiy  be  held  to  apply  to  any  but  those 
present  on  the  occasion,  ana  to  them  only  for 
that  particular  occasion.  Were  one  to  insist  that 
Christ's  action  in  administering  Holy  Communion 
under  both  kinds  to  the  Apostles  at  the  Last  Supper 
was  intended  to  lay  down  a  law  for  all  future  recipi- 
ents, he  should  for  the  same  reason  insist  that  several 
other  temporary  and  accidental  circumstances  con- 
nectetl  with  the  first  celebration  of  the  Eucharist 
(v.  g.  the  preceding  paschal  rites,  the  use  of  un- 
leavened bread,  the  taking  of  the  Sacred  Species  by  the 


COMMUinOK 


176 


OOMMUnOV 


eeipieato  themselves)  were  likewise  intended  to  be 
(^Ugatory  for  all  future  celebrations.  The  institution 
under  both  kinds,  or  the  separate  consecration  of  the 
bread  and  wine,  belongs  essentially,  in  Catholic  opin- 
ion, to  the  sacrificial,  as  distinct  from  the  sacramental, 
character  of  the  Eucharist;  and  when  Christ,  in  the 
^ords,  "Do  this  for  a  commemoration  of  me"  (Luke, 
xxii,  19),  gave  to  the  Apostles  both  the  command  and 
the  power  to  o£Fer  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice,  they  under- 
stood Him  merely  to  impose  upon  them  and  tneir  suc- 
cessors in  the  priesthood  the  obligation  of  sacrificing 
sub  utrdgue.  This  obligation  the  Church  has  rigorously 
observed. 

In  John,  vi,  54,  Christ  says:  ''Except  you  eat  the 
flesh  of  the  Son  of  man,  and  drink  his  blood,  you  shall 
not  have  life  in  you";  but  in  verses  52  and  59  he 
attributes  life  eternal  to  the  eatine  of  ''this  bread" 
(which  is  "my  flesh  for  the  life  of  tne  world"),  with- 
out mention  of  the  drinking  of  His  blood :  "  if  anyone 
eat  of  this  bread  he  shall  live  forever".  Now  the 
Utraquist  interpretation  would  suppose  that  in  verse 
54  Cmist  meant  to  emphasize  the  distinction  between 
the  mode  of  reception  "by  eating"  and  the  mode  of 
reception  "by  drinking"^  and  to  include  both  modes 
distmctly  in  the  precept  He  imposes.  But  such 
literalism,  eztrava^nt  in  any  connexion,  would  result 
in  this  case  in  puttmg  verse  54  in  opposition  to  52  and 
*59,  interpretea  in  the  same  rigid  way.  From  which 
we  may  infer  that,  whatever  special  significance  at- 
taches to  the  form  of  expression  emi^oyed  in  verse  54, 
Christ  did  not  have  recourse  to  that  form  for  the  pur- 
pose of  promulgating  a  law  of  Communion  sub  tUrdque. 
The  twofold  expression  is  employed  by  Christ  in  order 
to  heighten  the  realism  of  the  promise — to  emphasize 
more  vividly  the  reality  of  the  Eucharistic  presence, 
and  to  convev  the  idea  that  His  Body  and  Blood  were 
to  be  the  fserfect  spiritual  aliment,  the  food  and  drink, 
of  the  faitl^ul.  In  the  Catholic  teaching  on  the 
Eucharist  this  meaning  is  fully  verified.  Christ  is 
really  and  integrally  present,  and  really  and  integrally 
received,  under  either  kind ;  and  from  the  sacramental 
point  of  view  it  is  altogether  immaterial  whether  this 
perfect  reception  takes  place  after  the  analogy  in  the 
natural  order  of  solid  or  of  liauid  food  alone,  or  after 
the  analogy  of  both  combinea  (cf.  Ill  below).  In  I 
Cor.,  xi,  28,  to  which  Utraquists  sometimes  appeal,  St. 
Paul  is  concerned  with  the  preparation  required  for  a 
worthy  reception  of  the  Eucharist.  His  mention  of 
both  species,  "this  bread  and  the  chalice",  is  merely 
incidental,  and  implies  nothing  more  than  the  bare 
fact  that  Communion  under  both  kinds  was  the  pre- 
vailing usage  in  Apostolic  times.  From  the  verse 
immediately  preceding  (27)  a  difficultjr  might  be 
raised  against  the  dogmatic  presuppositions  of  the 
great  majority  of  Utraquists,  and  an  argument  ad- 
vanced in  proof  of  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  inte^l 
presence  and  reception  of  Christ  under  either  species. 
*'  Whosoever",  says  the  Apostle,  "  shall  eat  this  oread, 
or  drink  Uie  chalice  of  the  Lord  unworthily,  shall  be 
guilty  of  the  body  and  of  the  blood  of  the  Lord",  i.  e. 
whoever  receives  either  unworthily  is  guilty  of  both.  But 
it  is  unnecessary  to  insist  on  this  argument  in  defence 
of  the  Catholic  position.  We  are  justified  in  conclud- 
ing that  the  N.  T.  contains  no  proof  of  the  existence 
of  a  Divine  precept  binding  the  faithful  to  Communi- 
cate under  both  kinds.  It  will  appear,  further,  from 
the  following  historical  survey,  that  the  Church  has 
never  recognized  the  existence  of  such  a  precept. 

II.  History  of  Disciplinary  Variations. — From 
the  First  to  the  TwelHh  Century, — It  may  be  stated  as  a 
general  fact,  that  down  to  the  twelfth  century,  in  the 
West  as  well  as  in  the  East,4>ublic  Communion  in  the 
churches  was  ordinarily  administered  and  received 
under  both  kinds.  Tmit  such  was  the  practice  in 
Apostolic  times  is  implied  in  I  Cor.,  xi,  28  (see  above), 
nor  does  the  abbreviated  reference  to  the  "  breaking 
of  bread"  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (ii,  46)  prove 


anything  to  the  contrary.  The  witnesses  to  the  same 
effect  for  the  sub^Apostolic  and  subsequent  ajges  are 
too  numerous,  and  the  fact  itself  too  cleariv  beyond 
dispute,  to  reauire  that  the  evidence  should  be  cited 
here.  But  siae  by  side  with  the  regular  lituin(»l 
usage  of  Commimion  sub  uMque,  there  existed  from 
the  eariiest  times  the  custom  of  communicating  in 
certain  cases  under  one  kind  alone.  This  custom  is 
exemplified  (1)  in  the  not  infreG|uent  practice  of 
private  domestic  Communion,  portion  of  the  Eudiar- 
istic  bread  being  brought  by  the  faithful  to  ti^eir 
homes  and  there  reserved  for  this  purpose:  (2)  in  the 
Communion  of  the  sick,  which  was  usually  adminis- 
tered under  the  species  of  bread  alone;  (3)  in  the 
Commumon  of  children  which  was  usually  given,  even 
in  .the  churches,  under  the  species  of  wine  alone,  but 
sometimes  imder  the  species  of  bread  alone;  (4)  in 
the  Communion  under  the  species  of  bread  alone  at 
the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified,  and,  as  an  optional 
practice,  in  some  diurches  on  ordinary  oecasicma. 
xo  these  examples  may  be  added  (5)  the  practice  of 
the  intinctio  panis^  i.  e.  the  dipping  of  the  consecrated 
bread  in  the  Precious  Blood  ana  its  administration 
per  modum  dbi.  We  will  notice  briefly  the  history 
of  each  of  these  divergent  practices. 

(1)  During  the  third  century,  in  Africa  at  least,  as 
we  learn  from  Tertullian  and  St.  Cyprian,  the  practice 
on  the  part  of  the  faithful  of  bringing  to  their  homes 
and  reserving  for  private  Communion  a  portion  of  the 
Eucharistic  bread,  would  appear  to  have  been  univer- 
sal. Tertullian  refers  to  thisprivate  domestic  Com- 
munion as  a  commonplace  in  Cnristian  life,  and  makes 
it  the  basis  of  an  argument,  addrened  to  hb  wife, 
against  second  marria^  with  an  iafidel  in  case  of  his 
own  death:  "Non  soet  maaitus  quid  secreto  ante 
omnem  cibum  gustes,  et  si  sciverit  esse  panem,  non 
ilium  credet  esse  qui  dicitur?"  (Ad  Uxor.,  c.  v,  P.  L., 
I,  1296).  There  can  be  question  here  only  of  the 
species  of  bread,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  two 
stories  told  by  St.  Cyprian:  the  one  of  a  man  who, 
before  Commimion,  had  attended  an  idolatrous  func- 
tion, and  on  retiring  from  the  altar  and  opening  his 
hand,  in  which  he  had  taken  and  carried  the  Sacred 
Species,  found  nothing  in  it  but  ashes;  the  other  of 
a  woman  who  "cum  arcam  suam,  in  qu&  Domini 
sanctum  fuit,  manibus  indignis  tentasset  aperire>  i^e 
inde  surgente  deterrita  est"  (De  Lapsis,  26,  P.  L., 
IV,  486).  This  custom  owed  its  origin  mostprobably 
to  the  dangers  and  uncertainties  to  which  Obristtans 
were  subject  in  times  of  persecution;  but  we  have  it 
cm  the  authority  of  St.  Basil  (Ep.  xciii,  P.  G.,  XXXII, 
485)  that  in  the  fourth  centurv,  when  the  persecutions 
had  ceased,  it  continued  to  be  a  general  practice  in 
Alexandria  and  Egypt;  and  on  the  authority  of  St. 
Jerome  (Ep.  xlviii,  15,  P.  L.,  XXII,  506)  that  it 
still  existed  at  Rome  towards  the  end  of  the  same 
century.  It  is  impossible  to  say  at  what  precise 
period  the  practice  disappeared.  The  many  obyious 
objections  against  it  would  seem  to  have  led  to  its 
abolition  in  the  West  without  the  need  of  formal  legis- 
lation. The  third  canon  attributed  to  the  Coundlof 
Saraeossa  (380)  and  the  fourteenth  canon  of  the  Coun- 
cQ  of  Toledo  (400),  exoommunieatine  those  who  do 
not  consume  in  the  church  the  Eucharist  received 
from  the  priest  (Hefele,  Conciliengesch.,  1, 744;  II.  79). 
were  directed  against  the  PrisciUianisIs  (who  refused 
to  consume  any  portion  of  the  Eucharistic  bread  in 
the  church),  and  do  not  seem  to  have  been  intended 
to  prohibit  the  practice  of  reserving  a  portion  for 
private  Communion  at  home.  In  the  East  the  prac- 
tice continued  lonff  after  its  disappearance  in  the 
West,  and  in  the  ei^th  century  the  faithful  were  able 
to  a^^  themselves  of  it  as  a  means  of  avoiding  as- 
sociation with  the  Iconoclastic  heretics  (Pai^ire. 
L'Eglise  bysantine»  Paris,  1905,  p.  339  sq.).  It  had 
already  been  adopted  by  the  anchorites,  as  St.  Basil 
(loc.  cit.)  tells  us,  and  continued  to  be  a  feature  ol 


OOMMUHION 


177 


OOMMUmON 


anchoretic  life  as  late  as  the  ninth  oentuiy  (see  Theo- 
dore Studita  (d.  826),  Ep.  i,  67,  ii,  209,  in  P.  G., 
XaX,  1116, 1661). 

(2)  That  Communion  of  the  sick  under  the  species 
of  bread  alone  was  the  ordinary  usa^  at  Alexandria 
in  the  middle  of  the  third  century  is  proved  by  the 
account  of  the  death-bed  Conmiunion  of  the  old  man 
SerapionastoldbyEusebius  (H.  E.,  VI,  xliv,  in  P.  G., 
XX,  629),  on  the  authority  of  Dionysius  of  Alexandria 
(d.  264).  It  is  recorded  of  St.  Basil  that  he  received 
Holy  Communion  several  times  on  the  day  of  his 
deaw,  and  tmder  the  species  of  bread  alone,  as  ma^ 
be  inferred  from  the  biographer's  words  (Vita  Basilii, 
iv,  P.  G.,  XXIX,  315).  We  have  it  on  the  authority 
of  Paulinus,  secretary  and  biocrapher  of  St.  Ambrose, 
that  the  saint  on  his  death-bed  received  from  St. 
Honoratus  of  Vercelli  "Domini  corpus,  quo  accepto, 
ubi  glutivit,  emisit  spiritum,  bonum  viaticum  secum 
ferens"  (Vita  Ambr.,  47,  P.  L.,  XIV,  43>.  These 
testimonies  are  sufficient  to  establish  the  fact  that, 
in  the  early  centuries,  reservation  of  the  Eucharist 
for  the  sick  and  dyin^  of  which  the  Council  of  Nicsea 
(326)  speaks  (can.  xiu)  as  '' the  ancient  and  canonical 
rule",  was  usual  under  one  kind.  The  reservation  of 
the  species  of  wine  for  use  as  the  Viaticum  would  have 
involved  so  many  practical  difficulties  that,  in  the 
absence  of  dear  evidence  on  the  subject,  we  mav  feel 
sure  that  it  was  never  the  general  practice.  We  are 
told  by  St.  Justin  Martyr  (ApoL,  1, 67,  P.  G.,  VI,  429) 
that  on  Sundays,  after  the  celebration  of  the  Sacrifice, 
the  Eucharistic  elements  were  received  by  all  present 
and  carried  by  the  deacons  to  those  absent.  But  this 
would  have  been  possible  only  in  small  and  compact 
conununities,  and  that  it  was  not  a  general  custom 
and  did  not  long  survive  ma^  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  no  subsequent  mention  of  it  is  to  be  found. 
St.  Jerome  (Ep.  cxxv,  20,  P.  L.,  XXII,  1086)  speaks 
of  St.  Exupenus  of  Toulouse,  ''qui  corpus  Domini 
canistro  vimineo,  saneuinem  portat  in  vitro",  but  this 
example  of  a  private  devotional  practice,  which  is  also 
exceptional  in  its  wa^r,  throws  no  light  on  the  usaAe  of 
Communion  for  the  sick.  It  is  recorded  in  the  lue  of 
St.  Mary  of  Eferpt  (21  sq..  P.  L.,  LXXIII,  686)  that 
the  Abbot  Zosimos  brought  Communion  under  both 
kinds  to  her  solitary  retreat  in  the  desert,  and  in  later 
times  there  are  several  examples  of  dyin^  persons 
oonmiunicating  sub  vtrdaw.  But  eveiythmg  leads 
us  to  suppose  that  such  Communions,  as  a  rule,  were 
administered  in  connexion  with  Mass,  celebrated  in 
Uie  house  of  the  sick  peraon  or  in  the  immediate 
vicinity;  and  this  supposition  is  strongly  confirmed 
by  the  well-known  fact  that  the  sick  were  sometimes 
carried  to  the  church  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  both 
the  Eucharist  and  Extreme  Unction  (see  Chardon, 
Hist.  Du  Sacrem.  de  TEucharistie,  c.  v,  Misno,  Theol. 
Cursus  Completus,  XX,  282).  It  is  to  be  noted, 
finally,  that  the  sick  who  could  not  consume  the  Host 
were  allowed  to  receive  under  the  species  of  wine 
alone  (Coimcil  of  Toledo,  676,  can.  ii,  Mansi,  XI, 
143-4). 

(3)  It  was  the  practice  in  the  Early  Church  to  give 
the  Holy  Eucharist  to  children  even  before  they  at- 
tained the  use  of  reason.  It  is  implied  by  St.  Cyprian 
(De  Lapsis,  25,  P.  L.,  IV,  484)  that  the  chalice  alone 
was  offered  to  them;  and  St.  Augustine,  in  his  inci- 
dental references  to  child-Communion,  speaks  (^  it  as 
administered  under  either  species  (Ep.  ccxvii,  5, 
P.  L.,  XXXIII,  984  sq.),  or  under  the  species  of  wine 
alone  (Opus  Imp.,  II,  30,  P.  L.,  XLV,  1154).  St. 
Paulinus  of  Nola,  sjpeaking  of  newly-baptized  children, 
states  that  the  pnest  ''cruda  salutiferis  imbuit  ora 
cibis"  (Ep.  xxxii,  5,  P.  L.,  LXI,  333),  which  is 
applicable  only  to  the  species  of  wine.  In  the  East 
abo,  in  some  churches  at  least,  children,  especially 
suckling  infants,  conmmnicated  under  the  species  of 
wine  alone  (see  Dom  Martdne,  De  Antiq.  Eccl.  Ritibus, 
I,  ziv;  Gaspaixi,  Tract.  Canon,  de  SS.  Eucharistia, 

IV.— 12 


II,  n.  1121).  There  are  examples,  on  the  other  hand, 
both  in  the  Western  and  Eastern  (Churches,  of  Com- 
munion administered  to  children  under  the  species  of 
bread  alone.  Thus  the  Council  of  M&con  (586)  de- 
creed that  the  fragments  of  consecrated  bread  remain- 
ing over  after  the  Sunday  Communion  were  to  be  con- 
sumed by  children  {innocerUea)  brought  to  the  church 
for  that  purpose  on  the  following  Wednesday  or 
Friday  (Labbe-Cossart,  VI,  675);  and  Evaoius  (d. 
594)  tells  us  that  a  similar  custom  existed  at  Constan- 
tinople from  ancient  times  (Hist.  Eod.,  IV,  36,  P.  G., 
LXXXVI,  2769). 

(4)  The  Mass  of  the  Presanctified,  in  which  the 
essence  of  the  sacrifice  as  such  is  wanting,  admits  of 
Communion  only  under  the  species  of  bread.  The 
custom  of  celebrating  in  this  manner  was  introduced 
in  the  East  by  the  Council  of  Laodicea  in  the  fourth 
centuiy  (can.  xlix)  and  confirmed  by  the  Second 
Councu  in  Trullo  in  692  (Hefele,  op.  cit.,  I,  772).  It 
was  the  rule  for  all  fast  dajrs  during  Lent,  and  the  faith- 
ful were  in  the  habit  of  receiving  at  it  (Paif^ire,  op. 
dt.,  p.  341  sq.).  This  custom  is  still  maintained  in 
the  East  (Gasparri,  op.  cit.,  I,  n.  68).  In  the  West  the 
Mass  of  the  Presanctified,  celebrated  only  on  Good 
Friday,  is  mentioned  in  the  Gelasiim  Sacramentary  (P. 
L.,  LxXIV,  1105)  and  in  later  sources,  and  in  the  be« 
ginning  the  faithful  used  to  communicat-e  at  it.  Apart 
&om  the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified  the  faithful  were 
sometimes  allowed  to  receive  under  the  species  of 
bread  alone,  even  at  the  public  Communion  in  the 
church.  From  an  incident  recorded  by  Soaomen 
(H.  K,  VIII,  V,  P.  L.,  LXVII,  1528  sq.)  as  having 
occurred  at  Constantinople  in  the  time  of  St.  John 
Chrysostom,  it  would  seem  to  follow  that  IJie  recep- 
tion of  the  consecrated  bread  alone  was  suffioent  to 
satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  then  existing  disci- 
pline. The  pomt  of  the  story  is,  that  the  unconverted 
wife  of  a  converted  Macedonian  heretic,  being  com- 
pelled by  her  husband  to  conmiunicate  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  secretly  substituted  at  the  moment  of  recep- 
tion a  piece  of  ordinary  bread,  which  her  servant  had 
brought  for  the  purpose,  but  was  balked  in  her  deceit- 
ful design  by  a  miracle,  which  petrified  the  bread  wiUi 
the  marks  of  her  teeth  upon  it.  In  the  West,  as  is 
clear  from  St.  Leo  the  Great  (Serm.  xlii,  5,  P.  L., 
LIV,  279  so.),  the  Manichaeans  at  Rome,  towajrds  the 
middle  of  tne  fifth  oenturv,  sometimes  succeeded  in 
communicating  fraudulently  in  the  Catholic  Church: 
''ore  indigno  corpus  Christi  accipiunt,  san^uinem 
autem  redemptionis  nostre  haurire  omnino  dedinant ' '. 
Iliis  9acrUega  aiimdatio  on  the  part  of  the  heretics 
would  have  been  impossible,  unless  it  was  customary 
at  the  time  for  at  least  some  of  the  faithful  to  receive 
under  one  kind  alone.  That  those  detected  in  this 
simitkUio  are  ordered  by  St.  Leo  to  be  excluded  alto- 
geUier  from  Communion,  implies  no  reprobation  on 
the  merits  of  Commimion  under  one  kmd;  and  the 
same  is  true  of  the  decree  attributed  by  Gratian  to 
Pope  Gelasius,  ''aut  integra  sacramenta  perdpiant,^ 
aut  ab  int^ris  arceantur''  (De  Consec.,  D.  II,  c.  xii, 
P.  L.,  CLXXXVII,  1736).  In  the  monastic  rule 
attributed  to  St.  Columbanus  (d.  615)  it  is  prescribed 
that  novices  and  those  not  properly  instructed  "ad 
caUcem  non  accedant"  (P.  L,  LXXX,  220).  This 
also  seems  to  imply  the  usage  in  some  cases  of  Com- 
munion under  one  kind ;  and,  as  a  further  instance  of 
divergence  in  this  direction  from  Communion  strictly 
sub  tUrdque^  may  be  mentioned  the  practice,  intro- 
duced alK>ut  this  time,  of  substituting  for  consecrated 
wine,  in  the  Communion  of  the  f aithfm,  ordinary  wine, 
into  which  a  few  drops  of  the  consecrated  wine  had 
been  poured.  According  to  the  "Ordo  Romanus 
Primus",  which  in  its  present  form  dates  from  the 
ninth  century,  this  usage  was  followed  at  the  pontifical 
Mass  in  Rome  (see  MabiUon,  P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  875, 
882,  903).  It  was  adopted  also  in  several  other 
churches  (Dom  Mart^ne,  op.  cit.,  I,  ix).    Some  theoio- 


OOMMUNION 


178 


COMMUNION 


giaofi  of  the  period  held  with  Amalarius  of  Metz  (d. 
837)  (De  Eccl.  off.,  I,  16,  P.  L.,  CV,  1032)  that  in  this 
case  the  common  wine  received  a  certain  consecration 
by  the  infusion  of  the  consecrated  drops;  but  the 
majority,  including  St.  Bernard  (£p.  Ixix,  2,  P.  L., 
CLXXXII,  181),  denied  that  there  was  an^  consecrar 
tion  in  the  proper  sense,  or  that  the  reception  of  this 
chalice  was  strictly  speaking  the  reception  of  the 
Precious  Blood. 

(5)  The  practice  of  the  irUinctio  paniSf  mentioned 
above,  which  is  the  last  disciplinary  variation  to  be 
noticed  during  this  period,  waa  already  forbidden  by 
the  Council  of  Braga  in  676  (Mansi,  Xl,  166),  but,  as 
appears  from  the  ''Micrologus"  (xix,  P.  L.,  CLI,  989 
sq.),  was  reintroduced  in  the  eleventh  century.  It 
waa  Qondemned  once  more  by  the  Council  of  Clermont 
(1095)  under  the  presidency  of  Urban  II,  but  with  the 
limitation  "nisi  per  necessitatem  et  per  cautelam" 
(Mansi,  XX,  818).  The  exception  "per  cautelam" 
allows  the  irUincHo  when  it  might  be  necessary  as  a 
peoaution  against  the  spilling  of  the  Precious  Blood, 
but  the  later  prohibition  of  Paschal  II  (Ep.  535,  P.  L., 
CLXIII,  442)  makes  an  exception  only  "in  parvulis 
ac  omnino  infirmis  qui  panem  absorbere  non  possunt ". 
Notwithstanding  these  prohibitions  the  practice  sur- 
vived in  many  places,  as  we  learn  from  Robert  Pulleyn 
(Q.  1146;  Sent.  VIII,  iii,  P.  L.,  CLXXXVI,  964),  who 
condemns  it.  Its  prohibition  is  renewed  as  late  as 
1 175  by  a  Council  (tf  London  or  Westminster  (Hefele, 
op.  cit.,  V,  688).  There  is  no  evidence  of  the  intinctio 
in  i^e  East  during  the  first  ten  centuries,  but  its 
existence  in  the  eleventh  century  is  one  of  the  grounds 
of  reproach  advanced  by  Cardinal  Humbert  (d.  1061) 
arainst  the  Greeks  (Adv.  Gnec.  calumnias,  33,  P.  L., 
CXLIII,  957  sg.).  According  to  Dom  Mart^ne  (d. 
1739)  the  practice  still  existed  in  the  East  in  his  own 
time  (op.  cit.,  I,  13);  while  the  custom  of  pouring 
some  drops  of  the  Precious  Blood  on  the  consecrated 
bread,  which  was  then  dried  by  heating  and  reserved 
during  a  whole  year  for  the  Communion  of  the  sick, 
may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  intinctio.  This  latter 
custom  was  prohibited  by  Benedict  XIV  for  the  Italo- 
Greeks  in  1752,  but  the  usage,  where  it  existed  among 
them,  of  receiving  the  Host  on  a  spoon  with  some 
drops  of  the  Precious  Blood,  was  allowed  to  be  re- 
tained (Gasparri,  op.  cit.,  II,  1177). 

It  is  abundantly  clear  from  this  brief  survey  of  dis- 
ciplinary variations  during  the  first  twelve  centuries 
that  the  Church  never  r^arded  Communion  under 
both  kinds  as  a  matter  of  Divine  precept. 

Since  the  TweLjih  Century. — The  final  suppression 
of  the  intinctio  was  foUowecf  in  the  thirteenth  century 
by  the  gradual  abolition  for  the  laitv  of  Ck>mmunion 
under  the  species  of  wine.  The  desuetude  of  the 
chalice  was  not  yet  universal  in  St.  Thomas'  time 
(d.  1274):  "provide  in  quibusdam  ecdesiis  observa- 
tur'',  he  says,  "ut  populo  sanguis  sumendus  non 
detur,  sed  solum  a  sacerdote  sumatur''  (Summa,  III, 
.  Q.  Ixxx,  a.  12).  The  Council  of  Lambeth  (1281)  directs 
that  the  consecrated  wine  is  to  be  received  by  the 
priest  alone,  and  non-consecrated  wine  distributed  to 
the  faithful  (Mansi,  XXIV,  405).  It  is  impossible  to 
say  exactlv  when  the  new  custom  became  universal, 
or  when,  by  the  Church's  approval,  it  acquired  the 
force  of  law.  But  such  was  already,  the  case  long 
before  the  outbreak  of  the  Hussite  disturbances,  as  is 
clear  from  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Constance  (see 
I  above).  The  Council  of  Basle  granted  (1433)  the 
use  of  the  chalice  to  the  Calixtines  of  Bohemta-^tnder 
certain  conditions,  the  chief  of  which  was  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  Christ's  integral  presence  under  either 
kind.    This  concession,  which  had  never  been  ap- 

E roved  by  any  pope,  was  positively  revoked  in  14o2 
y  the  Nuncio  Fantini  on  the  order  of  Pius  II.  The 
Council  of  Trent  while  defining  the  points  already 
mentioned,  referred  to  the  pofM*  the  deciflion  of  the 
question  whether  tlie  urgi'nt  petiHon  of  the  German 


emperor  to  have  the  use  of  the  chalice  allowed  in  his 
dominions  should  be  granted;  and  in  1664  Pius  IV 
authorized  some  German  bishops  to  permit  it  in 
their  dioceses,  |)rovided  certain  conditions  were  ful- 
filled. But,  owin^  to  the  inconveniences  that  were 
found  to  result,  this  concession  was  withdrawn  in  Hie 
following  year.  Benedict  XIV  states  (De  Missse 
8acrif.,  II,  xxii,  n.  32)  that  in  his  time  the  kings  of 
France  had  the  privilege  of  communicating  sub 
tUrdque  at  their  coronation  and  on  their  deatE>bed. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  the  deacon  and  subdeacon 
officiating  at  High  Mass  in  the  Church  of  Saint-Denis, 
Paris,  on  Simdays  and  solemn  feasts,  and  at  Ouny  on 
aU  feasts  of  obligation,  were  allowed  to  receive  sub 
utrdgue  (Benedict  XIV,  loc.  dt.).  The  onlysurviving 
example  of  this  privil^  is  in  the  case  of  the  deacon 
and  subdeacon  officiating  in  the  solemn  Mass  of  the 
pope. 

III.  Thik)looical  Speculation.— Tlie  definition 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  to  the  effect  that  the  com- 
municant under  one  kind  is  deprived  of  no  grace  neces- 
sary for  salvation  (see  I),  was  intended  merely  to 
negative  the  Utraouist  contention,  and  is  not  to  be 
understood  as  implying  that  Communion  imder  one 
kind  involves  incompleteness  of  sacramental  eausal- 
itv  or  a  curtailment  of  sacramental  grace.  The  coun- 
cu  had  no  thou^t  of  deciding  this  point,  which  had 
been  held  to  be  an  open  Question  by  theoloeians  since 
the  twelfth  century  and  nas  continued  to  be  treated 
as  such  down  to  our  own  day.  Without  attempting 
to  sketch  the  history  of  the  discussion,  we  will  state 
here  very  briefly  the  ultunate  form  which  the  question 
has  assumed  and  the  opposing  answers  that  have  been 
given. 

It  is  a  recognized  principle  in  sacramental  theoloey 
that  the  sacraments  cause  what  they  signify,  and  the 
present  discussion  turns  upon  the  interpretation  of 
this  princii)le  in  reference  to  the  Holy  Eucharist. 
Does  the  principle  mean,  not  merely  that  the  external 
rites  are  mtended  to  signify,  in  a  sufficiently  distinc- 
tive way,  the  special  graces  they  were  instituted  to 
confer,  but  that  their  efficacy  in  the  production  of 
grace  is  measured  by  the  degree  of  clearness  (where 
degrees  are  admissible)  with  which  the  sacramental 
signification  is  expressed?    In  the  Eucharist  grace  is 

rbolised  as  a  spiritual  refection  or  aliment,  after 
analogy  of  corporal  nourishment;  and  this  signifi- 
cation is  admittecOy  expressed  with  greater  clearness 
in  the  distinct  reception  of  both  species  than  in  Com- 
munion under  one  kind.  Are  we  to  hold,  th^^ore, 
that  Communion  sub  utrdqucj  being  a  more  perfect 
symbol  of  a  complete  refection,  confers  a  fuller  degree 
of  sacramental  grace  than  Communion  under  one 
kind,  or  in  other  words,  that  by  Divine  institution 
there  is  a  twofold  causality  or  two  distinct  lines  of 
causality  in  the  Eucharist,  corresponding  to  the  two 
modes  of  reception,  and  that  botti  lines  of  causality 
are  required  for  the  complete  production  of  its  fruits? 
A  minority  of  the  great  theologians  have  answered 
this  question  in  the  affirmative,  e.  g.  Vasques  (in  III, 
Q.  Ixxx,  a.  12,  disp.  ccxv,  c. ii),  De  Lugo  (De  Sac.  Euch., 
disp.  xii,  iii,  68  sq.),  the  Salmanticenses  (De  Euch. 
Sac,  disp.  X,  52  sq.).  Arguing  on  the  lines  indicated, 
tihese  theologians  nold  that  per  se  Communion  under 
both  kinds  confers  more  grace  than  Commimion  under 
one  kind,  and  admit  that  the  modem  discipline  of  the 
Church  withdraws  this  opportunity  of  more  abundant 
grace  from  the  faithful.  But  m  doing  so  it  inflicts, 
they  maintain,  no  notable  spiritual  privation,  with- 
holding no  grace  that  is  even  remotely  necessary  for 
salvation;  while,  indirectly,  the  many  advantages 
resulting  from  this  discipline,  particularly  the  in- 
creased revereiice  for  the  sacrament  which  it  secures 
and  the  additional  opportunities  for  frequent  Com- 
munion which  it  provides,  more  than  make  up  for 
whatever  loss  is  involved. 
The  majority  of  theologians,  however,  rightly  deny 


OOMMUJmU 


179 


OOMMUMISM 


that  Communion  under  one  kind  involves  per  80  any 
loss  or  curtailment  of  sacramental  grace.  St.  Thomas 
(III,  Q.  Ixxx,  a.  12,  ad  3)  and  St.  Bonaventure  (In 
Sent.  IV,  XI,  punct.  ii,  a.  1,  a.  2)  may  fairly  be  claimed 
for  this  view,  which  is  defenaed  by  Cigetan  (In  III,  q. 
Ixxx,  a.  12,  II),  Dominicus  Soto  (In  Sent.  IV,  XII,  q. 
i,  a.  12),  Bellarmine  (De  Sac.  Euch.,  IV,  33),  Suarez 
(In  III,  q.  Ixxix,  a.  8,  disp.  Ixiii,  VI,  8,  sq.),  Syivius 
(In  III,  9.  Ixxx,  a.  12,  q.  2).  Gonet  (De  Sac.  Euch., 
disp.  viii,  a.  4,  n.  69),  ana  a  host  of  later  writers. 
While  admitting  that  the  sacraments  cause  what  the^ 
signify,  these  theologians  deny  that  the  extent  of  their 
causality  is  dependent  on  the  mode  or  degree  of  per- 
fection m  which  this  signification  is  realized,  or  that 
there  is  any  ground  for  distinguishing  a  twofold 
causality  in  the  Eucharist  depending  on  the  twofold 
manner  of  reception.  There  is  idl  the  more  reason  for 
denying  this  in  the  case  of  the  Holy  Eucharist,  since 
both  the  Bodv  and  Blood  of  Christ  aje  really  present, 
and  the  complete  refection  intended  by  Christ  is  really 
received,  under  either  species  alone;  and  since,  more- 
over, in  the  production  of  whatever  grace  is  given,  in 
addition  to  the  grace  of  mere  presence,  the  more  impor- 
tant cause  is  Christ  Himself  in  His  sacred  humanitv  per- 
sonally present  in  the  recipient.  Must  we  hold  that 
Christ  limited  the  grace-giving  efBcacy  of  His  invis- 
ible presence  so  as  to  msJ^e  it  dependent  on  the  acci- 
dental mode  in  which  that  presence  is  visibly  sym- 
bolized rather  than  on  the  presence  itself?  Or  that 
He  curtailed  the  spiritually  nutritive  efifects  of  what  is 
de  facto  complete  as  an  aliment  and,  as  such,  is  suffi- 
ciently flymbolized  by  either  species,  merely  because 
the  physical  analogy  m  the  manner  of  reception  is  not 
reproduced  as  literally  and  completely  as  it  might  be? 
Even  in  the  natural  order  we  do  not  always  insist  on 
the  distinction  between  eating  and  drinking  in  refer- 
ence to  our  bodily  refection,  and  in  the  spiritual  and 
supernatural  sphere,  where  there  is  question  of  the 
soul's  refection  by  Divine  grace,  it  is  surely  an  over- 
straining of  the  law  of  sacramental  symbolism  to  uree 
that  distinction  as  insistently  as  do  uieologians  of  the 
first  opinion.  Such  briefly  is  the  line  of  argument  by 
which  the  common  opinion  is  supported.  It  only  re- 
mains to  add  that  in  this  opinion  the  reception  of  the 
chalice  may  augment,  per  acddens,  the  grace  of  the 
sacrament,  by  securing  a  longer  continuance  of  the 
species  and  thereby  of  the  Real  Presence,  and  by 
helping  to  prolong  or  renew  the  fervent  dispositions 
of  the  recipient. 

Among,  and  in  addition  to.  the  authon  and  worlcB  mentioned 
in  the  course  of  this  article,  the  following  are  particularly  note- 
worthy: Hedlet,  TKe  Ht^  Euthariat  (in  the  WestminBter 
Library  Beries,  London,  1007),  ch.  vi,  p.  84  8qj_  Daloairns, 
The  Holy  Communion  (Dublin.  18dl).  vi;  St.  THOMAa,  Sum. 
Tkeol.,  Ill,  Q.  Ixxx.  a.  12;  St.  Bonaventurb.  In  Sent.  IV,  XI. 
punct.  ii.  a.  1,  q.  ii  (Quaracchi);  Cajbtan,  In  III^  Q.  Ixxx,  a.  12. 
alao  De  Comm,  «u6  utrague  apede.  tr.  XII  uUar  opuaeuia; 
Bellabmikb,  De  Saeram,  Eueh^,  IV,  30  bq.;  Bona,  Rer. 
Liturg.,  II,  xvii-xx;  Bobsuet,  TraiU  de  la  Comm.  aoua  lea  deux 
esphxa;  ua  tradition  difendue  aur  la  maitiire  de  la  Comm,  aoua 
ufM  eaptee;  Bbnbdzct  XIY,  De  Saeroaando  Miaaa  SaeriAeio, 
II,  c.  xxii,  n.  18,  bq.;  Crakdon,  Hiatoire  du  Socrament  da  VEu- 
ehariatia  in  fifioNE,  Theol.  Curaua  Completuat  XX;  Pbobbt, 
Sacramente  und  SaenmentoKen  in  den  drei  eraten  Jahrhunderten 
(Tafaingan.  1872);  Cobblvt,  Hialoira  du  Sacrament  de  VEu- 
ekariahi  (Paria,  1885);  GAsrABSi,  Traotatua  Canonieua  de  SS. 
Eucharxatia  (Paris,  1897),  I:  Hbuber  in  Kirdu^rUex.,  Ill,  723 
eqq.;   DuBLAMcmr  in  Diet,  de  IhSol.  eath..  Ill,  552  sqq. 

F.  J.  Toner. 

OommnniBm  (Lat.  communis), — ^In  its  more  general 
signification  oommunism  refers  to  any  social  eystem 
in  which  all  property,  or  at  least  all  productive  prop- 
ertjr,  is  owned  by  the  group,  or  community,  instead  of 
by  individuals.  Thus  understood  it  comprises  com- 
munistic anarchism,  socialism,  and  oommunism  in  the 
strict  sense.  Communistic  anarchism  (as  distin- 
guiflhed  from  the  philosophic  variety)  would  abolish 
not  only  private  property,  but  political  j^vemment. 
Socialism  means  Hie  collective  ownership  and  man- 
agement not  of  all  property,  but  only  of  the  material 
agencies  of  production.  Oommunism  in  the  strict  sense 


demands  that  both  productbn-goods,  such  as  land, 
railways,  and  factories,  and  consumptbn-goods,  such 
as  dwellings,  furniture,  food,  and  dothing,  should  be 
the  property  of  the  ^riiole  community.  Previous  to 
the  miadle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  term  was 
used  in  its  more  general  sense,  even  bv  socialists. 
ICarx  and  Engels  ^ed  the  cdebrated  document  in 
which  they  gave  to  socialism  its  first  "scientific"  ex- 
pression, the  ''Communist  Manifesto".  The^  could 
scarcely  do  otherwise,  since  the  word  Socialism  was 
used  for  the  first  time  in  the  year  1833,  in  England. 
Before  long,  however,  most  of  the  followers  of  the 
new  movement  preferred  to  call  their  economic  creed 
Socialism  and  themselves  Socialists.  To-day  no  so- 
cialist who  believes  that  individuals  should  be  allowed 
to  retain  ownership  of  consumption-goods  would  class 
himself  as  a  communist.  Hence  the  word  is  at  pres- 
ent pretty  generally  employed  in  the  narrower  sense. 
Its  use  to  designate  merely  common  ownership  of 
capital  is  for  the  most  part  confined  to  the  unin- 
formed, and  to  those  who  seek  to  injure  socialism  by 
giving  it  a  bad  name. 

Communism  in  the  strict  sense  is  also  distinguished 
from  socialism  bv  the  fact  that  it  usually  connotes  a 
loreater  degree  of  common  life.  In  the  words  of  the 
Rev.  W.  D.  P.  Bliss,  "socialism  puts  its  emphasis  on 
common  producHan  and  distntutum;  communism,  on 
life  in  common"  ("Handbook  of  Socialism",  p.  12). 
Communism  aims,  therefore,  at  a  greater  measure  of 
equality  than  socialism.  It  would  obtain  more  uni- 
formity in  the  matter  of  marriage,  education,  food, 
clothing,  dwellingB,  and  the  general  life  of  the  com- 
munity. Hence  the  various  attempts  that  have  been 
made  by  small  groups  of  persons  living  a  common  life 
to  establish  common  owner^ip  of  industry  and  com- 
mon enjoyment  of  its  products,  have  generally  been 
described  as  experiments  in  oommunism.  In  fact 
socialism,  in  its  proper  sense  of  ownership  and  opera- 
tion of  capital-instruments  by  the  entire  democratic 
State,  has  never  been  tried  anywhere.  This  calls  to 
mind  the  further  distinction  that  communism,  even 
as  a  present-dajr  ideal,  implies  the  orramisation  of  in- 
dustry and  life  by  small  federated  communities, 
rather  than  by  a  centralized  State.  William  Morris 
thus  distinguishes  them,  and  hopes  that  socialism  will 
finally  develop  into  oommunism  ("Modem  Social- 
ism", edited  by  R.  C.  K.  E^nsor,  p.  88).  Combining 
flJl  these  notes  into  a  formal  definition,  we  mi^t  say 
that  complete  communism  means  the  common  owner- 
ship of  both  industry  and  its  products  by  small  fed- 
erated communities,  HVing  a  common  life. 

History. — ^The  earliest  operation  of  the  commu- 
nistic principle  of  which  we  have  any  record,  took 
place  in  Crete  about  1300  b.  c.  All  the  citizens  were 
educated  by  the  State  in  a  uniform  way,  and  all  ate 
at  the  public  tables.  According  to  tradition,  it  was 
this  experiment  that  moved  Lycur^us  to  set  up  his 
celebrated  regime  in  Sparta.  Under  his  rule,  Plu- 
tarch informs  us,  there  was  a  common  system  of  edu- 
cation, eymnastics,  and  military  training  for  all  the 
youth  ofboth  sexes.  Public  meals  and  public  sleep- 
ing apartments  were  provided  for  all  the  citizens. 
The  Land  was  redistributed  so  that  all  had  e^ual 
shares.  Althou^  marriage  existed,  it  was  modified 
by  a  certain  degree  of  promiscuity  in  the  interest  of 
race-culture,  l^e  principles  of  equality  and  common 
life  were  also  enforced  m  many  other  matters.  As 
Plutarch  says,  "no  man  was  at  liberty  to  live  as  he 
pleased,  the  city  being  like  one  sreat  camp  where  all 
nad  their  stated  allowance".  In  several  other  re- 
spects, however,  the  regime  of  Lycurgus  fell  short  of 
normal  communism:  though  the  land  was  equally 
distributed  it  was  privately  owned;  the  political  sys- 
tem was  not  a  democracy  but  a  limited  monarchy, 
and  later  an  oliprchy;  and  the  privileges  of  citizen- 
ship and  equality  were  not  enjoyed  by  the  entire 
population.    The  Helots,  who  performed  aU  the  dis- 


OOMHUimM 


180 


OOMMimBM 


agreeable  work,  were  slaves  in  the  worst  sense  of  that 
term.  Indeed,  the  purpose  of  the  whole  organisation 
was  military  and  political  rather  than  economic  and 
social.  As  Lycurgus  was  inspired  by  the  Cretan  ex- 
periment, so  rlato  was  impressed  bv  the  achievement 
of  Lycurgus.  His  "Republic"  describes  an  ideal 
commonwealth  in  which  there  was  to  be  community 
of  property,  meals,  and  even  of  women.  The  State 
was  to  control  education,  maniaee,  births,  the  occu- 
pation of  the  citizens,  and  the  distribution  and  en- 
joyment of  goods.  It  would  enforce  perfect  equalitv 
of  conditions  and  careers  for  all  citizens  and  for  both 
sexes.  Plato's  motive  in  outlining  this  imaginary 
social  order  was  individual  welfare,  not  State  aggran- 
dizement. He  wanted  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
world  to  a  State  which  was  unique  in  that  it  was  not 
composed  of  two  classes  constantly  at  war  with  each 
other,  the  rich  and  the  poor.  But  his  model  com- 
monwealth was  to  have  slaves. 

The  communisticprinciple  governed  for  a  time  the 
lives  of  the  first  Cmistians  of  Jerusalem.  In  the 
fourth  chapter  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  we  learn 
that  none  of  the  brethren  called  anything  that  he 
possessed  his  own;  that  those  who  had  houses  and 
lands  sold  them  and  laid  the  price  at  the  feet  of  the 
Apostles,  who  distributed  ''  to  everyone  according  as 
he  had  need".  Inasmuch  as  they  made  no  distmo- 
tion  between  citizens  and  slaves,  these  primitive 
Christians  were  in  advance  of  the  communism  of 
Plato.  Their  communism  was,  moreover,  entirely 
voluntary  and  spontaneous.  The  words  of  St.  Peter 
to  Ananias  prove  that  individual  Christians  were 
quite  free  to  retain  their  private  property.  Finally, 
the  arrangement  did  not  long  continue,  nor  was  it 
adopted  by  any  of  the  other  Christian  bodies  outside 
of  Jerusalem.  Hence  the  assertion  that  Christianity 
was  in  the  beginning  communistic  is  a  gross  exaggera- 
tion. And  tne  claim  that  certain  Fathers  or  the 
Church,  notably  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Basil,  Chrys- 
ostom,  and  Jerome,  condemned  all  private  property 
and  advocated  communism,  is  likewise  imwarrantedf. 
Most  of  the  religious,  that  is,  ascetic  and  monastic 
orders  and  communities  which  have  existed,  both 
within  and  without  the  Christian  fold,  exhibit  some 
of  the  features  of  communism.  The  Buddhist  monks 
in  India,  the  E^enes  in  Judea,  and  the  Therapeutse 
in  Egypt,  all  excluded  private  ownership  and  led  a 
common  life.  The  religious  communities  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  have  idways  practised  common  owner- 
ship of  goods,  both  productive  (whenever  they  pos- 
sessed these)  and  non-pioductfve.  Their  communism 
differs,  however,  from  that  of  the  economic  com- 
munists in  that  its  primary  object  ia  not  and  never 
has  been  social  reform  or  a  more  just  distribution  of 
goods.  The  spiritual  improvement  of  the  individual 
member  and  the  better  fulfilment  of  their  charitable 
mission,  such  as  instructing  the  young  or  caring  for 
the  sick  and  infirm,  are  tne  ends  that  they  have 
chiefly  sought.  These  communities  insist,  moreover, 
that  their  mode  of  life  is  adapted  only  to  the  few. 
For  these  reasons  we  find  them  alwa^rs  apart  from  the 
world,  making  no  attempt  to  bring  in  any  consider- 
able portion  of  those  without,  and  observing  celibacy. 
One  important  feature  of  economic  communism  is 
wanting  to  nearly  all  religious  communities,  namely, 
common  ownership  and  management  of  the  material 
agents  of  production  from  which  they  derive  their 
sustenance.  In  this  respect  they  are  more  akin  to 
wage*«aming  bodies  than  to  communistic  organiza- 
tions. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  communism  was  held,  and 
In  various  degrees  practised,  bry  several  heretical 
sects.  In  this  they  professed  to  imitate  the  example 
of  the  primitive  Christians.  Their  communism  was, 
therefore,  like  that  of  the  monastic  orders,  religious 
rather  than  economic.  On  the  other  hand ,  the  motive 
of  the  religious  orders  was  Christ's  counsel  to  seek  per- 


fection. Chief  among  the  oommunistio  heretical  sects 
were:  the  Catharists,  the  Apostoltcs,  the  Brothers  and 
Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit,  the  Hussites,  the  McHavians, 
and  the  Anabaptists.  None  of  l^em  presents  facta 
of  any  great  importance  to  the  student  of  commun- 
ism. Tne  next  notable  event  in  the  history  of  com- 
munism is  the  appearance  of  St.  Thomas  More's  "  Uto-  * 
pia"  (1516).  The  purpose  of  this  romantic  account 
of  an  ideal  conmionweaith  was  economic,  not  military 
or  religious.  The  withdrawal  of  large  tracts  of  land 
from  cultivation  to  be  used  for  sheep-raising,  the  cur- 
tailment of  the  tenant's  ridits  to  the  common,  and 
the  rise  in  rents  had  already  begun  to  produce  that 
insecurity,  poverty,  and  pauperism  which  later  on  be- 
came so  distressing  in  En^and,  and  which  still  consti- 
tute a  most  perplexing  problem.  By  wa^  of  contrast 
to  these  conditions,  More  drew  his  ideal  picture  of  the 
State  of  Utopia.  In  his  conception  of  industrial  con- 
ditions, needs,  and  tendencies.  More  was  ages  ahead 
of  his  time.  "  I  can  have ' ',  he  says,  "  no  other  notion 
of  all  the  other  governments  that  I  see  or  know  than 
that  they  are  a  conspiracy  of  the  rich,  who  on  pretence 
of  mana^g  the  public  only  pursue  their  private  ends, 
and  devise  all  the  wajrs  and  arts  they  can  find  out: 
first,  that  thejr  may  without  danger  preserve  all  that 
they  have  so  ill  acquired,  and  then  that  they  may  en- 
gage the  poor  to  toil  and  labour  for  them  at  as  low  rates 
as  possible,  and  oppress  them  as  much  as  they  please." 
This  reads  more  like  an  outburst  from  some  radical 
reformer  of  the  twentieth  centurjr  than  the  testimony 
of  a  state  chancellor  of  the  earl^r  sixteenth .  In  "  Uto- 
pia" s^  goods  are  held  and  enjoyed  in  common,  and 
all  meals  are  taken  at  the  public  tables.  But  there  is 
no  community  of  wives.  The  disagreeable  work  is 
done  by  slaves,  but  the  slaves  are  all  convicted  crim- 
imds.  Concerning  both  the  family  and  the  dignity 
and  riehts  of  the  mdividual,  "Utopia"  is,  therefore, 
on  higner  ground  than  the  "Repuolic".  There  are 
severu  other  descriptions  of  ideal  States  which  owe 
their  inspiration  to  ^'Utopia".  Hie  most  important 
are:  "Oceana"  (1656)  by  James  Harrington;  "The 
aty  of  the  Sun"  (1625)  by  Thomas  Campanella  (q. 
v.);  and  Francis  Bacon's  "New  Atlantis"  (1629). 
None  of  them  has  been  neariy  so  widely  read  nor  so 
influential  as  their  prototjrpe.  CampaneUa,  who  was 
a  Dominican  monk,  represents  the  authorities  of  "Tlie 
City  of  the  Sun"  as  compelling  the  best-dereloped 
women  to  mate  with  the  best^eveloped  men,  in  order 
that  the  children  ma^  be  as  peitect  as  possible. 
Children  are  to  be  tramed  by  the  State  not  by  the 
parents,  for  they  "are  bred  for  the  preservation  of 
the  species  and  not  for  individual  pleasure". 

The  comprehensive  criticism  of,  and  revolt  a^inst 
social  institutions  carried  on  by  French  writers  m  the 
eighteenth  century  naturally  included  theories  for  the 
reconstruction  of  tne  economic  order.  Gabriel  de  Mably 
(Doutes  proposes  aux  philosophes  ^conomiques,  1768) 
who  seems  to  have  borrowed  partly  from  Plato  and 
partly  from  Rousseau,  declared  that  community  of 
goods  would  secure  equality  of  condition  and  the 
nicest  welfare  of  the  race;  but  he  shrank  from  ad- 
vocating this  as  a  practical  remedy  for  the  ills  of  his 
own  time.  Morelly  (Code  de  la  nature,  1755)  agreed 
with  Rousseau  that  all  social  evils  were  due  to  insti- 
tutions, and  urged  the  ownership  and  management  of 
all  property  and  industry  by  the  State.  Both  de  Mably 
and  Morelly  were  apostate  priests.  Morelly's  views 
were  adopted  by  one  of  the  French  Revolutionists, 
F.  N.  BiOxBuf,  who  was  the  first  modem  to  take 
practical  steps  toward  the  formation  of  a  communistic 
society.  His  plans  included  compulsory  labour  on 
the  part  of  all,  and  public  distribution  of  the  product 
according  to  indiviaual  needs.  To  convert  his  theo- 
ries into  reality,  he  founded  the  "Society  of  Equals" 
(1796)  and  projected  an  armed  insurrection;  but  the 
conspirators  were  soon  betrayed  and  their  leader 
guillotined   (1797).    Count  Henri  de  Paint-Simon, 


0OMMX7NISM 


181 


CX>MMtmi8M 


whoee  theories  received  their  final  shape  in  his  ''Nou- 
veau  Chrifltianisme"  (1825),  did  not  demand  common 
ownership  of  all  property.  Hence  he  is  looked  upon 
as  the  first  socialist  rather  than  as  a  commmiist.  He 
was  tiie  first  to  emphasise  the  division  of  modem 
society  into  employers  and  workingmen,  and  the  first 
to  advocate  a  reconstruction  of  the  industrial  and 
political  order  on  the  basis  of  labour  and  in  the  par- 
ticular interest  of  the  working  classes.  According  to 
his  view,  the  State  i^ould  become  the  director  of 
industry,  assigning  tasks  in  proportion  to  capacity 
and  rewards  m  proportion  to  work.  He  is  also  a 
socialist  rather  than  a  communist  in  his  desire  that 
reforms  should  be  brought  about  by  the  central 
Government,  instead  of  by  local  authority  or  volun- 
tary^ associations.  Charies  Fourier  (Traits  de  I'as- 
Bociation  domestique-agricole,  1822)  did  not  even  ask 
for  the  abolition  of  all  capital.  Yet  he  was  more  of  a 
communist  than  Saint-Smion  because  his  plans  were 
to  be  carried  out  by  the  local  communities,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  "phalanxes",  and  because  the 
members  were  to  live  a  common  life.  All  would  dwell 
in  one  laige  buflding  called  the  "phalansterie".  Tasks 
were  to  to  aasigned  with  some  regard  to  the  prefer- 
ences of  the  individual,  but  there  were  to  be  frequent 
changes  <rf  occupation.  Every  worker  would  get  a 
minimum  wage  adequate  to  a  comfortable  livelihood. 
The  surplus  product  would  be  divided  among  labour, 
capital,  and  telent,  but  in  such  a  way  that  those  doing 
the  most  disagreeable  work  would  obtain  the  highest 
compensation.  Marriage  would  be  terminable  by  Uie 
parties  themselves.  An  attempt  to  establish  a  pha- 
lanx at  Versailles  in  1832  resulted  in  complete  failure. 
Etienne  Cabet  drew  up  a  commimistic  programme 
in  his  "  Vo3rage  en  Icarie''  (1840),  which  was  modelled 
upon  the  work  of  Sir  Thomas  More.  He  would  abolish 
private  property  and  private  education,  but  not  mar- 
riage nor  the  family  life.  Goods  were  to  be  produced 
and  distributed  by  the  community  as  a  whole,  and  there 
was  to  be  complete  equality  among  all  its  members. 
In  1848  he  emigrated  with  a  band  of  his  disciples  to 
America,  and  established  the  community  of  Icaria  in 
Texas.  In  1849  they  moved  to  the  abandoned  Mor- 
mon settlement  of  Nauvoo,  Illinois.  Here  the  com- 
munity prospered  for  several  years,  until  the  usual 
solvent  appeared  in  the  lAape  of  internal  dissension. 
In  1856  the  small  minority  that  sided  with  Cabet 
settled  at  (Cheltenham,  near  St.  Louis,  whfle  the 
greater  number  moved  to  Southern  Iowa,  where  they 
establid^ed  a  new  community  to  which  they  gave  the 
old  name  of  Icaria.  The  latter  settlement  flourished 
until  1878,  when  there  began  a  final  series  of  disrup- 
tions, secessions,  and  mictions.  The  last  band  of 
Icarians  was  dissolved  m  1895.  At  that  time  the 
community  numbered  only  twenty-one  members;  in 
Nauvoo  there  were  five  himdred.  Icaria  has  been 
called  "the  most  typical  experiment  ever  made  in 
democratic  communism"  and  ''more  wonderful  than 
any  other  similar  colony,  in  that  it  endured  so  long 
without  any  dogmatic  basis".  The  Icarians  prac- 
tised no  religion.  In  his  "Organisation  du  travail" 
(1840)  Louis  Blanc  demanded  tnat  the  State  establish 
national  workidiops,  with  a  View  to  ultimate  State 
ownership  and  management  of  all  production.  After 
the  Revolution  of  1^  the  Frencn  Government  did 
introduce  several  national  workshops,  but  it  made  no 
honest  effort  to  conduct  them  according  to  the  ideas 
of  M.  Blanc.  They  were  all  unsuccessful  and  short- 
lived. Lflce  Saint-Simon,  Louis  Blanc  was  a  socialist 
rather  than  a  communist  in  his  theories  of  social  re- 
organisation, property,  and  individual  freedom.  From 
his  time  forwsurd  all  the  important  theories  and  move- 
ments concerning  the  reorganization  of  society,  in  the 
other  countries  of  Europe  as  well  as  in  France,  fall 
properiy  under  the  head  of  socialism.  T^e  remainder 
of  the  history  of  communism  describes  events  that 
occurred  in  the  United  States.     In  his  "  American 


Gommunities"  William  A.  Hinds  enumerates  some 
thirty-five  different  associations  in  whidi  commu- 
nistic principles  were  either  partially  or  wholly  put 
into  operation. 

CoiffMUNISTIC  SocnBTIES  IN  THB  UnFFED  StATES. — 

The  Ephrata  Commimity  (Pennsylvania)  was,  with 
two  unimportant  exceptions,  the  earliest.  It  was 
founded  in  1732  by  Oonrad  Beissel,  a  German,  who 
had  for  some  years  led  the  life  of  a  relinous  hermit. 
Three  men  and  two  women  who  shared  liis  views  on 
the  Sabbath  were  permitted  to  join  him,  and  thus 
the  six  became  a  community.  The  members  held 
property  in  common,  laboured  in  common,  lived  in 
common,  and  observed  complete  equality  of  condi- 
tions. They  regarded  celibacy  as  preferable  to  the 
wedded  state,  and  during  the  early  years  of  the 
community  the  majority  remained  unmarried.  Their 
primary  aim,  th«*efore,  was  religious  and  spiritual 
instead  of  social  and  economic.  The  community 
never  had  more  than  three  hundred  members;  in  1900 
it  had  only  seventeen. 

The  most  important  communistic  organization  in 
the  United  States  is  that  of  the  Shakers.  Their  first 
community  was  founded  at  Mt.  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  in 
1787.  At  present  there  are  thirty-five  separate  com- 
munities with  a  total  membership  of  one  thousand; 
once  they  aggregated  five  thousand.  Like  the  Ephra- 
tans,  the  Shakers  are  a  religious  sect  and  live  a  com- 
munity life  for  a  religious  purpose.  The  founders  of 
tiieir  first  American  settlement  were  a  band  of  Engli^ 
Quakers  to  whom  the  name  Shakers  was  given  because 
of  their  bodily  agitations  under  the  supposed  influence 
of  spiritual  forces  in  their  religious  meetings.  In  the 
Shaker  communities  property  is  held  in  common  (ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  members  who  have  not  reached 
the  'Diipd,  or  Senior  Order),  meals  are  taken  in  com- 
mon, there  is  a  common  hour  for  rising,  modes  of 
dress  are  uniform,  and  there  are  minute  mles  govern- 
ing manners  and  conduct  generally.  While  afi  mem- 
bers are  on  a  footing  of  equality,  the  government  is 
hierarchical  rather  than  democratic.  Tney  make  con- 
fession of  sin  before  entering,  observe  celibacy,  ab- 
stain from  alcoholic  drinks,  discourage  the  use  of 
tobacco,  and  endeavour  to  avoid  "all  worldly  usages, 
manners,  customs,  loves  and  affections,  which  inter- 
pose between  the  individual  citizen  of  the  heavenly 
icingdom  and  his  duties  and  privileges  therein ' '.  Ow- 
ing to  its  principles  and  practices,  Snaker  communism 
is  as  little  suited  to  the  generality  of  menasmona»- 
ticism.  Their  membership  is  recruited  mostly 
through  religious  revivals  and  the  reception  of  home- 
less children.  Nevertheless  the  community  has  not 
been  a  complete  failure  as  regards  those  who  have 
remained  faithful  to  its  life.  ''For  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years",  they  maintain,  "they  have  lived  pros- 
perous, contented,  happy  lives,  making  their  land 
bloom  like  the  fairest  geu'den;  and  dunng  all  these 
years  have  never  spent  among  themselves  a  penny  for 
police,  for  lawyers,  for  judges,  for  poor-houses,  for 
penal  institutions  or  any  like  'improvements'  of  the 
outside  world." 

Two  communities  that  had  a  considerable  resem* 
blance  to  each  other  were  the  Harmonists,  established 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1805  by  George  Rapp,  and  the 
Separatists  of  Zoar,  founded  in  1818  by  Joseph  Bau- 
meler  in  Ohio.  Both  communities  were  Uerman, 
were  religious  rather  than  economic,  held  the  same 
reli^ous  views,  and  practised  celibacy.  Early  in 
tiieir  history  the  Separatists  abandoned  celibacy,  but 
continued  to  regard  it  as  a  hi^er  state  than  marriage. 
The  Harmonists  had  at  one  time  one  thousand  mem- 
bers, but  by  the  year  1900  dissensions  had  reduced 
them  to  nine.  The  Separatists  never  numbered  more 
than  five  hundred.  They  ceased  to  exist  as  a  com* 
munity  in  1898.  The  New  Harmony  Community 
was  established  in  1825  on  land  in  Indiana  that  had 
once  been  occupied  by  the  Hannonists.    Its  foimder 


OOMMUMISM 


182 


CX>MMT7in:SM 


Was  Robert  Owen,  a  Welshman,  w^ho  had  managed 
with  remarkable  success  the  New  Lanark  mills  in  Scot- 
land. He  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  ten-hour  day 
into  factories  and  to  refuse  to  employ  very  young 
children  and  pauper  children.  He-  also  established 
the  first  infant  schools  in  England.  He  made  the 
villsge  of  New  Lanark  a  model  of  good  order,  temper- 
ance, thrift,  comfort,  and  contentment.  He  was  a 
humanitarian  and  reformer  who  did  not  shrink  from 
large  sacrifices  on  behalf  of  his  theories.  Encouraged 
by  the  success  of  his  efforts  at  New  Lanark,  and  be- 
iieving  that  men  were  good  bv  nature  and  needed  only 
1  he  proper  environment  to  become  virtuous,  strong, 
i  iteUigent,  and  contented,  he  began  to  dream  of  a 
communism  that  should  be  world-wide.  He  would 
ha/e  all  persons  gathered  into  villages  of  between 
three  hundred  and  two  thousand  souls,  each  of  whom 
was  to  have  from  one-half  to  one  and  one-half  acros  of 
land.  Hie  dwellings  of  each  village  would  be  arranged 
in  a  parallelogram,  with  common  kitchens,  eating- 
houses,  and  schools  in  the  centre.  Individual  prop- 
erty was  to  be  abolished.  Such  were  the  plans  that 
he  mtended  to  try  for  the  first  time  in  the  community 
of  New  Harmony.  Before  the  end  of  its  first  ^ear 
this  community  nad  nine  hundred  souls  and  thirty 
thousand  acres  of  land.  Before  two  years  had  passed 
dissensions  had  arisen,  two  new  communities  had  been 
formed  by  seceders,  and  the  original  community  had 
been  dissolved.  Several  other  communistic  settle* 
ments  which  owed  their  existence  to  the  teaching  and 
example  of  Owen,  were  established  in  different  States, 
but  none  of  them  outlived  New  Harmony.  Like  the 
latter,  they  all  expressly  rejected  any  religious  basis. 
This  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for 
their  early  dissolution.  Toward  the  end  of  his  life 
Owen  gave  up  his  materialistic  notions,  and  admitted 
the  supreme  unportance  of  spiritual  forces  in  the  for- 
mation of  sound  character. 

The  Oneida  Community  of  Oneida,  N.  Y.,  was 
founded  in  1848  by  J.  H.  Noyes.  Its  purpose  was 
primarily  religious,  "the  establishment  of  the  king- 
dom of  God''.  At  one  period  it  had  five  hundr^ 
members.  For  more  than  thirty  years  its  members 
practised  not  only  community  of  property  and  of  life 
generally,  but  also  of  women,  through  their  so-called 
"complex  marriages".  The  rearing  of  children  was 
partly  a  parental  but  chiefly  a  community  function. 
In  deference  to  public  sentiment  outside,  the  practice 
of  "complex  marriage''  Was  in  1879  discontinued. 
They  then  divided  themselves  into  two  classes,  "the 
married  and  the  celibate,  both  legitimate  but  the  last 
preferred".  However,  nearly  all  of  them  got  married 
within  a  very  short  time.  In  1881  the  community 
was  converted  into  a  joint-stock  company,  the  mem- 
bers owning  individual  shares.  Financially,  the  new 
corporation  has  been  a  success,  but  most  of  its  common- 
life  features  disappeared  with  "complex  marriage". 

Between  1840  and  18^  some  thirty  communities 
modelled  upon  the  phalanxes  of  Fourier  were 
established  m  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Only  one  lasted  longer  than  six  years,  and  the 
gpreat  majority  disappeared  within  three  years.  Their 
rise  was  due  chiefly  to  the  writings  and  efforts 
of  an  exceptionally  able,  cultured,  and  enthusiastic 

Sx)up  of  writers  which  included  Horace  Greele^^  Albert 
risbane,  George  Ripley,  Parke  Goodwin,  William 
Henry  Channing,  Charles  A.  Dana,  Nathaniel  Haw- 
thorne, and  Elizabeth  Peabody.  The  most  notable 
of  these  experiments  was  the  one  at  Brook  Farm. 
Although  it  took  the  form  of  a  joint-stock  company, 
paying  five  per  cent  interest,  it  exemplified  the  prin- 
ciples of  communism  in  many  particulars.  The  in- 
dustries were  managed  by  the  commimity  and  all  the 
members  took  turns  at  the  various  tasks;  all  received 
the  same  wages,  all  were  guaranteed  support  for  them- 
selves and  their  dependents,  and  all  enjoyed  the  same 
advantages  in  the  matter  of  food,  clothing,  and  dwell* 


ings.  For  the  first  two  years  (1841-43)  the  life  was 
charming;  but  the  enterprise  was  not  a  success  finan- 
cially. In  1844  the  organization  was  converted  into 
a  Fourieristic  phalanx,  which  had  an  unsuccessful 
existence  of  a  few  briei  months.  Brook  Farm  failed 
thus  early  because  it  had  too  many  philosophers  and 
too  few  '^hard-fisted  toilers". 

The  Amana  Community  (Iowa)  was  begun  in  1855 
by  a  band  of  Germans  who  cdled  themselves  "True 
Inspirationists",  on  account  of  their  belief  that  the 
inspiration  of  the  Apostolic  age  is  still  vouchsafed  to 
Christians.  Their  distinctive  reUgious  tenets  reach 
back  to  the  Pietists  of  the  seventeenth  centuiy,  but  as 
an  organization  they  began  at  Hesse,  Germany,  in 
1714.  They  came  to  America  to  escape  religious  per- 
secution, not  to  practise  communism.  According  to 
their  own  testimony,  the  commimistic  feature  was 
introduced  solely  as  a  means  to  a  better  Christian  life. 
The  community  tolerates  marriage  but  prefers  celi- 
bacy. Those  who  marry  suffer  a  decline  in  socis' 
standing,  and  are  compelled  to  wait  for  some  time 
before  they  can  regain  their  former  position.  One 
of  their  "Rules  for  Daily  Life"  reads  thus:  "Fly  from 
the  society  of  woman-kind  as  much  as  possible,  as  a 
very  highly  dangerous  magnet  and  magical  fire." 
The  families  live  separately,  out  eat  in  groups  of  from 
thirty-five  to  fifty.  All  property  belongs  to  the  com- 
munity. In  order  the  better  to  achieve  their  supreme 
purpose — self-denial  and  the  imitation  of  Christ — 
their  life  is  very  simple,  and  barren  not  orJy  of  luxury 
but  of  any  considerable  enjoyment.  The  Amana 
Community  has  for  a  long  time  been  the  largest  com- 
munity in  existence,  numbering  between  seventeen 
and  eighteen  hundred  members.  During  sixty  years 
the  members  of  this  community  have  lived  in  peace, 
comfort,  and  contentment,  having  neither  lawyers, 
sheriffs,  nor  beggars. 

None  of  the  other  communistic  settlements  of 
America  presents  features  worthy  of  special  mention. 
Of  all  the  experiments  made  only  the  Amana  Com- 
munity and  the  Shakers  survive.  Societies  like  the 
Co-operative  Brotherhood  and  the  Equality  Com- 
monwealth of  the  State  of  Washington  are  examples 
of  co-operation,  or  at  most  of  socialism.  Besides, 
they  are  all  very  young  and  very  small. 

Gexeralizations  Drawn  from  Commttnistig  Ex- 
periments.— ^The  history  of  communistic  societies 
suggests  some  interesting  and  important  generaliza- 
tions. First:  All  but  three  of  the  American  commu- 
nities, namely  those  founded  by  Robert  Owen,  the 
Icarians,  and  the  Fourieristic  experiments,  and  abso- 
lutely all  that  enjoyed  any  measure  of  success,  were 
organized  primarily  for  religious  ends  under  strong 
renpous  infiuences,  and  were  maintained  on  a  basis 
of  definite  religious  convictions  and  practices.  Many 
of  their  founders  were  looked  upon  as  prophets.  The 
religious  bond  seems  to  have  been  the  one  force 
capable  of  holding  them  together  at  critical  moments 
of  their  history.  Mr.  Hinds,  who  is  himself  a  firm 
believer  in  commimism,  admits  that  there  must  be 
unity  of  belief  either  for  or  against  reli^on.  The  im- 
portance of  the  spiritual  and  ascetic  elements  is 
further  shown  by  the  fact  Uiat  nearly  all  the  more 
successful  communities  either  enjoined,  or  at  least 
preferred,  celibacy.  If  communism  needs  the  ascetic 
element  to  this  extent  it  is  evidently  unsuited  for 
general  adoption. 

Second:  It  would  seem  that  where  religion  and 
asceticism  are  not  among  the  primary  ends,  com- 
munity of  wives  as  well  as  of  property  easily  suggests 
itself  to  communists  as  a  normal  and  logical  feature 
of  their  system.  Even  Campanella  declared  that  "  all 
private  property  is  acquired  and  improved  for  the 
reason  tnat  eacn  one  ox  us  by  himself  has  his  own 
home  and  wife  and  children".  Speakine  of  the  de- 
cline of  the  Oneida  Community^,  Mr.  Hinds  says: 
"The  first  step  out  of  communism  was  taken  when 


OOMMUMITY 


183 


OOMO 


'mine  and  thine'  were  applied  to  husband  and  wife; 
then  followed  naturally  an  exclusive  interest  in  chil- 
dren; then  the  desire  to  accumulate  individual  prop- 
erty for  their  present  and  future  use/'  The  founder 
of  this  oonununity  was  of  opinion  that  if  the  ordinary 
principles  of  marriage  are  maintained,  communistic 
associations  will  present  greater  temptations  to  un- 
lawfid  love  than  ordinary  society.  Communism 
therefore  seems  to  face  the  Scylla  of  celibacy  and  the 
Charybdis  of  promiscuity. 

Tfkrd:  All  the  American  communities  except  those 
foimded  by  Owen,  were  composed  of  picked  and  select 
souls  who  were  filled  with  enthusiasm  and  willing  to 
make  great  sacrifices  for  their  ideal.  Owen  admitted 
recruita  indiscriminately,  but  keenly  reeretted  it  after- 
wards ;  for  he  recognized  it  as  one  of  tne  chief  causes 
of  premature  failure.  Moreover,  the  other  commu- 
nities separated  themselves  from  and  discouraged  con- 
tact witn  the  outside  world.  Most  of  the  deserters 
were  members  who  had  violated  this  injunction,  and 
become  enamoured  of  worldly  ways. 

Fourth:  The  success  attained  by  the  American  com- 
munities was  in  a  very  large  measure  due  to  excep- 
tionally able,  enthusiastic,  and  magnetic  leaders.  As 
soon  as  these  were  removed  from  leadership  their 
conmiunities  almost  invariably  began  to  decline 
rapidly.  This  fact  and  the  facts  mentioned  in  the 
last  paragraph  add  weight  to  the  conclusions  drawn 
from  the  first  two,  namely  that  communism  is  utterly 
unsuited  to  the  majority. 

Fifth:  It  is  possible  for  small  groups  of  choice 
spirits,  especially  when  actuated  by  motives  of  religion 
and  asceticism,  to  maintain  for  more  than  a  century 
a  communistic  organization  in  contentment  and  pros- 
perity. The  proportion  of  laziness  is  smaller  and  the 
problem  of  getting  work  done  simpler  than  is  com- 
monly assumed.  And  the  habit  of  common  life  does 
seem  to  root  out  a  considerable  amoimt  of  human 
selfishness. 

Finally:  The  complete  equality  sought  by  commu- 
nism is  a  well-meant  but  mistaken  interpretation  of  the 
oreat  moral  truths,  that,  as  persons  ana  in  the  sight  of 
God,  all  human  beings  are  equal;  and  that  all  have 
essentially  the  same  needs  and  the  same  ultimate 
destiny.  In  so  far  as  they  are  embodied  in  the  prin- 
ciple of  common  ownership,  these  truths  have  found 
varied  expressions  in  various  countries  and  civiliza- 
tions. Many  economic  historians  maintain  that  com- 
mon ownership  was  everywhere  the  earliest  form  of 
land  tenin^.  It  still  prevails  after  a  fashion  in  the 
country  districts  of  Russia.  Within  the  last  half- 
century,  the  sphere  of  common  or  public  ownership 
hajB  been  greatly  extended  throughout  almost  all  of 
the  Western  world,  and  it  is  certain  to  receive  still 
wider  expansion  in  the  future.  Nevertheless,  the 
verdict  of  experience,  the  nature  of  man,  and  the 
attitude  of  the  Church,  all  assure  us  that  complete 
communism  will  never  be  adopted  by  any  consider- 
able section  of  any  people.  While  the  Chureh  sanc- 
tions the  principle  of  volimtary  communism  for  the 
few  who  have  a  vocation  to  the  religious  life,  she  con- 
demns universal,  compulsory,  or  legally  enforoed 
communism,  inasmuch  as  she  maintains  the  natural 
ri^t  of  every  individual  to  possess  private  property. 
She  has  retnrobated  communism  more  specificstlly  in 
the  Eniyclical  "Rerum  No  varum"  of  Pope  Leo 
XIII.  For  the  theories  condemned  in  that  docu- 
ment under  the  name  of  socialism  certainly  include 
communism  as  described  in  these  pages.  See  Col- 
LEcnvxsif,  Socialism;  Property. 

Plato.  ReinMie  (London,  1802);  Catrhbin,  Socialitm,  tr. 
from  the  Oerman  by  Gbttblmann  (New  York,  1904);  PdHZ/- 
MANi«,  0*achichte  dc9  anliken  Communitmus  und  SozitUismus 
(Munich,  1893-1901);  Capart,  La  propriHi  inditridudle  et  le 
oottteliname  (Namur,  1898) :  Kadtskt,  Communism  in  Central 
Burvpe  at  the  Tim€  of  the  Reformation  (London,  1897);    Mob- 


Harbinutun,  Commimweallh  of  Oceana  (Ix)ndon,  I887);  LlcU* 
TBNB£ROER.  Le  socialisme  au  XVIII*  sucle  (Paris,  1895); 
Ely,  French  and  German  SocialiHm  (New  York,  1883);  NoBD- 
Horr,  Communistic  Societies  of  the  United  States  (New  York, 
1875);  WooL«BY,  Communism  and  Socialism  (New  York, 
1880);  Hinds,  American  Communities  (Chicago,  1902);  Stam- 
HAififCR,  Bibl.  des  Sozialiamus  und  Communismua  (Jena,  1893- 

1900).  John  A.  Ryan. 

Oommunity.  See  Monastici8m;Reuqious  Orders. 

OomOi  Diocese  of  (Comensis). — Como  is  an  import- 
ant town  in  the  province  of  Lombardy  (Northern  Italy), 
picturesquely  situated  on  Lake  Como,  the  ancient 
Locus  Lariug,  The  city  is  of  Celtic  origin  and  was 
called  Comum.  In  195  b.  c.  it  became  a  Roman  col- 
ony. Destroyed  by  the  Rhsetian  Gauls,  it  was  recon- 
structed by  Pompeius  Strabo  and  called  Novocomum. 
It  shared  the  vicissitudes  of  the  surrounduig  .egioii. 
In  the  tenth  century  the  Bishops  of  Como  were  also  its 
temporal  lords.  In  the  eleventh  century  the  city  be- 
came a  free  commune.  In  1153  Como  was  devas- 
tated by  the  Milanese  on  account  of  its  attachment  to 
Frederick  Barbarossa,  who  rebuilt  the  city  in  1158. 
Then  followed  the  rule  of  the  Rusca  famfly.  In  1355 
Franchin  Rusca  freely  ceded  the  town  to  the  Visconti. 
from  which  time  it  shared  the  fortune  of  the  Duchy  ol 
Milan.  Como  is  now  the  centre  of  the  silk  industry 
in  Italy,  and  according  to  the  census  of  1901  had  c. 
population  of  :i8,002.     It  has  been  the  birthplace  of 


LBT.  Ideal  Commonwealths  (London,  1885),  comprising  Plu- 
March's  Lycurffua,  Hors's  Utopia^  Bacon's  New  Atlantis^ 
\ufpAiraLLA's,  City  of  the  Sun,  and  Hall's  Aftmdu*  aUer  et  idem; 


Cathkdral,  0>mo 

many  famous  men,  amon^  them  the  elder  and  the 

?ounger  Pliny,  the  historian  Paulus  Jovius,  Pope 
nnocent  XI,  and  the  physicist  Volta.  Local  leg- 
end credits  the  conversion  of  Como  to  the  apostolate 
of  St.  Hermagoras  of  Aquileia  (died  c.  70).  Until 
1528  Como  was,  indeed,  a  su£Fragan  of  Aquileia  (later 
of  Venice)  and  followed  the  Aquileian  Rite.  The 
first  known  bishop  was  St.  Felix,  ordained  by  St. 
Ambrose  in  379,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  he  was 
the  first  bishop.  Many  Bishops  of  Como  are  venerated 
as  saints:  St.  Probinus  (391);  St.  Amantius  (420);  St. 
Abundius  (450),  sent  as  legate  to  the  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon  by  St.  Leo  the  Great;  St.  Consul  (469);  St.  Ex- 
uperantius  (495);  St.  Eusebius  (^12);  St.  Eutychius 
(626);  St.  Euplius  (532);  St.  Flavianus  (536);  St. 


OOMPAONIX 


184 


OOUBAOmM 


Profiper  (560);  St.  John  Orcus  (565);  St.  Agrippinus 
(568);  St.  Rubianus  (586);  St.  MartinianuB  $15);  St. 
VictorinuB  (628),  opponent  of  ArianiBm  as  propagated 
by  the  Lombards;  Alberico  (1010),  founder  of  the 
Abbey  of  Sant'Abondio;  Rainaldo  (1061),  expelled  by 
Henry  IV  for  his  loyidty  to  Gregory  VII;  Cruglielmo 
della  Torre  (1204),  builder  of  many  churches  and 
founder  of  a  hospital;  Benedetto  Asinaga  (1328),  who 
fled  from  the  persecution  of  the  Rusca,  Liords  of  Como ; 
Lucchino  Borsano  (1396),  who  began  the  new  cathe- 
draJ;  the  learned  reformer,  Gian  Antonio  Volpi  (1559). 
The  cathedral  of  Ck)mo  \b  a  splendid  monument  of 
Christian  art.  It  was  begun  in  1396,  and  was  comr 
pleted  only  in  1595;  later  the  cupola  and  some  small 
chapels  were  added  (1730^44).    In  1528  Como  was 

£laoed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of 
[ilan.  The  diocese  has  a  population  of  340,000,  has 
325  parishes,  3  religious  houses  of  men  and  1 2  of  women. 
Cappellbtti,  Le  dkiese  (TlUdia  (Venice,  1844),  XI.  307-443; 
Cant<>,  Storta  della  dUh  e  dtoceti  di  Como  (Como,  1829-31); 
BoLDOKi,  Storta  ddia  Cattedrale  di  Como  (Como,  1821);  Ann, 
«cd.  (Rome,  1907),  411-18.  U.    BbnionI. 

Oompaffnie  du  Saint-Saerement,  a  Catholic  secret 
society  wnich  included  among  its  members  maxw 
Catholic  celebrities  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It 
was  founded  in  March,  1630,  at  the  Convent  of  the 
Capuchins  in  the  Faubourg  Saint-Honor^  by  Henri  de 
L^vis,  Due  de  Ventadour,  who  had  just  escorted  his 
wife  to  the  Convent  of  Mont-Carmel ;  Henri  de  Pichery, 
officer  of  Louis  XIII's  household;  Jacques  Adhdmar 
de  Monteil  de  Grignan,  a  future  bishop,  and  Philippe 
d'An^umois,  the  Capuchin.  Amount  those  wno 
soon  pined  it,  should  be  mentioned  P^re  SufiFren,  a 
Jesuit,  confessor  to  Louis  XIII  and  Marie  de'  Medici; 
the  son  and  grandson  of  Coligny,  the  Protestant  ad- 
miral, and  Charles  de  Condren,  General  of  the  Orator- 
ians.  In  1 631  this  association  was  called  the  Ck>mpany 
of  the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament.  It  was  organized 
under  the  authority  of  a  board  composed  of  nine 
members,  changed  every  three  months,  and  which  in- 
cluded a  superior,  usually  a  layman,  and  a  spiritual  di- 
rector who  was  a  priest. .  The  associates  met  weekly 
and  their  organization  was  simultaneously  a  pious 
confraternity,  a  charitable  societv,  and  a  militant 
association  for  the  defence  of  the  Church. 

The  company  was  an  absolutely  secret  one.  Louis 
XIII  covertly  encouraged  it  but  it  never  wished  to 
have  Uie  letters  patent  that  would  have  rendered  it 
legal.  Archbishop  Gondi  of  Paris  refused  his  bless- 
ing to  the  company  although,  in  1631,  Louis  XIII 
wrote  him  a  personal  letter  requesting  him  to  confer  it. 
The  Brief  obtained  from  the  pope  in  1633  by  the  Count 
de  Brassan,  one  of  the  members,  was  of  no  importance 
and  the  company,  eager  to  secure  a  new  one,  was 
granted  only  a  few  indulgences  which  it  would  not  ac- 
cept, as  it  did  not  wish  to  be  treated  as  a  simple  con- 
fraternity. Guido  Ba^,  nuncio  from  1645  to  1656, 
often  attended  the  sessions  of  the  companv  but  its  ex- 
istence was  never  regularly  acknowledged  by  an  offi- 
cial docimient  from  Rome.  The  rule  of  secrecy 
obliged  members  "not  to  speak  of  the  company  to 
those  who  do  not  belong  to  it  and  never  to  make 
known  the  names  of  the  individuals  composing  W\ 
New  members  were  elected  by  the  board  and  it  was 
soon  decided  that  no  cangr^aniste^  i.  e.  member  of 
a  lay  congregation  directed  by  ecclesiastics,  could  be 
eligible.  Matters  of  an  especially  delicate  nature  were 
not  discussed  at  the  weekly  meetings,  these  being  fre- 
quently attended  by  a  hundred  members,  but  were 
reserved  for  the  investigation  of  the  board.  The  com- 
pany printed  nothing  and  the  keeping  of  written  min- 
utes was  conducted  with  the  utmost  caution.  There 
were  fifty  important  branches  outside  of  Paris,  about 
thirty  being  unlmown  even  to  the  bishops.  Among 
other  members  were  the  Prince  de  Conti,  the  Mardchal 
de  Sehomberg,  the  Baron  de  Renty,  Magistrates 
Lamoignon,  de  Mesnes,  and  Le  Fdvre  d'Ormesson; 


Alain  de  Solminihac,  Bishop  of  Cahore,  now  dadared 
Venerable;  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Olier,  and  Boasuet. 

The  association  laboured  aealoualy  to  oonect  abuses 
amon^  the  clergy  and  in  monasteries,  to  insure  good 
behaviour  in  the  churches^  to  procure  missions  for 
country  p>arishes,  and  it  had  the  nonour  of  uiging  the 
establishment  of  a  Seminary  of  Foreign  Missions  for 
the  evangelizing  of  infidels.  It  also  endeavouxed  to 
reform  the  morals  of  the  laity  by  enoouragingthe  ef- 
fective crusade  of  the  Marquis  de  Salignao^^nelon 
against  duelling.  Moreover,  it  was  interrated  in  the 
care  of  the  poor,  the  improvement  of  hospitals,  and 
the  administration  of  ealie^rs  and  prisons;  and  that  the 
poor  mig^t  have  legal  advice,  it  created  what  are  to- 
day known  as  the  aecriUiriats  du  peuple.  It  protected 
the  fraternities  of  shoemakers  and  tailors  organized 
by  the  Baron  de  Renty  and  assisted  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  in  most  of  his  undertakings.  In  1652  when 
Louis  XIV,  conqueror  of  the  Fronde,  re-entered  Paris 
and  the  city  was  flooded  with  peasants,  fugitive  reli- 
gious, and  him^  priests,  the  members  of  the  company 
multiplied  their  generous  deeds,  demanded  alms  from 
their  fellow-members  outside  of  Paris,  sent  priests  to 
hear  the  confessions  of  the  sick  in  districts  that  had 
been  decimated  by  war,  founded  parish  societies  for 
the  relief  of  the  poor,  and  established  at  Paris  a  gen- 
eral storehouse  stocked  with  provisions,  clothing,  and 
agricultural  implements  to  be  distributed  among  the 
impoverished  peasants.  At  that  time  the  company 
spent  300,000  livres  (equal  to  300,000  dollars)  in  chai^ 
ity  each  year.  Finally,  it  was  instrumental  in  bring- 
ing about  the  ordinance  establishing  the  General  Hos- 
pital where  Christophe  du  Plessis,  the  maeistrate,  and 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  organized  the  hospital  for  mendi- 
cants. 

Even  those  historians  to  whoili  the  secret  character 
of  this  association  is  obnoxious,  give  due  credit  to  its 
admirable  charities,  but  they  attack  its  action  in  re- 
gard to  Protestants.  The  companv  laboured  dili- 
gently to  increase  conversions  and  orpanized  the 
preaching  of  missions  for  Protestants  m  Lorraine, 
Dauphin^,  and  Limousin  and  founded  establishments  in 
Paris,  Sedan,  Metz,  and  Puy  for  young  converts  from 
Protestantism.  Moreover,  it  strove  to  suppress  the 
outrages  perpetrated  by  Protestants  a^nst  the  Cath- 
olic religion  and  opposed  the  oppression  of  Catholics 
by  Protestants  in  a  Protestant  city  like  La  Rochelle. 
Finally,  without  seeking  the  revocation  of  ikxe  Edict  of 
Nantes,  the  Company  nevertheless  remained  con- 
stantly on  the  alert,  lest  any  concession  be  made  to 
Protestants  beyond  what  the  formal  text  of  the  edict 
demanded  and  its  members  sent  documents  to  Jean 
Filleau,  a  Poitiers  lawyer,  who  for  twenty-five  years 
issued  "Catholic  decisions"  from  a  juridical  point  of 
view,  on  the  inteipretation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 
The  protestation  of  the  ^neral  assembly  of  the  clergy 
in  1656  against  the  infnngement  of  the  edict  by  Prot- 
estants, was  the  outgrowth  of  a  long  documental 
work  prepared  by  the  members.  In  1660,  Lechassier 
who  was  Mattre  dea  Ccmptes  and  also  one  of  the 
company,  forwarded  to  all  the  coimtry  branches  a 
gvesUonnaire,  i.  e.  a  series  of  questions  eaked  with  a 
view  to  helping  the  inquiry,  of  thirty-one  articles  on 
the  infrii^ment  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  by  Protes- 
tants. The  answers  were  collected  by  Forbin-Janson, 
Bishop  of  Digne,  who  took  active  part  in  tiie  assembly 
of  clergy,  the  result  beuig  that  commissaries  were  sent 
into  the  provinces  for  the  purpose  of  settii^  ri^^t  these 
abuses.  But,  in  its  own  turn,  the  company  violated 
the  Ekiict  of  Nantes  (of  which  Art.  27  dedsjced  Hugue- 
nots wholly  eligible  to  public  office),  and,  by  secret 
manoeuvring,  one  day  prevented  twenty-five  young 
Protestants  from  being  received  as  attorneys  at  the 
Parlement  of  Paris.  "'The  members  tho\4^t  they 
were  doing  ri^Jit",  explained  Pftre  de  la  Bridre, 
"nevertheless,  iJf  we  consider  not  their  intention,  but 
the  very  nature  of  their  act  and  of  their  procedure,  it  is 


OOMFAXT 


185 


OOMPXHSAnON 


impofisible  to  doubt  that  they  were  guilty  oi  an  iniq* 
uity ' '.  Aeoording  to  the  testunony  of  P^re  Rapin  and 
the  Count  d'Ai^genson,  these  proceeding  of  the  Com- 
pany were  the  starting-point  of  the  pohcy  that  was  to 
cuhninate  m  1685  in  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes. 

The  year  1660  witnessed  the  decline  of  the  company. 
In  consequence  of  inoid^its  that  had  occurred  at 
Caen,  it  was  vigorously  attacked  in  a  libel  by  Charles 
du  Four,  Abbot  of  Aulnay,  and  denounced  to  Cardi- 
nal If aaarin  by  Francois  Harlay  de  ChampvaUon, 
Archbishop  of  Rouen.  On  13  Decemberi  1660,  the 
membttB  neld  a  last  general  meeting  at  which,  amid 
expressions  of  remt  and  deep  emotion,  it  was  decided 
to  suspend  their  Thursday  sessions  and  to  add  "  ten  or 
twdve  elders"  to  the  members  of  the  board  so  that 
the  oompanv  mi^t  continue  to  act  provisionally; 
then  these  ddera  and  the  board  selected  eight  indi- 
viduals who  were  to  oorreepond  with  the  country 
branches,  one  of  the  eight  being  Bossuet.  On  13  De- 
cember, 1600,  Psurliament  iasura  a  decree  prohibiting 
all  iUicit  assemblies,  confraternities,  congregations,  and 
communities  but  Lamoisnon,  a  member  of  the  com- 
pany and  the  first  presio^t,  succeeded  in  preventing 
it  from  being  designated  by  name.  It  seems  that  the 
meeting  of  the  board  ana  the  elders,  held  regularly 
enoug}i  in  1664  to  be  instrumental  in  obtaining  the  in- 
terdiction of  ''Tartuife'',  ceased  almost  alto^ther  in 
1665.  The  General  Hospital  and  the  Semmary  of 
Fore^  Missions  continued  to  exist  as  magnificent 
legaciBs  of  this  association  which  Macarin  and  many 
hostile  historians  who  came  after  him,  scornfully  called 
the  ''Gabal  of  Devotees". 

jyAmarnmov,  AnnaleB  dt  la  e&mpagnie  du  SaitU-'SaeremerU 
(MazaeiUes.  1900),  an  important  document:  Rapin,  Minunre^ 
(Paris.  1885),  II;  Claik,  ixi  compagnie  du  SaintSaerement:  tme 
page  d«  Vhisiairm  de  la  OuxriU  au  XVI*  aiSde  in  Biudes  (1888, 
1880);  Rabbs.  Une  todtU  seertte  catKoliqw  au  XV W  sUcU  in 
Repue  Hiatorique,  1  Nov.,  ISdO:  very  hoetile);  Ch^rot.  LeltTe 
h  M.  Rabbe  in  Etude;  20  Nov.,  1889);  Aluer,  La  oabale  den 
dhota  (Pftria,  1902,  very  hostile);  Rxbbujau,  Un  Msode  de 
Vkietoin  religietue  du  XVII*  eihcLe  in  Remu  aee  Deux 
Mondee,  1  July.  1  Aug.  and  1  Sept..  1903:  a  great  effort  at  im- 
partiality* and  DB  LA  BRifcRB,  Ce  que  fut  la  cabale  dee  dHote 
(P&ria,  1906)  •  an  excellent  xesum^. 

Georges  Gotau. 


Oompany  of  Mary, 
THE  Company  of. 


See  Mary,  Missionaries  of 

Oompany  of  Si.  Unula.    See  Ursulinbs. 

Oompenaation,  as  considered  in  the  present  article 
denotes  the  price  paid  for  human  exertion  or  labour. 
Wherever  men  have  been  free  to  sell  their  labour  they 
have  regarded  its  compensation  as  a  matter  that  in- 
volved questions  of  right  and  wrong.  This  conviction 
has  been  ^ared  by  mankind  generally,  at  least  in 
Christian  countries.  At  the  be^ning  of  the  fourth 
century,  the  Emperor  Diocletian  issued  an  edict 
which  fixed  the  niaximum  prices  for  the  sale  of  all 
goods,  and  appointed  a  legal  schedule  of  wages  for 
nineteen  different  classes  of  workingmen.  In  the  pre- 
amble of  the  edict  the  emperor  declares  that  his  mo- 
tive is  to  establish  justice  among  his  people  (Levaa- 
seor,  "^Classes  ouvri^res  avant  1789'\  I,  112-114). 
Throu^out  the  Middle  Ages  and  down  almost  to  the 
bwinmng  of  the  nineteenth  century,  there  was  con< 
noerable  le^  regulation  of  wages  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  Surope.  This  practice  indicated  a  belief 
^t  the  eompensation  of  laix>ur  ought  to  be  brought 
under  the  rale  of  law  and  fairness,  as  these  legislators 
conceived  fair  dealing. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Church  implicitly  asserted  the 
n^t  of  the  labourer  to  sufficient  eompensation  for  the 
nuintenance  of  his  life  when  they  declared  that  God 
unshed  the  earth  to  be  the  common  heritage  of  all 
°ieA»  and  when  they  denounced  as  robbers  the  rich 
^o  refused  to  share  their  surplus  goods  with  the 
i^ficdy.  The  theologians  and  canonists  of  the  Middle 
Ages  held  that  all  commodities  should  be  sold  at  that 


price  which  the  social  estimate  regarded  as  just;  but 
they  insisted  that  in  arriving  at  this  estimate  the  com- 
munity ought  to  take  into  account  the  utility,  the 
scarcity,  and  the  cost  of  production  of  the  commodity. 
Inasmuch  as  the  cost  of  production  at  that  time  was 
chieflv  labour-cost,  or  wages,  a  just  price  for  goods 
woula  necessarily  include  a  just  price  for  the  labour 
that  produced  the  eoods.  St.  Thomas  reflects  the 
common  view  when  ne  says  that  labour  as  well  as 
goods  should  bring  a  just  price  (Summa  Theologica, 
I-II,  Q.  cxiv,  a.  1).  Lan^nstein,  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  is  more  specific;  for  he  declares  that  anyone 
can  ascertain  the  just  price  of  the  wares  that  he  has  to . 
sell  by  referring  to  the  cost  of  living  of  one  in  his  sta- 
tion in  life  (De  Contractibus,  Pt.  I,  cap.  xii).  Since  the 
seller  of  the  goods  was  generallv  the  maker  of  them  also, 
Langenstein's  rule  was  equivalent  to  the  doctrine  that 
the  compensation  of  the  master-workman  should  be 
sufficient  to  furnish  him  a  decent  livelihood.  And  we 
know  that  his  remuneration  did  not  differ  greatly 
from  that  of  the  journeyman.  From  the  meagre  ac- 
counts that  have  come  down  to  us,  we  are  probably 
justified  in  concluding,  with  Professor  Brants,  that 
these  standiuds  of  eompensation  and  the  methods  of 
enforcing  them  generally  secured  to  the  medieval 
labourer  a  livelihood  which  the  notions  of  the  time 
regarded  as  becoming  (Thtories  dconomiques  aux  xiii^ 
et  xiv«  sidles,  p.  123).  At  the  be^nning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  we  find  such  wnters  as  Molina  and 
Bonacina  asserting  that  the  customary  compensation 
of  a  place  is,  generally  speaking,  just  compensation, 
and  assuming  that  the  worker  has  a  right  to  a  living 
from  his  labour. 

To-day  Catholic  teaching  on  compensation  is  quite 
precise  aa  regards  the  just  minimum.  It  ma^  be  sum- 
marized in  these  woitis  of  Pope  Leo  XIII  m  the  fa- 
mous Encyclical  '*  Rerum  Novarum '  '(15  May,  1891),  on 
the  condition  of  the  workine  classes: ''  there  is  a  dictate 
of  nature  more  ancient  and  more  imperious  than  any 
bargain  between  man  and  man,  that  the  remunera- 
tion must  be  sufficient  to  support  the  wage-earner  in 
reasonable  and  frugal  comfort.  If  througn  necessity 
or  fear  of  a  worse  evil  the  workman  accepts  harder 
conditions,  because  an  employer  or  contractor  will 
give  him  no  better,  he  is  the  victim  of  fraud  and  in- 
justice." Shortly  after  the  Encyclical  appeared. 
Cardinal  Gooasens,  the  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  asked 
tiie  Holy  See  whether  an  employer  would  do  wrong 
who  should  pa^r  a  wage  sufficient  for  the  sustenance  of 
the  labourer  himself  but  not  for  that  of  his  family. 
An  unofficial  response  came  through  Cardinal  Zig- 
liara,  saying  that  such  conduct  would  not  be  contrary 
to  justice,  but  that  it  might  sometimes  violate  char- 
ity, or  natural  righteousness — ^L  e.  reasonable  erati- 
tude.  As  a  consequence  of  the  teaching  of  Leo  XlII, 
there  has  been  widespread  discussion,  and  there  exists 
an  immense  Uterature  among  the  Catholics  of  Europe 
and  America  concerning  the  minimum  just  wage. 
The  present  Catholic  position  may  be  summarized 
somewhat  as  follows:  First,  all  writers  of  authority 
agree  that  the  employer  who  can  reasonably  afiford  it 
is  morally  obliged  to  give  all  his  employees  compensa- 
tion sufficient  for  decent  individual  maintenance,  and 
his  adult  male  employees  the  equivalent  of  a  decent 
living  not  only  for  themselves  but  for  their  families; 
but  not  all  place  the  latter  part  of  the  obligation  under 
the  head  ot  strict  justice.  Second,  some  writers  base 
this* doctrine  of  a  minimum  just  wa^e  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  just  price,  according  to  which  compensation 
should  be  equivalent  to  labour,  while  others  declare 
that  it  is  implicitly  contained  in  the  natural  right  of 
the  labourer  to  obtain  a  decent  livelihood  in  the  only 
way  that  is  open  to  him,  namely,  through  his  labour- 
contract  and  in  the  form  of  wages.  The  latter  is  un- 
doubtedly the  view  of  Leo  XIII,  as  is  evident  from 
these  words  of  the  Encyclical:  "It  follows  that  each 
one  has  a  right  to  procure  what  is  required  in  order  to 


OOMPSNaATIOV 


186 


ooMnxmroY 


live ;  and  the  poor  can  procure  it  in  no  other  way  than 
by  work  and  wages." 

Authoritative  Catholic  teaching  does  not  py  be- 
yond the  ethical  minimum,  nor  declare  what  is  com- 
pleted^ just  compensation.  It  admits  that  full  and 
exact  iustice  will  frequently  award  the  worker  more 
than  the  minimum  equivalent  of  decent  living,  but  it 
has  made  no  attempt  to  define  precisely  this  larger 
justice  with  regard  to  any  class  of  wa^e-eamers.  And 
wisely  so;  for,  owing  to  the  man^  distinct  factors  of 
distribution  involved,  the  matter  is  exceedingly  com- 
plicated and  difficult.  Chief  among  these  factors  are, 
from  the  side  of  the  employer,  enei^  expended,  risk 
undergone,  and  interest  on  his  capital;  from  the  side 
of  the  labourer,  needs,  productivity,  efforts,  sacrifices, 
and  skill;  and  from  tne  side  of  the  consumer,  fair 
prices,  in  any  completely  just  system  of  compensar 
tion  and  distribution  all  these  elements  would  be  given 
weight;  but  in  what  proportion?  Should  the  man 
who  produces  more  than  his  fellow-worker  always  re- 
ceive a  larger  reward,  regardless  of  the  effort  that  he 
has  made?  Should  skill  oe  more  highly  compensated 
than  work  that  is  degrading  and  disagreeable?  Even 
if  all  men  were  agreed  as  to  the  different  factors  of  dis- 
tribution and  their  relative  importance,  from  the  side 
of  capital  and  labour,  there  would  remain  the  problem 
of  justice  to  the  consumer.  For  example,  ought  a 
part  of  the  benefits  arising  from  improvements  in  the 
productive  processes  to  go  to  him?  or  should  thev  all 
be  appropriated  by  the  agents  of  production?  Pope 
Leo  XIII  showed  nis  practical  wisdom  when,  instead 
of  dealing  in  detail  with  this  question,  he  insisted 
strongly  on  the  practice  of  arbitration.  When  wage- 
disputes  are  submitted  to  fair  arbitration,  all  the  cri- 
teria and  factors  of  distribution  above  enumerated  are 
usually  taken  into  account,  and  accorded  weight  in 
conformity  with  practical  justice.  This  is  not,  indeed, 
the  same  as  ideal  justice,  but  in  most  cases  it  will  ap- 
proximate that  goal  as  closely  as  is  feasible  in  a  world 
that  is  not  absolutely  perfect. 

Levabsbur,  Lea  dasaea  ouvriirea  en  France  avani  1789  (Paiu, 
1000);  Capabt,  La  propriiU  individudle  el  le  coUediviame 
(Namur,  1898);  Bramto.  Lea  UUcriea  Sconomimiea  aux  xiii^  et 
xiv»  aikcUa  (Paris,  1895):  Garnier,  De  Vidle  du  juate  prix 
(Paris,  1900);  Ashley,  Engliah  Economic  Hiatorv  (London, 
1893);  Palorave,  Didumary  of  Political  Economy  (New  York, 
1891).  6.  V.  Oovemment  Reffulation  of  Induatry:  Leo  XIII, 
Encyclical,  Rerum  Novarum;  Vermeerach,  Quceationea  de 
JuatHiA  (Bruses,  1901);  Pottxer,  De  Jure  et  JuatUiA  (Lifege. 
1900):  Meter  et  al.,  Die  aanale  Frage,  reprinted  from  the 
Stimmen  aua  Maria-Laaeh;  Rtan,  A  Lxvino  Wage  (New  York, 
1906).  ^  ^     ^ 

John  A.  Ryan. 

Oompeiuiation,  Occui;r. — ^An  extra-legal  manner 
of  recovering  from  loss  or  damage;  the  taking,  by 
stealth  and  on  one's  private  authority,  of  the  value  or 
equivalent  of  one's  goods  from  a  person  who  refuses  to 
meet  the  demands  of  justice. 

Considered  strictly  from  the  standpoint  of  commu- 
tative justice,  although  this  proce^nimg  may  have  on 
the  surface  all  the  appearance  of  theft,  it  is  in  reality 
the  farthest  removed  from  such.  As  defined,  it  im- 
plies a  debtor  who  is  able,  but  unwilling,  to  restore 
what  he  holds  unjustly  and  a  creditor  who  has  an  op- 
portunity to  recover  possession  of  what  is  his  own  cer- 
tain due.  Since  the  effect  as  well  as  the  purpose  is 
solely  to  make  a  wrong  cease,  the  transfer  brought 
about  by  this  method  of  self-protection  is  manifestly  in 
keeping  with  equity  and  right.  Thus  occult  compen- 
sation IS  based  on  the  right  of  self-defence.  It  is  clear 
that  such  dealing-out  ofjustice  to  oneself  without  the 
sanction  of  public  authority  may  become  a  course 
gravely  prejudicial  to  public  and  social  order  and  open 
to  all  manner  of  abuses  and  dancers.  But  the  evM  is 
no  less  real  and  pernicious,  if,  while  avoiding  this  ex- 
treme, one  runs  to  the  opposite,  and  denies  prin- 
ciples which  safeguard  natural  rights  of  the  individual 
and  protect  the  weak  against  the  constant  danger  of 
oppression  from  the  strong.    Ciitholic  moralists  st^er 


clear  of  these  two  extremes  and  teach  that  it  is  licit, 
under  certain  conditions  and  with  certain  precautions, 
to  have  recourse  to  occult  compensation. 

In  Doctor  Bouquillon's  scholarly  article  in  the 
"Catholic  University  Bulletin"  (1896),  II,  50-61,  it  is 
proved  not  only  that  the  doctrine  is  sound  and  reason- 
able, but  that  ^'  it  has  been  accepted  by  philoflophers 
and  jurists,  as  far,  even,  as  the  terminology  in  which  it 
has  been  formulated  by  our  theologians;  that  it  has 
always  been  substantially  the  same  since  the  days  of 
St.  Iremeus  and  Clement  of  Alexandria,  though  in  the 
course  of  time  it  has  gained  in  clearness,  and  l£at  when 
writings  capable  of  pernicious  influence  have  appeaj^ 
th^  have  been  carefully  weeded  out. " 

The  requisite  conditions  may  be  reduced  to  three. 
First,  the  right  of  the  creditor  must  be  certain.  Then, 
respect  for  law  and  order  demands  that  the  authority 
of  the  law  should  be  invoked  whenever  it  is  possible 
and  recourse  to  established  justice  does  not  involve 
difficulties  and  losses  out  of  all  proportion  with  the 
gain  to  be  derived .  When  laws  operating  throu^  the 
regular  channeb  fail  to  protect  and  are  helpless  to  re- 
move the  evil  of  injustice,  respect  for  them  should  not 
prevent  one  from  taking  one^s  own  by  extraordinary 
means.  Finally,  provision  should  be  made  against 
the  event  of  a  later  settlement  by  the  debtor  or  his 
lawful  heirs,  which  would  necessitate  restitution;  and 
every  reasonable  effort  should  be  made  to  avoid 
scandal  or  other  evils  of  accusations,  distrust,  etc.,  to 
which  cause  may  be  given  throt^h  ignorance  of  the 
moral  value  of  such  methods.  When  1^  danger  to 
the  community  is  thus  minimized  as  far  as  it  is  humanly 
possible,  legal  justice  honoured  as  far  as  it  is  entitled 
to  honour,  and  the  necessity  of  justice  and  ri^t  ureent, 
it  is  lawful  in  conscience,  according  to  our  accredited 
moralists,  to  avail  oneself  of  the  theory  of  occult 
compensation.  It  remains,  however,  that  such  cases 
are  rare,  that  it  is  still  more  rarely  within  the  compe- 
tence of  the  ordinary  individual  to  decide  his  own  case 
without  the  advice  of  a  prudent  and  disinterested 
counsellor,  and  that  occult  compensation  should  nev^r 
be  advised  save  in  exceptional  circumstances,  on  ac- 
count of  its  potency  for  havoc  in  the  hands  of  the 
iniorant  or  imscrupmous.  But  disregard  for  any  or  all 
of  these  precautions,  while  offending  against  legal,  does 
not  violate  commutative  justice,  nor  entail  uxe  duty 
of  restitution,  if  the  essential  ri^t  is  present. 

LiGUORi,  Theol.  Mor.  (Paris,  1845),  Lib.  IV.  521;  De  Lucso. 
Diaputat.  de  juat.  et  jure  (Paris,  1868).  W;  Scavini,  ThooL  Mor. 
Umvera.,  de  ReatUut.  (Paris,  1867);  Baxxerint,  Opua  Theol. 
Mor.,  De  juat,  et  jure  (Prato,  1890);  LehiikuhiI  Theol.  Mor. 
Spec.,  De  mHtU.  mor.  (FreiburK,  1896);  Noldin,  Sitmina  TKeol. 
Mor.,  De  aept.  Decal.  Prac  (Iimsbnick^  1906);  Qbnioot»  Theol. 
Mor.  Jnaiilut..  De  jvM.  et  jure  (Louvain,  19(>5);  Sabeitx-Bar- 
RinrT,  Theai.  Mor.,  Dejuat.  etiurt  (New  York,  1966);  Konincs. 
ThetA,  Mor.,  De  jure  H  juat.  (New  York,  1877). 

John  H.  Staplbton. 

Oompetency,  Privilege  of  (Lat.  PrivHegivm  Camr 
petentUB), — (1).  The  competency  of  a  cleric  means  his 
right  to  proper  sustenance.  When  a  parochial  church 
has  been  incorporated  with  a  collegiate  institution  or 
monastery  and  a  vicar  has  been  appointed  to  the  cure 
of  souls  in  the  parish,  the  possessors  of  the  benefice  are 
obliged  to  give  him  the  needful  salary.  Nor  can  the 
right  to  this  competency  be  done  away  with  by  agree- 
ment. If  a  private  contract  be  made  by  whidi  a  less 
sum  is  to  be  accepted,  it  will  not  bind  the  successor  of 
the  contracting  vicar.  Even  if  the  contract  be  ap- 
proved by  public  authority,  it  is  not  binding  unless  an 
amoimt  sumcient  for  the  proper  support  of  the  pastor 
be  stipulated.  The  ri^t  to  competency  sAao  has 
place  when  several  sim^e  benefices  are  united  with  a 
parish  church.  If  the  endowment  is  not  suffioient  for 
the  necessarv  number  of  pastors,  then  reoourse  is  to  be 
had  to  firstfruits,  tithes,  and  collections  among  the 
parishioners  (Councfl  of  Trent,  Seas.  XXIV,  c.  xiii, 
de  Ref.).  It  is  the  duty  of  the  bishop  to  see  that 
those  who  have  the  care  of  souls  be  provided  with 


ooMPsrxHras 


187 


0OMPO8TELA 


proper  support.  By  the  privilege  of  competency,  the 
goods  of  a  deric,  burdened  with  debt,  cannot  be  at- 
tached or  sold  without  leaving  him  sufficient  means 
of  support  (Cap.  3,  x.,  Ill,  23).  A  cleric  loses  this 
privilege,  however,  if  he  fraudulently  contracts  un- 
necessary debts,  in  abuse  of  ihe  privilege.  The  civil 
law  in  some  countries  recognises  this  right  of  com- 
petency. In  Austria,  while  the  property  of  a  benefice 
cannot  be  attached,  tne  revenues  can,  but  only  to  such 
an  e3Ctent  that  at  least  300  or  210  florins,  acoordmg  to 
the  rank  of  the  benefice,  must  remain  intact.  In  Ger- 
many, whatever  is  lieoeesary  for  exercising  the  min- 
istry is  free  from  attachment.  The  civil  laws  of  the 
Umted  States  and  Great  Britain  make  no  exception 
for  clerics.  (2)  The  term  eomveieney  is  also  vseA  for 
the  sum  total  of  the  rights  belonging  to  any  ecclesi- 
astical dignitary,  as  of  the  pope,  bishons,  etc.  Ob- 
jectively, such  competency  is  determinea  by  the  vari- 
ous functions  to  which  it  extends,  such  as  ordination, 
matrimony,  and  so  forth. 

AiCBMSit,  Compend.  Jur.  Bed.  (Brixen,  1896):  Fkrrabui, 
BiUioth,  Prompta  Canon,  (Rome.  1886).  II;  Laursntius. 
ifufie.  Jur.  Bad.  (Frdburg,  1003). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 
Oompetentes.    See  Catechumen. 

Oomplin. — ^The  term  Complin  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  compUtorium,  complement,  and  has  been  given 
to  this  particidar  Hour  because  Complin  is,  as  it  were, 
the  completion  of  all  the  Hours  of  the  day:  the  close 
of  the  (utv.  The  word  was  first  used  in  this  sense 
about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  by  St.  Bene- 
dict in  his  Rule  ^cc.  xvi,  xvii,  xviii,  and  xlii),  and  he 
even  uses  the  verb  comjjlere  to  signifv  Complin: ''  Om- 
nes  ergo  in  unum  posit  1  oompleant  ;  "et  exeuntes  a 
oompletorio"  (xlii).  The  H!o\nr  of  Complin,  such  as 
it  now  appears  in  the  Roman  Breviary,  may  be  di- 
vided into  several  parts,  vis. :  the  beginning  or  intro- 
duction, the  psalmody,  with  its  usual  accompaniment 
of  anthems,  the  hymn,  the  capitulum,  the  response, 
the  evangelical  canticle,  the  prayer,  and  the  benedic- 
tion. 

The  orinn  of  Complin  has  recently  given  rise  to 
consideraole  -discussion  among  liturgists.  General 
opinion,  which  is  also  that  of  BAumer  and  Batiffol, 
ascribes  the  origin  of  this  Hour  to  St.  Benedict,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  It  was  St.  Benedict 
who  first  gave  it  this  name;  he  decided  also  that  this 
Hour  should  consist  of  three  psalms  (iv,  xc,  and 
cxxxiii)  to  be  said  without  anthems,  the  hymn,  the 
lesson,  the  verside  Kyrie  eleison^  the  benediction,  and 
the  dismissal  (ch.  xvii  and  xviu).  But  Father  Par- 
goire  and,  later  still,  A.  Vandepitte  oppose  this  opin- 
ion and  seek  a  more  ancient  origin  for  this  Hour.  A 
text  in  Callinicus  (between  447  and  450),  first  intro- 
duced in  Father  Pargoire's  argument,  informs  us  that 
between  Vespers  and  the  night  Office  there  was  cele- 
brated in  the  East  a  canonical  Hour  called  in  this  text 
v^JiMnrwuif  because  it  preceded  the  first  sleep,  be- 
ing nothing  but  what  the  Greeks  of  to-day  call 
apodeipnonf  on  account  oif  the  meal  it  follows.  How- 
ever, m  the  thirty-seventh  question  of  his  rules,  St. 
Badl,  also,  speaks  of  an  intermediate  Hour  between 
Vespers  and  the  ni^t  Office.  Father  Par^ire  there- 
fore disputes  the  assertion  that  St.  Benedict  was  the 
originator  of  Ck>mplin,  being  rather  disposed  to  trace 
its  souiee  to  St.  Basil.  In  the  article  mentioned 
Father  Vandepitte  confirms  these  conclusions;  nev- 
ertheless he  states,  hi  the  clearest  terms,  that  it  was 
not  in  Cnsarea  in  375,  but  in  his  retreat  in  Pontus, 
(35&-362)  thai  Basil  established  Compilin,  which  Hour 
did  not  exist  prior  to  his  time,  that  is,  until  shortly 
after  the  midole  of  the  fourth  century.  Dom  Flaine 
also  traced  the  source  of  Complin  back  to  the  fourth 
century,  finding  mention  of  it  in  a  passage  in  Euse- 
btus  and  in  another  in  St.  Ambrose,  and  also  in 
Cassian.  These  passages  have  been  critically  ex- 
aminetl,  and  Fathers  Pargoirc  and  Vandepitte  have 


proved  that  before  St.  Basil's  time  the  custom  of 
reciting  Complin  was  unknown.  At  any  rate,  even 
if  these  texts  do  not  express  all  that  Dom  Plaine 
says  they  do,  at  least  they  bear  witness  to  the  private 
custom  of  saying  a  pra^r  before  retiring  to  rest.  If 
this  was  not  the  canonical  Hour  of  Complin,  it  was 
certainly  a  preliminary  step  towards  it.  The  same 
writers  reiect  the  opinion  of  Ladeuse  and  Dom  Besse, 
both  of  whom  believe  that  Complin  had  a  place  in  the 
Rule  of  St.  Pachomius,  which  would  mean  that  it 
originated  still  earlier  in  the  fourth  century.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  enter  into  this  discussion,  but  it 
might  be  possible  to  conciliate  these  different  senti- 
ments by  stating  that,  if  it  be  an  established  fact  that 
St.  Basil  instituted  and  organized  the  Hour  of  Com- 
plin for  the  East,  as  St.  Benedict  did  for  the  West, 
there  existed  as  early  as  the  days  of  St.  Cjrprian  and 
Clement  of  Alexandria  the  custom  of  reciting  a  prayer 
before  sleep,  in  which  practice  we  find  the  most  re- 
mote origin  of  our  Complin.  But  let  the  result  of 
this  discussion  be  what  it  may,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  St.  Benedict  invested  the  Hour  of  Complin  with 
its  liturgical  character  and  arrangement,  which  were 
preserved  in  the  Benedictine  Order  and  almost  com- 
pletely adopted  by  the  Roman  Church;  it  is  hardly 
to  be  believed,'  as  Dom  Plaine  maintains,  that  the 
Hour  of  Complin,  at  least  such  as  it  now  exists  in  the 
Roman  Breviary,  antedated  the  Benedictine  Office. 
In  default  of  other  proof,  it  may  be  noted  that  the 
Benedictine  Office  gives  evidence  of  a  less  advanced 
liturffical  condition,  as  we  have  seen  that  it  consists 
of  a  few  very  simple  elements.  The  Roman  Office  of 
Complin  is  richer  and  more  complicated.  To  the 
simple  Benedictine  psalmody — ^modified,  however,  by 
the  insertion  of  a  fourth  psahn  (xxx), ''  In  te  Domine 
speravi  '' — it  adds  the  solemn  introduction  of  a  bene- 
diction with  a  reading  [perhaps  the  spiritual  reading 
which,  in  St.  Benedict,  preceaes  Complin  (ch.  xlii  ot 
the  Rule)],  and  the  confession  and  absolution  of 
faults.  But  what  endows  the  Roman  Complin  with 
a  distinctive  character  and  greater  solemnity  is,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  ending,  the  addition  of  the  beau- 
tinil  response.  In  manits  tuas,  Domine,  with  the  evan- 
gelical canticle  Nunc  Dimittis  and  its  anthem,  which 
is  very  characteristic.  It  is  really  difficult  to  under- 
stand why  St.  Benedict,  whose  liturgical  taste  fa- 
voured solemnity  in  the  Office,  should  have  sacrificed 
these  elements,  especially  the  evangelical  canticle. 
By  way  of  liturgical  vanety  the  service  of  initium 
nocHa  may  also  be  studied  in  the  Celtic  Liturgy  (see 
Celtic  Rite),  such  as  it  is  read  in  the  Bangor  Antiph- 
onary,  its  plan  being  set  forth  by  Warren  and  by 
Bishop.  Under  the  title  of  Apodeijmon  (after  meals), 
the  Greeks  have  an  Hour  that  corresponds  to  our 
Latin  Complin;  it  is  very  long  and  complicated,  and 
its  description  may  be  seen  in  Father  P^tridte'  article, 
cited  below.  Tins  Apodeipnon,  or  Grand  Apodeip- 
non,  appears  in  an  abridged  form,  or  Small  Apo- 
deipnon. 

Parooire,  Prime  et  compliea  in  Rev.  d'hist.  et  de  liitfr.  rdig. 
(1898).  III.  281-288,  456-467;  Vakdepittb,  Saint  BasiU  «l 
Vorigine  de  compliee  in  Rev.  Augustinienne  (1903),  II.  258-264; 
Parooirb  and  Putrid ka  in  Did.  d'arch.  d  de  lUurgie,  b.  v. 
Apodeipnon,  I,  2679-2589;  Don  Plaine,  La  Gdniee  hie- 
torique  dee  Hewree  in  Rev.  Anglo^romaine,  I,  593;  Idem,  De 
officii  aeu  curaut  Romani  origine  in  Studien  tu  MittheUungen 
(1899),  X.  364-397;  Baumisr,  Hietoire  du  BrMaire,  tr. 
BiRON,  I,  135,  147-149  and  passim;  Batiptx>l,  Hiatoire  du 
hrHfiaire  romain,  35;  Ladeuze,  Etude  sur  le  cindniieme  pakho- 
mien  pendant  le  IV*  aiide  d  la  premihre  moitii  du  V  (Lou  vain, 
1898),  288;  Besse,  Lea  Moinea  d'Orient  ant^rieura  au 
concHe  de  CkaleMoine  (Paris,  19(X».  333;  Bishop,  A  Service 
Book  of  the  Seventh  Century  in  The  Church  QttarterLy  Review 
(January.  1894),  XXXVII,  347;  Cabrol,  Le  Livre  de  la  Pritn 
amttque,  224. 

Fernand  Cabrol. 

Oomplnto,  DiocESB  of.    See  Madrid. 

Oompostela,  a  famous  city  of  Spain,  situated  on 
an  eminence  between  the  Sar  (the  Sars  of  Pomponius 
Mela)  and  the  Sarela.    At  a  very  remote  period  thU 


00MPO8TXL4 


188 


OOBffPOSTSUk 


hill  was  crowned  by  a  Celtic  castle,  known  as  LSberum 
Donum,  according  to  the  twelfth-century  ''Historia 
Compostelana"  (cf.  Welsh  Uwybr^  ''way'',  and  don, 
''tower",  "castle".  Compostela  overlooks  two  Ro- 
man roaids;  the  Celto^Roman  name  was  probably 
lAberodunum)»  It  has  been  an  archiepiscopal  see 
since  1120,  but  as  the  successor  to  the  ancient  See  of 
Iria  its  episcopal  rank  dates  certainly  from  the  fourth, 
probably  from  the  first,  ccntiuy  of  our  era. 

Ettmoloot. — ^The  name  Compostela  does  not  ap- 
pear before  the  tenth  century.  In  a  document  of  912 
it  is  said  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Martin,  near  the  cathe- 
dral: quod  sUum  e^in  urbe  ComposteUA,  KingFerdi* 
nand  I  in  a  privilege  of  10  March,  1063,  apr«>pos  of  St. 
James  the  Great,  says:  cujvs corpus  re^iescU  GaUecia  in 
wrhe  ComposteUd,  Three  years  previous  a  ooimcil  held 
in  the  cathedral  is  called  ComposleUanum,  From  this 
the  name  is  in  frequent  iise  and  gradually  usurps  the 
names  familiar  to  previous  centuries;  locus  sanctus, 
arcis  marmoreiSf  ecaesia,  or  dvUas  sancti  Jacobi,  The 
name  seems  to  be  a  diminutive  of  composUif  "estab- 
lished", in  reference  to  the  stronghold  (civitateUa)  of 
the  city.  Similar  diminutives  abound  in  the  Middle 
Aees.  The  cU^  of  Paris,  the  city  of  London^  the  ToU- 
tma  of  Toledo,  the  Almudena,  diminutive  of  Almedi- 
na,  in  Madrid  and  in  Palma  (Majorca),  recall  the 
former  distinction  between  the  territory  without  the 
walls  and  the  city  (civitas)  properly  so  called.  The 
episcopal  city  of  the  Island  of  Minorca  (in  Romano- 
Punic,  lamo)  yet  retains  its  medieval  name  CitUadilla. 

The  See  of  Compostela. — Its  history  may  be 
divided  into  two  periods,  before  and  after  its  elevation 
(1120)  to  the  metropolitan  dignity. — The  Bishopric, — 
The  Sar  swollen  by  the  Sarela  flows  onward  from  Com- 
postela some  fifteen  or  siscteen  miles  until  it  joins  the 
IJlla,  and  empties  into  the  sea  at  Padr6n  (Patronus), 
a  hamlet  which  has  borne  that  name  since  the  ninth 
century  in  memory  of  the  fact  that  it  was  the  landing- 
place  of  the  galley  which  bore  to  Qallida  the  body  of 
the  Apostle  S;.  James  the  Great.  Here  stood  in  those 
days  the  city  of  Iria,  capital  of  the  Gallician  Caporos, 
as  may  be  seen  from  its  Roman  ruins,  especially  the 
inscriptions,  some  of  which  are  contemporary  wiui  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  Era.  Pomponius  Mela, 
who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Emperor  Claudius,  i.  e.  at  the 
time  of  St.  James's  martyrdom,  says  that  the  Sar  en- 
ters the  ocean  near  the  Tower  of  Augustus  (Tnrris 
Augusti) ;  the  foimdations  of  the  latter  are  still  recog- 
nizable in  the  outer  harbour  of  Iria.  In  the  reign  of 
Vespasian  the  co^omen  Flavia  was  added;  as  Iria 
Fiavia  it  appears  in  the  Geography  of  Ptolemy.  Ac- 
cording to  a  very  probable  tradition,  it  was  here  that 
the  Apostle  St.  James  the  Great  preached  the  Christian 
religion  and  founded  an  episcopal  see.  This  tradition 
was  already  widespread  in  the  year  700,  when  St.  Aid- 
helm,  Abbot  of  Malmesbury,  later  Bishop  of  Sher- 
borne, wrote  as  foUows  (P.  L.,  LXXXIX,  293):— 

Hie  Quoque  Jacobus,  cretus  genitore  vetusto 
Deluorum  sancto  def endit  tegmine  celsum ; 
Qui,  clamante  pio  ponti  de  margine  C^hristo, 
Linquebat  proprium  panda  cum  puppe  parentem. 
Primitus  Hispanas  convertit  donate  gentes, 
Barbara  divinis  convertens  agmina  dictis, 
Qu£e  priscos  dudum  ritub  et  lurida  fana, 
Dsemonis  horrendi  deceptse  fraude,  colebant; 
Plurima  hie  proBsul  patravit  signa  stupendus 
Quae  nunc  in  chartis  scribuntur  rite  quadratis. 

(Here  also  James,  born  of  an  ancient  sire,  protects 
the  lofty  shrine  with  a  holy  roof — he  who,  when  dear 
Christ  called  him  from  the  seashore,  left  his  own 
father  with  the  curved  ship.  He,  at  the  first  did 
convert  the  Spanish  peoples  by  his  teaching,  turning 
towards  God's  word  the  barbarous  hordes  that  had 
lon^  practised  primitive  rites  and  worshipped  at  the 
shnnes  of  darkness,  being  deceived  by  the  craft  of 
the  evil  one.      Here  did  tlie  wonderful  bishop  per- 


form many  portents,  which  are  now  set  down   m 
order  upon  our  fourfold  chart.) 

The  list  of  the  bishops  of  Iria  known  to  us  from  their 
presence  at  ooimcils  and  from  other  authentic  BOfurces 
begins  with  the  year  400.  They  are:  OrUgius,  ...» 
Andreas  (572),  Dominicus,  Samuel,  .  .  .  ,  Gotuiii&» 
rus  (646),  VincibOis,  Ildulfus  Felix  (683),  Sdva,  Leo- 
sindus,  .  .  .  ,  Theudemirus  (808?),  Adaulfus  I 
(843),  and  AdaulfusII  (851-79).  Under  the  last-named 
the  city  was  destroyed  bv  Norman  pirates,  on  which 
occasion  both  bishop  and  chapter  took  refuge  behind 
the  strong  walls  or  CompostdiC.  Soon  they  peti- 
tioned King  Ordofio  II  ana  Pope  Nicholas  I  to  pmnit 
them  to  transfer  the  see  from  Iria  to  Ccmipastela, 
near  the  sepulchre  and  church  of  St.  James.  BoUi 
pope  and  king  consented,  on  condition,  however,  that 
the  honour  of  the  see  should  be  divided  behveen  tibe 
two  places.  From  the  second  half  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury therefore,  the  bishops  of  this  see  are  known  indxs- 
criminately  as  Irienses  or  Sancti  JacM^  even  as  eods^ 
SUB  apostolica  sancU  Jacobin  finally  as  ComposleUani, 
At  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  throuj^  rever- 
ence for  the  body  and  the  sepulchre  of  St.  James,  Ur- 
ban II  withdrew  from  Iria  its  episcopal  rank  and  trans- 
ferred the  see  in  its  entirety  to  Compostela.  At  the 
same  time  he  exempted  it  from  the  authority  of  the 
metropolitan  and  made  it  immediately  subject  to  the 
Holy  See.  This  is  evident  from  the  Bull  of  5  Dec., 
1095,  in  favour  of  the  Cluniac  bishop,  Dalmatius, 
present  at  the  famous  Council  of  Clennont. 

The  Metropolitan  See. — ^Thenceforth  the  see  grew  in 
importance,  likewise  its  magnificent  Romanesgue 
church,  modelled  on  that  of  Puy  in  ]FVance,  and  ne- 
quented  by  pilgrims  from  all  p!artB  ci  Christendom. 
Like  the  cathcnral  of  Toledo  after  the  reoonqnest 
(1085),  it  became  the  principal  centre  of  the  pohticai 
renaissance  of  Catholic  Spain  and  its  self-assertion 
against  the  Moslem  power.  Pope  Callistus  II  recog- 
nized the  great  merits  of  Diego  GehndesY  Bishop  of 
Compostela,  and  in  view  of  the  reconquest  oi  much 
Portuguese  territory,  and  the  near  recovery  of  its  free- 
dom by  M^rida,  the  ancient  metropc^is  of  Lusitania 
(Portugal),  confided  to  him  the  popetual  administra- 
tion of  that  archdiocese^  whereby  Compostela  became 
a  metropolitan  see.  Smce  then  it  has  been  occupied 
b)r  many  illustrious  men,  not  a  few  of  whom  were 
raised  to  the  cardinalitial  dignity  (Gams, '' Series  epis- 
coporum  ecclesisB  Catholicffi  ,  Ratisbon.  1873;  Euoel, 
''Hierarchia  catholica  medii  aevi",  Mtknster,  1898). 
The  Bull  of  Callistus  II  (26  Feb.,  1120)  ck>thed  the 
metropolitan  of  Compostela  with  authority  over  the 
following  dioceses  of  the  ancient  Ptovineia  Lusitana: 
Salamanca,  Aviia,  Coria,  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  Plaaencia, 
Badajoz — (in  Spain) ;  Idanha(Guarda),  Lamego,  Lis- 
bon, Evora,  Osonova  (Silves) — ^in  Portugal  beyond  the 
Duero.  Though  Compostela  lost  the  Pbrtuguese 
dioceses,  10  Nov.,  1399,  when  Lisbon  was  made  an 
archbishopric,  it  acquired  in  return  Astomy  Lugo, 
Mondofleao,  Orense,  Tuy ,  and  Zamora.  The  Concordat 
of  1851  left  it  with  only  nve :  Luso,  Mondofiedo,  Oiense, 
Oviedo,  and  Tuy.  The  list  of  the  councils  of  Com- 
postela may  be  seen  in  the  afor»nentioned  work  of 
Gams,  and  their  text  in  Mansi  or  Aguirre.  One  of  the 
most  important  is  the  provincial  council  which  as^ 
serted  the  innocence  of  the  Templars  within  its  juris- 
diction; another,  held  29  Oct.,  1310,  anticipated  in  its 
fourth  canon  the  action  of  the  Council  c^  London  (29 
Oct.,  1329)  under  Simon  of  Mepham,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  decreeing  the  yearly  celebration  of  the 
feast  of  the  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  through- 
out the  province  of  Compostela  on  the  eighth  of 
December.  Among  those  who  have  occupied  the  See 
of  Compostela  may  be  mentioned:  St.  Rosendus  (970- 
77);  St.  Peter  de  Mosoncio  (986-1000),  probably  the 
author  of  the  Salve  Regina;  Diego  Pelies  (1070-^88), 
who  began  the  reconstruction  of  the  cathedral ;  Diego 
Gelmlrez  (1100-42?),  the  first  Archbishop  of  Coin- 


OOMFftOMXSB 


18d 


OOHAN 


pofltda,  and  who  continued  the  work  of  Biehop  Pel^s ; 
Ftochx>Miifios  (1207-11),  who  finished  the  cathedral; 
Cardinal  Mi;^  Pajr&  y  Rico  (1874-85),  who  had  the 
honour  of  ducovenng  m  a  crypt  behind  the  high  altar 
of  the  cathedral  the  sepulchre  and  the  relics  of  the 
Apostle  St.  James. 

Hie  sepukhie  of  St.  James  and  questions  relat- 
ing thereto  are  treated  in  the  article  James  the 
Greatbb,  Saint.  It  will  suffice  to  mention  here  the 
document  which  confirms  better  than  any  other  the 
history  and  the  authentici^  of  this  sacred  relic  of  the 
primitive  Christian  life  of  Spain,  i.  e.  the  solemn  Bull 
of  Leo  XIII  (1  Nov.,  1884)  in  which  he  confirms  the 
declaration  of  Cardinal  Payd,  Archbishop  of  (]k)mpos- 
tda,  concerning  the  identity  of  the  bodies  of  the  Apos- 
tle St.  James  the  Greater  ajid  his  disciples  Athanasius 
and  Theodorus. 

"  L6pbs  Fkbbeibo,  HiaUnia  dt  la  Santa  Apoat^ica  Metrovali» 
tana  JgUna  de  CompoHela  (Santiago.  1898-1906).  I->aiI; 
Fl6rbx  BajM/la  Sograda  (Madrid.  1754r-1792).  III.  XIX.  XX; 
Ftta.  SanHago  de  Galieia  in  Rae&n  y  Fe  (Madrid,  1901.  1902); 
RnrErr-CABNAC,  La  Piedra  de  lar  ooranacidn  en  la  abadia  de 
Weelmineier  y  au  oanexi&n  Ugendaria  eon  Santiago  de  Compoetela 
in  Boletfn  de  la  Real  Aeademia  de  la  Hietoria  (Madrid.  1902). 
XL.  430;  Brut&ila.  VArcMaloQie  du  Moyen  Age  (Paris.  1900); 
L6pKS  Fbbbbiro  t  Fita,  Monumentoe  €aUiguoe  de  la  Jffieeia 
Compoetelana  (Madrid,  1883);  Fita,  Aetae  inSditaa  {afloe  lt8»- 
ISlh)  de  eiete  eoncUxoe  eepaAoUe  (Madrid.  1882);  Fita  t 
Pbbn jIhdxi  Qubbba.  Reeuerdoe  deun  viaje  d  Santiago  de  Oalicia 
(Madrid.  1880).  The  Bull  of  Leo  XIII,  Omnipotene  Deue,  U  in 
Acta  Sanaa  Sedie  (Rome,  1884).  XVII.  262.  See  Acta  SS.,  25 
Jtily  (Venice.  1748).  and  for  the  C?hurch  of  St..  James,  SraBinr, 
Some  Aceount  of  Oothie  Arehitecture  in  Spain  (London.  1865): 
Babkeb,  Church  of  St.  Jamee  of  Compoetela  in  Catholic  World 
(1878).  XXVI.  163:  Pilgrimage  to  SanUago  de  Compoetela  in 
Fraeere  Magaeine  (1864).  LXX,  274;  Villamtl  t  Castro,  La 
eatedtxU  Compoetelana  en  la  edad  media  y  «I  eepulcro  de  Santiago 
(Madrid.  1879) :  Chbvaubr,  Topo-^nbl,^  s.  v.  Compoetela  and 
Bio4nU.,  s.  v.  Jaequee  le  Majewr. 

F.  FlTA. 

Oompromiae  (in  Canon  Law)  .  in  a  general  sense,  is 
a  mutual  promise  or  contract  ot  two  parties  in  con- 
troversy to  refer  their  differences  to  the  decision  of 
arbitrators.  Compromise  (Lat.  Compromiasum)  may 
take  place  either  m  elections  or  in  other  matters  in 
which  dispute  arises.  In  the  latter  case  it  mav  be 
effected  either  by  law  or  by  option.  If  the  arbiter 
holds  hb  position  by  prescription  of  law,  ex  jure,  the 
compromise  is  by  law  or  necessary ;  if  by  agreement  of 
the  i^rties,  the  compromise  is  by  option  or  voluntary 
(arbtier  comfromiaMriua) .  In  compromise  by  law  the 
arbiter  jiais  is  compelled  to  tc^e  the  office ;  his  sentence 
can  be  appealed  from ;  but  he  has  coercive  power  over 
all  and  can  examine  and  punish.  Whereas  in  compro- 
mise by  option  the  voluntary  arbiter  is  free  to  under- 
take the  cmce ;  there  is  no  appeal  from  his  decision,  for 
the  parties  freely  bind  themselves  to- abide  b^  it;  he 
can  ctnly  take  cognizance  of  the  case;  and  his  duties 
and  powers  are  defined,  conferred  and  imposed  by  the 
parties  who  have  freelv  chosen  him.  According  to 
Roman  law,  and  also  the  old  canon  law  (ju9  vettui), 
there  was  no  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  voluntaiy 
arbiter.  Later  canon  law,  however,  admits  of  an  ex- 
trajudicial appeal  {provoeatio  ad  catuann),  especially  if 
there  be  manifest  mjustice  in  the  decision.  If  more 
than  one  arbiter  be  appointed,  the  number  should  be  an 
odd  one.  'Hie  subject  oi  compromise  can  only  be  such 
matter  as  lies  within  the  dis{x»ition  of  the  contesting 
parties.  Hence  causes  bejrond  the  disposal  of  private 
parties  cannot  be  made  the  subject  of  compromise^ 
as,  e.  e.,  criminal  causes,  matrimonial  causes  prop^ly 
so  caOed,  causes  reserved  by  law  to  the  supreme 
courts. 

Compromise  in  elections  consists  in  a  commission 
given  by  the  body  of  electors  to  one  or  several  persons 
to  designate  the  elected  person  in  the  place  of  all. 
This  oompromise,  in  order  to  be  valid,  must  be  the  act 
of  all  the  electon,  unless  it  results  from  a  pontifical 
<feclaration.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  campromis' 
muii  thus  chosen  belong  to  the  chapter  (q.  v.)  or  to 
the  body  of  electors;  they  must,  however.,  be  clerics. 


as  laymen  cannot  exercise  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
and  are  expressly  excluded  from  elections  by  law. 
The  electors  can  posit  conditions  which  must  be  ful- 
filled by  the  arbiters,  if  they  are  not  against  the  gen- 
eral canon  law.  If  such  conditions  are  legitimate, 
they  must  be  fulfilled  under  penalty  of  nullity  of  the 
compromise  or  of  the  election  thus  performed.  In  an 
absolute  and  unconditioned  compromise  the  arbiters 
are  bound  only  by  the  general  laws  of  procedure  to  be 
observed  in  elections.  If  the  person  thus  designated 
by  the  compromxsaarn  be  qualified  and  worthv,  and 
the  form  and  the  limits  of  the  compromise  be  ob- 
served, the  electors  must  abide  by  the  result  of  this 
decision. 

Pebmancdxr  in  KirtAenlex.,  Ill,  778;  Ferraris.  Prompto 
Bibliotheoa  (Rome,  1885),  I.  a.  v.  Arbiter,  Arbitrator;  Taunton. 
The  Law  of  the  Church  (London.  1906).  s.  v.  Arbiter, 

Lbo  Cans. 

Ck>mte,  AuGusTE.    See  Positivism. 

Ck>nal  (or  Conall),  Saint,  an  Irish  bishop  who 
flourished  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  centuiy  and 
ruled  over  the  church  of  Drum,  County  Roscommon, 
the  place  being  subsequently  named  Drumconnell, 
after  St.  Conal.  Colgan  and  his  copyists  inaccurately 
locate  his  church  at  Silconnell  in  Coimty  Galway,  but 
it  is  now  certain  that  the  church  of  which  St.  Conal 
was  bishop  was  south  of  Boyle,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  saint  is  known  as  "  Blessed  Conal  of  Drum ' '.  The 
error  of  ascribing  Kilconnell  and  Aughrim,  County 
Galwav,  as  foundations  of  St.  Conal  can  also  be  dis- 
sipatea  by  a  reference  to  the  life  of  St.  Attracta, 
wherein  it  is  recorded  that  she  came  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Bojrle  in  order  to  build  a  cell  near  the  church 
ol  her  uterine  brother,  St.  Conal,  but  was  dissuaded 
from  her  project  by  St.  Dachonna  of  Eas  Dachonna, 
now  Assylin,  at  the  bidding  of  the  saint.  We  read 
that  St.  Attracta  prophesied  that  the  episcopal 
churches  of  St.  Conal  (Drumconnell)  and  St.  Dach- 
onna (Eas  Dachonna)  would  in  after  days  be  reduced 
to  poverty,  owing  to  the  fame  of  a  new  monastic  estab- 
lishment. This  prophecy  was  strikingly  fulfilled,  inas- 
much as  Drum  ana  Assylin  soon  after  ceased  to  be 
episcopal  sees,  while  in  1148  the  great  Cistercian 
Abbey  of  Boyle  (q.  v.)  was  founded.  St.  Conal  died 
about  the  year  500,  and  his  feast  is  celebrated  on  18 
March,  though  some  assign  9  February  as  the  date. 

CoiiOAN.  Acta  Sonet.  Hib.;  Acta  SS.,  II:  0'Hamix>n,  Lieee  of 
the  Irish  Saints,  III,  837  aq.:  Kkllt.  MaHyroloay  of  TaUaghL 
(Dublin.  1857);  Todd  and  Rbetes,  Martyrolqgy  of  Dorusgal 
(Dublin.  1864):  O'Rorkb,  History  of  Sligo  (Dublin,  1886); 
Kellt,  Patron  Saints  of  the  Diocese  of  Elphin  (Dublin.  1904). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Floop. 

Oonan,  Saint,  Bishop  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  d.  Janu- 
ary, 684*  an  Irish  missionary,  also  known  as  Moch- 
onna.  He  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  St.  Conindrius, 
who  is  said  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  St.  Patrick,  and 
to  have  lived  to  a  very  advanced  age  (17  November, 
560).  The  BoHandists  place  St.  Conan  amongst  the 
eariy  bishops  of  Man,  and  Colgan  gives  an  account  of 
his  me  and  labours.  Unfortunately  the  histozy  of  the 
Lsle  of  Man  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  is  very  ob- 
scure, and  it  is  difficult  to  ^t  at  definite  facts,  yet  St. 
Conan,  or  Mochonna,  who  is  also  described  as  ''Bishop 
of  Inis-Patrick"  left  a  distinct  impress  of  his  zeal  for 
souls  in  Manxland.  Some  authorities  give  the  date  of 
his  death  as  26  January,  but  Colgan,  quoting  from  the 
ancient  Irish  martyrologies,  gives  13  January,  on  which 
day  St.  Conan's  feast  is  observed.  There  are  also  sev- 
eral minor  Irish  saints  of  the  same  name,  including  St. 
Conan  of  Assaroe  (8  March),  and  St.  Conan  of  Bamna- 
more  (26  April). 

BuTLKK.  Lives  of  the  Saints  (London,  1867-60).  I;  Oolgan, 
Acta  SS.  Hib.  (Louvsin,  1645);  0'Hanu>n.  Livee  of  the  Irish 
Saints  (Dublin,  1875).  I.  446  sqq.;  Knox,  Notes  on  the  Diocese 
of  7uam(  1904). 

W.  II.  Grattan-Flood. 


OONOANNSN 


190 


ooNoiUAnmi 


OottCAnnen,  Richard  Luxb.  See  New  York, 
Archdiocese  of. 

Goncelebration  is  the  rite  by  which  several  priests 
say  Mass  together,  all  consecrating  the  same  bread  and 
wine.  It  was  once  common  in  both  Eaat  and  West. 
As  late  as  the  ninth  century  priests  stood  around  their 
bishop  and  ''consented  to  his  sacrifice"  (Corp.  Jur. 
Can.,  Deer.  Grat.,  Pars  III,  dist.  I,  cap.  59).  The  rite 
of  Goncelebration  was  modified  at  Bome  (perhaps  in 
the  time  of  Pope  Zephyrinus,  202-218)  so  that  each 

Eriest  should  consecrate  a  separate  host  (the  deacons 
olding  these  in  patens  or  corporals) ;  but  they  all  con- 
secrated the  same  chalice  ("Ordo  Rom.  I",  48;  see 
also  Duchesne,  "Liber  Pont.",  I,  139  and  246).  In 
the  sixth  century  this  rite  was  observed  on  sXL  station 
days;  by  the  eidbth  century  it  remained  only  for  the 
greatest  feasts,  Easter,  Christinas,  Whitsunday,  and 
St.  Peter  ("Ordo  Rom.  I",  48;  Duchesne,  "Oricines", 
167).  On  other  days  the  priests  assisted  but  did  not 
concelebrate.  Innocent  III  (1198-1216)  says  that  in 
his  time  the  cardinals  concelebrate  with  the  pope  on 
certain  feasts  (De  Sacr.  Altar.  Myst.  in  Migne,  P.  L., 
CCXVII,  IV,  25).  Durandus,  who  denied  the  possi- 
bility of  such  a  rite  (Rationale  Div.  Oflf.,  IV,  a.  xiii, 
q.  3)is  refuted  by  Cardinal  Bona  (Rer.  Liturg.,  I,  xviii, 
9).  St.  Thomas  defends  its  theological  correctness 
(Summa  Theol.,  Ill,  Q.  Ixxxii,  a.  2).  Goncelebration 
is  still  common  in  all  the  Eastern  Churches  both 
Uniat  and  schismatic.  In  these,  on  any  greater  feast 
day,  the  bishop  says  the  holy  liturgy  surrounded  by 
his  priests,  who  consecrate  with  him  and  receive  Holy 
Communion  from  him,  of  course  under  both  kinds.  So 
also,  at  any  time,  if  several  priests  wish  to  celebrate 
on  the  same  d^,  they  may  do  so  together. 

In  the  Latin  Church  the  rite  survives  only  at  the  ordi- 
nation of  priests  and  bishops.  The  newly-ordained 
priests  say  the  Offertory  prayers  and  the  whole  Canon, 
mdudmg  the  words  of  consecration,  aloud  with  the 
bishop,  kneeling  aroimd  him.  The  words  of  consecra- 
tion especially  must  be  said  '' slowly  and  rather  loud" 
and  "at  the  same  moment  with  the  pontiff"  (Pont. 
Rom.,  de  Ord.  Presb.,  rubric).  They  must  say  the 
words  significalivef  that  is  with  the  intention  of  con- 
secrating (Benedict  XIV,  de  SS.  Missse  Sacr.,  Ill, 
xvi,  6),  and  must  be  careful  not  to  say  them  before, 
but  exactly  with,  the  bishop  (op.  cit.,  loc.  cit.,  7). 
They  receive  Holv  Communion  under  one  kind.  The 
same  rite  is  used  at  a  bishop's  consecration,  except 
that  in  this  case  the  new  bisnop  conununicates  with 
the  consecrator  under  both  kinds  (Pont.  Rom.,  de 
Cons.  Electi  in  Episc.,  rubric  in  the  text). 

B^KDicr  XIV.  D«  8S.  Miaaa  Sacrificio,  III.  xvi;  St. 
Thomaa.  Summa  Theol.,  III.  Q.  Ixxxii,  a.  2;  Atcri.et.  Ordo 
Romanua  PrimuB  (London.  1905).  113,  149,  158;  Duchesne* 
Les  arioine$  du  euUe  chriHen  (2nd  ed.,  Paxia,  1898).  167,  tr. 
Christian  Worship  (London,  1904). 

Adrian  Foetbscue. 

Ck>iicepei6n,  Diocbsb  of  (Sanctissois  Concef- 
TiONis  DB  Chile),  in  the  Republic  of  Chile,  suffragan 
to  Santiago  de  Chile.  The  diocese  embraces  the  prov- 
inces of  Aranco,  Bfo-Bfo,  Goncepci6n,  Nuble,  Maule, 
Linares,  and  Malleco,  comprising  an  area  of  27,901 
square  miles.  The  Bull  of  erection  was  issued  by 
Pms  IV,  22  May,  1563.  since  which  time,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  period  oetween  1818^2  when  the  see 
was  vacant,  a  bishop  has  always  had  his  seat  at  Con- 
oepci6n.  Among  the  institutions  of  the  diocese  may 
be  mentioned  an  orphan  asylum  and  a  missionary 
college  under  the  Capuchins. 

In  the  diocese  there  are  represented  ten  religious 
congregations  of  men  and  seven  of  women,  among  the 
latter  the  Sisters  of  Providence,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sis- 
ters of  Christian  Charitv,  vAio  have  a  novitiate  and 
college,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  Sisters  of 
the  Sacred  Heart ;  they  number  in  all  393.  The  dio- 
cese has  a  Catholic  population  of  835,790,  with  52 


parishes,  190  priests,  91  secular  and  99  r^ular,  135 
churches  and  chapels.  In  addition  to  the  college  ^nd 
seminary  there  are  nine  Catholic  schools  with  an  at- 
tendance of  2550  pupils.     (See  Chile.) 

Battandibr.  Ann.  pant.  Cath.  (Paris,  1908);    Aim.  Bed. 
(Rome.  1908). 

F.  M.  RuDOB 


Oonceptionists,  a  branch  of  the  Order  of  Saint 
Clare,  founded  by  Beatriz  de  Sil va.  Isabel ,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Edward,  King  of  Portugal,  having  married  John 
II  (1406-1454)  of  Castile,  took  her  kinswoman,  Beat- 
riz de  Silva,  sister  of  James  I,  Count  of  Portalegre, 
with  her.  The  beautiful  Beatriz,  however,  aroused 
the  suspicion  and  jealousy  of  the  queen,  and  was  im- 
prisoned. Escaping,  she  fled  to  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Dominic  at  Toledo,  where  she  lived  about  forty  years. 
Her  veneration  for  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
Mary  inspired  her  to  found,  with  twelve  companions, 
a  special  order  in  honour  of  Mary's  privilege.  Queen 
Isabella  gave  her  the  castle  of  Galliana  in  1484.  The 
sisters  followed  the  Cistercian  rule,  reciting  tiie  Office 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  addition.  Beatriz  died  1 
Sept.,  1490,  at  the  age  of  sixty-six. 

Through  the  influence  of  Ximenes  de  Cisneros,  the 
famous  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  the  Conoeptionists  were 
subordinated  to  the  Franciscans,  and  m  1501  they 
adopted  the  rules  of  the  Order  of  Saint  Glare,  modified 
with  the  authorization  of  Alexander  VI.  Julius  II 
sanctioned  them  anew  in  1506;  Quiflonez,  provincial  of 
the  Franciscans  of  Castile,  and  later  general  of  the  en- 
tire order,  drew  up  their  constitution  in  1516.  The 
second  convent  was  founded  at  Torrigo,  another  at 
Madrid  in  1512,  and  one  at  Assisi  in  ttie  same  year. 
Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Philip  iV  of 
Spain,  summoned  them  to  the  Faubourg  Saint-uermain 
at  Paris,  where  the  Sisters  of  Saint  Clare  adopted  their 
rules,  which  were  again  modified  by  a  Brief  of  Clement 
X.  The  Conceptionists  wear  a  white  habit  and  scapu- 
lar with  a  blue  cloak,  and  an  image  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  on  their  habit.  The  celebrated  Maria  de  Agreda 
(q.  v),  author  of  "The  Mystical  City  of  God",  waa 
a  Conceptionist.  The  Conceptionist  con^gation  is 
at  present  spread  widely  throughout  Spam  and  Bel- 
gium. 

HfcLYOT.  Hiat.  dea  ordrea  monastiquea,  VII,  334-39;  Wad- 
ding. Annalea  Min.  (Rome.  1736),  XV.  451.  XVI;  Heim- 
BUCHCR,  Die  Orden  und  KonffregiMtionen  der  hath.  Kirehe 
(Paderbora.  1907).  II.  488  aqq.;  Acta  Ordinie  Min.  (1907). 
XVI,  347  sqq.;  fiULabr^de  Vordre  de  SU  Ciaire  d'Aaeiae 


(Lyons  and  Paris.  1906),  li,  259  sqq. 


Michael  Bihl. 


Oonceptaalism.    See  Nominausm  and  REALiaM. 

Gondliation,  Industrial,  is  the  discussion  and 
adjustment  of  mutual  differences  by  employers  and 
employees  or  their  representatives.  Arbitration 
(q.  V.)  implies  the  submission  of  such  differences  to  a 
body  in  which  the  authoritative  decision  is  rendered  by 
a  disinterested  person.  In  mediation  a  disinterested 
person  strives  either  to  bring  the  parties  togetlier  for 
conciliation  or  to  induce  them  to  make  such  mutual 
concessions  as  will  lead  to  an  agreement.  The  term, 
'*  boards  of  conciliation",  describKOs  not  merely  coounit- 
tees  of  employers  and  em^oyees,  but  iJso  those  ap- 
pointed bv  the  civil  authority,  and  by  private  associa- 
tions. The  two  latter  are  primarily  concerned  with 
the  work  of  mediation. 

In  France  conciliation  has  been  practised  since  1806 
by  the  eonaeiU  de  prvdhommea,  or  committees  of  ex- 
perts. These  are  composed  of  equal  numbers  of  em- 
ployers and  emplovees,  and  are  legally  authorised  to 
mterpret  existing  labour  contracts  and  adjust  minor 
grievances.  Wiuiin  this  limited  field  they  have  been 
quite  successful.  Five-sixths  of  the  strikes  that  were 
settled  by  the  French  Conciliation  and  Arbitration 


OOMOttA 


191 


OOHOIMA 


Act  of  1892,  during  the  first  ten  years  of  its  existence, 
were  disposed  of  by  the  method  of  conciliation.  For 
the  last  thirty-five  years  conciliation  has  practically 
eliminated  strikes  from  the  mannfacturea  iron  and 
steel  trade  in  the  north  of  En^and.  Recourse  was 
had  to  conciliation  in  fi06  of  uie  788  disputes  that 
were  adjusted  by  boards  of  conciliation  and  arbitra- 
tion throughout  En^and  in  the  year  1903.  In  the 
United  States  about  half  the  States  have  boards  of 
conciliation  and  arbitration,  while  the  chairman  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  and  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Labour  are  directed  by  the  federal  law  of 
1898  to  endeavour  to  bring  about  conciliation  or  arbi- 
tration whenever  they  are  appealed  to  by  one  of  the 
parties  to  any  dispute  which  threatens  seriously  to 
interfere  with  interstate  commerce.  Only  five  of  the 
State  boards  have  accomplished  anything  worthy  of 
notice,  and  these  five  have  settled  relatively  few  dis- 
putes— ^mostly  by  conciliation.  The  national  board 
has  reoentlv  given  promise  of  a  considerable  meas- 
ure of  usefulness.  Boards  of  conciliation  composed 
jointly  of  employers  and  employees  have  adjusted  a 
large  number  of  important  differences  in  many  indus- 
tries— ^for  example,  in  the  shoe  industry,  the  building 
trades,  and  the  cosd  mines  of  the  East  and  the  Middle 
West.  Conciliation  has  also  had  considerable  success 
through  the  mediation  of  prominent  citizens,  and  of 
bodies  like  the  Civic  Federation. 

The  importance  of  conciliation  finds  recognition  in 
the  recommendation  of  Pope  Leo  XIII  (Encyclical  on 
the  Condition  of  Labour,  "  Rerum  Novarum' ,  15  May, 
1891)  that  masters  and  workmen  should  unite  in  joint 
associations,  and  select  capable  committees  for  the 
decision  of  disputes.  This  method  is  highly  consoiiant 
with  Christian  peace  and  Christian  charity.  Its  chief 
advantages  over  arbitration  are  that  it  brin^  the  two 
parties  together  in  friendly  and  informal  discussion, 
teaches  each  to  appreciate  the  position  and  rights  of 
the  other,  and  results  in  a  decision  that  is  more  will- 
ingly accepted  and  more  faithfully  observed.  There 
are,  however,  two  important  situations  in  which  con- 
ciliation can  have  but  slight  success:  first,  where  com- 
pulsory arbitration  is  in  vogue;  second,  where  the 
employees  have  not  sufficient  economic  strength  to 
inflict  considerable  damage  upon  their  employer 
through  the  alternative  of  a  stnke.  The  experience 
of  Western  Australia  and  New  Zealand  seems  to  prove 
the  first  contention  (cf.  Clark,  The  Labour  Move- 
ment in  Australasia,  p.  161),  whfle  the  second  seems 
established  by  ihe  fact  that  conciliation  was  practi- 
cally unknown  before  the  era  of  labour  unions,  and 
that  it  has  stfil  very  little  application  in  unorganized 
trades.  On  the  other  hand,  the  first  step  towa^  con- 
ciliation, namely,  discussion  of  differences  on  an  equal 
plane,  becomes  quite  feasible  as  soon  as  each  side 
realizes  the  strength  of  the  other.  When  they  treat 
each  other  as  equals  and  as  reasonable  men,  they 
easilv  reach  an  a^eement.  Conciliation  then  becomes 
much  more  frequent  than  volimtarv  arbitration ;  in- 
deed, it  renders  the  latter  method  almost  superfluous. 
The  labour  unions  are  committed  to  it,  ancl  seem  to 
prefer  it  to  arbitration.  John  Mitchell  sees  in  the 
trade  a^-eement,  which  is  essentially^  the  method  of 
conciliation,  the  greatest  hope  for  industrial  peace 
in  America  (Organized  Labour,  p.  354),  and  Pro- 
fessor T.  S.  Adams  thinks  that  America  will  follow 
the  same  line  of  development  as  England,  where 
conciliation  has  already  produced  conditions  of  in- 
dustrial peace  which  are  almost  entirely  satisfactory 
(Labour  Problems,  pp.  312,  314,  319).  Not  the 
least  of  the  influences  making  for  the  extension  of 
conciliation  in  the  United  States  is  public  sentiment, 
which  threatens  to  establish  the  alternative  of  com- 
pulsory arbitration. 

Hatch.  BuUetin  cf  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  No.  60;  Adams 
m  SuMHEH,  Labor  FrobUma  (New  York.  1905),  viii;  Bolxn. 
V*?*HF  a  Living  (New  York,  1903),  xxvii;  Mitcbiell,  Oroani^ 
i^fAor  (Philadelphia.  1903).  xxxix;    Webb.  h%du9tr%al  Demod- 


raoy  (London,  New  York,  and  Bombay,  1807).  pt.  I,  iii;  PimA 
Report  of  U.  S.  Jndtutrial  Commisnon,  pp.  833-847;  CiiLu an. 
MeiKoda  of  Industrial  Peace  (New  York,  1904):  Antoine,  Coura 
d^ieonomie  eodale  (Paria.  1899).  467-470;  Turman,  AetiviUe 
eoeiales  (Paria.  1907). 

John  A.  Ryan. 

Ctondna,  Daniello,  Dominican  preacher,  contro- 
versialist and  theolo^n;  b.  at  Ulausetto  or  San 
Danide,  small  places  m  the  Italian  province  of  Friuli, 
2  October,  1687'^;  d.  at  Venice,  21  February,  1766.  On 
the  completion  of  his  early  studies  at  the  Jesuit  college 
at  G6TZf  Austria,  he  entered  the  Dominican  Order, 
making  his  religious  profession  in  March,  1708,  in  the 
convent  of  Sts.  Martm  and  Rose.  After  studying 
philosophy  three  years,  he  was  sent  to  study  theology 
m  the  convent  of  the  Holy  Rosary  at  Venice,  where  he 
s^nt  eight  years  imder  the  direction  of  the  fathers  of 
his  order,  Andruisso  and  Zanchio.  In  1717  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  philosophy,  and  later  to  that 
of  theology,  in  the  convent  of  Forll.  About  this  time 
he  began  to  attract  attention  as  a  preacher.  He  con- 
fined nimself  at  first  to  the  smaller  places,  but  his 
success  soon  brought  him  to  the  pulpits  of  the  chief 
cities  of  Italy;  and  he  preached  tne  jLenten  sermons 
seven  times  m  the  principal  churches  of  Rome. 

Concina's  literary  activity  was  confined  chiefly  to 
moral  topics.  His  career  as  a  theologian  and  contro- 
versialist began  with  the  publication  of  his  first  book, 
"  Ck>mmentarius  historico-apologeticus '  '^  etc .  (Venice, 
1736,  1745),  in  which  be  routed  the  opinion,  then  re- 
cently adopted  by  the  Bollandists,  that  St.  Dominic 
had  borrowed  his  ideas  and  form  of  religious  poverty 
from  St.  Francis.  While  engaged  in  the  sharp  con- 
troversy aroused  by  this  work,  he  entered  into  another 
concerning  the  Lenten  fast,  which  was  not  closed  until 
Benedict  XIV  issued  (30  May,  1741)  the  Encyclical 
"Non  ambigimus''  which  was  favourable  to  Con- 
cilia's contention.  Shortly  afterwards  he  published 
his  "Storia  del  probabilismo  e  rigorismo*'  (Venice, 
1743),  a  work  composed  of  theological,  moral,  and 
critical  dissertations.  Being  directed  against  the 
Jesuits,  it  naturally  gave  rise  to  a  large  controversial 
literature.  The  work  was  highly  praised  by  some, 
notably  by  Benedict  XIV,  but  amongothers  it  met 
with  a  very  unfavourable  reception.  The  Fathers  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  the  recognized  champions  of 
probable  opinions  in  matters  of  conscience,  were  not 
slow  in  defending  their  position.  The  controversy 
reached  a  climax  when  Concina  published  under  the 
auspices  of  Benedict  XIV,  his  "Theologia  Christiana 
dogmatico-moralis''  (12  vols,  in  4to,  Rome  and 
Venice,  174&-61).  The  Jesuits  appealed  to  the  pope 
to  have  it  condemned  on  the  ground  that  it  contained 
errors  and  was  very  injurious  to  the  Society.  A  com- 
mission of  theologians  was  then  appointed  to  examine 
the  work,  with  the  result  that  Concina  was  requested 
to  prefix  to  the  subsequent  edition  a  declaration  dic- 
tated by  the  pope.  This  declaration,  which  was  prac- 
tically a  summary  of  the  petition  of  condemnation 
made  by  his  opponents,  appeared  in  the  edition  of 
1752,  but  that  work  itself  showed  no  changes  of  im- 
portance, except  the  addition  of  one  chapter  to  the 
preface  in  which  the  author  protested  that  he  had 
always  entertained  the  sincerest  regard  for  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  that  as  private  theologian  he  refuted  opin- 
ions which  he  considered  lax,  regardless  of  authorship, 
and  that  if  he  had  erred  in  any  way  or  done  any 
wrong,  he  was  ready  to  make  a  full  retractation  (cf . 
Theol.  Christ.,  ch.  xiii.  in  prsef.  t.  1,  p.  cxxiv). 

In  his  "Theologia  cnristiana"  Concina  found  occa- 
sion to  pay  to  the  Society  as  a  whole  a  glowing  tribute. 
Many  of  its  writers  are  spoken  of  by  him  in  terms  of 
high  esteem.  In  Italy  he  promoted  the  publication 
of  a  moral  theology  by  the  French  Jesuit  Gabriel  An- 
toine, which  Benedict  XIV  ordered  to  be  taught  in  the 
College  of  the  Propaganda.  The  truth  is,  he  was  an 
ardent  probabiliorist,   and  from  "his  point  of  view 


OOMOLAVS 


192 


OOlfOLAVB 


many  of  the  opinionfi  of  the  probabilists  were  lax  and 
pernicious.  In  refuting  them  he  at  times  undoubt- 
edly censured  their  authors  too  severely  and  spoke  with 
an  excessive  aspenty.  It  must  be  admitted,  how- 
ever, that  he  ptacecf  a  salutary,  if  disagreeable,  re- 
straint upon  the  new  thought  of  the  time.  To-day  it 
is  readily  seen  that  some' of  the  authors  whom  he  at- 
tacked favoured  a  dangerous  laxism.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  many  of  his  views  are 
now  considered  severe,  some  classing  him  among  the 
rigorists.  That  Concina  was  a  Uieologian  of  no 
m^n  order  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  Benedict  XIV 
appointed  him  consultor  of  several  Congregations. 
Moreover,  in  his  work  ^'De  Synodo  Dioecesana'^  as 
also  in  his  Encyclical  ''Libentissime''  of  10  June, 
1745,  the  pope  refers  to  Concina  as  an  authority  on 
the  question  of  the  Lenten  fast.  Concina  is  the  author 
of  about  forty  works,  several  of  whidi  are  believed  to 
be  still  in  Italian  libraries  awaiting  an  editor. 

CouLON  in  Diet,  de  tMd.  caih.,  Ill,  675-707;  Punkes  in 
Kirchenlex.,  Ill,  811;  Sakdeluus.  De  DanidU  Concina  vUA  el 
Bcriptit  commeniarxuB  in  Introd  to  Tkeol.  ehriat.  (Rome,  1773); 
Koch.  Dan.  Concina  und  die  ^oqennanten  retnen  P<inal{fB»etM€ 
in  Theoiogi»d%e  QuartalachrifU  1904,  400-424;  de  Concina, 
VUa  did  Padre  tkmiello  Concinain  Monum  Ord.  Pr<ad.  Hist., 
XIV,  298. 

Joseph  Schroeder. 

Oondave  (Lat.  cumt  with,  and  clavis^  key;  a  place 
that  may  be  securely  closed),  the  closed  rgom  or  hall 
specially  set  aside  and  prepared  for  the  cardinals 
when  electing  a  pope ;  also  the  assembly  of  the  car- 
dinals for  the  canonical  execution  of  this  purpose. 
In  its  present  fonn  the  conclave  dates  from  the  end  of 
the  thu*teenth  century.  Earlier  methods  of  filling  the 
See  of  Peter  are  treated  in  the  article  Papal  Elec- 
tions. In  this  article  will  be  considered:  (I)  the 
history  of  the  actual  method  of  papal  election;  (II) 
the  ceremonial  itself. 

I.  HiBTORT  OF  THE  CONCLAVE. — ^In  1271  the  elec- 
tion that  ended  with  the  choice  of  Gregory  X  at  Vi- 
terbo  had  lasted  over  two  years  and  nine  months  when 
the  local  authorities,  weary  of  the  delay,  shut  up  the 
cardinals  within  narrow  limits  and  thus  hastened  the 
desired  election  (Raynald,  Ann.  Eccl.,  ad  an.  1271). 
The  new  pope  endeavoured  to  obviate  for  the  future 
such  scandalous  delay  by  the  law  of  the  conclave, 
which,  almost  in  spite  of  the  cardinals,  he  promul- 
gated at  the  fifth  session  of  the  Second  Council  of 
Lyons  in  1274  (Hefele,  Hist,  des  Conciles,  IX,  29).  It 
is  the  first  occasion  on  which  we  meet  with  the  word 
conclave  in  connexion  with  papal  elections.  (For  its 
use  in  English  literature  see  Murray's  ''Oxford  Dic- 
tionary", s.  v.,  and  for  its  medieval  use  Du  Cange, 
Glossar.  med.  et  infimee  Latinitatis,  s.  v.)  The  pro- 
visions of  his  Constitution  "Ubi  Periculum*'  were 
stringent.  When  a  pope  died,  the  cardinals  with  him 
were  to  wait  ten  days  for  their  absent  brethren.  Then, 
each  with  a  single  servant,  lay  or  cleric,  they  were  to 
assemble  in  the  palace  where  the  pope  was  at  his 
death,  or,  if  that  were  impossible,  the  nearest  city  not 
under  interdict,  in  the  bishop's  house  or  some  other 
suitable  place.  All  were  to  assemble  in  one  room 
(conclave),  without  partition  or  hangine,  and  live  in 
common.  This  room  and  another  retired  chamber,  to 
which  they  might  go  freely,  were  to  be  so  closed  in  that 
no  one  could  go  in  or  out  unobserved,  nor  anyone  from 
without  spefi^  secretly  with  any  cardinal.  And  if 
anyone  from  without  had  aught  to  sav,  it  must  be  on 
the  business  of  the  election  and  with  the  knowledge  of 
all  the  cardinals  present.  No  cardinal  might  sena  out 
any  message,  whether  verbal  or  written,  under  pain 
of  excommunication.  There  was  to  be  a  window 
through  which  food  could  be  admitted.  If  after  three 
days  the  cardinals  did  not  arrive  at  a  decision,  they 
were  to  receive  for  the  next  five  davs  only  one  dish  at 
their  noon  and  evening  meals.  If  these  five  days 
elapsed  without  an  election,  only  bread,  wine,  and 
water  should  be  their  fare.    During  the  election  they 


might  receive  nothing  from  the  papal  treasury,  nor 
introduce  any  other  business  unless  some  urgent  neoe»- 
sity  arose  imperilling  the  Church  or  its  possessions.  If 
any  cardinal  n^ected  to  enter,  or  left  the  enclosure 
for  any  reason  other  than  sickness,  the  election  was  to 
go  on  without  him.  But  his  health  restored,  he  mig^t 
re-enter  the  conclave  and  take  up  the  business  where 
he  found  it.  The  rulers  of  the  city  where  the  con- 
clave was  held  should  see  to  it  that  all  the  papal  pres- 
criptions concerning  enclosure  of  the  caroinals  were 
observed.  Those  who  disregarded  the  laws  of  the  con- 
clave or  tampered  with  its  liberty,  besides  incuiring 
other  punishments,  were  ipso  lacUt  exoonamunicate£ 

The  stringency  df  these  regulations  at  once  aroused 
opposition;  yet  the  first  elections  held  in  conclave 
proved  that  the  principle  was  right.  The  first  con- 
clave lasted  onlv  a  day  and  the  next  but  seven  days. 
Unfortimately  there  were  three  popes  in  the  very  year 
succeeding  the  death  of  Gr^ory  X  (1276).  The  sec- 
ond, Adrian  Y,  did  not  live  long  enough  to  incorporate 
in  an  authoritative  act  his  openly  exprrased  opinion 
of  the  conclave.  Pope  John  aX  lived  only  long 
enough  to  suspend  officiallv  the  "Ubi  Periculum  . 
Immediately  tne  protracted  elections  recommenoed. 
In  the  eighteen  years  intervening  between  the  suspen- 
sion of  the  law  of  the  conclave  in  1276  and  its  resump- 
tion in  1204  there  were  several  vacancies  of  from  six 
to  nine  months ;  that  which  preceded  ^e  election  of 
C!elestine  V  lasted  two  vears  and  nine  months.  About 
the  only  notable  act  of  the  latter  pope  was  to  restore 
the  conclave.  Boniface  VIII  connrmed  the  action  of 
his  predecessor  and  ordered  the  "Ubi  Periculum"  of 
Gregory  X  to  be  incorporated  in  the  canon  law  (c.  3, 
in  Vl^,  I,  6),  since  which  time  all  papal  elections  have 
taken  place  in  conclave.  Pope  Gregory  XI  in  1378 
empowered  the  cardinals  (for  that  occasion  only)  to 
proceed  to  an  election  outside  of  conclave,  but  thev 
did  not  do  so.  The  Council  of  (]k)nstance  (1417)  moci- 
ified  the  rules  of  the  conclave  to  such  an  extent  that 
tiie  cardinals  of  the  three  "obediences"  took  part  in  it 
as  well  as  six  prelates  from  each  of  the  five  nations. 
This  precedent  (which  however  resulted  happily  in  the 
election  of  the  Roman,  Martin  V)  is  perhaps  the  rea- 
son why  Julius  II  (1512),  Paul  III  (1542),  Pius  IV 
(1561),  and  Pius  IX  (1870)  provided  that  in  case  of 
their  death  during  an  OBcumenical  council  the  election 
of  the  new  pope  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  cwii- 
nals,  not  in  those  of  the  council.  Pius  IV  by  the  Bull 
"In  Eligendis"  (1562)  provided  that  the  election 
mijght  take  place  either  in  or  out  of  the  conclave,  but 
this  was  revoked  by  Gregory  XIII.  This  liberty  of 
action  is  found  again  in  the  legislation  (1798)  of  Pius 
VI  (Quum  nos  superiore  anno)  which  leaves  it  in  the 
power  of  the  cardinals  to  modify  the  rules  of  the  con- 
clave touching  enclosure,  ete.  Again  Pius  IX  by  the 
BuU  "In  hac  sublimi"  (23  August,  1871)  allowed  a 
majority  of  the  cardinals  to  dispense  with  Hhi^  tradi- 
tional enclosure.  Other  important  documents  of  Pius 
IX  dealing  with  the  conclave  are  his  Constitutions 
"Licet  per  Apoetolicas  Litteras"  (8  September,  1874) 
and  "Consulturi"  (10  October,  1877),  dso  his  ^'Rego- 
lamento  da  osservarsi  dal  S.  Ck>llegio  In  occasione 
della  vacanza  dell'Apostolica  Sede^'  (10  January, 
1878). 

As  a  matter  of  fact  these  precautions,  taken  in  view 
of  the  danger  of  interference  by  secular  ^vemments, 
have  80  far  been  unnecessary,  and  elections  of  popes 
take  place  as  they  always  dia  since  the  law  of  the  con- 
clave became  fiinally  effective.  Many  popes  have 
legislated  on  this  subject,  either  to  confirm  the  actions 
of  their  predecessors  or  to  define  (or  add  to)  previous 
legislation.  Clement  V  decreed  that  the  conclave 
must  take  place  in  the  diocese  in  which  the  pope  dies 
(Ne  Romani,  1310)  and  also  that  all  cardinals,  whether 
excommunicated  or  interdicted,  provided  mev  were 
not  deposed,  should  have  the  right  to  vote.  Clement 
yi  (1351)  permitted  a  slight  amelioration  in  the  fare 


OOWOlAVC 


193 


OOKOLAVS 


and  in  the  strict  practice  of  common  life.  In  the  six- 
teenth century  Julius  II  (1505)  by  the  Bull  "Cum  tam 
divino"  declared  invalid  any  simoniacal  election  of  a 
pope.  Following  the  example  of  Pope  Symmachus 
(499),  Paul  IV,  by  the  Bull  '^Cum  Secundum"  (1558), 
denounced  and  forbade  all  cabals  and  intrigues  during 
the  lifetime  of  a  pope.  The  aforesaid  Constitution  of 
Pius  IV  '*In  Eligendis"  (1562)  is  a  codification  and 
re-enactment  of  3l  the  laws  pertaining  to  the  conclave 
since  the  time  of  Gne^ry  X.  In  it  he  insists  forcibly 
on  the  enclosure,  which  had  come  to  be  rather  care- 
lessly observed.  The  finally  directive  legfelation  on 
the  conclave  is  that  of  Gregory  XV.  In  his  short 
reign  (1621-1623)  he  published  two  Bulls,  "iEtemi 
Patris^'  (1621).  and  ''^Decet  Romanum  Pontificem" 
(1 622) ,  followed  by  a  Cceremonicde  for  the  papal  election 
(Bullar.  Luxemb.,  III.  444  sqq.).  Every  detail  of  the 
conclave  is  described  in  these  documents.  Subse- 
quent legi^tion  has  either  confirmed  these  measures, 
e.  g.  the  ^Romani  Pontificis"  of  Urban  VIII  (1625), 
or  regulated  the  expenditure  of  money  on  the  papal 
obsequies,  e.  g.  the  Brief  of  Alexander  VIII  (1690), 
or  determined  their  order,  e.  g.  the  "Chirografo"  of 
Clement  XII  (1732).  The  more  recent  legislation  of 
Pius  VI,  Pius  VII,  and  Pius  IX  provides  for  all  con- 
tingencies of  interference  by  secular  ijowers.  Pius  VI 
(who  designated  a  Catholic  coimtry  in  which  the  ma- 
jority of  vie  cardinals  happened  to  be)  and  Pius  IX 
(who  left  the  matter  to  the  judgment  of  the  Sacred 
College)  allowed  the  widest  liberty  as  to  the  place  of 
the  conclave. 

II.  Ceremonial  ov  the  Conclave. — Inunediately 
on  the  death  of  a  pope  the  cardinal  camerlengo  who,  as 
representative  of  the  Sacred  College,  asstunes  chai-ge 
of  the  papal  household,  verifies  by  a  judicial  act  the 
death  of  the  pontiff,    in  the  presence  of  the  house- 
hold he  strikes  the  forehead  of  the  dead  pope  three 
times  with  a  silver  mallet,  calling  him  by  his  baptismal 
name.    The  fisherman's  ring  and  the  papsil  seals 
are  then    broken.    A   notary    draws   up    the    act 
which  is  the  legal  evidence  of  the  pope's  death.    The 
obsequies  last  nine  days.    Meanwhile  the  cardinals 
have  been  notified  of  the  impending  election  and 
those  resident  in  Rome  (tn  Curia)  await  their  absent 
brethren,  assisting  in  the  meantime  at  the  functions 
for  the  deceased  pontiff.    All  cardinals,  and  they 
alone,  have  the  right  to  vote  in  the  conclave;   they 
must,  howeVer,  be  legitimately  appointed,  have  the 
use  of  reason^  and  be  present  in  person,  not  through  a 
procurator  or  by  letter.    This  right  is  acknowledged 
even  if  the^  are  subject  to  ecclesiastical  censures  (e.  g. 
excomm\mication\  or  if  the  solemn  ceremonies  of 
their  ''creation**  nave  yet  to  be  performed.     During 
the  aforesaid  nine  days,  and  xmtil  the  election  of  a 
successor,    all    cardinals    appear    with    uncovered 
rochets,  lust  as  all  have  canopies  over  their  seats  at 
the  ooncfavCt  to  show  that  the  supreme  authority  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  whole  College.    The  cardinal  camer- 
lengo is  assisted  by  the  heads  of  the  three  cardinalitial 
orders,  known  as  the  "Capita  Ordinum"  (cardinal- 
bishop8,-prie8ts,-deacons).    There  are  frequent  meet- 
ings, or  "congregations*',  of  these  four  cardinals  to 
determine  every  detail  both  of  the  obsequies  of  the 
pope  and  of  the  preparations  for  the  conclave.    All 
matters  of  importance  are  referred  to  the  general  con- 
gregations, which  since  1870  are  held  in  uie  Vatican. 
The  cardinal  dean  (always  the  Bishop  of  Ostia)  pre- 
sides over  these  congregations,  in  which  the  cardinals 
take  rank  and  precedence  from  the  date  of  their  ele- 
vation to  the  purple.    Formerly  they  had  also  to  pro- 
vide for  the  government  of  the  Papal  States  and  to 
repress  frequent  disorders  during  the  interr^um. 
In  the  first  of  these  congregations  the  various  (jonsti- 
tutions  which  govern  the  conclave  are  read  and  tlie 
cardinals  take  an  oath  to  observe  them.    Then,  in  the 
following  da3rs,  the  various  officers  of  the  conclave,  the 
Conclavists,  confessors,  and  physicians,  servants  of 
IV.— 13 


various  kinds,  are  examined  or  appointed  by  a  GpeCiaf 
commission.  Each  cardinal  has  a  rignt  to  take  into 
the  conclave  a  secretary  and  a  servant,  the  secretary 
being  usually  an  ecclesiastic.  In  case  of  illness  a  third 
conclavist  may  be  allowed,  with  agreement  of  the 
general  congregation.  All  are  equally  sworn  to 
secrecy  and  fdso  not  to  hinder  the  election.  After  the 
conclave  certain  honorary  distinctions  and  pecimiary 
emoluments  are  awarded  to  the  conclavists. 

Meanwhile  a  conclave,  formerly  a  large  room,  now 
a  large  part  of  the  Vatican  palace,  including  two  or 
three  floors,  is  walled  off.  and  the  space  divided  into 
apartments,  each  with  tnree  or  four  small  rooms  oi 
cells,  in  each  of  which  are  a  crucifix,  a  bed,  a  table 
and  a  few  chairs.  Access  to  the  conclave  is  free 
through  one  door  only,  locked  from  without  by  the 
Marshal  of  the  Conclave  (formerly  a  member  of  th<2 
Savelli,  since  1721  of  the  Chigi,  famihr),  and  fron? 
within  by  the -cardinal  camerlengo.  Tiiere  are  four 
openings  provided  for  the  passage  of  food  and  other 
necessaries,  guarded  from  within  and  without,  on  the 
exterior  by  ttie  authority  of  the  marshal  and  major- 
domo,  on  the  interior  b^  the  prelate  assigned  to  this 
duty  by  the  three  cardmals  mentioned  above,  repre- 
sentative of  the  three  cardinalitial  orders.  Once  the 
conclave  begins  the  door  is  not  again  opened  until  the 
election  is  announced,  except  to  admit  a  cardinal  who 
is  late  in  arriving.  All  communication  with  the  out- 
side is  strictly  forbidden  under  pain  of  loss  of  office 
and  ipso  fado  excommunication.  A  cardinal  may 
leave  the  conclave  in  case  of  sickness  (certified  imder 
oath" by  a  physician)  and  return;  not  so  a  conclavist. 
It  may  be  noted  at  once,  with  Wem:8,  that  a  papal 
election  held  outside  of  a  properly  organized  conclave 
is  canonically  null  and  void. 

Within,  the  cardinals  live  with  their  conclavists 
in  the  cells.  Formerly  every  cardinal  had  to  pro- 
vide his  own  food,  which  was  carried  in  state  by  his 
men-in-waiting  to  one  of  the  four  openings  nearest 
the  cell  of  the  prelate.  Since  1S78  tne  kitchen  is  a 
part  of  the  conclave.  Though  all  meals  are  taken  in 
private  they  are  served  from  a  common  quarter,  but 
great  care  is  taken  to  prevent  written  communication 
by  this  way.  The  cells  of  the  cardinals  are  covered 
with  cloth,  purple  if  they  are  of  the  last  pope's  "c^^ 
ation",  green  if  not.  When  they  wish  to  oe  undis-' 
turbed  they  close  the  door  of  their  cell,  the  frame- work 
of  which  is  in  the  shape  of  a  St.  Andrew's  cross.  The 
conclave  opens  officially  on  the  evening  of  the  tenth 
day  after  the  pope's  decease,  unless  another  day  has 
been  assigned.  Kvery  precaution  is  observed  to  ex- 
dude  those  who  have  no  right  within  the  enclosure, 
and  also  unnecessary  communication  with  the  put- 
side.  Papal  legislation  has  long  since  forbidden  the 
once  customary  "capitulations*',  or  ante-election 
agreements  binding  on  the  new  pope;  it  is  also  for- 
bidden the  cardinals  to  treat  of  the  papal  succession 
among  themselves  during  the  popes  lifetime;  the 
pope  may,  however,  treat  of  tne  matter  with  the 
cardinals.  Absolutely  necessary  modifications  of  the 
conclave  legislation,  during  the  conclave  itself,  are 
temporary  only.  All  true  cardinals,  as  stated,  may 
enter  the  conclave,  but  those  only  who  have  received 
deacon's  orders  have  a  right  to  vote,  unless  they  haVe 
received  a  special  indult  from  the  late  pope.  Cardi- 
nals who  have  been  preconiaed,  but  not  yet  elevated 
to  the  purple,  are  entitled  by  a  decision  of  St.  Pius  V 
(1571)  Doth  to  be  present  and  to  vote.' 

Including  the  cardinals,  prelates,  and  conclavists,, 
there  are  perhaps  two  hundred  and  fifty  persons  in 
the, enclosure.  The  government  of  the  conclave  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  cardinal  camerlengo  and  of  the  thi-ee 
representative  cardinals  who  succeed  onQ  another  in 
order  of  seniority  every  three  days.  About  seven  or 
eight  o'clock  on  the  rooming  of  tne  eleventh  day  the 
cardinals  assemble  in  the  Pauline  Chapel  aiid  assist 
at  the  Mass  of  the  cardinal  dean.     Formerly  they 


OOVOUlTfi 


194 


QfMOhkV* 


wore  tbe  special  garment  of  the  conclave,  calfed  the 
crocea.  They  receive  Communion  from  the  hands  of 
the  cardinal  dean,  and  listen  to  a  Latin  allocution  on 
their  obligations  to  select  the  most  worthy  person  for 
the  Chair  of  Peter.  After  Mass  they  retire  for  a  few 
moments,  and  then  assemble  in  the  Sistine  Chapel, 
where  the  actual  voting  takes  place.  There  six  can- 
dles are  lighted  on  the  altar  on  which  rest  the  paten 
and  chalice  to  be  used  in  voting.  Over  the  chair  of 
each  cardinal  is  a  baldachinum.  The  papal  tiirone  is 
removed.  Before  each. chair  is  also  a  small  writing 
desk.  When  ready  to  vote  they  enter  the  Sistine 
Chapel  accompanied  by  their  conclavists  bearing  their 
portfolios  ana  writing  materials.  Prayers  are  said 
by  the  bishop  sacristan;  the  ballots  are  distributed 
and  then  all  are  excluded  except  the  cardinals,  one  of 
whom  bolts  the  door. 

Though  since  Urban  VI  (1378-89)  none  but  a 
cardinafhas  been  elected  pope,  no  law  reserves  to  the 
cardinals  alone  this  right.  Strictly  speaking,  any 
male  Christian  who  has  reached  the  use  of  reason  can 
be  chosen,  not,  however,  a  heretic,  a  schismatic,  or  a 
notorious  simonist.  Since  14  January,  1605  (Julius 
II,  *'Cum  tam  divino'')  a  simoniacal  election  is  canoni- 
cally  invalid,  as  being  a  true  and  indisputable  act  of 
heresy  (Wemz,  "Jus  Uecret.",  II,  658,  ©52;  see  "Hist. 
Pol.  Bl&tter",  1898,  1900,  and  S^^Uller,"  Lehrbuch 
d.  Kirchenrechts",  1900,  I,  215).  There  are  four 
possible  forms  of  election:  scrutiniutn,  compramissum, 
acceasus,  quasi-inspiratio.  The  usual  form  is  that  ol 
9crutinium,  or  secret  ballot,  and  in  it  the  successful 
candidate  requires  a  two-thirds  vote  exclusive  of  his 
own.  When  there  is  a  close  vote,  and  only  then,  the 
ballot  of  the  pope-elect,  which,  like  all  the  others,  is 
distinguishable  bv  a  text  of  Scripture  written  on  one 
of  its  outside  folds,  is  opened  to  make  sure  that  he  did 
not  vote  for  himself.  Each  cardinal  deposits  his  vote 
in  the  chalice  on  the  altar  and  at  the  same  time  takes 
the  prescribed  oath:  "Testor  CHiristum  Dominum  qui 
me  judicaturus  est  me  eligere  quem  secundum  Deum 
judico  eligi  debere  et  quod  idem  in  aocessu  praestabo" 
— "I  call  to  witness  the  Lord  Christ.  Who  will  be  my 
judge,  that  I  am  electing  the  one  whom  according  to 
God  I  think  ought  to  be  elected  ",  etc.  (For  the  form 
of  the  oath  see  Lucius  Lector,  "Le  Conclave'',  615, 
618.)  The  ballot  reads:  "Ego,  Cardinalis  N.,  eligo 
in  summum  Pontificem  R.D.  meum  D.  Card.  N." 

For  this  election  by  secret  ballot  three  cardinals 
{8cnUalores)  are  chosen  by  lot  each  time  to  preside 
over  the  opCTation  of  voting,  three  others  (revisores)  to 
control  the  count  of  their  colleagues,  and  still  three 
others  (infirmarii)  to  collect  the  ballots  of  the  sick  and 
absent  cardinals.  If  the  sick  cardinals  cannot  attend 
the  ballotinjg,  then  the  three  infirmarii  go  to  their 
cells  and  brmg  back  their  votes  in  a  box  to  the  three 
cardinals  presiding,  who  count  them  and  put  them  in 
the  chalice  with  the  others.  Then,  all  the  baUots 
having  been  shaken  up  and  countea,  if  the  number 
agrees  with  the  number  of  electors,  the  chalice  is 
broudit  to  the  table  and  the  ballots,  on  the  outside  of 
which  appear  the  names  of  the  candidates,  are  passed 
from  hand  to  hand  to  the  third  cardinal  who  reads  the 
names  aloud.  All  present  are  provided  with  lists  on 
which  the  names  of  all  the  cardinals  appear,  and  it  is 
customary  for  the  cardinals  to  check  off  the  votes  as 
they  are  read.  Then  the  three  cardinal  revisors  verify 
the  result  which  is  proclaimed  as  definite. 

If,  upon  the  first  oallot,  no  candidate  receives  the 
necessary  two-thirds  vote,  recourse  is  often  had  to 
the  form  of  voting  known  as  accessus.  At  the  elec- 
tion of  Kus  X  (Rev.  des  Deux  Mondes,  15  March, 
1904,  p.  275)  the  cardinal  dean  did  not  allow  the 
accessus,  though  it  is  a  recognized  usage  of  con- 
claves, regulated  by  Gr^ory  Xl,  designed  primarily 
to  hasten  elections,  and  usually  considered  to  favour 
the  chances  of  tlie  candidate  who  has  the  most 
votes.    It  consists  practically  of  a  second  ballot.     All 


use  the  ordinary  blanks  again,  with  this  difterenct*, 
that  if  the  elector  wishes  his  vote  to  count  for  his  first 
choice  he  wiites  Acce^o  nemim;  if  he  changes  his  vote 
he  introduces  the  name  of  his  latest  choice.  Then  the 
two  series  of  ballots  have  to  be  compared  and  identic 
fied  by  the  text  on  the  reverse  face  of  the  ballot,  so  as 
to  prevent  a  double  vote  for  the  same  candidate  by 
any  elector.  When  the  required  two-thinls  are  not 
obtained,  the  ballots  are  consumed  in  a  stove  whoee 
cliimney  extends  through  a  window  of  the  Sistizie 
ChapeL  When  there  is  no  election,  straw  is  mixed 
with  the  ballots  to  show  by  its  thick  smoke  (sfumaia) 
to  those  waiting  outside  that  there  has  been  no  elec- 
tion. There  are  always  two  votes  taken  every  day, 
in  the  morning  and  in  the  evening;  they  occupy  from 
two  to  three  nours  each.  When  the  votii^  is  over 
one  of  the  cardinals  opens  the  door  outside  of  which 
are  gathered  the  conclavists,  and  all  retire  to  their 
cells.  Other  forms  of  election,  made  almost  impossi- 
ble b^r  the  le^lation  of  Gregory  XY,  are  known  as 
quasi-inspiration  and  compromise.  The  former  sup- 
poses that  before  a  given  session  there  had  been  no 
eugreement  among  the  cardinals  and  that  then  one  of 
the  cardinals,  addressing  the  assemblv,  proposes  tbe 
name  of  a  candidate  with  the  words  E^o  eUgo  (I  elect, 
etc.),  whereupon  all  the  cardinals,  as  though  moved 
by  the  Holy  Spirit,  proclaim  aloud  the  same  candi- 
date, saying  Ego  digo,  etc.  An  election  by  compro- 
mise supposes  that  after  a  long  and  hopeless  conte.st 
the  cardinals  imanimously  dele^te  a  certain  number 
of  their  body  to  make  a  choice.  It  has  not  been 
employed  since  the  fourteenth  century. 

When  a  candidate  has  obtained  the  required  two- 
thirds  vote  in  a  scrutiny  or  ballot  (the  choice,  since 
Adrian  VI,  1522,  falling  on  one  present  and  invariably 
on  an  Italian  cardinal),  the  cardinal  dean  proceeds  to 
ask  him  whether  he  will  accept  the  election  and  by 
what  name  he  wishes  to  be  known.  Since  the  time  of 
John  XII  (955-64-  Sagmiiller  says  Sergius  IV,  1009- 
1012)  each  pope  takes  a  new  name  in  imitation  of  St. 
Peter's  change  of  name  (see  Kndpfler,  "Die  Namens- 
anderung  der  Papste"  in  "Compte  rendu  du  congrds 
intemat.  cath.  k  Fribourg",  1897,  sect,  v,  158  aqq.). 
The  doors  have  previously  been  opened  by  the  secre- 
tary of  the  conclave;  the  masters  of  ceremonies  are 
present,  and  formal  cognizance  is  taken  of  the  pope's 
answers.  Immediatelv  the  masters  of  ceremonies 
lower  the  canopies  of  all  the  cardiiuds'  chairs  save  that 
of  the  pope-elect,  and  he  is  conducted  to  a  neighbour- 
ing room  where  ne  is  clothed  in  the  papal  garments 
(immantaiio).  The  cardinals  then  advance  and  pay 
him  the  first  "obedience",  or  homage  (adoraiio),  iTie 
pope  then  either  confirms  or  appoints  the  cardinal 
camerlenfo,  who  puts  upon  his  finger  iJie  Fisherman's 
Rine.  ^  Then  follows  the  proclamation  to  the  people 
made  by  the  senior  cardinal-deacon,  formerly  from  ihe 
central  balcony  of  St.  Peter's  overlooking  the  great 
Piazza,  but  since  1870  in  St.  Peter's  itself.  The  con- 
clave then  usually  terminates,  the  masons  remove  the 
temporary  walls,  and  the  cardinals  retire  to  their 
various  lodgings  in  the  city,  awaiting  a  reassembling 
for  the  second  and  third  adoratio  and  for  the  solemn 
enthroning.  If  the  pope  happens  not  to  be  a 
bishop,  he  must  be  consecrated  at  once  and.  accoixling 
to  immemorial  tradition,  by  the  Cardinal<Bishop  o? 
Ostia.  If  already  a  bishop^  there  takes  place  only  the 
solemn  benediclio  or  blessing.  However,  he  enjovs 
full  jurisdiction  from  the  moment  of  his  election.  On 
the  following  Sunday  or  Holy  Day  takes  place,  at  the 
hands  of  the  senior  cardinalndeacon,  the  papal  "coro- 
nation" from  which  day  the  new  pope  dates  Uie  yean 
of  his  pontificate.  The  last  act  is  the  formal  taking 
possession  {posseasio)  of  the  Lateran  Church,  omitted 
since  1870.  For  the  so-called  Veto,  occasionally  ex- 
ercised in  the  past  by  the  Cathr  lie  Powers  (Spain,  Aus- 
tria, France),  see  Exclusion,  Hjght  of. 

The  jM*tiUilly  valid  legislation  conoerning  the  r<m<'lave  is 


OONOOBDAHOXS 


195 


OOMOOEDAltOlS 


found  in  all  nuuivab  of  cuoo  Uw,  «.  «.  Webns,  Ju$  Dtent. 
(Rome*  1809).  II,  009-666:  BlOM Oixxs,  Lthrhuch  da  Ktreken- 
reehU  (Fraibun.  IMO^,  313-19;  HsboenrAtbbb-Holwbck, 
iSSiuk  dtM  bMlk.  Ktrthen^whU  (Fmbors.  1903).  268-73; 
LKVmmwoff,  hutU.  iur.  ecd.  j^rribunr,  1903).  nos.  99-103; 
ef.  Bouix.  X>t  Curid  Ramand,  120.  and  Dt  Papd,  III,  341-44.— 
The  history  of  the  conclave  and  its  ceremonial  are  fully  de- 
scribed in  the  (illuatrated)  work  of  Ltjcaua  Lbctok  (Mgr. 
Guthlin).  Le  QandofM  (P^ris.  1894).  It  replaces  advantage- 
ously the  eaifier  work  of  Vanbl  on  the  history  of  the  conclaves 
(Paris,  1689;  Srd  ed..  Cologne.  1703).  English  descriptions 
tike  taoae  of  Txollopb  (London.  1876)  and  Cabtwbioht 
(Ediaburgh,  1868)  are  ganenUly  unreliable,  bein^  largely  in- 
spired by  the  anta-papei  histories  of  conclaves  wntten  by  the 
mendadouB  and  inexaoi  Grboorio  Leti  (s.  1.,  1667. 1716).  and 
the  inaocumte  and  malleionsly  gossipy  Pbtbuccbixi  dklla 
QATnirA  (BruHels,  1865).  See  DulUtn  Review  (1868).  XI, 
374-01.  and  CwOtd  Cattolica  (1877).  I,  574-85:  also  Cbkigh- 
TON  in  Aoademu  (1877).  XI.  66.  See  La  ncuvaU  Uffi*lation  du 
etmdam  in  XhwomrariU  eoth.  (Lyons,  1892).  5^7.  and  TaxuHQ, 
Th»  I>ie<jf ujaasnl  e/  thB  Ccmciave  in  The  Dolphin  (PhUadelphia. 
1908).  For  a  catalogue  of  studies  (often  documentaiy)  on 
■pedal  condaves.  see  Cbkboti.  Bibiiogmfia  di  Roma  papaU  e 
mtdUmiB  (Rome.  189^).  The  ooncUive  that  elected  Pros  X  is 
described  by  an  eyewitness  (Un  T^motn).  said  to  be  Cardinal 
Mathieu,  in  Bevue  det  Deux  Mondea,  15  March,  1904.  See  other 
valuable  recent  literature  in  the  articles  Papal  ELSCnoNB. 
sad  EzoLunoN ,  Rzubt  of. 

Austin  Dowlino. 

Ckiliooidttneo9  of  the  Bible  are  verbal  indexes  to 
the  Bible,  or  litto  of  Biblical  words  arranged  alpha* 
beticfl^  with  indicatioiui  to  enable  the  mquirer  to 
find  the  pMfmgffl  of  the  Bible  where  the  words  occur. 
Some  simply  indicate  the  passages ;  but  a  really  good 
conoordaooe  quotes  enough  of  a  passage  to  recall  it 
to  Uie  memory  of  one  familiar  with  it.    Sometimes 
ctmcordanee  is  used  in  r^erenoe  to  alphabetical  in* 
dezas  of  Biblioai  subjectB,  which  guide  one  to  ail  the 
pasBam  of  the  Bible  referring  to  the  subject  in  ques- 
tion; but  as  oommonlv  employed  in  Enghsh  the  word 
denotes  a  purely  veroal  oonoordanoe,  a  text-finder. 
Su^  a  work  is  a  useful  and,  in  fact,  indispensable,  help 
to  ^yery  student  of  the  Bible.    Its  principal  use  is  to 
enable  him  to  locate  axiv  text  he  remembers,  or  to 
locate  and  get  aoeurateqr  any  text  vsjsuely  remem* 
bered,  if  but  one  important  word  of  it  be  recalled, 
Concordances  in  the  original  tongues  are  ever  in  the 
hand  of  liie  expert  student  in  his  exegetical  and  criti- 
oil  studies*  aidmg  him  indirectly  by  their  indications 
to  ascertain  the  various  shades  of  meaning  which  the 
same  or  cognate  words  may  take  on>  and  thus,  for  ex- 
ample, to  jprove  helpful  in  the  construction  of  the 
theologv  Of  a  writer  or  an  epoch;  to  trace  the  history 
of  words  and  thus  obtain  a  clue  to  the  development 
of  the  doctrines  connected  with  them,  or  the  changes 
of  thought  and  feeling  that  have  taken  place;  to  col- 
late the  vocabulary  of  a  writer  or  a  document,  and 
thus  to  gather  evidence  for  determining  the  author- 
ship or  cuite  of  disputed  writings;  to  trace  the  history 
of  a  character,  a  race,  a  town,  etc. :  and  for  various 
other  purposes  which  each  student  oiBCOvers  for  him- 
self in  the  oouive  of  his  studies^    This  article  aims  to 
be  historical,  but  also,  in  part,  practical,  by  indicating 
the  best  hdps  of  this  land. 

I.  Latin. — ^Verbal  oonoordanoes  of  the  Bible  are  the 
inventioQ  of  the  Dominican  friars.  The  text  which 
>«nred  as  basis  of  their  work  was  naturally  that  of  the 
Vuinte,  the  Bible  of  the  Middle  Agas.  The  first  con- 
cordbnoe,  completed  in  1290,  was  undertaken  under 
the  guidance  of  Hugo,  or  Hugues,  de  Saint^Cher 
(Hugo  de  Sancto  Charo),  afterwards  a  cardinal,  as- 
swted,  it  is  said,  by  600  fellow-Dominicans.  It  con- 
tained no  quotations,  and  was  pur^  an  index  to 
panaees  where  a  word  was  found.  These  were  indi- 
cated by  book  and  chapter  (the  division  into  chapters 
n&d  recently  been  invented  by  Stephen  Langton« 
Archbishop  of  Canterbttiy)  but  not  by  verses,  which 
were  onW  intioduoed  by  Robert  Estienne  in  1545. 
In  lisii  QiverBeB,  Hugo  divided  the  chapters  into  seven 
umoat  equal  parts,  indicated  by  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  a,  b^  o,  ete.  This  beginning  of  conoord- 
*^J«s  was  very  inmrfect,  as  it  gave  merely  a  list  of 
~     .  and  no  iaea  of  what  the  passages  contained. 


It  was  of  little  service  to  preachers,  therefore;  accord- 
ingly,  in  order  to  make  it  valuable  for  them,  three 
Engush  Dominicans  added  (1250-1252)  the  complete 
quotations  of  the  fwssages  indicated.  This  complete- 
ness of  quotation  is  not  aimed  at  in  the  present  con- 
cordances, for  lack  of  space;  it  is  likely,  therefore, 
that  the  passages  indicated  were  far  fewer  than  those 
found  in  a  complete  concordance  of  to-day.  The 
work  was  somewhat  abridged,  by  retaining  only  the 
essential  words  of  a  quotation,  in  the  concordance  of 
Ck>nrad  of  Halberstadt,  a  Dominican  (1310),  which 
obtained  great  success  on  account  of  its  more  conve- 
nient form.  The  first  concordance  to  be  printed,  it 
appeared  in  1470  at  Strasburg,  and  reachea  a  second 
edition  in  1475.  The  larger  work  from  which  it  was 
abridged  was  printed  at  Nuremberg  in  1485.  Another 
Dominican,  John  Stoioowic,  or  Jomi  of  Ragusa,  find- 
ing it  necessaiy  in  his  controversies  to  show  the  Bib- 
lical usage  of  ntst,  ex,  and  per,  which  were  omitted 
from  the  previous  concordances,  b^m  (c.  1435)  the 
compilation  of  nearly  all  the  iiidedjnable  words  of 
Scripture;  the  task  was  completed  and  perfected  by 
others  and  finally  added  as  an  appendix  to  the  con- 
cordance of  Oonrad  of  Halberstaot  in  the  work  of 
Sebastian  Brant  published  at  Basle  in  1490.  Brants 
work  was  freauently  republished  and  in  various  cities. 
It  served  as  the  basis  of  the  concordance  published  in 
1555  by  Robert  Estienne  (Stephens),  the  distinguished 
French  Protestant  scholar  and  printer.  Estienne 
added  proper  names,  supplied  omissions,  mingled  the 
indeclinable  words  with  the  others  in  alphabetical 
order,  and  gave  the  indications  to  all  passages  hj  verse 
as  w^  as  by  chapter,  in  all  these  respects  bringmg  his 
work  much  closer  to  the  present  model.  Since  then 
many  different  Latin  concordances  have  been  pub* 
lished,  of  whidi  it  will  suffice  to  mention  Plantmua^ 
''Conoordanti»  Bibliorum  juxta  recognitionem  Clem^ 
entinam"  (Antwerp,  1599),  which  was  the  first  mada 
according  to  the  authorised  Latin  text ; ''  Repertorium 
Biblicum  . . .  studio.  . .  Patrum  Ordinia  S.  Benedif^i 
Monasterii  Wessofontani"  (Ai^burg,  1751); '^Oon^ 
cordantifiB  Script.  Sac.",  by  ETutripon,  in  two  tm-> 
mense  volumes,  the  most  ueeful  of  all  Latin  concord-* 
ances,  which  gives  enough  of  every  text  to  make  com- 
plete  sense  (Paris,  1838;  seventh  ed.  1880;  an  edition 
of  the  same  by  G.  Tonini,  at  Prado,  1861.  recognised 
as  nearly  complete) ;  Coomaert's,  intended  for  the  use 
of  preachers  (Bruges,  1892);  the  ''Conoordantiarum 
S.  Scripturse  Manuale".  by  H.  de  Rase,  Ed.  de  Lar 
chaud,  and  J^B.  Flandrin  (13th  ed.,  Paris,  1805), 
which,  however,  gives  rather  a  choice  of  texts  than  a 
complete  concordance;  "Coneordantiaram  Univeraaa 
Scriptune  Sacra  Thesaurus",  by  Fathers  Peultier, 
Etienne,  and  Gantois  (Paris,  1902).  No  Latin  con- 
cordance gives  the  Hebrew  or  Greek  equivalent  of  the 
Latin  words;  but  Peter  Mintert's  "Lexioon  Graoo- 
Latinum"  of  the  N.  T.  is  a  concordance  as  well  as  a 
lexicon,  giving  the  Latin  equivalent  of  the  Greek  and, 
in  the  case  of  Septuagint  words,  the  Hebrew  equiva- 
lent also  (Frankfort,  1728). 

II.  Hebrbw. — The  first  Hebrew  concordance  was 
the  work  of  a  Jew,  Mordecai  or  Isaac  Nathan,  begun 
in  1438  and  finished  in  1448.  It  was  inspired  by  the 
Latin  concordances  to  aid  in  defence  of  Judaism,  and 
was  printed  in  Venice  in  1523.  An  improved  edition 
of  it  by  a  Franciscan  monk,  Marius  de  Calasio,  was 
published  in  1621  and  1622  in  four  volumes.  Both 
these  works  were  several  times  reprinted,  while 
another  Hebrew  concordance  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, by  Elias  Levita,  said  to  supass  Nathan's  in  many 
respects,  remained  in  manuscript.  Nathan  and  Ca- 
lasio  arranged  the  words  according  to  the  Hebrew 
roots,  the  derivatives  following;  simply  according  to 
the  order  in  which  they  occur  m  the  Hebrew  books; 
the  Buxtorfs,  father  and  son,  introduced  order  into 
the  derivatives  by  a  (grammatical  classification  of  the 
verbs  and  uouim.    Their  work  (Basle,  1632)  also  coi^. 


OOttOORBA^ 


196 


OOMOEDAT 


taincd  many  new  words  and  paasagos  previously 
omitted,  and  an  appendix  of  all  the  Chaldaic  words  in 
the  O.  T. ;  Baer's  edition  of  Buxtorf  (1847)  added  cer- 
tain particles.  Farst's  concordance  (Leipzig,  1840) 
was  for  a  long  time  the  standard.  It  corrected  Bux* 
torf  and  brought  it  nearer  to  completeness,  printed  aH 
Hebrew  words  with  the  vowel-points,  and  perfected 
the  order  of  the  derivatives.  Every  word  is  explained 
in  Hebrew  and  Latin.  FOrst  exdudes,  however,  the 
proper  nouns,  the  pronouns,  and  most  of  the  inde* 
clinable  particles,  and  makes  many  involuntary  omis-' 
sions  and  errors;  his  classification  of  roots  is  some- 
times fanciful.  "Tlie  Englishman's  Hebrew  and 
Chaldaic  Concordance"  (London,  1843;  third  edition, 
1866)  is  still  very  useful.  The  most  comprehensive 
Hebrew  concordance  ever  published  is  that  of  Mandel- 
kern  (Leipzig,  1896),  who  rectified  the  errors  of  his 
predecessors  and  supplied  omitted  references.  Though 
nis  own  work  has  been  shown  to  be  freauently  imper- 
fect, stUl  it  is  almost  complete,  and  by  far  the  best  of 
Hebrew  concordances.  An  abridged  edition  of  it 
was  published  in  1900. 

III.  GaiSEK  Septuaoint. — ^The  firat  was  that  of 
Conrad  Kircher  (Frankfort,  1607)  >  Tronmi's,  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam,  1718,  had  reference  not  only  to 
the  Sept..  but  also  to  the  versions  of  Aquila,  Synrnia- 
dius,  and  Theodotion;  it  remained  the  standard  till 
our  own  day,  when  it  gave  way  to  Hatch  and  Red^ 
path's  ''Concordasioe  to  the  Septuagint  and  other 
Greek  Vereions  of  the  Old  Testament^'(Oxford,  1892- 
97).  This  is  a  beautiful  work  and  is  commonly  con- 
sidered about  as  perfect  as  present  scholarship  pei^ 
mits.  It  includes  a  concordance  to  the  deuterb- 
canonical  books  and  the  O.  T.  Apocrypha,  and  to  the 
remains  of  the  versions  which  form  part  of  Origen's 
Hexapla.  Tlie  Hebrew  equivalents  of  the  Greek, 
when  known,  are  also  given.  References  to*  proper 
names  are  omitted,  which,  however,  are  added  in  a 
supplement  published  in  19(k).  We  must  await  a 
truly  critical  edition  of  the  Sept.,  nevertheless,  before 
we  can  have  the  final,  perfect  concordance.  Bag- 
ster's  ^  Handy  ConcoHlanoe  to  the  Septuagint"  (Lon- 
don, 1887)  gives  simply  the  references,  without  quo- 
tations. 

IV.  Greek  New  Tbotambnt. — ^The  earliest  con- 
cordances to  the  Greek  New  Testament  are  those  of 
Birken  or  Betulius  (Basle,  1546),  Henry  Estienne 
(Paris,  1594),  and  Erasmus  Schmid  (Wittenberg, 
1688),  whose  work  was  twice  revised  and  republished. 
During  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
standsutl  N.  T.  concordance  was  that  of  Bruder  (Leip- 
sig,  1842;  4th  ed.,  1888).  Its  main  defect  is  that  it 
was  practically  based  on  the  texhts  recejKus^  though  it 
aims,  in  its  Ifitest  editions,  to  give  also  the  chief  vari- 
ants. The  best,  beyond  doubt,  is  Moulton  and 
Geden's  "Concordance  to  the  Greek  Testament",  ac- 
cording to  the  text  of  Westcott  and  Hort,  Tischen- 
dotf ,  and  the  En^ish  Revisers  (Edinburgh  and  New 
York,  1897).  This  includes  all  the  marginal  read- 
ings. In  the  case  of  a  reading  being  in  dispute  among 
these  authorities,  the  fact  is  pointed  out.  The 
HdE>rew  equivalents  of  all  quotations  in  the  N.  T.  are 
given;  the  relation  of  the  Greek  N.  T.  words  to  the 
eeptua^nt  and  other  O.  T.  Greek  versions,  as  well  as 
to  classical  usage,  is  indicated.  Two  other  tisef  ul  con- 
cordances, especially  for  those  not  very  familiar  with 
the  Greek,  are  "  Englishman's  Greek  Concordance  to 
the  New  Testament",  by  G.  V.  Wigram  (London, 
1839,  2d  ed.  1844),  and  Hudson's  "Critical  Greek  and 
En^sh  Concordance  of  the  N.  T,"  (Boston,  1875), 
which  contains  references  to  the  chief  variant  read- 

V.  Syriac. — Charles  Schaaf's  "Lexicon  Syriaoum" 
(Leyden,  1709)  practically  serves  the  purpose  of  a 
concordance  to  the  Peshito  version. 

VI.  Enoush. — The  eariiest  concordances  in  Eng- 
lish were  published  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 


tunr,  the  first  by  T.  Gybson  in  1535  (for  N.  T.  only), 
and  the  second  m  1550  by  John  Marbeck.  The  most 
famous. belongs  to  the  eighteenth  centurv  and  is  the 
work  of  Alexander  Cruden.  First  published  in  1738. 
it  reached  several  editions  in  his  own  lifetime  and  has 
been  re-edited  and  reprinted  repeatedly  till  the  pres- 
ent day.  Abridgments  have  been  published  which 
sometimes  endeavour  to  pass  for  the  complete  work. 
Gruden's  work  is  not  really  a  complete  c<mcordance, 
and  omits  especially  many  references  to  proper  names, 
but  his  last  edition  had  one  virtue,  lacking  m  the  best 
concordances  of  our  day.  which  commends  it  to 
Catholics  especially,  namelv,  its  concordance  to  the 
deutero-canonical,  or  so-called  apocrjrphal,  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  which,  however,  is  usually  not  re- 
printed. With  this  exception,  it  is  far  surpassed  by 
the  three  great  concordances  of  our  own  day,  those  of 
Young,  Strong,  and  Walker.  R.  Young's  "  Analsrtical 
Concordance  to  the  Bible"  (Edinburgh,  1879-84),  an 
almost  complete  concordance,  has  the  great  virtue  of 
indicating  the  Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  or  Greek  orl^nal 
of  the  En^ish  word,  and  distinguishing  the  various 
meanings  that  may  imderlie  the  same  word.  Strong's 
"Exhaustive  Concordance  of  the  fable"  (New  York, 
1894)  has  reference  only  to  the  English  text;  for  that 
it  can  hardly  be  improved,  as  it  is  extremdy  rare  to 
find  a  text  missing  from  Strong.  As  a  text-finder,  it 
is  unsurpassed ;  but  it  lacks  the  special  advantages  of 
Young's  signalized  above.  It  contains  also  a  com- 
parative concordance  between  the  Atithorifled  and 
Revised  English  versions,  useful  Ifor  a  study  of  the 
changes  introduced.  Its  great  bulk  and  weight,  how- 
ever, render  it  a  rather  formidable  book  to  handle. 
Walker's  "Comprehensive  Concordance  to  the  Holy 
Scriptures"  (Boston,  1894)  is  ft  volume  of  convenient 
sisse,  and  almost  as  complete  as  Strong's.  An  excel- 
lent "0)mplete  O^ncoroance  to  the  Kevised  Version 
of  the  New  Testament'^  by  J.  A.  Thoiiis,  was  pub- 
lished in  London,  1884.  The  worics  of  WiMm  and 
Hudson  on  the  Greek  N.  T.  are  also  very  ub^uI  to  the 
English  reader. 

No  concordance  to  the  En^^ish  CfeithoHo  Bible  has 
been  published,  and  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  one  is 
much  needed,  except  for  the  deutero-canonical  books; 
the  late  concordances  in  English  suffice,  with  the  ex- 
ception noted,  for  the  needs  of  any  intelligent  reader. 
For  concordances  in  other  modem  languages,  consult 
the  articles  of  Mangenot  and  Kaulen. 

MANdKNOT  in  Vmouitoux.  Did,  de  ia  Bible  (Pmm,  1807). 
8.  V.  Concordances  de  la  Bible;  Kaulbn  in  Kirekmdtx., «.  v. 
Bibdconcordanzen,  prints  9i>eoimen8  of  many  concordances.  To 
these  two  articles  we  are  indebted  for  most  of  our  facts  regard* 
ing  tlie  earlier  concordances.  Hazaxd,  Jntroduetion  to  Walkbk, 
Comprehennve  Concordance  (Boston.  1804);  Baches  in  JeviaA 
Encyclopedia  (New  York,  1003),  s.  v.  Concordance$, 

John  F.  FawLow. 

Ooncordat. — Definition. — Canonists  and  publicists 
do  not  agree  about  the  nature  of  a  concordat  and, 
consequently,  vary  much  in  the  definition  they  give. 
The  various  theories  will  be  explained  later,  but  for  the 
sake  of  orderly  discussion  at  least  k  nominal  definition 
will  be  premised.  In  general,  a  concordat  means  an 
agreement,  or  union  of  wills,  on  some  matter.  But  as 
soon  as  we  attempt  to  define  this  general  notion  more 
clearly  a  diflSoulty  arises.  Agreement  of  wills  may  be 
had  in  many  ways:  in  friendship,  in  regard  to  privi- 
leges, in  a  bilateral  contract^  etc.  Prescmding  for  the 
present  from  the  exact  nature  of  a  coacordai,  and 
without  giving  an  exact  definition,  we  may  say  that  a 
concordat  is  a  law,  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  miMie  for  a 
certain  country  in  regard  to  matters  which  in.  some 
way  concern  both  Church  aod  State,  a  law,  moveover, 
possessing  the  force  of  a  treaty  entered  into  by  both 
the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  powef  and  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent binding  upon  both.  The  foil  meaning  of  the 
terms  employed  will  be  explained  below. 

Purpose. — The  purpose  of  a  ooneordat  is  to  termin- 
ate, or  to  avert,  dissension  between  the  Ghuroh  and 


e&moBWLT 


197 


MirOCttSM 


the  ctvillpowers.  ThiB  ia  evident  from  hiBtorv.  Dui^ 
ing  th]&  nnt  three  centuries,  ^wfaen  the  civil  »uthoi^ 
itv  was  bent  upon  the  total  rum  anddestruetion  of  Idie 
Church,  concordats  were  out  of  the  question.  After 
the  era  of  persecution  was  over,  and^  with  the  excep- 
tion of  some  temporaiy  ueurpations  and  outrages,  the 
Chiiatiaii  Bnyerors  of  ilome  generally  recognised  and 
defended  the  ri^ts  of  the  C9iurch,  concordats  were  xin- 
necessary.  Thm  state  of  affairs  continued  until  the 
end  of  the  eleventii  century,  when  there*  arose  the 
strife  about  investitures  which  was  settled  in- 1122  by 
the  Concordat  of  Worms,  or  Pitctum  CaiZieemffiii,  be^ 
tween  Calhstus  II  <q.  v.)  and  Henry  V.  This  may  be 
called  the  fint  concordat,  unless  the  agreement  of 
London  (1107)  is  reckoned,  as  it  may  be,  among  the 
number  of  concordats,  llie  contest  between  Boni- 
face VIII  and  Philip  the  Fair,  at  the  end  of  the  thir- 
teenth oentuiy,  op^ed  the  way  for  still  further  dis- 
agreements between  the  Church;  whi^  strove  to  pre- 
serve its  rights  inviolate,  and  those  civil  powers  which 
sou^t  to  UBUfp  them,  lliese  dftsagroBmetits  gave 
rise  to  various  concordats.  Before  the  eighteenth 
century  there  were  6ix  (or  seven  if  the  London  agree- 
ment of  1 107  be  counted) ;  during  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury there  wero  fifteen,  and  in  the  nineteenth  century 
a  much  larger  number  (see  Bitm mart  of  Principal 

COKCORDATS,  bclow). 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  De  Angelis,  who  is  followed  by 
Giobbio  and  in  part  by  Cavagnis,  does  not  consider  the 
Pactum  CaUixUnttm  a  concordat,  because  in  it  Callis- 
tus  II  made  no  concession  of  any  importance  to  the 
emperor.  This  reason,  however,  as  Wems  well  ob- 
serves, is  false.  For,  according  to  the  beet  authori- 
ties on  the  Pachim  CcMixtinvmy  the  pope  granted  to 
Henry  V  several  important  concessions,  permitting 
the  emperor  to  assist  at  episcopal  elections  and  to  ex- 
act from  blsh(q)Srelect  in  Germany  and  from  conse- 
crated bishops  in  other  parts  of  the  empire  (i.  e.  in 
Burgundy  and  Italy)  not  merely  the  oath  of  simple 
loyalty  but  even  that  of  vassalage,  by  which  the  rights 
and  liberties  of  the  Church  were  considerably  re- 
stricted. Cava^is  likewise  remarks  about  the  first 
concordat  with  Portugal,  in  1288,  that  it  is  rather  a 
decree  of  the  pope  in  which,  after  hearing  the  bishops 
and  the  royal  plenipotentiaries,  he  decided  what 
should  be  allowed,  wnat  denied,  out  of  the  powers 
which  the  King  claimed  on  the  ground  either  of  privi- 
lege or  of  custom.  Granting  all  this,  it  does  not^seem 
to  follow  that  such  an  act  could  ndt  be  called  a  con- 
cordat; for  it  ib  by  no  means  evident  that  mutual  con- 
cessions are  essential  to  the  veiy  nature  of  a  concor- 
dat. An  agreement  may  very  well  exist  without  mu- 
tual concessions — a  principle  especially  in  accord  with 
the  view  of  thos^  authorities  (including  Cavagnis)  who 
see  in  every  concordat  a  strictly  bilateral  contract;  for 
the  due  rights  of  either  party  can  properly  be  recog- 
nized and  established  by  any  contract  properly  so 
called.  Hence  it  is  plain  that  concordats  nave  in  gen^ 
end  been  made  in  oraer  to  end  a  disagreement  and  re- 
store hirmony.  Not  olioayB,  however;  for  concordats 
have  at  times  been  made  wnen  there  was  no  actual  dis- 
agreement to  be  settled — solely  for  the  purpose  of  prre-. 
venting  disagreements  in  the  future  and  of  rendering 
more  secure  and  permanent  the  welfare  of  the  Church 
in  some  State.  This  was  done  between  Pius  IX  arid 
Crarcia  Morena,  President  of  Ecuador  in  1862. 

With  regard  to  the  necessity  of  concordats  two  ex- 
treme opinions  are  to  be  avoided.  Concordats  are  not 
absolutely  necessary;  neither  are  they  harmful  to  the 
Church  or  civil  society.  Assuredly  it  were*  to  be  de- 
sired that  the  Church  should  never  need  concordats, 
and  should  always  find  in  civil  rulers  devoted  children, 
or  at  least  such  as  would  use  afl  diligence  in  caring  for 
the  spiritual  welfare  of  their  Catholic  subjects,  and 
Would  relieiously  respect  their  rights.  Btit,  unfor- 
tunately, the  contrary  too  often  occurs.  Hence  the 
Church,  to  avoid  a  greater  evil,  has  often  had  to  prom- 


ise to  fbte^  this  or  that  natural  right  of  her  own  bi 
order  to  secure  from  the  State  a  promise  to  refrain 
from  further  encroachment  upon  ecdeeiastical  ri^ts. 

Matt^  or  Object  of  a  Concordat, — The  matter,  or  the' 
objects,  treat^  of  in  a  concordat  may  be  spiritual, 
mixed,  or  tempoml. 

Spiritual  matters  are  those  that  belong  purely  to  the 
spiritual  order,  or  are  connected  with  it:  for  example, 
matters  pertaining  to  the  liturgy.  Thus,  in  some  con- 
cordats there  has  oeen  question  of  inserting  the  name 
el  the  emperor  in  the  Canon  (q.  v.)  and  of  sindng  after 
the  Divine  Office  the  formula:  ''Domine,  sSvam  fae 
rempublicam*',  or  "Domine,  salvos  fac  consules",  or 
*'Domine,  salvos  fac  pnesides  eius''  (cf.  art.  8,  of  the 
Concordat  of  1801 ;  arts.  23,  24  of  the  Concordat  wHAi 
Costa  Rica  and  Guatemala,  1863;  arts.  15,  with  Haiti, 
18C0;  art.  21,  with  Ecuador,  1862:  arts.  22,  23,  With 
Nicars^a  and  San  Salvador,  1863).  In  like  mannei- 
there  is  frequent  mention  of  nominating  bishops,  of 
the  establishment  and  bestowal  of  parishes,  or  of  pre^ 
scribing  special  regulations  for  the  promotion  of  clericB 
to  Holy  orders  or  to  ecclesiastical  dignities,  so  as  to 
prevent,  for  example,  the  number  of  clerics  from  be-- 
coming  too  large  (cf.  art.  5,  Concordat  with  Spain, 
1787;  C.  iv.  Concordat  with  Sicily,  1741),  and  so  on. 

Mixed  matters  are  those  which  belong,  thou^ 
under  different  aspects,  both  to  the  temporal  and  spir- 
itual orders,  and  are  subject  to  both  authorities,  such 
as  public  education,  marriage,  etc. 

Temporal  matters  are  such  as  of  their  own  nature 
do  not  belong  to  the  spiritual  order.  In  some  con**- 
eordats  the  CSurch  has  allowed  rulers  to  impose  taxeer 
not  only  on  the  private  possessions  of  clerics,  but  also 
on  ecclesiastical  property;  so  the  Roman  Pontiff  has 
at  times  given  up  nis  claims  on  account  of  certain 
ecclesiastical  properties  damaged  in  the  course  of  civil- 
or  religious  turmoil.  Examples  of  each  of  these  oecuf 
in  the  Concordat  with  Columbia,  ih  1887.*  It  is  to  biar 
noted  that,  when  the  pope  absolutely  surrenders  tem'J 
poral  possessions  of  the  Church,  as  in  art.  29  Of  this 
concordat,  such  possessions  no  lon^r  remain  under 
the  ownership  or  jurisdiction  of  the  Church  or  subject 
to  it.  When,  however,  he  merely*  permits  such  prop- 
erty to  be  taxed  (as  in  art.  6  of  the  Colombian  Oon^ 
cordat,  art.  18  or  art.  19  of  that  with  Costa  Rica,  in 
1863)  then  the  property  remains  in  the  o^^mership  of 
the  Church,  which  does  not  acknowledge  in  the  Swlt© 
any  inherent  right  to  impose  taxes  of  this  kind,  bat 
rather  implies  the  contraiy  by  the  very  concession. 

The  Contracting  Parties. — It  is  clear  that  only  th6se 
persons  in  CJhtn'ch  or  State  are  competent  to  enter  into 
a  concordat  who  in  their  respective  spheres  have  the* 
ri^t  of  making  treaties,  and  indeed  of  enacting  laws. 
Hence,  absolutely  speaking,  bishops,  as  true  nileni  of 
the  Church  vested  with  authority  to  make  laws  strictly 
so  called,  can  also  make  concordats  on  all  matters 
falling  within  their  jurisdiction.  In  past  ages  they 
have  often  exercised  this  ri^t ;  a  concordat  was  made 
between  the  bidiops  of  Portugal  and  King  Diniz  in 
1288,  and  confirmed  by  Nicholas  IV  in  1289.  In  1273 
one  was  made  between  the  bifehops  of  Norway  and 
Magnus  VI  (IV),  by  which  the  bishops  renoimced  the 
right  of  electing  the  king  as  long  as  there  were  legiti- 
mate heirs  of  the  blood,  and  the  king  on  his  part 
bound  himself  to  prevent  the  royal  officials  from 
interfering  with  the  free  exercise  of  ecclesiastieal 
authority.  This  concordat  was  confirmed  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  by  Gregory  X  in  the  Second  Council  of 
Lyons.  Many  other  concordats  made  by  bishops 
might  be  mentioned;  for  example,  between  tne 
bishops  of  Portugal  and  King  Manuel,  confirmed  by 
Leo  X  in  1616.  Candido  Mendes  de  Almeida,  in  hip 
"Jus  Civile  Ecclesiasticum  Brasilicum'  Vetus  et 
Recens",  enumerates  eicliteen  concordats  made  be- 
tween the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  by  the 
Kings  of  Portugal  with  the  clergy  of  the  kingdom,  for 
the  settlement  of  serious  controversies.    At  the  pre»- 


OOXOOBDAT 


198 


OOKOOBnAT 


ent  timd  bishops  do  not  pofisess  tiie  power  of  making 
ooneordats;  it  is  reserved  to  the  pope.  The  reason 
for  this  reservation  is  that  conooroats  deal  not  with 
one  question  only,  but  with  the  settlement  of  all  ec- 
clesiastical matters  in  a  i>articular  country;  such  a 
wide  field  of  afifairs  manifestly  constitutes  a  catiw 
maioTf  and  as  such  is  reserved  exclusively  for  the 
juagment  of  the  Roman  Pontiff.  Moreover,  in  recent 
concordats  concessions  have  ahnost  always  been  made 
contrary  to  the  ordinary  canon  law,  and  such  con- 
cessions can  be  made  only  by  the  pope.  It  should 
also  be  noted  that  governments  desupous  of  entering 
into  a  concordat  wiui  the  Churdi  prefer  to  deal  with 
the  pope,  so  as  to  have  a  regulation  by  which  all  the 
bishops  will  be  bound.  The  Roman  Pontiff  in  making 
a  concordat  acts  in  his  capacity  as  pontiff,  and  not  as 
a  civil  ruler;  and  this  was  the  case  even  before  he  was 
despoiled  of  his  temporal  sovereignty.  Hence,  in 
making  a  concordat,  he  acts  as  pope  and,  as  Supreme 
Ruler  and  Pastor  of  the  Universal  Church,  exercises 
the  supreme  and  full  authority  of  hia  primacy. 

On  t^e  part  of  the  State  those  competent  to  make 
concordats  are  supreme  legislators  or  chief  magis- 
trates— ^an  emperor,  king,  or  president,  actine  alone, 
where  the  supreme  autEority  is  plenary  and  unre* 
stricted  *  acting  with  the  consent  of  the  representative 
bodv,  wnere  such  consent  is  constitutionaUy  necessary 
for  legiBlation.  Wemz  (Jus  Decret.,  I,  166)  remarks: 
"  The  Apostolic  See,  to  avoid  the  risk  of  open  mockery, 
usually  enters  into  solenm  imdertakings  only  where 
a  civil  government  is  under  no  obligation  to  seek  the 
consent  of  a  representative  body,  or  where  there  can 
be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  such  consent  will  be 
oanted."  It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  the 
Koman  Pontiff  makes  concordats  with  governments 
only  in  their  civil  capacity,  even  when  such  govern- 
ments are  non-Cathohc.  fience  it  cannot  be  supposed 
that  a  concordat  with  the  Tsar  of  Russia  or  the  King 
of  Prussia  is  made  with  either  of  these  potentates  as 
with  the  supreme  spiritual  head  of  a  schismatic  or 
Protestant  sect. 

Nature  of  Concordats, — ^To  explaii^  the  nature  of 
concordats  three  theories  have  oeen  proposed:  (a) 
The  legsl  theory,  that  advanced  by  the  regalists; 
(b)  The  compact  theory,  which  regards  a  concordat 
as  a  bilateral  contract;  (c)  The  privilege  theory,  ac- 
cording to  which  a  concordat  has  the.  force  of  a  privi- 
lege on  the  part  of  the  Roman  Pontiff;  but  of  an 
obligation  on  the  part  of  the  civil  ruler. 

Before  explioning  and  examining  these  theories  in 
detail,  it  ia  well  to  note  first  of  all  that  the  name  given 
to  each  theory  should  not  be  understood  as  u  the 
authors  of  the  variovis  opinions  considered  all  the 
articles  of  a  concordat  as  possessing  equal  force. 
Those  who  defend  the  privilege  theory  do  not  main- 
tain that  no  article  in  any  concordat  ever  imposed  an 
obligation  of  justice  on  the  Roman  Pontiff.  On  the 
other  hand,  those  who  defend  the  compact  theory  do 
not  assert  that  the  Roman  Pontiff  is  bound  in  the 
same  way  by  all  the  articles  of  everv  concordat. 
These  theories  have  been  named,  as  Wemz  points 
out,  from  the  feature  most  prominent  in  each.  It  is 
clear,  then,  that  authors  who  defend  the  privile^ 
theory  maintain,  in  the  last  resort,  no  more  than  this: 
that,  in  respect  to  the  greater  part  of  their  matter, 
concordats  must  be  classed  as  privileges  granted  by 
the  Roman  Pontiff.  Nevertheless,  as  this  subject 
matter  of  a  concordat  is  not  necessarily  homogeneous 
(the  unity  of  a  concordat  being  merely  extrinsic  and 
accidental)  it  follows  that  although  the  term  privilege 
may  be  applied  to  a  concordat  taken  as  a  whole,  it 
cannot  necessarily  he  used  of  every  clause  in  the  same. 

(a)  The  Legalist  Theory  does  not  admit  that  con- 
cordats have  the  force  of  a  bilateral  contract,  because 
tlie  State  is  above  the  Church  and,  being  the  supreme 
society,  cannot  make  such  an  agreement  with  an  in- 
ferior or  subordinate  body.    Concordats  ar^  valid, 


however,  because  they  are  civil  laws  poased  by  the 
State  in  regard  to  the  Churdi.  It  follows  from  tiiis 
view  that  conocnrdats  may  always  be  revoked  by  the 
State,  but  not  by  the  Pontiff;  as  far  as  the  Church  is 
concerned  th^  are  mere  fnivileges  revoeable  at  the 
will  of  the  civfl  ruler.  This  theory  is  hekl  in  our  dmya 
more  or  less  strictly  by  various  governments  and  nsany 
writers,  chief  of  wnom  is  Hinsdiius. 

(b)  The  Compact  Theory,  as  we  have  said,  makes 
of  the  concordat  a  bilatersil  compact.  It  must  be 
observed,  however,  that  the  advocates  of  this  view 
are  divided  among  themselves.  Some  hold  strenu- 
ously that  the  Roman  Pontiff  can  make  no  diange 
whatsoever,  not  even  validly,  in  regard  to  anything 
which  he  has  conceded  in  a  concordat.  The  chi^ 
writer  of  this  school  is  Schulte,  an  ex-Oathcdie,  who 
openly  bsses  his  views  of  concordats  on  his  assump- 
tion of  the  perfect  co-ordination  and  equality  of 
Church  and  State,  just  as  the  legalist  theory  is  founded 
on  the  subordination  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  the  civil 
power.  Others,  among  whom  we  may  enumerate  De 
Angelis,  Cavagnis,  and  Fink,  while  upholding  the  com- 
pact theory,  so  explain  it  as  to  f ull^^  accord  with  steiet 
Catholic  t^u^ing  on  the  constitution  of  the  Ghurdi. 
A  concordat,  in  their  opinion,  is  a  bilateral  compact, 
but  not  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term.  Indeed  they 
so  limit  and  weaken  the  force  of  a  contract  as  ap- 
plied to  a  concordat  that  at  times  they  seem  to  be 
maintaining  the  view  of  those  who  hold  that  a  con- 
cordat is  to  be  considered  as  a  privilege  rather  than  a 
real  contract. 

(c)  The  Privilege  Theory,  according  to  which  con- 
cordats, if  we  regard  their  general  character  and  the 
bulk  of  their  contents,  lack  for  the  most  part  the  force 
of  a  true  contract,  and  are  to  be  considered  as  impos- 
ing an  obligation  on  the  civil  power  alone,  while  on  the 
part  of  the  Church  they  are  merely  privilcn^  or  con- 
cessions granted  by  the  Roman  Pontiffs,  ^ia  view, 
which  counts  among  its  recent  staunch  defenders  Car- 
dinal Tarquini,  seems  to  rest  upon  surer  grounds  than 
the  others.  Before  advancing  the  arguments  in  its 
favour,  it  would  be  well  to  examine  the  position  of  its 
opponents.  It  is  evident  that  the  advocates  of  the 
first,  or  le^list,  theoiy  build  all  their  arguments  upon 
the  supposition  that  the  Church  is  subject  to  the  State, 
of  which  it  forms  but  a  department,  lust  as  any  other 
body  is  subject  to  the  whole  of  which  it  is  a  part  and 
from  which,  consequently,  it  depends.  This  view  we 
find  expressly  mamtained  by  Minschius,  who  says: 
''The  theory  that  asserts  that  a  concordat  posaeeees 
the  force  of  a  contract  seems  untenable,  notwithstand- 
ing the  vast  numbers  of  its  followers.  According  to 
the  modem  civil  law  the  authority  of  the  State  over  all 
matters  falling  within  its  sf^ere  is  pmnipotent,  and 
Christian  Churches  whidi  exist  within  the  territory  of 
any  State  are  subject  to  that  State  in  just  the  same 
manner  as  are  private  corporations  or  individuals.'' 
Hammerstein,  in  his  clever  refutation  of  these  errors 
(De  EcclesiA  et  Statu  juridice  consideratis.  Trier,  p. 
211)  says  that  this  ''sphere",  within  which  the  State 
is  said  to  be  omnipotent,  may  be  understood  in  a  ju- 
ridical or  a  geographical  sense,  i.  e.  as  signifying  the 
limits  either  of  the  State's  rights  or  of  its  eeogra^ical 
possessions.  If  taken  in  the  first  sense,  the  grandiose 
words  of  Hinschius  become  puerile,  H  in  the  second 
sense,  then  Hinschius  is  advocating  a  legal  enormity. 
For  if  the  word  sphere  be  taken  to  signify  "extent  of 
authority",  the  assertion  of  Hinschius  means  nothing 
more  than  that  the  State  can,  within  the  limits  of  its 
own  rights  and  authority,  do  what  it  will.^  And  it 
needed  no  philosopher  to  proclaim  this,  since  it  is 
abundantly  evident  that  anyone  can  do  all  whatso- 
ever he  can  do.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  aphere  be  taken 
in  the  sense  of  "geographical  extension  ,  Hinschius  is 
maintaining  that  the  State  may,  within  the  bounds  of 
its  own  territory,  perpetrate  any  crime  it  chooses.  To 
quote  Hammerstein,  "  We  have  said  that  the  phrase, 


OQXOOBDJff 


199 


OOHOOBDAt 


*ihit  State's  sphere '»  can  be  undentdod  to  mean  geo- 
onphioal  extension.  In  this  case,  the  teaching  ofthe 
Pk-ussian  canonist,  Hinschius,  when  taken  in  the  oon- 
crete,  nraetically  comes  to  this^ — that  within  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  tiie  Prussian  govern- 
ment  can,  without  any  injustice  whatever,  behead, 
bum  alive,  or  spoil  of  their  property  all  whomsoever  it 
peases  and  because  it  pleases ;  and  whv?  Because  the 
Frassian  government  is-^mn^tent  I  Surely  a  won- 
deiful  B^ibtm  of  jurisprudence!"  Moreover,  it  is 
notewor&y  that  the  very  principle  which  this  school 
of  writers  assume  as  the  basis  of  their  argument, 
namdy  that  no  true  compact  can  exist  between  a  sov- 
ereign power  and  its  subordinates  (whence  they  argtie 
that  between  the  civil  and  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties no  compact  oan  exist  entailing  strict  obligations 
upon  the  former),  this  funcbunental  principle  is  not 
oi^y  false  in  itsdf  but  is  contradicted  by  their  own 
theories.  For  they  maint>ain  that  a  stnct  compact 
oan  be  made  between  ruler  and  ruled,  whereby  the  aiH 
thority  of  the  fonner  mav  be  diminished,  or  even  par- 
tiaUv  or  wholly  abolished. 

Those  who  claim  that  eonoordats  are  to  be  consid- 
ered as  bilateral  contracts  m  the  strictest  sense  of  the 
word  experience,  in  trying  to  maintain  their  assertion 
the  same  difficulty  as  the  followers  of  the  legalist 
theory.  They,  too,  have  recourse  to  a  false  principle, 
that  of  the  perfect  co-ordination  and  equality  of 
Churdbi  and  State.  It  does  not  fall  within  the  scope 
of  this  article  to  show  ihe  falsity  of  this  assumption; 
suffice  to  say  in  pasang,  that  the  co-ordination  or  sub- 
ordination of  societies  among  themselves  is  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  co-ordination  or  subordination  of  the 
ends  for  the  attainment  of  which  said  societies  were 
instituted:  now  the  end  the  Church  has  to  attain  is  su- 
perior to  tnat  of  any  other  societv. 

The  argmnents  of  those  who  hold  that  concordats 
are  foiliUwal  contracts,  though  onlv  in  the  broad  sense 
of  the  temiy  are  based  upon  their  language  and  diplo- 
matic form.  For  ihev  argue  that  these  dearly  show 
that  the  popes  themselves  regarded  concordats  as  conr 
cessions  to  which  were  annexed  the  binding  force  of  a 
oompact,  and  that  in  making  them  they  intended  to 
bind  themselves  by  them  sometimes  to  the  extent  of 
declaring  nidi  and  void  whatever  they  themselves  or 
their  successors  should  do  in  contravention  of  any- 
thing contained  in  their  eonoordats.  An  example  m 
point  is  the  concordat  between  Leo  X  and  Francis  I  of 
France.  Furthermore,  it  is  claimed  that  the  popes 
often  have  referred  to  concordats,  directly  or  equiva- 
lently,  as  bilateral  contracts,  or  agreements  carryiiui; 
with  them  a  strict  oUigation.  Thus  Fink,  in  his  work 
"  De  Concordatis ' '  (Louvain,  1S79),  when  summing  up 
his  argument  says:  ''In  the  estimation  of  the  Holy 
See,  oonooxdats  are  solemn  agreements  with  regard  to 
^e  management  of  ecclesiastical  affaire,  enterad  into 
by  the  supreme  authorities,  ecdesiastieal  and  civil,  ol 
Uie  respective  countries ;  they  are  possessed  of  the  full 
efficacy  of  a  strict  obligation,  and  have  the  force  of^ 
compact  bindmg  both  contracting  parties,  after  the 
manner  of  international  treaties*  Besides  the  obli- 
gation of  justice,  the  binding  force  of  a  concordat  is 
strengthened  by  a  solemn  promise  made  by  each 
party  for  himself  and  his  successors  to  observe  forever 
faithfullv  and  inviolably  all  that  has  been  agreed 
upon.  Unless,  then,  by  mutual  consent,  no  concordat 
can  be  broken  without  vblating  every  principle  of 
justice  and  jeopardising  all  oth^r  private  and  public 
oontraetSi"  Omer  arguments  are  drawn  from  ex- 
presskMns  occurring  in  the  diplomatic  correspondence 
of  the  Papal  Secretary  of  State.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
much  of  what  we  have  just  given  from  Fink  is  to  be 
found  not  in  papal  documents  themselves,  but  in  the 
correspondflnee  of  the  Secretariate  of  State.  Lastly, 
the  advocates  of  this  form  of  the  compact  theory  as- 
sert that  ^e  common  opinion  among  cuiioiilsl..s  ia  »lso 
in  their  favour.    But,  with  all  due  respect  to  the 


learned  scholars  who  hold  and  defend  the  opinion,  the 
ajrgument  drawn  from  the  form  of  the  concordat  hat* 
but  little  wei^t.  For  it  is  not  at  all  rare  for  an  act  to 
be  clothed  with  a  form  which,  though,  perhaps,  less 
adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  act  itseu ,  yet  in  no  way 
changes  that  nature.  For  exam^,  toe  formula  of 
absolution  in  the  Greek  Church  is  deprecatoty.  ^et 
this  form  of  entreaty  in  no  way  changes  the  juaieial 
nature  of  the  pronouncement.  So,  too,  Gregory  VII 
d^pOBBd  Heniy  IV  by  a  form  of  deprecation,  yet  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  judgment  passed  was  truly 
condemnatory*  So  also  a  r^i^us  before  his  solemn 
profession  may  renounce  all  his  possessions  under  the 
lonn  of  a  will,  which  form  endures  even  after  his  pro- 
fession,- while  the  nature  of  the  act  is  essentiiJly 
changed,  since  there  no  longer  exists  Uiat  volunias  an^ 
huUUoria  which  a  last  will  and  testament  of  its  nature 
requires.  Nor  are  the  arguments  drawn  now  and 
then  from  solemn  promises  any  stronger.  For  the 
pope  often  calls  certain  concessions  mentioned  in  con- 
cordats ''privileges",  ''mdults",  etc.,  etc.,  and  at 
times  speaks  even  more  precisely,  asserting  that  he 
will  in  no  way  interfere  in  the  doing  of  this  or  that.  If 
at  times  the  stricter  formuke  are  employed,  as  in  the 
concordat  between  Leo  X  and  Francis  I  (a  formula 
which  seems  to  be  the  strictest  of  all  and  decrees  as 
null  and  void  whatever  to  the  contraiy  is  attempted 
bjr  subsequent  pontiffs),  the:^  are  employed,  as  Tal- 
mieri  notes  in  the  6r8t  edition  of  his  treatise  ''De 
Romano  Pontifice ' ',  first,  thai,  the  pope  may  testify  to 
his  firm  purpose  of  observing,  in  as  far  as  he  may,  the 
points  mentioned  in  the  concordat;  secondly,  because 
of  the  scope  of  the  instrument  itself,  which  is  similar 
to  an  agreement  entered  into  by  a  father  and  his  dis- 
obedient diildren.  In  such  reconciliations  it  often 
happens  that  a  formula  is  used  between  a  father  and  a 
chua  still  under  his  jurisdiction  which  verbally  signi- 
fies a  bilateral  contract,  but  which  in  point  of  fact  is 
employed  for  the  sole  purpose  of  manifesting  the  lenJH 
enc^  and  liberalty  of  the  father.  Thirdly,  very  often 
such  formulae  are  emplpjred  because  of  the  unity  of  the 
act  itself.  That  this  w  true,  is  evident  because  at 
times  there  are  articles  which  bind  the  pope  in  justiccj 
and  also  because  by  a  concordat  a  civil  ruler  (i.  e.  m 
the  case  of  a  concordat  drawn  up  with  a  Catholic 
prince)  is  reallv  and  truly  bound  by  obedienoe  to  the 
Koman  Pontiff.  Hence,  althou^  the  latter  is  bound 
to  his  promise  only  throu^  fidehty  to  his  word,  it  was 
deemed  advisable  to  use  a  common  form  which,  as  in 
Uie  case  of  bilateral  contracts,  implies  a  mutual  obliga- 
tion, the  nature  and  interpretation  of  which  is  suffi- 
ciently evident  from  the  nature  and  ten<»'  of  the  con- 
cordat itself.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  emphatic 
phrases  such  as  those  above  mentioned,  employed 
with  a  view  to  express  the  firm  determination  of  the 
legislator,  are  not  at  all  rare;  so.  for  instance,  there  is 
sometimes  attached  to  a  code  of  laws  a  clause  deroga- 
toiy  of  all  future  laws,  v.  ^  "by  virtue  of  this  un- 
changeable constitution  which  is  to  endure  forever". 
Yet  no  one  claims  that  a  subsequent  legislator  is 
bound  bjr  such  a  clause,  nor  that  he  cannot  abrogate 
the  constitution  in  whole  or  in  part.  That  the  popes 
admit  that  concordats  are  identical  with  bilateral 
contracts,  is  not  wholly  true.  For  they  are  rarely 
called  such,  the  ordinary  expression  being  that  they 
have  the  force  of  a  bilateral  contract — ^something  en- 
tirely different.  For  (as  Baldi  notes  in  his  excellent 
work  on  concordats,  "  De  Natur&  et  Indole  Concorda- 
torum)  all  such  technical  phrases  as, "  to  have  the  same 
binding  force  as  a  treaty",  "to  be  a  species  of  con- 
tract", "to  partake  of  the  nature  of  a  privilege",  "to 
resemble  a  gift" — ^all  these  signify  nothing  else  than 
participation  in,  and  not  identity  with,  the  nature  of 
all  of  t^ese.  Just  as  when  the  law  declares,  "  The  od- 
mifision  of  postulation  has  the  force  of  Gonfiniiatiou", 
it  is  legitimate  to  conclude,  "  therefore  admission  of 
postulation  is  not  confirmatiou  but  participates  in  auJ 


OONOO&DAT 


200 


OOmORDAT 


approaches  to,  as  far  as  its  nature  allows,  the  nature  of 
oonfinnation.  Again,  it  axmies  nothine  against  the 
opinion  held  in  we  article  tnat  concordats  are  some^ 
tunes  expressly  designated  bilateral  agreements  or 
contracts  (perhaps  once:  to  wit,  in  tiie  letter  of  Leo 
XIII,  dated  16  Feb.,  1892,  to  the  bishops  and  faithful 
of  Prance),  since  in  such  cases  it  is  evident  that  the 
pope  wished  only  to  observe  all  the  conventionalities 
of  concordats — ^in  so  far  at  least  as  duty  permitted. 
It  was  not  the  pope's  intention  to  define  and  deter- 
mine the  exact  essence  of  a  concordat,  but  rather  to 
manifest  his  mind  on  the  matter  in  question,  and  give 
assurance  that  he,  on  his  part,  would  not  violate  the 
articles  agreed  upon.  Relative  to  this  matter  Wemz 
says:  "Pius  X  praised  Bonald  because  he  brought  to 
his  notice  the  nature  and  peculiar  characteristic  of 
these  w^eements  or  indults."  Then,  too,  Leo  XIII 
earnestly  recommended  that  the  question  of  concor- 
dats be  seriously  and  thoroughly  looked  into.  Surely 
the  praise  of  Pius  and  the  recommendation  of  Leo 
would  have  been  utterly  foolish  if  the  theory  of  bilat- 
eral contracts  had  been  evidently  and  imquestionably 
adopted  by  the  Apostolic  See. 

Of  less  value  is  the  argument  drawn  from  individual 
phrases  occurring  occasionallv  in  diplomatic  corre- 
spondence. For,  apart  from  tne  fact  that  never,  per- 
haps, in  these  diplomatic  notes  is  a  concordat  said  to 
be  identical  with  a  bilateral  contract,  it  must  also  be 
granted,  and  that  without  evasion,  that  the  weakest 
kind  of  argument  is  that  drawn  from  one  or  another 
phrase  used  by  some  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State,  or 
some  Apostolic  Nuncio  in  a  single  diplomatic  note. 
For  the  admission  is  not  forced  upon  us  that  these 
phrases  are  the  best  that  underthe  circumstances  could 
be  chosen.  It  is  also  false  that  the  treaty  theory  is 
more  commonlv  held  by  theologians  and  canonists. 
For  neither  is  tnis  true  of  the  modem  canonists,  while 
it  is  absolutely  false  of  thoee  of  earlier  date,  very  many 
of  whom  (as  Baldi  clearly  proves  in  his  erudite  com- 
mentary on  conccHtlats  already  cited)  held  the  opin- 
ion advanced  in  this  paper.  This  opinion,  it  must  be 
noted,  is  based  on  two  principles:  first,  tiiat  ecclesi- 
astical and  civil  society  are  not  co-ordinate;  secondly, 
that  the  power  of  the  Roman  Pontiff  can  be  neither 
alienated  nor  diminished .  On  this  point  Wemx  wisely 
remarks:  **If  the  co-ordination  of  Church  and  State 
be  urged  as  an  argument,  then  the  treaty  theory  is 
founded  either  on  an  error,  or  on  a  pure  fiction  lackine 
all  objective  reality."  (Cf.  SftgmttUer,  "Lehrbuch 
des  kath.  Kirchenrechts  ",  89  sqq.)  Hence  it  foUows 
that  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  call  a  concordat  an  in- 
ternational treaty  in  the  real  and  true  sense  of  the 
word  (cf.  a  pamphlet  anonymously  edited  in  Rome, 
1872,  under  the  title:  ''Delia  Natura  e  carattere  ee- 
senziale  dei  Concordati",  whose  author  was  Cardinal 
Cagiano  de  Azevedo).  Neither  can  the  concordat  be 
clflfsed  with  international  treaties,  since  the  latter  are 
entered  upon  by  two  societies  each  perfect  in  itself  and 
both  equal.  The  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
neither  subordinate  to,  nor  equal  to,  the  State,  but  is  in 
a  true  sense  its  superior.  Hence,  also,  it  follows  that 
concordats  are  not  bilateral  contracts ;  since  for  such 
a  contnujt  three  things  are  essentially  required:  (a) 
the  consent  of  two  parties  to  the  same  thing;  (b) 
which  imposes  upon  each  an  obligation  of  commuta- 
tive justice;  (c)  so  that  the  obligation  of  one  party  is 
the  cause  of  a  right  in  the  other,  and  one  obligation  is 
to  the  other  as  effect  to  cause.  But  a  strict  right 
arising  from  commutative  justice  is  altogether  inde- 
pendent not  only  of  the  other  contracting  party,  but 
also,  generally  speaking,  of  public  authority.  Hence, 
no  one  can  lawfully  or  validly  take  such  a  right  away 
from  me  against  my  will.  Moreover,  it  cannot  h!e 
said  that  concordats  impose  on  the  pontiff  an  obliga- 
tion which  is  the  cause  of  a  right  in  the  other  party, 
and  of  such  a  right  as  can  be  neither  lawfully  nor 
validly  recnll<?d.    For  certainly,  in  this  hypothesis,  a 


succeeding  'pontiff  oooid  not  do  as  much  as  his  pred^ 
cessor;  he  would  reoeive  a  lessened  pow«r,  not  th&t 
which  Peter  received  from  Christ  to  be  traoBmitted  to 
his  successors  for  the  government  of  the  church.  And 
this  surely  cannot  be,  since  each  Buooeeding  pontiff 
receives  his  power  not  from  his  dead  predeceosor,  but 
from  Ood  himself,  who  alwsvs  gives  the  sdfsame,  as 
he  has  said  once  for  all  to  Peter  and  his  suoceaaon: 
''Thou  art  Peter  and  upon  this  rock  I  will  bufld  my 
church  .  .  .  Feed  my  lambs  ...  I  will  give  to  thee 
the  keys".  Therefore  a  succeeding  pontiff  is  not 
bound  by  the  compacts  of  his  imdecessor  as  by  a  bi- 
lateral contract  giving  such  a  strict  right  of  oommutsr- 
tive  justice  that  if  he  violate  the  agreement  without 
cause  his  act  is  invalid.  And  neither  is  the  pontiff 
who  has  made  such  compacts  so  bound  by  thera,  for 
he  is  not  the  maater  of  that  fullness  of  power  whidi  ia 
the  primacy,  but  only  its  administrator,  so  that  he 
cannot  alienate  or  lessen  it.  Nor  can  you  argue  that 
by  concordats,  which  ore  bilatonl  contracts,  not  the 
power  of  the  supreme  pontiff,  but  only  its  exercise,  is 
diminished.  For  what  is  that  power  which  can  never 
be  exercised,  or  which,  if  exettcised,  remains  without 
effect?  And  such  would  be  the  case,  for  even  if  the 
pontiff  wished  he  could  not  act  validly,  and  therefore 
his  power  would  be  lessened.  And  hence  the  Rmnan 
pontiff  must  retain  the  fullness  of  power  and  juiiadic- 
tion  over  those  questions  whieh  are  settled  in  a  oon- 
oordat.  This  is  what  Cardinal  Antondli,  Secretory  of 
State,  maintained  in  his  diplomatic  correspondence, 
when  the  Kingdom  of  Portugal  complained  that  the 
pontiff  had  violated  the  concordat. 

Does  the  pontiff  then  contract  no  obligation  in  con- 
cordats? Assuredly  he  contracts  an  obligation;  and 
they  do  an  injury  to  Cardinal  Tarquini  who  think  that 
he  held  the  opposite.  For,  although  he  does  not  men- 
tion this  obligation  in  his  definition  of  conoordats,  he 
certainly  admits  it  when  explaining  his  meaning.  But 
this  obligation  is  one  of  fidelity,  not  ot  justice,  an  obli- 
gation iiniich  makes  a  violation  of  the  concoidat  with- 
out just  cause  an  unlawful  act,  but  not  an  invalid  act. 
His  Eminence  Cardinal  Francis  SatoUi  explains  with 
his  usual  depth  and  clearness  the  nature  of  the  obli- 
gation whicn  a  pontiff  is  under  of  observing  a  con- 
cordat. His  little  work,  of  great  authority,  bears  the 
title, ''  Prima  principia  de  Concordatis ' '.  The  learned 
author  beeins  his  investigation  with  the  following 
reasoning  m)m  St.  Thomas,  I,  xxi,  1,  ad  3.  The  An- 
gelic Doctor,  asking  whether  rjietioe.  exists  in  God, 
puts  this  objection  to  himself:  The  act  of  justioe  con- 
sists in  the  pavment  of  a  debt;  but  God  is  a  dd:>torto 
no  one,  therefore  it  would  seem  that  justioe  does  not 
exist  in  God.  To  solve  this  difficulty  the  Holy  Doctor 
first  lays  down  the  principle:  to  every  one  is  due  what 
is  his  own.  He  then  inquires  iHiat  one  may  call  his 
own,  and  establishes  that  one's  own  is  that  which  is 
for  him,  as  a  slave  is  his  master's,  precisely  beeaose, 
iijasmuch  as  he  is  a  slave,  he  is  for  ms  master.  In  the 
name  «fe6e,  therefore,  concludes  the  Angdic  Doctor,  is 
simplified  a  relation  of  exigency  or  neoeaaity  in  a  thing 
referring  it  to  that  for  wnich  it  exists.  Considering 
this  relation  more  thorou^ly,  you  will  see  that  it  is 
twofold :  a  relation  by  which  a  creature  is  for  another 
creature  and  all  creatures  for  God.  Since  thia  relation 
is  twofold,  there  is  also  a  twofold  debt  in  the  Divine 
plan;  one  by  which  a  thing  is  due  to  God,  the  other 
Dy  which  a  thing  is  due  to  the  creature,  and  in  both 
ways,  says  St.  Thomas,  God  can  nuke  payment.  For 
it  is  due  to  God  that  what  the  wisdom  of  his  wiU  has 
decreed  should  be  fulfilled  in  creatures,  aait  is  due  to 
the  creature  that  what  has  been  ordained  for  it  it 
should  possess.  Thus  it  is  due  to  man  that  other  ani- 
mals should  supply  his  needs.  But  this  second  debt 
depends  on  the  nrst,  since  a  thing  is  due  to  creatures 
because  it  is  ordained  for  them  through  the  relations 
fstahhsheti  by  the  Divine  wisdom.  Wherefore,  since 
God  pays  a  debt  to  his  creatures  in  this  way  onlyi  he 


OOHOOftDAT 


201 


OOHOOBDAY 


does  not  become  his  creatures'  debtor,  but  the  nisticc 
of  God  always  looks  to  His  own  propriety,  and  by  it 
he  renders  to  himself  what  is  His  due.  The  author 
then  passes  to  tiie  Church  and  applies  to  her  this  Mo- 
ment. For  to  the  Churah  also  is  due  that  the  mission 
of  her  infallible  and  holy  teachingpower  and  mani- 
festation of  the  saving  quality  of  Christ's  religion  be 
accomplished  in  every  State  throughout  the  world.  It 
is  likewise  due  to  the  various  States  and  their  niters 
that  Uiey  have  what  is  properly  theirs.  But  ihfB  debt 
depends  on  the  fir^t  in  every  relation  between  the 
Church,  or  Holy  See,  and  a  State;  for  it  would  be  ab- 
surd were  not  all  things  ordered  according  to  the  rela^- 
tions  established  by  the  Divine  wisdom,  that  is,  to 
maintain  religion,  and  to  further  the  last  end  of  all 
human  life.  The  debt  which  the  Church  pays  in  tend- 
ing to  her  supernatural  end  is  one  of  justice,  but  of  a 
justice  which  looks  to  the  propriety  of  the  Church  her- 
self, that  is  of  ihe  Holy  See,  a  justice  which  renders  to 
itself  what  is  its  due.  In  purely  temporal  matters  the 
Church  must  observe  the  debt  of  justice  such  as  tem- 
portJ  matters  require,  for  in  these  she  is  not  a  superior 
nor  is  her  spiritual  end  in  question.  'But  in  air  mat- 
ters which  pertain  to  the  supernatural  end  of  the 
Church,  she  can  be  under  no  obUgation  of  strict  debt 
to  the  State,  but  rather  her  obligation  is  to  herself  and 
to  the  spiritual  purpose  of  her  existence.  And  thus, 
generally  spes^mg,  she  will  be  a  debtor  to  States, 
through  compact,  since  she  owes  to  herself  what  her 
wisdom  and  never-failing  desire  for  the  spiritual  good 
of  mankind  has  shown  her  to  be  necessary. 

But  to  present  briefly  what  can  certainly  be  said 
about  concordats;  concordats,  as  they  have  in  fact  often 
been  agreed  upon,  often  impose  upon  the  Roman  Pontiff 
a  true  obligation  of  commutative  justice  towards  the 
state.  This  happens  when  a  concordat  is  concluded 
about  purely  temporal  matters,  for  instance,  when  the 
Church  cedes  some  of  her  temporal  possessions,  or 
when  she  renounces  some  temporal  or  historical  right. 
Such  was  the  case  in  the  concordat  concluded  between 
Urban  VIII  and  the  emperor,  Ferdinand  II,  King  of 
Bohemia;  for  in  this  instance  the  pope  ceded  some 
ecclesiastical  possessions  upon  receiving  othens  from 
Ferdinand  in  compensation ;  such,  too,  was  the  con- 
cordat with  Colombia,  in  1887,  art.  29.  But  we  must 
h&LT  in  mind  that  in  such  concordats  the  pope  follows 
the  common  laws  of  contracts;  therefore,  if  a  con- 
tract be  extorted  from  him  by  fraud  or  intimidation, 
or  il  the  matter  of  the  concordat  be  illicit,  he  or  his 
successor  can  annul  that  contract,  and  sucn  action  is 
quite  licit  and  valid.  Moreover,  if  the  matter  of  the 
concordat  is  illicit,  the  pope  is  evidently  obliged  to 
rescind  the  contract.  Tnus  when  Hennr  V  had,  by 
means  of  fear  and  fraud,  urged  Paschal  II  into  certain 
points  of  agreement,  this  pope  recalled  those  conces- 
sions in  the  First  Council  of  the  Lateran,  on  the  18th 
of  March  of  the  year  1112,  because  the  entire  council 
proclaimed  that  the  concessions  made  to  Henry  were 
illicit — not  a  privilegium,  but  a  pravilegiuntf  as  the 
council  expressed  it.  Thus,  too,  if  a  pope  should 
make  over  to  someone  temporal  possessions  without  a 
just  cause,  his  successor  can  evidently  cancel  such  a 
contract  validly,  because  a  pope  is  only  the  adminis- 
trator, and  not  the  owner,  of  ecclesiastical  possessions. 

In  concordats  the  Roman  pontiff  often  grants  secu- 
lar rulers  i^  privileges  ana  indults;  for  the  pontiff 
expressly  declares  that  he  is  granting  an  inault,  a 
privilege — that  he  is  conceding  this  or  that  particular 
point,  that  he  is  making  such  or  such  a  concession,  or 
mn^ng  a  favour.  Instances  of  this  kind  may  be 
found  in  the  concordat  with  the  Two  Sicilies,  of  the  year 
1741,  c.  viii,  art.  1,  in  another  with  the  Two  Sicilies  of 
1818,  art.  28,  in  a  concordat  with  Costa  Rica,  of  1853, 
art.  7;  in  a  concordat  with  Haiti,  of  1860,  art.  4;  in 
a  concordat  with  Austria,  of  1855,  art.  25:  with  Ecu- 
ador, of  1863,  art.  13,  etc.  Now  if.  as  the  ''Corpus 
Juris  Canonici",  reffiua  juris  16r  in  Sexto,  has  it,  it  is 


becoming  that  no  favour  granted  by  a  sovereign 
^ould  be  recalled,  it  is  fully  evident  trom  what  we 
said  above  that  this  rule  shomd  hold  good  all  the  more 
when  a  privilege  is  granted  in  a  form  so  solemn  aa  that 
used  in  concordats;  nor  is  it  merely  becoming  for  the 
pope  not  to  recall  such  concessions,  but  he  haa  am 
obligation  of  observing  those  very  articles  which  con- 
tain the  privile^.  Tnis  follows  from  what  we  said 
already,  and  this  the  popes  themselves  affirm^  some- 
times, indeed,  in  rather  stringent  terms.  Neverthe- 
less, from  the  explanations  ^ven  above  it  is  evident 
that  these  terms  of  affirmation  must  be  understood 
to  signify  merely  that  the  pope  is  binding  iumseif  in 
so  far  as  he  is  capable  of  bindmg  himself;  but  whilst, 
in  such  concordats,  he  can  bind  himself  in  fidelity,  he 
cannot  bind  himself  in  commutative  justice;  tnere- 
fore,  in  those  terms  in  which  he  affirms  his  obligation 
he  binds  himself  in  fidelity,  but  not  fn  justice.  And 
in  fact,  the  popes  have  been  much  more  scrupulously 
faithful  in  keeping  these  promises  than  the  civil  rulers 
themselves  were,  althou^  the  latter  had  taken  upon 
themselves  a  real  obligation  of  justice. 

In  the  second  edition  of  his  celebrated  work  "De 
Romano  Pontifice"  (Prato,  1891),  Palmieri  maintains 
that,  even  if  concordats  were  strictly  bilateral  con- 
tracts, nevertheless  the  power  of  the  pope  over  them 
would  not  be  lessened  on  that  account.  But  althou^ 
Palmieri  is  quite  justly  acknowledged  as  easily  the 
foremost  autnority  on  ecclesiastical  matters,  both  on 
account  of  his  universal  experience  and  his  intellectual 
acumen,  nevertheless,  in  this  case  his  position  seems 
to  be  untenable.  In  the  first  edition  of  the  same  work 
(Rome,  1877)  he  maintained  that  concordats  are  not 
bilateral  contracts  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term ;  and 
he  bases  his  argument  for  the  opinion  laid  down  in  the 
second  edition  on  the  supposition  that  the  obligation 
of  a  bilateral  contract  impedes,  or  renders  illicit,  any 
action  of  the  pope  against  the  provisions  of  the  con- 
tract, but  that,  nevertheless,  such  action  would  still 
be  valid.  But  this  supposition  is  not  true,  unless  we 
use  the  term  bilateral  contract  in  its  widest  sense: 
but  this  would  be  a  question  about  the  meaning  oi 
words,  and  would  not  touch  the  point  at  issue.  But 
if  we  really  mean  to  tise  the  term,  bilateral  contract,  in 
its  obvious  meaning,  we  must  certidnly  hold  that  such 
a  contract  renders  any  action  against  its  provisions 
null  and  void.  The  learned  author  adduces  two  in- 
stances, taken  from  the  contract  of  buying  and  selling 
and  from  the  engagement  to  many,  to  prove  his  as- 
sertion; but  neither  of  these  two  eases  is  to  the  point. 
For  Uie  engagement  to  marry,  as  Palmieri  himself 
admits,  is  a  bilateral  contract,  consisting  in  the  mu- 
tual promise  of  future  marriiige';  and  yet,  if,  for  in- 
stance, the  bridegroom  marries  some  other  Woman, 
his  action  is  merely  illicit,  but  not  invalid.  A  sale  of 
goods  is  likewise  a  bilat-eral  contract,  and  it  is  com- 
pleted only  by  handing  over  the  article  in  question  to 
the  buyer;  and  yet,  if  the  seller  hands  over  to  some- 
one else  the  article  that  was  already  sold,  the  transfer 
of  the  article  in  question  remains  valid,  even  though 
the  seller  is  bound  to  make  good  the  damages  caused 
to  the  first  buyer.  Therefore  the  two  oases  adduced 
by  Palmieri  prove  nothing;  for  a  bilateral  contract 
renders  invalid  those  actions  merely  which  have  the 
same  subject-matter,  and  in  so  far  only  as  they  have 
the  same  subject-matter,  as  the  contract  itself.  Thus  it 
is  evident  that  the  engagement  to  marry,  being  a  bi- 
lateral contract,  renders  null  and  void  any  new  espous* 
als,  because  the  subject>matter  is  the  same;  but  it 
does  not  render  invalid  a  marriage  with  some  other 
person,  because  marriage  is  quite  another  kind  of  con- 
tract. The  case  is  similar  in  the  contract  of  buying 
and  selling:  even  if  the  buyer  and  seller  have  agreed 
and  concluded  the  sale,  so  long  as  no  transfer  has  taken 
place,  that  contract  does  certainly  not  render  the 
seller  incapable  of  making  a  valid  transfer  of  the  goods 
in  question  to  some  other  buyer;'  but  it  undoubtedly 


OOHOORDAT 


202 


OOXOOBBAT 


dmives  the  seller  of  the  power  of  selling  the  goods 
validly  a  second  time,  unless  the  transfer  of  the  goods 
follows  the  sale.  (Cf .  De  Lugo, ''  De  justiti4  et  iure  *  \ 
disp.  xxvif  163  sqq.) 

So  far  we  have  oeen  considering  concordats  in  their 
relation  to  the  i>ope;  the  secular  rulers  on  their  part 
are  bound  in  conunutative  justice  by  many  articles  of 
a  coneordati  unless  an  exception  be  proved.  But  on 
Christian  rulers  all  the  articles  of  a  concordat  impose 
an  additional  obligation  of  obedience ;  for,  as  Tarquini 
testifies,  a  concordat  may  be  rightly  defined  as  ''a 
particular  ecclesiastical  law  for  a  certain  country,  en- 
acted by  the  authority  of  the  sovereign  pontiff  at  the 
request  of  the  ruler  of  that  country,  and  strengthened 
b^  the  special  obligation,  which  that  ruler  takes  upon 
hunself,  to  observe  its  provisions  forever." 

Effect  of  ConcordaU. — From  all  this  it  follows  na- 
turally that,  since  an  obligation  devolves  upon  the 
contracting  parties,  the  terms  of  the  concordat  should 
be  faithfuUy  carried  out  and  rigidly  adhered  to. 
Neither  party,  then,  may  without  consulting  the  other 
refuse,  except  for  grave  reasons,  to  abide  by  the  terms 
agreed  upon.  Moreover,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  con- 
cordats have  the  force  of  ecclesiastical  laws,  they  at 
once  annul  all  laws  and  special  customs  that  make  for 
the  contrary.  All  other  laws,  however,  i.  e.  those 
which  do  not  clash  with  the  letter  or  spirit  of  the 
particular  concordats,  still  hold;  for  concordats,  bar- 
ring of  course  those  provisions  which  are  especially 
mentioned,  so  far  from  making  the  jfi^  commune  in- 
operative, re-establish  its  validitv.  This  is  clear  from 
the  fact  that  the  intention  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff, 
when  at  the  urgent  request  of  a  civil  ruler  he  yields 
a  point,  or  waives  in  certain  cases  the  claims  of  the 
law  of  the  Church,  is  obviously  to  insist  on  the  duty 
<^  respecting  and  observing  the  ecclesiastical  laws  in 
all  other  details.  Further,  just  as  all  other  laws  when 
properly  promulgated  bind  the  people,  so  concordats, 
inasmuch  as  the^r  take  on  the  lonn  of  civil  laws  are 
binding  on  the  citizens  of  the  country,  and  particu- 
Uu-ly  the  state  officials;  so  much  so  that  any  infringe- 
ment of  them  is  equivalent  to  a  violation  of  the  civil 
laws.  And  rightly  so,  for  concordats  are  promuk^ted 
as  laws  emanating  from  the  power  vested  in  the  State 
as  well  as  that  in  the  Churcn.  The  Sovereign  Pontiff 
gives  publicity  to  the  terms  through  his  cardinals  as- 
sembled in  consistory,  and  through  a  special  Bull ;  the 
dvil  authority  through  the  customarv  channels,  i.  e. 
in  the  legal  way  in  which  other  state  utws  should  and 
usually  axe  promulgated. 

Interprtiaiion  and  Annulment  of  Concordats. — Since 
it  may  very  easily  happen  that  trom  time  to  time  a 
dispute  or  a  disagreement  may  arise  between  the  con- 
tracting parties  as  to  the  meaning  that  should  be  as- 
sig^oed  to  the  articles  agreed  upon  in  the  concordat, 
it  seems  advisable  to  determine  how  the  controversy 
should  be  settled  in  the  event  of  such  a  difficulty. 

In  the  first  place  there  can  be  no  question  that  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  settle  the  dispute  amicably, 
a  precaution  that  is  founded  upon  the  motives  that 
lead  to  the  formation  of  a  conooraat^ — ^namely,  that  of 
terminating  if  not  forestalling  all  disputes.  Conse- 
quently, it  would  be  in  direct  opposition  to  the  nature 
of  the  concordat  if  it  should  itself  prove  a  fresh  reason 
for  misunderstanding.  Its  very  nature,  then,  makes 
it  imperative  that  m  the  event  of  a  disagreement 
arising  touching  the  meaning  to  be  attached  to  the 
concordat,  the  question  should  as  far  as  possible  be 
settled  without  any  rupture  of  friendly  relations;  and 
assuredly  the  Church  nas  never  been  found  wanting 
in  her  efforts  to  further  this  end.  This  precaution,  it 
should  be  added,  has  often  been  taken  in  framing  the 
concordats  themselves.  For  example,  in  the  con- 
cordat drawn  up  by  Pius  IX  with  the  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph  I  of  Austria,  in  the  year  1855,  the  following 
worcis  were  appended  to  art.  35:  "Should,  however, 
any  difficulty  arise  in  the  future,  His  Holiness  and  His 


Imperial  Majesty  shall  consult  with  each  other  that 
the  question  xpay  be  amicabhr  decided. '^  The  vexy 
same  words  occur  in  the  13th  art.  of  the  concordat 
drawn  up  by  the  same  pope  with  William  I  of  WOr- 
tembttg,  in  the  year  1857;  so,  too,  in  the  24th  art.  of 
that  entered  into  bv  the  same  pope  with  Frederick  I, 
Grand  Duke  of  Baden,  in  1859;  and  s^Bun  in  the  24th 
art.  oi  the  concordat  ratified  with  the  President  of 
Ecuador.  Other  instances  of  a  similar  nature  oould 
be  cited.  Since  this  clause,  once  it  is  subjoined  to  a 
concordat,  becomes  a  part  of  the  agreement  and  con- 
sequently assumes  the  nature  of  a  papal  as  well  as  a 
civil  law,  it  must  be  kept  to  the  letter,  so  long,  of 
course,  as  it  is  normally  possible  to  do  so. 

True  as  all  this  is,  it  would  be  erroneous  to  maintain 
that  both  parties  must  concur  in  determining  the 
meaning  of  a  given  clause  or  article.  For  he  is  the 
lawful  interpreter  who  in  the  matter  in  question  is  the 
authoritative  lawgiver.  Now  the  pope  always  retains 
his  jurisdiction  axid  l^pslative  power  over  matters 
that  are  wholly  or  partially  of  a  spiritual  nature,  nor 
can  he  transmit  the  power  to  another.  Consequently, 
the  Sovereign  Pontiff  alwajrs  remains  the  authorita- 
tive interperter.  It  is  plain,  then,  that  should  a  dis- 
cussion arise,  and  the  civil  authorities  refuse  their 
consent  to  a  reasonable  adjustment,  the  Church,  in 
virtue  of  her  higher  judicial  powex,  may  exercise  this 
right  of  annulling  the  concordat.  It  is  clear,  too, 
that,  should  the  Cnurch  at  any  time  pledge  herself  in 
the  event  of  some  future  misunderstaAdin^  to  discuss 
the  situation  with  the  civil  authorities  m  order  to 
bring  about  an  amicable  settlement,  such  an  act  must 
be  looked  upon  as  supererogatory;  for  when  the 
Church  waives  any  of  her  claims  she  makes  a  conces- 
sion to  the  State,  seeine  that  the  hi^est  communitv 
enjoys  tiie  right  of  settling  a  discussion  even  thou^ 
the  inferior  body  withholos  its  consesit* 

It  may  be  well  to  subjoin  a  few  canons, that  shall 
serve  as  guides  in  interpreting  the  various  articles  of 
a  concordat.  Evidently,  the  meaning  of  those  articles 
which  import  a  bilateral  or  unilateral  contract  must 
be  judged  by  the  laws  that  determine  the  exact  scope 
of  contracts,  while  the  meaning  of  clauses  that  bear 
upon  the  granting  of  a  privilege  must  be  decided  by  an 
appeal  to  the  laws  for  the  interpretation  of  privileges. 
In  its  workings,  however,  the  competent  jud^  of  a 
concordat  is  nowadays  the  Sacrecf  Congiiegation  of 
Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs.  Far  less,  of 
course,  is  the  State  justified  in  rescinding  concessions 
granted  at  the  time  the  concordat  was  drawn  up.  For 
it  frequently  happens  that  the  State  promises  to  do 
only  what  it  is  already  bound  to  by  some  preexisting 
obligation ;  or  at  times  the  discussion  turns  on  certain 
matters  which,  the  Church,  by  virtue  of  the  indirect 
power  she  has  over  the  State,  enjoins,  or  again  on 
temporal  affairs  of  which  the  State  had  handed  over 
to  tne  Church  full  and  absolute  dominion.  In  the 
last  case  this  forfeiture  of  dominion  cannot  be  revoked, 
and  for  two  reasons:  first,  because  these  gifts  are 
usually  compensatory  for  confiscated  property — e.  g., 
governments  which  nad  seized  upon  a  considerable 
amount  of  ecclesiastical  property  have  time  and  a^n 
promised  in  the  concordats  to  endow  seminaries, 
church  fabrics,  ete. — ^and  secondly,  because  any  gift 
once  bestowed  on  an  equal  or  a  superior,  even  though 
it  be  purely  gratuitous,  may  not  be  revoked,  as  such 
an  act  would  be  an  exercise  of  jurisdiction  which  it 
cannot  employ  except  against  a  subject.  All,  how- 
ever, acknowledge  that  the  Church  may  lawfully  and 
justly  refuse  to  abide  by  41  concordat  in  all  those  cir- 
cumstances which  would  permit  or  even  oblige  one  to 
break  a  contract.  Should  there  be  question  of  privi- 
leees  or  indults  granted  by  the  pope  in  a  concordat, 
it  lollowB  logically  from  what  we  nave  said  that,  given 
a  just  and  adeouate  reason,  they  may  validly  and 
licitly  be  rescinaed;  if  there  be  no  reason,  then  such 
an  action  would  still  be  valid,  though  not  licit.     It 


eomosDAf 


203 


eOMOOftBAV 


muBt  be  rememberedi  though,  that  the  popes  cxerciBe 
their  authority  only  for  the  gravest  reasons,  and  after 
ail  the  solemn  formalities  of  the  Roman  Curia  have 
been  duly  observed.  Yet,  should  the  pope  rescind 
these  privilegeB,  he  would  not  ordinarily  oe  bound  to 
make  any  oompensation  to  the  State,  as  oompensation 
is  stxietly  obligatory  only  where  the  privileges  revoked 
are  those  tecmiicaUy  called  onerMa  (see  Fiiiviibgb). 
Concordats,  however,  are  not  of  this  nature.  All  this 
applies  with  greater  force  to  concessions  wrung  from 
the  pope  thrmigh  diicanenr,  threats,  or  open  violence, 
or  which  exceed  the  papal  prerogative*  Again,  if  H 
is  a  question  of  dominion  over  temporal  goods  that 
has  passed  from  the  CSiurch  to  the  State,  the  Church, 
it  is  dear,  may  not  revoke  this  concession,  althouf^ 
a  spontaneous  grant  may  be  withdrawn. 

TASQUtNi,  huMuHonet  juns  eon..  I,  tit.  iv:  Appendix  d§ 
etmeordaUt:  PtaLUPS,  Kirdumeht  (Ratisbon,  ISMJ.  Ill,  58; 
ScHUUTB,  Di0  LAre  von  den  Qutuen  etc  435  saqj  n  ebnz.  Jus 
Deer.  (RomA.  1905).  I,  166  sq.;  Mouiab:^  UEgtUe  et  FBua 
(LcmvBin,  1887),  583  mq.:  Azbtvdo.  Delia  mOura  «  canUere 
€9»ewtiaie  dei  Coneordatt  (Rohm,  1872)|  Fiiol,  De  ConwrdatU 
(IxMivain,  1879);  Radinx-Tedxschx,  Chiesa  e  Stato  in  ordine  ai 
Coneordaii  (Blilim.  1887);  Tvunas,  Lee  Caneordata  et  riMioO' 
ti4m.  fieipnqye  «u:«b  imnomnt  (Pans,  1888);  Satocu,  Prima 
mineipia  »  ,  ,  de  Conoordatie  (Rooms  1888)2  Onoaii, 
La  aueetion  dee  Coneordatt  in  Hev,  CcUh.  dies  Jnetitutione  et,  du 
Droll  for  Oet^  1889;  Oataonis.  fnetiiutionee  jurie  pubHci  eed, 
(FraitttfC  im  Br.,  1908);  HAUioinrrBiN,  Do  EedeMA  et  8uuu 
furidiee  eoneideratie  CTner.  1886):  De  Bonalp,  Deux  queetiona 
Mur  le  Concordat  de  1901  (FBris.  1801);  Liberatorr.  La  Chieea 
e  lo  Staia  (Naples.  1872),  iii,  arts.  13.  14;  Id.,  Dei  diriUo  pub- 
Uieo  ecd.  (Prato,  1887).  iv,  art.  8;  Db  Luibb,  De  jure  rmhiieo 
Scd.  CotiL  (Pari*.  1877),  Vj  Baldi,  De  nalivd  et  peculiarx  indole 
Coneordatorum  (Rome.  ^     " 

1900);   Siimi, 
51  wqq^ 


33);   GiOBBio,  /  Concordati  (Monsa, 
Blevumta  of  BceL  Law   (New   York.  1878). 

BSNEDETTO  OjfiTn. 


SmoiABT  ov  Principal  Congordatb. — Before  ike 
Eighie&nth  Century ^^l)  The  Concordat  of  Worms,  or 
Pactum  Calixtinumf  23  September,  1122,  between 
Pope  Galliatus  II  and  the  Emperor  Henr^  V,  con- 
firmed by  the  First  Lateran  Council^  termmated  the 
long  invMtiture  quarreU  The  followmg  were  its  chief 
provisions:  (a)  The  elections  of  bishops  and  abbots 
should  take  place  in  the  presence  of  the  emperor,  (b) 
Contested  elections,  according  to  one  opinion,  should 
be  decided  by  the  emperor,  who  had  only  to  ask  the 
advice  of  the  metn>ix>hta&  and  his  suffragans;  acoord* 
ing  to  another  opinion,  the  decision  rested  with  the 
provincial  synod,  the  emperor  merely  assuring  the 
execution  of  the  synod's  judgment,  (c)  The  empmr 
renounced  the  rigbt  of  ^iritual  investiture  with  ring 
and  crosier  and  received  instead  the  rigiht  of  lay  inves- 
titure with  the  sceptre,  a  sign  of  temporal,  but  not  of 
spiritual,  autliority.  In  Germany  the  prelate  sho\dd 
receive  investiture  with  the  scepive  bmore  oonseerar 
tion,  but  in  other  countries  efter  consecration,  (d) 
The  emperor  promised  to  protect  the  Roman  Qiuroh 
and  restore  the  possessions  of  the  Holy  See.  (e)  The 
pcm  affted  not  to  disturb  those  who  had  been  on  the' 
siae  of  the  emperor  during  the  controversy. 

(2)  Goncoraats  with  Portus^:  one  in  1288  between 
the  biflhops  of  Portugal  and  lung  Diniz  after  a  vfoient 
persecution  of  the  CSiurdi  in  that  country,  and  ratified 
by  Nicholas  IV  in  1289:  another  in  1616,  between  the 
nrtuguese  bishops  and  King  Manuel  the  Fortunatei 
afterwards  confirmed  by  Pope  Leo  X« 

(3)  The  Concordat  of  1516  between  Leo  X  and  Fran* 
ds  I  of  FVance.  confirmed  by  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council, 
was  a  result  or  the  lon^  controversy  between  the  Hol^ 
See  and  the  French  C^vemment  over  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  of  Boui^ges.  Besides  abolishing  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction,  the  terms  of  this  eonooroat  (a)  gave 
to  the  king  the  ri^t  of  presentation'  to  bishoprics, 
idbbeys,^  and  priones;  (b)  the  concordat,  however, 
maintained  the  pope's  right  of  confirmation,  devolu- 
tion (i.  e.  ih6  r^t  to  appoint  of  his  own  choice,  if  the 
Idng  did  'OCft  present  a  candidate  within  the  required 
time),  and  Uie  reservation  of  biflhoprics  made  vacant 
by  the  death  of  the  incumbents  while  at  the  papal 


court,    (c)  It  contained  also  sUpuIft^ns  oonCQU^talg 
the  annates  and  other  matters. 

(4)  The  Concordat  of  Vienna  was  Hie  outcome  of  the 
efforts  on  the  part  of  the  princes  of  the  German  Ekn- 
pire  to  put  an  end,  at  least  in  Germany,  to  the  conflict 
between  Eupene  IV  and  the  Council  ot  Basle.  After 
some  negotiations  Eugene  issued  four  Bulls  (Feb.. 
1447)  which  together  constitute  the  soK^led  Concor- 
dat of  the  Princes.  The  first  was  a  j>romise  of  a  new 
council ;  the  second  contained  a  provisional  acceptance 
of  certain  decrees  of  the  Comicil  of  Bssle;  and  the 
ihird  and  fourth  dealt  with  Uie  details  of  the  e^ree- 
ment.  Eugene  IV  died  shortly  after  this  and  Nicho- 
las V.  his  successor,  confirmed  the  four  Bulls.  But  a 
oertam  number  of  the  princes  being  stOl  imsatisfied, 
i^erick  III  thought  it  time  to  intervene.  At  a  diet 
held  at  Aschaff^nburg,  he  ordered  the  universal  recog- 
nition of  Nicholas  V  as  lawful  pope,  and  on  17  Febru^ 
ary,  1448,  the  Concordat  of  Vienna  was  agreed  upon 
by  the  emperor  and  the  papal  legate,  Carvajal.  It 
was  confirmed  bv  Nicholas  v  on  10  March  of  the  same 
year,  and  was  subsequently  recognised  as  theeoelesias- 
tical  code  for  Germany.  Its  prmcipal  terms  were  the 
following:  (a)  The  electron  of  bishops  was  to  be  free  from 
all  inter^rence,^  though  the  pope  snould  have  the  r^t 
of  confirmation;  and  for  good  reasons  and  with  the 
advice  of  the  caniinals  he  could  appoint  a  more  worthy 
and  suitable  person  than  the  one  elected,  (b)  In  the 
six  odd  months  of  the  year  vacant  canonries  and  non^* 
elective  benefices  were  at  the  disposal  of  the  pope;  at 
other  times  these  vacancies  should  be  filled  by  the  oi^ 
dinary .  (c)  The  concordat  also  treated  of  the  amount 
and  payment  of  the  annates. 

(5)  The  Concordat  with  Bohemia  in  1630  was  neeo- 
thkted  for  that  country  between  Urban  VIII  and  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand  ll;  it  followed  on  the  le-esti^ 
liflhment  of  the  Catholic  religion  in  Bohemia  after  the 
campaign  directed  by  Ferdinand  against  the  heretics. 
By  its  terms  the  Churdi  renounced  the  Roods  that  had 
been  alienated  during  the  progress  of  the  heresy  and 
received  compensation  from  the  revexmes  derived 
from  a  tax  on  salt  which  was  levied  for  her  benefit. 

Eighteenik  Century, — Twelve  concordats  were  made 
during  the  ei^teenth  century.  Five  of  these  with 
Sardinia:  the  first,  in  1727,  between  Pope  Benedict 
Xni  and  Victor  Amadeus  II  confirmed  the  ri§jht  poe- 
sessed  by  the  House  of  Savoy  of  immediate  nomma- 
tion  to  ecclesiastics]  offices;  three  between  Benedioi 
XIV  and  King  Charles  Emmanuel  III  (1741.  1742. 
1750);  the  &Sk  in  1770  between  Clement  XlV  and 
CSiarles  Emmanuel  III*  Two  were  made  with  Spain, 
one  in  1737  between  Clement  XII  and  Philip  V,  an- 
other in  1753  between  Benedict  XIV  and  King  Ferdi« 
nand  VI;  one  with  the  Two  Sicilies  hi  1741,  between 
Benedict  XIV  and  Charles  III- one  with  the  Duchy  of 
MUan  m  1757,  between  Benedict  XIV  and  the  Em- 
press Maria  Teresa;  one  with  Milan  and  Mantua  in 
1784,  between  Piua  VI  and  the  Emperor  Joseph  IIj 
one  in  1778  with  PortuMl;  and  one  with  Poland  in 
1786  between  Clement  All  and  King  Augustus  III. 

Nineteenth  Century.^The  following  were  the  most 
important  concordats  of  the  nineteenth  century:  ^1) 
The  Concordat  of  1801 ,  to  which  a  special  article  is  de- 
voted. (2)  The  concordat  between  Louis  XVIII  and 
Pius  VII  in  1817,  intended  to  re-establish  the  Concor- 
dat of  1616,  abrogate  the  Organic  Articles,  and  re- 
erect  the  suppressed  bishoprics,  but  never  carried  out. 
(3)  The  Concordat  of  Bavaria  in  1817,  concluded  for 
Pius  VII  and  Maximilian  Joseph  by  Cardinal  Consalvi 
and  Baron  von  Hdffelin.  It  dealt  with  the  adminis- 
tntt*on  of  church  property,  a  new  circimiscrmtion  of 
dioceses,  the  erection  of  chapters,  and  especially  nom- 
inations to  ecclesiastical  offices.  An  addnion  made  by 
tiie  State,  and  bearing  a  relation  to  the  Bavarian  con- 
cordat similar  to  that  of  the  Organic  Articles  to  the 
Ocmeordatofl801,gaverisetomuchdispute.  Inl871 
the  Liberals  tried  m  vain  to  have  this  oonoordat  i» 


eOHOO&DAf 


204 


eOMOOSAAT 


leoiM.  (4)  Hie  Caiicordat  with  Sardinia  in  1817^  be-< 
tween  Pope  Pins  VII  and  King  Victor  Emnianuel  I. 
I'i  reduoed  the  aumber  of  bishoprics  to  three  (Turin, 
Genoa,  Ven»lli),  and  contained  regulations  concerning 
the  establishment  of  seminaries  and  chapters,  etc*  (5> 
The  Concordat  with  Prussia  in  1821 ,  concluded  with  the 
Holy  See  through  Prince  von  Hardenberg,  the  chan- 
oelkir..  King  Frederick  William  III  on  23  August, 
1821^  recognjiied  it  as  a  law  binding  on  Prussian  Catho- 
lics It  contains  the  ciroumseription  of  the  arch- 
bishqprics  fmd  bishoprics,  and  regulations  concerning 
the  erection  of  dioceses  and  chapters,  the  qualities  ol, 
candidates,  the  taxation  of  efuscopal  and  archiepis- 
^pal  churches  by  the  Apostolic  Camera,  etc. 

(6)  The  Concordat  of  the  UjDp^r  Rhine  Provinces  in 
1821,  consisting  of  a  papal  BuU  issued  by  Pius  VII  and 
accepted  by  the  King  of  WUrtemberg,  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Baden,  the  Elector  of  Hesse,  the  Grand  Puke 
of  Hesse,  the  Diike  of  Nassau,  the  free  city  of  Frank* 
fort,  the  Grand  Duke  of  Mainz,  the  Dukes  of  Saxony 
and  Oldenburg,  the  Prince  of  Waideck,  and  the  Hanse* 
atic  cities,  Bremen  and  Liibeck.  By  this  concordat  the 
hishopriea  were  divided  among  the  provinces  as  follows: 
Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  the  metropolis,  was  the  see  for, 
Baden  ;llottenburg  for  WUrtemberg;  Mainz  for  Hesse- 
Darmstadt;  Fulda  for  Kurhesse  and  Saj^e-Weimar; 
Limburg  for  Nassau;  and  Frankfort.  (7)  The  Con- 
cordat with  Belgium  in  1827,  It  extended  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Concordat  of  1801  (q.  v.)  to  Belgmm. 
(8)  The  Concordat  with  the  Upper  Rhine  Provinces  in 
1827  between  Leo  XII  and  the  above-onentioned  prov- 
inces. It  contained  agreements  on  the  election,  of 
bishops,  the  processus  tnformalivus,  the  holding  c^  a 
second  election  when  the  first  had  not  been  canonical 
or  the  person  elected  had  not  the  necessary  qualities, 
the  institution  of  chapten?.  the  establishment  of 
seminaries,  eto.  (0)  The  Concordat  ol  Hanover^ 
agreed  Upon  between  Pius  VII  and  George  IV,  King 
Of  England  and  of  Hanover,  but  published  26  August, 
1824,  Dy  Lto  XII  in  the  Bull  ''Impensa  Romanorum 
Pontifioum  soUicitudo''.  It  contamed  decisions  con- 
cerning the  erection  and  support  of  the  bishopric  and 
dkapter  of  Hildesheim,  and  the  suspension  of  the  state 
support  of  the  Bishopric  of  Osnabrilck.  Both  of  these 
dioceses  were  placed  directly  under  the  Holy  See;  the 
concordat  dealt  also  with  the  election  and  consecra* 
lion  of  the  bishop,  the  processwi  infarmalivuSt  the  in- 
stitution of  the  cathedral  chapter,  and  taxation  by  the 
Apostolic  Camera. 

(10)  The  Concordat  of  Oldenburg,  arranged  5  Janu- 
aiy,  1830,  between  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Ermeland  as 
executor  of  the  papul  Bull ''  De  salute  animarum''  and 
von  Brandenstein,  the  Minister  of  State.  It  dealt 
with  the  distribution  of  parishes,  the  founding  of  cer- 
tain canonries  bv  the  grand  duke,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  special  ecclesiastical  court  in  the  Diocese  of 
Milnster.  (II)  A  concordat  with  Austria,  concluded 
18  August,  1855,  bv  Cardinal  Viale  Prela  and  the 
Prince-Bishop  Joseph  Othmar  von  Rauscher.  It  was 
ratified  by  the  emperor  25  September  and  by  the  pope 
3  November,  but  in  1870  was  rejected  by  the  Gov- 
ernment. (12)  A  concordat  with  Austria,  8  Jul^, 
1881)  concerning  the  establishment  of  the  hierarchy  m 
BosniorHerzegovina.  (13)  A  concordat  with  Russia, 
concluded  3  August,  1847,  published  by  Pius  IX  on  3 
July,  1848.  It  was  concerned  with  me  dioceses  of 
Russia  and  Poland  and  theepiscopal  rights.  (14)  A  con- 
cordat with  Spam,  16  March,  1851 ,  on  the  support  of  the 
Catholic  religion,  protection  of  episcopal  rights,  drcum- 
Bcription  of  dioceses,  abolishment  of  exempt  dioceses, 
constitution  oi  chapters,  establishment  of  seminaries, 
the  right  of  the  monarch  to  appoint  to  ecclesiastical 
offices,  and  the  right  of  the  Church  to  acauireproperty. 
(15)  A  concordat  with  Spain,  25  Noverooer,  1859,  sup- 
plementary to  the  Concordat  of  1851*  (16)  Concor- 
dat with  Switzeriand,  26  March,  1828.  The  episcopal  see 
iras  transferred  from  Basle  to  Soleure   (17)  Concordat 


with  Switzerland,  7  November,  1845,  relative  to  the 
Diocese  of  St.  GaU.  (18)  Concordat  with  the  Two 
Sicilies,  1884,  between  Pope  Gr^ory  XVI  and  Kng 
Ferdinand  II,  on  the  personal  immunity  of  dericsL 
(19)  Concordat  with  Sardinia  1841,  also  on  the  ibh 
munity  of  clerics.  (20)  Concordat  with  Tuscany, 
1851,  on  eccleaiastiGal  jurisdiction  and.  the  admlnistrar 
tion  of  church  property. 

(21)  Concordat  with  San  Salvador,  22  April,  1862. 
Among  other  provifiions,  the  Catholic  religiDn  was  de- 
clared the  State  religion^  but  oiher  cults  pennitted; 
education  was  placed  under  the  supenision  of  the  bish* 
ops;  the  ceni^rship  of  books  by  the  bishop  was  reco^ 
mzed  and  upheld  by  the  State;  unrestricted  commum- 
cationwith  the  pope  was  guaranteed  to  cleigy  and  lait^; 
tithes  were  abolished,  the  expenses  of  worship  to  be 
defrayed  by  the  State;  the  president  was  given  the 
right  of  patronage  and  of  nominating  to  all  bbhoprics. 
and  of  appointing  to  six  canonries ;  new  dioceses  shoula 
be  erected  by  the  pope  and  new  parishes  by  the  bish- 
op. TTie  bishoji  might  introduce  religious  ordere  and 
communities;  the  vicar  capitular  should  be  chosen  by 
the  chapter  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  Coimcil 
of  Trent*  the  ecclesiastical  courts  were  recognized  only 
for  purely  spiritual  matters,  temporal  matters  to  tie 
subject  to  tne  civil  jurisdiction;  the  right  to  acquire 
and  possess  property  was  guaranteed  to  the  (^ureh; 
the  confiscation  of  church  property  and  the  arbitrary 
union  or  suppression  of  benefices  by  the  State  was  for- 
bidden; the  right  to  tax  church  property  was^  ceded  to 
the  State;  the  prayer  for  the  republic  was  granted,  also 
the  so-called  privilegia  castrensia.  In  matters  not 
mentioned  in  the  concordat  the  ordinary  discipline  of 
the  Church  should  be  observed.  (22)  The  concordat 
with  Guatemala,  7  Get,  1852,  that  wtth  Honduras,  22 
April,  1862,  that  with  Nioamgua,  2  November,  1861, 
were  similar  to  the  concordat  with  San  Salvador.  (23) 
Concordat  with  Venezuela,  26  July,  1862.  (24)  Con- 
cordat with  Ecuador,  29  May,  1851,  similar  to  the 
Concordat  with  San.  Salvador/  (25)  Concordat  with 
Hayti  and  the  West  Indies,  28  March,  1860.  (26) 
Concordat  with  Colombia,  1887. 

RsNiiRD  in  DicL  da  thiol.  dUkolique,  8.^  v.s  HBROsifRdTBUi 
in  Kircherdex.,  8.  v. — For  concordats  with  S{>ain:  Herqex- 
rOthcr,  Spaniena  Verhandlungen  mU  dent  HHniacken  SdtkU  in 
Ardiiv  f.  hathdiiaehen  Kirchenreehtt  X.— For  ooocordats  with 
Central  America:  Sentib.  Die  CancordoU  dta  rdimi»Ghet^  SiuhUM 
mit  den  Republiken  CefUralamerikae  in  Arekiv  f.  hafholitK^ten 
Kirchenrecht,  XII,  225;  NuftSt,  Qu%n^[uaginta  Ccmvenfionet  d§ 
Rebu»  Eedettitulicia  inter  8,  Sedeit  ti  CivHem  JPiotnUttem  vani» 
formia  initm  (Rome,  1869):  IvKU^Consentionea  •  •  .  iniUt 
aub  Ponlifioalu    •    •    •    Leonta  PP,  Xllf  (Rome,  l^H). 

Leo  a.  Kelly. 

Ooncordat  of  160X»  Thb  Fbenck. — ^This  xuune  is 
given  to  the  convention  of  the  26th  Messidor,  year  IX 
^uly  16,  1802),  whereby  Pope  Pius  VII  W  Bona- 
parte, First  Consul,  re^-established  the  Catholic 
Church  in  FranCe.  Bonaparte  understood  that  the 
rsstoiation  of  religious  peace  was  above  all  thiiigs 
necessanr  for  the  peace  of  the  countnr.  The  hostility 
of  the  VendeanS  to  the  new  state  of  affairs  which  re- 
sulti^  from  the  Revolution  was  due  chiefly  to  the  fact 
that  their  Catholic  conscieaces  were  outraged  by  the 
Revolutionary  laws..  Of  the  136  sees  of.  ancient 
France  a  certain  number  had  lost  their  titulars  by 
death;  the  titulare  of  many  others  had  been  forc^  to 
emigrate.  In  Paris  the  Cathedral  of  Notre-Dame  and 
the  church  of  St-6ulpioe  were  in  the  poscsession  of 
''constitutional"  clergy;  Royer,  a  ''oonstitutionar' 
bishop,  had  taken  the  place  of  Mgr.  de  Juign^,  the  law- 
ful Anchbishop  of  Paris,  an  indgrii  even  in  the  churches 
which  the  Catholics  had  recovered,  the  rites  of  the 
"Theophilanthropiste"  and  thoseof  the  "Decadi"(8ee 
TH90PHiLANTKR0PiaM,  Decadi)  Were  also  celebrated. 
The  nation  suffered  from  this, religious  anarchy,  and 
the  wishes  of  the  people  coincided  with  Bonaparte's 
projected  policy  to  restore  the  Catholic  Church  and 
Catholic  worship  to  .their  nonnal  condition  in  France, 

L  Tss  First  Aovancw^— On  the  25th  of  June^. 


eoNdbiutfAt 


205 


OMTOOUMLT 


I80pj  Bonaparte,  after  his  victory  at  Marengo,  passed 
throng  Vercelli,  where  he  paid  a  visit  to  Cardinal 
Martiniana,  bishop  of  that  city.  He  asked  that  prel- 
ate to  go  to  Rotne  and  inform  Pius  VII  that  Bona- 
parte wished  to  make  him  a  present  of  thirtv  million 
French  Catholics ;  that  the  first  consul  desired  to  reor- 
ganize the  French  dioceses,  while  lessening  their  num- 
ber; that  the  6migr6  bishops  should  be  induced  to  re- 
sign their  sees;  that  France  should  have  a  new  clergy 
untrammelled  by  past  ^Utical  conditions;  that  the 
pope's  spiritual  jurisdiction  in  France  should  be  re- 
stored. Martiniana  faithfully  reported  these  words 
to  Pius  VII.  It  was  only  a  few  months  before  that 
Pius  VI  had  iied  at  Valence,  a  prisoner  of  revolution- 
ary Prtmce.  Pius  VII,  when  elected  at  Venice,  had 
announced  his  accession  to  the  legitimate  government 
of  Louis  XVIII,  not  to  that  of  the  Republic;  and  now 
Bonaparte,  the  representative  of  this  de  facto  goyem- 
ment,  was  making  overtures  of  peace  to  the  Holy  See 
on  the  very  morrow  of  his  great  victory.  His  action 
naturally  caused  the  greatest  surprise  at  Rome.  The 
difficulties  in  the  way,  however,  were  very  serious. 
Tliey  arose,  chiefly  (1)  from  the  susceptibilities  of  the 
&m%grS  bishops,  from  the  future  Louis  XVIII,  and  from 
Cardinal  Mauiy,  who  was  suspicious  of  any  attempt 
at  reconciHa;tion  between  the  Roman  Chiurch  and  the 
new  li^nce;  (2)  from  the  susceptibilities  of  the  former 
revolutionaries,  now  the  courtiers  of  Napoleon,  but 
still  imbued  with  the  irreligious  philosophy  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  distinctive  man:  of  the  ne- 
g>tiations,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  the  fact  that  the 
French  bishops,  whether  still  abroad  or  returned  to 
their  own  country,  had  no  heart  whatever  in  them. 
The  concordat  as  finally  arranged  practically  ignored 
their  existence. 

II.  The  Thbke  Phases  6r  the  Negotiations. — 
Firs*  Phase  i5  November,  2S00—10  March,  X80£). 
Spina,  titular  Archbishop  of  Corinth,  accompanied  by 
Caselli,  General  of  the  oervites,  arrived  in  Paris,  on 
5  November,  1800.  Bemier,  who  had  been  parish 
priest  of  Saint-Laud,  at  Angers,  and  famous  for  the 
part  he  had  played  in  the  wars  of  La  Vendue,  was  in- 
stmcted  bv  ^Bon£^arte  to  oonfer  with  SpinsL  Four 
pro]iosals  for  a  conoordat  were  submitted  in  turn  to 
the  pope^s  representative,  who  felt  that  he  had  no 
ri^t  to  sign  them  without  referring  them*  to  the  Hobr 
S».  Finely,  alter  numerous  dek^  for  which  Tal- 
leyrand wsis  responsible,  a  fifth  proposal,  written  by 
Napoleon  himseu,  was  brought  to  Rome,  on  10  March, 
by  the  courier  Pahnoni. 

Second  Phase  (10  March,  1301—S  June,  1801), 
CacMdt,  member  of  the  Corpe  Legisilatif,  appointed  as 
minister  plenijMtentiary  to  the  Holy  See,  reached 
Rome  on  8  April,  1801 .  He  had  received  iostructions 
from  Napoleon  to  treat  the  pope  as  if  he  had  200,000 
men.  He  wad  a  gpod  Christian,  and  anxious  to  bring 
the  work  of  the  conoordat  to  a  successful  issue. 
What  Bonapfarte  wished;  however,  was  the  immediate 
acceptance  by  Rome  of  his  plan  of  the  concordat;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  cardinals  to  whom  Pkis  VII  had 
submitted  it  took  two  months  to  study  it.  On  12 
May,  1801,  tiie  very  day  on  which  Napoleon,  at  Mal- 
maisoa,  was  eomplaiftin^  to  Spina  of  the  slowness  of 
the  Holy  See,  the  cardmals  to  whom  the  proposed 
concordat  had  been  submitted  seat  yet  another  mx>- 
posal  to  Paris.  But,  before  this  last  proposal  had 
reached  its  destination,  Cacault  received  an  ultima- 
tum from  Talleyrand,  to  the  effect  that  he  must  leave 
Rome  if,  after  an  interval  of  five  days,  the  concordat 
proposed  by  Bonaparte  had  not  been  signed  by  Pius 
VIL  All  might,  even  then,  have  been  broken  off, 
had  the  situation  not  been  saved  by  Cacault.  He 
left  Rome,  leaving  his  secretary  Artaud  there,  but 
suggested  to  l^e  Holv  See  the  idea  of  sending  Cousalvi 
himself.  Secretary  of  State  to  Pius  VII,  to  treat  with 
Bonaparte.  On  6  June,  1801,  Artaud  and  Consalvi 
left  Rome  in  liie  same  carriage. 


Third  Ph^ae  (S  JuHe,  1901--ld  Jtdy,  1801).  Con- 
salvi,  after  an  audience  with  Bonaparte,  discussed  the 
va];iouB  points  of  the  proposed  concordat  with  Ber- 
nier,  and  on  12  July  they  had  reached  an  agreement. 
Bonaparte  thereupon  inj9tructed  his  brother  Joseph, 
Cretet,  councillor  of  state,  and  Bemier  to  sim  the 
concordat  with  Consalvi,  Spina,  and  Caselii.  During 
the  day  of  the  13th,  Bernier  sent  Consalvi  a  minute, 
axicfing:  ''Here  is  what  they  will  propose  to  yovi  at 
firat;  read  it  well,  examine  everything,  despair  of 
nothing.''  Between  this  minute  and  the  proposal 
concerning  which  Consalvi  and  Bemier  had  come  to 
the  agreement  of  the  day  before,  there  were  certain 
remarkable  differences  with  regard  to  the  publidtv  of 
worship:  a  clause  relative  to  married  priests,  and  al- 
ways rejected  by  Consalvi,  was  inserted;  the  clauses 
relating  to  seminaries,  to  chapters,  and  thatof  the  pro- 
fession of  the  Catholic  Faith  hy  the  consuls,  to  wnieh 
the  Holy  See  attached  great  importance  were  sup- 
pressed. Consalvi  rebeived  the  impression — ^he  ex- 
presses it  in  his  "M«noirs",  written  in  1812 — ^that  the 
French  Government  intended  to  deceive  him  by  sub- 
stituting a  fresh  text  for  the  text  he  had  aocepted ;  and 
d'Haussonville,  in  his  book,  "The  Roman  Church  and 
the  First  Empire",  has  formally  impugned  the  good 
fstith  of  Bonaparte's  representatives.  Bemier's  afore- 
mentioned note  of  13  July,  recently  discovered  by 
Cardinal  Mathieu,  ajsking  Consalvi  to  '*  read  "  and  **  ex- 
amine" carefully,  proves  that  the  French  GrOV«m- 
ment  did  not  intend  any  deception;' nevertheless,  the 
presentation  of  this  new  draft  reopened  the  wholeques* 
tion.  Talleyrand  had  taken  the  initiative  in  this 
matter;  for  twenty  consecutive  hours  Bonaparte's 
three  plenix)otentiaries  and  those  of  the  Holv  See  car- 
ried on  their  discussion.  The  plan  on  wnidi  they 
finally  agreed  was  thrown  into  the  fire  by  Bonaparte, 
who  that  evening,  at  dinner,  gave  way  to  a  violent  fit 
of  anger  against  U)nsalvi.  Finally,  on  15  July,  a  confer- 
ence of  twelve  hours  ended  in  a  definite  agreement;  on 
the  16th  Bonaparte  approved  of  it.  Pius  VII,  on  his 
part,  after  consultation  with  the  cardinals,  sanctioned 
this  arrangement,  11  August;  on  10  September  the 
signatures  were  exchanged,  and  on  18  April,  1802, 
Bonaparte  caused  the  publication  of  the  concordat 
and  tne  reconciliation  of  France  with  the  Church  to  be 
solemnly  celebrated  in  the  cathedral  of  Notre-Dame 
at  Paris. 

III.  The  Stipulations  op  the  Conoordat. — The 
French  Government  by  the  concordat  recognized  the 
Catholic  religion  as  the  religion  of  the  great  majorUy 
of  Frenchmen,  The  phrase  was  no  longer  as  in  former 
times,  the  religion  of  the  State,  But  it  was  a  (question 
of  ajiersorud  profeasion  of  Catholidem  on  the  part  of 
the  (fonstds  of  the  RepMie,  The  Holy  See  had  in- 
sisted on  this  mention,  and  it  was  only  on  this  condi- 
tion that  the  pope  agreed  to  grant  to  the  State  police 
power  in  the  matter  of  public  worship.  This  question 
nad  been  one  of  the  most  troublesome  Uiat  arose  dur- 
ing the  oourse  of  the  deliberations.  In  the  matter  of 
tfa^se  police  powers  it  had  been  agreed  after  many 
difiiculties  that  the  following  should  stand  a«  Article  I 
of  the  concordat:  "The  Catholic,  Apostolic  and  Ro- 
man Religion  shall  be  freely  exercised  in  France.  Its 
worship  shall  be  public  while  conforming  to  such  police 
regulations  as  the  government  shall  consider  necessarv 
to  public  tranquillity."  The  pope  agreed  to  a  fresh 
circumscription  of  the  French  dioceses.  When  this 
subsequently  took  place,  of  the  136  sees  only  60  were 
retained.  The  pope  promised  to  inform  the  actual 
titulars  of  the  dioceses  that  he  should  expect  from 
them  every  sacrifice,  even  that  of  their  sees. 

According  to  Articles  4  and  5  the  French  Govern- 
ment was  to  present  the  new  bishops,  but  the  pope 
was  to  give  them  canonical  institution.  (See  Prbs- 
entation;  Institution,  Canonical;  Nomination.) 
The  bishops  were  to  appoint  as  parish  priests  surh 
persons  only  as  were  acceptable   to  the    Govern' 


flOVtfOEMA 


206 


OONOOSDIA 


meiit  (Art.  9) ;  the  latter,  in  turn,  stipulated  that  euch 
dhurchee  as  had  not  been  alienated,  and  wer?  neces- 
saiy  for  woiship,  would  be  plaoed  '*  at  the  disposition" 
of  the  bishope  (Art.  12). 

The  Church  agreed  not  to  trouble  the  conscienoes 
of  those  citisens  who,  during  the  Revolution,  had 
become  possessed  of  ecclesiastical  property  (Art.  13) ; 
on  the  other  hand  the  Government  promised  the 
bishops  and  parish  priests  a  fitting  maintenance 
{suaUnlatwnemt  Art.  14). 

Such  were  the  principal  stipulations  of  the  concordat. 
Gertain  of  its  articles  have  been  fully  discussed,  par- 
ticularly by  canonists  and  jurists,  notably  Artides  5, 
12,  and  14,  relating  to  the  nomination  of  bishops,  the 
use  of  churches,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  clergy. 
Moreover,  the  law  known  as  "The  Oreanic  Articles" 
(see-ARTicuBS,  The  Organic),  promulgated  in  April, 
1802,  and  always  upheld  by  later  French  ^vemments 
in  spite  of  the  protest  of  the  pope,  made  immediately 
after  its  publication,  has  in  various  ways  inf riojged  on 
the  spirit  of  tlie  concordat  and  given  rise  during  the 
nineteenth  centuiy  to  frequent  disputes  between 
Church  and  State  m  France. 

IV.  Result  of  the  Concordat. — ^The  concordat, 
notwithstanding  the  addition  of  the  Organic  Articles, 
must  be  credited  with  having  restored  peace  to  the 
consciences  of  the  French  people  on  the  very  morrow 
of  the  Revolution.  To  it  also  was  due  the  reorganiza* 
tion  of  Catholicism  in  France,  under  the  protection  of 
the  Holy  See*  It  was  also  of  great  moment  in  the 
history  of  the  Church.  Only  a  few  years  after  Joseph* 
inism  and  Febronianism  (q.  v.)  had  disputed  the 
pope's  rights  to  govern  the  Qiurch,  the  Papacy 
and  the  Revolution,  in  the  persons  of  Pius  VII  and 
Napoleon,  came  to  an  understanding  which  gave 
France  a  new  episcopate  and  marked  the  final  defeat 
of  GalUcaniam. 

V.  Fate  oI*  the  Concordat. — ^The  French  law  of 
9  December,  1905,  on  the  Separation  of  Church  and 
State,  against  which  Pius  X  protested  in  his  Allocu- 
tion of  11  December,  1905,  was  based  on  the  principle 
that  the  State  of  France  should  no  longer  recognise 
the  CaUioUc  Church,  but  only  distinct  oMocioiions 
cuUuelles^  i.  e.  associations  formed  in  each  parish  for 
the  purpose  of  worship  "  in  accordance  with  the  rules 
fioveming  the  organisation  of  worship  in  general". 
In  case  of  the  non-formation  of  such  associations 
destined  to  take  over  the  property,  real  and  [lersonal, 
of  the  churches  or  fabrigue^  (see  Buildings,  EocLBfik- 
lAsncAi.;  Fabrica  Eggleslg),  this  property  was  to 
be  forever  lost  to  the  Church  and  to  be  turned  over 
by  decree  to  the  chaiitable  establishments  of  the 
respective  communes.  By  the  Encyclical  ''Gravis- 
simo  Officii",  of  10  August,  1906,  the  pope  forbade 
the  formatbn  of  these  asaociaUana  cuUueUea  or 
associations  for  worship.  Rome  feared  that  they 
would  furnish  the  State  with  a  pretext  for  interfering 
with  the  internal  life  of  the  Church,  and  would  offer 
to  the  laitv  a  constant  temptation  to  control  the 
religious  life  of  the  parish.  Thereupon,  the  State 
applied  strictly  the  siorementioned  law,  considered 
the  fabriques,  i.  e.  the  hitherto  legally-recognized 
churches,  as  no  longer  existing,  and,  in  the  absence  of 
ouodaiionM  cuUueUsa  to  take  \^  their  inheritance, 
gave  over  all  their  propertv  to  charitable  establish- 
ments  (MUisaemenU  de  bienfaisance),  Exception 
wae  made  for  the  church  edifices  actually  used  for 
worship;  at  the  same  time  nothing  was  done  concern- 
ing the  numberless  legal  questions  that  arise  apropos 
of  these  edifices,  e.  g.  right  of  ownership,  right  of  use, 
repairs,  etc.  At  the  present  writin^^  therefore  (end 
of  1908),  the  Church  of  France,  stripped  of  all  her 
property,  is  barely  tolerated  in  her  religious  edifices, 
and  has  only  a  pjrecarious  enjoyment  of  them.  On 
the  other  hand,  since  ecclesiastical  authority  has  for- 
bidden the  only  kind  of  corporations  {oMociaiiona 
euUuelles)  which  the  State  recognizes  as  authorized  to 


collect  funds  for  purposes  of  worship,  the  Cliureh 
has  no  means  of  putting  together  in  a  l^jal  and  regular 
way  such  funds  or  capital  as  may  be  required  for  tlie 
ordinary  needs  of  public  worship.  Thus  the  churches 
of  France  live  from  day  to  day;  neither  the  pariah  nor 
the  diocese  can  own  any  fund,  however  small,  whic^ 
the  parish  priest  or  the  Bishop  is  free  to  hand  down  to 
his  successors;  all  this  because  the  State  stubbornly 
insists  that  only  the  above-described  auocuUions 
cuUuellea  (which  it  knows  are  impossible  for  FVench 
Catholics)  shall  be  clothed  with  the  ng^t  of  owner- 
ship for  purposes  of  worship.  Thou^  the  present 
condition  is  necessarily  a  transitory  one.  it  appMiv, 
unfortunately,  to  offer  one  permanent  element,  L  e. 
the  certain  loss  of  all  the  property  onoe  belongmg  to 
the  fabrigtiea.  The  worst  enemies  of  the  French  dei^gy 
must  admit  that,  in  order  to  safeguard  its  principlea, 
the  Church  which  they  accuse  of  avarice  has  sacrinoed 
without  hesitation  all  its  temporal  goods.  (See  C6k- 
coroat;  France;  Consalvi,  Ebcole;  Pius  VH; 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.) 

Sech£,  lies  orioineadu  Concordat  (2  vols.^ftris,  1804);  Sicabd, 
VAncien  derpS  de  France  (Parifl,  1903),  ill;  Ootau,  Let  ori^ 
ginee  povuiairea  du  Comeordat  in  Atitour  <fu  oathcUeiame  wodtd 
(Paris.  1906>:  LaneaoLabowe.  Paru«ou«  NapeUon  (Paiu,1906 
and  1907);  Boulat  de  i.a  Meubthb.  Documenu  tin  la  a^oocm* 
tion  du  Concordat  (Paris.  1991-97);  Matbjeu,  Le  Coneoruat  dm 
1801  (PteriB,  1903);  RiNiEBt.  La  dipUmatU  ponttfeaU  «»  XIX* 
aUde;  Le  Concordat  eaUre  Pie  VII  at  le  Premier  Conavi,  tr.  into 
F/.  by  Vkbdxeb  (Paris.  1903).— The  last  two  works  hava  nmXiy 
given  an  entirely  new  version  of  the  histoiy  of  the  third  pliase 
of  the  nesotiations.  thanks  to  the  fresh  doeumenti  tinknowa  to 
fonner  uatoriiuui,  d'Haussonvillx.  CB^riNKAU-JoZtf,  and 
Thexneb. — Ollxvieb,  Noweau  manual  de  droit  aoeUaiaatigue 
francaia  (Paris,  1880);  Oboueil,  Le  Concordat  de  MOl  (Faiia, 
1904);  BAUDsnxABT,  Ouain  eenta  ana  de  Concordat  (Pmnm^ 
1906);  DE  Bboolib.  Le  Concordat  (Paris.  1893);  Pbbbaud,  La 
diacuaaicn  conoordataire  (Paris.  1892);  Sbvbstbb.  Le  Concordat 
(2d  ed.,  Paris.  1900).  the  best  documentary  work.—iyHAi^now- 
viLLB,  Aprha  la  aSparation  (Paris.  1906):  GABBin.  Ax7BBA.t. 
La  aotuOon  libiratrtee  (Paris.  1906);  Jbnouvbikb,  Bxpoai  de  ia 
aituation  UoaU  de  T^^ifs  en  France  (Paris.  1906);  Lamabskllb 
bt  TaudiIsbb,  Conunentaire  delaloiduS  Dicembref  1905  (PBria. 
1906) ;  see  also  Hooan,  Church  and  BtaU  m  France  vttAm,  Cmth, 
QuaH.  Ren.  (1892)*  333  sqq.:  PABBom.  The  Third  Frendi  Ro- 
puUie  aa  a  Peraecutor  of  the  Church,  «&uZ.(1899),  I  sqq. ;  BODUrr, 
The  Church  in  France  (London,  1906). 

Gborgbb  Gotav. 

Concordia  (Concordia  Venrpa,  or  Juua),  Did- 
OESB  OF  (Conoordisnsib),  sufiFragBii  of  Venioe.  Con- 
cordia is  an  ancient  Venetian  city,  called  by  the 
Romanfi  Colonia  Concordia,  and  is  sitiiated  b^ween 
the  Rivers  Tadiamento  and  Ltvensa,  not  far  from 
the  Adriatic.  To-day  there  remain  of  the  city  only 
ruins  and  the  ancient  cathedral.  During  the  fifth 
century  the  city  was  destroyed  by  Attila  and  again 
in  606  by  the  Lombards,  after  which  it  was  never 
tebuilt  The  eighty-nine  martyrs  of  Concordia,  who 
were  put  to  deatn  under  Diocletian,  are  held  in  great 
veneration.  Its  first  known  bishop  is  Clariasimus, 
who,  at  a  provincial  synod  of  Aquileia  in  579,  helped  to 
prolong  the  Schism  of  the  Three  Chapters;  this  coun- 
cil was  attended  b^  Augustinus,  later  Bishop  of  Con- 
cordia, who  in  590  signed  the  petition  presented  by  the 
schismatics  to  Emi)eror  Mauricius.  bishop  Johannes 
transferred  the  episcopal  residence  to  Caorle  (606), 
retaining,  however,  the  title  of  Concordia.  The  me- 
dieval bishops  seem  to  iiave  resided  near  the  ancient 
cathedral,  and  to  have  wielded  temporal  power, 
which,  however,  they  were  imable  to  retain.  In  1587. 
during  the  episcopate  of  Matteo  Sanudo,  the  episcopal 
residence  was  d^initely  transfened  to  Portogruaro. 
The  diocese  has  a  population  of  258,315,  with  129 
parishes,  231  churches  and  chapels,  264  secular  and  2 
regular  priests,  9  religious  houses  of  women,  and  a 
Collegio  di  Pio  X  f or  African  missions. 

CAPBBLUBrn.  Le  dneae  d'/loJM  jTVanice.  1844).  X.  417-75: 
Ann.  ecd.  (Rome.  1907),  418-23:  Dboakt.  La  Dioeeai  di  Con- 
cordia,  notizie  e  doeumenti  (San  Vlto,  1880):  Zambaldt,  ATontK 
menti  etoriei  di  Concordia  (Ban  Vito.  1840). 

U.  Benigmi. 

Ooncordia,  Diocese  of  (Concordiensis  in  Ameri- 
ca), erected  2  Augusts  1887,  is  situated  in  the  north- 


00II01X8I3I4M 


207 


OWOmillAOB 


western  part  of  JSanaem,  TJ.  8.  A«  It  is  bounded  on  the 
west  by  CtAcmdo;  on  the  north,  by  Nebraska;  east, 
by  the  east  lines  of  Washington,  lUley,  Geary,  Dick- 
inson; on  the  south,  by  the  south  lines  of  Daokinson, 
Saline,  EXswwth,  RuaseU.  Ellis,  Trego,  Gove,  Logan, 
and  Wallace  Counties.    Area,  26,085  sq.  m.. 

In  1886  the  Diooeee  of  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  was 
divided  into  three  new  sees,  Leavenworth,  Wichita, 
and  Ck»ieordia.  On  9  August,  1887,  the  Rev.  Richard 
ScanneU  of  Nashville,  Tonneflaee,  was  nominated  first 
Bishop  of  Goncordift;  and  goveraed  the  see  until  30 
January,  1891,  when  he  was  transferred  t^  Omaha. 
The  Bishop  of  Wichita,  Kansas,  then  became  admin- 
istrator of  Gonoordia,  and  it  was  not  until  1897  that 
a  bishop  was  again  appointed  in  the  person  of  the 
Rev.  T»  J.  Butler  of  Chicago,  who  died  in  Rome,  how- 
ever, 17  July,  1897,  before  receiving  episcopal  eonse- 
cration«  On  21  Septenter,  1898,  the  Very  Rev.  John 
F.  Cunningham,  Vicar-General  of  the  Diocese  of 
Leavenworth,  was  consecrated  in  that  city,  Bishop 
of  Concordia.  Bom  in  1842,  in  the  County  Kerry, 
Ireland,  he  made  his  studies  at  St.  Benedict's  CoUege, 
AtohJson,  Kansas,  and  at  St.  Francis'  Seminary, 
Ifilwaukee,  Wisconsin,  and  was  ordained  priest  at 
Leavenworth,  8  August,  1865.  After  his  consecration 
he  devoted  himsdi  to  the  multiplication  of  schools 
and  insUtutionB  of  learning  and  charity.  The  cathe- 
dral of  Concordia,  a  stone  structure  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, dedicated  in  1902^  took  the  place  of  a  modest 
little  church  erected  by  the  Rev.  Louis  MoUier  in  1874. 

In  1884  a  boarding-school  for  young  ladies  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  was  estab* 
lished  near  the  cathedral.  It  has  since  moved  to  the 
imposing  edifice  known  as  the  Nazareth  Academy. 
It  18  the  mother-house  and  novitiate  of  these  sistera, 
who  have  branch  houses,  missions,  and  schools  in 
Kansas,  lUinoiB,  Nebraska,  Michigan,  and  Missouri. 
The  old  academy  has  been  turned  into  a  hospitaL 
The  Capuchin  Fathers,  who  settled  early  in  the  west- 
em  part  of  the  diocese  in  and  about  Victoria,  have 
built  many  churches  and  schoob  and  have  monas- 
tmes  at  Bays  Ci^,  Munjor,  and  Victoria.  ThejT' 
have  also  worked  emciently  among  the  Russian  immi- 
grants  of  that  portion  of  the  diocese,  aided  by  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Agnes. 

FtGm  1888  to  1 907  45  churches  and  20  schools  were 
bunt,  exclusive  of  the  opening  of  many  new  missions 
and  stations.  There. are  51  secular  and  15  religious 
pEriests,  attending  91  churches,  30  stations,  and  4 
chapels.  The  children  in  the  parochial  schools  num- 
ber about  2482.  Two  academies,  at  Caneordia  and 
Abilene,  have  about  135  pupils.  The  Catholic  popu- 
latioa  of  the  dkxsese  is  26,125. 

A.  T.  ENifia. 

Ooncnbinage,  at  the  present  day,  the  state,  more 
or  less  permanent,  of  a  man  and  woman  living  to- 
gether in  illicit  intercourse.  In  its  strict  sense  it  is 
used  of  those  unions  only  in  which  the  man  and  the 
woman  are  free  from  any  obligation  arising  from  a 
vow,  the  state  of  matrimoor^  or  Holy  orders,  or  the 
fact  of  relationslup  or  affinity;  it  is  immaterial 
whether  the  parties  dwell  toother  or  not,  the  repeti- 
tion or  contmuance  of  illicit  relations  between  the 
same  persons  being  the  essential  element.  However, 
the  meaning  conveyed  by  the  term  has  not  always 
been  the  same;  in  the  Old  Testament,  fcnr  instance,  a 
legitimate  spouse,  if  of  an  inferior  social  grade,  or  a 
bondwoman,  is  oft^i  given  the  afvpelhktion  of  concu- 
bine, not  to  call  in  question  the  validity  of  her  mar- 
riage, but  to  indiieate  that  she  did  not  idiare  in  her  hus- 
band's rank  or  property  nor  in  the  administration  of 
the  housdkold  to  the  same  extent  as  the  principal 
wife.  From  Genesis,  xxi,  9^14,  we  see  that  her  dis- 
miisal  and  that  of  her  children  was  pennissible.  But 
in  those  Bonptural  times,  when  polygamy  was  per- 
mitted or  at  (east  tolerated,  such  a  concubine  was  not 


the  only  marriage  partner.  Thus  Lia  abd  Raohel,  the 
first  two  spouses  of  Jacob,  had  the  full  social  standing 
df  wives,  while  Bala  and  Zelpha,  both  bondwomen, 
were  his  concubines,  married  tor  the  purpose  of  bear- 
mg  children  for  Rachel  and  Lia  (Gen.,  xzx,  3.  9,  13). 
Here,  therefore,  the  main  difference  between  the  state 
of  legitimate  marriage  properly  so  called  and  that  of 
Intimate  concubinage  is  to  be  found  in  the  disparity 
ofrank  which  oharacterieed  the  latter. 

The  meaning  of  the  term  in  Roman  law,  and  conse- 
quently in  eariy  ecclesiastical  records  and  writin^s^ 
was  much  the  same;  a  concubine  was  a  quasi-wue, 
reoognixed  bv  law  if  there  was  no  legal  wife.  She  was 
UBUiuly  of  a  kwer  social  grade  than  her  husband,  and 
her  children,  ihouA  not  considered  the  equals  of 
those  of  the  legal  wite  (uxor)  were  nevertheless  termed 
natural  (nalvftdes)  to  distinguish  them  from  spurious 
offsprings  (aimrit).  For  this  legitimate  concubina|;e 
the  Roman  law  did  not  require  the  intention  of  the 
two  parties  to  r^nain  together  until  death  as  man  and 
wife;  the  Ijex  JuLia  ana  the  Papia  Popwea  allowing 
both  temporary  and  permanent  concuoinafe*  The 
former  was  always  condenmed  as  immoral  by  the 
Church,  who  excluded  from  the  ranks  of  her  catechu- 
mens all  who  adopted  this  mode  of  living,  unleiB  Uiey 
abandoned  t^ir  illicit  temporal,  or  converted  it  into 
lawful  permanent,  wedlock.  Perman^ant  conculnnage, 
thou^  it  lacked  the  ordinary  lesal  forms  and  was  not 
reoo^iised  by  the  civil  law  as  alegal  marriage,  had  in 
it  no  element  of  immorality.  It  was  a  real  marriage, 
including  the  intention  and  consent  of  both  parties  to 
form  a  hfelong  union.  This  the  Church  allowed  from 
the  beginning,  while  Pope  Callistus  I  broke  through 
the  banier  of  state  law,  and  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
Christian  marriage  permanent  unions  between  slave 
and  free,  and  even  those  between  slave  and  slave 
(fi(ndyberrwwn). 

The  Council  of  Toledo,  held  in  400,  in  its  seventeenth 
canon  legisktcs  as  follows  for  laymen  (for  ecclesi- 
astical regulations  on  this  head  with  regard  to  clerics 
see  Celibacy):  after  pronouncing  sentence  of  excom- 
munication a^punst  any  who  in  addition  to  a  wife 
keep  a  concubme,  it  says:  '' But  if  a  man  has  no  wife, 
but  a  concubine  instead  of  a  wife,  let  him  not  be  re- 
fused communion;  only  let  him  be  content  to  be 
united  with  one  woman,  whether  wife  or  concubine" 
(Can.  "Is  qui",  dist.  xxxiv;  Mansi,  HI,  col.  1001). 
Hie  refractory  are  to  be  excommunicated  untU  such 
time  as  they  shall  obey  and  do  penance. 

With  the  destructi<»i  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  the 
consequent  decline  of  knowledge  of  the  Roman  law, 
its  institution  of  legitimate  concubinage  fell  into  dis- 
use, and  oonculnna^  came  more  ana  more  to  have 
only  the  modem  significance,  that  of  a  permanent 
illicit  union,  and  as  such  was  variously  proceeded 
against  by  the  Church.  The  clandestme  marriages 
which  giadually  came  to  be  tolerated  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  as  they  lacked  the  formality  of  a  public  sanction 
by  the  Church,  can  be  considered  as  a  spedes  of  legiti- 
mate eoncubinafle.  The  Council  of  Trent  Q545- 
1663),  Sees.  XXlV,  chap,  i,  not  only  renewed  the  old 
ecclesiastical  penalties  against  concubinage,  but  added 
fresh  ones,  also  forbade  and  rendered  nuU  and  void  all 
clandestine  unions,  thus  forever  doing  away  with  even 
the  appearance  of  legitimate  concubinage.  From 
that  time  the  modem  invidious  idea  of  the  term  alone 
obtains.  The  decrees  of  Trent,  however,  were  in  force 
only  in  countries  strictly  Catholic;  the  new  marriaflp 
law  (Ne  temere)  of  Pius  X  (1908)  extends  the  prohibi- 
tion against  clandestine  marriages  to  Catholics  the 
worid  over. 

NoLDiN,  Suvfma  thsologiiB  m&nUia:  de  sexto  (Oth  «!.,  Ind^ 
bmck,  1906);  DicL  da  draU  eammique,  ■.  v.  Cmtcub^nm 
(Paris.   1901):    Canonea  et  Decnta  Conca%%   Tndenhnt,  ed. 

JCHTER  (Leipzis,  1853) ;  Wandinobb  in  Kirehenlsx,  (Snd  ad., 
Bibuiv,  1891);  DoLHAQARAT  in  DieL  de  thSoL  ealh»  (Ptia, 

H.  A.  Oatkoe. 


OOirdlTHSOBHOS 


208 


OOHOOBSOE 


'  Ooncupiaeence  in  its  widefit  acceptation  is  aiiy 
yearning  of  the  soul  for  good ;  in  its  stnct  and  specific 
acceptation,  a  desire  of  the  lower  appetite  contrary  to 
reason.  To  understand  how  the  sensuous  and  the 
rational  appetite  can  be  opposed,  it  should  be  borne  in 
miiid  that  their  natural  objects  are  altogether  differ- 
ent. Tlie  object  of  the  former  is  the  gratification  of 
the  senses ;  the  object  of  the  latter  is  the  good  of  the 
entire  human  nature  and  consists  in  the  subordina- 
tion of  the  lower  to  the  rational  faculties,  and  again 
in  the  subordination  of  reason  to  God,  its  supreme 
good  and  ultimate  end.  But  the  lower  appetite  is 
of  itself  unrestrained,  so  as  to  pursue  sensuous  grati- 
fications independently  of  the  imderetanding  and 
without  regard  to  the  good  of  the  higher  faculties. 
Hence  desires  contrary  to  the  real  good  and  order  of 
reason  may,  and  often  do,  rise  in  it,  previous  to  the 
attention  of  the  mind,  and  once  risen,  dispose  the 
bodily  organs  to  their  pursuit  and  solicit  the  will  to 
consent,  while  they  more  or  less  hinder  reason  from 
considering  their  lawfulness  or  unlawfulness.  This  is 
concupiscence  in  its  strict  and  specific  sense.  As 
long,  however,  as  deliberation  is  not  completely  im- 
peoed,  the  rational  will  is  able  to  resist  such  desires 
and  withhold  consent,  though  it  be  not  capable  of 
crushing  the  effepts  they  produce  in  the  body,  and 
though  its  freedom  and  dominion  be  to  some  extent 
diminished.  If,  in  fact,  the  will  resists,  a  strug^e 
ensues,  the  sensuous  appetite  rebelliously  demanding 
its  gratification,  reason,  on  the  contrary,  clinging  to 
its  own  spiritual  interests  and  asserting  its  control. 
"The  flesn  lusteth  against  the  spirit,  and  the  spirit 
against  the  flesh." 

From  the  explanation  given,  it  is  plain  that  the  op- 
position between  appetite  and  reasofi  is  natural  m 
man,  and  that,  though  it  be  an  imperfection,  it  is 
not  a  corruption  of  human  nature.  Nor  have  the  in- 
ordinate desires  (actual  concupiscence)  or  the  prone- 
ness  to  them  (habitual  concupiscence)  the  nature  of 
sin;  for  sin,  being  the  free  and  deliberate  transgression 
of  the  law  of  God,  can  be  only  in  the  rational  will; 
thou^  it  be  true  that  they  are  temptations  to  sin, 
becoming  the  stronger  and  the  more  frequent  the 
oftener  they  have  been  indulged.  As  thus  far  consid- 
ered thev  are  only  sinful  objects  and  antecedent  causes 
of  sinful  transgressions;  they  contract  the  malice  of 
sin  OEdy  when  consent  is  given  by  the  will;  not  as 
though  their  nature  were  cnanged,  but  because  they 
are  ^opted  and  completed  by  the  will  and  so  share 
its  malice.  Hence  the  distinction  of  concupiscence 
antecedent  and  concupiscence  consequent  to  the  con- 
sent of  the  will;  the  latter  is  sinful,  the  former  is  not. 

The  first  parents  were  free  from  concupiscence,«80 
that  their  sensuous  appetite  was  perfectly  subject  to 
reason;  and  this  freedom  they  were  to  transmit  to 
posterity  provided  they  observed  the  commandment 
of  God.  A  short  but  important  statement  of  the 
Catholic  doctrine  on  this  point  may  be  quoted  from 
Peter  the  Deacon,  a  Greek,  who  was  sent  to  Rome  to 
bear  witness  to  the  Faith  of  the  East:  "Our  bdief 
is  that  Adam  came  from  the  hands  of  his  Creator  good 
and  free  from  the  assaults  of  the  flesh ' '  (Lib.  de  Inoam., 
c.  vi).  In  our  first  parents,  however,  this  complete 
dominion  of  reason  over  appetite  was  no  natural  per- 
fection or  acquirement,  but  a  preternatural  gift  of 
God,  that  is,  a  gift  not  due  to  human  nature;  nor 
was  it,  on  the  other  hand,  the  essence  of  their  origi- 
nal justice,  which  consisted  in  sanctifying  grace ;  it  was 
but  a  complement  added  to  the  latter  by  the  Divine 
bounty.  By  the  sin  of  Adam  freedom  from  concu- 
piscence was  forfeited  not  only  for  himself,  but  also 
for  all  his  posterity  with  the  exception  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  by  special  privilege.  Human  nature  was  de- 
prived of  both  its  preternatural  and  supernatural  gifts 
and  graces,  the  lower  appetite  began  to  lust  against 
the  spirit,  and  evil  habits,  contracUni  by  personal  sins, 
wrought  disorder  in  the  body,  obscured  the  mind,  ana 


weakened  the  power  of  the  wQl,  without,  howefver,  de- 
stroying its  freedom .  Hence  that  lameiitableooaditioa 
of  which  St.  Paul  complains  when  he  writes:  "I  fijid 
then  a  law,  that  wh^i  i  have  a  will  to  do  good,  evil  ia 
present  with  me.  For  I  am  delighted  with  the  law  of 
God,  according  to  the  inward  man:  but  I  see  another 
law  in  mv  members,  fitting  against  the  law  of  my 
mind,  and  captivating  me  in  the  law  of  sin,  that  is  in 
my  members.  Unhappy  man  that  I  am,  who  shall 
deliver  me  from  the  body  of  this  death?"  (Rom.,  vii, 
21-25) .  Christ  by  His  death  redeemed  mankind  from 
sin  and  its  bondage.  In  baptism  the  guilt  of  ori^pnal 
sin  is  wiped  out  and  the  sotu  is  cleansed  and  justified 
again  by  the  infusion  of  sanctifying  grace.  But  free- 
dom from  concupiscence  is  not  restored  to  man,  an^ 
more  than  immortality;  abundant  grace,  however,  u 
given  him,  by  which  ne  may  obtain  the  victory  over 
rebellious  sense  and  deserve  life  everiasting. 

The  Reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  especially 
Luther,  proposed  new  views  respecting  concupiscence. 
They  adopted  as  fundamental  to  their  theology  the 
following  propositions:  (1)  Original  justice  with  idl  its 
gifts  and  graces  was  due  to  maxi  as  an  inte^^  part  of 
his  nature;  (2)  concupiscence  is  of  itself  sinfm,  and, 
being  the  sinful  corruption  of  human  nature  caused  bv 
Adam's  transgression  and  inherited  by  all  his  descend- 
ants, is  the  very  essence  of  original  sin ;  (3)  baptism, 
since  it  does  not  extinguish  ooncupisoence,  does  not 
really  remit  the  guilt  of  original  sin,  but  only  effects 
that  it  is  no  longer  imput^  to  man  and  no  longer 
draws  down  conoemnation  on  him.  Thisposition  is 
held  also  bv  the  Anglican''Church  in  its  Thirty-nine 
Articles  and  its  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

The  Catholic  Church  Condemns  these  doctrines  as 
erroneous  or  heretical.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  V, 
c.  v)  defines  that  by  the  grace  of  baptism  the  guilt  of 
original  sin  is  completely  remitted  and  does  not  merely 
cease  to  be  imputed  to  man.  As  to  ooncupisoence  the 
council  declares  that  it  remains  hi  those  that  are  bap- 
tized in  order  that  they  may  stru^le  for  the  victory, 
but  does  no  harm  to  those  who  resist  it  by  the  met  of 
God,  and  that  it  is  called  sin  by  St.  Paul,  not  because 
it  is  sin  formally  and  in  the  proper  sense,  but  because 
it  sprang  from  sin  and  incites  to  sin.  Later  on  Pius 
V,  by  the  Bull  "Ex  omnibus  affiictionibuB"  (1  Oct., 
1567),  Gregory  XIII,  by  the  Bull  ^'Provisionk  Nos- 
tra" (29  Jan.,  1679),  Urban  VIII,  by  the  Bull  "In 
eminenti''  (6  March,  1641),  condemned  the  proposi- 
tions  of  Bajus  (21,  23,  24,  26),  Clement  XI,  by  the 
Constitution  "  Unigenitus",  those  of  Quesnel  (34.  36); 
and  finally  Pins  VI,  by  the  Bull  "Auctorem  fidei" 
(2g  Aug.,  1794),  those  of  the  Synod  of  Pistoja  (16). 
which  maintained  that  the  ^Its  and  graces  bestowed 
on  Adam  and  constituting  his  original  justice  were  not 
supernatural  but  due  to  human  nature.  (See  Grace, 
JtranFiCATiON,  Sin.) 

HuNTEB«  OuUinea  of  DogmaHc  Theahoy  (2iMi  ed.,  New  York, 
1896),  treatise  x,  oh.  iii,  i v;  Joskfh  Ricslabt,  Noti$  onSL  Paul, 
Epislie  to  the  Romans  (lx>ndon,  1898),  vii,  viii;  Bejllarmine, 
De  CorUrovfrsiia  Fidei,  IV,  De  GratiA  primi  homwie;  Dt  amis' 
aione  ffratim  et  tiatu  peeaUi  (Milaiu  1862);  Hubtbh,  TAeobvMV 
Dogmaticae  Compendium  (10th  ed.,  1000);  Murbat.  Traalaiu» 
de  Gratid  (Dublin,  1877),  disp.  ii;  Billua.rt,  Swnma  S.  Thomm 
ayons  and  Paris,  1861),  III,  290-M.  IV,  69-71,  278.  382.  VHI. 
180, 181. 

John  J.  Moro. 

Ooncurrents.    See  Dominical  Letter. 

Ooncurmuit  a  special  competitive  ezanaaation  pre^ 
scribed  in  canon  law  for  all  aspirants  to  certain  emesi- 
astioal  offices  to  which  is  attached  the  cure  of  souls. 
There  were  no  parish  priests,  properly  speakmg,  dur- 
ing the  first  three  hundred  years  of  the  (jliristian  Era. 
A  single  church  erected  in  the  residential  ci^  of  the 
bishop  was  the  centre  to  which  people  living  in  city 
and  countiy  repaired  on  Sundavs  ana  festivals  to  hear 
Mass,  receive  instruction,  ancf  approach  Hie  Sacra- 
ments. Gradual  growth  in  church-membership  called 
for  the  erection  of  additional  churches  to  aoconuno- 


OOVOtMVS 


209 


MHOnMUf 


date  the  faitMul.  In  those  churohes  saere^  functions 
were  oooduoted  by  prieato  residing  at  the  cathocirals. 
CoDsecfuently,  the  cathedral  was  the  onJy  parish  in 
eadi  diocese  and  the  bishop,  as  chief  pastor,  exereiBed 
the  care  of  souls  throughout  the  dioceae*  A  similar 
xeasoa  led  to  the  organization  of  rural  parishes  during 
the  course  of  the  fourth  century.  With  one  or  tiro 
exceptions;  parishes  were  not  oiganised  in  cities  be- 
fore the  year  1000.  The  first  step  towards  the  estab- 
lishment of  city  parishes,  was  taken  in  the  Council  of 
Limoges  (1032).  The  amicable  settlement  o£  disputes 
involving  a  departure  from  the  old  regime  paved  the 
way  for  the  organisation  of  citv  parishes  in  France. 
Italy  was  not  slow  in  following  tne  example  of  France. 
(Lupi,  '*De  parochis  ante  annum  Christi  millesi- 
mum",  Bei^uno,  1788;  Muratori,  ''Dissert,  de  par- 
oeciis  et  plebibus"  in  "  Antiq.  Ital.",  VI,  369;  Nardi, 
"Dei  parrochi,  opera  di  antichit^  sacra",  Pesaro, 
1829r-d0;  Drouyn,  ''Lliistoire  paroissiale"  in  ''Rev. 
Cath.  de  Bordeaux",  1881,  III,  233,  and  "Bull,  hist,- 
ftfch.  du  dioc.  Diion",  1887,  V,  225;  Zorell,  "  Die  Ent- 
wickelung  des  Parochialsystems"  in  "Archiv  ^Hx 
kath.  Kirehenrecht",  1902-3.)  Departures  from 
traditional  methods  gradually  took  place  in  other 
countries  until  the  organization  of  city  and  country 
parishes  became  general  throughout  the  Church  (see 
Parish). 

The  new  regime  paved  the  way  for  the  admission  of 
a  general  principle  whereby  ecclesiastical  benefices, 
especiallv  those  of  major  importance,  with  cure  of  souls 
or  parochial  responsibility  attached,  were  eottfoircd  on 
none  save  those  duly  qualified  to  hold  tl\em  (see  Bbmb- 
Fic£).  Conscientious  recognition  of  this  principle  was 
repeatedly  inculcated,  e.  g.  by  Alexander  III,  Innoeenft 
III,  and  Uregory  X.  Solong  as  ecclesiastics  were  not 
ordained  absolutely,  but  for  some  specific  office  in  each 
diocese,  the  canonical  examinations  for  orders  served 
naturally  as  a  criterion  to  determine  appointmeBte  to 
benefices.  In  time,  however,  this  ancient  metnod  of 
ordination  fell  into  decay,  and  under .  Innocent  III 
(1198-1216)  separate  examinations  were  inaugurated 
as  the  most  satisf  actoty  method  of  making  appoint- 
ments to  benefices  that  carried  with  them  the  cure  of 
souls  {beneficia  curata).  In  order  to  attain  sreater 
security  in  providing  for  the  salvation  of  soiius,  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Seas.  XXIV,  eh.  xviu)  ob%ed  bish- 
ops to  assign  to  each  parish  a  permanent  pansh  priest 
who  would  know  his  parishioners.  The  better  to  real- 
ise this  design,  the  same  council  instituted  ,the  concur- 
BUS,  a  competitive  examination  given  to  caadidateB 
seeking  s^xpointment  as  pastore,  of  (oanonieal)  par- 
ishes. According  to  the  Tridentine  le^latioa,  bish- 
ops must  designate  a  day  for  this  examination.  At 
tne  specified  tnne,  such  as  have  signified  their  inten- 
tion of  undergoing  tiiiis  test  are  examined  by  ^e  biahr 
op  or  his  vicar^general  and  by  no  less  than  three  eyno- 
dal  examiners  Tq.  v.).  .  The  bishop  is  required  to  ap- 
point the  one  be  judges  most  worthy  among  those 
passing  a  satisfactory  examination. 

Though  the  Tridentine  regulations  are  quite  clear, 
some  canonists  claimed  that  failure  to  observe  them 
rendered  appointments  illicit,  not  invalid)  while  others 
held  that  bishops  were  not  bound  to  appoint  the  most 
worthy  candidate^  but  merely  one  passing  a  creditable 
examination.  To  dissipate  such  errors  Pius  V  iasued 
the  Constitution  "In  conferendis"  (18  May,  1667). 
Later  on,  to  forestall  the  possibility  of  groundless  ap- 
peals on  the  part  of  dissatisfied  competitors,  as-well  as 
to  ensure  strict  Justice  to  candidates,  Clement  XI  m- 
sued  (18  Jan.,  1721)  a  decree  regarding  the  manner  of 
conducting  examinations,  and  Uie  manner  of  dealing 
with  those  entering  appeals  against  the  decision  of  the 
examiners  or  the  appointment  of  ihe  bishoo.  How- 
ever, Clement  XI  s  regulations  occasioned  various 
complaints,  and  to  remedy  these  difficulties,  as  well  as 
to  complete  ecclesiastical  legislation  concerning  the 
concufBUs,  Benedict  XIV  issued  the  important  Con- 
IV.-14 


stitution,  "Cum  illud"  (14  De©.,  1742).  A  survey  of 
the  various  stages  oi  eoclesiastical  legislation  On  this 
question  will  naturaUly  exhibit  a  fair  summaiy  of  its 
•leading  points. 

In  the  first  plaee,  appointments  to  caaonieally 
erected  parishes  are  null  when  no  concursus  has  bemi 
held,  unleas  the  Trideotlae  l^pslation  has  been  abro^ 
gated  by  lon^  usage  or  special  permisskm  of  the  Holy 
.See^  Questions  and  answers  pertaining  to  a  concur- 
sus must  be  committed  to  writing,  llie  matter  of  the 
examination  is  taken  from  theology  (moral  and  d<^ 
^aaatio),  liturgy^and  ecclesiastical  law,  and  is  chiefly  cfa 
practical  character.  A  lesson  in  catechism  and  a  brief 
sermon  may  be  prepared  by  the  candidates.  AH  com- 
petitors are  examined  in  the  same  olaoe  and.  at  the 
same  time.  The  bi8h<^  is  not  justined  in  apipointing 
simply  a  worthy  oompetitor^  but  ia  obliged  to  choose 
the  candidate  he  deema  the  most  worthy  among  those 
approved  bv  the  examiners,  whose  office  is  exhausted 
when  they  have  attested  the  worthiness  {tdmmtoB)  of 
the  various  eompetitors.  The  examaners,  however, 
are  bound  to  oonsider,F  not  only  the  learning,  but  also 
the  age,  prudence,  integrity,  past  services,  and  other 
qualifications  of  competitors.  Cendidates  not  ap- 
pointed are  at  liberty  to  enter  an  appeal  to  the  metro- 
politan, and  then  to  the  Holy  See,  but  this  does  noteua- 
petid  meanwhile  the  execution  of  the  epueopal  ded»- 
ion.  The  judpe  to  whom  such  an  appeal  is  made  tauirt 
base  his  decision  on  the  prooeedings  of  the  eoncufsus 
^dready  held ;  this  precludes  a  second  coneutaUs  or  the 
introduction  of  additional  evidence.  While  this  is  the 
^neral  ecclesiastical  law,  certain  exoepticMaiS  must  be 
noted.  This  law  does  not  cover  appointments  to  par- 
ishes where  the  incumbent  is  not  permanently  installed 
nor  to  parishes  whose  revenues  are  not  sufficimt  to 
justify  such  prooeedings  as  a  concursus  involves.  Nor, 
according  to  the  common  law,  is  a  concursua  advisable 
when  the  bishop,  alter  hearing  the  advice  ol  the  syno- 
dal examiners,  apprehends  serious  disorders  iu  case  a 
ooneursus  were  to  take  place. 

The  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1884)  de- 
creed that  in  the  United  States  one  in  every  ten  par- 
ishes of  a  diocese  should  become  a  permanent  rector- 
ship. To  inaugurate  this  plaa,  the  council  ruled  that 
the  establishment  of  such  rectonhips,  and  the  appoint^ 
ment  of  incumbents  thereunto  should  take  place  no 
later  than  t^ree  years  after  the  promulgation  of  its  de- 
crees. Bishops  were  allowed  to  name  pennanent  reo- 
tors  for  the  first  time  without  a  concursus,  thou^  they 
were  required  to  seek  the  advice  of  their  consultoni. 
Thereafter  the  appointments  of  sudi  rectors  are  null 
imle^  a  concursus  takes  place.  In  a  special  case  the 
bishop  may  waive  the  concursus  in  favour  of  an  ec- 
clesiastic whose  learning  is  well  known  or  whose  ser- 
vices to  religion  are  noteworthv,  provided  the  advice 
of  the  synodal, or  pro-synodal  examiners  is  taken. 
(Cone.  Plen.  Bait.  Ill,  ch.  vi,  nos.  40  sqq.)  The 
method  of  conducting  a  concursus  in  this  country  is 
substantiall V  the  same  as  that  prescribed  b^r  the  gen- 
eral law  of  the  Church.  Candidatea  for  adnussion  to  a 
concursus  must  have  creditably  exeroited  the  ministry 
in  a  <liocese  no  less  than  ten  years,*  and,  during  thai 
time)  must  have  ^ven  evidence  of  abilit^r  to  direct  the 
temporal  and  spiritual  affairs  of  a  parish.  Bishops 
are  obligod  to  appoint  the  most  worthv  of  the  oompet- 
itors.  Kxaminera  should  approve  au  worthy  cabdi* 
dates.  The  risht  of  determmine  the  most  worthy  of 
those  approved  is  vested  in  the  oishop.  Appeals  (q^ 
V.)  and  tne  method  of  treating^them  are  subject  to  tiie 
gjeooeral  ecclesiastical  law.  Finally,  where  cirouxo- 
stances  militate  against  the  feasibility  of  a  concursus 
as  often  as  a  permanent  rectorship  is  to  be  filled,  the 
Holy  See  has  tolerated  or  allowed  the  heading,  under 
the  conditions  already  specified,  of  general  annual 
examinations,  to  determine  the  standing  of  candidates 
in  ecclesiastical  science,  while  judgment  concerning 
the  other  necessary  qualifieations  is  given  whenever 


oomukwan 


210 


OOWDXUkiiD 


m  permanent  rebtorehip  is  vacated.  Those  passing  ihe 
tnriimwiatkm  onoe  are  counted  worthy,  in  point  of 
leaminjz,  for  appointmCTit  to  any  permanent  rector- 
Bhip  falling  vacant  within  a  given  period,  usually  not 
more  than  six  years,  after  sudi  an  examination. 
Should  they  wish  to  enjo^  a  like  title  after  that  period, 
success  in  another  exammation  is  rec^uired. 

C^mada  has  no  permanent  rectorships.  As  a  conse- 
<}uenoe,  the  manner  of  appointing  rectors  of  parishes 
is  subject  to  the  discretion  of  the  bishops.  (Gignae, 
Gomp.  Juris  eccl.  ad  usum  cleri  Canadensis,  Quebec, 
1901.  De  Personis,  p.  355.)  In  England  no  eonoursuB 
is  held  to  determine  appointments  to  permMient  rec- 
torships (Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Chimdi,  London, 
1906,  p.  231).  According  to  the  decree  of  the  Bynod 
of  Mavnooth  held  in  1900,  legislation  similar  to  that  of 
the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  was  adopted 
for  determining  appointments  to  parishes  in  the  vari- 
ous dioceses  <n  Ireland.  Since  1895  the  law  of  the 
eonoursus  obtains  also  in  the  Commonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia (Second  Plen.  Council  of  Australia,  No.  47  sqq.). 
The  acts  of  diocesan  and  i»x>vincial  councils,  eessions 
of  Roman  Congregations,  and  papal  conclaves  testify 
that  the  Tridentine  legislation  concerning  the  ooncur- 
sus  has  long  prevailed  m  Italy.  The  same  regulations 
were  introduced  into  Spain  and  Portugal  in  the  six- 
teenth century;  they  obtain  also  in  South  America. 
While  the  observance  of  the  law  was  general  through- 
out France  before  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, dianesd  conditions  long  since  led  to  its  abro- 
gation in  tnat  country  (Duballet,  Journal  de  droit 
canon.,  1891,  452-74).  In  Belgium  the  Synod  of 
Mechlin  (1570)  adopted  the  Tridentine  regulations, 
but  since  then,  save  for  Lidge,  the  eaiiier  freedom  of 
epieoopal  collation  has  returned  (Vering,  471).  At 
present,  CSerman,  Austrian,  Hungarian,  and  Prussian 
bishops  base  their  appreciation  of  a  candidate's  learn- 
ing on  the  results  of  general  examinations  at  re^ar 
intervals.  Exception  being  made  for  minor  differ- 
ences, the  above-described  regulations  govern  the  eit- 
aminations  in  those  countries.  The  consideration  of 
other  necessary  qualifications  is  made  whenever  a 
vacancy  oecura  and  an  appointment  follows.  While 
in  other  places  bishops  mav  use  their  own  discretion  in 
appointing  rectors,  the  Hoi^^  See  bespeaks  even  in  such 
places  all  possible  confonnitv  to  the  spirit  of  the  Tri- 
dentine law.  It  mav  be  added  that  in  Austria,  since 
Joseph  II,  the  State,  has  insisted  on  the  parochial  con- 
corsuBy  and  has  embodied  it  in  art.  24  of  the  Conoop- 
dat. 

tens.  Blemenia  of  Bcele^iastiad  Law  (New  York,  1887),  I. 
M7;  Baabt.JmU  Formularu  (New  York,  1808).  100  eqq^ 
Taunton.  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London.  19(36),  227-31; 
O/rm,  atfniopsie  Rerum  Moralium  et  iuria  pontifiai  (Prato, 
1904);  LnrtTRB,  La  paroitM  (Pftru,  1006):  Dibndostxb  u 
KirehenU^.,  b.v.  Concurs;  Lingo.  (?etcA.  aea  tridenHnuchen 


J,  D.  O'Neill. 

Oondaminer  Charleo-Marib  db  la,  explorer  and 
phyeicist,  b.  at  Paris,  28  January,  1701 ;  d.  there  4  Feb^ 
niar^,  1774.  After  a  brief  militarv  career  he  turned 
to  scientific  pursuits  and  explored  the  coasts  of  Africa 
and  Asia  Mmor  on  the  Mediterranean.  In  1735,  he 
was  sheeted  to  direct  an  expedition  to  the  equatorial 
regions  of  Sout^  America  In  oider  to  determine  the 
form  of  the  earth  by  measuring  a  meridian  and  thus 
establishing  the  flattening  of  our  ^obe  towards  the 
poles.  His  companions  were  Pierre  Bouguer  and 
Louis  Godin  des  Odonais.  Two  officers  of  the  Spanish 
marine,  Jorge  Juan  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  represented 
the  Government  of  Spain  on  the  voyaf^  and  also  made 
independent  observations  in  the  interior.  Condamine 
went  to  Ecuador  and  there  began  his  labours,  making 
a  fairly  accurate  triangulation  of  the  mountS.inou8 
parts  and  the  western  sections  of  Ecuador.  On  this 
occasion  be  discovered  that  tall.mountains  deflect  the 


pendulum  by  their  attraction.  He  remahied  eighi 
years  in  South  America,  then  returned  to  France, 
where  he  was  chosen  member  of  the  Academv  of 
Sciences  and  of  the  French  Academv  and  reoeivea  Hie 
cross  of  Saint  Lazarus.  While  Condamine  on  account 
of  his  ambition  and  inclination  to  controversy  was  a 
disagreeable  character,  as  an  explorer  and  plivsicist 
he  stands  very  hi^.  The  topojp^raphical  work  per- 
formed by  him  or  under  his  direction  suffered  from  the 
relative  imperfections  of  the  instnnnents  in  use  in  his 
time,  but  me  resuhs  obtained  were  astonishing.  Not 
only  in  physiographv  and  phvsical  geography,  but  in 
other  branches  also  his  expeciition  opened  a  new  per- 
spective to  investigation.  It  was  the  starting  point 
for  more  extensive  explorations  of  tropical  America. 
The  countries  he  visited  became  and  remained  there- 
after, classical  ground  in  the  annab  of  natural  sdenoe* 
It  is  claimed  that  he  introduced  caoutchouc  into  Eu- 
rope, and  he  also  tried  to  introduce  inoculation  for 
Binailpox  into  France. 

ItttereBt  in  Condamine  ceatnns  in  hit  Sonth  Amarittm  work, 
bdbka  on  that  e39>ediUon  beooma  tiie  prominent  Mmroe  oC  in- 
formation regarding  the  most  important  period  of  his  life;  ee- 
pecially  hia  own  wmings,  chief  of  which  were:  Journal  du  wv- 
hi  Roi  A  l'*fimattut  (Fiaris,  1761);  Adotum 
I  dan»  I'-Milmeur  tie  VAmirique  wUridwrnale 


OM  jou  pctr  otdre  du 
oorMs  iTuft  voytme  c 
(Pane,  1745:  2d  ed.. 


(PafU.  1745:  2a  ed.,  1778):  Hisioire  dee  pyramidea  de  Quito 
(Pteris,  1751).  Frequent  raerenoes  are  fomid  in  the  works  of 
Humboldt,  also,  db  Ulloa  and  Juan,  Reiacidn  hialSrieet,  del 
VUM0  d  la  AmMm  Mertdionol  heeho  de  orden  de  S^  ifao.  para 
medir  algimoe  graaoa  de  meridiano  terreeire  (Madrid,  1748). 

Ad.  F.  Bandslier. 

Oondittae,  E>nENNB  Bonkot  db,  a  French  phikso- 
pher,  b.  at  Crrenoble,  30  September,  1715;  d.  near 
Beaugencv  (Loiret),  3  Ausust,  1780.  He  was  the 
brother  of  ihe  Abb6  de  Mably  and  was  himself  Abb^ 
of  Mureaux.  Thanks  to  the  resources  of  his  benefice, 
he  was  able  to  follow  his  natural  inclinations  and 
devote  himself  wholly  to  study,  for  which  ptupoee  he 
retired  into  solitude.  About  1755  he  was  chosen  pre- 
ceptor of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  the  grandson  of  Louis 
XV,  for  whom  he  wrote  his  "Oours  d^^udes'*.  The 
education  of  the  prince  bein^  completed,  Oondillac 
was  elected  in  1768  to  sueoeed  the  Abb6  d'Olnret  as 
a  member  of  the  Fren<^  Academy.  He  was  present 
but  once  at  the  sessions— H>n  the  dav-  of  his  reception — 
and  then  retired  to  his  estate  of  Flux  near  Beau- 
gency  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days. 

From  an  intellectual  point  of  view,  Gondillac's  life 
may  be  divided  into  two  periods.  During  the  first  he 
amply  developed  the  theories  of  Locke.  He  pub- 
Ikhed  in  1745  his  ^'Essai  sur  V  origine  des  connaia- 
fiances  humaines ' '  which  is  a  summary  of  Locked  **  Es- 
say concerning  Human  Understanding'',  and  in  1749 
his  "Traits  des  Bysi^meB*'  wherein  he  attacks  the  in- 
nate ideas  and  abstract  systems  of  Descartes,  Male- 
branche,  Leibnis,  Spinoaa,  and  Boursio*.  The  latter 
period,  devoted  to  more  original  work,  begins  with  the 
*' Traits  des  sensations''  in  1754,  the  central  idea  of 
which  is  to  renew  the  human  untkrstanding  by  a  fun- 
damental analysis  of  t^e  first  data  of  mental  exnerienoe 
in  man's  conscious  life.  In  1755  he  publinied  his 
''Traits  des  animaux",  a  sequel  to  Hie  '^IVait^  des 
flensations";  and  then  his  '^Oours  d'^tudes"  wluch 
inchides  "Grammaire",  "L'Art  d'4crire",  "L'Art  de 
raisonner",  "L'Art  de  pCnser",  •'L'histoire  g^n^rale 
des  hommes  et  dee  empires",  edited  in  13  vols..  Parma, 
1769^1773.  This  was  placed  on  the  Index  in  1836. 
In  1776  appeared  his  book  on  "Le  commerce  et  le 
^uvemement  consid^nSs  relatfvement  I'un  k  I'autre" 
m  which  he  exposes  his  principles  of  the  ri^t  to  prop- 
crtv  and  his  theory  of  economics.  In  1780,  a  few  montns 
before  his  death,  he  pubfished  his  ''Logique",  an  ele- 
mentary treatise  composed  at  the  reouest  of  the  council 
of  public  instruction  of  Poland.  His  "Langue  des 
calculs"  was  published  unfinished  only  after  his  death 
in  the  first  complete  edition  of  his  works  (23  vols., 
Paris,  1798). 

CondOlac  starts  with  Locke's  empmcism,  but  Locke. 


OOmiTlOK 


211 


ooxDznoy 


b»  l^iakB,  tUd  not  go  daephr  enoush  mio  the  problem 
of  the  oriflin  of  Eumia  Knowkage.  Acooraing  to 
Locke  our  KBOir ledge  has  a  two^fola  Bouroe,  seoBation 
andrafleotkui;  accoiding  to  Condillac,  not  only  ail  our 
ideas,  but  even  all  our  mental  operations  and  f aeulties 
spring  from  sensaticm  alone  as  vheir  ultunitfte  source; 
ail  are  merely  di£far«nt  stages  or  forms  in  the  devdop- 
ment  of  sensation  {mnaaHofu  transformieB).  He  illus- 
tiates  his  theory  b^  the  hypothesis  of  a  statue,  whieh, 
inert  at  the  beginning,  is  supposed  to  acquire,  one  by 
one,  the  aenses,  from  the  most  elementaiy,  smelL  to 
the  most  perfect,  toudi.  With  this  last  sense  and  its  ' 
impnssion  of  resistanoe,  the  statue  which  had  been 
previously  mere  odour,  taste,  «x>lour,  eta,  now  ao- 
guires  the  distinction  between  self  and  non-self. 
When  it  has  all  the  senses,  it  has  also  the  whole  mental 
life.  Fsom  sensation  considered  as  representative 
sprtnjg  all  the  faculties  of  the  miderstandrng.  Atten- 
tion is  nothing  but  an  exclusive  sensation.  When  the 
object  is  present  the  impression  is  called  actual  sensa- 
tion; the  impreseion  which  remains  after  the  disap- 
peannoe  of  the  object  is  called  memoiy .  Comparison 
m  nothing  mere  than  a  double  attention;  we  cannot 
compare  two  obiecte  or  perceive  two  sensations  withr 
out  remarking  that  they  are  similar  or  dissimilar;  to 
perceive  similarities  or  differences  is  to  judge;  to  rea- 
son  is  to  draw  a  judgment  from  another  jud^ent 
wherein  it  was  contained.  Moreover,  idl  sensation  is 
eswntially  affective;  that  is,  painful  or  pleasant;  undw 
this  aspect  it  is  the  source  of  aU  our  active  faculties. 
Need  is  the  pain  which  results  from  the  privation  of  an 
object  iiriiose  presence  is  demanded  by  nature  or  habit; 
need  directs  all  our  eneigies  towards  this  object;  this 
very  direction  is  wiiat  we  oali  desire;  desire  as  a  dom- 
inant habit  is  passion;  will  is  nothing  but  absolute 
desire,  a  desire  made  more  energetic  and  more  permar 
nentthrott^hope.  '  What  we  call  substance  is  simply 
the  collection  of  sensations.  What  we  call  the  ego  is 
simr^  the  collection  of  our  sensations.  Is  there  be- 
hind these  sensations  a  something  whidi  supports 
them?  We  do  not  know.  We  express  and  summar 
rise  our  sensations  by  meaiis  of  words;  we  give  the 
same  name  fo  aU  the  iniiy^vidual  objects  which  we 
judge  to  be  similar;  this  name  is  what  we  call  a  general 
Idea.  Thiou^  general  ideas  or  names  we  bring  order 
into  our  ImowMpej  and  this  is  pnaaeiy  the  purpose 
of  reasoning  and  it  is  .vdiat  constitutes  science.  Good 
reasoniiu',  therefore,  consists  eesentiaUy  in  sneaking 
wdL  Ultimately  the  work  of  human  thou^t  is  to 
pass  from  the  confused  and  oomplex  content  of  the 
primitive  sensations  to  clear  and  simple  concepts ;  the 
eeecntifll  and  the  unique  method  is  analysis  based  on 
the  priittiple  of  identity,  and  the  perfect  analytical 
method  is  the  mathematical  method.  To  reason  is  to 
calculate;  what  we  call  progress  in  ideas  is  only  prog- 
ress in  expression.  A  science  is  only  a  welteon- 
stnwted  larignapfty  tins  (angiis  hien  faUe,  that  is,  simple, 
with  sups  preoBcfy  determined  according  to  the  laws 
of  tauSogy*  The  primitive  foim  of  language  is  the 
language  of  action  which  is  innate  in  us,  sjrnthetical 
and  comused.  Under  pressure  of  the  need  of  oommu* 
nication  between  men,  theseactions  are  interpreted  as 
sisns,  decomposed,  analysed,  and  the  spoken  language 
takes  the  plaee  of  the  lansuage  of  action. 

Condillae's  theory  of  education  is  based  on  the  idea 
that  the  diild  in  its  development  must  repeat  the  vari«* 
ous  states  throuih  whidi  tne  race  has  passed — an  idea 
which,  with  certain  modifications,  still  survives.  An- 
other cl  his  prindpleB,  more  widely  received  at  present, 
is  that  tiie  educative  process  must  be  shaped  in  accord- 
ance with  natural  development.  He  also  insists  on 
the  necessity  of  establishing  a  connexion  between  the 
various  items  of  knowledge,  and  of  training  the  jiicU^ 
ment  rather  than  burdening  the  memoiy.  Hie  stucy* 
of  lustory  holds  a  large  place  in  his  system,  and  religion 
is  of  paratnoont  importanoei  He  insists  that  the 
prince,  for  whom  the  ''Gouib  d'Mudes''  was  written. 


shall  be  more  thoroughly  instructed  in  matters  of  re- 
ligion than  the  subjects  whom  he  is  latcn*  to  ^vem. 
On  the  other  hand,  Condillac  has  been  iustly  criticised 
for  his  attempt  to  make  thechildalogician  and  psydiol- 
Ogist,  even  a  metaphysieian,  before  he  has  mastered 
the  dements  of  grammar — a  mistake  which  is  obvi- 
ously due  to  his  error  conoermng  the  origin  of  ideas. 
The  system  of  Condillac  ends,  tiieref ore,  in  sensualistio 
enmiricism,  nominalism,  and  agnosticism. 

U  CondiUac's  works  evince  a  certain  precision  of 
thoui^t  and  vigour  of  reasoning  they  dearhy  betray  a 
lack  of  observation  and  of  the  sense  of  reahty.  Most 
oi  the  time  he  is  blinded  bf  the  tendency  to  reduce  all 
processes  of  thou^t  to  a  single  method,  all  ideas  and 
principles  to  a  smsle  source.  This  tendency  is  well 
exemplified  in  his  hypothesis  of  the  statue.  He  sup- 
poses it  to  be  mere  passivity;  and  by  this  very  sup- 
position, instead  of  a  man  he  makes  it  a  maehme  or,  as 
Cousin  says,  a  sensible  coipse.  He  attempts  to  reduce 
eveiything  to  mere  sensation  or  impression,  and  in 
reality  eveiy  step  in  what  he  calls  a  transformation  is 
made  under  the  mfluence  of  an  activlty^  and  a  prindple 
which  dominate  and  interpret  this  sensation,  but  which 
Condillac  confounds  with  it.  It  is  the  operation  of 
this  activity  and  prindple  essentiallv-  distinct  from 
sensation,  tiiat  enables  him  to  speak  of  attention, 
oomparison,  judgment,  and  personality.  An  attempt 
has  been  made  to  show  that  CondiUae  was  the 
forerunner,  in  psychology,  ethics,  and  sodoiogy  of 
the  English  school  represented  bv  imi.  Bain,  and 
Spoioer  (Dewanle,  Condillae  et  fa  psydiologie  an- 
giaise  contemporaine,  Paris,  1892) ;  but  tais  view  seems 
to  overlook  the  influence  of  Locke  upon  his  successors 
in  England  and  the  traditional  tendency  of  English 
philosophical  thought  (cf.  Picavet  in  Revue  philoso- 
phraue,  XXXIX,  p.  215). 

(EuwnB  eampUtM  (Faoa,  1708,  1808, 1821):  LABOMiouikas, 
Paradoofes  <U  Condiilae  au  rifisxtont  9ur  la  tanaue  du  ealeuU 
(Paris,  1805);  Idem.  Lefont  de  pAOotopAie  (Paris.  1815-18); 
GdvfliN,  HitL  da  la  pkitoBopMe  modeme  (Paris,  1827);  Robbrt, 
Lev  ihSotiM  iotriquea  dt  CondOlae  (Pkris.  ISSO);  RiiTaout,  Ctm- 
j,,. n ^^__. . ,.  -^. — ,,j,^  ^p^^^  1864);  Mill,  A 

"    Lbwss,  BioQ,  HUtorif  o/ 


diUac  ou  Vempiricitma  ei  U  rahonalimu 
Syaiem  cf  Logic  (London,  1872),  II,  il; 
PWr.  (London.  1871),  II. 


G.  M.  Sauvagb. 


Conditioii  (Lat.  oondiHo,  from  eondo,  to  bring,  or 
put  J  together;  sometimes,  on  account  of  a  somewhat 
similar  derivative  from  oondicere,  confused  with  this) 
is  that  which  is  necessary  or  at  least  conducive  to  the 
actual  operation  of  a  cause,  thoudi  in  itself,  with 
respect  to  the  particular  effect  of  which  it  is  the  con- 
dition, poBsessmg  in  no  sense  the  nature  of  causality. 
Thus  the  notion  of  a  condition  is  not  that  of  a  real 
principle  such  as  actually  gives  existence  to  the  effect 
produced  (which  is  the  case  in  the  notion  of  cause); 
but  rather  of  a  circumstance,  or  set  of  circumstances, 
in  which  the  cause  r^ulily  acts,  or  in  which  alone  it 
can  act.  Thus  a  sufficient  light  is  a  condition  of  my 
writing,  though  it  in  no  sense  is,  as  I  myself  am,  the 
cause  of  the  act  of  writiiu^.  The  writing  is  the  effect 
of  the  writer,  and  not  of  the  light  by  which  it  was 
performed.  A  condition  is  also  to  be  distinguished 
m>m  an  occamon,  which  latter  imports  no  more  than 
an  event,  or  thing,  by  reason  of  the  presence  of  which 
any  other  event,  or  thin^,  takes  place — as,  for  exam- 
ple, the  passage  of  the  king  in  state  is  the  occasion  of 
my  removing  my  hat — while  the  action,  or  actual 
operation,  oithe  cause  is  absolutely  dependent  upon 
the  presence  of  this  particular  one,  or  of  some  condi- 
tion. Condition  is,  for  this  reason,  distinguished, 
with  respect  to  the  operation  of  any  particular  cause, 
(1)  as  the  condition  sine  qud  rum,  or  condition  without 
the  presence  of  wfaidi  this  cause  is  wholly  inoperative, 
and  (2)  as  the  condition  simply  such — when  some 
one  of  several  possible  ones  is  necessary  to  the  actual 
operation  of  the  cause.  To  the  former  class  belons 
such  conditions  as  can  be  supplied  bjr  no  others,  such 
as,  for  example,  that  of  the  combustion  of  wood.    A 


^OOmMNON 


212 


vosnmwB 


•lire  wili  not  bum  wood  unless  applied  to  it.  The 
Application  of  the  fire  to  the  wood  is  said  to  be  a  cob- 
dition  sina  quA  non  of  the  burning  of  the  wood  by  the 
fire.  A  oondition  may  further  be  considered  in  one 
ofwtwo  different  forms,  either  as  preparing/ dispostog, 
or  applying  the  causality  of  a  cause  towards  its  exer- 
cise in  the  production  of  an  effect,  or  as  removing 
some  obstacle  that  faindera  the  action  of  the  cause. 
This  latter  form  of  condition  is  sometimes  known  as 
th^  causa  removene  prokibem.  The  blinds  of  a  room 
must  be  drawn  up  in  order  that  the  sunlight  may 
«nter  and  illuminate  the  objects  in  it.  It  is  to  be* 
noted  that  this  is  really  a  condition,  and  not  a  cause, 
of,  the  event  considered.  The  illumination  of  the 
.objects  in  the  room  is  the  effect  of  the  sunlight  enter- 
ing it.  This  same  distinction  ai^)eanB  in  the  '^  neces- 
sary", or  ''sufficient''  conditions,  much  employed  in 
mathenlatical  science.  A  sufficient  oondition  is  one 
in  which,  when  the  antecedent  is  present,  it  is  always 
followed  by  the  consequent.  A  necessary  condition 
is.  one  in  which  the  consequent  never  exists  unless 
this  particular  antecedent  be  given. 

Some  modem  systems  of  pmlosophy  regard  condi- 
tion in  the  sense  ol  what  in  u^e  Scholastic  view  would 
•  be  called  accidental  modification.  Thus  Kant  up- 
holds the  assertion  that  time  and  space  condition,  or 
are  the  conditions  of,  our  experience,  as  a  priori  forms. 
In  this  sense  also,  Hegel  makes  the  conditioned  entity 
equivalent  to  the  finite  entity;  as  it  would  indeed  also 
be  considered  in  Scholastic  thought.  That  which  has 
accidents^  or  is  conditioned  in  the  sense  of  limitations 
or  definition,  is  necessarily,  as  contingent,  in  sharp 
distinction  to  the-  absolute.  John  Stuart  Mill  would 
have  the  framework,  or  complete  setting  in  w^ich 
anything  exists  accounted  as  its  conditions;  and  all 
the  necessarv  antecedents,  or  conditions,  the  cause  of 
the  thing.  Thus  it  would  be  conditioned  by  its  complex 
relationsnips — ^again  an  accidental  modification  in  the 
Scholastic  sense.  We  consequently  find,  in  modem 
philosophical  usage  generally,  and  especially  since 
Hamilton's  theonr  of  the  Unconditioned  was  formu- 
lated, that  the  "conditioned"  and  the  "uncondi- 
tioned" are  used  as  equivalents  of  the  "necessary" 
and  "contingent"  of  the  Schoolmen,  in  the  sense  that 
the  '^necessary"  entity  is  conceived  of  as  abiolute  of 
all  determination  other  than  its  own  aseitv,  while  all 
"contingent"  entity  is  defined  and  limited  by  a  com- 
position in  which  one  of  the  factors  is  potentiality. 
Hamilt<Mi's  philosc^hy  of  the  Unconditioned  works 
out  coriouslv  in  the  department  of  ontology.  •  His 
views  were  mat  given  to  the  worid  in  the  form  of  an 
article  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  (October,  1829),  in 
wfaioh  he  criticised  the  philosophy  of  Cousin  with 
regard  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Absolute.  Victor 
Cousin  maintained  that  we  possess  an  immediate 
knowled^  of  the  Unconditioned,  Absolute,  or  Infinite 
in  consciousness.  According  to  Hamilton,  the  Un- 
conditioned is  either  the  unconditionally  Hmited  or 
the  unconditionally  imlimited.  In  either  case  the 
Unconditioned  is  unthinkable.  For  all  human  knowl- 
edge is  relative^  in  that>  "of  existence,  absolutely  and 
in  itself,  we  know  nothing"  (^Met.,  Lect.  viii).  As  a 
consequence  of  this  doctrine  of  the  relativity  of  knowK 
edge,  it  follows  that  we  are  incapable  of  knowing  that 
wmch  is  unconditioned  by  relativity.  "The  mind 
can  conceive,  and  consecjuently  can  know  only  the 
limited,  and  the  conditionally  limited".  "Condi- 
tional limitation",  he  says  again  (Logic,  Lect.  v)  "is 
the  fundamental  law  of  the  possibiUty  of  thou^t." 
Hence,  while  the  Unconditioned  may  exisrt,  we  cannot 
know  it  by  experience,  intuition,  or  reasoning.  Ham- 
ilton undertaKcs  to  explain  his  doctrine  by  tlie  illus- 
tratioB  of  the  whole  and  the  part.  It  is  impossible 
to  conceive  a  whole  to  which  addition  may  not  be 
made,  a  part  from  which  sometliing  may  not  be  taken 
«way.  Hence  tlic  two  extreme  unconditionates  are 
■uch,  that  neither  can  be  conceived  ss  possible,  but 


ofie  of  tbem  niMfit  be  admitted  as  ndoesdB&ty.  Of  this, 
the  Unconditioned,  we  have  no  notion  either  n^igtive 
.  or  positive.  It  is  not  an  object  of  thought,  Tram 
.suck  considerations  it  foHows  that  we  cannot  eonclude 
either  as  to  the  existence  or  non-existenao  of  the  Ab- 
solute. On  the  other  hand,  while  our  knowledge  is  of 
the  limited,  related,  and  finite^  our  belief  mav  |p  out 
to  that  which  has  none  of  these  eharaeteraties. 
Thciugh  we  cannot  kiiow,  we  may  believe — and,  by 
reason  of  a  supematursl  revelation,  if  such  be  ^ven, 
must  believe-^in  the  existence  of  the  Unconditioned 
as  above  and  beyond  all  that  which  is  conceivable  by 
us.  Mill  very  carefoUy  examines  Hamilton's  use  of 
the  word  inoonceivabUf  and  finds  that  it  is  fippfied  in 
three  senses,  in  one  of  which  all  that  is  inexplicable, 
inciudine  the  first  principles,  is  held  to  be  inconceiv- 
able. The  same  doctrine  was  advanced,  in  a  slighUy 
modified  form,  by  Dean  Mansel,  in  the  Bampton  Lec- 
ture of  1858.  WhatevM*  knowledge  we  are  capable 
^  acc^piiring  of  the  Unconditioned  is  negative.  As 
we  can  rationally,  therefore,  form  no  posttire  notion 
or  concept  of  (joo,  our  reason  must  be  helped  and  sup- 
plemented by  our  faith  in  revelation.  Both  Mansel 's 
and  Hamilton's  expositions  of  the  doctrine  of  rel»* 
tivtty  are  in  reality  assertions  of  rational,  or  philo- 
-sophical,  a^osticism. 

'  Thus,  while  professing  to  be  theists,  writers  of  this 
stamp  are  not  properly  to  be  aeooimted  such  in  the 
strictly  philosophical  sense.  Ilie  rational  agnos* 
ticism  that  lies  at  the  base  of  their  theistte  system, 
oieeessitating,  as  it  does,  an  appeal  to  fs^th  and  rev- 
elation, vitiates  it  as  a  plulosophy.  The  thesis  ad- 
vanced by  them  may,  nowever,  be  criticised  and 
amended  in  the  following  manner.  It  is  trae  that  the 
entire  content  of  the  Universe  must  be  regarded,  in 
comparison  with  its  Creator,  as  limited  or  condi- 
tioned. It  does  not  therefore  follow  that  no  rational 
inference  can  be  drawn  from  the  conditioned  to  the 
Absolute.  On  the  contrary,  the  nerve  of  the  theistic 
inference,  tacitly,  if  not  expressly,  presupposed  in  all 
forms  of  the  theistic  argument,  lies  in  the  Thomistie 
distinction  between  the  Necessai^  and  the  possible 
(or  contingent).  The  existence  of  contahgent  beings, 
limited  or  coiKlitioned  things,  postulates  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Necessary  Being,  the  one  Unlimited  and 
Unconditioned  Things  The  argument  in  its  devel- 
oped form  may  be  seen  in  the  article  TesiaMk  But 
it  may  be  here  pointed  out  that  the  inference  from 
the  contingent  to  the  Necessaiy-^ieeeBBitated,.  .as 
it  is,  by  the  normal  psychological  action  of  the  dis- 
cursive reason—presupposes  certain  principles  which 
are  not  always  kept  cleariy  in  view.  The  Scholastic 
synthesis  recognizes  the  reality  of  the  ooniinRent*  It 
asserts  that  the  human  intelligence  can  risaf3x>ve  the 
phenomena  of  sense-perception  to  the  actual  sub- 
stance that  provides  a  basis  and  offers  a  rational  ex- 
planaticm,  at  the  same  time  psycholoeical  and  onto- 
logical,  of  and  for  these.  Ana  it  is  i^  the  changes  and 
alterations  of  "substance"  (see  Htloicorfhism) 
that  it  perceives  the  essential  contingency  of  all 
created  ttiings.  From  this  perception  it  iises»  by  a 
strictly  argumentative  process,  to  the  assertion  of  the 
Necessary  or  Unconditioned — and  this  with  no  appeal 
ei  ther  to  revelation  or  to  faith.  The  knowledge  of  the 
Unconditioned  thus  reached  is  of  two  kinds:  fiisUyr 
•that  the  Unconditioned  is,  and  that  its  existence  is 
necessarily  to  be  inferred  from  the  existence  of  the 
possible  or  contingent  (conditioned) ;  secondly,  that, 
as  Unconditioned,  or  Necessary,  the  conceptions  that 
we  possess  of  it  are  to  be  found  princ^aily  by  the  way 
of  the  negation  of  imperfections.  Thus  the  Uncon- 
ditioned, with  regard  to  time,  is  Eternal ;  with  regard 
to  space.  Unlimited,  Infinite,  Omnipresent;  with  re* 
gara  to  power,  Omnipotent;  and  so  oa  through  the 
categories,  removing  the  imperfections  and  asserting 
the  plenitude  of  perfection.  The  argument  may  be 
ioimd  Btateil  in  the  "Summa  Theologica"  of  St. 


flOHMTIONAL 


213 


OOlKWmOMM 


Thomas  (I,  Q.  ii,  a.  3),  where  it  is  given  as  the  third 
way  of  knowing  Uirum  Deue  8U. 

dr.  Tromaa  Aqqinas,  Summit  Th»U.,  I.  Q.  H,  a.  3;  Fbick, 
OmaUtqw  (FMiburc  im  Br.,  18Q7):  Inaii,  Lovvnn  (FreibuiE  in» 
Br..  1806);  Haan,  PhUiMJiphiQ  Natur^  (2nd  ed..  Freiburg 
Im  Br.,  1808);  Bauibb,  PttndamenUU  PkHotophy,  tr.  Bbowk- 
■Dif  (2nd  ad.,  Nev  York,  1S06):  Avbumo,  The  Neeeuary  . 
Mfaifux  ia  IhMin  Review  (Ootpber,  1004);  Hamu^ton,  On 
the  PhUoeophu  of  the  Uncondilumea  in  Bdif%burf^  Review  (Ooto- 
ber,  1829);  Idbm,  Diecuuiona  (London  and  Edinburgh.  1852); 
InoiM,  Leatitrea  en  AfdtoniwMM  and  Loffie.  ed.  MAivtB&  and 
\KnCH  (London  find  Edinburgh,  1859-60);    Manul,  ifpf^it* 


of  R^igioue  TheuQht  (Oxford  and  London.  1858);  1dbi(» 

6pKy  of  the  Conditioned  (London  and  Edinburgh,  18M);  Mill. 
Esammation  of  Sir  WiOiam  HamiUen*8  PMeeephy  (London, 
286S);  iDuc.  topic  (London,  1843). 

Frajncis  AvEUje^Q. 
OonditionAl  Baptism.    See  Ba7ti8m. 

Oonocte,  Trokas,  Carmelite  reformer,  b.  at  Rennet 
towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  centurv;  d.  at 
Rome,  1433.  He  joined  the  Carmelitea  and  distin- 
guiafacid  himself  by  indiscreet  zeal.  He  preached  with 
much  success  at  Cambrai,  Toumai,  Arras,  etc.,.  inhis 
sermons  vehemently  denouncing  the  prevailing  fash- 
ions in  female  headgear,  with  the  result  that  those 
who  dressed  thus  at  his  sermons  despoiled  thejnselves 
forthwith  of  their  ornaments;  gamblers  also  burned 
their  playing  cards  and  dices.  Having  inveighed 
against  the  disedifying  nfe  of  certaiin  priests,  he  ha^  to 
seek  safety  in  fli^t.  He  now  strove  to  reform  his 
own  order,  for  which  purpose  he  went  to  Italy,  where 
with  some  others  he  introduced  a  strict  observance  in 
the  convent  near  Florence,  which  gradually  developed 
into  the  Congregation  of  Mantua.  He  visited  this 
latter  convent  in  1432  and  thence  proceeded  to  Venice, 
and  finally  to  Rome,  where  the  manners  of  the  Curia 
provoked  anew  his  violent  language  and  occasioned 
a  charge  of  conspiracjr  against  the  pope.  Appre- 
hended at  the  instigation  of  the  procurator  and  of 
Cardinal  de  la  Roche-Taille,  protector  of  the  order, 
he  was  condemned  as  a  heretic  and  publicly  burned'. 
It  was  said  that  Eugene  TV  was  afterwards  sorry  for 
this  sentence,  which,  if  not  unjust,  was  certainly  too 
severe;  but  this  does  not  justify  certain  Carmelite 
authors  considering  him  a  saint,  as  several  whom  Bale 
quotes  have  done. 

Conecte  it  snppooed  to  have  written  De  ReformaHoneQuadam 
Monita^  aUoded  to  by  Nkboius  Ksbton;  cf.  AiioxifTBJiuB, 
Histor.  Britannia  minoria»  U.  cap.  zlii;  db  S.  Etibnnb,  BibU-^ 
otheoa  CarmeL.,  s.v. 

B.  Zimmerman. 

Ooafaranca  oC  Oatholie  OoUages.  See  Educat 
TIONAIt  AsaociATioN,.  CAmoiJc* 

0onfereoc69i  EccLBaiAsnncAL,  are  meetings  of 
clerics  for  the  purpose  of  discussing,  in  general}  mat- 
tera  pertaining  to  their  state  of  life,  and,  m  particular^ 
questions  of  moral  theolo^  and  lituigv. 

Hoa^roBicAL  Sicetch.— ine  origin  of  ecclesiastical 
conferea^oes  has  been  sou^^  in  the  assemblies  of 
hermits  o£  the  Egyptian  deserts.  As  earlv  as  the 
third  centuiy,  it  was  customary  for  these  anchorites  to 
meet  together  to  discuss  matters  relating  to  aaoeti- 
cism  and  the  eremitical  life.  When,  later  on,  monas^ 
tenes  were  instituted,  somewhat  similar  conferences 
were  held  among  the  monka.  There  seems,  however, 
to  be  little  in  common  between  these  monastic  asaem- 
bUes  and  the  pastoral  collations,  or  conferences,  of 
the  present  time.  The  more  direct  source  of  the  hU^ 
ter  are  the  quasi-synodal  meetings  of  the  clergy 
ordained  by  various  aecrees  of  the  ninth  century,  such 
as  tiiose  of  Hinomar  of  Reims  and  Riculfus  of  Sion 
in  Switzerland,  and  the  Capitularies  of  Chariemagne. 
Such  assemblies  were  looked  upon  as  supplements  of, 
or  pendants  to,  the  diooesan  synods,  and  we» '  in- 
tended principally  for  those  of  the  cloigy.  wii9  found 
it  difficult  or  impossible  to  assist  at  the  regular  synods. 
These  clerics  were  ordered  to  meet  "at  a  convenient 
place,  In  their  various  districts,  nnder  the  pfesidMicy 
of  the  dean  or  archdeacon,  and  their  assemblies  were 


called  Calendar  because  held  on  the  first  of  the  month. 
Other  terms  applied  to  such  meetings  were  conti^- 
t&ries,  9e9sionSj  and  camlular  conferenees.  We  find 
them  prescribed  in  England  by  the  Council  of.  Exeter 
in  1131  and  the  Council  of  London  in  1237.  '  In  ^ 
sixteenth  century  ecclesiastical  conferences  received  a 
new  impulse.  St.  Ignatius  Loyola  prescribed  them 
in  his  constitution  (1540)  for  members  of  his  order. 
Later,  Clement  VIII  and  Urban  VIII  commanded 
that  all  houses  of  the  regular  clergy  have  conferences 
twice  a  week  on  matters  pertaining  to  moral  theology 
and  Holy  Scripture.  The  main  promoter  of  confer- 
ences among  the  secular  clergy  was  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  who  treated  of  them 
specifically  in  a  synod  at  Mflan  in  1565,  when  intro- 
ducing the  reforms  decreed  by  the  Council  of  Trent. 
Cardinal  Borromeo  ordered  that,  the  conferences  be 
held  monthly,  and  that  they  be  presided  over  by  the 
vicar  forane  or  dean.  Gradually  the  custom  spread 
through' the  various  ecclesiastical  provinces;  and  at 

E resent  these  meetings  are  held  in  accordance  with 
iws  promulgated  in  plenary  or  provincial  counciI^ 
or  synods.  Many  of  the  popes  have  strongly  urged 
on  the  bishops  of  various  countries  the  necessity  and 
utility  of  the  conferences,  and  Innocent  XIII  com- 
manded that  when  bishops  make  their  visit' to  Rome 
(orf  limina)  they  should  report,  among  other  things, 
whether  defgy  conferences  are  held  in  their  dioceses.  . 
There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  general  law  of  the 
Church  which  makes  these  ecclesiastical  meetings 
obligatory. 

DiooBSAN  Laws. — ^llie  holding  of  conferences  has 
been  introduced  among  the  clergy  of  all  English- 
speaking  countries,  in  virtue  of  ordinances  promul- 
^ted  at  councils  or  synods.  Thus  the  Second 
Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1866)  declares:  "  As  an 
adjunct  to  diocesan  synods  and  in  lieu  of  their  fre- 
quent celebration,  let  there  be  theolo^cal  conferences 
of  the  priests,  which  will  preserve  the  rudiments  of 
the  sacred  science  in  the  minds  of  all,  promote  a 
healthy  and  uniform  method  for  the  direction  of  souls, 
dispel  mental  inertia,  and  afford  an  opportunity  for 
eliminating  abuses.  We  greatly  desire  that  these 
conferences  be  held  four  times  a  year  by  priests  who 
can  conveniently  meet ;  and  in  the  rural  districts  at 
least  twice  a  year.  All  who  have  care  of  souls,' 
whether  seculars  or  regulars,  should  attend  them" 
(No.  68).  The  Third  Plenary  Council  (1884)  treats 
in  title  v  of  the  education  of  the  cleiigy  and  devotes 
the  fifth  chapter  to  theological  collations  or  confer- 
ences. It  quotes  the  words  of  Pope  Benedict  XIV: 
"Some  priests  who  are  at  first  admirable  directors  of 
souls  later  lose  their  previous  knowledge  of  moral 
theology,  by  neglect  of  study,  so  that  from  being 
masters  of  the  science  they  can  scarcely  be  called 
novices  in  it,  since  they  retair  only  confused  and  im- 
perfect recollections  of  its  first  rudiments."  In  con- 
sequence, the  Fathers  of  Baltimore  renew  the  decree 
of  the  previous  plenary  council  as  to  the  frequency  of 
these  conferences,  and,  after  declaring  them  obliga- 
tory on  all  haxdng  care  of  souls,  they  add:  " Nor  can 
those  confessors  consider  themselves  exempt,  who, 
although  not  attached  to  any  certain  church,  hear  the 
confessions  of  religious  women  in  their  convents  or  of 
laymen  in  public  churches.  Tliose  who  frequently 
absent  themselves  without  legitimate  cause  and  the 
permission  of  the  Ordinary  should  be  punished." 
The  Second  Council  of  Quebec  (1854)  declares  (Deer. 
14) :  "  Ecclesiastical  conferences  will  promote  zeal  and 
love  for  study.  Every  one  knows  how  useful  they 
are  for  increasing  mutual  charity  among  priests  and 
for  instructing  and  confirming  them  in  sacred  doc- 
trine. We  desire  all,  especially  those  who  have 
pastoral  duties,  to  assist  at  them  faithfully  according 
to  the  method  and  time  prescribed  by  their  bishops. " 
For  Ireland,  the  National  Synod  of  Thurles  (1850) 
ordained:    "Since  what  the  pastors  have  learnt  as 


aoNPiaaixMt 


214 


oomrxfluoiiB 


Boholara  can  eaaily  be  forgotten,  unless  it  he  called  to 
memory  by  use,  we  reoommeiKl  that  theological  con* 
ferences  be  held  according  to  custom,  at  least  four 
times  a  year.  In  them  such  questions  as  pertain  to 
practice  should  be  especially  treated."  We  find  the 
following  decree  (No.  6)  emanating  from  the  First 
Provincial  Council  of  Australia  (1844):  ''We  ordain 
that  theological  conferences  be  held  in  every  deanenr, 
at  least  thi^  times  a  year,  where  it  can  be  done  with- 
out great  inconvenience."  In  1852,  the  First  Provin- 
cial Coundl  of  Westminster  (Deer.  24)  made  the  fol- 
lowing rules  for  England :  **  We  desire  most  earnestly 
that  conferences  on  moral  questions  or  on  other  theo* 
logical  or  Utuigical  matters  be  held  in  all  dioceses  at 
certain  stated  times.  According  to  locality,  let  the 
bishops  determine,  whether  the  whole  clergy  of  the 
diocese  should  convene  together  under  the  bishop's 

E residency,  or  whether  a  number  of  conferences  lie 
eld  in  omerent  vicariates  under  the  presidency  of 
the  vicars  forane.  The  obligation  to  attend  these 
conferences  and  take  part  in  them  is  binding  on  all 
secular  priests  and  on  all  r^ulars  (saving  their  rights) 
having  cure  of  souls."  As  to  regulars,  we  have  the 
foUowmg  provision  in  the  '' Romanes  Pontifices"  of 
Leo  XI 11:  ''We  declare  that  all  rectors  of  missions, 
by  reason  of  their  office,  must  assist  at  the  conferences 
of  the  dergy;  and  we  also  decree  and  command  that 
there  be  present  likewise  the  vicars  and  other  regulars, 
having  tne  usual  missionanr  faculties,  who  reside  in 
small  communities."  It  wiU  be  noticed  that  the  pope 
simply  ''declares''  religious  rectors  to  have  an  obiigar 
tion  to  assist  at  the  conferences,  for  this  is  in  accord- 
ance with  common  law;  but  as  he  derogates  from  that 
law  in  prescribing  that  other  regular  missionaries  who 
dwell  in  small  communities  should  also  attend,  he  uses 
the  words  decree  and  command.  The  pope  gives  the 
reason  why  he  makes  the  distinction  between  regulars 
inhabiting  large  and  small  communities;  the  former 
have  their  own  domestic  conferences,  the  latter  either 
do  not  have  them  at  all,  or  they  are  not  likely  to  be 
fruitful. 

SuBJSOT  Matter  of  Confbrbnges. — ^Amon^f  the 
(questions  to  be  answered  by  bishops  at  the  visit  ad 
hmina  is:  "Are  conferences  held  on  moral  theology 
or  cases  of  conscience,  and  also  on  sacred  rites?  How 
•often  are  they  held,  who  attend  them,  and  what  results 
are  obtained  from  them?"  It  is  evident  from  this 
Question  that  the  main  mattere  to  be  discussed  are 
tnose  pertaining  to  moral  theolo^  and  lituigv.  If 
these  oe  given  proper  consideration,  other  subjects 
may  also  be  considered,  such  as  questions  of  do^soatio 
theology,  canon  law,  Biblical  science,  and  similar 
things.  According  to  the  prescriptions  of  St.  Charles 
Borromeo,  a  case  of  conscience  should  be  proposed  at 
these  meetings  and  each  one  present  should,  in  tunii 
be  asked  his  opinion.  After  tnis,  the  presiding  officer 
makes  a  short  summaiy  and  gives  his  decision.  The 
Hiird  Council  of  Baltimore  wishes  that  (luestions  be 
proposed  by  the  bishops  on  matters  of  discipline  and 
doctrine.  Cases  of  conscience  are  to  be  solved  in 
writing  by  all  who  attend:  but  only  two,  chosen  by 
lot,  are  to  read  their  solutions.  Questions  on  Sacred 
Scripture,  dogmatic  theoloey,  canon  law,  and  sacred 
iituri^  are  to  be  answered  by  those  who  have  been 
appomted  for  the  purpose  at  the  previous  conference. 
Ttie  Provincial  Council  of  Tuam,  Ireland  (1817). 
obliges  all  who  cannot  attend  the  meeting  to  send 
their  solution  of  the  cases  in  writing.  The  First 
Council  oi  Quebec  made  a  similar  decree.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Westminster  requires  that  all  who  come  should 
be  prepared  to  respond  to  questions  concerning  the 
matters  proposed.  The  Provincial  Council  of  the 
English,  Dutch,  and  Danish  colonies  (1854)  prescribes 
that  the  dean  send  the  solution  of  the  cases  either  to 
the  bishop  or  to  some  priest  whom  the  latter  shall 
designate.  Among  the  decrees  of  the  Fint  Council 
of  Westminster  (No.  24)  is  the  following:    "The  eon- 


fcrenoes  are  obliged  to  send  to  the  bishop  the  8olutio»> 
of  the  cases  or  the  conclusions  reaohedi  to  be  *gn^iinitM»tfi 
and  corrected  by  him.  Each  bishop  in  his  own  dio- 
cese is  to  determine  the  method  to  be  observed  and  the 
matteiB  to  be  considered  in  the  oonferenoes.'*  Piua 
IX  wrote  as  follows  to  the  bishops  of  Austria  in  1856: 
"Let  conferences,  especially  concerning  mcoral  theol- 
oey and  sacred  rites,  be  instituted  by  ;^u,  which  all 
the  priests  should  attend  and  bring  m  writing  the 
explanation  of  a  question  proposed  by  you.  They 
should  also  discuss,  for  such  length  of  time  as  you  may 
prescribe,  matters  connected  with  moral  theology 
and  ritual  practice,  after  some  one  of  the  priests  has 
delivered  a  discourse  on  the  particular  obligationa  of 
the  sacerdotal  order." 

Acta  et  DecreUt  Cone  Reeentior.  CcXt,  Lacenns  (Freibuis, 
1876).  IlIjB.  V.  Cattalumca;  Lucnn.  De  VuU.  8*  lAmnmtm 
(Rome,  1800),  I:  ANDBib-WAOWEB,  Did.  du  droit  canon, 
(PBris.  1001),  I:  TROMAsant,  Vetut  ae  ncva  §ed.  dtMsipl.,  pt.  II. 
bk.  Ill*  ch.  Ixziv  Mttd  Ixzvi;  Bcbhsiicann  la  KiitktiUex,,  •.  v. 

WzuoAM  BL  W.  Fanuxmo* 

OonfeBsion  (Lat.  confessio). — Orj^nally  used  to 
designate  the  burial-place  of  a  confessor  or  martyr 
(known  also  as  a  memoria  or  iaaf>r^fMr\  this  term 
gradually  came  to  have  a  variety  of  applications:  the 
altar  erected  over  the  grave;  the  underground  cubicu- 
lum  which  contained  tne  tomb;  the  high  altar  of  the 
basilica  erected  over  the  confession;  later  on  in  the 
Middle  Ages  the  basilica  itself  (Joan.  Bar.,  De  invent, 
s.  Sabini);  and  finally  the  new  resting-place  to  which 
the  remains  of  a  martyr  had  been  transferred  (Rui- 
nart,  II,  35).  In  case  of  translation  the  relics  of  a  mar- 
tyr were  deposited  in  a  crypt  below  the  high  altar,  or 
in  a  hollow  space  beneath  the  altar,  behind  a  branaenna 
or  pierced  marble  screen  such  as  were  used  in  the  cata- 
combs. Thus  the  tomb  waa  left  accessible  to  the 
faithful  who  wished  to  touch  the  shrine  with  cloths 
(jbrandea)  to  be  venerated  in  their  turn  as  "relics". 
In  the  Roman  church  of  S.  Clemente  the  urn  contain- 
ing the  remains  of  St.  C^lement  and  St»  Imatius  of 
Antioch  is  visible  behind  such  a  transenna.  Later  still 
the  term  confeseian  was  adopted  for  the  hollow  reli- 
quary in  an  altar  (Ordo  Rom.  de  dedic.  altaris).  The 
oil  from  the  numerous  lamps  kept  lighted  in  a  confes- 
sion was  considered  as  a  relic  Among  the  most  fa- 
mous subterranean  confessions  of  Rome  are  those  in 
the  churehes  of  S.  Martino  ai  Monti;  S.  Lorenso  fuori 
le  Mure,  containii^  the  bodies  of  St.  Laurence  and  St. 
Stephen;  S.  Prassede  containing  the  bodies  of  the  two 
sisters  Sts.  Prazedes  and  Pudentiana.  Tbm  nsosk  oele- 
brated  confession  is  that  of  St  Peter.  Over  the  tomb 
of  the  Apostle  Pope  St.  Anacletus  built  a  memoria, 
yM6b.  Constantine  when  boilding  his  basilica  replaced 
with  the  Confession  of  St.  Peter.  Behind  the  brass 
statues  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  is  the  niche  over  the 
crated  floor  which  covers  the  tomb.  In  this  niche 
IS  the  gold  coffer,  the  work  of  Benvenuto  Cdlini 
which  contains  the  palliiims  to  be  sent  to  ardibnhops 
de  corj)ore  b,  Petri  according  to  the  Constitution  "Re- 
rum  ecclesiaaticanim"  of  Benedict  XIV  (12  Aug., 
1748).  All  through  the  Middle  Ages  the  palliums 
after  being  blessea  were  let  down  through  the  grating 
on  to  the  tomb  of  the  Apostle,  where  they  remained  for 
a  whole  ni^t  (Phillips,  Kirchenrecht,  V,  624,  n.  61). 
During  the  restoration  of  the  present  basilica  in 
1594  the  floor  gave  way,  revealing  the  tomb  of  St. 
Peter  and  on  it  the  golden  cross  weig^ine  150  ^unds 
plami  there  by  Constantine,  and  inscribed  with  his 
own  and  hb  mother's  names. 

HeUBCH  in  Kraub.  ReaUBncyh.,  a.  v.  CwtftMio;  Craivdi.bkt, 
Piigrim  Waik»  in  Rime  (London,  1006).  _ 

F.  M.  RUDOB. 

Ctonf essioB,  Sacrambntau    See  Psnancb. 
Oonfeasional.    See  Penancc. 
Oonf esflion  Books.    See  Penitentials. 
OonfeMioBB  of  Faith.    See  Faith,  Confbsbioiib 
op. 


00irFJB8SOIt 


215 


COKPIEMAXION 


Oonfeasor. — (1)  Etynwlogy  ami  primitive  mcon- 
tng. — The  word  confessor  is  derived  from  tiio  Liitiii 
confUeri,  to  confess^  to  profess,  but  it  13  not  foimd  in 
writers  of  the  classical  period,  having  been  0rst  used 
by  the  Christians.  Witii  them  it  was  a  title  of  honour 
to  designate  those  brave  champions  of  the  Faith  who 
had  confessed  Christ  publicly  m  time  of  persecution 
and  had  been  punished  with  imprisonment,  torture, 
exOe,  or  labour  in  the  mines,  remaining  faithful  in 
their  confession  until  the  end  of  their  lives.  The 
title  thus  distinguished  them  from  the  martyrs,  who 
were  so  called  because  the^  underwent  death  for  the 
Faith.  The  firat  dear  evidence  of  the  distinction 
just  spoken  of  is  found  in  an  epitaph  which  is  recorded 
by  De  Rossi  (BuHettino  di  archeoiogia  cristiana,  18C4j 
p.  30):  ''A  Domino  coronati  sunt  beati  confessores 
comites  martyrum  Aurelius  Diogenes  confessor  et 
Valeria  Fdicissima  vivi  in  Deo  fecerunt"  PThe 
blessed  confessors,  companions  of  the  martyrs,  have 
been  crowned  bv  the  Lord.  Aurelius  Diogenes,  con- 
fessor, and  Valeria  Felicissima,  put  up  (this  monument) 
during  their  lifetime].  Among  writers  St.  Cyprian 
is  the  first  in  whose  works  it  occurs  (Ep.  xxxvii) :  "  la 
demum  confessor  illustris  et  vjbtus  est  de  quo  post- 
modum  non  erubescit  Ecclesia  sed  gloriatur  **  (That 
confessor,  fhdced,  is  illustrious  and  true  for  whom  the 
Church  does  not  afterwards  blush,  but  of  whom  she 
boasts) ;  he  shows  in  the  passa^  that  suffering  alone 
for  the  Faith  did  not  merit  the  title  of  confessor  unless 
perseverance  to  the  end  had  followed.  In  this  mean- 
ing the  title  is  of  more  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
Christian  writers  of  the  fourth  century.  Sidoniua 
Apollinaris  (Carmen  xvii),  to  quote  one  instance, 
writes,  "Sed  confessorem  virtutum  signa  sequuntur" 
(But  signs  of  power  follow  the  confessor).  A  similar 
use  may  be  verified  in  Lactantius,  "  De  morte  perse- 
cut.'*,  XXXV ;  St.  Jeroipe,  Ep.  Ixxxii,  7;  Prudentius, 
nepi  ^re^.,  55,  etc. 

(2)  Later  meaning, — ^After  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  we  find  ccnfesaor  used  to  designate  those 
men  of  remarkable  virtue  and  knowledge  who  con- 
fessed the  Faith  of  Christ  before  the  world  Djr  the  prac- 
tice of  the  most  heroic  virtue,  by  their  writings  and 
preachings,  and  in  consequence  began  to  be  objects 
of  veneration,  and  had  chapels  (martyria)  erected  in 
their  honour,  which  in  the  previous  centunes  had  been 
the  especial  privilege  of  the  martyrs.  In  the  Eastern 
Church  the  ttrat  confessoia  who  received  a  public  cul- 
tus  were  the  abbots  St.  Anthony  and  St.  Hilarion,  also 
St.  Fhilo0>nus  and  St.  Athanasius.  In  the  West 
Pope  St.  Silvester  waa  so  venerated  even  before  St, 
Martin  of  Tours,  aa  can  be  shown  from  the  "Kalen- 
darium"  published  by  Fouteau — a  document  which 
Is  certainly  of  the  time  of  Pope  Liberius  (cf .  "  Prseno- 
tata"  in  the  aforesaid  "Kalendarium",  iv). 

(3)  Modem  meaning, — Since  the  time  when  the 
Roman  pontiffs  reserved  to  themsdves  definite  decis- 
ion in  causes  of  canonization  and  beatification,  the 
title  of  confessor  (pontiff,  non-pontiff,  doctor)  belongiB 
only  to  those  men  who  have  distinguished  themselves 
by  heroic  virtue  which  God  has  approved  by  miracles, 
and  who  have  been  solemnly  adjudged  this  title  by 
the  Church  and  proposed  by  her  to  the  faithful  as  ob- 
jects of  their  veneration.  (See  Martyrs;  Pbrsecu- 
TioNS;  Bbatuication  and  Canonization.)  For  the 
office  of  confessor  in  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  see 
Penanck,  Sacrament  op. 

Bbnbdict  XIV,  t>e  Servarum  Dei  BeatiAcalione  et  Beatorum 
Canonitatione,  I.  v.  no.  3  «qq.;  Innocknt  III,  JJe  Myat.  Mxm., 
III.  x;  Bblulbmink,  De  AfM«d.  II,  xx,  no.  6;  MAfirioNT.  Dw«. 
df  ontiffttieds  ehrmmnn,  b.  v.;  Prtuis  in  K&aub.  Real-Eneuk., 
».  yj;   LOiT  in  K\n:KenUx.,  a.  v.  Bek&nner. 

Camillus  Beccari. 

Ctonflcmation,  a  sacrament  in  which  the  Holy 
GhoBt  is  given  to  those  already  baptised  in  order  to 
make  them  «trons  and  perfect  Christians  and  soldiers 
of  Jesus  Christ.    It  hasbeen  variously  designated:  /3«- 


fiatio^is  QT  confirmation  Sk  making  fast  or  f;uro;  rtXtUtaas 
or  commmmalio,  a  perfecting  or  completing,  as  ex- 
pressing ita  relation  to  ba43ti8m.  With  reference  to  It^ 
effect  it  is  the  '*Sacrame^t  of  the  Holy  Ghost",  the 
''Sacrament  of  the  Seal"  (sigmculum,  eigiUumt  aitpar 
yU).  From  the  external  rite  it  is  known  as  the  "im* 
position  of  hands"  (hrlBwit.  x^^Of  or  as  ''anointing 
with  chrism"  (unctio,  chrimoHo,  xpurtia,  pa&por).  The 
names  at  present  in  use  are,  for  the  Western  Church, 
cotdirmaito,  and  for  the  Greek,  t6  /JijOpop, 

I.  Present  Practice  and  Dogtrinb. — RiU^ — ^In 
the  Western  Church  the  sacrament  is  usualhr  adminis- 
tered by  the  bieJiop.  At  the  beginning  of  the  cere- 
mony there  is  a  ^neral  imposition  of  hands,  the  bishop 
meantime  praying  that  tne  Holy  Ghost  may  eome 
down  upon  those  who  have  alr^idy  been  regenerated: 
''send  forth  upon  them  thy  sevenfold  Spirit,  the  Holy 
Paraclete. "  He  then  anoints  the  forehead  of  each  with 
chrism,  saying:  "I  sisn  thee  with  the  sisn  of  the  cross 
and  confinn  thee  witn  the  chrism  of  salvation,  in  the 
name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  aiid  of  the  Holy 
Ghost."  Finallv  he  gives  each  a  slifi^t  blow  on  the 
cheek  saying:  '*j)eace  be  with  thee".  A  prayer  is 
added  that  the  Holy  Spirit  may  dwell  in  the  heaxis  of 
those  who  have  been  confirmed,  and  the  rite  closes  with 
the  bishop's  blessing. 

The  Eastern  Church  omi|s  the  imposition  of  hands 
and  the  prayer  at  the  b^inning,  and  accompanies 
the  anointing  with  the  words:  "the  sign  [or  seal] 
of  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  These  several 
actions  symbolise  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the 
sacrament:  the  anointing  signifies  the  strength  given 
for  the  spiritual  confiict;  the  balsam  contained  in 
the  chrism,  the  fragrance  of  virtue  and  the  good  odour 
of  Christ;  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  the  forehead,  the 
courage  to  confess  Christ,  before  all  men;  the  imposi^ 
tion  of  hands  and  the  blow  on  the  cheek,  enrolmeat  in 
the  service  of  Christ  which  bring  true  peace  to  the 
soul  (Cf.  St.  Thomas,  "  Summa.  Theol,",  HI,  Q.  Ixxii, 
a.  4.  For  interesting  details  regarding  the  blow  on  the 
cheek,  see  "Am.  Bed.  Review^  I,  161.) 

Minister, — ^The  bishop  alone  is  the  ordinary  minis- 
ter of  oonfirmation.  Tnis  is  expressly  declared  by 
the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VII,  De  Conf.,  C.  iii).  A 
bishop  confirms  validly  even  those  who  are  not  his 
own  subjects;  but  to  confirm  licitly  in  another 
diocese  he  must  secure  the  permission  of  the  bishop  of 
that  diocese.  Simple  priests  may  be  the  extraordinary 
ministers  of  the  sacrament  provided  they  obtain  spe- 
cial delegation  from  the  pope.  This  has  often  been 
granted  to  missionaries.    Xn  such  cases,  however,  the 

griest  cannot  wear  pontifical  vestments.  He  is  obliged 
>  use  chrism  blessed  by  a  Catholic  bishop  and  to  oV 
serve  what  \a  prescribed  in  the  Instruction  issued  by 
the  Propaganoa,  21  March,  1774  (appendix  to  Roman 
Ritual).  In  the  Greek  Church,  confirmation  is  given 
by  simple  priests  without  special  delegation,  apd  their 
ministration  ia  accepted  by  the  Western  Church  as 
valid.  They  must,  towever,  use  chrism  blessed  by  a 
patriarch. 

Matter  and  Form, — ^There  has  been  much  discussion 
among  theologians  as  to  what  constitutes  the  essential 
matter  of  this  sacrament.  Some,  e.  g.  Aureolus  and 
Petavius,  held  that  it  consists  in  the  imposition  of 
hands.  OUiers,  with  St.  Thomas,  Bellarmine,  ajad 
Maldonatus,  maintain  that  it  is  the  anointing  with 
chrism.  According  to  a  third  oi)inion  Htforinus,  Tap- 
per) either  anointing  or  imposition  of  hands  suffices. 
Finally,  tiie  meet  generally  accepted  view  is  that  the 
anointing  and  the  imposition  of  hands  conjointly  are  the 
matter.  The  "  imposition ' ',  however,  is  not  that  with 
«rhich  the  rite  begins  but  the  laying  on  of  hands  which 
takes  plaoe  in  the  act  of  anointing.  As  Peter  the  Lom- 
bard declares:  Pontifex  per  impositionem  mantis  con" 
firmandostingUinfronte  (tV  Sent.,  dist.  xxxiii.  n,  1 ;  cf. 
De  Augustinis,  "tie  re  sacramentariA",  2d  ed.,  Rome. 
1889),  L    The  chrism  employed  must  be  a  mbrture  of 


OONFDIMAIIOK 


216 


CONnEMATfON 


oHvc-oil  and  balsaii(  consecrated  by  a  bishop.  (For 
the  manner  of  this  consecration  and  for  other  details, 
historical  and  liturgica!,  see  Chrism.)  Hie  difference 
regarding  the  form  of  the  sacrament,  i.  e.  the  words  es- 
Bisntial  for  confirmation,  has  been  indicated  above  in 
the  description  of  the  rite.  The  validity  of  both  the 
Latin  ancl  the  Greek  form  is  miauestionable.  Addi- 
tional details  are  given  below  in  tne  historical  outline. 

Recipient. — Confirmation  can  be  conferred  only  on 
those  who  have  already  been  baptized  and  have  not 
yet  been  co^ifirmed.  As  St.  Thomas  says:  "  Confirma- 
tion is  to  baptism  what  growth  is  to  generation.  Now 
it  is  clear  that  a  man  cannot  advance  to  a  perfect  age 
unless  he  has  first  been  bom.;  in  like  manner,  unless  he 
has  first  been  baptized  he  cannot  receive  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Confirmation"  (Smnm.  Th.,  Ill,  Q.  Ixxii,  a.  6). 
They  should  also  be  in  the  state  of  grace ;  for  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  not  given  for  the  purpose  of  taking  away  sin 
but  of  conferring  additional  grace.  This  condition, 
however,  refers  only  to  lawftu  reception;  the  sacra- 
ment is  validly  received  even  by  those  in  mortal  sin. 
In  the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  confirmation  was  part 
of  the  rite  of  initiation,  and  consequently  was  admin- 
istered immediately  after  baptism.  When,  however, 
baptism  came  to  be  conferred  by  siniple  priests,  the 
two  ceremonies  were  separated  in  the  Western  Church. 
Further,  when  infant  baptism  became  customary,  con- 
firmation was  not  administered  until  the  child  had  at- 
tained the  use  of  reason.  This  is  the  present  practice, 
thou^  there  is  considerable  latitude  as  to  the  precise 
age.  The  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent  says  that 
the  sacrament  can  be  administered  to  all  persons  after 
baptism,  but  that  this  is  not  expedient  before  the  use  of 
reason ;  and  adds  that  it  is  most  fitting  that  the  sacra^ 
ment  be  deferred  until  the  child  is  seven  years  old,  ^*  for 
Confirmation  has  not  been  instituted  as  necessary  for 
salvation,  but  that  by  virtue  thereof  we  might  be 
found  well  armed  and  prepared  when  called  upon  to 
fight  for  the  faith  of  Chnst,  and  for  this  kind  of  conflict 
no  one  will  consider  children,  who  are  still  without  the 
use  of  reason,  to  be  qualified."  (Pt.  11,  ch.  iii,  18.) 
Such,  in  fact,  is  the  general  usage  in  the  Western 
Church.  Under  certain  circumstances,  however,  as, 
for  instance,  danger  of  death,  or  when  the  opportunity* 
of  receiving  the  sacrament  is  but  rarely  offered,  even 
younger  children  may  be  confirmed.  In  the  Greek 
ChiirSi  and  in  Spain,  infants  are  now,  as  in  earlier 
times,  confirmed  immediately  after  baptism.  Leo  XIII, 
writing  22  June,  1897,  to  the  Bishop  of  Marseilles, 
commends  most  heartily  the  practice  of  confirming 
children  before  their  first  communion  as  being  more  in 
accotd  with  the  ancient  usage  of  the  Church, 

Effects. — Confirmation  imparts  (1)  an  increase  of 
sanctifying  grace  which  makes  the  recipient  a  **  perfect 
Christian";  (2)  a  special  sacramental  grace  consisting 
in  the  seven  gifts  oi  the  Holy  Ghost  and  notably  in  the 
strength  and  courage  to  confess  boldly  the  name  of 
Christ;  (3)  an  indelible  character  by  reason  of  which 
the  sacrament  cannot  be  received  again  by  the  same 
person.  (See  Character.)  A  further  consequence  is 
the  spiritual  relationship  (see  Relationship,  Spirit- 
ual) which  the  person  confirming  and  the  sponsor 
contract  with  the  recipient  an^  with  the  recipient's 
parents.  This  relationship  constitutes  a  diriment 
impediment  (see  Imprdimentb)  to  marriage.  It  does 
not  arise  between  the  miiuster  of  the  sacrament  and 
the  sponsor  nor  between  the  sponsors  themselves. 

Necessity. — Regarding  the  obligation  of  receiving 
the  sacrament,  it  is  admitted  that  confirmation  is  not 
necessary  as  an  indispensable  means  of  salvation  (ne- 
cessitate medii).  On  the  other  hand,  its  reception  is 
obligatory  (necessitate  prcBcepti)  **for  all  those  who  are 
able  to  understand  and  fulfil  the  Commandments  of 
God  and  of  the  CJhurch^  This  is  especially  true  of 
tiiose  who  suffer  persecution  on  account  of  their  relig- 
ion or  are  exposed  to  grievous  temptations  against 
faith  or  are  in  danger  of  death.    The  more  serious  the 


danger  so  much  greater  is  the  need  of  protecting  one- 
self ^  (Cone.  Plen.  Bait.  II,  n.  250.)  As  to  the  grav- 
ity of  the  obligation,  opinions  differ,  some  theologians 
holding  that  an  unconfirmed  person  would  commit 
mortal  sin  if  he  refused  the  sacrament,  others  that  the 
sin  would  be  at  most  venial  unless  the  refusal  implied 
contempt  for  the  sacrament.  Apart,  however,  from 
such  controversies  the  importance  of  confirmation  as  a 
means  of  grace  is  so  obvious  that  no  earnest  Christian 
will  neglect  it,  and  in  particular  that  duistian  parents 
will  not  fail  to  eee  that  their  children  are  confirmed. 

Sponsors.^— The  CJhiirch  prescribes  under  pain  of 
grievous  sin  that  a  sponsor,  or  godparent,  shaU  stand 
for  the  person  confirmed.  Hie  sponsor  should  be  at 
least  fourteen  years  of  age,  of  the  same  sex  as  the  can- 
didate, should  nave  already  received  the  Sacrament  of 
Confirmation,  and  be  well  instructed  in  tibe  Catholic 
Faith.  From  this  office  are  excluded  Ihe  father  and 
mother  of  the  candidate,  members  of  a  religious  order 
(unless  the  candidate  be  a  religious),  public  sinners, 
and  those  who  are  under  public  ban  of  interdict  or 
excommunication.  Except  in  case  of  necessity  the 
baptismal  godparent  cannot  serve  as  sponsor  for  the 
same  person  m  confirmation.  Where  the  opposite 
practice  obtains,  it  should,  according  to  a  decree  of 
the  Sacred  Congregation,  of  the  Council,  16  Feb.,  1884, 
be  gradually  done  away  with.  Tlie  Second  Plenary 
0)uncil  of  Baltimore  (1866)  declared  that  each  candi- 
date should  have  a  sponsor,  or  that  at  least  two  god- 
fathers should  standtor  the  boys  and  two  godmothers 
for  the  girls  (n.  253).  See  also  prescriptions  of  the 
First  Council  of  Westminster.  Formerly  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  sponsor  to  place  his  or  her  right  foot 
upon  tne  foot  of  the  candidate  during  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacrament:  the  present  usage  is  that  the 
sponsor's  right  hand  should  oe  placed  upon  the  right 
shoulder  of  the  candidate.  The  Holy  Crace  decr^, 
16  June,  1884,  that  no  sponsor  could  stand  for  more 
than  two  candidates  except  in  case  of  necessity.  The 
custom  of  giving  a  new  name  to  the  candidate  is  not 
obligatory;  but  it  has  the  sanction  of  seversd  synodal 
decrees  cfuring  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 
The  Fifth  Council  of  Milan,  under  St.  Charles  Borro- 
meo,  insisted  that  a  candidate  whose  name  was  "  vile, 
ridiculous,  or  quite  unbecoming  for  a  Christian'* 
should  jeceive  another  at  Conmmation**  (cf.  Mar- 
tdne). 

It  is  clear  from  the  diversity  of  practice  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  that  there  is  ihuch  uncertainty  as  to  the  doc- 
trine concerning  confirmation.  It  is  certain  that  the 
sacrament  is  validly  and  lawfully  administered  in  the 
Qiurch;  but  this  does  not  solve  the  theological  ques- 
tions regarding  its  institution,  matter,  form,  and  min- 
ister. At  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Trent  the  diffi- 
culty was  felt  to  be  so  great  that  the  assembled  Fathers 
contented  themselves  with  only  a  few  canons  on  the 
subject.  They  defined  that  confirmation  was  not  "a 
vain  ceremony  but  a  true  and  proper  sacrament " ;  and 
that  it  was  not  "  in  olden  days  nothing  but  a  sort  of 
catechism  in  which  those  who  were  entering  upon 
youth  gave  an  account  of  their  faith  in  the  face  of  the 
Church"  (can.  i).  They  did  not  define  anything  spe- 
cific about  the  institution  by  CJhrist;  though  in  treat- 
ing of  the  sacraments  in  general  they  had  already  de- 
fii5}d  that  '*  all  the  sacraments  of  the  New  Law  were 
instituted  by  Christ  our  Lord"  (Sess.  VII,  can.  i). 
Nothing  whatever  was  said  about  the  form  of  words  to 
be  usea;  and  regarding  the  matter  they  merely  con- 
demned any  one  who  should  maintain  "  that  they  who 
ascribe  any  virtue  to  the  sacred  chrism  of  confirmation 
offer  an  outrage  to  the  Holy  Ghost"  (can.  ii).  The 
third  and  last  canon  defined  that  the  "ordinary"  min- 
ister of  the  sacrament  is  a  bishop  only,  and  not  any 
simple  priest.  This  guarded  language,  so  different 
from  the  definite  canons  on  some  of  tne  other  sacra- 
ments, shows  that  the  council  bad  no  intention  of  de- 
ciding the  questions  at  issue  among  theologians  regard* 


OOXn&MA^XOK 


217 


oaxanssauxiox 


io^  the  time  and  manzier  of  the  institution  by  Chxist 
(direot  or  indirect  institution),  the  matter  (impoflition 
of  hands  or  anointing,  or  both),  the  form  C'l  sisn 
thee ' ',  etc.,  or ''  the  seal ' ',  etc.);  and  the  minister  (biwr 
op  or  priest) .  Elsewhere  (Sess.  VII,  can.  ix)  the  council 
defined  that "  in  confirmation  a  diaraoter  is  imprinted 
in  the  soul,  that  is,  a  certain  spiritual  and  ladelible 
sign  on  account  of  which  the  sacrament  cannot  be  re- 
peated " ;  and  again  (Sess.  XXIII)  the  council  declared 
that "  bishops  are  superior  to  priests ;  they  administer 
the  Sacrament  of  Confirmation;  they  ordain  the  min- 
isters of  the  Church;  and  they  can  perform  many 
other  things  over  which  fimctions  others  of  an  inferior 
rank  have  no  power".  Concerning  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacrament  from  the  earliest  times  of  the 
Church,  the  decree  of  the  Inquisition  (LamentabUi 
sane,  3  July,  1907)  condemns  the  proposition  (44): 
"There  is  no  proof  that  the  rite  of  the  Sacrament  of 
Confirmation  was  employed  by  the  Apostles;  the  for- 
mal distinction,  therefore,  between  the  two  sacra- 
ments, Baptism  and  (Jonfirmation,  does  not  belong  to 
the  histoiy  of  Christianity '\  The  institution  of  the 
sacrament  has  also  been  the  subject  of  much  discus- 
sion as  will  appear  from  the  following  accoimt. 

II.  ELiaroRT. — ^The  Sacrament  of  Confirmatioa  is  a 
striking  instance  of  the  devebpment  of  doctrine  and 
ritual  m  the  Churdi.  We  can,  indeed,  detect  much 
more  than  the  mere  germs  of  it  in  Holy  Scripture;  but 
we  most  not  expect  to  find  there  an  exact  description 
of  the  ceremony  as  at  prtsent  performed,  or  a  com- 
plete solution  of  the  various  theological  questions 
which  have  since  arisen.  It  is  onlv  from  the  Fathers 
and  the  Schoolmen  that  we  can  gather  infoimation  on 
these  heads.  r    nn  - 

(1)  We  read  ux  the  Adt»  olthe  Apostles  (viii,  14-17) 
that  after  the  Samaritan  converts  had  been  baptized 
by  Philip  the  deacon,  the  Apostles  ''sent  unto  them 
Peter  and  John,  who,  when  they  were  oome,  prayed 
for  them,  that  they  might  receive  the  Holy  Ghost;  for 
he  was  not  yet  oome  upon  any  of  them,  but  they  were 
onlv  bai>tij5ed  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus;  then  they 
laid  their  hands  upon  them,  and  they  received  the 
Holy  Ghost".  Again  (xix,  1-6):  St.  Paul  "came  to 
Ephesus,  and  tcxmd  certahx  disciples ;  and  he  said  to 
them :  Have  you  received  the  Holy  Ghost  since  ye  be- 
lieved? But  they  said  to  him:  We  have  not  so  much 
as  heard  whether  thesre  be  a  Holy  Ghost.  And  he  said } 
In  what  then  were  you  baptised?  Who  said :  In  John's 
baptism.  Then  Paul  said:  John  baptized  the  people 
with  the  baptism  of  penance.  .  .  .  Having  heara  these 
things,  they  were  baptized  in  the  name  of  the  Lord 
Jesus.  And  when  Paul  had  imposed  his  hands  on 
them,  the  Holy  Ghost  came  upon  them,  and  they 
spoke  with  tongues  and  prophesied".  From  these 
two  passages  we  learn  that  in  the  earliest  ages  oi  the 
Church  there  was  a  rite,  distinct  from  baptism,  in 
Which  the  Holy  Ghost  was  conferred  by  the  imposition 
of  hands  (<cd  r%  inOio-etat  rQw  x^^^  ^^^ '  Arovr6\tap), 
and  that  the  power  to  perform  this  ceremony  was 
not  implied  in  the  power  to  baptize.  No  distinct  men- 
tion is  made  as  to  the  origin  of  this  rite;  but  Christ 
promised  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  conferred  it. 
Again,  no  express  mention  is  made  of  anointing  with 
duism;  but  we  note  that  the  idea  of  unction  is  com- 
monly associated  with  the  ^ing  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Christ  <Luke,  iv,  18)  applies  to  Himself  the  words 
of  Isaiaa  Gxi,  1):  "The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  upon  me, 
wherefore  he  hath  anointed  me  to  preach  the  gospel '  \ 
St.  Peter  (Acts,  x,  38)  speaks  of  '^  Jesus  of  Nazareth: 
how  God  anointed  him  with  the  Holv  Ghost". 
St.  John  tells  the  faithful:  "You  have  the  unction 
(xpt&fUL)  from  the  Holy  One,  and  know  all  things"; 
and  again:  "  Let  the  unction  [xP*^/*'^t  which  you  have 
received  from  him,  ahide  in  you"  (I  Ep.,'  ii,  20, 27).  A 
striking  pass^e,  which  was  made  much  use  of  by  the 
Fathers  and  the  Schoolmen,  is  that  of  St.  Paul:  "  He 
that  oonfirmeth  [^  d^  fitpaiQp]  us  with  you  in  Christ, 


and  hath  anointed  us,  is  God,  who  also  hath  sealed 
[rikfi%ytffdfm9Qfi]  us,  and  given  us  the  pledge  [dppa^dm] 
of  the  Spirit  in  our  hearts"  (II  Cor.,  i,  20,  21).  No 
mention  is  made  of  any  particular  words  accompany- 
ing the  imposition  of  hands  on  either  of  the  occasions 
on  which  the  ceremony  is  descr&ed ;  but  as  the  su^  of 
imposing  hands  was  performed  for  various  purposes, 
some  prayer  indicating  the  special  purpose  may  have 
been  usedt  "Peter  and  John  .  .  .  prayed  for  them, 
that  they  mi^t  receive  the  Holy  Ghost".  Further, 
such  expressions  as  "signing"  and  "sealing"  may  be 
taken  as  referring  to  the  character  impresBsd  by  the 
sacrament:  "You  were^signed  [itriipaylffdrrn]  with 
the  holy  Spirit  of  promise";  "Grieve  not  the  holy 
Spirit  of  God,  whereby  you  are  sealed  [^^^pa-yj^-^e) 
unto  the  day  of  redemptk>n"  (Eph.,  i.  13 ;  iv,  30).  See 
also  the  ptassage  from  II  Cor.  auoted  above.  Again, 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (vi,  1-4)  the  writer  re« 
proaches  those  whom  he  addresses  for  falling  back  into 
their  primitive  imperfect  knowledge  of  Christian 
truth ;  "  whereas  for  the  time  you  ougnt  to  be  mast^rs^ 
you  have. need  to  be  taught  again  what  are  the  first 
elements  of  the  words  of  <jod"  (Heb.,  v,  12).  He 
exhorts  them:  **  leaving  the  word  of  the  beginning  of 
Christ,  let  us  go  on  to  thinflpi  more  perfect,  not  laying 
again  the  foundation  ...  of  the  doctrine  of  baptisms, 
and  imposition  of  hands  ",  and  speaks  of  them  as  those 
who  have  been  "  once  illufiunAted,  have  tasted  also  the 
heavenly  gift,  and  were  made  partakers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost' '.  It  is  clear  that  reference  is  made  here  to  the 
ceremony  of  Christian  initiation:  baptism  and  the  im-> 
position  of  hands  whereby  the  Holy  Ghost  was  con- 
terred,  just  as  in  Acts,  ii,  38.  The  ceremony  is  con- 
sidered to-be  so  well  known  to  the  faithful  that  no 
further  description  is  necessary.  This  account  of  thie 
practice  and  teadung  of  the  Apostles  proves  that  the 
ceremony  was  no  mere  examination  of  those  already 
baptized,  no  mere  profession  of  faith  or  renewal  <» 
baptismal  vows.  Nor  was  it  something  specially  con- 
feired  upon  the  Samaritans  and  Ephesians.  What  was 
done  to  them  was  an  instance  of  what  was  generally 
bestowed.  Nor  was  it  a  mere  bestowal  of  charismata ; 
tiie  Holy  Ghost  sometimes  produced  extraordinary 
effects  (speaking  with  divers  tongues,  etc.),  but  these 
were  not  necessarily  the  result  of  His  being  given* 
The  practice  and  teaching  of  the  Chureh  at  the 
present  day  preserve  the  jHimitive  type:  the  imposi- 
tion of  handS)  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  privileges 
of  the  episcopate.  What  fiother  elements  were 
handed  down  by  tradition  will  be  seen  presentiv. 

(2)  In  passing  from  Holy  Scripture  to  the  Fathers 
we  naturally  eiqpect  to  find  more  definite  answers  to 
the  various  questions  regarding  the  sacrament.  From 
both  their  practice  and  their  teaching  we  learn  that 
the  Church  made  use  of  a  rite  distinct  from  baptism  { 
that  this  consisted  of  imposition  of  hands,  anomting, 
a&d  accompanving  words;  that  by  this  rite  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  conferred  upon  those  already  baptized,  and 
a  mark  or  seal  impressed  upon  their  bouIs;  that,  as  a 
rule,  in  the  West  the  minister  was  a  bishop,  whereas  in 
the  East  he  might  be  a  simple  priest.  The  Fathen 
considered  that  the  rites  of  initiation  (baptism,  confir- 
mation, and  the  Holy  Eucharist)  were  mstituted  by 
Christ,  but  they  did  not  enter  into  any  minute  dis- 
cussion as  to  the  time,  place,  and  manner  of  the  insti- 
tution, at  least  of  the  second  of  these  rites.  la  exam- 
ining the  testimonies  of  the  Fathers  we  should  note 
that  the  word  eonfirmaiion  is  not  used  to  designate  this 
sacrament  during  the  first  four  oentiuies ;  but  we  meet 
with  various  other  terms  and  phrases  which  quite 
clearly  refer  to  it.  Thus,  it  is  styled  "  impoeition  of 
hands"  Cmanuum  imposiiio,  x^*f*>^^^)t  unction", 
"  chrism  ",  "  sealing ' ',  etc.  Before  the  time  of  Tertul- 
lian  the  Fathers  do  not  make  any  explicit  mention  of 
Gonfinnation  as  distinct  from  baptism.  The  fact  that 
the  two  sacraments  were  conferred  together  may  ac- 
count for  this  silence.    Tertullian  (De  Bapt.,  vi)  is 


OOMnRlUTIOK 


218 


cxmratBCATioir 


the  first  to  dlBtinguish  dearly  the  three  acts  of  initia- 
tion: "After  haying  come  out  of  the  laver,  we  are 
anointed  thorou^y  with  a  blessed  unction  ^perunai" 
mur  benedictA  unetione\  acoordmg  to  the  ancient  rule. 
. .  .  The  unction  runs  bodily  over  us,  but  profits  spir- 
itually. .  .  .  Next  to  this,  the  hand  is  laid  upon  us 
throiiirai  the  blessing,  calling  upon  and  inviting  the 
Holy  Spirit  [dehinc  manus  imponitur  per  benedicttonem 
advocana  et  tnvitans  SpirUum  Sanctum]  "  Again  (De 
resurr.  camis,  n.  8):  ''The  flesh  is  washed  that  the 
soul  may  be  made  stainless.  The  fle^  is  anointed 
[ufiffUiar]  that  the  soul  may  be  consecrated.  The  flesh 
IB  sealed  [siffnatur]  that  the  soul  may  be  fortified,  llie 
flesh  is  ovenshadowed  by  the  imposition  of  hands  that 
the  soul  may  be  illuminated  by  the  Spirit.  The  flesh 
18  fed  by  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Chnst  that  the  soul 
may  be  fattened  of  God."  And  (Adv.  Marcion.,  i,  n. 
14):  '^But  He  [Christ],  indeed  even  at  the  present 
time,  neither  rejected  the  water  of  the  Creator  with, 
whidi  He  washes  clean  His  own,  nor  the  oil  witii  ^ich 
He  anoints  His  own; . . .  nor  the  bread  with  which  He 
makes  present  [reprmsentai]  His  own  very  body,  needing 
even  in  His  own  sacraments  the  beggarly  elements  en 
the  Creator. "  Tertullian  also  tells  now  the  devil,  imi- 
taUng  the  rites  of  Christian  initiation,  sprinkles  some 
and  signs  them  as  his  soldiers  on  the  for^ead  (dgntU 
iUic  tVi  fronHbuB  mHUes  tuos — ^De  Pnescript.,  xl). 

Another  great  African  Father  speaks  with  equal 
eleamess  of  confirmation.  ''Two  sacraments'',  says 
St.  Cyprian,  "  preside  over  the  perfect  birth  of  a  Chris- 
tian, the  one  regenerating  the  man,  which  is  baptism, 
the  other  communicating  to  him  the  Holy  Spirit" 
(Epist.  hcxii).  "  Anointed  also  must  he  be  wiio  is  bap- 
tised, in  order  that  having  received  the  chrism,  that  is 
l^e  unction,  he  may  b^  anointed  of  Qod''  (Epist. 
Ixx).  "  It  was  not  fitting  that  [the  Samaritans]  should 
be  baptised  ^gain,  but  only  what  was  wanting,  that 
was  done  by  reter  and  John;  that  prayer  being  made 
for  them  and  hands  imposed,  the  Holy  Ghost  should 
be  invoked  and  poured  lorth  upon  them.  Which  also 
is  now  done  among  us;  so  tiiat  they  who  are  baptised 
in  the  Church  are  presented  to  the  bishops  [prelates]  of 
the  Church,  and  by  ourprayer  and  imposition  of  hands, 
they  receive  the  Holy  Gnost  and  are  perfected  with  the 
seal  [^ngnaculo]  of  the  Lord"  (Epist.  Ixxiii).  "More- 
over, a  person  is  not  bom  bv  the  imposition  of  hands, 
when  he  receives  the  Holy  Ghost,  but  in  baptism;  that 
being  already  bom  he  may  receive  the  Spirit,  as  was 
done  in  the  first  man  Adam.  For  God  first  formed 
him  and  breathed  into  his  face  the  breath  of  life.  For 
the  Spirit  cannot  be  received  except  there  is  first  one 
to  receive  it.  But  the  birth  of  Christians  is  in  bap- 
tism" (Epist.  Ixxiv).  Pope  St.  Gomelius  complains 
that  Novatus,  after  having  been  baptized  on  his  sick- 
bed|  "did  not  receive  the  other  thmgs  which  ought  to 
be  partaken  of  according  to  the  mle  of  the  Churdi — ^to 
be  sealed,  that  is,  by  the  bishop  [v^payi^pw,  ^t6  roO 
iwuricSwov]  and  not  having  received  this,  how  did 
he  receive  the  Holy  Ghost?"  (Euseb.,  H.  E.,  vi,  xlin). 
In  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  the  testimonies  are 
naturally  more  frequent  and  clear.  St.  Hilary  speaks 
of  "  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  of  the  Spirit  ;  and 
he  says  that  "the  favour  and  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
were,  when  the  work  of  the  Law  ceased,  to  be  given  by 
the  imposition  of  hands  and  prayer"  (In  Matt.,  c.  iv, 
c.  xiv) .  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  is  the  great  Eastem  au- 
thority on  the  subject,  and  his  testimony  is  all  the 
more  unportant  because  he  devoted  several  of  his  "  Ca- 
techeses^'  to  the  instruction  of  catechumens  in  the 
three  sacraments  which  they  were  to  receive  on  being 
initiated  into  the  Christian  mysteries.  Nothing  could 
be  clearer  than  his  language:  "To  you  also  after  you 
had  comeup  from  the  pool  of  the  sacred  streams,  was 
given  the  chrism  [unction],  the  emblem  of  that  where- 
with Christ  was  anointed;  and  this  is  tho  Holy  Cfhost. 
.  .  .  This  holy  ointment  is  no  longor  plain  ointment 
nor  so  to  say  common,  after  the  invocation,  but 


Christ's  gift;  and  by  tho  presence  of  His  Godhead,  it 
causes  in  us  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  symbolically 
anoints  thy  forehead,  iod  th^  other  senses;  and  the 
body  indeed  is  anointed  with  visible  ointment,  but  the 
soul  is  sanctified  by  the  Holy  and  life-giving  Spirit. . . . 
To  you  not  in  figure  but  in  truth,  because  ye  were  in 
tmth  anointed  by  the  Spirit"  (Cat.  Myst.,  iu).  And  in 
the  seventeenth  catechesis  on  the  Holy  Ghost,  he 
speaks  of  the  visit  of  Peter  and  John  to  conmiunicate  to 
tne  Samaritans  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  by  prayer 
and  the  imposition  of  hands.  ''Forget  not  the  Holy 
Ghost",  he  says  to  the  catechumens,  "at  the  moment 
of  your  enlightenment;  He  is  ready  to  mark  your  soul 
with  His  s^  \ffitpayUra4]  ...  He  will  give  you  the 
heavenly  and  aivine  seal  [r^paylt]  which  makes  the 
devils  tremble;  He  will  arm  you  for  the  fight;  He  will 
give  you  strength."  Christ,  says  St.  Optatus  of  Bii- 
leve,  "went  down  into  the  water,  not  that  there  was 
what  could  be  cleansed  in  God,  but  the  water  ought  to 
go  before  the  oil  that  was  to  supervene,  in  order  to  im- 
tiate  and  in  order  to  fill  up  the  mysteries  of  baptism; 
havii^  been  washed  whilst  He  was  held  in  John's 
hands,  the  order  of  the  mystery  is  followed. . . .  Heaven 
is  opened  whilst  the  Father  anomts ;  the  spiritual  oil  in 
the  image  of  the  Dove  immediately  diesoended  and 
rested  on  His  head,  and  poured  on  it  oil,  whence  He 
took  the  name  of  Christ,  \i^en  He  was  anointed  bv 
God  the  Father;  to  whom  that  the  impoeition  of  hancis 
might  not  seem  to  have  been  wanting,  the  voice  of  God 
is  heard  from  a  cloud,  saying,'This  is  my  Son,  of  whom 
I  have  thought  well ;  hear  ye  him  "  (De  schism.  Donate 
I,  iv,  n.  7). 

St.  Ephraem  Syrus  speaks  of  "the  Sacraments  of 
Chrism  and  Baptism"  (Serm.  xxvii);  "oil  also  for  a 
UKXsit  sweet  unguent,  whetAwilfli'they  who  idready  have 
been  initiated  by  baptism  are  sealed,  and  put  on  the 
armour  of  the  Holy  Spirit"  (In  Jori.)  St.  Ambrose 
addressing  the  catechumens  who  had  already  been 
baptised  and  anointed,  says:  "Thou  hast  received  the 
spiritual  seal,  the  Spirit  of  wisdom  and  of  imderstand- 
ing. . . .  Keep  what  thou  hast  received.  God  the  Far- 
ther has  sealed  thee;  Christ  the  Lord  has  confirmed 
thee;  and  the  Spirit  has  given  the  pled^  in  thy  heart, 
as  thou  hast  learned  from  what  is  read  m  the  Apostle ' ' 
(De  rayst. ,  c.  vii,  n.  42).  The  writer  of  the  **  De  Sacra- 
mentis"  (Inter  Op.  Ambros.,  lib.  Ill,  c  ii,  n.  8)  says 
that  after  the  bap^smal  immeisioB  "  the  spiritual  seal 
Ingvuittulum]  follows  . . .  when  at  the  invocation  of  the 
biuiop  [8acerdolia]  the  Holy  Ghost  is  infused".  The 
Council  of  Elvira  decreed  that  those  who  had  been 
baptized  privately  in  case  of  necessity  should  after- 
wards be  taken  to  the  bishop  "to  be  made  perfect  by 
the  imposition  of  hands  "  (can.  xxxviii,  Labbe,  1, 974). 
And  the  Council  of  Laodioea:  "Those  who  have  been 
converted  from  the  heresies  ...  are  not  to  be  received 
before  they  anathematize  every  heresy  .  .  .  and  then 
after  that,  those  who  were  called  faithful  among  them; 
having  learned  the  creeds  of  the  faith,  and  having  been 
anointed  with  the  holy  chrism,  shall  so  communicate 
of  the  holy  mystery"  (can.  vii).  "Those  who  axe  en- 
lightened must  after  baptism  be  anointed  with  the 
heavenly  chrism,  and  be  partakers  of  the  kingdom  of 
Christ"  (can.  xlviii,  Labbe,  I,  col.  1497).  The CouncU 
of  Constantinople  (381) :  "  We  recdve  the  Arians,  and 
Macedonians  ...  upon  their  giving  in  written  state- 
ments and  anathematizing  every  heresy.  .  .  .  Having 
fiist  sealed  them  with  the  holy  ointment  upon  tlie  fore- 
head, and  eyes,  and  nostrils,  and  mouth,  and  ears,  and 
sealing  them  we  say,  'The  seal  of  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Ghost' "  (can.  vii,  Labbe,  II,  col.  952).  St.  AugusUne 
explains  how  the  coming  of  the  H(dy  Ghost  was  ac- 
companied with  l^e  gift  of  tongues  in  the  first  ages  of 
the  Churoh.  "Tliese  were  mirades  suited  to  the 
times.  ...  Is  it  now  expected  that  they  upon  whom 
hands  are  laid,  should  speak  with  tongues?  Or  when 
we  iniposed  our  hand  upon  these  children,  did  eju-h  of 
you  wait  to  8c«  whether  they  woukl  speak  with  tan- 


oDimuiAtnm 


219 


OOHflRMATXOH 


gues?  and  wheii  he  aair  that  they  did  not  speak  with 
tongues,  was  any  of  you  so  perverse  of  heart  as  to  say 
'These  have  not  received  the  Holy  Ghost?'"  (In  £p. 
Joan.,  ir.  vil  He  also  speaks  in  the  same  way  about 
anointing:  the  sacrament  of  chrism  ''is  in  the  genus  of 
visible  signs,  sacrosanct  like  baptism"  (Contra  litt. 
PeUL,  II»  em,  dv.  in  P.  L.*  XLI.  col.  342;  see  Serm. 
CGZXvii,  Ad  Infantes  in  P.  L.,  XXXVU,  col.  1100;  De 
Trin.,XV,n.46inP.L.,XL»col.l093);  '<Of  Christ  it  is 
written  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  how  God  anointed 
Him  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  not  indeed  with  visible  oil, 
but  with  the  gift  of  grace,  which  is  si^ified  by  that 
visible  unction  wherewith  the  Church  anoints  the  bap> 
tiaed".  The  most  explicit  passage  is  in  the  letter  of 
Pope  Innocent  I  to  DeoentiUB:  "As  regards  the  sealing 
ci  mf ants,  it  is  clear  that  it  is  not  lawful  for  it  to  be 
done  by  an^ne  but  »  bishop  [nen  ab  alUs  quam  ab 
epUoopo  fieri  licere^  For  presbyteni,  though  th^  be 
priests  of  the  second  rank  (second  priests),  have  not  at- 
tained to  the  sunmiit  of  the  pontificate.  That  this 
pontificate  is  the  ri^t  of  bishops  ooly — ^to  wit:  that 
they  may  seal  or  deuver  the  Spirit,  the  Paraclete —  is 
demonstrated  not  merely  by  ecclesiastical  usage,  but 
also  by  that  portion  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  where- 
in it  is  declared  that  Peter  and  John  were  sent  to  give 
{he*  Holy  Ghost  to  those  who  had  already  been  bi^ 
tiled.  For  when  presbyten  baptise,  whether  with  or 
without  the  presence  of  the  bishop,  thev  may  anoint 
the  baptised  with  chrism,  provided  it  be  previouslv 
oonseorated  by  a  bishop,  but  not  sign  the  for&ead  wiu 
that  oil,  iHiich  is  a  ri^^t  reserved  to  bishops  [eptsocrpts] 
only,  when  they  give  the  Spirit,  the  Paramete.  The 
words,  however,  Icannot  name,  for  fear  of  seeming  to 
betray  rather  than  to  rM>ly  to  Uxe  pcHnt  on  which  you 
have  consulted  me,"  Samt  Leo  in  his  fourth  sermon 
on  Christ^  Nativity  says  to  the  faithful:  ''Having 
been  regepecated  bv  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  you 
have  received  the  cnrism  of  salvation  and  the  seal  of 
eternal  Life"  {chrisma  salutU  et  aignaadum  vitm  <JBi$rwB, 
—P.  L.,  UV,  eol.  207).  The  Blessed  Theodoret  com- 
menting on  tbe  fiist  dbapter  of  the  Canticle  of  Canti- 
cles says:  ''Brin^  to  thy  recollection  the  holy  rite  of 
initiation,  in  which  they  who  are  perfected  after  the 
renunciation  of  the  tyrant  and  the  acknowledgment  of 
the  King,r  receive  as  a  kind  of  roval  seal  the  chrism  of 
the  spiritu^  unction  (f^payM  timi  ^s^cXxiri^v  .  .  . 
ToG  wwm/iMTUBaif  pApw  rh  XP*^/**)  ae  made  partakers  in 
that  typical  ointment  of  the  invisible  grace  of  the  Holy 
Spirit^'  (P.  G.,  LXXXI,  60). 

Among  the  homilies  formerly  attributed  to  E)use- 
bius  of  Kmesa,  but  now  admitted  to  be  the  work  of 
some  bishop  of  Southern  Gaul  in  the  fifth  century,  is  a 
long  homily  for  Whitsunday:  "The  Holy  Ghost  who 
comesdown  with  a  life-giving  descent  upon  the  waters 
of  baptism,  in  the  font  bestows  beauty  unto  innocence, 
in  confirmation  g^nants  an  increase  unto  grace.  Be- 
cause we  have  to  waXk.  during  our  whole  life  in  the 
midst  of  invisible  enemies  and  dangers,  we  are  in  bap- 
tism reoenerated  unto  life,  after  bi^tism  we  are  con- 
firmed for  the  baitle;  in  baptism  we  are  cleansed,  after 
baptism  we  are  strengthened  .  .  .  confirmation  arms 
and  furnishes  weapons  to  those  who  are  reserved  for 
the  wrestlings  and  contests  of  this  world ' '  (Bib.  Max., 
SS.  PP.,  VI,  p.  649).  These  passaoss  suffice  to  show 
the  doctrine  and  practice  of  the  Qiurch  during  the 
patristM  age.  For  further  infonnation  see  "  Diet,  de 
th6oL  cath?',  s.  v.  ''Confirmatk>n'',  coll.  1026-1058. 

(3)  After  the  great  Trinitarian  and  Christological 
controversies  had  been  decided,  and  the  doctrine  of 
Divine  grace  had  been  defined,  the  Church  was  able  to 
devote  attrition  to  questions  regarding  the  sacra- 
ments, the  means  of  grace.  At  the  same  time,  the 
saenmeotaries  were  being  drawn  up,  fixing  the  vari- 
ous rites  in  use.  With  precision  of  practice  came 
greater  precision  and  completeness  of  doctrine. 
"Chrisma",  says  St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  "is  in  I^tin 
odled  'UUQtiu')  and  from  it  Christ  receives  His  name, 


and  man  is  sanctified  after  the  laver  [lavacrum]]  for  as 
in  baptism  remission  of  sins  is  given,  so  by  anointing 
[ttficfoo]  the  sanctification  of  the  Spirit  is  conferred. 
The  imposition  of  hands  takes  place  in  order  that  the 
Holy  Spirit,  being  called  by  the  blessii^,  may  be  in- 
vited [per  benedicUanem  aavoc<Uu»  inviteiur  SpirUus 
SancUui];  for  after  the  bodies  have  been  cleansed  and 
blessed,  then  does  the  Paraclete  willingly  oome  down 
from  the  Father"  (Etym.,  VI,  c.xix  in  P.  L.,  LXXXII, 
eol.  256).  The  great  Ang^o-Saxon  ii|^ts  of  the  early 
Middle  Ages  are  eq[ually  explicit.  "  llie  confirmation 
of  the  newly  baptised  ,  says  Lingard  (Ang^o-Saxon 
Church,  I,  p.  296),  ''was  made  an  important  part  of 
the  bishop's  duty.  We  repeatedly  reaA  of  journeys 
undertaken  by  St.  Cuthbert  chiefly  with  this  object. 
.  .  .  Children  were  brous^t  to  him  for  confirmation 
from  the  secluded  parts  of  the  countnr;  and  he  minis- 
tered to  those  who  had  been  reoenUy  bom  a^in  in 
Christ  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  tne  imposition  of 
hands,  'placing  his  hand  on  the  head  of  each,  and 
anointing  them  with  the  chrism  which  he  had  blessed 
(manum  imponene  tuper  caput  nnguhrumf  limena 
unctione  conaecratd  quam  benedixerat;  Beda,  ''Vita 
Cuth.",  c.  xxix,  xxxii  in  P.  L.,  XCIV,  Oi>Br.  Min..  p. 
277), "  Alcuin  also  in  his  letter  to  Odwin  describes 
how  the  neojphyte,  after  the  reception  of  baptism  and 
the  Euchanst,  prepares  to  receive  the  Holy  Spirit 
by  the  imposition  of  hands.  "Last  of  aU  by  the 
imposition  of  the  hands  by  the  chief  priest  [summo 
sacerdote]  he  receives  tiie  Spirit  of  the  seven-fold  grace 
to  be  strengthened  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  fight  against 
others''  (De  bapt.  cseremon.  in  P.  L.,  CI,  coL  614).  It 
will  be  observed  that  in  all  these  passages  imposition 
of  hands  is  mentioned;  St.  Isidore. and  St.  Bede  men- 
tion anointing  also.  These  may  be  taken  as  typical 
examples ;  the  best  authorities  of  this  age  combine  the 
two  ceremonies.  As  to  the  form  of  words  used  the 
greatest  variety  prevailed.  The  words  accompany-*, 
ms  the  ioiiposition  of  hands  were  generally  a  prayer 
celling  upon  God  to  send  down  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
confer  upon  the  neoph3rtes  Uie  seven  gifts.  In  the 
Gresprian  Sacramentary  no  words  at  au  are  assigned 
to  the  anointing;  but  it  is  clear  that  the  anointing 
must  be  taken  in  connexion  with  the  words  belonging 
to  the  imposition  of  hands.  Where  special  words  are 
assigned  they  sometimes  resemble  the  Greek  formu- 
lary (jsignum  Christ  in  vUam  ceiemam,  etc.),  or  are  in- 
dicative, like  the  present  formula  (signo,  cormgnOf  conr 
finno)f  or  imperative  (accipe  n^pium,  etc.),  or  depreca- 
tory (confirmet  vos  Pater  et  FiUue  et  Spiritus  Sanotua, 
etc.)*  St.  Isidore  is  clearly  in  favour  of  a  prayer: 
"We  can  receive  the  Holy  Ghost,  but  we  cannot  give 
Him:  that  He  may  be  given,  we  call  upon  God"  (De 
Off.  Ecd.,  II,  c.  xxvi  in  P.  L.,  LXXXIII,  col.  823).  In 
contrast  with  this  diversity  as  to  the  form  there  is 
complete  agreement  that  the  sole  minister  is  a  bishop. 
Ctf  course  this  refers  only  to  the  Western  Church.  The 
writers  appeal  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (e.  g.  St. 
Isidore,  "De  Off.  EccL",  II,  c.  xxvi;  St.  Bede,  *'In. 
Act.  Apost."  in  P.  L.,  XCII,  col.  961;  "Vit.  Cuth.", 
c.  xxix);  but  they  do  not  examine  the  reason  why 
the  power  is  reserved  to  the  bishops,  nor  do  they  dis- 
cuss the  question  of  the  time  and  mode  of  the  in- 
stitution of  the  sacrament. 

(4)  The.  teaching  of  the  Schoolmen  shows  a  marked 
advance  upon  that  of  the  eariy  Middle  Ages.  The  de- 
cision as  to  the  number  of  the  sacraments  involved  the 
clear  distinction  of  confirmation  from  baptism ;  and  at 
the  same  time  the  more  exact  definition  of  what  con- 
stitutes a  sacrament  led  to  the  discussion  of  the  instir 
tution  of  confirmation,  its  matter  and  form,  minister, 
and  effects,  especially  the  character  impressed.  We 
can  follow  the  development  through  the  labours  of 
Lanfranc,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  St.  Anselm  hb 
successor,  Abelard,  Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  Peter  Lom- 
bard (Sent.,  IV,dist.  ^^i);  then  branching  out  iiit4^»  the 
two  distinct  schools  of  Dominicans  (Albertus  Magiius 


OONHSMATtOlP 


220 


oonsnaMAinat 


XfkdSt.  Thomas)  and  Franciscans  (Alestander  of  Hales, 
St.  Bona  venture,  and  Duns  Scotus).  As  we  i^all  see, 
the  clearness  with  which  the  various  questions  were 
set  forth  bv  no  means  produced  unanimity;  ratiier  it 
served  to  bring  out  the  imcertainty  with  regard  to 
them  all.  The  writers  start  from  the  tact  that  there 
was  in  the  Church  a  ceremony  of  anointing  with  dirism 
accompanied  with  the  words:  ''I  sign  tnee  with  the 
sign  of  the  cross  **,  etc. ;  this  ceremony  was  performed 
by  a  bishop  only,  and  could  not  be  repeat^.  When 
they  came  to  examine  the  doctrine  underiying  this 
practice  they  all  admitted  that  it  was  a  sacrament, 
though  in  the  earlier  writers  the  word  sacrament  had 
not  yet  acquired  a  distinct  technical  meaning.  So 
strongly  did  they  insist  upon  the  principle  Lex  orandi, 
lex  credendif  that  they  took  for  granted  that  the  anoint- 
ing must  be  the  matter,  and  the  words  **  I  sign  thee", 
etc.,  the  form,  and  that  no  one  but  a  bishop  could  be 
the  valid  minister.  But  when  they  came  to  justify 
this  doctrine  by  the  authority  of  Scripture  they  en- 
countered the  difficulty  that  no  mention  is  made  there 
either  of  the  anointing  or  of  the  words;  indeed  noth- 
ing is  said  of  the  institution  of  the  sacrament  at  all. 
What  could  be  the  meaning  of  this  silence?  How 
could  it  be  explained? 

(a)  Regarding  the  institution  there  were  three  opin- 
ions. The  Dominican  School  taught  that  Christ 
Himself  was  the  immediate  author  of  confirmation. 
Earlier  writers  (e.  g.  Hugh  of  St.  Victor, "  De  Sacram.", 
ii,  and  Peter  Lombard,  '*  Sent.",  FV,  dist.  vii)held  that  it 
was  instituted  by  .the  Holy  Ghost  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  Apostles.  The  Franciscans  also 
maintained  that  the  Holy  Ghost  wm  the  author,  but 
that  He  acted  either  throueh  the  Apostles  or  through 
the  Church  after  the  death  of  the  Apostles.  ''Con- 
cerning the  institution  of  this  sacrament",  says  St. 
Thomas,  "there  are  two  opinions:  some  say  tnat  it 
was  instituted  neither  by  Christ  nor  by  His  Apostles, 
but  later  on  in  the  course  of  time  at  a  certain  council 

gleaux,  S45;  this  was  the  opinion  of  Alexander  of 
ales,  Summ.,  iv,  q.  9,  m.],  whereas  others  said  that 
it  was  instituted  by  the  Apostles.  But  this  cannot  be 
the  case,  because  the  institution  of  a  sacrament  be- 
long to  the  power  of  excellence  which  is  projjer  to 
Christ  alone.  And  therefore  we  must  hold  that  Christ 
instituted  this  sacrament,  not  by  showing  it  [exhihenr 
do]  but  by  promisinc  it,  according  to  the  text  (John, 
xvi,  7), '  If  I  go  not,  the  Paraclete  wiU  not  come  to  you ; 
but  if  I  go,  I  will  send  Him  to  you  * .  And  this  because 
in  this  sacrament  the  fullness  of  the  Hol}r  Ghost  is 
given,  which  was  not  to  be  given  before  Christ's  resur- 
rection and  ascension,  according  to  the  text  (John, 
vii,  39), '  As  yet  the  Spirit  was  not  given,  because  Jesus 
was  not  yet  glorified'^'  (Summ.  Ill,  Q.  Ixxii,  a.  1,  ad  1). 
It  wijl  be  noticed  that  the  Angelic  Doctor  hesitates  a  lit- 
tle about  the  direct  institution  by  Christ  {non  ex- 
htbendo,  sed  promiUendo).  In  his  eariier  work  (In 
Sent.,  IV,  dist.  vii,  q.  1)  he  had  said  plainly  that  Christ 
had  instituted  the  sacrament  and  had  Hunself  admin- 
istered it  (Matt.^  xix).  In  this  opinion  the  saint  was 
still  under  the  mfluence  of  his  master,  Albert,  who 
went  so  far  as  to  hold  that  Christ  had  specified  the 
chrism  and  the  words,  "I  sign  thee",  etc.  (In  Sent.,  IV, 
dist.  vii,  a.  2).  The  opinion  of  Alexander  of  Hales,  re- 
ferred to  by  St.  Thomas,  was  as  follows:  the  Apostles 
conferred  the  Holy  Ghost  by  mere  imposition  of  nands ; 
this  rite,  which  was  not  properly  a  sacrament,  was  con- 
tinued until  the  ninth  century,  when  the  Holy  Ghost 
inspired  the  Fathers  of  the  Council  of  Meaux  in  the 
choice  of  the  matter  and  form,  and  endo^^ed  these  with 
sacramental  efficacy  {Spiritu  Sancto  instiganU  et  vir- 
iviem  sanctificandi  pratstante).  He  was  led  to  this  ex- 
traordinary view  (which  he  states  as  merely  personal) 
by  the  fact  that  no  mention  is  made  in  Holy  Scripture 
either  of  the  chrism  or  of  the  words;  and  as^ these  were 
undotibtcdly  the  matter  and  the  form  they  co\ild  only 
havp  hf^m  iiitroduwd  by  Divine  authority.    His  dis- 


ciple, St.  Bonaventure,  agreed  in  rejecting  the  instiiu- 
tion  by  Christ  or  His  Apostles,  and  in  attributing 
it  to  the  Holy  Ghost;  but  ne  set  back  the  time  to  the 
a|^  of  '*the  successors  of  the  Apostles"  (In  Sent..  IV, 
dist.  vii,  art.  1).  However,  like  his  frieiMily  rival  St. 
Thomas,  he  also  modified  hk  view  in  a  later  work  (Bre- 
viloquium,  p.  vi.  c.  4)  where  he  says  that  Christ  insti- 
tuted all  the  sacraments,  though  in  different  wa3r8; 
"  some  by  hintuig  at  them  and  imtiating  tixemlinsinu- 
ando  s<  %niHando]f  as  confirmation  and  extreme 
unction".  Scotus  seems  to  have  felt  the  weight 
of  the  authority  of  the  Dominican  opinion,  for 
he  does  not  express  himself  cleariy  in  favour  of  the 
views  of  his  own  order.  He  says  that  the  rite  was  in- 
stituted by  God  (Jesus  Christ?  the  Holy  Ghost?) ; 
that  it  was  instituted  when  Christ  pronounced  tbe 
words,  *'  Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost",  or  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  but  this  may  refer  not  to  the  rite  but  to  the 
thmg  signified,  viz.  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (In  Sent., 
IV,  dist.  vii,  q.  1;  dist.  ii,  q.  1).  The  Fathers  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  as  said  above,  did  not  expressly  de- 
cide the  question,  but  as  they  defined  that  all  the  sacra- 
ments were  instituted  by  Christ,  the  Dominican 
teaching  has  prevailed.  We  shall  see,  however,  that 
this  is  capable  of  many  different  meanings. 

(b)  The  question  of  the  institution  of  the  sacrament 
is  intimately  bound  up  with  the  determination  of  the 
matter  and  form.  Alt  agreed  that  these  consisted  of 
the  anointing  (including  tdie  act  of  placing  the  hand 
upon  the  candidate)  and  the  words,  ^'I  sign  thee",  or 
"I  confirm  thee";  etc.  Were  this -action  and  these 
words  of  Divine,  or  of  ApostoHo,  or  of  merely  ecclesias- 
tical origin?  Blessed  Albertus  held  that  both  were  or- 
dained by  Christ  Himself;  others  that  th^  were 
the  work  of  the  Church ;  but  the  common  opimon  was 
that  they  were  of  Apostolic  origin.  St.  Thomcas  was 
of  opinion  that  the  Apostles  actually  made- use  of 
chrism  and  the  words,  uonnano  fe,  etc.,  and  that  they 
did  so  by  Christ's  command.  Ine  sUenoe  of  Scrip- 
ture need  not  surprise  us,  he  says,  ''for  the  Apostles 
observed  many  tnings  in  the  administrataoa  of  the 
sacram^ts  wmch  are  not  handed  down  by  ihe  Scrip- 
tures" (S.  Theol.,  Ill,  Q.  Ixxii^  a.  8  and  4). 

(c>  In  proof  of  the  reservation  of  the  rite  to  bishons 
the  Schoolmen  appeal  to  the  example  of  Ads,  viii; 
and  they  go  on  to  explain  that  as  the  sacrament  is  a 
sort  of  completion  of  baptism  it  is  fitting  tiist  it  riiould 
be  conferred  by  "  one  wno  has  the  highest  power  [sum^ 
mam  potestatem]  in  the  Church"  (oL  Thomas,  ibid., 
art.  11).  They  were  aware,  however,  that  in  the  prim- 
itive Chureh  simple  priests  sometimes  administered 
the  sacrament.  This  they  accounted  for  by  the  few- 
ness of  bishops,  and  they  recognized  that  the  validity 
of  such  adminiistration  (unlike  the  case  of  Holy  or- 
ders) is  a  mere  matter  of  ecclesiastical  lurisdiotion. 
"The  pope  holds  the  fullness  of  power  in  the  Chureh, 
whence  he  can  confer  upon  certain  of  the -inferior  or- 
ders things  which  belong  to  the  hi^er  orders.  .  .  . 
And  out  of  the  fullness  of  this  power  the  blessed  pope 
Gregory  granted  that  simple  priests  conferred  this 
sacrament"  (St.  Thomas,  ibid.). 

(5)  The  Council  of  Trent  did  not  decide  the  questions 
discussed  by  the  Schoolmen.  But  the  definition  that 
"all  the  sacraments  were  instituted  by  Christ  "'(Seas. 
VII,  can.  i),  excluded  the  opinion  that  Ihe  H<4y  Ghost 
was  the  author  of  confirmation.  Still,  nothing  was 
said  about  the  mode  of  institution — whether  immedi- 
ate or  mediate,  generic  or  specific.  The  poet*Triden- 
tine  theologians  nave  almost  unanimously  taught  that 
Christ  Himself  was  the  immediate  author  of  all  the 
sacraments,  and  so  of  confirmation  (of.  De  Luso,  '*  De 
Sacram.  in  Gen.",  disp.  vii,  sect.  1;  Toumety,  "De 
Sacram.  in  Gen.'*;  q.  v,  a.  1).  **But  the  historical 
studies  of  the  seventeenth  oentuiy  obliged  autliors  to 
restrict  the  action  of  Christ  in  the  institution  of  the 
sacraments  tt)  the  determination  of  the  spiritual  ef- 
fect, leaving  the  choice  of  the  rite  to  the  Apostles  and 


coHraaii^TioM 


p21 


ooKmiiAnoH 


the  Church/^  (Pourrat,  La  th^logie  sacramen- 
taire,  p.  313.)  That  is  to  say,  in  the  case  of  coofinna- 
tion,  Christ  bestowed  upon  the  Apostles  the  power 
of  giving  the  Holy  Ghost,  but  He  md  not  specify  the 
ceremony  by  which  this  gift  should  be  conferred;  the 
Apostles  and  the  Church,  acting  under  Divine  guid- 
ance, fixed  upon  the  imposition  of  hands,  the  anoint- 
ing, and  the  appropriate  words.  Further  information 
on  this  important  and  difficult  question  will  b«  icMUid 
in  the  artide  Sagrambntow 

III.    GONPIRMATIOM    IN    THE    BRITISH'  AXD    iRliSB 

'  CHURCHBS.-*-In  hds  famous  ^  Confession ' '  (ed.  Whitley 
Stokes,  Vita  Tripartita,  II>  372,  368;  cf.  p.  (^xxxiv) 
St.  Patridc  refers  to  himself  as- the  first  to  administer 
oonfifmaiion  in  Ireland.  The  term  here  used  (popuH 
eonsummatio;  ef.  St.  Cyprian,  ut  signaculo  dmmmoo 
cofMummeifter,  £p.  Ixxui,  no.  9,  ed«-  Hariel,  p.  785) 
is  rendered  by  witoamad,co8rrujfil  ieonfirmaba^  am- 
firmatki)  ina yeiy  ancient  Irish  homily  on  St.  Patrick 
found  in  the  fourteenth  c«itury,  '.'Leabar  Breao" 
(op.  cit.,  II,  484).  In  the  same  work  <II,  560-61)  a 
Latin  mreface  to  an  ancient  Irish  ohronological  tract 
says:  Ileftemtis  sccre  ^uo  temporv  PolricitM  sanchfs  e?^ 
Scopus  a^quB  pretcepUfr  maximua  Scotcrum  inofioamit 
.  .  .  sanot/ieore  e<  oonseerore  .  .  .  et  e&nsumtnaiiB,  i  e. 
' '  we  ought  to  knoiw  at  wh«t  time  Patrick,  the  holy  blsb^ 
op  and  greatest  teacher  of  the  Irish,  began  to  come  to 
Ireland  ...  to  sandiifjf  ^snd  ordain*  and  ooiifinn'\ 
Prom  the  same  ^Leabar  Breac''  Sylvester  Malone 
qnotu  the  following  aeeouni  of  <  oonmrmation  which 
exhibits  an  accurate  belief  on  the  part  of  the  Iridi 
Chilrehc  ''Gonfirmation  or  chrism  is  <^e  perfection  ol 
baptism,  not  that  they  are  not  distinct  and  dilEerent. 
Confirmation  oould  not  be  given  in  the  absence  of  bap- 
tism; nordo  the  effects  w  baptism  depend  en  Con- 
firmation, nor  are  they  lost  till  death.  Just  as  the 
natural'  birth  takes  pfaioe  at  ones  so' does  the  spiritual 
regeneration  in  like  manner,  but  it  finds;  however,  its 
perfection  in  confirmation''  (Church  History  of  Ire- 
land, Dublin,  1880,  I,  p.  149).  It  is  in  the  light  xA 
these  venerable  texts,  which  quite  probably  antedate 
the  year  IOOOl  that  tre  must  interpret  the  weU-known 
reference  of  St,  Bernard  to  -tiie  temporary 'disuse  of 
cohfirmation  in  Ireland  (Vita  Malacbue),  c.  iv,  in  Acta 
SS.,  KoT;,  tl,  14a).  He  relates  that  St  Milachy  (b. 
aboot  1095)  introduced  the  practices  of  the  Holy  Ro- 
man Church  into  all  the  churches  of  Irdand,  andmen^ 
tions especially  "the most wholeeome^usageof  confess 
sion,  tiie  sacrament  of  confirmation  and  we  eontraot 
of  ntlarriage^jLll  of  'Which  were  either  unknown  or  ne* 
^ectlBd  '*.  OhesC  Malachy  restored  {d6  novo  instiJtwib), 
The  Wdsh  laws  of  Hywef  Dda  suppose  lor  ehjldren  of 
seven  years  and  upwardte  a  religious  ceremony  of  lay* 
iDg  on  of  handir  that  can  hardly  be  an3rtiiing  ehie  than 
confirmation.  Moreover,  the  Welsh  term  for  this  sac- 
rament, Bedydd  Esgohf  i.  e.  bishop's  baptism,  implies 
that  it  was  always  performed  by  a  bishop  and  was  a 
complement  (amm^himatio)  of  baptisnv  (J.  Williams^ 
Eleclesiastical  Antiquities  of  the  Cymri,  London,  1844, 
p.  281).  This  writer  also  quotes  (ibid.)  his  coimtry- 
man  Gerald  Barry  for  the  fact  that  the  whole  people  of 
Wales  were  more  eager  than  any  other  nation  to  ol>* 
tain  episcopal  confiraiation  and  the  chrism  by  which 
the  ^irit  was  ^fven. 

The  practice  m  England  has  already  been  illustrated 
by  facts  from  the  life  of  St.  Cuthbert.  One  of  the  old- 
est mftfte^,  or  prescriptions  for  administering  the  sao* 
fameiot,  is  found  m  the  Pontifical  of  Egbert,  Arch* 
bishop  of  York  (d.  766).  The  rite  is  practic^ly  the 
same  as  that  used  at  present;  the  form,  however,  is: 
"receive  the  sign  of  the  holy  cross  with*  the  chrism  6f 
salvation  in  Christ  Jesos  unto  life  everlasting. " 
Among  the  nibrics  atei'modo  ligtmdi  mrU,  i.  €f.  the  head 
of  tiiepel^sOn  confirmed  is  to  be  bound  with  a  fillet;  Und 
mado  ciimiimnicaf\di  sUht  de  sdcHficio,  i.  e.  theyar^  to 
receive  Hoiy*  Cotomunioh  (Mayttftiie).  It  was  espe^ 
civilly  during  the  thirteenth  century  that  v^rous 


measures  were  taken  to  secure  the  proper  administra- 
tion of  the  sacrainent.  In  general,  the  councils  and 
synods  direct  the  priests  to  admonish  the  people  re- 
wding  the  confirmation  of  their  duldeen.  The  age* 
Hmit,  however,  varies  eonsidersd>ly.  Thus  the  Synod 
of  Worcester  (1240)  decreed  that  parents  who  neg- 
lected to  have  their  child  confirmed  within  a  year 
after  birth  should  be  forbidden  to  enter  the  church. 
The  Synod  of  Exeter  (1287)  enacted  that  chikiren 
should  be  oonfirmed  within  three  years  from  birth; 
otiienrise  the  parents  were  to  fast  on  bread  and  water 
until  they  complied  with  the  law.  At  the  Synod  of 
Durham  (1217?  Cf.  Wilkins,  loe.  cit.  below)  the  time 
was  extended  to  the  seventh  year.  Other  statutes 
were:  that  no  one  should  be  admitted  to  Holy  Com- 
munion who  had  not  been  confirmed  (Council  of  Lam- 
beth, 1281);  that  neither  father  nor  mother  nor  step- 
parent shcmld  act  as  sponsor  (London,  1200);  that 
children  to  be  confirmed  must  bring  ''  fillets  or  bandd 
of  sufficient  length  and  width",  and  that  they  must  be 
brought  to  the  ohuroh  the  third  day  after  oonfirmar' 
tion  to  h&ve  their  foreheads  waidied  by  tbe  priest  out 
of  reverenoe  lor  the  holy  dirism  (Oxford,  1222) :  that 
a  male  sponsor  shoold  stand  for  the  boys  and  a  female 
sponsor  for  the  girls  <Provinoial  Synod  of  Sootlandy 
1225);  that  adults  mudt  confess  before  being  coa«< 
firmed.  (Constiimtkin  of  St.  Edmund  of  Canterii>ury, 
about  1236).  Several  of  the  above^iamed  iBynods 
emphasize  the  fact  that  confirmatkm  produees  spin** 
tual  cognation  aiMl  thattbe  sacrameat  cannot  beiie^ 
eeived  more  than  once*  Hie  l^Eslation  of  the  Synod 
of  Exeter  is  especially  fUll  and  detailed  (see  WUldDs, 
Concilia  Magnsd  Brittannie  et  Hibeftnin,  London, 
1734X  Among  the  decrees  issued  in  Ireland  after  the 
Reformation  may  be>  cited?  no  <me  otfaerthaa  a  bishop 
should  administer  cenfiitnation;  the  Holy  See  had  not 
delegated  this  episcopal  function  to  any  one  (Synod  of 
Ahiuigh,  1614);  the  faithful  should  be  taught  tiiat 
confirmation  cannot  be  reiterated  and  that  its  reoe|>- 
tion  should  be  preceded  by  sacramental  oonfesston 
(Synod  of  Tuam,  1632). 

IV.  In  thb  Amcricak  CoLONii».^Preivious  to  the 
establishment  of  the  hierarehy,  many  Catholics  is 
North  America  died  without  having  risceived  oon- 
tenation.  In  some  portions  of  wcuii  is  now  the 
United  States  the  sacrament  was  sdministered  by 
bishops  from  the  neighbourin|;  Frendi  and  Spanish 
possessions ;  in  othore;  by  missionary  priests  with  dd- 
egation  from  the  Holy  See.  Bishop  Cabe?a8  de  Aiti- 
mirano  of  Santiago  de  Cuba>  on  his  visitatien  of  Fht^ 
Ida,  confirmed  (25  March,  1606)  alaige  number,  proln 
ably  the  first  administration  of  the  sacrsiment  in  the 
United  States  territory  (Shea.  The  Catholic  Oiureh  in 
Colonial  Days,  New  York,  1866).'  In  1656,  Don  Diego 
de  ReboUedo,  Governor  of  Florida,  urged  the  King  of 
Spain  to  ask  the  pope  to  make  St.  Augustine  an  epis- 
copal see,  or  to  make  Florida  a  vicariate  Apostolic  so 
that  there  might  be  a  local  superior  and  that  the  faith- 
ful might  receive  the  Sacrament  of  Confinnation;  but 
nothi^  came  of  the  petition.  Bishop  Calderon  ol 
Santiago  visited  Florida  in  1647  and  confirmed  13,152 
persons,  including  Indians  and  whites.  Other  iz^ 
stances  are  the  visitations  of  Bishop  de  Velasco 
(1735^)  and  Bishop  Morel  (1763).  Subsequently.  Dr. 
Peter  Camps,  missionary  Apostolic,  received  nom 
Rome  special  faculties  for  confirmation.  In  New  Mex- 
ico, duruig  the  seventeenth  century,  the  custos  of  the 
Franciscans  confirmed  by  delegation  from  Leo  X  and 
Adrian  VI.  In  1760,  Bishop  Tamaron  of  Durango 
visited  the  missions  of  New  Mexico  and  confirmed  11,- 
271  persons.  Bishop  Tejada  of  Guadalajara  adminis- 
tered (1759)  confirmation  at  San  Fernando,  now  San 
Antonio,  Texas,  and  Bishop  de  Pontbriand  at  Ft.  Pres- 
entation (Ogdcnsburg,  N.  Y.)  in  1752.  The  need  of  a 
bishop  to  administer  the  sacrament  in  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania  was  ut^mI  by  Bishop  CJhalloner  in  a  re- 
port to  the  Propaganda,  2  Aug.,  1763.     Writing  to  his 


eoiinTSOft 


222 


(xatmwak 


agent  at  Rome,  Rev.  Dr.  Stonor,  12  Sept.,  1706,  he 
sayi:  ^  there  be  bo  many  thousands  there  that  live  and 
ctie  without  Confirmation";  and  in  another  letter,  4 
June,  1771 :  "  It  is  a  lamentable  thing  that  sudi  a  mul<- 
titude  have  to  live  and  die  alwavB  deprived  of  the 
Sttorament  of  Confirmation.''  Cardinal  Casteili  wrote, 
7  Sept.,  1771,  to  Bishop  Briand  of  Quebec  asking  him 
to  supply  the  need  of  the  Catholics  in  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania.  In  1783  the  cleigy  ptitioned  Rome 
for  the  appointment  ci  a  superior  with  the  necessary 
faculties  "that  our  faithful  living  in  many  dangers, 
may  be  no  longer  deprived  of  the  Sacrament  of  Con- 
firmatioB.  ..."  On  6  June,  1784,  Pius  VI  ap- 
pointed Rev.  John  Carroll  as  superior  of  the  mission 
and  empowered  him  to  administer  confirmation  (%ea^ 
Life  and  Times  of  Archbishop  Carroll,  New  Yoric, 
1888;  cf.  Hu^es  in  Am.  EccL  Review,  XXVUI,  23). 

V.  Confirmation  Among  Non-Catholics. — The 
Protestant  Reformers,  influenced  by  their  rejection  of 
all  that  could  not  be  clearly  proved  from  Scripture  and 
>>y  their  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  only,  refused 
to  admit  that  oonfinnation  was  a  sacrament  (Luther, 
De  Capt.  Babyl.,  VU,  p.  501).  According  to  the  Con- 
fession of  Augsburg,  it  wba  instituted  by  the  Church, 
and  it  has  not  the  promise  of  the  grace  of  God.  MeK 
andithon  (Loci  Comm.,  p.  48)  taught  that  it  was  a 
vain  ceremony,  and  was  lormeriy  nothing  but  a  cate- 
chism in  which  those  who  were  approadiing  adoles- 
cence gave  an  account  of  their  faith  before  the  Cliureh ; 
and  that  the  minister  was  not  a  bi^op  only,  but  any 
priest  whatsoever  (lib.  Ref.  ad  Colonien.).  These 
four  points,  were  condonned  by  the  Council  of  T^nt 
(st:^ra  I;  cf .  A.  Theiner,  Acta  Genuina  SS.  (Ecum. 
Gone.  Trid.,  I,  p.  383  sqq.).  Nevertheless  the  Luth- 
eran Churches  retain  some  sort  of  confirmation  to  the 
present  day.  It  consists  of  the  examination  of  the 
candidate  in  Christian  doctrine  by  the  pastors  or  mem- 
bera  of  the  consistory,  and  the  renewal  by  the  candi- 
date of  the  profession  of  faith  made  for  him  at  the 
time  of  his  baptism  by  his  godparents.  How  the  jpaa^ 
tors  properly  ordained  can  alone  be  said  to  ^ve" 
oonfinnation  does  not  appear.  The  Andean  Church 
holds  that  "Confirmation  is  not  to  be  counted  for  a 
sacrament  of  the  Goq)el  ...  for  it  has  not  the  like 
nature  of  sacraments  [aacramentorum  eandem  ro- 
tionem]  with  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  for  it  has 
not  any  visible  sign  or  ceremony  ordained  of  God" 
(Art.  xxv).  But,  like  the  Lutheran  Churches,  it  re- 
tains ''the  (^nfirmation  of  children,  by  examining 
them  of  their  knowledge  in  their  articles  of  faith  and 
joining  thereto  the  prayers  of  the  Church  for  them'' 
(Homuy  on  Conmion  Prayer  and  Sacraments,  p.  300). 
The  rite  of  confirmation  has  undergone  various  changes 
in  the  different  prayer,  books  (see  Book  of  Ck>MMON 
Pratsr).  From  these  it  can  be  seen  how  the  An^ 
can  Cliurch  has  varied  between  the  complete  rejection 
of  the  (Catholic  doctrine  and  practice,  and  a  near  ap- 
proach to  these.  Testimonies  could  easily  be  quoted 
tor  either  of  these  opinions.  The  wording  of  Art.  xxv 
left  a  loophole  which  the  Ritualistic  party  has  nude 
good  use  of.  Even  some  Catholics,  as  stated  above, 
have  admitted  that  confirmation  "  has  not  any  visible 
sign  or  ceremony  oidained  of  God ' ' ;  the  imposition  of 
hands,  the  anointine,  and  the  words  used  being  all  of 
them  ''ordained  of '^  the  Apostles  of  the  Qiureh. 

.  Gknsbal.— Z>ta.  de  thiol,  eatk.  a.  v.,  foil  bibliography;  Wiu- 
BBUi  AND  ScANNSLL.  Monuol  of  Coth.  Theoi.  (London,  1S98), 
11;  De  Augustints,  De  Re  SaetamefdariA  (Rome,  1880);  Gihr, 
Die  hi.  SakramerUe  d,  kaUud.  Kireke  (Fniburs.  1002).  I;  Hdn- 
mcMr<jxrnnm*tT.Dogmat.TheologieiMmn»,  1001).  IX;  Pohlb, 
Lehrb.  d.  Doffmattk  (Paderbom.  1006).  III.  good  bibUography; 
POtJBRAT,  La  thSologie  muramerUairt  (Paris,  1007). 

Special.-~Vxtab8e,  De  Sacram.  Cmtfifm.  in  Miom,  TheU. 
Gureue  Camp.,  XXI;  Jambbkhb,  La  amfimuMen  (liUe,  1888H 
HRiiiBucaiBR.  Dae  Sakrameni  dee  HI.  Cfeittee  (Aunburg.  1880); 
DOlgcr.  Dae  SakrtsmerU  d.  Firmuno  (Vi«nna,  1006);  J.  R.  Oas- 
quBT.  The  Early  History  of  BapHem  and  Confirmatieu  in  DtMm 
Hev.  (180.1),  lie. 

LiTiTRoiCAL.— MARTfcNK,  De  AfUtquie  Ecd.  RitOnte  (Rouen. 
1700).  1.  ii;  MAirrtQNY,  Diet,  dee  antiouitfe  chr^.  (Paria.  1877); 
Dm.su.nukh.  Hitu3  uTwraatium  Ecd.  (WQnbuig,  1863);  Maut* 


CKW  (priest  of  the  Russian  Church),  Dm  8acrameiUe  d.  ortkadot- 
kaihoHeehen  Kirche  dee  MarfferOandee  (Berlin,  1808);  Duchmnc. 
Chrietiam,  Worahip,  tr.  from  8rd  ed.  of  Lee  OrigvMe  (London, 
1003). 

Non^Ga^vbouo.— Majbok.  The  RdctUom  ef  CmfirmaUam.  t» 
Baptiam  (London,  1803);  Hau.,  Confirmation  (London,  1002); 
FvouLKtt  in  Diet.  Chriet.  Bioff.,  s.  v.  See  also  Rxcbaxoson, 
Periodical  Ariidee  &n  ReHaion,  18S0-m99(Nvw  York,  1007). 

T.  B.  SCAKMXIX. 

0oiiflt6or.-<-The  Oonfiteor  (so  called  from  the  fint 
word,  confUeoTj  I  confess)  is  a  general  oonfession  of  sins; 
it  is  used  in  the  Roman  Rite  at  the  beginning  of  Mass 
and  on  various  (Hher  occasions  as  a  pr^>aration  for 
the  reception  of  some  grace. 

HiBTOBT  OF  THB  GoNFTTBOR. — ^It  IS  Btsb  heard  of  as 

of  the  preparation  for  Mass.  Both  the  original  ^tk- 
em  liturgies  begin  with  a  confession  of  sin  made  by 
the  celebrant  (for  the  Antiochene  Rite  see  Brightman, 
Eastern  Liturgies,  p.  31,  and  for  the  Alexandrine 
Rite,  ibid.,  116).  The  fiist  Roman  saeranaentanefl 
and  ordos  tell  us  nothing  about  this  preparation;  they 
all  describe  ibe  Mass  as  beginning  at  the  Introit.  Ike 
Oonfiteor  in  some  form  was  probably  from  an  early 
date  one  of  the  private  prayers  said  by  the  celebrant 
in  the  sacristy  before  he  be^em  Mass.  But  the '  *  Sixth 
Roman  Ordo'^'(Mabillon,MuseumItalieuna^  11,70-76), 
written  apparently  in  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century, 
tells  us  that  at  the  beginning  of  Mass  thepontiff  **  bow- 
ing down  prays  to  God  for  formveness  of  his  sins" 
(ibid.,  p.  71).  So  by  the  eleventh  centuiy  the jprepa- 
ration  is  ah^uJy  made  at  the  altar*  In  the  ''Canon- 
ical Rule''  of  Ghrodegang  of  Meta  (d.  743)  the  ques- 
tions put  by  the  priest  to  the  penitent  before  confes- 
sion contain  a  form  thai  suggests  our  Oonfiteor: "  First 
of  ail  prostrate  youradf  humbly  in  the  sight  of  CM 
.  .  .  and  pray  Blessed  Mazy  with  the  holy  Apostles 
and  Martyrs  and  Oonfessors  to  prav  to  the  Lord  for 
you  (Ohrodeg.  Met.,  ''Reg.  Oanon.' ,  cap.  zxxii^  in  P. 
L,  LXXXIX,  1072).  So  also  Egbert  of  Yoric  (d.  766) 
gives  a  short  form  that  is  the  germ  of  our  present 
prayer:  "Say  to  him  to  whom  you  wish  to  confess 
3rour  sins:  tmnug^  my  fault  that  I  have  sinned  ex- 
oeedinglv*  in  thought,  word,  and  deed."  In  answer 
the  confessor  says  almost  exaotlv  our  Misereatur 
(Bona,  "Rerum  Uturg.",  Bk.  II,  u,  v).  But  it  is  in 
Micrologus  (Bemold  of  Oonstaace,  d.  1100)  that  we 
first  find  the  Oonfiteor  quoted  as  part  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Mass.  The  form  here  is:  "Oonfiteor  Deo 
omnipotenti,  istis  Sanctis  et  omnibus  Sanctis  et  tibi 
f rater,  quia  jpeccavi  in  cpgitatione,  in  locutione,  in 
opere,  in  poUutione  mentis  et  corporis.  Ideo  precor 
te,  oia  pro  me."  The  Miaersatinr  and  Indnlgoitiam 
follow,  the  former  sli^^tly  different,  but  the  latter  ex- 
actly as  we  have  it  now  (De  ecol  observ.,  xxiii,  in  P. 
L.,  CLI,  992). 

In  the  ''Onio  Romanus  XIV"  (bv  Oardinal  James 
Oajetan  in  the  fourteenth  centuiy,  MabiUon,  op.  cit., 
II,  246-443)  we  find  our  Oonfiteor  exact^,  but  for  the 
slifiht  modification:  "  Quia  peccavi  nimis  cogitatione, 
d^tatione,  consensu,  verbo  et  opere"  (ib.,  p.  329). 
The  Third  Oounoil  of  Rav^ina  (1314,  Hardoum,  OolL 
Oonc,  VII,  1389)  orders  in  its  Rubric  xv  our  Oon- 
fiteor, word  for  word,  to  be  used  throujs^hout  that 
province.  The  form,  and  especiallv  the  list  of  saints 
invoked,  varies  considerably  m  the  Middle  Ages.  Car- 
dinal Bona  (Rerum  liturg.  libri  duo,  II,  5-7;  quotes  a 
number  of  such  forma  in  many  Missals  it  is  diorte? 
than  ours:  "Oonfiteor  Deo,  beat»  Maris,  omnibus 
Sanctis  et  vobis"  (so  the  Sarum  Missal,  ed.  Dickinson, 
Burntisland,  1861-1883).  In  the  Missal  of  Paul  III 
(1534-1649)  it  is:  "Opnfiteor  peo  omnipotenti,  B. 
Mari»  samper  Virgini,  Q.  Petro  et  omnibus  Sanctis  et 
vobis  Fratres,  quia  peccavi,  me&  oulp4:  precor  vos 
orare  pro  me"  (Bona,  loo.  cit.).  Since  the  edition  of 
Pius  V  (1566-1572)  our  present  form  is  the  only  one 
to  be  used  throughout  the  Roman  Rite,  with  the  ex- 
ceptions of  the  Oartbusian,  Oarmelite,  and  Dominican 


OOHfOftMIStS 


223 


ooNFuoumait 


O^Uoes,  whose  Missals,  having  been  proved  to  have 
existed  for  more  than  200  years,  are  still  allowed. 
These  three  forms  are  quite  short,  and  contain  only 
one  "me&  culp4.";  the  Dominicans  invoke,  besides 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  St.  Dominic.  Moreover,  some 
other  orders  have  the  privileoe  of  adding  the  name 
of  their  founder  after  that  of  St  Paul  (we  Francis- 
caiM  for  instance),  and  the  local  patron  is  inserted  at 
the  same  place  in  a  few  local  uses.  Otherwise  the 
Confiteor  must  always  be  said  exactly  as  it  is  in  the 
Romaa  Mnsal  (S.  R.  C,  13  February,  1666y  Benedict 
XIV,  De  SS.  Missffi  Sacr.,  II,  iii,  U,  12). 

Uas  OF  THS  CoNFiTBOR. — ^Thc  prayer  is  said  some^ 
times  as  a  double  form  of  mutual  confession,  first  by 
the  celebrant  to  the  people  and  then  by  the  people  to 
him,  and  sometimes  only  once,  as  a  single  form.  Aa 
a  double  form  it  is  used:  (1)  as  part  of  the  introduc* 
tory  prayers  of  Mass  said  before  the  priest  goes  up  to 
the  altar,  after  the  PsaJm  ''Judiea  me"  (Ritus  oele- 
brandi,  III,  7-9) ;  (2)  in  the  public  recital  of  the  Di- 
vine O&CB  as  part  of  the  Preces  at  Prime  (so  that  it  is 
omitted  on  doubles  and  in  octaves),  and  always  in  thq 
befdnning  of  Complin  (Ruhr.  Geo.  Brev.,  Xv,  2,  and 
XVlIIy  l).  As  a  sin^e  form  it  occurs:  (1)  during 
Mass,  a  second  time,  if  anyone  receives  Holy  Com- 
munion besides  the  celebrant;  (2)  when  Holy  Com- 
munion is  given  outside  of  Mass  (Rituale  Rom.,  Tit.  I, 
ch.  ii,  1);  (3)  before  the  administration  of  extreme 
unction  (when  it  may  be  said  in  Latin  or  in  the  vul- 
mr  tongue-^Rituale  Rom.,  Tit.  V,  ch.  ii,  6);  (4)  be- 
fore the  Apostolic  blessing  is  given  to  a  dying  person 
(ibid..  Tit.  V,  oh.  vi,  6) ;  (5)  the  Ritual  further  directs 
that  penitents  should  begin  their  confession  by  saying 
the  Confiteor  either  in  Latin  or  in  their  own  language^ 
or  at  least  bcgjn  with  these  words:  ''Confiteor  Deo 
oranipotenti  et  tihi  jfater*'  (Tit.  Ill,  ch.  i,  14);  (6) 
la^ly  the  ''Cttremoniale  Episcoporum"  ordains  that 
when  a  bishop  sings  high  Mass,  the  deacon  should  sing 
the  Confiteor  after  the  sermon ;  the  preacher  then  reads 
out  t^  Indulgence  given  by  the  bishop,  and  the 
bishop  adds  a  modified  form  of  the  Misereatur  (in 
which  he  ag^  invokes  the  saints  named  in  the  Con«- 
fiteor),  the  Indulgentiam,  and  finally  his  blessing. 
'Ilus  is  the  normal  ceremony  for  the  puolication  of  In* 
dulgences  (Csr-  Episc.,  I,  ch.  xxii,  4;  II,  ch.  xxxix, 

Rtte  of  tsb  Confftbor. — ^The  form  of  words  is  too 
well  known  to  need  Quotation.  When  it,  is  used  as  a 
double  form,  the  celebrant  first  makes  hi?  confession, 
using  the  words  vobia  fratres  and  vos  fratres,  the  serv- 
ers or  ministers  say  the  Misereatur  in  the  singular 
(tui,  peecoHs  tuis),  and  then  make  their  confession  ad- 
dresrad  to  the  priest  (iibi  paler,  te  paler).  He  says  the 
Misereatur  in  the  plural  (Miserealur  veetri,  etc.),  and 
finally,  making  the  sign  of  the  cross,  adds  the  short  - 
prayer  Indulgentiam.  Both  the  Misereatur  and  the 
IndFulgentiam  are  answered  with  ''Amen".  When 
used  as  a  single  form  the  priest's  confession  is  left  out, 
the  deacon,  or  server,  says  the  Confiteor  (^i^^*  paler, 
etc.),  the  eelebrant  responds  with  the  Misereatur  and 
Induigentiam.  A  person  saying  the  prayer  alone  (for 
instar^  in  the  pnvate  recital  of  the  Divine  Office)' 
savB  the  Confiteor  leaving  out  the  clauses  Ubi  pater  or 
vobU  fratres,  etc.,  altogetner,  and  changes  the  answer 
to  Misereatur  noatri  and  peccaiU  nostris.  Before 
Conmiimion  at  high  ^laas  and  before  the  promulga- 
tion of  Indul^nces  the  Confiteor  is  8ungb}[  the  deacon 
to  the  tone  pven  in  the  ''Caoremoniale  Episcoporum" 
(II,  ch.  jcxxix,  I).  The  Misereatur  and  Indulgentiam 
are  never  sung. 

Roman  Musal^  Breviary^  Rilual^  Caremoniale  EpUcoporum, 
loc.  cit.:  Mabillon,  MuMcum  Jtattcum  (Paris,  1689).  loc.  cit.; 
Bona,  Kerum  Liturgujarum  Libri  Duo  (Rome.  1671),  Bk.  II, 
ch.  ii.  pp.  28S-202;  BwamDVST  XIV,  De  SS»  Mium  SaenfUti^, 
Bk.  U,  eh.  UL  4-11;  Cihr,  D<u  heaiaeMeMopfer  (Fmburg  im 
Br..  18W),  IT,  |3VPp.  328-334,  tr.  TKeHoty  Saerific9  of  Uu 
3fa««  (8t.  Louis.  1002).  ADRIAN  PoRTEflCUB. 

OontoimiBta.    Sec  Pi.sskntkrs. 


Oonfratemity  (Lat.  canfratemitae,  catifralria)^  or 
sodality,  a  voluntary  association  of  the  faithful,  es* 
tablished  and  guided  by  competent  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority for  the  promotion  of  sj^ial  works  of  C^istian 
charity  or  piety.  The  oame  is  sometimes  app^ed  to 
pious  unions  (see  Associations,  Pious),  but  the  latter 
diff^  from  ccofratemities  inasmuch  as  they  need  not 
be  canonicall^  erected  and  they  regard  rather  the 
good  of  the  neighboiur  than  the  personal  sanctification 
oi  the  members.  Confraternities  are  divided  into 
those  properiy  so  called  and  those  to  which  the  name 
has  been  extended.  Both  are  erected  by  canonical 
authority,  but  the  former  have  a  more  precise  oigani* 
sation,  with  rights  and  duties  regulated  by  ecclesias- 
tical law,  and  their  memb^oB  ouen  wear  a  peculiar 
costume  and  recite  the  Olfioe  in  common.  When  a 
confraternity  has  received  the  authority  to  aggregate 
to  itself  sodalities  erected  in  other  lenities  and' to 
communicate  its  advantages  io  them,  it  is  called  an 
archconfratemity  (q.  v.)« 

Pious  associations  of  laymen  existed  in  veiy  an* 
cient  times  at  Constantinople  and  Alexandria.  In 
France,  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  the  laws  of 
the  Carloviogians  mention  confraternities  and  guUda. 
But  the  first  confraternity  in  the  modem  and  proper 
sense  of  the  word  is  said  to  have  been  founded  at  Paris 
by  Bishc^  Odo  who  died  in  1208.  It  wss  under  the 
invocation  of  the  Blessed  Vir^  Mary.  Various  other 
con^TOgations,  as  of  the  (jonfalon,  oTthe  Holy  Trinity,, 
of  tne  Scapular,  etc.,  were  founded  between  the 
thirteenth  and  sixteenth  ^nturies.  From  the  latt^ 
centurv  onwards,  these  pious  aaoociations  have 
multiplied  greatly.  Indulgences  are  oommupicated.  to 
confraternities  either  directly  by  the  pope  or  through 
the  bishops,, imless  the  association  be  aggregated  to  sa^ 
archconfratemity  (it  may  not  be  aggregated  to  more 
than  one)  throiuh  which  it  participates  m  the  latter's 
privileges.  If  the  aggregation  be  not  made  according 
to  the  prescriioed  formula,  the  Indulgences  are  not 
communicated.  The  directors  of  oonfratemities  are 
appointed  or  approved  by  the  bishop,  or  in  the 
cnurches  of  reg^ulara  by  the  regular  superior.  Only 
after  such  appointment  can  the  director  applv  the  In- 
dulgences to  the  objects  which  he  blesses,  and  he  can- 
not subdelegate  this  power  without  s^ial  faculty. 
The  reception  of  membeis  must  be  carried  out  by  the 
appointed  person.  The  observance  of  the  rules  is  not 
bmding  in  conscience  nor  does  their  neglect  deprive  a. 
person  of  membership,  thou^  in  the  latter  case  the. 
Indulgences  would  not  be  obtained.  The  loss  of  all  its 
members  for  a  short  time  does  not  dissolve  a  confra^ 
temity,  and  by  the  reception  of  new  members  the  In- 
dulgences may  a^n  be  gained.  The  dissolution, 
translation,  and  visitation  m  conf  raterraties  belong  to 
the  ordinary.  The  canon  law  governing  these  associ- 
ations is  found  in  the  Constitution  of  Clement  VlII 
(7  Dec.,  1604)  with  some  modification  made  later  by 
the  Sacred  Congre^tion  of  Indulgences. 

La^urenttds.  maMuHones  Juria  SccUaiaatici  (FreiburK, 
1003);  Berinokr,  Lea  Indulgences  (Fr.  tr..  Paris.  1005); 
Bouix,  De  Bpiaoi>po  (Paris,  ISSO),  II. 

WlLUAK  H.  W.  Fannikq. 

Ctonfadanism — By  Confucianism  is  meant  the  oom< 
plex  system  of  moral,  social,  political,  and  religious 
teaching  buQt  up  by  Confucius  on  the  ancient  Chinese 
traditions,  and  perpetuated  as  the  State  religion  down 
to  the  present  day.  Confucianism  aims  at  making 
not  simply  the  man  of  virtue,  but  the  man  of  learning 
and  of  good  manners.  The  perfect  man  must  com- 
bine the  qualities  of  saint,  scholar,  and  gentleman. 
Confucianism  is  a  religion  without  positive  revelation, 
with  a  minimum  of  dogmatic  teachmg,  ^hose  popular 
worship  is  centred  in  offerings  to  the  d^id,  in  which 
the  notion  of  duty  is  extended  beyond  the  sphece  of 
morals  proper  so  as  to  embrace,  almost  every  detail 
of  daily  life. 

I.  TiiK  TfcACHEu,  CoNFucHTs. — The  chief  exponent 


OOllfVOlAMtSM 


224 


OOllfOdtAttttM 


of  this  remarkable  religioii  was  K'ung*tsse,  or  K'ang- 
fu-tze,  latinized  by  Uie  eariy  Jesuit  missionaries  into 
Confucius,  Confucius  was  bom  in  551  b.  c,  in  what 
was  then  the  feudal  state  of  Lu,  now  included  In  the 
modem  province  of  Shan-tung.  His  parents,  while 
not  wealthy,  belonged  to  the  superior  class.  His 
father  was  a  warrior,  distinguishcKi  no  less  for  his 
deeds  of  valour  than  for  his  noble  ancestry.  Confu- 
cius was  a  mere  boy  when  his  father  died.  From 
childhood  he  showed  a  great  aptitude  for  study,  and 
though,  in  order  to  support  himself  and  his  mother, 
he  had  to  labour  in  his  early  years  as  a  hired  servant 
in  a  noble  family,  he  managed  to  find  time  to  pursue 
his  favourite  studies.  He  made  such  progress  that  at 
the  age  of  twenty-two  years  he  opened  a  school  to 
which  many  were  attracted  by  the  fame  of  his  learn- 
ing. His  ability  and  faithful  service  merited  for  him 
promotion  to  the  office  of  minister  of  justice.  Under 
his  wise  administration  the  State  attamed  to  a  degree 
of  prosperity  and  moral  order  that  it  had  never  seen 
before.  But  through  the  intrigues  of  rival  states  the 
Marquis  of  Lu  was  led  to  prefer  ignoble  pleasures  to 
the  preservation  of  gooa  government.  Confucius 
tried  by  sound  advice  to  bring  his  liegp  lord  back  to 
the  path  of  duty,  but  in  vain.  He  thereupon  resigned 
his  nigh  position  at  the  cost  of  x>er::>onal  ease  and  com- 
fort, and  left  the  state.  For  thirteen  years,  accom-' 
panied  by  faithful  disciples,  he  went  about  from  one 
state  to  another,  seeking  a  raler  who  would  give  heed 
to  his  eounsels.  Many  were  the  privations  he  suffered. 
More  than  once  he  ran  imminent  risk  of  being  waylaid 
and  killed  by  his  enemies,  but  his  courage  and  confi- 
dence in  the  providential  character  of  his  mission 
never  deserted  him.  At  last  he  returned  to  Lu,  where 
he  spent  the  last  five  years  of  his  long  life  encouraging 
others  to  the  study  and  practice  of  virtue,  and  edify- 
ing all  by  his  noble  example.  He  died  in  the  year 
478  B.  c,  in  the  seventy-fourth  year  of  his  age.  His 
lifetime  almost  exactiy  coincided  with  tlHit  of  Buddha, 
who  died  two  years  eariier  at  the  age  of  ei^ty. 

That  Confucius  possessed  a  noble,  commanding 
personality,  there  can  be  little  doubt.  It  is  shown 
oy  his  recorded  traits  of  character,  by  his  lofty  moral 
teaching,  by  the  high-minded  men  that  he  trained 
to  contmue  his  life-work.  In  their  enthusiastic  love 
and  admiration,  they  declared  him  the  greatest  of 
men,  the  sage  without  flaw,  the  perfect  man.  That 
he  himself  did  not  make  any  p^tension  to  possess 
virtue  and  wisdom  in  their  fullness  is  shown  by  his- 
own  recorded  sayings.  He  was  conscious  of  his  short- 
comings, and  this  consciousness  he  made  no  attempt 
to  keep  concealed.  But  of  his  love  of  virtue  and 
wisdom  there  can  be  no  question.  He  is  described  in 
"Analects",  VII,  18,  as  one  "  who  in  the  eager  pursuit 
of  knowledge,  foi^got  his  food,  and  in  the  joy  of  attain- 
ing to  it  forgot  his  sorrow".  Whatever  in  the  tradi- 
tional records  of  the  past,  whether  history,  lyric  poems, 
or  rites  and  ceremonies,  was  edifying  and  conducive 
to  virtue,  he  sought  out  with  untiring  zeal  and  made 
known  to  his  disciples.  He  was  a  man  of  affectionate 
mature,  sympathetic,  and  most  considerate  towards 
otL^nrs.  He  loved  his  worthy  disciples  dearly,  and 
won  in  turn  their  undying  devotion.  He  was  modest 
and  unaffected  in  his  bearing,  inclined  to  gravity,  yet 
possessing  a  natural  cheerfulness  that  rarely  deserted 
him.  Schooled  to  adversity  from  childhood,  he 
learned  to  find  contentment  and  serenity  of  mind 
even  where  ordinary  comforts  were  lacking.  He  was 
very  fond  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  and  often 
sang,  accompanying  his  voice  with  the  lute.  His 
sense  of-  humour  is  revealed  in  a  criticism  he  once 
made  of  some  boisterous  singing.  "Why  use  an  ox- 
knife",  he  said,  "to  kiU  a  fowl?^' 

Confucius  is  often  hdd  up  as  the  type  of  the  virtu- 
ous man  without  religion.  His  teaehinss,  it  is  alleged, 
were  chiefly  ethical,  in  which  one  looks  in  vain  for 
retribution  in  the  next  life  as  a  sanction  of  right  con- 


duct. Now  an  acquaintance  with  the  ancient  religion 
of  China  and  with  Confucian  texts  reveals  the  empti- 
ness of -the  assertion  that  Confucius  was  devoicl  ol 
religious  thought  and  feeling.  He  was  religious  after 
the  manner  of  religious  men  of  his  age  and  land.  In 
not  appealing  to  rewards  and  punishments  in  the  life 
to  come,  he  was  simply  following  the  example  of  his 
illustrious  Chinese  predecessors^  whose  religiouB  bdief 
did  not  include  tnis  element  of  future  retribution. 
The  Chinese  classics  that  were  ancient  even  in  the 
time  of  Confucius  have  nothing  to  say  of  hdl,  but  have 
much  to  say  of  the  rewards  and  punishments  meted 
out  in  the  present  life  by  the  all-seeing  Heaven. 
There  are  numbers  of  texts  that  show  plainly  that  he 
did  not  depart  from  the  traditional  beLidP  in  the 
supreme  Heaven-god  and  subordinate  spirits,  in 
Divine  providence  and  retribution,  and  in  the  con- 
scious existence  of  souls  after  death.  These  rdigious 
convictions  on  his  part  found  expression  in  many  re- 
corded acts  of  piety  and  worship. 

II.  The  Confucian  Texts. — ^As  Confucianism  in 
its  broad  sense  embraces  not  only  the  immediate 
teaching  of  Confucius,  but  also  the  traditional  records, 
customs,  and  rites  to  which  he  gave  the  sanction  of 
his  approval,  and  which  to-day  rest  largely  upon  his 
authority,  there  are  reckoned  among  me  Confucian 
texts  several  that  even  in  his  day  were  ventt-at^  as 
sacred  heiriooms  of  the  past.  The  texts  are  divided 
into  two  categories,  known  as  the  "King"  (Classics), 
and  the  "Shuh"  (Books).  The  texts  of  the  ''Kmg", 
which  stand  first  in  importance,  are  commonly  reck- 
oned as  five,  but  sometimes  as  six.  Tlie  first  of  these 
is  the  "Shao-kins"  (Book  of  History),  a  religious  and 
moral  work,  tracing  the  hand  of  Providence  m  a  series 
of  great  events  ofpast  history,  and  inculcating  the 
lesson  that  the  Heaven-god  gives  prosperity'  and 
length  of  days  only  to  the  virtuous  ruler  who  has  the 
true  welfare  of  the  people  at  heart.  Its  unity  of 
composition  may  well  bring  its  time  of  publication 
down  to  the  sixth  century  b.  c,  though  the  soureea 
on  which  the  earlier  chapters  are  based  may  be  almost 
contemporaneous  with  the  events  related.  The  sec- 
ond "King"  is  the  so-called  "She-king"  (Book  of 
Songs),  often  spoken  of  as  the  "Odes".  Of  its  305 
short  lyric  poems  some  belong  to  the  time  of  the 
Shang  dynasty  (1766-1123  b.  c),  the  remaining,  and 
perhaps  larger,  part  to  the  first  five  centuries  of  the 
dynasty  of  Chow,  that  is,  down  to  about  600  B.  c. 
The  third  "King"  is  the  so-called  "  Y-king"  (Book  of 
Changes),  an  enigmatic  treatise  on  the  art  of  divining 
with  the  stalks  of  a  native  plant,  which  after  being 
thrown  give  different  indications  according  as  they 
conform  to  one  or  another  of  the  sixty-four  hexagrams 
made  up  of  three  broken  and  three  unbroken  lines. 
The  short  explanations  which  accompany  them,  in 
large  measure  arbitrary  and  fantastic,  are  asdg^ed 
to  tne  time  of  Wan  and  nis  illtistrious  son  Wu,  founders 
of  the  Chow  dynasty  (1122  b.  c).  Since  the  time  of 
Confucius,  the  work  has  been  more  than  doubled  by 
a  series  or  appendixes,  ten  in  number,  of  which  eight 
are  attributed  to  Confucius.  Only  a  smallportion  of 
these,  however,  are  probably  authentic.  "Hie  fourth 
"King"  is  the  " Li-ki"  (Book  of  Rites).  In  its  pres- 
ent form  it  dates  from  the  second  century  of  our  era, 
being  a  compilation  from  a  vast  number  or  documents, 
most  of  which  date  from  the  earlier  part  of  the  Chow 
dynasty.  It  gives  rules  of  conduct  down  to  the  min- 
ute details  for  religious  acts  of  worship,  court  func- 
tions, social  and  family  relations,  dress — ^in  short,  for 
every  sphere  of  human  action.  It  remains  today  the 
authoritative  guide  of  correct  conduct  for  every  culti- 
vated Chinese.  In  the  "Li-ki"  are  many  of  Confu- 
cius's  reputed  sayings  and  two  long  treatises  composed 
by  disciples,  which  may  be  said  to  reflect  with  sub- 
stantial accuracy  the  sayings  and  teachings  of  the 
master.  One  of  these'  is  the  treatise  known  as  the 
"Chung-yung"  (Doctrine  of  the  Mean).    It  forma 


OOMFtrOIANISM 


225 


OOMFTTOIAHISM 


Book  XXVIII  of  the  "Li-ki",  and  is  one  of  its  most 
valuable  treatises.  It  consists  of  a  collection  of  say- 
ixigs  of  Confucius  characterizing  the  man  of^rfect 
virtue.  The  other  treatise,  forming  Book  XXXIX 
of  the  "li-ki",  is  the  stMjalled  ^Ta-hio"  (Great 
Hieaming).  It  purports  to  be  descriptions  of  the 
virtuous  ruler  by  tne  disciple  Tsanc-tze,  based  on 
the  teaching  of  the  master.  The  fifth  "  King"  is  the 
short  historical  treatise  known  as  the  ''Ch'un-ts'ew" 
(Spring  and  Autunm),  said  to  have  been  written  by 
the  hand  of  Cbnfucius  himself.  It  consists  of  a  con- 
nected series  of  bare  annals  of  the  state  of  Lu  for  the 
years  722-484  b.  c.  To  these  five  "Kings"  belongs 
a  sixth,  the  so-called  "Hiao-kin^"  (Book  of  Filial 
Piety).  The  Chinese  attribute  its  composition  to 
Confucius,  but  in  the  opinion  of  critical  scholars,  it 
is  the  product  of  the  school  of  his  disciple,  Tbang- 
tze. 

Mention  has  just  been  made  of  the  two  treatises, 
the  ** Doctrine  of  the  Mean"  and  the  "Great  Learn- 
ing", embodied  in  the  "Li-ki".  In  the  eleventh 
centuiy  of  our  era,  these  two  works  were  united  with 
other  Confucian  texts,  constituting  what  is  known  as 
the  "Sze^huh"  (Four  Books).  First  of  these  is  the 
**  Lun-yu"  (Analects).  It  is  a  work  in  twenty  short 
chapters,  showing  what  manner  of  man  Confucius 
-wsiB  in  his  daily  life,  and  recording  many  of  his  strik- 
ing sayings  on  moral  and  historical  topics.  It  seems 
to  embo^  the  authentic  testimony  of  his  disciples 
iimtten  by  one  of  the  next  generation. 

The  second  place  in  the  **Shuh"  is  given  to  the 
"Book  of  Mencius".  Mencius  (Meng-tze),  was  not 
an  immediate  disciple  of  the  master.  He  lived  a  cen- 
tury later.  He  acquired  great  fame  as  an  exponent 
of  Confucian  teaching.  His  sayings,  chiefly  on  moral 
topics,  were  treasured  up  by  disciples,  and  published 
in  nis  name.  Third  and  fourth  in  order  of  the  "  Shuh  " 
come  the  "Great  Learning"  and  the  "Doctrine  of  the 
Mean". 

For  our  earliest  knowledge  of  the  contents  of  these 
Confucian  texts,  we  are  indebted  to  thepainstaking 
researches  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in  China  during 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  who,  with 
an  heroic  zeal  for  the  spread  of  Christ's  kingdom 
united  a  diligence  and  proficiency  in  the  study  of 
Chinese  customs,  literature,  and  history  ihat  nave 
laid  succeeding  scholars  under  lasting  obligation. 
Among  these  we  may  mention  Fathers  Pr^mare, 
R^gis,  Lacharme,  Gaubil,  Noel,  Ignacio  da  Costa,  by 
whom  most  of  the  Confucian  texts  were  translated 
and  elucidated  with  great  erudition.  It  was  but  nat- 
ural that  their  pioneer  studies  in  so  difficult  a  field 
should  be  destined  to  give  place  to  the  more  accurate 
and  complete  monuments  of  modem  scholarship.  But 
even  here  they  have  worthy  representatives  in  such 
scholars  as  Father  Zottoli  and  Henri  Cordier,  whose 
Chinese  studies  give  evidence  of  vast  erudition.  The 
Confucian  texts  nave  been  made  available  to  English 
readers  by  Professor  Legge.  Besides  his  monumen- 
tal work  in  seven  volumes,  entitled  "The  Chinese 
Classics"  and  his  version  of  the  "Ch'un  ts'ew",  he  has 
given  the  reviwed  translations  of  the  "Shuh",  "She", 
^Ta-hio",  **¥",  and  "Li-Ki"  in  Volumes  III,  XVI, 
XXVII,  and  XXVIII  of  "The  Sacred  Books  of  the 
East". 

ni.  Th«  Doctrine. — (a)  Religious  Groundwork. 
— ^The  religion  of  ancient  China,  to  which  Confucius 
gave  his  reverent  adhesion  was  a  form  of  nature- 
worship  very  closely  approaching  to  monotheism. 
While  numerous  spirits  associated  with  natural  phe- 
nomena were  recognized — spirits  of  mountains  and 
rivers,  of  land  and  grain,  of  the  four  quarters  of  the 
heavens,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars — th^  were  all  sub- 
ordinated to  the  supreme  Heaven-god,  T*ien  (Heaven) 
abo  called  Ti  (Lord),  or  Shan^-ti  (Supreme  Lord). 
A.U  other  spirits  were  but  his  ministers,  acting  in  obedi- 
ence to  hiB  will.  T'ien  was  the  upholder  of  the  moral 
IV— 15 


law,  exercising  a  benign  providence  over  men.  Noth- 
ing done  in  secret  comd  escape  his  all-seeing  eye.  His 
punishment  for  evil  deeds  took  the  form  either  of 
calamities  and  early  death,  or  of  misfortune  laid  up 
for  the  children  of  the  evil-doer.  In  numerous  passages 
of  the  "Shao-"  and  "She-kin^",  we  find  this  befief 
asserting  itself  as  a  motive  to  ripht  conduct.  That  it 
was  not  ignored  by  Confucius  himself  is  shown  by  his 
recorded  saying,  that  "he  who  offends  against 
Heaven  has  no  one  to  whom  he  can  pray".  Another 
ouasi-religious  motive  to  the  practice  of  virtue  wsa 
tne  belief  that  the  souls  of  the  departed  relatives  were 
largely  dependent  for  their  happiness  on  the  conduct 
of  their  living  descendants.  It  was  taught  that  chil- 
dren owed  it  as  a  duty  to  their  dead  parents  to  con- 
tribute to  their  glory  and  happiness  by  lives  of  virtue. 
To  judge  from  the  sayings  of  Confucius  that  have  been 
preserved,  he  did  not  disregard  these  motives  to  right 
conduct,  but  he  laid  chief  stress  on  the  love  of  virtue 
for  its  own  sake.  The  principles  of  morality  and 
their  concrete  application  to  the  varied  relations  of 
life  were  embodied  in  the  sacred  texts,  which  in  turn 
represented  the  teachings  of  the  great  sages  of  thepast 
raised  up  by  Heaven  to  instruct  mankind.  Tnese 
teachings  were  not  inspired,  nor  were  they  revealed, 
yet  they  were  infallible.  The  sages  were  bom  with 
wisdom  meant  by  Heaven  to  enlighten  the  children  of 
men.  It  was  thus  a  wisdom  that  was  providential, 
rather  than  supernatural.  The  notion  ot  Divine  posi- 
tive revelation  is  absent  from  the  Chinese  texts.  To 
follow  the  path  of  duty  as  laid  down  in  the  authorita- 
tive rules  of  conduct  was  within  the  reach  of  all  men, 
Erovided  that  their  nature,  good  at  birth,  was  not 
opelessly  spoiled  by  vicious  influences.  Confucius 
held  the  traditional  view  that  all  men  are  bom  pood. 
Of  an^hing  like  original  sin  there  is  not  a  trace  m  his 
teaching.  He  seems  to  have  failed  to  recognize  even 
the  existence  of  vicious  hereditary  tendencies.  In  his 
view,  what  spoiled  men  was  bad  environment,  evil 
example,  an  inexcusable  yielding  to  evil  appetites 
that  everyone  by  right  use  of  his  natural  powers  could 
and  ought  to  control.  Moral  downfall  caused  by 
suggestions  of  evil  spirits  had  no  place  in  his  system. 
Nor  is  there  any  notion  of  Divine  grace  to  strengthen 
the  will  and  enlighten  the  mind  in  the  struggle  with 
evil.  There  are  one  or  two  allusions  to  prayer,  but 
nothing  to  show  that  daily  prayer  was  reconunended 
to  the  aspirant  after  perfection. 

(b)  Helps  to  Virtue. — In  Confucianism  the  helps  to 
the  cultivation  of  virtue  are  natural  amd  providential, 
nothing  more.  But  in  this  development  of  moral 
perfection  Confucius  sought  to  enkindle  in  others  the 
enthusiastic  love  of  virtue  that  he  felt  himself.  To 
make  oneself  as  good  as  possible,  this  was  with  him 
the  main  business  of  life.  Everything  that  was  con- 
ducive to  the  practice  of  goodness  was  to  be  eagerly 
sought  andmaae  use  of.  To  this  end  right  knowledge 
was  to  be  held  indispensable.  Like  Socrates,  Con- 
fucius taught  that  vice  sprang  from  ignorance  and 
that  knowledge  led  unfailingly  to  virtue.  The  knowl- 
edge on  whicn  he  insisted  was  not  purely  scientific 
learning,  but  an  edifying  acquaintance  with  the  sacred 
texts  and  the  rules  of  virtue  and  propriety.  Another 
factor  on  which  he  laid  great  stress  was  the  influence 
of  good  example.  He  loved  to  hold  up  to  the  admira- 
tion of  his  disciples  the  heroes  and  sages  of  the  past, 
an  acquaintance  with  whose  noble  de^s  and  sayings 
he  sought  to  promote  by  insisting  on  the  study  of  the 
ancient  classics.  Many  of  his  recorded  saymss  are 
eulogies  of  these  valiant  men  of  virtue.  Nor  did  he 
fail  to  recognize  the  value  of  good,  high-minded  eom- 
panions.  His  motto  was,  to  associate  with  the  truly 
great  and  to  make  friends  of  the  most  virtuous.  Be- 
sides association  with  the  good,  Confucius  urged  on 
his  disciples  the  importance  of  always  welcoming  the 
fraternal  correction  of  one's  faults.  Then,  too,  the 
daily  examination  of  conscience  was  inculcated.     As 


ooKmoumsM 


226 


OONFUOUmSM 


a  further  aid  to  the  fonnation  of  a  virtuous  character, 
he  valued  highlv  a  certain  amount  of  self-discipline. 
He  recognized  tne  danger,  especially  in  the  young,  of 
falling  into  habits  of  softness  and  love  of  ease.  Hence 
he  insisted  on  a  virile  indifference  to  effeminate  com- 
forts. In  the  art  of  music  he  also  recognized  a  pow- 
erful aid  to  enkindle  enthusiasm  for  the  practice  of  vir- 
tue. He  taught  his  pupils  the  ''Odes"  and  other 
edifying  songs,  which  they  sang  together  to  the  ac- 
companiment of  lutes  and  narps.  Tnis  together  with 
the  magnetism  of  his  personal  influence  lent  a  strong 
emotional  quality  to  his  teaching. 

(c)  Fundamental  Virtues. — Aa  a  foundation  for 
the  life  of  perfect  goodness,  Confucius  insisted  chiefly 
on  the  four  virtues  of  sincerity,  benevolence,  filial 
piety,  and  propriety.  Sincerity  was  with  him  a  car- 
dinal virtue.  As  used  by  him  it  meant  more  than  a 
mere  social  relation.  To  be  truthful  and  straight- 
forward in  speech,  faithful  to  one's  promises,  consci- 
entious in  the  dischar^  of  one's  duties  to  others — 
this  was  included  in  smcerity  and  something  more. 
The  sincere  man  in  Confucius's  eyes  was  the  man  whose 
conduct  was  always  based  on  the  love  of  virtue,  and 
who  in  consequence  sought  to  observe  the  rules  of 
right  conduct  m  his  heart  as  well  as  in  outward  actions, 
when  alone  as  well  as  in  the  presence  of  others. 
Benevolence,  showing  itself  in  a  kmdly  regard  for  the 
welfare  of  others  and  in  a  readiness  to  help  them  in 
times  of  need,  was  also  a  fundamental  element  in  Con- 
fucius's  teaching.  It  was  viewed  as  the  characteri»- 
tic  trait  of  the  good  man.  Mencius,  the  illustrious 
exponent  of  Confucianism,  has  the  remarkable  state- 
ment: "Benevolence  is  man"  (VII,  16).  In  the  say- 
ings of  Confucius  we  find  the  Golden  Rule  in  its  nega- 
tive form  enunciated  several  times.  In  "Analects", 
XV,  13,  we  read  that  when  a  disciple  asked  him  for  a 
guiding  principle  for  all  conduct,  the  master  an- 
swered: "Is  not  mutual  goodwill  such  a  principle? 
What  you  do  not  want  done  to  yourself,  do  not  do  to 
others".  This  is  strikingly  like  the  form  of  the  Golden 
Rule  foimd  m  the  first  chapter  of  the  "  Teaching  of  the 
Apostles" — "All  things  soever  that  you  wo3d  not 
have  done  to  yourself,  do  not  do  to  another";  also  in 
Tobias,  iv,  16,  where  it  appears  for  the  first  time  in 
Sacred  Scripture.  He  did  not  approve  the  principle 
held  by  Lao-tze  that  injury  should  be  repaid  with 
kindness.  His  motto  was  "Reauite  injury  with  jus- 
tice, and  kindness  with  kindness'*  (Analects,  XIV,  36). 
He  seems  to  have  viewed  the  question  from  the  prac- 
tical and  legal  standpoint  of  social  order.  "  To  repay 
kindness  with  kindness",  he  says  elsewhere,  "acts  as 
in  encouragement  to  the  people.  To  requite  injury 
^ith  injury  acts  as  a  warning"  (Li-ki,  XXIX,  11). 
rhe  third  fundamental  virtue  in  the  ConJfucian  system 
is  filial  piety.  In  the  "Hiao-king'*,  Confucius  is  re- 
corded as  saying:  "Filial  piety  is  the  root  of  all  vir- 
tue."— "Of  all  the  actions  of  man  there  are  none 
greater  than  those  of  filial  piety."  To  the  Chinese 
then  as  now,  filial  piety  prompted  the  son  to  love  and 
respect  his  parents,  contribute  to  their  comfort,  bring 
happiness  and  honour  to  their  name,  by  honourable 
success  in  life.  But  at  the  same  time  it  carried  that 
devotion  to  a  degree  that  was  excessive  and  faulty. 
In  consequence  of  the  patriarchal  system  there  pre- 
vailing, filial  piety  included  the  obligation  of  sons  to 
live  after  marriage  under  the  same  roof  with  the  father 
and  to  give  him  a  childlike  obedience  as  long  as  he 
lived.  The  will  of  the  parents  was  declared  to  be 
supreme  even  to  the  extent  that  if  the  son's  wife  failed 
to  please  them  he  was  obliged  to  divorce  her,  though  it 
cut  him  to  the  heart.  If  a  dutiful  son  found  himself 
compelled  to  admonish  a  wayward  father  he  was 
taught  to  give  the  correction  with  the  utmost  meek- 
ness; though  the  parent  might  beat  him  till  the  blood 
flowed  he  was  not  to  show  any  resentment.  The 
father  did  not  forfeit  his  right  to  filial  respect,  no 
matter  how  great  his  wickedness.    Another  virtue  of 


prunary  imi}ortance  in  the  Confucian  system  is  "pro- 
priety' .  It  embraces  the  whole  sphere  of  human 
conduct,  prompting  the  superior  man  always  to  do  the 
right  thins  in  the  right  place.  It  finds  expression  in 
the  so-called  rules  of  ceremony,  which  are  not  con- 
fined to  relieious  rites  and  rules  of  moral  conduct,  but 
extend  to  the  bewildering  mass  of  conventional  cus- 
toms and  usages  by  which  Chinese  eticjuette  is  regu- 
lated.  They  were  distinguished  even  m  Confuciua's 
day  by  the  three  hundred  greater,  and  the  three  thou- 
sand lesser,  rules  of  ceremony,  all  of  which  had  to  be 
carefully  learned  as  a  guide  to  right  conduct.  The 
conventional  usages  as  well  ajB  the  rules  of  moral  con- 
duct brought  with  them  the  sense  of  obligation  resting 
f)rimarily  on  the  authority  of  the  sage-kings  and  in  the 
ast  analysis  on  the  will  of  Heaven.  To  neglect  or 
deviate  from. them  was  equivalent  to  an  act  of  im- 
piety. 

(d)  Rites. — In  the  "Li-ki",  the  chief  ceremonial  ob- 
servances are  declared  to  be  six:  capping,  marriage, 
mourning  rites,  sacrifices,  feasts,  and  interviews.  It 
will  be  enough  to  treat  briefly  of  the  first  four.  They 
have  persisted  with  little  change  down  to  the  present 
day.  Capping  was  a  j  oyous  ceremony,  wherein  the  son 
was  honoured  on  reachmg  his  twentieth  year.  In  the 
presence  of  relatives  and  invited  guests,  the  father 
conferred  on  his  son  a  special  name  and  a  square  cor- 
nered ca^p  as  distinguishmp  marks  of  his  mature  man- 
hood. It  was  accompamed  with  a  feast.  The  nmr- 
riage  ceremony  was  of  great  importance.  To  marry 
with  the  view  of  having  male  children  was  a  gmve 
duty  on  the  part  of  every  son.  This  was  necessary  to 
keep  up  the  patriarchal  system  and  to  provide  for  an- 
cestral worship  in  after  years.  The  rule  as  laid  down 
in  the  "Li-ki"  was,  that  a  young  man  should  manyat 
the  age  of  thirty  and  a  young  woman  at  twenty.  The 
proposal  and  acceptance  pertained  not  to  the  young 
parties  directly  interested,  but  to  their  parents.  The 
preliminary  arrangements  were  made  by  a  go-be- 
tween after  it  was  ascertained  by  divination  that  the 
signs  of  the  proposed  union  were  auspicious.  The 
parties  could  not  be  of  the  same  surname,  nor  related 
within  the  fifth  degree  of  kindred.  On  the  day  of  the 
wedding  the  young  groom  in  his  best  attire  came  to  the 
house  of  the  bride  and  led  her  out  to  his  carriage^  in 
which  she  rode  to  his  father's  home.  There  he  re- 
ceived her,  surroimded  by  the  joyous  guests.  Cups 
improvised  by  cutting  a  melon  in  halves  were  filled 
with  sweet  spirits  and  nanded  to  the  bride  and  groom. 
By  taking  a  sip  from  each,  they  signified  that  they 
were  united  in  wedlock.  The  bride  thi^s  became  a 
member  of  the  family  of  her  parents-in-law,  subject, 
like  her  husband,  to  their  authority.  Monogamy  was 
encouraged  as  the  ideal  condition,  but  the  mainte- 
nance of  secondary  wives  known  as  concubines  was 
not  forbidden.  It  was  recommended  when  the  true 
wife  failed  to  bear  male  children  and  was  too  much 
loved  to  be  divorced.  There  were  seven  causes 
justifying  the  repudiation  of  a  wife  besides  infidelity, 
and  one  of  these  was  the  absence  of  male  offspring. 
The  mourning  rites  were  likewise  of  supreme  impor- 
tance. Their  e^mosition  takes  up  the  greater  part  of 
the  "Li-ki".  They  were  most  elaborate,  varying 
greatly  in  details  and  length  of  observance,  according 
to  the  rank  and  relationship  of  the  deceased.  The 
mourning  rites  for  the  father  were  the  most  impressive 
of  all.  For  the  first  three  days,  the  son,  clad  m  sack- 
cloth of  coarse  white  hemp,  fasted,  and  leaped,  and 
wailed.  After  the  burial,  for  which  there  were  minute 
prescriptions,  the  son  had  to  wear  the  mourning  sack- 
cloth for  twenty-seven  months,  emaciating  his  body 
with  scanty  food,  and  living  in  a  rude  hut  erected  for 
the  purpose  near  the  grave.  In  the  "Analects^*,  Con- 
fucius is  said  to  have  condemned  with  indignation  the 
suggestion  of  a  disciple  that  the  period  of  the  mourn- 
ine  rites  might  well  be  shortened  to  one  year.  An- 
other class  of  rites  of  supreme  importance  were  the 


OOMFU0IAIIISM 


227 


ooMrmnAHiSM 


aacnfiui».  They  are  repeatedly  tuuuUoiied  in  the 
Gonfueian  texts,  where  iaatructioxis  are  giveafor  their 
proper  celebration.  From  the  Chinese  notion  of  sacri- 
Bee  the  idea  of  propitiation  through  blood  is  entirely 
abaenl.  It  is  nothing  more  than  a  food-offering  ex- 
presaing  th^  reverent  homage  of  the  worshippers,  a 
aoleom  ieaet  to  do  honour  to  the  spirit  guests,  who  are 
invited  and  are  thought  to  enjoy  the  entertainment. 
Meat  and  drink  of  great  variety  are  provided.  There  is 
also  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  and  pantomimio 
danciniS.  The  officiating  ministers  are  not'  priests, 
but  heads  of  families,  the  feudal  lords,  and  above  all, 
the  king.    There  is  no  priesthood  in  Confucianism. 

The  worship  of  the  people  at  large  is  practically 
confined  to  the  so-called  ancestor-worship.  Some 
think  it  is  hardly  proper  to  call  it  worship,  consisting 
as  it  does  of  feasts  m  honour  of  dead  relatives.  In  the 
days  of  Confucius,  as  at  present,  there  was  in  eveiy 
family  home,  from  Uie  palace  of  the  king  himself  down 
to  the  humble  cabin  of  the  peasant,  a  chamber  or 
closet  oalled  the  ancestral  shnne,  where  wooden  tab- 
lets were  revecently  kept,  inscribed  with,  the  names  of 
deceased  parents,  graoaparents,  and  more  remote 
ancestors.  At  stated  intervals  offerings  of  fruit, 
wine,  and  OQoked  meats  were  set  before  tiiese  tablets, 
whidik  the  ancestral  spirits  were  fancied  to  make  their 
tempoiaiy  resting^placa  There  was,  besides,  a  pub- 
lic honouring  by  each  local  clan  of  the  common  ances- 
tors tmoe  a  yepa,  in  spring  and  autumn.  This  was  an 
elaborate  banquet  with  music  and  solemn  dances,  to 
which  the  dead  ancestors  were  summoned,  and  in 
which  they  were  believed  to  participate  along  with  the 
livij^;  membeis  of  the  clan.  More  elaborate  and  mag- 
nificent still  were  the  great  triennial  and  quinquennial 
feasts  given  by  the  King  to.  his  ^ostly  ancestors. 
This  feasting  of  the  dead  by  famihes  and  clans  was 
restricted  to  ouch  as  were  united  with  the  living  by 
ties  of  relationship.  There  were,  however,  a  few 
puWe  beoefactors  whose  memory  was  revered  by  all 
the  people  and  to  whom  offerings  of  food  were  niade.. 
Confuctua  himself  came  be.  to  honoured  after  death, 
being  regarded  as  the  neatest  of  public  benefactors. 
£vea  to-day  in  China  tnjs  religious  veneration  of  the 
master  is  faithfully  maintained.  In  the  Imperial 
College  in  Peking  there  is  a  shrine  where  the  tablets  of 
Oonfuctus  and  his  principal  disciples  are  preserved. 
Twice  a  year,  in  spring  and  autumn,  the  emperor  goes 
there  in  state  and  solemnly  presents  foooToffenngs 
with  a  pnayerf  ul  address  es^pressing  his  gratitude  and 
devotion. 

In  the  fourth  book  of  the  "Lirki"  reference  is  made 
to  the  sacrifices  which  the  people  were  accustomed  to 
offer  to  the  ''spirits  of  the  ground",  that  is  to  the 
spirits  presidine  over  the  local  fields.  In  the  worship 
of  spirits  of  higher  rank,  however,  the  people  seem  to 
have  taken  no  active  part.  This  was  the  concern  of 
their  highest  repieeentatives,  the  feudal  lords  and  the 
king.  Each  feudal  lord  offered  sacrifice  for  himself 
ana  his  subjects  to  the  subordinate  spirits  supposed 
to  have  especial  eare  of  his  territory.  It  was  tne  pre- 
rogative .of  the  king  alone  to  sacnfice  to  the  spirits, 
both  great  and  small,  oi  the  whole  realm,  particularly 
to  Heaven  and  Earth.  Several  sacrifices  of  this  kind 
were  offered  ev^y  year.  The  most  important  were 
those  at  the  winter  and  summer  solstice  in  which 
Heaven  and  Earth  were  respectively  worshipped.  To 
account  for  this  anomaly  we  must  bear  in  mind  that 
eamfice,  as  viewed  by  the  Chinese,  is  a  feast  to  the 
spirit  guests,  and  that  according  to  their  notion  of 
propriety  the  highest  deities  should  be  feted  only  by 
the  highest  representatives  of  the  living,  They  saw 
a  fitness  in  the  custom  that  only  the  king,  the  Son  of 
Heaven,  should,  in  his  own  bdbalf  and  in  behalf  of  his 
people,  nuilce  «ol^nn  offering  to  Heaven.  And  so  it  is 
to-<UQr,  -The  sacrificial  woi^iip  of  Heaven  and  Earth 
is  oeldl[^rated  only  by  the  emperor,  with  the  assistance, 
indeed,  of  a  small  array  of  attendants,  and  with  a 


mugjuificcuce  of  ceremonial  that  is  n^tonlbihlng  to  be* 
hold.  To  pray  privately  to  Heaven  and  burn  incense 
to  him  was  a  Intimate  way  for  the  individual  to  show 
his. piety  to  the  highest  deity,  and  this  is  still  prac> 
tised,  fisneraHyat  the  full  moon. 

(e)  Politics. — Confucius  knew  but  one  form  of  gov- 
ernment, the  traditional  monarchy  of  his  native  land. 
It  was  the  extension  of  the  patriarchal  system  to  the 
entire  nation.  The  king  exercised  an  absolute  au- 
thority over  his  subjects,  as  the  father  over  his  chil- 
dren. He  ruled  by  right  Divine.  He  was  providen- 
tially set  up  by  Heaven  to  enlighten  the  people  by 
wise  laws  and  to  lead  them  to  jg;oodnes8  by  his  example 
and  authority.  Hence  his  title,  the  "  Son  of  Heaven ". 
To  merit  this  title  he  should  reflect  the  virtue  of 
Heaven.  It  was  onlv  the  high-minded  king  that  won 
Heaven's  favour  and  was  rewarded  with  prosperity. 
The  unworthy  king  lost  Divine  assistance  and  came  to 
naught.  The  Confucian  texts  abound  in  lessons  and 
warnings  on  this  subject  of  right  ^vemment.  The 
value  01  good  example  in  the  ruler  is  emphasi2ed  most 
strongly.  The  principle  is  asserted  again  and  again, 
that  the  people  cannot  fail  to  practise  virtue  and  to 
prosper  when  the  ruler  sets  the  high  example  of  right 
conctuct.  On  the  other  hand  the  implication  is  con- 
veyed in  more  than  one  place  that  when  crime  and 
misery  aboimd,  the  cause  is  to  be  sought  in  the  un- 
worthy king  and  his  unprincipled  ministers. 

IV.  History  of  Confucianism. — It  is  doubtless 
this  uncompromising  attitude  of  Confucianism  to- 
wards vicious  self-seeking  rulers  of  the  people  that  all 
but  caused  its  extinction  towards  the  end  of  the  third 
century  b.  c.  In  the  year  213  b.  c,  the  subverter  of 
the  Chow  dynasty,  Shi  Hwang-ti,  promulgated  the 
decree  that  all  Confucian  books,  excepting  the  ''Y- 
king",  should  be  destroyed.  The  penalty  of  death 
was  threatened  against  all  scholars  who  should  be 
found  possessing  the  proscribed  books  or  teaching 
them  to  others.  Hundreds  of  Confucian  scholars 
would  not  comply  with  the  edict,  and  were  buried 
alive.  When  the  repeal  came  under  the  Han  dynasty, 
in  191  B.  c,  the  work  of  extermination  was  wellnigh 
complete.  Gradually,  however,  copies  more  or  less 
damaged  were  brought  to  light,  and  the  Confucian 
texts  were  restored  to  their  place  of  honour.  Generar 
tions  of  spholars  have  devoted  their  best  years  to  the 
elucidation  of  the  **King"  and  "Shuh",  with  the  re- 
sult that  an  enormous  literature  has  clustered  around 
them.  As  the  State  religion  of  China,  Confuciamam 
has  exercised  a  profound  influence  on  the  life  of  the 
nation.  This  influence  has  been  little  affected  by  the 
lower  classes  of  Taoism  and  Buddhism,  both  of  which, 
as  popular  cults,  begsm  to  flourish  in  China  towards 
the  end  of  the  first  century  of  oar  era.  In  the  gross 
idolatry  of  these  cults  the  ignorant  found  a  satisfao^ 
tion  for  their  religious  cravings  that  was  not  afforded 
bv  the  religion  of  the  State.  But  in  thus  embracing 
I'aoism  and  Buddhism  they  did  not  cease  to  be  Confu- 
cianists.  These  cults  were  and  are  nothing  more  than 
accretions  on  the  Confucian  beliefs  and  customs  of  the 
lower  classes,  forms  of  popular  devotion  clinging  like 
parasites  to  the  ancestral  religion.  The  educated 
Chinese  despises  both  Buddhist  and  Taoist  supersti- 
tions. But  while  nominally  professing  Confucianism 
pure  and  simple,  not  a  few  hold  rationalistic  views 
regarding  the  spirit  world.  In  number  the  Conf  ucian- 
ists  amount  to  about  tiiroe  hundred  millions. 

V.  Confucianism  versus  .  Christian  Civiliza- 
TiONt — In  Confucianism  there  is  much  to  admire.  It 
has  taught  a  noble  conception  of  the  supreme  lieayeu- 
god.  It  has  inculcated  a  remarkably  high  standard 
of  morality.  It  has  promoted,  as  far  as  it  knew  how, 
the  refining  influence  of  Literary  education  and  of  po- 
lite conduct.  But  it  stands  to-day  encumbered  with 
the  serioiB  defects  that  characterize  the  imperfect 
civilization  of  its  early  development.  The  associa-^ 
tion  of  T'ien  with  innumerable  nature-spirits,  spirits 


OONOO 


228 


OOHOO 


of  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  of  hills  and  fields  and  rivers, 
the  supeistitious  use  of  divination  by  means  of  stalks 
and  tortoise  shells,  and  the  crude  notion  that  the 
higher  spirits,  together  with  the  souls  of  the  dead,  are 
regaled  ov  splendid  banquets  and  food-offering,  can- 
not stana  tne  test  of  mtelligent  modem  cnticism. 
Nor  can  a  religion  answer  fully  to  the  leli^ous  needs 
of  the  heart  which  withdraws  from  the  active  partici- 
pation of  the  people  the  solemn  worship  of  the  deity, 
which  has  little  use  of  prayer,  which  recognii^  no 
such  thing  as  grace,  which  has  no  definite  teaching  in 
regard  to  the  future  life.  As  a  social  system  it  has 
lifted  the  Chinese  to  an  intermediate  grade  of  culture, 
but  has  blocked  for  ages  all  further  progress.  In  its 
rigid  insistence  on  rites  and  customs  that  tend  to  per- 
petuate the  patriarchal  system  with  its  attendant 
evils  of  polygamy  and  divorce,  of  excessive  seclusion 
and  repression  of  women,  of  an  undue  hampering  of 
indiviaual  freedom,  Comucianism  stands  in  painful 
contrast  with  progressive  Christian  civilization. 

Leooe,  Tht  TAf  r  ,  I'  rrj  (7  voh.,  London.  1861-^Tt); 
Xi^CiilL,  Tne  Shu  A   ■  ',   >vi'fi(7,  and  Hftifict  Kifif^  in  Sacn^d 

BctioJb  of  the  ErUfl,  III:  Idi^m,  The  Vi  Kinti,  lititl.,  X\l; 
Xi>i:ii,  The  Li  Chi,  ibid.,  XXVII,  XXVI 11:  Jenmso6.  The 
Confucian  AnaUct*  (London^  1895);  pE  Haiii^ez.  Vt'-Jtin^ 
(P^ru,  1886):  ItiEW,  /-/»  (Paiifl,  1890>{  Calleut,  Li  Xj,  etu 
MAfional  dw  riifjf  (Ttmn.  1853);;  Zottou,  Li  Ki  in  Cttrtus 
IdtUfuiti-rs  Siaunt  iShanifhAi.  1S»0>;  PiiiLAa^RKH  I^  Yi-Kinff 
In  AnnaleM  rfw  Mi^^f  GuimH,  VI H.  XX lit;  I^eoqe,  Thf  Ri^- 
ligioTis  of  China,  Confut:uin(^in  arid  Taoiwnt  compnTtd  witSt  Chria-^ 
tianitif  (Locdon  IKSOj  ;  F^deb,  A  Suttr-matic  Dtfffitt  &f  ih* 
Boefmiet  of  CmduciuM^  ir.  by  vos  MrtLLUNDonF  t  Hong -Kong, 
IS75);  KinKJ,  Etkita  of  Confuidta  tTokio,  IWl  t>;  UlbtAp  Con- 
fudaniim  m  iha  iVtnj^lwnM  Cimturj/  in  Grrai  Rcfigiantt  of  lh€ 
W^d  (New  Voj-k,  1901);  DoytjLAJi,  Confticiam*m  und  Ttm^m 
(London,  18971-  Dvohak,  Chitta^n  Ertigumm,  Conjuring  umi 
«in*  Lfhrc  (Milnjitcr,  1885);  Vl\tu.  ConfvriitM  uiij  mitw 
Sehiil^  (Munich .  187 1);  de  Ghoot,  The  H^H^om  SyMtan  of 
China  (a  voia..  Leyden,  1^2-93^;  nc  Hahlez,  Arj  w^%gvm*  de 
l4i  Chme  (PlariSj  ISQJ):  de  la  Sa^jissati?:,  L,hrh.  dtT  Rttitnorui' 
fffsdiichu  (Frcibuix.  1005^ »  L 

Charles  F.  Aiken. 

QoTLgOt  DiocBSB  OF.    See  Angola  and  Congo. 

Congo  Independent  State  and  Oongfo  Bfisdona. 

[Editor's  Note: — ^The  following  account  of  the 
Congo  Independent  State  was  written  before  the  an- 
nexation of  the  State  by  the  Belgian  Government. 
Bel^um's  right  to  take  over  the  C^ngo  and  the  suc- 
cessive steps  which  have  led  up  to  the  annexation 
wiU  be  found  treated  under  sections  II  and  VII. 
On  20  August,  1908,  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  ap- 
proved the  treaty  of  annexation,  and  on  9  September 
following  the  treaty  was  adopted  by  the  Belgian 
Senate.  By  this  agreement  iAie  Belgian  Government 
took  over  the  Independent  State,  including  the  Do- 
maine  de  la  Couronne,  with  all  its  rights  and  obliga- 
tions. Among  other  trusts  the  Government  guaran- 
teed certain  aUowanoes  to  Prince  Albert  and  Princess 
Clementine  and  created  two  funds,  one  of  $9,100,000 
to  be  expended  in  Bdgium  for  public  works,  and  an- 
other of  $10,000,000  to  be  paid  to  the  king  and  his 
successors  in  fifteen  annuities  and  used  for  objects  con- 
nected with  the  Congo. 

The  present  article  deals  with  the  Independent  State 
— both  in  its  interior  organization  and  international 
position — as  it  was  down  to  the  time  of  annexation.] 

I.  Exploration;  Fottndino  of  the  State. — Amer- 
ica has  not  been  without  a  share  in  the  discovery  of  the 
Congo  Free  State.    It  was  James  Gordon  Bennett,  the 

?roprietor  of  the  '*New  Yoric  Herald",  who  (October, 
879)engaged  (Sir)  Henry  Morton  Stanley  to  imdertake 
his  voyage  through  Afnca  to  find  the  lost  explorer, 
David  Livinratone.  Americans,  therefore,  may  claim 
a  part  in  the  nonour  of  a  discovery  which  has  changed 
our  ^graphical  notions  and  opened  a  new  country  to 
civilization.  Congo  had  been  considered  an  arid,  unin- 
habited desert;  Stanley  found  there  rich  forests,  an 
immense  river,  vast  lakes,  and  millions  of  human  be- 
ings to  be  civilized.  Further,  the  United  States  was 
the  first  Power  (22  April,  1884)  that  recognized  the 


flag  of  the  Intemational  Association  as  that  of  a 
friendly  state.  There  are  (1908)  in  Africa  four  Congo 
States:  the  French,  German,  Portuguese,  and  the  In- 
dependent, or  Free,  State.  It  is  this  last  which,  more 
than  the  o&ers,  deserves  piuticular  attention.  It  was 
here  that  the  plenipotentiaries,  gathered  at  Beriin 
(24  Feb.,  1885),  hoped  to  see  realized  their  ideal  of 

Snerous  freedom  and  civilizing  humanity.  Leopold 
ascended  the  throne  of  Belgium  in  1865.  A  man  of 
undoubted  genius  and  erudition,  of  large  ideas  and 
tenacioui^  wul,  he  was  also  inspired  with  great  aml»- 
tions.  Even  before  becoming  king,  in  his  speeches  to 
the  Senate  (9  Apr.,  1853, 7  Feb.,  1860, 21  Man^,  1861) 
he  expressed  the  desire  to  see  his  country  rely  on  her 
own  resources  and  extend  her  empire  beyond  the  seas. 
Ascending  the  throne,  he  fotmd  hunself  ruler  of  a  coun- 
try so  small  that  it  was  scarcely  visible  on  the  map  of 
the  worid.  and  it  was  but  natural  that  he  should  con- 
ceive the  nope  of  one  day  ruling  over  a  more  extended 
dominion.  He  therefore  set  his  heart  on  obtaining 
possession  of  the  Congo  for  his  people ;  nor  was  this  his 
first  effort  to  realize  his  ambition;  it  was  perhaps  the 
seventh  or  eighth  attempt  he  had  made  at  Belgian  col- 
onization. 

Briefly,  the  successive  stages  in  the  foundation  of 
the  Congo  Free  State  were  as  follows:  As  a  oonse- 
quence  of  the  expeditiotui  (1840;  1  May,  1873)  of  Liv- 
ingstone and  Stanley,  public  attention  bepan  to  be 
drawn  to  Central  Africa,  and  Leopold  II  divined  the 
great  possibilities  of  the  newfy-aisoovered  country. 
On  12  Sept.,  1876,  he  called  a  Confirenee  Oioffraphique 
at  Brussels,  which  ^ve  birth  to  the  association  tor  the 
exploration  and  civilization  of  Central  Africa  com- 
monly called  the  Intemational  African  Association. 
This  was  divided  into  different  national  committees 
each  chaiged  with  the  task  of  promoting  the  common 
cause.  The  Belgian  committee  was  founded  <m  6 
Nov.,  1876;  King  Leopold  assisted  at  its  foundation 
and  delivered  a  remarkable  speech.  The  Belgian  was 
the  only  committee  which  dispU^red  any  serious  ae^v- 
ity.  It  collected  a  sum  of  100,000  doflars,  five  times 
as  great  as  the  united  collections  of  all  the  others, 
and  took  the  leading  part  in  the  organizaHon  %A  the 
first  expedition.  The  expedition  naturallv  followed 
the  route  which  had  already  been  traced  by  living- 
stone,  i.  e.  it  moved  from  east  to  west.  It  was  a  fail- 
ure, however,  and  many  lives  were  sacrifioed  in  vain. 
In  January,  1878,  the  news  came  that  Stanley  had 
crossed  right  throu^  Central  Africa,  from  the  Zanzi- 
bar Coast  to  the  mouth  of  the  Congo  River,  whose 
upper  course  he  was  the  first  to  discover  during  this 
journey.  It  was  then  that  Leopold  conceived  the 
idea  of  sending  out  an  expedition  which  should  start 
from  the  western  coast  and  explore  the  country. 
While  others  were  content  to  applaud  Stanley  or  to 
listen  to  his  interesting  narratives,  the  King  of  tne  Bel- 
gians resolved  to  employ  the  explorer  to  further  his 
designs,  which  were  not  merely  commercial  or  political, 
but  sincerely  humanitarian  as  well.  At  the  very  mo- 
ment Stanley  set  foot  on  European  ground  envojns 
were  waitinj^  for  him  at  Marseilles.  The  king  suc- 
ceeded in  gamine  him  for  his  purpose,  and  then  pro- 
ceeded to  found  (Nov.,  1878)  a  society  afterwards 
called  the  Intemational  Congo  Association.  In  the 
name  of  this  association,  in  which  Leopold  was  the 
principal  thouc^  hidden  agent,  Stanley's  little  party, 
coimting  only  tnirteen  white  men,  set  out.  It  was  not 
the  only  expedition  intent  on  planting  a  European  flag 
on  this  virgin  soil;  at  the  same  time  a  French  and  a 
Portuguese  mission  were  also  on  their  way. 

Towards  the  end  of  1879  Stanley  readied  a  non- 
Portuguese  territory  on  the  ri^t  bank  of  the  Congo 
River  and  founded  there  the  post  of  Vivi.  Moving 
slowly  up  the  river  he  came  at  last  to  the  Pool.  The 
Brazza  mission  was  already  there,  and  the  French  flag 
was  planted  on  the  right  bank.  The  French  had  not 
crossed  the  riveTi  however,  and  the  Portuguese  expadi- 


OONOO 


229 


OONOO 


tionhadatoppedat  the  Upper  Kwaogo,  thus  leaving  the 
country  to  the  interior  open  to  thefuture  colony.  Dur- 
ing thifl  journey  Stanlev  concluded  many  treaties  with 
the  native  chiefs,  by  which  th^  were  to  submit  to  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Association,  founded  a  certain  num- 
ber of  posts  in  the  North  near  the  Equator  and  in  the 
South  in  the  Kassai  district,  and  actually  set  up  a 

Kvemment  which  was  soon  semi>officially  recognized. 
Oct.,  lSS2f  France  tacitly  acknowledged  the  capac- 
ity of  the  Association  to  enjoy  international  rights 
(see  letter  of  M.  Duolerc,  President  of  the  Council,  to 
Leopold  II).  The  United  States  (22  April,  1884)  and 
€iennany  (8  Nov.,  of  the  same  year)  recognized  in  a 
more  eiq>licit  manner  the  flag  of  the  Association  as 
that  of  a  friendly  State.  A  week  later  (15  Nov.,  1884) 
the  famous  Berlm  Ck>nf ^«nce  was  opened.  The  object 
of  this  conference,  which  included  del^ates  from  four- 
teen nations,  is  stated  dearly  in  the  heading  which 
serves  as  preamble  to  the  act  oontainingthe  collection  of 
decisions  and  called  "  I'Acte  G^n^ral  de  Berlin".  It  runs 
as  follows: — 

''Wishing  to  regulate,  in  a  spirit  of  mutual  good 
understandmg,  the  conditions  most  favourable   to 
the  development  of  commerce  and  civilization  in 
certain  parts  of  Africa,  and  to  assure  to  all  nations  the 
advanti^ea  of  free  navigation  on  the   two   {>rincipal 
African  riven  [Congo  and  Nig^j  which  flow  into  the 
Atlantic;  desirous,  on  the  other  hand,  of  forestalling 
any  nusunderstandings  and  disputes  which  new  acts 
of  occupation  on  the  African  coast  might  cause  in  the 
future;  concerned  also  with  the  measures  to  be  taken 
for  increasing  the  welfare  both  material  and  moral  of 
the  native  races  ..."    During  the  intervals  between 
the  meetings  of  the  conference  M.  Strauch   worked 
hard  to  win  for  the  flag  of  the  International  Associa- 
tion official  recognition  by  all  the  powers  represented; 
his  efiForts  were  successful,  and  Leooold,  as  founder 
of  the  Association,  was  able  to  officially  communicate 
the  fact  to  the  ccaiferenoe  at  its  second  last  meeting 
(23  Feb.,  1886).    The  plenipotentiaries  then  expressed 
their  hi^  ap[»eciation  of  the  woric  done  by  the  Bel- 
gian king;  at  the  same  time  they  welcomed  the  birth 
of  the  new  State,  thus  founded.    At  the  final  meeting 
of  the  conference  the  Berlin  Act  was  accepted  by  the 
AsBociataon,  which  was  then  hailed  by  Bismarck  as 
"one  of  the  principal  guardians  of  the  work  which 
they  had  in  view". 

The  moment  had  now  arrived  for  Leopold  to  show 
himself.  Hitherto  he  had  worked  through  vari- 
ous societies  which  finally  developed  into  the  In- 
ternational Association;  he  was  the  moving  spirit  of 
them  all.  He  now  came  forward  in  the  name  of  this 
Association,  and  receiving  from  the  Belgian  Chambers 
(vote  of  C^iamber  of  Representatives,  28  April,  1885; 
vote  of  Senate,  30  April,  1885)  the  necessary  authori- 
sation he  announced  to  the  various  Powers  on  1 
August,  1885,  and  the  days  following  'Hhat  the  pos- 
aessbns  of  the  International  Association  would  hence- 
forth fonn  imd  be  called  the  Independent  State  of 
Congo".  He  further  declared  himself  sovereign  of 
this  State.  It  was  understood  that  the  only  constitu- 
tional bond  of  imion  between  Belgium  and  the  Inde- 
c^ident  State  of  Congo  was  the  person  of  the  king. 
Thus  was  founded  the  Independent  State.  Leopold 
oan  justly  regard  it  as  his  own  creation.  Neverthe- 
KBi  it  is  only  fair  to  recognize  the  part  taken  in  the 
^ik  by  some  Belgian  statesmen.  Without  the  recog- 
nition of  the  Powers  the  Independent  Congo  State 
oould  not  have  wen  a  secure  position,  and  this 
i^gnition  was  obtained  through  the  brilliant  di- 
plonuu2|y  of  Mr.  £.  Banning  and  of  Baron  Lamber- 
mont  at  Berlin.  Without  Uie  authorisation  of  the 
B^gian  Chambers  Leopold  could  not  have  occupied  a 
pew  throne;  it  was  M.  Beemaert,  then  prime  min- 
uter, who  obtained  this  authorization,  and  he  is  there- 
fore justly  regarded  as ''one  of  the  statesmen  who  have 
contributed  most  to  unite  the  destinies  of  the  Congo 


and  of  Belgium"  CLeipy-Beaulieu.  "De  la  colonisa- 
tion", 352). 

II.  International  and  Political  Situation.— 
Recognition  by  the  Powers, — The  international  position 
held  by  the  Independent  State  results  directly  from 
the  friendly  recognition  of  the  Powers  accordeJ  by 
treaty  to  the  International  Association,  from  which 
sprang  the  Independent  State.  Following,  in  chrono- 
logical order,  are  the  names  of  the  contracting  Powers 
and  the  dates  of  the  treaties:  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica (22  April,  1884);  German  Empire  (8  Nov.,  1884); 
Great  Britain  (16  Dec.,  1884);  Italy  (19  Dec.,  1884); 
AustriarHungary  (24  Dec.,  1884);  The  Nether- 
lands (27  Dec.,  1884);  Spam  (7  Jan.,  1885);  France 
and  Russia  (5  Feb.,  1885);  Sweden  and  Norway 
(10  Feb.,  1885);  Portugal  (14  Feb^  1885);  Belgium 
and  Denmark  (28  Feb.,  1885);  Turkey  (25  June, 
1885);  Switzerland  (19  Nov.,  1889);  Republic  of 
Liberia  (15  Dec,  1891);  Japan  (9  July,  1900). 

Neutrality  of  the  Congo. — By  the  General  Act  of  Ber- 
lin (ch.  iii)  the  Powers  had  agreed  to  respect  a  politi- 


Natitb  Gabpsmtbrs,  Mission  or  Nsw  Antwbhp 

oal  neutrality  in  the  Congo  Basin.  They  allowed  all 
Powers  having  possessions  there  to  put  their  terri- 
tories under  the  protection  of  this  neutrality.  Avail- 
ins  itself  of  this  privilege,  the  Independent  State, 
1  Aug.,  1885,  declared  its  perpetual  neutrality.  This 
declaration  was  afterwards  repeated,  18  Dec.,  1894,  on 
iiie  occasion  of  certain  changes  of  frontier. 

Obligations  Imposed  by  the  Act  of  Berlin, — In  declar- 
ing its  adhesion  to  the  Act  of  Berlin  (24  Feb.,  1885) 
the  Independent  State  contracted  certain  commer- 
cial, political,  and  other  obligations  which  we  shall 
briefly  describe. — (a)  Freedom  of  Conmierce. — AH 
nations  were  to  have  perfect  freedom  in  conunercial 
enterprise;  the  subjects  of  all  flags  were  to  be  treated 
with  perfect  equality  and  be  at  liberty  to  engage  in  all 
kinds  of  transport;  there  was  to  be  freedom  of  trafTic 
on  the  coasts,  rivers,  and  lakes  of  the  Congo,  and  the 
harbours  were  to  be  open ;  free  import  and  free  transit 
were  to  be  allowed  to  merchandise,  save  only  such 
taxes  or  duties  as  might  be  required  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses entaUed  in  the  interests  of  commerce  (subse- 
quently, by  an  agreement  made  at  Brussels  on  2  July, 
1890,  an  import  duty  of  ten  per  cent  maximum 
might  be  imposed) ;  flnally  no  monopoly  or  privilege 
of  a  commercial  nature  might  be  granted. — (b)  Pro- 
tection of  Natives,  Missionaries,  Travellers. — ^The 
Powers  signing  the  Act  bound  themselves  to  care  for 
the  native  peoples,  their  moral  and  material  welfare, 
and  to  co-operate  in  suppressing  slavery  and  espe- 


OOMQO 


230 


CONQK) 


oially  the  slave  trade.  They  bound  themselves  to 
protect  and  assist,  ''without  r^ard  to  distinctions  of 
nationality  or  of  creed,  all  religious,  scientific  and 
philanthropic  establishments  or  enterprises,  formed 
or  organized  for  such  ends,  or  calculated  to  instruct 
the  inhabitants  and  to  make  them  understand  and 
appreciate  the  advantages  of  civilization".  In  par- 
ticular, Christian  missionaries,  men  with  scientific 
ends  in  view,  and  explorers,  together  with  their  es- 
corts, were  to  be  the  objects  of  special  protection 
(Art.  6).  (c)  Freedom  of  Religious  Worship. — "  Lib- 
erty of  conscience  and  religious  toleration  are  ex- 
pressly guaranteed  to  natives  as  well  as  to  other  sub- 
jects and  to  foreigneiB.  The  free  and  public  exercise 
of  all  forms  of  worship,  the  right  of  erecting  religious 
edifices,  and  of  oiiganizing  missions  belongmg  to  all 
creeds,  shall  not  be  submitted  to  any  restriction  or 
restraint"  (ibidem). — (d)  Postal  Conventions. — The 
terms  of  the  Universal  Postal  Union,  revised  at  Paris, 
1  June,  1878  (Art.  7),  were  to  be  observed  in  the  Congo 
Basin;  these  were  officially  accepted  by  the  Inde- 
pendent State,  17  Sept.,  1885.  In  like  manner,  13 
Sept.,  1886,  the  additional  Postal  Act  of  Lisbon  was 
adopted,  on  19  June,  1892,  the  Universal  Postal  Con- 
vention of  Washington,  and  on  26  May,  1905, 
that  of  Rome. — (e)  Mediation  and  Arbitration. — In 
case  serious  disagreements  should  occur  over  the  terri- 
tories where  commercial  freedom  was  allowed,  the 
Powers  signing  the  Act  bound  themselves  **  before  hav- 
ing recourse  to  arms,  to  seek  the  intervention  of  one  or 
several  friendly  Powers".  In  such  a  case  the  Powers 
reserved  to  themselves  the  right  of  having  recourse 
to  arbitration  (Art.  12). 

Conditions  of  the  Act  of  Brussels. — ^The  Slave  Trade 
and  Traffic  in  Spirits. — On  2  July,  1890,  on  the  pro- 
posal of  England,  an  international  conference  met  at 
Brussels.  A  general  act  was  passed  and  si^ed  by  all 
the  Powers  that  had  formerly  signed  the  Berlin  Act, 
and  also  by  the  Independent  State.  By  this  the  sig- 
natoiy  Powezs  bound  themselves  to  take  measures  to 
prevent  the  slave  trade  and  to  restrict  the  traffic  in 
ffl>irite  in  the  zone  lying  between  20®  N.  lat.  and  22° 
8.  lat.  Within  this  territoiy  the  distillation  of  liquor 
or  importation  thereof  was  forbidden  in  regions  where 
the  use  of  such  liq[uor  was  not  yet  common.  In  the 
other  parts  where  it  was  already  in  use  a  heavy  import 
duty  was  imposed.  This  duty  was  fixed  by  the  Con- 
vention of  8  June,  1899,  at  seventy  francs  per  hecto- 
litre, fifty  per  cent  alcohol  (about  $1.57  a  gallon),  for  a 
period  of  six  years;  an  equivalent  excise  duty  was 
laid  on  the  manufacture  of  such  liquors.  ' 

Right  of  Pi^eference  of  France. — ^Apart  from  the  gen- 
eral provisioTis  which  govern  its  dealings  with  the 
Powers,  the  Independent  State,  owing  to  certain  con- 
ventions, has  special  relations  with  Prance  and  Bel- 
f'um.  We  shall  treat  first  of  those  concerning 
ranee,  comprised  in  the  famous,  but  often  badly  ex- 
glained,  "Right  of  Preference".  On  23  April.  1884, 
Lionel  Strauch,  President  of  the  International  Asso- 
ciation, declared  in  a  letter  to  Jules  Ferry  that  if,  ow- 
ing to  unforeseen  circumstances  and  conti^ry  to  its 
intention,  the  Association  was  compelled  in  the  future 
to  sell  its  possessions,  it  would  consider  itself  obliged 
to  give  the  preference  of  purchase  to  France.  On  the 
following  day  the  French  minister  officially  acknowl- 
edged the  letter  and  added  that  in  the  name  of  the 
French  Government  he  bound  himself  to  respect  the 
established  relations  and  the  free  territories  of  the 
Association.  Thus  the  right  was  constituted.  Writ- 
ing, however,  on  22  April,  1887,  to  Bourse,  minister  of 
France  at  Brussels,  Baron  Van  Eetvelde  declared  that 
the  Association  had  never  meant  or  intended  that  this 
right  accorded  to  France  should  be  to  the  prejudice  of 
Belgium  of  which  Leopold  II  was  king.  In  his  letter 
of  29  April,  M.  Bouree  replied  that  this  interpretntion 
h:ul  foine  to  his  notice,  but  said  nothing  more.  When 
in  1895  the  question  of  flio  cession  of  the  Independent 


Stato  to  Belgium  was  raised,  it  seemed  fmident  to  ne- 
^tiato  with  France.  As  a  consequence  the  conven- 
tion of  5  Feb.,  1895,  was  made  betwerai  France  and 
Belgium;  France,  on  the  one  hand,  agreed  not  to  op- 
pose the  cession,  and  on  the  other  secured  a  favour- 
able determination  of  frontiers  in  Gkmgo.  On  the 
same  date,  by  another  convention,  the  Belgian  Gov- 
ernment, already  acting  as  successor  of  the  Independ- 
ent State,  recognized  the  right  of  preference  of  France 
in  the  purchase  of  these  territories,  in  case  of  a  com- 
plete or  partial  exchange,  conceasion,  or  lease  to  an- 
other Power.  It  declarea  besides  that  it  would  nev^ 
give  up  gratuitously  either  the  whole  or  a  part  of  these 
said  possessions.  It  is  quite  dear,  therefore^  (1)  that 
the  right  of  preference  is  simply  one  of  pre-emption, 
i.  e.  in  case  of  alienation  on  terms  of  scde,  negotiations 
must  first  be  entered  into  with  France;  (2)  that 
France  recognized  in  1895  the  priority  of  Belgium  in 
this  respect,  or  at  least  consented  not  to  deny  Belgiiini 
the  right  of  preference. 

Belgium's  Right  to  Take  Over  the  Congo.-^The  Bel- 
gian Act  of  28  April,  1885,  had  dedared:  ''Tlie  union 
between  Belgium  and  the  new  State  of  the  Congo  will 
be  exclusively  personal".  This  could  not.  however, 
prevent  the  subsequent  gift  on  the  part  of  the  king, 
nor  could  it  take  from  Belgium  the  ri^t  of  accepting 
such  a  donation.  By  his  will>  dated  2  August,  1889, 
which  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  M.  Beemaert,  who 
communicated  it  to  the  Chambers,  Leopold  II  was  to 
leave  as  a  legacy  to  his  country  all  sovereim  ri^te 
over  the  Independent  State  of  the  Congo.  He  added, 
besides,  that  should  the  Belgian  Government  wish  to 
take  over  the  Congo  before  this  time,  he  would  be 
happy  to  see  it  accomplished  during  his  lifetime.  An 
agreement  was  next  entered  into,  3  July,  1^0,  by 
which  Belgium  was  to  advance  to  the  Congo  twenty- 
five  million  francs,  five  millions  at  once  and  the  re- 
maining twenty  at  the  rate  of  two  millions  a  year. 
Six  months  after  the  expiration  of  the  ten  yeais  (18 
Feb.,  1901)  Belgium  mi^t.  if  it  wished,  annex  the 
Independent  State,  with  all  the  posseasions,  rights, 
and  emoluments  belonging  to  this  soverdgnty,  pro- 
vided it  assumed  the  outstanding  obligati<ms  of  the 
State  to  third  parties,  "the  king  expresslv refusing  all 
indemnification  for  the  personal  sacrinces  he  had 
made".  On  5  Aug.,  1894,  ihe  king-soverngn  an- 
nounced that  he  was  prepared  to  put  at  the  immediate 
disposal  of  Belgium  his  possessions  in  the  Congo-  Fol- 
lowing this  announcement  a  treaty  of  annexation  was 
concluded,  8  Jan.,  1895,  between  the  Belgian  Govern- 
ment and  the  Independent  State,  subject  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Chambers.  This  was  raven,  12  Feb., 
1895,  but  was  withdrawn,  19  June,  and  the  treaty  an- 
nulled by  mutual  consent,  12  Sept.,  1895»  However, 
a  new  loan  confirmed  Belgium's  option  for  1901. 

When  this  date  arrived,  Baron  Van  Eetvelde,  minis- 
ter of  the  State  of  Congo,  addressed  (28  March,  1901) 
a  dispateh  to  the  chief  minister  of  the  Belman  cabinet, 
Count  de  Smet  de  Naeyer,  to  the  effect  that  possibly 
the  moment  had  not  yet  arrived  for  Belgium  to  take 
over  the  Congo  State;  and  that  if  this  were  so,  in  view 
of  the  letter  of  5  August,  1889,  and  the  existinff  ties 
between  Belgiimi  and  the  Congo,  it  wotdd,  perhaps, 
be  neither  politic  nor  useful  to  fix  a  new  term  for  the 
right  of  option.  A  further  communication,  22  May, 
1901,  emphasized  the  right  held  by  Belgium,  in  virtue 
of  the  above-mentioned  letter  and  the  legacy  of  the 
king.  It  added  that  in  case  the  right  of  annexation 
were  unexercised,  but  not  relinquished,  Belgium 
ought  to  renounce,  during  such  extension  of  her 
option,  the  payment  of  interest  and  the  repajnnent 
of  capital  due  to  her.  At  the  same  time  the  Inde- 
pendent State  declared  its  readiness  to  submit  to  an- 
nexation. M.  Beemaert  now  proposed  to  annex  the 
Congo,  thus  opposing  the  Government  project  of  28 
March,  1901,  namely,  to  suspend  the  repayment  of 
the  capital  lent,  and  the  payment  of  the  interest 


OOMOO 


231 


OOMOO 


thereon.  The  king,  by  a  letter  addressed  11  June, 
1901,  to  M.  Woeste.  member  of  the  Chmnber,  person- 
ally took  part  m  tne  question.  Only  three  items  of 
this  letter  are  public:  the  first  clearly  pointed  out  that 
\he  moment  was  inopportune/or  annexation;  the  sec- 
ond stated  that  in  relation  to  the  Congo  Belgium 
should  remain  in  the  position  she  held  in  consequence 
of  the  Convention  of  1890;  the  third  enimierated  the 
proofs  of  the  attachment  which  the  king  had  for  his 
country.  Thus  came  about  the  Belgian  law  of  14 
Aug.,  1901,  .which  renounced  the  repayment  of  the 
loans  and  the  interest  fhereon  until  such  time  as  Bel- 
^um  should  surrender  the  right  of  annexation — a 
right  which  she  declared  she  wished  to  preserve. 
From  an  examination  of  these  acts  it  seems  certain 
that  Belgium  has  an  incontestable  right  to  take  over 
the  Congo  during  the  lifetime  of  the  king.  That  cer- 
tain prominent  politicians,  in  a  prelimmary  discus- 
sion m  1906,  seem  to  have  ignored  this  right,  was 
doubtless  only  the  effect  of  a  surprise.  When,  how- 
ever, as  on  3  June,  1906,  the  king-sovereign  in  a  letter 
to  the  secretaries-general  of  the  Independent  State, 
added  to  his  will  a  codicil  which  seemed  to  impose  on 
Belgium  the  obligation  of  respecting  (besides  the  en- 
gagements entered  into  with  third  parties)  certain 
royal  foundations,  the  amendment  was  not  acceptable 
to  the  Chambers.  The  minister  then  stated  that 
these  wishes  on  the  part  of  the  king  were  not  imposed 
as  conditions,  but  were  only  earnest  recommenda- 
tions. On  14  Dec,  1906,  the  House  moved  that  while 
it  desired  for  the  Oongo  the  advantages  of  civilization 
it  was  not  unmindful  of  Belgium's  rights;  further- 
more, that  the  question  of  taking  over  the  Congo 
should  be  settled  with  the  least  possible  delay. 

The  Territory, — The  declarations  of  neutrality,  to- 
gether with  the  friendly  treaties  by  which  the  united 
Powers  of  Germany,  France.  Portugal,  etc.,  recognized 
the  State,  determined  roughly  its  frontiers.  Grireater 
precision  resulted  from  the  treaty  with  En^and  of 
12  May,  1894.  With  France,  owing  to  some  difficul- 
ties which  arose,  five  treaties  were  made,  the  last  being 
signed  25  Feb.,  1895.  Treaties  have  still  to  be  made 
with  Germany  to  settle  the  Lake  Kivu  question  and 
with  Portugal  about  the  Lake  Dilolo  region.  With 
the  exception  of  a  narrow  border-zone  to  the  east 
near  Lake  Albert  Edward,  situated  in  the  Nile  Basin, 
nearly  all  the  territory  of  the  State  belongs  to  the 
Congo  Basin,  which  is  about  1,158,300  sq.  m.  in  ex- 
tent. The  State  is  the  largest  portion  of  this  basin, 
and  has  an  area  of  945,945  so .  m.,  which  is  equivalent 
to  a  square  having  a  side  of  tnree  hundred  leagues,  or 
to  seventy-five  times  the  area  of  Belgium,  or  five 
times  that  of  France.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
north-west  by  French  Congo  and  the  An^lo-Egyptian 
Sudan;  on  the  east  by  British  East  Africa  (Uganda 
Protectorate)  and  German  East  Africa;  on  the  south- 
east and  south  by  Bhodcsia  and  Portuguese  Angola; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  (which  gives 
it  about  twenty-two  miles  of  coastline)  and  the 
Portuguese  territory  of  Cabinda.  The  State  stretches 
from  a  little  above  5**  N.  lat.  to  below  IS**  S.  lat.,  and 
from  12**  to  between  31**-32**  E.  long.,  the  most  east- 
erly point  being  on  the  Upper  Nile. 

III.  Description  of  the  Independent  State. — 
Physical  Geography. — ^The  general  aspect  of  the  State 
has  often  b^n  compared  to  a  huge  cup.  To  the  west 
lie  the  Crystal  Mountains;  to  the  soutn-east,  the  long 
chain  of  the  Mitumba  bordering  on  the  plateaux  of 
Kar-Tanga,  from  which  descend  the  streams  Lualaba, 
Luapula,  etc.,  whose  waters  unite  to  form  the  Congo 
River,  lids  vast  central  depression,  divided  into 
several  terraces,  rests  on  alternate  strata  of  granite 
and  gneiss.  Laciistral  settings  (grit  and  clayey 
schists)  are  often  found,  as  well  as  laterite.  Tlie  in- 
numerable rivers  of  the  Congo  are  rocky  in  their  upper 
courses  and  cut  their  way  by  rapids  from  one  terrace 
ti»  another,  untfl,  on  the  great  alluvial  plains  of  the 


centre,  they  form  an  immense  network  of  from  9000 
to  11,000  miles  of  navisable  water-ways  and  fli)read 
out  fan-like  from  Leopoldville,  The  principal  tribu- 
taries of  the  Congo  are  the  Ubanghi  and  Welle  to  tlie 
north;  the  Kassai-Sankuru,  Lomami,  etc.,  to  the 
south.  Beyond  Stanley  Pool  are  the  famous  falls 
which,  by  preventing  continuous  riveivtraffic,  necfsai- 
tated  the  railroad  (about  270  miles,  a  journey  of  two 
days)  binding  Leopoldville  to  the  seaport  of  Matadi 
(the  highest  point  of  the  Congo  Estuary  reached  by 
steamers).  The  falls  of  the  Upper  River  will  likewise 
be  doubled  by  railroads.  In  fact,  a  trunk  line  to 
Stanley  Falls  has  been  completed,  and  another  to  the 
"  Gates  of  Hell  * '  commenced.  Others  in  the  dii  ection 
of  the  Nile,  of  the  Katanga,  and  of  the  English  and 
Portuguese  railways  have  beiBn  determined  upon. 

There  are  two  seasons  in  the  Lower  Congo,  the  dry 
and  the  rainy.  In 
the  centre  the  cli- 
mate,  always 
warm  and  rainy, 
has  produced  a 
vast  equatorial  for- 
est of  giant  trees 
and  jungle.  In 
these  regions  much 
cocoa,  coffee,copal, 
nut-  and  palm-oil, 
and,  above  all, 
caoutchouc  are 
produced.  Besides 
the  elephant, 
hunted  to  excess, 
the  fauna  of  the 
country  includes 
the  antelope,  mon- 
key, zebra  (which 
it  is  hoped  to  do- 
mesticate), okapi, 
hippopotamus,  and 
crocoaile.  There 
also  are  found  ter- 
mites, ants,  mos- 
quitoes, and  the 
terrible  ts^ts6 
which  causes  the 
sleeping  sickness. 
Witn  regard  to 
mineral  wealth, 
Katan^  gives  promise  of  an  immense  amount  of 
malacUte  copper  (2  million  tons,  valued  at  1800,000.- 
000,  according  to  the  oflBcial  report  of  Jan.,  1908), 
much  tin  (20  million  tons,  valued  at  $16,000,000  along 
the  Lualaba) ;  also  iron  magnetite  and  oligist.  Gold 
also  has  been  found  in  the  mines  of  Kambobe,  while 
those  of  Kilo  (Aruwimi)  produced  8841.25  oz.  Troy 
($170,000)  in  1905. 

Ethnography  and  Population. — ^Three  indigenous 
races  are  found  in  the  Congo  Basin.  The  ^and^ 
who  seem  to  belong  to  the  Nigritian  races,  inhabit  the 
north-east  frontier.  The  aboriginal  Pygmies  are 
foimd  in  the  centre,  mingled  with  the  rest,  but  espe- 
cially in  the  region  of  the  great  forest.  The  larger  part 
of  the  i>eoples  belong  to  the  Bantu  family.  The  popu- 
lation is  probably  about  twenty  millions,  although 
other  estimates  of  from  twelve  to  thirty  millions  have 
been  given. 

Language. — ^The  language  of  the  Blacks  is,  radically, 
the  agglutinative  speech  of  the  Bantu  peoples,  i.  e.  it 
forms  its  words  without  fusion  or  alteration.  It  is 
divided  into  over  forty  very  different  dialects.  The 
language  is  rich,  rational,  philosophic,  and  betokens  a 
much  higher  level  of  civilization  than  do  the  morak 
and  customs  of  this  wretched  race.  In  Lower  Congo 
contact  with  the  Portuguese  has  influenced  the  ideas 
and  habits  of  the  Blacks;  it  has  taught  them  the  com- 
mercial value  of  certain  products,  such  as  caoutchouc. 


Matomb£  Idol 


OOHGO 


232 


oaMoo 


and  broujB^t  them  under  the  enervating  inHuenoe  of 
aleohol;  here  the  race  has  degenerated.  In  Upper 
Congo  the  Arab  influence  has  introduced  by  violence 
both  slavery  and  habits  of  industry.  The  pernicious 
practice  of  inhaling  the  fumes  of  hemp  has  come  also 
with  Arab  domination.  In  the  centre  of  the  country 
the  race  remains  more  pure. 

PcltUcal  OfyanUation, — ^Present  native  customs 
show  traces  of  a  former  supremacy  of  one  chief  over 
the  others.  There  are  unmistakable  signs  both  of 
vassalage  and  of  suzeraintv.  The  tribes  are  ruled  by 
a  chief  (mfvmu)  whose  authority,  however,  is  checked 
by  the  presence  of  a  coimcil  of  elders.  The  succession 
to  the  chieftaincy  is  hereditary,  but  not  in  the  direct 
line  of  male  descent.  While  only  males  can  occupy 
the  throne,  the  succession  passes  not  to  the  son,  but 
in  the  collateral  line  to  the  brother  and  then  to  the 
son  of  the  daughter.  Other  information  on  ethno- 
graphical questions  is  given  under  VIII.  Missions 
IN  THE  Congo. 

Commerce, — Some  figures  with  regard  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  Congo  ma^r  be  given  here.  In  1887  when 
a  total  of  the  ezportations  of  the  Independent  State 
was  first  made,  tne  figure  was  about  S396,088.  This 
we  may  compare  with  the  figures  of  subsequent  years: 
—1890,  $1,648,439;  1895,  $2,188,603;  1900,  $9,475,- 
480;  1905,  $10,606,432;  1906,  $11,655,566.  Caout- 
chouc represents  the  greater  part  of  this  output. 
Its  vahie  was,  in  1905,  $8,751,180  (10,938,975  lbs.). 
The  value  of  ivory  (473,260  lbs.)  for  the  same  year 
^as  $067,554;  palm  nuts  (11,355,529  lbs.),  $302,817; 
pakn-oil  (4,335  229  lbs.),  $220,678.  Import  statistics 
date  only  from  the  establishment  of  import  duties  in 
the  second  quarter  of  1892.  We  append  some  dates 
and  figures:— 1893,  $1,835,020;  1896,  $2,137,169; 
1900,  $4,944,821;  1905.  $4,015,072;  1906,  $4,295,517. 
These  figures  represent  largdy  Belgian  commerce.  In 
1906  the  Congous  exports  to  Belgium  reached  $10,860,- 
939 ;  the  imports  from  Belgium  were  $3,057,058.  Im- 
ports from  the  United  States  do  not  exceed  $6,000. 

IV.  When  and  by  what  Right  the  Congo  State 
WAS  Created. — ^How  did  the  Congo  State  arise?  The 
ouestion  is  not  an  easy  one  to  answer.  Certain  au- 
tnors,  the  mouthpieces  of  the  State,  regard  the  Inde- 
pendent State  as  the  natural  heir  of  the  petty  chiefs 
who  governed  the  various  Con^lese  tribes.  They 
maintain  that  through  the  treaties  made  with  these 
chiefs  the  supreme  jjower  passed  from  native  to  Euro- 
pean hands.  This  is  a  thesis  easy  to  formulate,  but 
impossible  to  defend.  For  in  fact  an  international 
treatv  supposes  the  existence  of  two  nations.  Now  it 
may  be  admitted  that  the  Congolese  had,  at  the  period 
in  question,  a  political  organization — though  this 
point  has  been  doubted  by  some;  at  any  rate  the  In- 
ternational Association  was  at  the  time  surely  nothing 
more  than  a  private  company.  Again,  when  the  n^ 
tive  chiefs  agreed  to  put  their  mark  at  the  bottom  of 
a  treaty  in  exchange  for  a  few  pieces  of  cloth,  did  they 
realize  what  they  were  doing?  Did  they  realize  ttiat 
they  were  veritably  abdicating,  and  not  simplv  au- 
thorizing some  European  to  settle  on  their  land?  A 
recent  defender  of  the  position  stated  above  has  gone 
so  far  as  to  imagine  that  Stanley  improvised  on  the 
Congo  coast  a  course  of  international  law  for  the  use 
of  the  native  chiefs.  For  this  Stanley  had  neither 
time  nor  means  at  his  disposal,  and  he  would  have 
found  it  diflScult  to  do  so  through  an  interpreter. 
Further,  even  if  the  chiefs  did  wish  to  transfer  their 
authority,  could  they  have  done  so  without  the  con- 
sent of  weir  tribes?  LasUy,  the  treaties  in  (question 
were  nearly  all  made  with  chiefs  who  inhabited  the 
present  French  Congo ;  they  affected  only  a  very  small 
part  of  the  present  Congo  State. 

Others  say  that  the  Independent  State  was  created 
by  the  Berlin  Conference.  This  hypothesis  is  also  un- 
acceptable. What  right  had  this  Cbnference  over  the 
Congo  Basin?    The  plenipotentiaries  claimed  none; 


what  they  wished  to  do  was  not  to  create  new  States, 
but  to  make  the  Powers^  present  and  future,  holding 
interests  in  Central  Afnca,  accept  a  regime  c4  fx^ 
trade.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  was  during  tiie  inter- 
vals between  the  meeting  of  the  Conference  that  the 
Independent  State  had  its  flag  recoenized  by  the  dif- 
ferent Powers  one  after  another.  'Uke  Conference,  as 
such,  only  congratulated  the  State.  It  supplied  tba 
means  of  existence,  but  it  did  not  create.  M.  Oattier 
(Droit  et  administration  de  TEtat  Ind^pendant,  p. 
43)  is  rightly  of  opinion  that  the  Independent  State 
owes  its  origin  to  an  act  of  occupation.  But  was  this 
lawful?  Doubtless  it  was.  First  the  land  was  a 
prey  to  the  most  revolting  savage  cruelties,  even  to 
cannibalism;  second,  it  was  ravaged  bv  ceaseless  in- 
testine wars  and  by  the  slave  trade;  tnird,  it  denied 
strangers  the  protection  of  the  j'ua  gentium,  or  law  of 
nations.  In  such  a  case  the  common  good  of  man- 
kind sanctioned  the  imposition  of  a  state  of  oider  and 
security,  and  hence  the  creation  of  a  civilizing  power. 
The  Powers  represented  at  the  Berlin  Conference  gave 
the  king-sovereign  a  free  hand  in  the  political  occupa- 
tion of  the  Conflo  Basin,  while  the  treaties  made  with 
the  native  chiets  and  the  victories  won  over  the  Arabs 
likewise  contributed  to  this  end.  But  it  was  only 
when  this  occupation  grew  sufficientlv  effective  (about 
1895)  that  the  embryonic  polity  of  1885  became  in  a 
true  sense  the  Independent  State.  It  is  carefully  to 
be  noted  that  the  occupation  above  referred  to  did 
nothing  more  than  transfer  the  political  authority;  it 
did  not  modify  or  affect  any  private  ri^ts,  e.  g.  prop- 
erty rights. 

V.  Interior  Organization. — LegidaHve  and  Ad- 
ministrative Power. — Leopold  II  exercises  over  his 
Congolese  subjects  a  sovereignty  which  makes  him 
the  most  absolute  monarch  in  tlie  worid:  he  ^vems 
them  by  his  sole  and  uncontrolled  will.  £[e  gjves  all 
important  orders,  constitutes  the  whole  administra- 
tion, and  is  the  source  of  all  authority  in  his  African 
kingdom.  He  has  established  the  Congo  Central 
Government  at  Brussels.  While  reserving  to  himself 
the  supreme  legislative  power,  he  has,  since  1  Sept., 
1894,  confided  to  a  secretary  of  state  the  direction  of 
the  Central  Government.  This  official  can  enact 
measures  (ArrHSsdu  Secretaire  d'Etai)  which  have  the 
force  of  laws.  When  he  is  absent  his  place  is  taken  by 
three  secretaries-general,  who,  acting  in  concert,  pos- 
sess his  power;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  since  the  period  of 
office  of  .Baron  Van  Eetvelde  there  has  been  no  secre- 
tary of  state.  Further,  the  sovereign-king  instituted 
(16  April.  1889)  at  Brussels  a  Conaeu  Supmeur,  which 
acts  as  a  nigh  court  of  justice  and  gives  advice  on  such 
questions  as  the  king  submits  for  consideration.  His 
Majesty  names  the  members  of  this  coimcU.  In  the 
Congo  territory  itself  a  governor-general  is  at  the  head 
of  the  administration.  He  possesses  a  restricted 
legislative  power  and  can  make  police  regulations  and 
the  like.  The  State  capital  is  at  Boma.  The  country 
is  divided  into  fourteen  districts,  governed  by  the 
commi89aire8,  and  these  are  subdivided  into  zones  and 
aecteure  which  are  under  the  authority  of  the  die  fa  de 
zone,  chefs  de  eecteur, 

JudicKil  Power, — ^For  the  administration  of  civil 
and  criminal  cases  there  are  five  lower  courts,  each 
composed  of  a  judge,  an  officier  du  ministkre  public 
(prtKureur  d^Etai)  to  represent  the  people,  and  a  gref- 
per;  there  is  also  a  court  of  appeial  composed  of  a 
president,  two  judges,  an  officier  du  minikhre  pMic 
Xprocureur  g^rUral),  and  a  greffier.  In  places  wl^re 
tnere  is  no  regular  court  the  ofjicier  du  mxnisihre  public 
(who  must  be  a  doctor  in  law  J  can,  within  certain 
limits,  exercise  a  summary  jurisdiction.  Finally,  the 
native  chiefs  (mfumu)  have  certain  judicial  powers 
over  their  own  peoples.  The  repression  of  crimes,  or, 
in  the  terminology  of  Congo  law,  infractions,  which  in- 
clude even  sudi  offences  as  that  of  murder  (see  Code 
P^nal  de  TEtat  Ind6p.X  is  further  confided  to  local 


OOHOO 


233 


OOHGO 


oourts,  appointed  by  the  governor-general,  and  com- 
posed (at  least  normally)  of  a  jud^  who  need  not 
nave  studied  law  (very  often  he  is  the  eommissairt), 
and  an  offieier  du  minidhre  JPy^^^^  (substitute)  who 
must  be  a  doctor  in  law.  There  are  also  military 
courts  {constfU  de  gaj&rrty  eonseU  d$  guerre  d'appd). 
At  the  head  of  this  administration  of  justice  is  the 
conseU  supSrieur  de  BruxeUeSf  which  constitutes  the 
cour  de  easaatian.  The  judges  and  officers  of  justice 
are  not  appointed  for  life,  but  are  all  removable;  the 
^vemor-general  possesses  a  sort  of  supremacy  both 
m  their  nomination  and  supervision. 

Domamal  Poiuy.— At  first  (1885-1891)  the  State 
favoured  private  mitiative  and  claimed  for  itself  no 
monopoly.  Later  on  ^since  1892),  anxious  to  increase 
its  reeouroes,  and  hearing  of  the  vast  wealth  of  rubber 
and  ivory  in  the  Uppcnr  (3ongo,  it  inaugurated  a  regime 
of  monopoly.  Invoking  an  ordinance  of  5  July,  1885, 
which  had  dedared  that  ''the  unoccupied  lands  must 
be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  State",  it  invali- 
dated all  acts  of  occupation  made,  whether  by  natives 
or  strangers,  after  this  date.  It  then  put  in  practice 
a  system  of  proprietorship  and  exploitation  of  the  soil 
and  its  products.  We  add  here  a  short  r^um^  of  the 
extrem^y  complex  legislation  now  in  force: — (a) 
Concerning  the  Natives. — ^The  decrees  profess  respect 
for  all  native  occupation  ''such  as  it  existed  before 
5  July,  1885*'.  Hitherto  no  ade<][uate  or  serious  in- 
quiry has  determined  the  rights  which  the  natives  pos- 
sessed in  virtue  of  this  occupation.  Does  the  State 
admit  that  they  now  have  a  true  proprietary  right  to 
any  part  whatever  of  the  soil?  It  is  impossible  to  say. 
At  any  rate  they  may  not,  without  the  authorization 
of  the  governor-general,  dispose  of  their  lands  to  a 
third  party.  The  natives  may  continue,  then,  to  in- 
habit their  plots  of  land  where  they  plant  manioc; 
in  addition,  by  virtue  of  the  reform  decrees  of  1906 
each  village  has  been  allotted  an  area  triple  the  sise 
of  that  which  it  previously  inhabited  and  cultivated. 
The  natives  are  full  possessors  of  the  products  of  the 
lands  thus  cultivatea.  Further,  if  they  formerly  en- 
joyed any  certain  use  of  any  woods  or  forests  they 
mav  still  retain  that  use. 

(d)  Cbnceming  the  Non-Natives. — ^Tlie  rights  above 
mentioned  being  saf^uarded,  all  the  rest  of  the  Congo 
State  hsB  been  declared  the  property  of  the  State;  it 
is  consequenttv  at  the  absolute  disposition  of  the  sov- 
ereign-kmg,  who  has  distributed  it  thus:  (1 )  One-third 
constitutes  the  Domaine  National,  administered  by  a 
council  of  six  charged  with  the  task  of  developing  its 
^revenues.  These  revenues  are  intended  to  cover  the 
ordinary  budget  expenses,  to  pay  off  the  public  debt, 
to  form  a  reserve  fund,  and  to  serve  certain  purposes 
tof  public  utility  for  the  Cbngo  State  and  for  Belgium. 
(2)  (>ne-ninth,  selected  in  the  richest  part  of  the  coun- 
.try,  forms  the  Domaine  de  la  Couronne.  It  is  the  pri- 
'vate  property  of  the  king,  who,  however,  has  the  in- 
tention of  giving  it  eventually  to  some  institution  of 
public  utihty,  and  in  the  meantime  desires  that  its 
revenues  should  create  and  subsidize  certain  works 
And  institutions  for  the  general  good,  whether  in  the 
State  or  in  Belgium.  Six  mines,  hereafter  to  be  se- 
lected, also  bdong  to  this  Domaine,  which  is  admin- 
isterea  by  a  oonunittee.  Hitherto  both  of  these  terri- 
tories have  been  administered  {en  rMe)  by  the  em- 
ployees of  the  State.  (3)  The  rest  of  tne  territory  con- 
stitutes tiie  Terres  Domaniales,  which  the  State  re- 
serves to  itself  to  sell,  to  let.  or  to  grant  as  it  pleases. 
All  alienation  or  letting  of  these  lands  must,  to  avoid 
nullity,  be  ratified  within  six  months  by  the  king.  Of 
these  publie  lands  about  one  third  have  been  granted 
or  alienated,  principally  to  concessionary  companies. 
The  grants  of  use,  however,  far  exceed  the  alienations, 
and  wey  give  to  tiie  companies  in  question  the  monop- 
oly of  exploitation.  In  the  greater  number  of  these 
companies  the  State  owns  half  the  stock. 

Fiscal  Syttem. — (1)  The  State  subjects  non-natives 


to  direct  and  personal  taxes  similar  to  those  in  Eu« 
rope.  As  a  consequence  of  the  Brussels  Conference 
(2  July,  1890)  a  customs  duty  was  laid  on  all  imports, 
llie  export  customs  duty  on  rubber  (0.6i5  fr.  per  kilo- 
gram^-^bout  6  cts.  perpoimd)  and  ivory  (1  to  2.1  fn 
per  kilogram — about  9  cts.  to  17  cts.  per  pound) 
forms  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  revenue  of  the 
State. — (2)  The  natives  are  subject  to  conscription. 
Since  the  reforms  of  1906  the  annual  contingent  to  be 
supplied  is  divided  into  two  sections,  one  of  which  goes 
to  tne  annv  and  the  other  furnishes  labourers  for  the 
public  works.  The  soldiers  serve  for  seven  years,  the 
workmen  for  five.  Fiuiher,  the  natives  ^o  are  not' 
so  engaged  are  subject  to  a  poll  tax  affecting  every 
adult,  male  or  female.  This  tax  varies  from  6  to  24 
fr.  (about  $1.20  to  $4.80)  a  year;  it  may  be  paid  in 
money,  in  kind  (food-stuffs  as  a  rule),  or  in  personal 
labour.  Every  year  the  commissaire  draws  up  for 
the  different  villages  tables  of  equivalence  between 
money,  kind,  and  labour,  which  must,  since  the  last 


Franciscan  Convent  of  St.  Gabriel  of  the  Falls, 
Orieittal  Frovincb 

reforms,  be  publicly  exhibited.  The  personal  labour 
demanded  may  not  exceed  in  duration  a  total  of  forty 
hours  a  month — hence  the  phrase  *' forty  hours'  tax". 
For  this  labour  the  natives  receive  a  certain  remunera- 
tion—by "an  act  of  pure  condescension"  according  to 
the  latest  decrees.  Hie  annual  income  and  outlay  of 
the  State  are  about  30,000,000  fr.  (roughly  $6,000,000). 
The  products  of  the  Domaine  National  toother  with 
taxes  paid  in  kind  represent  16,500,000  ff.  The  t^ 
muneration  paid  (in  kind)  to  the  natives  amounts  to 
2,600,000  or  3,000,000  fr. 

VI.  CJRiTicisafs  OF  THB  CJoNoo. — For  some  years 
past  the  Independent  State  has  been  the  object  of 
very  severe  criticism,  particularly  on  the  part  of  the 
Congo  Reform  Association,  directed  by  Mr.  E.  D* 
Morel.  We  do  not  presume  to  judge  intentions; 
nevertheless  this  hostility,  directed  against  one  only 
of  the  four  Congos,  and  that  one  dependent  on  a  peo- 
ple powerless  to  defend  itself,  creates  in  Belgium  pain- 
ful feelings  of  surprise.  Grave  accusations  nave  been 
made  against  the  French  Congo;  the  German  Parlia- 
ment in  the  name  of  humanity  has  heard  earnest  pro- 
tests against  excesses  m  the  German  Congo;  and  it  is 
not  likely,  if  a  commission  of  inquiry  were  to  travene 
Rhodesia,  that  it  would  have  nothing  but  eulogied  to 
record.  Why  then  single  out  one  country,  and  that  a 
defenceless  one?  It  seems  but  fair,  also,  to  remark 
that  one  cannot  justly  compare  a  colonv  in  its  begin- 
nings with  a  colony  established  more  tnan  a  century 
ago.  The  early  history  of  colonies  has  ever  been  a 
sad  one,  as  is  instanced  by  Macaulay's  account  of 
Warren  Hastings  and  the  British  occupation  of  India. 
On  Hie  other  hand  wrong  does  not  justify  wrong.  The 
standard  of  a  government  should  Be  absolute  justice, 
and  it  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  the  wrongs  in^- 
puted  to  the  Congo  administration  will  be  considered. 


oovao 


234 


OOHOO 


Tho- accusations  fall  under  two  heads:  (1)  infidelity  U) 
promises  given  to  the  civilized  Powers;  (2)  injustice 
towards  the  Congolese. 

(1)  Breach  of  Faith, — ^The  land  s^^stem  inaugurated 
in  1891  is  said  to  be  incompatible  with  the  commercial 
freedom  stipulated  for  at  Berlin,  in  particular  with 
Article  5,  wnich  forbade  the  granting  of  monopolies, 
and  any  privileges  in  commercial  matters.  The  Inde- 
pendent State  denies  the  charge  of  infidelity:  "There 
IS  no  'commerce'  in  selling  the  product  of  one's  own 
land.  We  do  no  more  than  that.  The  monopolies 
we  accord  are  not  conmiercial.''  In  support  of  this 
view  the  opinions  of  jurists  of  different  countries  are 
adduced.  These  were  consulted,  especially  in  1892, 
and  included  Professor  Westlake  and  8it  Horace 
Davey,  the  latter  an.  English  judge  and  member  of 
the  Privy  Council. 

(2)  Inhuman  Treatment  of  Natives, — ^This  ac- 
cusation appeals  to  Christian  people;  it  touches  the 
principles  of  humanity.  The  Congo  State  is  accused 
of  oppressing,  instead  of  civilizing,  the  Congo,  and 
chaiges  of  atrocious  cruelty  have  been  brou^t.  So 
grave  were  these  that  King  Leopold  thought  it  wise 
to  establish  an  International  Commission  of  in(^uiry 
with  unlimited  authority  to  investigate  the  condition 
of  the  natives.  The  decree  of  23  July,  1904,  en- 
trusted this  important  duty  to  M.  Janssens  (General 
Advocate  of  the  Court  of  Cassation  of  Belgium),  as 
president  of  the  commission.  Baron  Nisco,  an  Italian 
(Temporary  President  of  the  Boma  Tribunal  of  Ap- 
pend), and  Doctor  de  Schiunacher  (Counsellor  of  State 
and  Chief  of  the  Department  of  Justice  of  the  Canton 
of  Lucerne,  Switzerland)..  The  commission  arrived 
at  Boma,  5  Oct.,  1904.  They  concluded  their  inves- 
tigations, 13  Feb.,  1905,  and  on  the  21st  of  the  same 
month  embarked  for  Europe.  The  report  was  made 
public,  6  Nov.,  1905,  in  the  official  bulletin  of  the  In- 
dependent State,  and  is  obviously  the  most  serious 
item  in  the  question  that  we  are  now  discussing.  We 
must  except,  however,  the  chapter  dealing  with  the 
missionaries.  In  this  the  commissioners  departed 
from  their  habitual  prudence,  and  their  expressions 
here — as  is  oonmionly  stated — do  not  accurately  repre- 
sent their  judgment.  According  to  this  report  one 
cannot  directly  charge  the  Independent  State  with 
responsibility  for  cruelties  inflicted  upon  individuals. 
Haere  are  doubtless  isolated  crimes,  but  these  are  pun- 
ished. There  are  also  the  involuntary  consequences 
of  governmental  measures,  but  these  unhappy  effects 
were  not  foreseen.  Such  were  the  del^ation  of 
powers  to  the  agents  of  companies;  the  giving  of  fire- 
arms to  black  sentinels;  the  failure  to  distinguish 
between  military  demonstrations  to  prevent  rebellion 
and  war  operations  to  repress  a  revolt.  Moreover, 
the  report  drew  attention  to  grave  abuses  in  the  re- 
cruiting of  labourers,  in  the  imposition  of  compulsory 
labour  on  the  natives,  in  the  land  regime,  ana  in  the 
omtnization  of  justice. 

Following  the  publication  of  this,  the  king  named  a 
Reform  Commission,  whose  work  resulted  in  certain 
recommendations  drawn  up  by  the  secretaries-gen- 
eral of  the  State.  These  tne  king  accepted  and  em- 
bodied in  the  Reform  Decrees  of  3  June,  1906. 

It  would  be  premature  at  this  time  to  forecast  the 
probable  influence  of  these  reforms  on  the  general  sit- 
uation in  the  Congo ;  we  are  too  near  the  events.  Im- 
partial history  wUl  distinguish  the  good  from  the  evil, 
and  fix  the  responsibilities.  It  may  be  said  that  the 
Report  recognized,  on  the  part  of  the  Independent 
State,  the  splendid  campai^  against  the  Arabs,  sig- 
nalized by  many  deeds  of  heroism,  which  put  an  end 
to  the  slave  trade,  and  rendered  its  resuscitation  al- 
most impossible.  To  the  intestine  wars  between 
the  chiefs  have  succeeded,  almost  everywhere,  peace 
and  security.  The  use  of  the  flail  and  of  alcohol  have 
been  rigorously  prohibited,  and  the  cannibal  tribes 
can  but  veiy  rarely  find  an  opportunity  of  indulging 


t-hoir  saviige  instincts.  Finally,  it  may  be  observed 
that  in  this  whole  aifair  Belgium  is  in  no  way  respon- 
sible; this  is  an  opinion  expressed  by  two  ministers  of 
the  British  Government  (see  debates  of  the  British 
Parliament  for  27  Feb.  and  3  March,  1908).  Belgium 
as  a  whole  has  remained  aloof  from  the  African  pro- 
ject,  and  the  methods  adopted  were  not  known  to  it. 
If,  indeed,  the  Congo  Government  had  appealed  with 
more  simplici^  and  frankness  to  the  relu^ous  senti- 
ments of  the  Belgian  people;  if  it  had  taken  care  to 
proclaim  a  programme  of  Christian  civilization,  it 
would  have  Kindled  more  enthusiasm  among  them, 
and  evoked  more  sympathy.  In  Uiat  case,  also,  it 
would  have  found  more  easily  the  men  capable  of  con- 
tributing to  a  work  of  such  supreme  moral  importance. 

VII.  Future  of  the  Congo  State. — ^By  a  vote  of 
14  Dec.,  1906,  the  Belgian  Chamber  of  Representa- 
tives expressed  its  willingness  to  consider  as  soon  as 
possible  the  question  of  annexation.  A  commission 
of  eighteen  was  immediately  charged  with  making 
a  draft  of  proposed  colonial  law.  When  M.  de- 
Trooz  succeeded  M.  de  Smet  de  Naeyer  as  prime  min- 
ister, he  annoimced  his  intention  of  rapidly  bringing 
about  the  transfer  of  the  Congo  State  to  Belgium. 
During  August,  1907,  the  Belgian  and  the  Congo  Gov- 
ernments each  named  four  plenipot^itiaries  to  draw 
up  the  treaty  of  annexation.  A  praiseworthy  activ- 
ity was  displayed.  The  commission  of  eighteen 
adopted  on  the  first  reading  a  tentative  body  of  laws; 
the  plenipotentiaries  agreed  to  sign  a  treaty.  The 
treaty,  however,  was  not  well  received  by  the  public; 
the  Liberal  Left  unanimously  declared  they  could  not 
accept  it.  The  principal  difficulty,  it  seems,  was  the 
clause  in  the  Treaty  of  Cession  which  assures  the  per- 
petuity of  the  Domaine  de  la  Couronne.  It  is  true 
that  the  revenues  of  this  Domaine  were  to  be  disposed 
of  in  a  generous  way;  yet  many  representatives  re- 
fused to  bind  the  mother  country  to  the  maintenance 
of  a  foundation  which  had  merely  been  earnestly  rec- 
ommended. In  the  meantime  M.  de  Trooe  died. 
M.  Schollaert,  his  successor,  pronounced  in  favour  of 
annexation,  and  his  declaration  before  the  Chamber 
gave  promise  of  more  acceptable  conditions  of  aimex^ 
ation.  An  additional  clause  introduced  by  him  into 
the  treaty  greatly  improved  the  situation. 

VIII.  Missions  in  the  Conoo. — Ancient, — ^The 
evangelization  of  the  Congo  began  as  early  as  1484,  when 
Diego  Cam  discovered  the  mouth  of  the  Congo  River, 
known  as  the  Zaire  until  the  seventeenth  century. 
Cam's  naval  chaplain  set  himself  at  once  to  preach  the 
"good  news"  to  the  natives,  and  won  to  the  Faith  the 
chief  of  Sogno,  a  village  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Coneo, 
where  he  first  landed.  Some  of  the  inhabitants  of  mis 
village  accompanied  Cam  on  his  return  voyage  and 
were  solemnly  baptized  at  the  court  of  John  II  of 
Portu^.  Later,  the  head  chief  of  Banza-Con^o 
(Outeiro,  the  present  San  Salvador)  asked  King  John 
for  missionaries.  Three  were  sent  (whether  they 
were  Dominicans  or  Franciscans  or  members  of  a  Lis- 
bon chapter,  we  do  not  know) ;  they  finally  baptised 
the  heaa  chief  and  many  other  subordinate  ones  at 
Banza-Congo,  in  a  wooden  structure  called  the  church 
of  the  Holy  Cross.  In  1518  a  grandson  of  this  chi^, 
known  as  Henry,  who  had  been  ordained  in  Portugal, 
was  made  titular  Bishop  of  Utioa,  and  appointed  by 
Leo  X  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Congo.  Unfortunately,  he 
died  before  quitting  Europe.  He  is  the  only  native 
bishop  Congo  has  ever  had. 

From  the  beginning  the  Portuguese  undertook  to 
introduce  European  customs  in  Congo.  The  petty 
chiefs  became  kings  with  Portu^;ue6e  names;  their 
secretaries  of  State  headed  public  documents  thus: 
"We,  Alphonso  [or  Diego]  by  the  grace  of  God  King 
of  Congo  and  of  Ilungo,  of  Cacongo,  of  Ngoyo,  of  the 
lands  above  and  below  the  Zaire,  Lord  of  the  Am- 
boados  and  of  Angola  .  .  .  and  of  the  Conquest  isic] 
of  Parizon.  .  .  "    The  chiefs  for  the  most  part  oould 


ooirao 


235 


OOHOO 


do  no  more  than  put  their  mark  to  th^se  documents. 
One  of  them  imitated  the  feudal  system  a^  divided 
his  kingdom  into  seigniories,  duchies,  etc.  At  tiie  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century  a  native  chief, 
Alvares  II,-  sent  one  of  his  rdatives^  a  marquis,  as  his 
representative  to  the  papal  court.  The  ambassador 
arrived  in  Rome  in  a  cijring  condition  and  expired  the 
day  after  his  arrival,  the  Eve  of  Epiphany,  1608. 
Paul  V,  who  personally  assisted  the  ambassacfor  in  his 
last  moments,  gave  him  a  magnificent  state  funeral 
and  erected  to  his  memory  a  monument  at  St.  Mary 
Maj(»r's.  Later,  Urban  VIII  had  a  superb  mauso- 
leum erected  to  faim  by  Bernini;  it  still  stands  at  the 
entranee  to  the  chdr  of  the  basilica.  The  Domini- 
cans, fVanciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Jesuits  were  the 
first  missionaries  of  the  Congo.  In  spite  of  the  prom- 
ising beginnings,  their  labours,  though  trying,  were 
rather  miitless.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Jesuits  had  two  colleges,  one  at  Loanda,  anotaer,  of 
minor  importance,  at  Ban  Salvador.  On  the  whole, 
relijgio&  n&ver  really  took  firm  root,  and  was  early 
brought  into  discredit  by  the  vices  and  slave-trading 
of  the  Portuguese.  It  has  managed,  however,  to 
linger  on  in  Portuguese  Congo  to  our  days.  While  the 
Porti^^ese  always  oanfinedf  themselves  to  the  Lower 
Congo,  as  eariy  as  the  seventeenth  century  the  mis- 
eionaries  had  traversed  the  course  of  the  Zaire,  and 
a  seventeenth-oentiuy  map  has  been  discovered  which 
tmoes  tiie  river  according  to  data  supplied  by  them. 
From  Uiis  it  would  seem  uiat  Stanley  has  not  the  dis- 
tiiftotion  of  being  the  first  white  man  to  explore  the 
Upper  Congo. 

Moefani.'— French  and  Portuguese  Congto. — On 
20  May,  1716,  Clement  XI  created  the  episcopal  see  of 
Santa  Cruz  do  Reino  de  Angola.  The  residence  was  at 
first  at  San  Salvador,  but  was  later  on  transferred  to 
Loaada.  The  Portuguese  bishop  of  this  town  has 
under  his  jurisdiction  about  twenty  priests.  It  is 
thro^i^  tiiis  sec  that  the  ancient  and  modem  missions 
of  Congo  are  muted  (see  Angola).  The  first  modem 
missionaries  were  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
(mothfiP-house  at  Paris).  Towards  the  midme  of  the 
nineteentli  century  this  flourishing  congregation  of 
missionaries  had  the  spiritual  care  of  all  the  West 
African  coast  from  the  Sene^  to  the  Orange  River, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Diocese  of  Loanda,  T*hey 
still  havei  chcrae  of  all  French  Congo  and  of  Portu- 
guese Congo  (Loanda  excepted). 

(1)  Frendi  Congo.— The  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
have  here  three  vicariates: — (a>  Gabon,  founded  in 
1$42  and  confided  to  them  in  1845.  Mgr.  Adam  is 
vicar  Apostolic;  12  i^dences;  mission  staff.  42 
priests,  21  brothers,  1  native  priest,  7  native  brotners, 
and  41  eatechists.  (b)  Loango  River  (Lower  French 
GoDgo),  founded,  24  Nov.,  1886;  pro-vicar  Apostolic, 
Mgr.  Ddrouet;  6  residences;  mission  staff,  18  priests, 
11  brothers,  1  naUve  priest,  8  native  seminansts,  17 
natrre  brothers,  and  60  eatechists. — (c)  Ubanghi 
(Upper  French  Con^),  founded,  14  Oct.,  1890;  vicar 
Apostolic  is  Mgr.  Augouard;  7  residences;  mission 
staff,  24  priests,  16  brothers,  and  14  eatechists.  The 
Christians  of  these  three  vicariates  number  about 
40,000,  of  whom  more  than  half  are  catechumens. 

<2)  Pcrtu^oese  Congo. — ^This  has  a  prefecture 
ApoetoBo  dating  from  27  June,  1&40»  The  C£4>uchins 
aomii^stei^  it  until  1834,  when  the  mission  was 
abandon^.  A  pontifical  decree  of  1  Sept.,  1865,  re- 
established it  and  entrusted  it  to  the  Fathers  of  the 
Holy  Ghost;  4  residenoes,  II  priests,  11  brothers,  12 
native  seminarists,  10  native  brothers,  and  24  cate- 
^lits:  Ohrietians  about  7000*  These  %area  repre- 
sent tne  condition  of  the  minioBS  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  urMardi,  190& 

Tlie  Free  State.*— Charies  George  Gordon,  the  hero 
of  Khartoum,  a  Presbyterian,  was  among  the  first  to 
draw  ih»  attention  of  Leopold  II  to  the  need  of  estab- 
tishing  numerous  OsithoHo  ihissions  in  his  African  king- 


dom. At  the  beginning  of  1884,  some  days  before  his 
departure  for  the  Sudan,  Gordon  was  chosen  General 
Administrator  of  the  Stations  of  the  International  As- 
sociation, and  in  this  quality  had  an  interview  with 
Leopold,  towards  the  end  of  which  Gordon  remarked: 
"Sire,  we  have  forgotten  the  principal  thing— the 
missionaries".  "Oh,  I  have  already  considered  the 
question",  said  Leopold.  "T*he  Association  gives 
help  and  protection  to  all  missionaries;  further^  it 
has  given  a  subsidy  to  the  missionaries  of  the  Bible 
Society,  to  the  Baptists  ..."  "Yes,"  replied 
Giordon,  "  but  you  must  also  send  Roman  mission- 
aries, many  Roman  missionaries"  (Revue  G^ndrale, 
1885,  p.  116),  From  24  Feb.,  1878,  there  was  at 
the  extreme  east  of  the  Congo  State  a  pro-vicariate 
Apostolic  for  the  Upper  Congo.  This  became,  in 
1880,  a  vicariate,  and  was  served  by  the  White 
Fathers  of  Cardinal  Lavigerie  (q.  v.).    But  after  the 


Ife 

Mm- 

^ 

MiasioN  OF  THE  Wbitb  Fatubrs,  Tanqanyika 

establishment  of  the  new  State  in  1885,  Leopold  per- 
suaded the  Holv  See  to  reserve  the  Catholic  evai:^- 
i^ation  of  his  African  dominion  to  Belgian  mission- 
aries. Cardinal  Lavigerie  did  not,  however,  abandon 
this  post  of  honour,  but  founded  a  Bel^an  branch  of 
his  institute,  which,  by  a  pontifical  Bnef  of  30  Dec., 
1886,  was  placed  in  cnazge  of  the  Vicariate  of  the  Upper 
Congo.  Its  activities  are  confined  to  the  Independent 
State ;  vicar  Apostolic,  Mgr.  Roelens.  An  African  sem- 
inary was  founded  at  louvain  (1886)  and  plac^  under 
the  direction  of  Canon  Forget  jprof  essor  ot  theology  at 
the  University  of  Louvain.  Ine  difiiculties  attired 
to  such  an  enterprise  soon  made  themselves  felt,  and  it 
was  found  impossible  to  carry  it  on  without  the  help 
of  some  rellgipus  institute.  The  aid  of  the  young  but 
already  flourishing  Conjugation  of  the  Missionaries 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  (known  also  as  the  Con- 
gregation of  Scheutveld,  alter  the  mother-house  at 
Scheutveld  near  Brussels)  had  alreadv  been  sought  in 
1876,  and  they  were  a^ain  appealed  to  in  1884. 
Thou^  the  missions  in  China  and  Mongolia  absorbed 
nearly  ail  their  strength,  they  determined  (1886-^7) 
to  make  an  effort  to  assist  the  C!onco»  In  1888  they 
took  over  the  African  seminary,  and  on  11  May  of  the 
same  year  Leo  XIII  created  the  immense  vicariate 
Apostolic  (present  incumbent,  Mgr.  Van  Ronsl^)  of 
the  Belgian  Congo,  which  he  committed  to  their  care. 
On  26  July,  1901,  a  part  of  this  territory  was  detadied, 
thou^  still  left  in  their  charge,  to  form  the  new  Pre- 
fecture Apostolic  of  the  Upper  Kassai;  pref.  Ap. 
(1908)  is  Mgr.  Henri  Cambier. 

Towards  the  end  of  1891  the  Belgian  Jesuits, 
already  overburdened  with  two  foreign  missions, 
undertook  to  send  a  body  of  missionaries  to  the  Congo. 
They  were  placed  in  charge  of  a  portion  of  the  Belgian 
Ckuigo  vicariate ;  on  31  Jan.,  1903,  their  mission  became 
the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Kwan^.  The  superior  and 
Pjraf.  Ap.  (1908)  is  the  Rev.  Julian  Banckaert,  S.  J. 
lliere  are  also  a  prefecture  Apostolic:  Welle,  founded 
12  May,  1898,  Premonstratensians  of  the  Abbey  of 


OOHOO 


236 


001100 


Tdngerloo  ^pref .  Ap.,  Rev.  M.  L.  Derikx)  and  a  vicari- 
ate Apostolic:  Stanly  Falls,  founded  as  a  prefecture 
3  Aug.,  1904,  Priests  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (vie.  Ap.,  Rev. 
G.  Orison) .  There  are  other  missionaries  in  the  Belgian 
vicariate  who,  though  having  no  autonomous  territory, 
nevertheless  render  very  important  service  in  the  evan- 
gelization of  the  country.  Among  these  are  the  Trap- 
pists  and  the  Redemptorists.  The  former  went  from 
the  Abbey  of  Westmalle  in  1894,  hoping  td  acquire  in 
Africa,  by  the  foundation  of  agricultural  colonies,  a  civ- 
ilizing influence  similar  to  that  of  the  medieval  Benedic- 
tines. Their  first  efforts  in  the  Lower  Congo  were 
fruitless;  later  they  established  themselves  in  the 
Upper  Congo  beyond  the  confluence  of  the  Oon(p>  and 
the  Ruki,  almost  on  the  Equator.  Their  prmcipal 
post  is  at  Bamania.  The  Redemptorists  nave  suc- 
ceeded the  secular  priests  at  Matadi  in  the  evangeliza- 
tion of  the  town  and  of  the  railway  employees.  In 
190M)6  the  Mill  Hill  Missionaries  (Endish)  accepted 
two  posts  in  the  Upijer  Conso.  The  Vicariate  Apos- 
tolic of  Sudan,  administered  by  the  White  Fathers, 
has  under  its  jurisdiction  a  portion  of  the  Congo  State ; 
vicar  Apostolic^gr.  H.  L.  Bazin.  In  May,  1907,  the 
Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  were  engaged  as  chaplains 
to  the  second  railway  section  of  the  Great  Lakes. — 
The  numerous  sisters  of  various  religious  institutes 
who  have  devoted  their  fortimes  and  their  lives  to  the 
moral  and  religious  education  of  the  Congolese  women 
do  an  amount  of  good  beyond  all  praise.  The  Sis- 
ters of  Charity  of  Jesus  and  Mary  (Ghent  Institute) 
were  the  first  to  enter  on  this  arduous  mission.  They 
are  found  in  the  districts  evangelized  by  the  Fathers 
of  Scheutveld  and  are  assisted  by  the  Franciscan  Sis- 
ters, from  Gooreind,  Antwerp  province.  The  Mis- 
sionary Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  (Natal,  Hqlland) 
are  employed  in  the  missions  of  the  Trappist  Fathers. 
The  Congregation  of  Our  Lady  of  Africa  (White  Sis- 
ters) devote  themselves  to  the  natives  in  the  Vicariate 
of  Upper  Congo.  In  the  Prefecture  of  Kwango  the 
Notre  Dame  Sisters  (Namur)  are  established;  in 
Welle  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  (Berlaer- 
lez-Lierre).  For  statistics  see  below  the  table  of. 
Catholic  missions. 

German  East  Africa. — ^The  German  possessions  oc- 
cupy but  a  very  small  part  of  the  Congo  Basin.  There ' 
are  three  vicariates  in  charge  of  the  White  Fathers: 
South  Nyanza  under  Mgr.  J,  J.  Hirth;  Unymuezi 
under  Mgr.  F.  Gerboin;  and  Tanganyika  under  Mgr. 
A.  Le  Chaptois.  In  addition  there  is  the  Vicariate  of 
Central  Zanzibar,  in  chaige  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  under  Mgr.  F.  X.  Vogt.  Finally,  the  Vicariate 
of  South  Zanzibsu-,  or  Dar  es  Salaam,  m  chaiige  of  the 
Bavarian  Congregation  of  St.  Odile  under  Mgr.  T. 
Spreiter. 

Non-Catholic  Missions. — ^There  are  very  few  of 
these  in  the  French  Congo.  We  may  mention  the 
two  missions  of  Ogowe,  formerly  held  by  the  Ameri- 
can Presbyterians,  and  now  by  the  Paris  Evangelical 
Missions.  Quite  recently  a  Swedish  mission  has  been 
established  in  Loango.  In  Portuguese  Congo  the 
Methodists  have  nine  missions.  Six  missionary  socie- 
ties devote  themselves  to  the  evangelization  of  Ger- 
man East  Africa,  viz.:  the  Evangelical  Missionary 
Society  for  German  East  Africa,  the  Pagan  Mission- 
ary Society,  the  Community  of  Brothers,  and  the 
Evangelical  Missionai^  Society  of  Leipzig;  ancT  two 
EngliSi,  viz. :  the  Universities  Mission  to  Central 
Africa  and  the  Chureh  Missionary  Society.  In  the 
Gon^  Independent  State  there  are  many  Protestant 
missions.  The  longest  established  is  the  l^glish 
Baptist  Missionary  Society,  Lower  Congo  (1877).  Idr 
1879  followed  the  Livingstone  Inland  Mission;  Luth- 
e^n  Svenska  or  Swedish  Mission  (1881);  American 
Baptist  Missionary  Union  p883);  Bishop  Taylor's 
Self-Supporting  Mission  (1886);  Congo  Balolo  Mission 
ri889);  International  Missionary  Alliance  (1889); 
American   Southern  Presbyterian    Mission    (1891); 


Amot  Scotch  Pred>yterian  liiarion  (1891);  Seventh 
Day  Baptists  (1893).  In  1897  there  were  56  stationB 
with  221  mission  workeni  of  both  sexes. 

The  Natives, — ^The  irreligion  and  ignorance  of  the 
Congolese  have  often  been  ezaggevated  and  misrepre' 
sented.  They  are  not  so  debased  as  many  preftend. 
They  reoognize  a  supreme  Gkxl,  Oeator  en  au  things, 
but  they  eeem  very  largely  to  ignore  His  immediate 
Providenoe  and  His  intervention  in  the  affaire  of  this 
worid.  They  believe  in  the  existence  of  spirits,  and 
admit  a  metempsychosis  more  or  less  happy  in  a 
future  life.  Their  worship  is  a  qaedes  of  gross  fetkh- 
ism,  propagated  by  the  soreerere,  iK4u)6e  influence  m 
very  great  and  often  most  pernicious.  These  soreer- 
ers  are  the  "wise  men"  of  Congo;  th^  are  oonnilted 
about  everything.  If  misfortune  comes  or  crime  is 
committed,  it  is  to  them  that  reeourse  must  be  had, 
and  whoever  is  designated  by  them  as  the  cause  of  the 
evil  must  pass  throu^  the  test  of  fire  or  of  eoaoiis 
(poisoned  orink).  The  State  forbids  such  tests  undw 
most  severe  penalties.  SuposUtious  fears  and  davish 
attachment  to  amulets  are  the  chief  obstades  to  con- 
version. Others  are  the  practice  of  poiy^an^,  laigely 
due  to  the  custom  which  prevents  toe  wife  mm  hav- 
ing any  relations  with  her  huriMmd  during  the  period 
of  lactation — ^from  two  to  three  years— lest  she 
should  make  her  child  unhappy;  tne  cannihdism 
which  exists  in  certain  parts;  ingrained  habits  of 
idleness*  gross  egoism;  the  worship  of  might  as  con- 
founded with  right — in  short  that  sum  of  differences 
^^ch  separates,  as  by  an  abyss,  the  essentially 
pagan  soul  of  the  Congolese  from  the  Christian 
conception  of  ri^t  and  wrong  which  the  nussionerB 
try  to  knpart.  The  excesses  and  the  evil  example 
of  the  Europeans  themselves  render  the  missionary's 
task  even  more  difficult.  Add  to  this  the  abuse 
which,  in  districts  where  the  rubber  trade  flour- 
ishes or  in  the  neidibourhood  of  towns,  imposes  a 
hard  task  of  from  fifteen  to  twen^  days  per  month 
of  forced  labour  instead  of  the  forty  noun  fixed  fay  the 
law;  the  unfortunate  divisions  between  the  Ghnatian 
churehes  and  the  acts  of  petty  opposition  consequent 
thereon — ^and  theproUem  is  still  further  complicated. 
Nor  is  b31  ended  in^ien  the  Congolese  is  convwtod;  he 
must  be  continually  uised  to  hold  last  to  the  gtft  he 
has  received,  for  his  fiddeness  is  veiy  jfreat.  Often 
he  imagines  that  his  obligation  to  remam  a  CSiristian 
ceases  with  the  contract  which  binds  him  to  a  mission 
or  to  the  service  of  Europeans.  In  the  eastern  part 
of  Upper  Congo  the  Arabs,  who  frequently  make  esave 
raids,  have  managed  to  win  over  to  their  leUgion  many 
of  the  intelligent  tribes  of  the  Bakusus.  Tnese  pros- 
elytes regard  all  their  workmen  as  staves  for  Hfe;  they 
are  immoral,  fanatic,  and  very  hostile  to  the  OospeL 

The  noble  work  of  evangelisation  in  the  Congo, 
however,  is  far  from  being  fruitlesa.  As  formeriy 
under  the  Portuguese  rule,  so  to-day  the  missionaries 
find  souls  in  which  their  teaching  takes  finn  root. 
Mgr.  Augouard  gives  the  example  of  a  catechist  of 
the  tribe  of  Babois  who,  seeing  the  resources  of  the 
mission  failing,  undertook  to  feed  and  clothe  the  chil- 
dren of  his  school  with  the  profits  of  his  sewing- 
machine.  Ihe  most  intelligent  part  oi  the  popula- 
tion inhabits  the  Domaine  oe  la  Uouronne  ana  is  well 
disposed  towards  Christianitj^.  Until  19QB  these 
people  were  shut  off  from  aXi  immediate  missicmaiy 
mSuence;  they  were  evangelized,  however,  by  some 
of  their  countrymen  who  had  become  Christians  while 
serving  in  the  army.  Many  travelled  long  distances 
to  see  and  speak  with  the  Catholic  nuflsionarieSy  and 
both  men  and  women,  nothing  daunted^  undertook 
perilous  Journeys  in  order  to  reach  the  mission  sta- 
tions. It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  mis- 
sionaries have  been  received  evetywhere.with  enthu- 
siasm, and  that  the  natives  have  offered  to  build  their 
simple  habitations  and  schools. 

The  Manner  cf  Evangdiaiiig* — Guided  by  eiqNsri* 


C.«»jirar/« 

t  SMt  ot  mihoprie  T  SMt  of  Ticsriato  ApMtoIie 
•*  Pnfectar*  Apoatolic   ?   ••     ••  Pr«latar«NulllM 
£be*toCMInioa 
•  ^Utioal  Caiiital  of  EuropaMi  OoloalM 
CftblM       Native  TrlbB  N»in««  In  It irW e 9 


V  ^  ^BuHoruG, 

ViCABIATB, 

nuanxrvKE, 
OA  Mxmoir 


RXATOF 

BiBBoruc, 

ViCAmiATK. 
rBXriCTURR, 


ECCLBBIASnCAL  BIAP  OF 

SOUTH  AFRICA 

nbawing  the  boumUriM  of  th« 

BISHOPRICS, 

YICABIATES  and  PREFECTURES 

AF06T0UC 

PRBLATURB  NULUUS. 

•ad  MISSIONS. 

8m  AlMlUp  of  AfiicAtn  VoL  I.  and  Map  of 
Sorth  Africa  in  VoLV. 

,  MO  400  .  .  lOpC 


«  Pref.      Northern  Nigeria Lokora 

17     '■  fioothern  Mifferla Unltaha 


Kameron  . 
Kemando-Po . 


•_2e_ 


Cugtith  SUtuU  MilM 


J5(» 


81  Tla 
n  " 
•^     " 

51  KreL 
96  Vks. 

90  Pref. 
87     ** 

80  Miaa 
90  Biah. 

40  Ukn. 

41  Prat 
49     '• 
49  Vic 
44     " 

46  PreC. 

40  Vie. 

47  " 
aPreC 
40  Vie. 


Duala 

Santa  Uabel 

Bata  lUanoD  (Rio  Muai). . . .  .Bata 

Oaban LibrerlUe,  Fr.  Conpro 

Fr.  Upper  Congo BrasaaTllle 

Fr.  Lower  Congo Loango 

Portogueae  Coiuro lAndana 

Congo  Independent  State  . . .  ■ 

T. .V. LeopoldTUle 

Kwango  (Mlaslon)  ....  Klnmensa 

Upper  Ka«al  (MiBslon)   

Lulnabnrg 

Lunda  (Angola)  Malange 

Angola 8.  Paolo  de  Loanda 

Cunene Huilla 

Upper  CimbebaBla Katoko 

Low«T Cnmbebaala  ....Windhoek 

Orange  KiTer Pella 

W.  Ckpe  Colony Oape  Town 

Oentral  Cape  CoL^min.  from . . . 

r:^eTown 

EMt.  Oape  OoL  . .  .Port  Elizabeth 

Natal  Pletermaritaimrg 

Baantoland 

„  I  RlT.  OoL 


61  Via 
69     •• 

68 


8.  Medagwrar Ft.  Danphln 

OntrTaadagawmr. .  .TananarlTo 

N.  Madagascar DIctroSttarca 

R«unlon..St  DenyalsLof  RAonion 

Port  Louis MauntiiM 

Port  Victoria  . .  .Mali«,  SeTchellen 

67  Pref.       C^omorea HeUrille,  Boaii  B« 

68  {{i^}  Moaambiqne (^oUiniane 

60  Pref.      Zambeaia BnUwajo 


60  Vic 
01  Vic 

69  " 
68  " 
04     •* 

06  « 

00  " 

07  •• 

OSFlrer. 
M     " 

70  Vic 

71  •• 
79 

78  Pref. 
74  Vic 

76  •♦ 
70  Pref. 

77  ■ 
i«  « 
80  Vic 

01  •* 


Nyaaaiand Kalambl 

a  Zanzibar.^ Par  ea  Salaam 

N.  luuunoar ...Zanribar 

Tanganyika Karema 

Unyanyembe  Marlahllf 

.77:. (Uahlrombo) 

S.  Victoria  Nyansa Kamogo 

N  Victoria  Nyansa .Rubaga 

Upper  Congo  (Ind.  State)  .... 

BaudoainTille 

Stanley  Faila St.  Leopold 

Welle Amadl 

Uganda N'Sambya 

OallBrLana  Barrar 

Br.  Boinallland  (to  Vic  Arabia) 


Erythraa. 
Ab; — •-'- 


AUtiema 


_  __  .  BraTa»  It.  Somali 

KenlaMiaaion 

Shire BantaMaria 

'}entral  Zanaiher Banunoyo 

Ubanghl-Shari Btt  Camilla 


oo^rmmn,  iNa.  ar  noacar  AmaroN  co. 


THS  MATTHEWa-NORTHKUP  WORKS,  aurFALO,  N.  T^ 


OONOO 


237 


OOMOO 


eQoe,  the  prawni  miaBiooaries  cooler  baptism  only  on 
those  who  have  been  well  instnieted  aiiid  well  tested. 
Their  efaief  reUanoe  is  placed  in  the  education  of  the 
youiUL  Hence  in  the  stations  they  have  founded 
schoQU  where  reli^on  is  taud^t  almig  with  the  trades. 
For  the  Catholics  it  is  the  rdigious,  men  and  women, 
who  have  devoted  themselves  to  this  work;  among 
the  fix>testant8  Bin.  Bentl^  deserves  the  highest 
praise  for  the  intelligoit  direction  she  has  given  to  the 
trade  instruction.  The  fennM^hajMM,  of  which 
mention  is  often  made,  are  rural  schools  where,  under 
the  guidance  of  certain  picked  pupUs,  the  ^oung 
Congoleee  are  taught  agriculture.  The  miasionary 
who  regularly  visits  these  posts  supplies  the  farm  in- 
stmmente  and  the  seeds;  the  chief  who  grants  the  use 


Fathers  possessed  a  school  of  catecfaists  with  73  piq>il8, 
a  petit  a^minaire  with  14  pupfls,  and  a  grand  ahninaim 
with  one  pupil.  The  resources  of  the  Catholic  mis- 
sions are  mostljr  derived  from  private  charity.  Many 
Protestant  missions  are  veiy  ridily  endowed. 

I-VII. — For  thb  History  op  Congo  before  the  Estab- 
LUHMENT  OP  THE  Btatb. — PxaAPXTTA,  Le  Cotiffo,  La  vSridique 
de»eription  du  rouaume  Africainf  from  the  Latin  ed.  of  IfiOS 
(BnuaeU,  1883)^  Oayazzz,  HiHonsehe  Betchreibunoder  in  dem 
unternoccidienlaU»dien  Makrenloind  liegende  drei  K&nioreidien 
CongOt  Matamba  und  Angola  tmd  der  jetziqen  Apoaioliaehen 
Miasionen.  80  von  denen  PP.  Capudnen  daseOtai  vertichtet 
worden  (Munich,  1094);  Mhjtb  Edwards,  hiveatigaeBe9  geogra- 
F^toM  do»  nortuffuaea  (IaBbon»  1879);  Stamlet,  Through  tha 
'  Jknie  Contment  (1879);  Idem,  The  Conpo:  Jte  PaH  History, 
PretetU  Development,  and  Future  Commercial  Proepeeta  (London. 
1884);  Idem,  England  and  ths  Congo  and  Maneheater  Trade,  ana 


CATHOLIC  MISSIONS  IN  THE  CONGO. 


IffiasianRry  BodiM 


White  F»th»n 


PriaiU  of  SoiMutvsld 

Jesuits 

Premonstratensians 

Trappfists 

Fathsis  of  the  Sacred  Hsftrt 

Redemptorists 

White  Sisters 
Sistexs  of  Charity 

StsUn  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary 

Franciscan  Sisteri 

Mianonaiy  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood 

Sisters  of  Our  Lady 


i  I 

11 


23 

6 
3 

4 
8 


29  M.  P. 
37  Schools 

28  M.  P.        1 

56  Catechu-     I 

nenates  (Lower  f 

23  M.  P. 
U  M.  P. 

37  F.  Ch. 
47  F.  Ch. 


2  Schools 
5  Schools 

2  Schools 

2  Schools 

2  Schools 


I 

n  o 


ilO  Hospitals     I 
20  Dispensaries 
15  Homes       ' 

2  Hospitals 

1  Hospital 

1  Hospital 
1  Hospital 
1  Hospital 


1  Home 

2  Homes 
2Hospitab 
2  Homes 

1  Hospital 

2  Homes 

1  Hospital 

2  Homes 


25 


68 

22 

9 

9 

17 

12 


9 
82 
11 

16 


8 


12 


22 

12 
8 
3 
2 

12 


8753 

3590 

lOOO(r) 

8000 

8778 

1500 


18,797 


21,006 

4063 

SOOO(T) 

9000 

4396 

8000 


Included  amons 
figures  given  above 


of  the  plot  of  ground  still  retaiiu  his  title  to  the  prop^ 
erty;  while  the  pupils,  who  form  atsort  of  community 
RMind  a  little  chapd,  have  the  usufruct.  A  wise  law 
of  the  State  places  at  the  disposal  of  charitable  and 
philanthnmical  institutions  uie  orphans  and  aban- 
doned diiidfen,  who  are  very  numerous  in  the 
Oonflo.  Hitherto  the  Catholics  (with  the  exception  of 
one  Protestant  mission)  have  been  the  only  missioneiB 
to  daim  lAiem.  The  catechists  render  very  valuable 
services  to  the  missionaries;  they  are  always  selected 
from  among  the  cleverest  and  best  trained  of  the 
young  native  ChristianB.  The  sleeping-sickness  has 
nven  rise  to  several  hospitals,  or  lazarets,  conducted 
oy  the  mission&rles.  Both  Protestant  and  Catholic 
^uasioiDs  have  established  printiiu;  presses;  that  of  the 
Oatholios  is  at  Kieantu.  To  facilitate  transportation 
the  Pkotestants  have  four  steamers»  and  the  Catholios 
two.  In  respeet  to  the  relations  between  the  missions 
*Ad  the  civil  power  we  may  cite  the  convention  con- 
duded  Ifay,  1906,  between  the  Holy  See  and  the 
Sl^te.  The  laitter  agreed  to  grant  certain  lands  to  the 
pi^iBiioiiByin  return  for  which  it  stipulated  for  the  open- 
ing and  maintenance  of  schools  and  religious  services 
|n  the  principal  centres.  Both  agreed  to  maintain 
narmony  between  their  respective  subjects,  and  to 
^gulate  amicably  all  differences*.    In  1907  the  White 


the  Worka  and  Aima  of  the  International  Aaaodation  (Manches- 
ter. 1884);  Idem,  Cinq  anniea  au  Congo.  Fr.  tr.  GintAm> (Brussels, 
1886);  Da  Santos  b  Bilva,  Eabooo  kteterico  do  Congo  e  Loango 
noe  tempoa  modemoa.  Contendo  tana  reaenha  daa  co^umea  e 
vocabtdario  doe  indigence  de  Cabinda  (Lisbon.  1888);  Wsbnkr. 
A  Visit  to  Stanley' a  Rear-guard  at  Mmor  Bartletfa  camp  on 
the  Aruhvfini,  with  an  Account  of  River  Life  on  the  Congo  (Lon- 
don, 1880);  LxvufoeroNB,  Miaaionarv  Travels  and  Reaearchea  in 
South  Africa,  induding  a  Sketch  of  Sixteen  Yeara  Reaidence  in 
the  Interior  of  Africa  (London);  Horb,  Tanganyka:  Eleven 
Yeara  in  Central  Africa  (London,  1802);  Junkbb,  Travela  m 
Africa,  tr.  by,  Kbbnb  (London,  1800,  1802);  Glavb.  Six  Yeara 
of  Adventure  in  Congoland,  preface  by  Stanlbt  (London,  1803); 
gpTANLBY,  In  Darkeet  Africa  (1800). 

SiNCB  THB  Establishment  op  thb  Independbnt  Statb. — 
(a)  Impartial: — Wautbrs,  R6sumS  dee  principaux  fetita  de 
thiatoire  de  I'lwuvra  afrieaine  (Brussels,  1878-87):  Axjexib,  Le 
Congo  Bdge  illueM  ou  VEtat  Indipendant  du  Congo  {Uhge,  1802); 
Lallbmand.  UCSuvre  Corigolaiae,    Bequiaae  hxatorique  et  gich 


1808):  Queationnaire  ethnogrtmhique  et  aociologique,  published  by 
the  Museum  of  the  Indep.  State  (Bnissels,  1808);  MiUiS.  Au 
Congo  Beige,  ovee  dee  notea  el  dee  documente  rioenta  relam  au 
Congo  Franoaia  (Paris.  1800);  Pbiups.  An  Account  of  the  Congo 
Independent  State  (Philadelphia,  1800):  Blanchabd,  Formation 
et  conatituHon  de  VEtat  Indipendant  du  Congo  (Pftris.  1800); 
Wautbrs.  VEtat  Indipendant  du  Congo  (Bnisseb,  1800); 
Ifonuel  du  vouaaew  et  du  rSaident  au  Congo,  rSiig4  aoue  la  direc- 
tion du  Colonel  Donny  (Brussels,  1000);  Spbtbr.  Comment  noua 
gouvemerona  le  Congo  (Brussels,  1002);  VBRMBBincH,  La 
Queetion  Congciaiee;  Lea  deatiniea  du  Congo  Beige  (Brussels, 
1006);  LonwBBB,  EUmenU  du  droit  de  VEtat  Indipendant  du 


OONOREOATIO 


238 


OONCnUMATIO 


ConMt  BovLovit,  The  Congo  SuOe,  w  the  OwMlh  «f  CivOi^ation 
m  CeninA  iifnoa,  (Londcn,  ^808;)  Oattibk,  Droit  tt  odbitmM- 
tratum  de  VStM  IndioendarU  du  Conoo  (BniflseLs.  1898);  Bvac 
ixn  otJSiciel  de  VEUU  Indipenaant  du  Conoo:  Bapport  au  Koi  Sou- 
verain  (JuDe,  1006);  Rapport  de  la  Commisnon  d'mquite  (Oct.. 
1905);  Mac  Ddunxl,  King  Leopold  U  (London.  1905);  hms!, 
A  Yankee  in  Pigmyland  (London,  1905);  Etat  fndipendant  du 
Congo.  Dipartemeni  de  VIrUirieur.  Recueil  administrtUtf  (Bruasela, 
1907);  Starh,  The  Truth  about  the  Congo  (Chicago,  1907). 

(b)  Favottrable  to  the  Slate: — Dboogmans,  Le  Congo.  U  Con- 
fSrencea  publiques  (Brussete,  1894):  L'Etat  IndHpendant  du 
Congo  A  Texpoeition  de  BruxeUee — Tervucren  (189/);  Gilson, 
OoFFART,  ETC.,  VtBuvre  eoloniale  du  roi  en  AfrUpie,  r^suUals  de  tO 
one  (Bniflsels,  1898):  Goffabt.  Trait6  mHhodigue  de  giqgraphie 
du  Congo,  etc.  (Antwerp,  1898).  The  reviews:  La  BdgUnte 
CMontale:  La  Belgujue  Maritime  et  Cohniale:  Le  Congo  Bdge 
(Bniasels).  See  alao  Nts,  The  Independent  State  of  the  Congo 
and  the  International  Law  (Bnissels,  1903);  Descaups,  New 
jjfrtea  (London,  1903);  La  V6riU  eur  le  Congo  (Bnisaels.  1902- 
06);  Waoc,  The  Story  of  the  Congo  Free  State  (New  York,  1905); 
Htetoire  mtlitaire  du  Congo  (Bruascis,  1906);  Cabtelein,  L'Etat 
du  Congo  (1907). 

-  (c)  Rathef  Hostile:— BriKSfiii.  Le  Congo  et  Vade  ginSral  de 
B^m  in  R^me  polUique,  XXXVlII;  Morel,  Affairs  of  West 
Afnca  (London^  1902);  Mark  Twain,  King  Leopold^ a  Soliloquy: 
A  Defense  of  Hta  Congo  Rule  (Boston,  1905):  Bourne,  CivUiea- 
twn  xn  Conaoland  (London,  1903);  Mille,  Le  Congo  Liopoldien 
(Pans,  1906);  Cattier,  Etude  eur  la  situation  de  VEtat  IndSpen- 
dant  du  Congo  (Brussels):  Morel,  Red  Rubber;  The  Story  of 
the  Rubber  Slave  Trade  Flourishing  on  the  Congo  in  the  Year  of 
Grace  1906  CLondon,  1906). 

VI1I.---F0B  Missions:  Bentlbt,  Pioneering  on  the  Con- 
go (London,  19(X));  dh  Pierpont,  Au  Congo  et  aux  Indes 
(Brussels,  1906);  Db  Deken.  Deux  ans  au  Congo  (1900); 
BErauNE.  Zes  missions  cath.  d^Apigue  (1889);  Nayzan,  Fe- 
tishtsm  in  West  Africa  (London,  1904);  Les  missions  cath.  d'Afri- 
aue;  Dark  Africa  and  the  Way  Out:  A  Scheme  for  Civilizing  and 
Evangelising  the  Dark  Continent  (London,  1902);Bi7Rckhardt, 
Les  missions  SvangUigues  (Lausanne,  1888);  Bakbten,  Les 
jisuites  au  Congo  {151,8  h  2759)  in  Pricis  historvques  (Brus- 
sels. 1892,  1893,  1895,  1896);  Missions  catholiques  du  Congo. 
Aper^  sur  certaines  questions  traiUes  dans  la  r&unton  tenue  h 
LeopoldvUle  en  Fiv.,  1907  (Kisantu);  Missiones  oaiholicce  curd 
8.  Congregationis  de  Prop.  Fidei  descriptas  (Rome,  1907);  Van 
Straelin.  Missions  cath.  et  nrotesL  au  Congo  (Brussels,  1898); 
See  also  tne  reviews:  Les  Missions  beiges  (Brussels,  1898-^-); 

Missions  en  Chine  et  au  Congo  (Scheut-Ies-Bruxelles,  1898 ); 

Le  mouvement  des  missions  cath,  au  Congo  (Brussels,  1888 ). 

A.   VSRMEERSCH. 

OoDffreffatio  de  Auxiliis,  a  commission  estab- 
lished by  Pope  Clement  VIII  to  settle  the  theological 
controversy  regarding  grace  which  arose  between  the 
Dominicans  and  the  Jesuits  towards  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Vast  as  was  the  subject  of  that 
controversy,  its  principal  question,  and  the  one  which 

gave  its  name  to  the  whole  dispute,  concerned  the 
elp  (auxxLia)  afforded  by  grace;  while  the  crucial 
point  was  the  reconciliation  of  the  efficacy  of  erace 
with  human  freedom.  We  know  on  the  one  hand 
that  the  efficacious  grace  given  for  the  performance 
of  an  action  obtains,  infallibly,  man's  consent  arid 
that  the  action  takes  place.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
certain  that  in  so  actmg  man  is  free.  Hence  the  ques- 
tion: How  can  these  two  things — the  infallible  re- 
sult and  liberty — be  harmonizea?  The  Dominicans 
solved  the  difficulty  by  their  theory  of  physical  pre- 
motion  and  predetermination;  grace  is  efficacious 
when,  in  addition  to  the  assistance  necessary  for  an 
action,  it  gives  a  physical  impulsion  by  means  of 
which  Ood  determines  and  applies  our  faculties  to  the 
action.  The  Jesuits  found  the  explanation  in  that 
mediate  knowledge  {scientia  media)  whereby  God 
knows  in  the  objective  reality  of  things  what  a  man, 
under  any  circumstances  in  which  he  might  be  placed, 
would  do.  Foreseeing,  for  instance,  that  a  man  woula 
correspond  freely  with  p^ce  A,  and  that  he,  freely, 
would  not  correspond  with  grace  B,  God,  desirous  of 
the  man's  conversion,  gives  him  grace  A.  Tliis  is 
efficacious  grace.  The  Dominicans  declared  that  the 
Jesuits  conceded  too  much  to  free  will,  and  so  tended 
towards  Pelagianism.  In  turn,  the  Jesuits  com- 
plained that  the  Dominicans  did  not  sufficiently  safe- 
guard human  liberty,  and  seemed  in  consequence  to 
lean  towards  Calvinism. 

The  controversy  is  usually  supposed  to  have  begun 
in  the  year  1581,  when  the  Jesuit  Prudcncio  de  Monte- 
mayor  defended  certain  theses  on  grace  which  were 
vigorously  attacked   by  the   Dominican   Domingo 


Hiat  this  debate  took  place  is  oertain,  but 
the  text  of  the  Jesuit's  theseer  has  nevisr  been  pub- 
lished.   As  to  those  which  were  reported  to  the  In- 
quisition, neither  Montemayor  nor  any  other  Jesuit 
ever  aclbiowledged  them  as  his.    The  controversy 
went  on  for  six  years,  passing'throagh  three  phases — 
in  Louvain,  in  Spain,  and  in  Rome.    At  Louvain  wbs 
the  famous  Michel  Baius  (q.  v.)  whom  propodtiona 
were  condemned  by  the  Ghta^h.    The  Jesmt  (after- 
wards Cardinal)  Francisco  de  Toledo,  authorised  by 
Gregory  XIII,  had  obliged  Baius,  in  1580,  to  retract 
his  errors  in  presence  of  the  entire  university.    Bahjs 
thereupon  conceived  a  deep  aversion  fix  the  Jesuits 
and  determined  to  have  revenge.    During  the  Lent 
of  1507  he,  with  some  of  bis  coUeagues,  extraeted 
from  the  notebooks  of  certain  studente  who  were  dis- 
ciples of  the  Jesuits,  thirty-four  propositions,  .many 
of  them  plainly  erroneous,  and  askea  the  university 
to  condemn  "these  Jesuit  doctrines".    Learning  of 
this  scheme,  Leonard  Lessius,  the  most  distingcdmed 
theologian  of  the  Society  in  the  Low  Countries  and  the 
spcciaTobject  of  Baius  attacks,  drew  up  another  list 
of  thirty-four  propositions  containing  the  genuine 
doctrine  of  the  Jesuits,  presented  them  to  the  dean 
of  the  university,  and  asked  for  a  hearing  before  some 
of  the  professors,  in  order  to  show  how  diiferent  his 
teaching  was  from  that  which  was  ascribed  to  him. 
The  request  was  not  granted.    The  university  pub- 
lished, 9  September,  1587,  a  condemnation  of  the  first 
thirty-four  propositions.    At  once,  throughout  Bel- 
gium, the  Jesuits  were  called  heretics  and  Lutherans. 
The  university  ur^ed  the  bishops  of  the  Low  Countries 
and  the  other  umversities  to  endorse  its  censure,  and 
this  in  fact  was  done  by  some  of  the  prelates  and  in 
partic\ilar  by  the  University  of  Douai.    In  view  of 
these  measures,  the  Belgian  provincial  of  the  Society, 
Frands  Coster,  issued  a  protest  against  the  action  of 
those  who,  without  letting  the  Jesuits  be  heard,  ac- 
cused them  of  heresv.    Lessius  also  published  a  state- 
ment to  the  effect  that  the  university  professors  had 
misrepresented  the  Jesuit  doctrine.    'The  professors 
replied  with  warmth.    To  clear  up  the  issue  Lessius, 
at  the  instance  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  formu- 
lated ebLantitheaea,  or  brief  statements,  embodying  the 
doctrine  of  the  Jesuits  relative  to  the  matter  of  the 
condemned  propositions,  the  third  and  the  fourth 
antithesis  bearing  upon  the  maja  problem,  i.  e.  efficsr- 
cious  grace.    The  discussion  was  kept  up  on  both 
sides  tor  a  year  lon^r,  imtil  the  papal  imncio  suc- 
ceeded in  softening  its  asperities.    He  reminded  the 
contestants  that  definitive  judgment  in  such  matters 
belonged  to  the  Holy  See,  and  he  forwarded  to  Sijctus 
V  the  principal  publications  of  both  parties  witli  a 
petition  for  a  final  decision,    l^iis,  however,  was  not 
rendered ;  a  controversy  on  the  same  lines  nad  been 
started  at  Salamanca,  and  attention  now  oentied  on 
Spain,  where  the  two  discussions  were  merged-  ixi  one. 
In  1588  the  Spanish  Jesuit  Luis  de  Molina  pub- 
lii^hed  at  Lisbon  his  "^Concordia  tiberi  aibitrii  cum 
grati»  donis",  in  which  he  explained  efficacious  grace 
on  the  basis  of  scientia  media,    Baftes,  the  Dominiean 
piofessor   at   Salamanca,    informed   the   Ardiduke 
Albert,  Viceroy  of  Portu^l,  that  the  work  contained 
Certainly  thirteen  propositions  which  the  Spanish  In* 
quisrtion  had  censured.    The  archduke  forbade  the 
(Kile  of  the  book  and  sent  a  copy  to  Salamanca.  Bafies 
examined  it  and  reported  to  the  arehduke  that  out  of 
the  thirteen  propositions  nine  were  held  by  Molina  and 
that  in  consequence  the  book  ought  not  to  be  circu- 
lated.   He  also  noted  the  passages  which,  as  he 
thought,  contained  the  errors.    Albert  referred  these 
comments  to  Molina  who  drew  up  his  rejoinder.    As 
the  book  had  been  approved  by  the  Inoulsition  in 
Portugal,  and  its  sale  permitted  by  the  Councils  of 
Portugal  and  of  Castile  and  Aragon  it  was  thought 
proper  to  print  at  the  end  the  replies  of  Molina;  with 
these  the  wofk  appeared  in  1589.    The  Dominicans 


OOHCnSOAZIOllALIftM 


239 


OOVOBBaATIOllAUBM 


attacked  it  on  the  ground  thai  Molina  and  all  the 
Jesuits  denied  efficacious  grace.  The  latter  replied 
that  such  a  denial  was  impoestble  on  the  part  of  any 
Catholic.  What  they,  the  Jesuits,  attacked  was  the 
Dozninican  theory  ot  predetennioation,  which  they 
regarded  as  incompatible  with  human  freedom.  The 
debates  continued  for  five  years  and,  in  1594,  became 
public  and  turbulent  at  Valladolid,  when  Antonio  de 
radilla,  S.  J.,  and  Diego  Nuno,  O.  P.,  defended  their 
respectiTe  positions.  Similar  encounters  took  place 
at  ^amanca,  Saragossa,  Cordova,  and  other  Spanish 
cities.  In  view  of  the  disturbances  thus  created, 
Clement  VIII  took  the  matter  into  his  own  hands  and 
ordered  both  parties  to  refrain  from  further  discussion 
and  await  the  decision  of  the  Apostolic  See, 

The  pope  then  asked  an  expression  of  opinion  from 
various  universities  and  distinguished  theologians  of 
Spain.     Between  1594  and  1597  twelve  reports  were 
submitted:  by  the  three  universities  of  Salamanca, 
Alcaic,  and  SigOenza;  by  the  bishops  of  Coria,  Sego- 
*via,  Plasencia,  Cartagena,  and  Monaofiedo;  bySezra, 
Miguel  Salon  (Augustinian  Friar),  Castro  (Canon  of 
Toledo),  and  Luis  Coloma,  Prior  of  the  Augustinians 
at  Valladolid.    There  were  also  forwarded  to  Rome 
some  statements  in  explanation  and  defence  of  the 
Jesuit  and  of  the  Dommican  theory.    Clement  VIII 
appointed  a    commission  under  the  presidency  of 
Cardinals  Madrucci  and  Arrigone,  which  b^n  its 
labours  2  Jan.,  1598,  and  on  19  March  handed  in  the 
result    condemning  Molina's   book.    Displet^ied  at 
their  haste  in  treatmg  a  question  of  such  importance, 
the  pope  ordered  them  to  go  over  the  work  again, 
keeping  in  view  the  documents  sent  from  Spain. 
Though  the  examination  of  these  would  have  rec}uired 
several  years,  the  commission  reported  again  in  No- 
vember and  insisted  on  the  condemnation  of  Molina. 
Thereupon  Clement  VIII  ordered  the  generals  of  the 
Dominicans  and  Jesuits,  respectively,  to  appear  with 
soine  of  their  theologians  before  the  commission,  ex- 
.  plain  their  doctrines,  and  settle  their  differences.    In 
obedience  to  this  command,  both  generals  be^n  (22 
February,  1599)  before  the  commission  a  series  of  con- 
ferences which  lasted  through  that  year.    Bellarmine, 
created  cardinal  in  March,  was  admitted  to  the  sessions, 
little,  however,  was  accomplished,  the  Dominicans 
aiming  at  criticism  of  Molina  rather  than  exposition  of 
their  own  views.    The  death  of  Cardinal  Madrucci  inr 
terrupted  these  conferences,  and  Clement  VIII,  seeing 
that  no  solution  was  to  be  reached  on  those  lines,  de- 
termined to  have  the  matter  discussed  in  his  presence. 
At  the  first  debate,  19  Mardi,  1602,  the  pope  presided, 
^'fth  Cardinals  Borghese  (later  Paul  V)  and  Arrigone 
assisting,  as  well  as  the  members  of  the  former  com- 
mission and  various  theologians  simunoned  by  the  pope. 
Sixty-eight  sessions  were  thus  held  (1602-1605). 

Clement  VIII  died  5  ^iarch,  1605,  and  after  the 
I/rief  reign  of  Leo  XI,  Paul  V  ascended  the  papal 
throne.  In  his  presence  seventeen  debates  took 
place.  The  Dominicans  were  represented  by  Diego 
Alvarez  and  Tomibs  de  Lemos;  the  Jesuits  oy  Gre- 

g>rio  de  Valencia,  Pedro  de  Arrubal,  Fernando  de 
astida  and  Juan  de  Salas.  Finally,  after  twenty 
years  of  discussion  private  and  public,  and  eighty-five 
conferences  in  presence  of  the  popes,  the  question  was 
not  solved,  but  an  end  was  put  to  the  disputes.  The 
pope's  decree,  communicated  (5  September,  1607)  to 
both  Dominicans  and  Jesuits,  allowed  each  party  to 
defend  its  own  doctrine,  enjoined  each  from  censuring 
or  condemning  the  opposite  opinion,  and  commanded 
them  to  await  as  loyal  sons  of  the  Church  the  final  de- 
cision of  the  Apostolic  See.  That  decision,  however, 
has  not  been  reached,  and  both  orders,  consequently, 
maintain  their  respective  theories,  just  as  any  other 
theological  opinion  is  held.  The  long  controversy 
had  aroused  considerable  feding.  and  the  pope,  aim- 
ing at  the  restoration  of  peace  ana  charity  between  the 
religious  orders,  forbade  by  a  decree  of  the  Inquisition 


(1  December,  1611)  the  publication  of  any  book  oca 
ceming  efficacious  grace  until  further  actk>n  by  the 
Holy  See.  The  pronibition  renuuned  in  force  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

(See  also  Auqustznb  or  Hippo;  Baius;  BaI^bz; 
Ghacs,  Coktrovbbbisson;  Molina;  TBomibm.) 

Acq.  Lbbxjlno  (pMUdon.  of  HTAaimis  Sjbbrt,  O.  P.),  Hit- 
Unia  CongtMoHonum  ds  auxiliia  dwina  groHm  wb  Sunmu 
PimHfidbus  ClemenU  VIII  ei  Paulo  V  (Louvmd.  1700);  Thko- 
IK>RUB  Elcutheriub  (pseudon.  of  Livintb  i>e  Meter,  S.  J.), 
Hiataria  eontroversiarum  de  divinm  gratia  awtUHa  avb  aummia 
PantiftGanta  CUmerUs  VIII  el  Paulo  V  (Venice,  1742):  Schneb- 
MANN^  Die  EnteUhung  u.  veitere  EfUwiMutkg  der  UtomiMliedi- 
molintHiaehen  CorUroverse  (Freiburg,  1879:  also  in  Latin  tr., 
Frdburs,  1881);  db  RieNON.  BaAez  et  Molina  (Parifl,  1883); 
BzLLUAST,  Le  thomiame  triamphant:  Apologia  du  thomiama 
triompharU  (Li^ge,  1731);  Gatraud.  rAomwwe  e£  Mdliniame 
(Touionse,  1800);  Dummbrmuth,  5.  Thomaa  tt  dodrina  pramt>' 
Uonia  jthgaiaa  (Pazis.  1886);  Feins,  8.  Thoma  Aguiin.  doetriina 
de  cooperaiione  Dei  (Paris,  1892);  DuMUERKUTa,  Delenaio 
doctrince  8.  Thoma^  a  reply  to  Frins  (Louviun,  1895). 

Ajitonio  Astkatn. 

Ckmgroffatiozubliam.— The  retention  by  the  Angli- 
can State  Church  of  the  prelaticai  foim  of  government 
and  of  many  Catholic  rites  and  ceremonies  offensive  to 
genuine  Protestants  resulted  in  the  formation  of  innu- 
merable Puritan  factions,  with  varying  degrees  of  radi- 
calism. The  violent  measures  adopted  by  Elisabeth 
and  the  Stuarts  to  enforce  conformity  caused  the  more 
timid  and  moderate  of  the  Puritans  to  remain  in  com- 
munion with  the  State  Church,  thou^^  keepins  up  to 
the  present  day  an  incessant  protest  against  '^popisb 
tendencies'';  but  the  more  advanced  and  daring  or 
their  leaders  began  to  perceive  that  there  was  no  pSaos 
for  them  in  a  Church  governed  by  a  hierarchy  and  en- 
slaved to  the  civil  power.  To  manv  of  ihem,  Genevs 
was  the  realization  of  Christ's  kingdom  on  earth,  and. 
influenced  by  the  example  of  nei^liboiuing  Scotland, 
they  began  to  form  churches  on  the  model  of  Presbv- 
terianism  (q.  v.).  Many,  however,  who  had  with- 
drawn from  the  'Hvranny"  of  the  episcopate,  were 
loath  to  submit  to  tne  dominion  of  presbyteries  and 
formed  themselves  into  religious  commimities  ao- 
knowledgine  ''no  head,  priest,  prophet  or  king  save 
C^hrist '  '•  These  dissenters  were  known  as  "  Independ- 
ents", and  in  spite  of  fines,  imprisonments,  and  the 
execution  of  at  least  five  of  their  leaders,  they  in- 
creased steadil]^  in  numbers  and  influence,  until  they 
played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  revolution  that  cost 
Charles  I  his  crown  and  life.  The  earliest  literary  ex- 
ponent of  Independence  was  Robert  Brown,  from 
whom  the  dissenters  were  nicknamed  Brownists. 
Brown  was  bom  in  1550,  of  a  flood  family,  in  Rutland- 
shire, and  studied  at  Cambric^.  About  1580  he  be- 
gan to  circulate  pamj^ets  in  which  the  State  Church 
was  denounced  in  unmeasured  terms  and  the  duty  was 
inculcated  of  separating  from  communion  with  it. 
The  gpdly  were  not  to  look  to  the  State  for  the  refonn 
o£  the  Church;  thev  must  set  about  it  themselves  on 
the  Apostolic  model.  Brown  defines  the  Church  as ''  a 
company  or  number  of  Christians  or  believers,  who,  by 
a  wiUing  covenant  made  with  their  God,  are  under  the 
government  of  God  and  Qirist,  and  keep  his  laws  in 
one  holy  communion''.  This  new  gospel  attracted 
numerous  adherents.  A  congregation  was  formed  in 
Norwich  which  grew  rapidly.  Summoned  before  the 
bishop's  ooiurt,  Brown  escaped  the  consequences  of  his 
zeal  tnrough  the  intervention  of  his  poAreif  ul  relation^ 
Lord  Buwley,  and,  with  his  followers,  migrated  to 
Holland,  the  common  refuge  of  the  persecuted  reform- 
ers of  all  Europe.  The  Netherlands  were  soon  flooded 
with  refuseee  from  England,  and  laijge  oonmgati<ms 
were  established  in  the  principal  cities.  The  most 
flourishing  Independent  Churcn  was  that  of  Leyden 
under  the  direction  of  John  Robinson.  It  was  to  this 
congregation  that  the  ''Pilgrim  Fathers"  belonged, 
who  in  1620  set  saH  in  the  Mayflower  for  the  New 
World. 

The  successful  establishment  of  the  New  England 
colonies  was  an  event  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the 


OOVOMBOATIOirAUSH 


240 


OONCHEUiCMlTXOHAIifiUt 


development  of  Congregationalism,  a  term  preferred 
by  the  American  Puritans  to  Independency  and  prad- 
ually  adopted  by  their  coreligionists  in  Great  Britain. 
Not  only  was  a  safe  haven  now  opened  to  the  fugitives 
from  persecution,  but  the  example  of  orderly  commu- 
nities based  entirely  on  congregational  principles, 
"without  pope,  prelate,  presbytery,  prince  or  psj-lia- 
ment",  was  a  complete  refutation  of  the  charge 
advanced  by  Anglicans  and  Presbyterians  that  Inde- 
pendency meant  anarchy  and  chaos,  civil  and  relig- 
ious. In  the  Massachusetts  settlements,  "the  New 
England  way",  as  it  was  termed,  developed,  not  in- 
deed without  strifes  and  dissensions,  but  without  ex- 
ternal molestation.  They  formed,  from  the  Puritan 
standpoint,  the  veritable  kingdom  of  the  saints;  and 
the  slightest  expression  of  dissent  from  the  Gospel  as 
preach^  by  the  ministers  was  punished  with  scoui^g- 
mg,  exile,  and  even  death.  The  importance  of  stamp- 
ing put  Nonconformity  in  the  American  colonies  did 
not  escape  the  vigilance  of  Archbishop  Laud;  he  had 
concerted  measures  with  Charles  I  for  imposing  the 
episcopacy  upon  them,  when  war  broke  out  between 
tne  king  and  the  Parliament.  During  the  Civil  War 
in  England,  though  few  in  number  compared  with  the 
Presbyterians,  they  grew  in  importance  through  the 
ability,  of  their  l^^rs,  notably  of  Ohver  Cromwell 
who  gained  for  them  the  ascendency  in  the  army  and 
the  Commonwealth.  In  the  Westminster  Assembly 
convened  by  the  Long  Parliament  in  1643,  Independ- 
ency was  abl^  represented  by  five  ministers,  Thomas 
Goodwin,  Philip  Nye,  Jeremiah  Burroughs,  William 
Bridge  and  Siarach  Simpson,  known  as  ''The  Five 
Dissenting  Brethren",  and  ten  or  eleven  laymen. 
They  all  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates  of  the 
Asmmbly,  pleading  strongly  for  toleration  at  the 
hands  of  the  Presbyterian  majority.  They  adopted 
the  doctrinal  articles  of  the  Westminster  Confession 
with  slight  modifications;  but  as  there  could  be  no 
basis  of  agreement  between  them  and  the  Presbyter- 
ians regarding  church  government,  a  meeting  of  ^*  eld- 
ers and  messengers"  of  "  the  Congregational  churches  " 
was  held  at  the  Savoy  in  1658  and  drew  up  the  famous 
"Savoy  Declaration",  which  was  also  accepted  in  New 
Eingland  and  lone  remained  as  authoritative  as  such  a 
document  could  Be  in  a  denomination  which,  theoreti- 
cally, rejected  all  authority.  From  this  Declaration 
we  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  the  Congregationalist  notion 
of  the  Church. 

The  elect  are  called  individualljr  by  the  Lord,  but 
"those  thus  called  (through  the  ministry  of  the  word 
by  His  Spirit)  he  commandeth  to  walk  together  in  par- 
ticular Societies  or  Churches',  for  their  mutual  edinca- 
tion  and  the  due  performance  of  that  Public  Worship 
which  He  requireth  of  them  in  this  world".  Each  of 
these  particular  churches  is  the  Church  in  the  full 
sense  of  the  term  and  is  not  subject  to  any  outside  jur- 
isdiction. The  officers  of  the  church,  pastors,  teach- 
ers, elders,  and  deacons,  are  "chosen  by  the  common 
suffrage  of  the  church  itself,  and  solemnly  set  apart  by 
fasting  and  prayer,  with  imposition  of  hands  of  the 
eldership  of  that  church,  if  there  be  any  before  consti- 
tuted therein";  the  essence  of  the  call  consists  in  elee- 
tion  by  the  Church.  To  preserve  harmony,  no  person 
ought  to  be  added  to  the  Church  without  the  consent 
of  tne  Church  itself.  The  Church  has  power  to  admon- 
-  ish  and  excommunicate  disorderly  members,  but  this 
power  of  censure  "  is  to  be  exercised  only  towards  par- 
ticular members  of  each  church  as  such  ".  "  In  case  of 
difficulties  or  differences,  either  in  point  of  doctrine  or 
administration,  wherein  either  the  churches  in  general 
are  concerned,  or  anyone  church,  in  their  peace,  union, 
and  edification,  or  any  member  or  members  of  any 
church  toe  injured  in  or  by  any  proceeding  in  censures 
not  agreeable  to  truth  and  order,  it  is  according  to  the 
mind  of  Christ  that  many  churches  holding  one  com- 
munion together  do  by  their  messengers  meet  in  a 
Synod  or  Council  to  consider  and  give  their  advice  in 


or  about  that  matter  in  difference,  to  be  rejpoited  to 
ail  the  ehtirches  concerned:  Howbeit,  these  Synods  so 
assembled  are  not  entrusted  with  any  church  power 
properiy  so  called,  or  with  any  jurisdiction  over  the 
churches  themselves,  to  exercise  any  censures,  either 
over  any  churches  or  persons,  or  to  impose  their  de- 
termination on  the  churches  or  officers. "  If  any  per- 
son, for  specified  reasons,  be  dissaUsified  with  his 
church',  "he,  consulting  with  the  church,  or  the  officer 
or  officers  thereof,  may  peaceably  depart  from  the 
communion  of  the  church  wherewith  he  hath  ao 
walked,  to  join  himself  to  some  other  church'*.  Fi- 
nally it  is  stated  that  **  churches  gathered  and  walking 
according  to  the  mind  of  Christ,  judging  other  churches 
(though  less  pure)  to  be  true  churches,  may  receive 
unto  occasional  communion  with  them  such  members 
of  these  churches  as  are  credibly  testified  to  be  godly 
and  to  live  without  offense". 

Such  are  the  main  principles  of  Congre^tionalism 
regarding  the  constitution  of  the  Church;  m  doctrine 
the  Congregational  teachers  were,  for  the  most  part, 
strictly  Calvinistic.  Independent  ascendency  came  to 
an  abrupt  close  at  the  aeath  of  Cromwell  and  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.  The  Presbyterians,  who 
had  seated  the  Stuart  on  his  throne,  might  hope  for  his 
favour:  there  was  slight  prospect  that  he  would  tol- 
erate tne  democratic  tenets  of  Congregationalism.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  Charles  and  his  servile  parliament 
persecuted  both  forms  of  dissent.  A  succession  of 
severe  edicts,  the  Corporation  Act,  1661,  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  1662,  the  Conventicle  Act,  1663,  renewed, 
1670,  the  Five-Mile  Act,  1666,  and  the  Test  Act,  1673, 
made  existence  almost  impossible  to  Nonconformists 
of  all  shades  of  belief.  Yet  in  spite  of  persecution, 
they  held  out  until  the  eighteenth  century  brought 
toleration  and  finally  freedom.  It  is  characteristic  of 
the  Puritans  that,  notwithstanding  the  sufferings  they 
had  undergone  they  spumed  the  indulgence  offered  by 
James  II,  oecause  it  tolerated  popery;  in  fact,  they 
were  more  zealous  than  the  rest  or  the  nation  in  driv- 
ing James  from  the  throne.  The  exclusion  of  Dissent- 
ers from  the  British  universities  created  a  serious 
groblem  for  the  Congregationalists  as  well  as  for  the 
atholics;  to  the  sacrifices  which  these  and  other  de- 
nominations out  of  communion  with  the  State  Church 
made  for  the  maintenance  of  academies  and  collies 
conducted  according  to  their  respective  principles, 
England,  like  America,  owes  that  great  boon  so  essen- 
tial to  the  well-being  of  civilized  nations,  freedom  of 
education.  Durine  the  eighteenth  century,  vfh\ie  the 
clergy  of  the  Established  Cnurch,  educatea  and  main- 
tained by  the  State,  were  notoriously  incapable  and 
apathetic,  whatever  there  was  of  spiritual  energy  in 
the  nation  emanated  from  the  denominational  col- 
leges. 

CoNOREOATiONAL  Unionb. — ^Thc  CongT^ational 
churches  were  at  their  best  while  the  pressure  of  per- 
secution served  to  cement  them;  this  removed,  the 
absence  of  organization  left  thom  an  easy  prey  to  the 
inroads  of  rationalism  and  infidelity.  Before  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  many  of  them  lapsed  into 
Unitarian  ism,  alike  in  England  and  America.  A  new 
problem  was  thus  forced  upon  them,  viz.  how  to  main- 
tain the  unity  of  the  denomination  without  con- 
sciously violating  their  fundamental  doctrine  of  the 
entire  independence  of  each  particular  church.  "A 
Congregational  Union  of  England  and  Wales",  formed 
in  1833  and  revised  in  1871,  issued  a  "Declaration  of 
the  Faith,  Church  Order,  and  Discipline  of  the  Con- 
gregational or  Independent  Dissenters",  and  provided 
for  annual  meeting  and  a  president  who  should  hold 
office  for  a  year.  American  Congregationalism  has 
always  been  of  a  more  organic  character.  While  per- 
sisting in  emphasizing  the  complete  independence  of 
particular  churches,  it  has  macie  ample  provision,  at 
the  expense  of  consistency,  for  holding  the  denomina- 
tion together.    No  minister  is  admitted  except  upon 


OOHmUMATlOltAt 


211 


OOHORSGAnONAL 


appioval  of  the  clerical  '^association"  to  which  he 
must  belong.  To  be  acknowledged  as  Congresational- 
ist,  a  new  oominunitv  must  be  received  into  f eliowship 
by  the  diurcfaes  of  its  district.  Should  a  chur^ 
fail  into  serious  error,  or  tolerate  and  uphold  notoiv 
iou8  scandals,  the  other  churches  may  withdraw  their 
fellowBhip,  and  it  ceases  to  be  recognised  as  Con- 
gregationalist.  If  a  minister  is  found  guilty  of 
gross  heresy  or  evil  life,  a  council  summoned  to 
examine  his  case  may,  ix  neoessaiy,  withdraw  from 
him  the  fellowship  of  the  churches.  The  statements 
of  Henry  M.  Dexter,  D.  D.,  the  historian  of  his 
sect  ("  American  fineyolopsadla  ",  s.  v. "  Congregation- 
alism ")>  prove  that  there  is  a  marked  contrast  between 
Oongr^ational  theory  and  practice.  The  Congrega- 
tionalists  have  been  veiy  active  in  home  and  foreign 
mission  work  and  possess  eight  theological  seminaries/ 
in  the  United  States,  vis.  Andover.  Massachusetts* 
Atlanta,  Georgia;  Bangor,  Maine*  New  Haven  and 
Hartford,  Connecticut;  Oberlin,  Ohio;  Chicago,  Illi- 
nois; and  the  Pacific,  Berkeley,  California.  Since 
1871  national  councils,  composed  of  delegates  from 
all  the  States  of  the  Union,  are  convened  eveiy  third 
year.  ^Hie  Congregational  Handbook  for  1907'' 
gives  the  fbUowIng  statistics  of  the  denomination  in 
America:  (lurches  60S1;  ministers  0933;  manbers 
668,736.  Included  in  this  count  are  Cuba  with  6  min- 
isters and  636  members  and  Porto  Rico  with  3  minis- 
ters and  50  members.  In  England  and  Wales  the 
statistics  for  1907  were:  sittings  1,801,447;  communi- 
cants 498,953;  ministeni  3197;  local  preachers  5603. 
The  efforts  made  in  recent  yean  to  nnd  a  basis  for 
some  kind  of  corporate  union  between  ihe  Conmga- 
tionalists,  the  Methodist  Protestants,  and  the  United 
Brethren  in  Christ  have  not  been  successful. 

Waucsb,  a  Hntorv  of  tht  Comoregational  Churdtet  in  the 
Unit0d  SUmUb  (New  York,  1894)11001,  Tht  Creed*  and  Plat- 
forma  of  ConqrtfloHonaliam  (ibid.,  1893);  Dbxter,  The  Conqre- 


r  the  kut  30O  years,  as  eeen  in  its  Literature  (ibid.. 


I  ootttaim  *  good  bibliography. 

J.  F.  r 


1880).    Eaohof  thoMWork „______ 

LOUGBLIN. 

Oongregatioiial  Singing. — In  his  Instruction  on 
■acred  musiCi  commonly  reiferred  to  as  the  Motu  Pro- 
prio  (22  Nov.,  1903),  Pius  X  says  (no,  3) :  **  Special  ef- 
forts are  to  be  made  to  restore  the  use  of  Gregorian 
chant  by  the  people,  so  that  the  faithful  may  again 
take  a  more  active  part  in  ecclesiastical  ofRces,  as  was 
the  ease  in  ancient  times".  TheRC  words  suggest  a 
brief  treatment  of  congreeational  sineing  with  respect 
to  (a)  its  ancient  use,  (b)  its  formalprohibition  and 
gradual  decay,  (c)  its  present-day  revival,  (d)  the 
oiaracter  whicn  that  revival  may  assume. 

(a)  The  first  testimony  is  found  in  the  Epistle  of  St. 
Paul  to  the  Ephesians  (v,  19):  '^Speaking  to  your- 
selves in  psalms,  and  hymns,  and  spiritual  canticles, 
singing  and  making  melody  in  your  hearts  to  the 
Lord  *\  Cardinal  ^na  finds  in  these  words  a  witness 
to  the  fact  that  ^from  the  very  be^nings  of  the 
Chureli,  psalms  and  hymns  were  sung  m  the  assembly 
of  the  faithful",  and  understands  them  to  refer  to  an 
sltemated  chant  (mutuo  et  aUerno  catUu),  McEvilly 
in  his  "Comnvntary"  applies  them  to  public 
and  private  meetings.  St.  Augustine  (Ep.  cxix,  ch. 
xviii)  says:  ''As  to  the  singine  of  psalms  and  hymns, 
we  have  the  proofs,  the  examples,  and  the  instructions 
of  the  Loid  Himself,  and  of  the  Apostles".  (Of.  also 
Col,  iii,  16;  I  Cor.,  xiv,  26.)  In  the  ancient  congr^a- 
tional  singing  both  sexes  took  part;  the  words  of  St. 
Paul  imposing  silence  on  women  in  church  being  in- 
terpreted to  refer  only  to  exhorting  or  instructing. 
I^chesne  describes  how  the  earliest  worship  of  the 
Christians  was  parallel  to  that,  not  of  the  Temple  of 
the  Jews  at  Jerusalem,  but  of  the  local  synagogues,  the 
^TMUans  borrowing  thence  their  four  elements  of 
Divine  service — the  lections,  the  chants  (of  the 
™lter),  the  homilies,  and  the  prayers.  In  treating  of 
t^e  Syrian Uturgy  of  the  fourth  century,  he  makes  up 
A  composite  picture  from  the  23rd  catechetical  dis- 
IV.— 16 


coune  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (about  the  year  347). 
the  Apostolic  (Constitutions  (II,  57;  VIII,  6^15),  ana 
the  homilies  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  describes  the 
Divine  service  (diristian  Worship:  Its  Origin  and 
Evolution,  London,  1903,  pp.  67-64),  and  mciden* 
taller  shows  the  part  the  congr^ation  took  in  the 
sinmng. 

(b)  A  council  held  at  Laodioea  in  the  fourth  century 
decreed  (can.  xv),  that "  besides  the  appointed  singers 
who  mount  the  ambo  and  sing  from  the  book,  others 
shaQ  not  sing  in  the  Church  .  Cardinal  Bona  (Re- 
rum  Liturg.,  Bk.  I,  ch.  xxv,  sect.  19)  explains  that  this 
canon  was  issued  because  the  unskillful  singing  of  the 
people  interfered  with  the  decorous  performance  of 
the  chant.  The  decree  was  not  accepted  everywhere, 
as  Bona  shows.  With  respect  to  France,  he  also  re- 
marks that  the  custom  ot  popular  (congregaticmal) 
song  ceased  a  few  years  after  Ca»arius ;  for  the  Second 
Synod  of  Tours  decreed  "that  the  laity,  whether  in 
vigils  or  at  Masses,  should  not  presume  to  stand  with 
the  clergy  near  the  altar  whereon  the  Sacred  Mysteries 
are  celebrated,  and  that  the  chancel  should  be  re- 
served to  the  choirs  of  singing  clerics".  Hereupon 
^la  notes  (no.  4)  that  "this  custom  still  obtauis, 
nevertheless,  in  the  Eastern  Church;  and  in  many 
places  in  the  Western  Church,  very  remote  from  cities, 
and  therefore  tenacious  of  older  customs  and  less  in- 
fluenced by  newer  ones,  the  people  learn  the  ecclesias^ 
tical  chant  and  sing  it  together  with  the  clergy". 
Many  causes,  doubtless,  combined  to  bring  about  the 
present  lamentable  silence  of  our  congregations, 
amongst  which  the  most  prominent  was  probably  the 
one  mentioned  by  Bona  as  havingoccasioned  thede« 
cree  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea.  That  the  cause  was 
not,  as  Dickinson  thinks,' "  the  steady  prepress  of  ritu- 
alism and  the  growth  of  sacerdotal  ideas  ,  which  "in- 
evitably deprived  the  people  of  all  initiative  in  the 
worship,  and  concentrated  the  offices  of  public  devo- 
tion, including  that  of  song,  in  the  hands  of  the  cleigy" 
(Music  in  the  History  of  the  Western  Church,  New 
York,  1902,  p.  48),  may  be  inferred  from  the  efforts  of 
ecclesiastical  authority  to  revive  the  older  custom  of 
congregational  singing,  as  will  be  seen  under  (c). 

(c)  Tlie  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1866) 
expressed  (no.  380)  its  earnest  wish  that  the  rudi- 
ments of  Gregorian  chant  should  be  taught  in  the  par- 
ish schools,  in  order  that  "  the  number  of  those  who 
can  sing  the  chant  well  having  increased  more  and 
more,  gradually  the  greater  part,  at  least,  of  the  peo- 
ple should,  after  the  fashion  still  existing  in  some 
places  of  the  Primitive  Church,  learn  U>  sing  Vespers 
and  the  Uke  together  with  the  sacred  ministers  and  the 
choir".  The  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 
(1884)  repeats  (no.  119)  the  words  of  the  Second 
Council,  prefacing  them  with  denuo  canfirmemita. 

(d)  The  words  of  the  quoted  councils  and  of  the 
pope  imply  a  restoration  of  congregational  singing 
through  mstruction  in  Gr^orian  chanty  and  thereiore 
clearly  refer  to  the  strict^^  liturgical  offices  such  as 
solemn  or  high  Mass,  Vespers,  Benediction  (after  the 
Tantum  Ergo  has  begun).  Congregational  sinking  at 
low  Mass  and  at  other  services  in  the  church,  not 
strictly  "liturgical"  in  ceremonial  character,  has  al- 
ways obtained,  more  or  less,  in  our  churches.  With 
respect  to  the  strictly  liturgical  services,  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  the  congregation  may  be  instructed  suffi- 
ciently to  sing,  besiaes  the  responses  to  the  celebrant 
(especially  those  of  the  Preface),  the  ordinary  (i.  e.  the 
Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  Sanctus,  Benedictus,  Agnus 
Dei)  of  the  Mass  in  plain  chant;  leaving  the  Introit, 
Gradual  or  Tract,  sequence  (if  there  be  one).  Offer- 
tory, and  Communion  to  the  choir;  the  Psalms  and 
hymns  at  Vespers,  leaving  the  antiphons  to  the  choir. 
Ine  singing  mi^t  well  be  made  to  alternate  between 
congregation  and  choir.  Perosi  made  a  strong  plea 
to  the  musical  congress  of  Padua  (June,  1907)  for 
such  congregational  singing  of  the  Credo  (cf.  Civilti 


ooMaasGATioir 


242 


CNINQBnsni 


Gattolioa,  6  July,  1907).    (See  Choir;  Mubic;  Sino- 
INO,  Choral.) 

Waonvr,  Origine  et  D^v^appemerU  du  CharU  Liiurgique,  tr. 
BouB  (Touraai,  1004).  14  sqq.  jeIvqs  a  ^ood  sammnry  of  the 
history  of  the  eaiHest  congregational  ainging.  Two  attioies  in 
the  American  EccUatastical  Review  (Jvuy,  1892,  19-29,  and 
August,  1892,  120-133)  give  histoty,  zefennces,  limits  of 
vernacular  singing,  and  methods  of  training.  See  also  Manual 
of  Church  A/unfe7Dolphin  Press.  Philadelphia,  1905),  112-118; 
Church  Musio  (quarterly)  (December.  1905),  21-33  for 
methods:  also  Dzckinbgn,  Mutic  in  the  Uistory  of  the  WeaUrn 
Church,  223,  242,  376  for  congregational  mnong  in  Protestant 
churches. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Oongregation  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales.       See 

Francis  db  Sales,  Saint. 

Oongregation  of  the  JBf  ission.    See  Lazarists. 

Oongregationsi  Religious.  See  Religious  Con- 
gregations. 

Oongregationsi  Roman.     See  Roman  Conors- 

GATIONSl 

OongresseSi  Catholic. — One  of  the  remarkable 
and  important  manifestations  of  tlie  social  and  relig- 
ious life  of  the  present  day  are  gatherings  of  Catho- 
lics in  general  public  conferences.  This  is  the  case 
both  when  these  assemblies  consist  of  delegates  rep- 
resenting the  entire  Catholic  population  of  a  country 
or  nation  meeting  to  express  opinions  concerning 
matters  close  to  its  heart;  or  when  they  consist 
simply  of  the  members  of  some  one  Catholic  associa- 
tion who  have  come  together  for  the  advancement  of 
the  particular  alms  of  the  societv.  Taken  collectively, 
these  congresses  prove  that  the  life  of  the  Catholic 
Church  of  the  present  day  itf  not  confined  to  Church 
devotions;  that  not  merely  individual  classes  and 
circles,  but  all  Catholics,  men  of  eveiy  rank  and  of 
every  degree  of  culture,  of  all  callings,  all  ages,  and  of 
all  nations  have  been  c|uickened  to  an  unheard-of 
extent  by  the  eodesiastical  movement  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  gladly  co-operate  with  it.  This 
movement  in  Catholic  life  has  been  made  possible  by 
the  development  of  travelling  facilities,  the  multipli- 
cation of  social  interests,  and  also  by  the  political 
freedom  of  modem  nations.  But  Catholics  would 
probably  not  have  made  use  of  these  aids  in  such 
targe  measure  if  they  had  not  been  stirred  up  by  ex- 
traordinary zeal. 

I.  History. — ^The  first  large  Congress  was  held  by 
the  Catholics  of  Germany.  In  the  year  of  political 
revolutions,  lg48,  they  founded  throughout  Germany 
local  Catholic  associations,  called  ^'Piusvereine"  after 
Pope  Pius  IX,  the  Catholics  of  Mainz  taking  the  lead. 
Their  object  was  to  stimulate  Catholics  to  make  use 
of  the  favourable  moment  to  free  the  Church  from 
dependence  on  the  State.  In  accordance  with  an 
agreement  made  by  a  number  of  distinguished  Catho- 
lics at  the  festivities  held  to  celebrate  uie  completion 
of  a  portion  of  the  cathedral  of  Cologne,  August, 
1848,  these  associations  met  in  convention  at  Mainz, 
3--6  October  of  the  same  year.  In  Uie  neighbouring 
city  of  Frankfort  the  German  Diet  was  in  session. 
Only  a  few  weeks  before,  this  body  had  decided  to 
separate  the  schools  from  the  Church,  in  spite  of  the 
opposing  votes  of  the  Catholic  deputies,  ana  had  filled 
tne  Catholic  people  with  a  deep  aistrust  of  the  Frank- 
fort Assembly.  A  large  part  of  the  Catholic  members 
of  the  Diet  went  to  Mainz,  and  expressed  their  views, 
thus  directing  widespread  attention  to  the  convention 
and  arousing  the  enthusiasm  of  its  members,  which 
reached  its  highest  pitch  when  one  of  the  deputies, 
Wilhelm  Emanuel  von  Ketteler,  the  parish  pnest  of 
Hopsten,  arose  and  uiged  the  Consress  to  give  their 
attention  to  social  as  well  as  rdigious  questions. 
Thenceforth  the  General  German  Catnolic  Congresses 
had  a  distinctive  character  impressed  upon  them.  It 
became  their  mission  to  prove  and  intensify  the  de- 


votion of  German  Catholics  to  their  Church,  to  defend 
the  ri^ts  of  the  Church  and  the  liberties  of  Cathofios 
as  citizens,  to  preserve  the  Christian  character  of  the 
schools,  and  to  further  the  Christian  spirit  in  society. 
At  first  the  con^:ress  met  semi-annually;  after  1850, 
it  met  annually  m  a  German  or  Austrian  city.  From 
the  start  it  regarded  the  development  of  GCTmaii 
Catholic  societies  into  a  power  in  national  affairs  aa 
one  of  the  most  important  means  of  gaining  its.  ends. 
Consequently  the  Congress  gave  its  attention  not  only 
to  the  ''Piusvereine"  but  also  interested  itself  in  all 
other  Catholic  societies,  e.  g.  the  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  Conferences,  the  Gesellenvereine  (journeymen's 
unions),  the  reading-circles,  the  students'  corps,  etc., 
and  also  encouraged  the  founding  of  important  new 
associations,  such  as  the  societies  in  aid  of  German 
emigrants,  the  St.  Boniface  Association,  the  St.  Au- 
gustine Association  for  the  development  of  the  Catho- 
fie  press,  and  others.  The  end  sought  was  to  com- 
bine the  general  assemblies  of  as  many  of  these  socie- 
ties as  possible  with  that  of  the  "Piusvereine,"  or  to 
secure  their  convening  at  the  same  time  and  place. 
Thus  the  Catholic  Congress  became  in  a  few  years  and 
is  still  an  annual  general  meetinfr  for  the  majority  of 
German  Catholic  societies.    This  appears  m>m  the 

Erogranune  of  every  German  Cathohc  Congress.  As 
mg  as  the  Catholic  Congress  was  principally  a  repre- 
sentative general  meeting  of  Catholic  societies,  its 
proceedings  were  chiefly  discussions  and  debates  and 
the  number  of  those  who  attended  was  relatively 
small.  Hiis  was  the  case  in  the  first  decade  of  its 
existence.  Still  even  at  this  time  one  or  more  public 
mass-meetings  were  held  at  each.  Congress,  in  order 
to  arouse  the  interest  of  the  Catholic  population  of 
the  place  of  assembly  and  its  vicinity.  The  most 
celebrated  address  of  the  first  decade  was  made  in 
1849  at  Ratisbon  by  Ddlllnger  on  the  ''Independence 
of  the  Church."  The  most  Important  of  the  early 
German  Catholic  Congresses  was  the  session  held  at 
Vienna,  1853. 

Owing  to  epidemics  and  political  difficulties  up  to 
1858  the  con^^ss  met  irregularly  and  the  attendance 
decreased  so  that  its  future  appeared  doubtful.  After 
1858,  however,  the  congress  rose  again  in  importance 
while  at  the  same  time  its  character  gradually 
changed.  It  became  a  general  assembly  of  German 
Catholics,  and  the  attendance  greatly  increased.  In 
these  changed  conditions  the  public  sessions  devoted 
to  oratoricid  addresses  from  distinguished  speakers  as 
well  as  the  private  sessions  for  deliberation  grew  in 
importance.  In  these  years  Cathotic  Germany  could 
boast  of  several  very  eloquent  orators,  the  best  among 
whom  were  Moufang,  Heinrich,  and  Haffner,  theo- 
logians of  Mainz,  ana  after  these  Lindau,  a  merchant 
of  Heidelbei|:.  The  participation  by  the  Catholic 
nobility  in  tne  meetings  made  them  socially  more 
impressive.  The  most  striking  speech  of  this  period 
was  made  at  Aachen  in  1862  by  Moufang  on  the 
''Duties  of  Catholic  Men."  Among  the  subjects  de- 
bated the  school  and  education  aroused  tne  most 
feeling;  in  connexion  with  these  great  discussions 
sreat  attention  was  given,  under  the  guidance  of  Dr. 
HUlskamp,  editor  of  ^The  Literarischer  Handweiser", 
to  the  development  of  the  press  and  popular  literar 
ture.  Since  the  Frankfort  Congress  of  1863  the 
labour  question  has  occupied  more  and  more  of  the 
attention  of  the  assembly. 

The  hope  awakened  in  the  hearts  of  Catholics  by 
the  apparently  victorious  progress  of  the  Catiiolic 
movement  in  Western  Europe  gave  spexdsl  inspira- 
tion to  the  gatherings  of  these  years.  A  similar  con- 
gress was  held  by  tne  Swiss  Catholics;  a  more  im- 
portant development  was  the  resolve  of  the  Belgian 
Catholics,  instigated  by  the  success  of  the  German 
Catholic  Congress  near  them  at  Aachen,  to  hold 
Catholic  congresses  for  Belgium  and  to  invite  the 
most  distinguished  Catholic  men  of  the  entire  work* 


OimdMBRlMI 


243 


OOHaBSSftH 


to  participate.  The  intention  was  to  form  a  oentrai 
point  for  the  Catholic  movement  of  Western  Europe 
and  to  ^ve  it  a  perpetual  oreanization,  making  it  an 
international  movement,  so  that  in  the  future  Catho- 
lics of  all  nations  could  'vrork  together.  The  chief 
organizer  of  the  preparatory  plans  was  Ducp^tiaux. 
Hie  first  Belgian  congress  was  neld  at  Mechlin,  18-22 
August,  1863,  and  was  a  great  success.    The  most 

grominent  champions  of  the  Church  in  Europe  at- 
snded  the  Belgian  Congresses:  Montalembert,  Prince 
Albert  de  Broglie,  Cardinals  Wiseman  and  Manning, 
the  two  Brachenspergers  and  KOlping,  the  Abb^  Mer- 
millod;  representing  the  United  States  were  Bishop 
Fitspatrick,  of  Boston,  and  L.  Silliman  Ives,  of  New 
YorK.  Reports  on  the  Catholic  life  and  work  of 
ervery  country  were  presented:  much  time  was  de- 
voted to  the  discussion  of  social  questions,  and  de- 
cided differences  of  opinion  were  expressed.  The 
most  brilliant  success  was  achieved  by  two  discourses 
by  Montalembert  on ''  A  Free  Church  m  a  Free  State." 
A  second  congress  took  place  in  September  of  the 
next  year,  and  the  intention  was  to  hold  yeariy  meet* 
ingjs;  but  alreadv  the  first  clouds  of  internal  conflict 
among  Catholics  began  to  appear.  According  to  their 
views  on  political  liberalism  and  modem  science, 
men's  minds  drifted  apart.  Henceforth  Catholics 
could  not  be  gathered  together  for  a  common  meeting. 
The  only  later  congress  was  held  at  Mechlin  in  1867; 
the  Swiss  assemblies  also  ceased  after  a  short  timcy 
so  that  soon  the  German  Catholic  Congresses  were 
the  only  large  assemblies  of  the  kind.  At  the  Bam* 
berg  Ck)ngress,  1868,  a  standing  Central  Committee 
was  formed,  which  ^ve  a  permanent  form  of  organi* 
zation  to  the  German  Catholic  gathering. 

Development  in  France. — Towards  the  end  of  the 
sixties  a  third  period  of  progressive  development 
b^an,  due  to  the  increasing  interest  of  Catholics  in 
social  problems  and  the  growth  of  the  spirit  of  aa90* 
ciation  among  Catholic  workmen.  In  Belgium,  in 
1867,  it  was  decided  to  form  a  imion  of  all  workmen^ 
associations  in  order  to  systematize  their  develop* 
ment  and  growth.  A  standmg  committee  was  formed, 
and  a  fir^  congress  was  called  to  meet  at  Mona  in 
1871 .  Its  object  was  to  strengthen  and  aid  the  move- 
ment for  organization  among  workingmen,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  give  it  a  Christian  character  and  to  en- 
able woHcingroen  to  make  their  views  and  wishes  effec- 
tive. The  work  grew  rapidly  in  importance;  up  to 
1876  the  pr«eident  was  Clement  Bivortj  and  over  60,- 
000  workmgmen  were  connected  with  it.  The  most 
successful  congress  was  that  held  in  1876  at  Mechlin. 
After  this,  the  organization  declined,  partly  it  would 
fiecm,  because,  instead  of  following  purely  practical 
economic  ends,  under  French  influence  politios  were 
introduced;  so  much  weight  was  laid  on  the  religious 
element  that  social  interests  did  not  receive  their  due, 
because  the  members  were  not  agreed  as  to  the  inter- 
vention of  the  State  in  socio-economic  activities,  and 
because  suflicient  consideration  was  not  given  to  the 
growing  independence  of  workingmen.  A  Cathohe 
workingnien's  movement  also  sprang  up  in  the  great 
German  industrial  region  of  the  Lower  Rhine;  this 
did  not  grow  into  a  national  convention,  but  it  exerted 
its  influence  at  the  meetings  of  the  general  Catholic 
Congress,  especially  at  the  one  held  at  Dtisseldorf; 
1809.  In  Fmnce  there  was  formed  an  ^  Union  des  as- 
sociations ouvridres  catholiques"  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  all  Catholic  efforts  and  ''to  develop  a  race 
of  Christian  workingmen's  families  for  the  Church  and 
State*'. 

The  first  congress  of  this  association  was  held  at 
Nevers,  1871,  but  it  never  grew  to  much  importance 
although  a  permanent  central  office  was  founded,  and 
special  committees  were  appointed  to  encourage 
eporta,  clubs  for  study,  etc.  The  association  laid  un- 
due stress  on  the  cultivation  of  relipous  life,  and  did 
nothing  to  develop  social  economics  m  connexion  with 


politics  and  but  little  for  the  class  interests  of  work- 
ingmen ;  it  was  hardly  more  than  a  confraternity.  In 
{Northern  France  it  succeeded  owing  to  personal  influ- 
ence. The  "Cerclee  d'ouvriera  catu>lique8",  founded 
by  the  Comte  de  Mun  in  1873,  were  much  more  suo- 
oeasful.  De  Mun  desired  to  unite  in  these  cerdea  ihe 
best  mechanical  and  agricultural  labourers,  to  bring 
them  under  the  influence  of  educated  practical  Cath- 
olic gentlemen,  so  that,  led  by  the  latter,  the  work- 
ingmen might  exert  a  social  and  political  influence  in 
the  worid  m  labour.  At  the  same  time  he  wished  the 
organization  to  frame  and  advocate  a  distinct  plan  of 
social  reforms.  From  1876  the  work  of  advocating 
reforms  fell  chiefly  to  the  annual  sessions  which  were 
composed  of  4he  dele^tes  of  the  '' Secretariates"  of 
the  circles,  the  deputies  from  all  the  circles  of  the 
province,  and  Catholic  dignitaries  who  were  inter* 
ested  in  social  questions.  The  sessions  for  delibera- 
tion had  an  average  attendance  of  from  three  to  four 
hundred  members,  and  the  public  meetings  were  often 
attended  by  several  thousand  persons.  The  assem- 
blies were  manaoed  by  the  Comte  de  Mun,  assisted  by 
the  Marquis  do  ui  Tour  du  Fin,  M.  de  la  GuUlonni6re» 
and  M.  Florroy.  These  meetings  and  the  work  of  the 
various  circles  fint  spread  among  Frmch  CathoUes 
correct  conceptions  of  social  problems.  The  practi- 
cal social  results  became,  however,  gradually  smaller. 
With  the  help  of  the  congress  De  Mun  graduaJly 
worked  out  a  complete  socisJ  programme;  by  meaos 
of  industrial  associations,  with  perfect  freedom  of  or- 
ganisation, laws  were  to  be  obtained  granting  to  the 
w(H-king  classes  proper  representation  in  the  political 
bodies  of  the  country,  effective  measures  were  to  be 
taken  to  aid  workmen  by  means  of  insurance  aad  the 
regulation  of  wages,  their  corporal  and  m^ital  well- 
being  were  to  be  protected  by  Sunday  rest,  limitation 
of  working-hours,  etc. ;  compulsory  surbitiation  in  dis- 
putes between  masters  and  workmen  was  to  be  kgedl^ 
enforced.  The  programme  is  noteworthy  because  xt 
induded  reform  of  taxation,  and  also  because  it  aimued 
to  aid  agricultural  labourers  as  well  as  mechanics. 
De  Mun's  main  mistake  was,  that  he  refused  on  prin- 
ciple to  allow  the  workingmen  to  or^niw  independ- 
ently, and  permitted  only  organisations  common  to 
workingmen  and  employers.  Although  apparently 
the  congresses  just  described  and  the  societies  con- 
nected with  them  were  the  proofs  of  the  growth  in 
strength  of  the  economic  movement,  yet  in  their  first 
development  they  did  not  advance  far  enough  to  be 
able  to  impress  their  character  upon  the  Catholic  con- 
cresses  of  the  third  period.  This  was  defined  by  the 
nirther  growth  of  the  general  Catholic  conventions. 
After  the  successful  setttement  of  the  diff erenees  in  the 
Church  by  the  Vatican  Council,  in  consequ^iee  of  the 
Kulturkampf,  the  German  Catholic  Congresses  re- 
gained their  former  importance  with  a  religious  enthu- 
siasm never  before  witnessed.  At  the  same  time  the 
French  Catholics  also  started  general  congresses. 

During  the  siege  of  Paris  by  the  Germans,  a  com- 
mittee had  been  tormed  in  the  city  to  protect  Catho- 
lic interests  against  the  dan^r  from  anti-religious  and 
revolutionary  sects.  In  a  circular  of  26  Aurust,  1872, 
this  committee  proposed  that  all  forma  of  Catholic 
asBociations  of  the  country  and  all  French  Catholic 
organisations  should  create  a  general  representative 
bcSy  for  the  purpose  of  def^Mung  their  common  in- 
terests. This  circular  led  to  the  convening  of  the  first 
"Congrte  des  comit^s  catholiques"  at  Paris,  1872,  and 
the  sessions  of  this  body  were  held  annually  untU 
1892.  They  were  originally  presided  over  by  M. 
Bailloud,  their  foimder,  afterwards  by  Senator  Chesne- 
lon^.  The  congress,  divided  into  different  sectiMis, 
busied  itself  with  purely  religious  questions,  with 
teaching,  education,  the  press,  and  social  subjects. 
A  large  part  of  the  attention  of  these  assemblies  was 
given  to  the  non-governmental  schools,  and  much 
was  done  for  them.    On  the  other  hand,  the  incessant 


OMrcmasssB 


244 


and  vehement  a^tation  of  the  aEBemblies  against  free, 
obligatory,  lay  uistruction  had  no  apparent  effect. 
The  French,  like  the  German  congresses,  recdved 
strong  encouragement  from  the  pope,  and  the  bishops 
ardently  promoted  them.  Neveruieless,  owing  to  its 
oomposition,  the  French  congress  never  attained  the 
importance  of  the  German  assemblage.  Although  in- 
tended to  be  a  union  of  all  the  Catholic  forces  of 
France,  it  drew  together  only  the  Monarchists.  For 
although  its  constitution  excluded  politics,  neverthe* 
less,  as  the  circular  of  August,  1872,  said,  it  supported 
the  Conservative  candidates  as  a  matter  of  course. 
The  connexion  with  the  Royalists  made  the  congress 
unfruitful  also  in  social  questions;  its  social  p<^itical 
position  was  not  sufficiently  advanced,  and  it  offended 
the  classes  that  were  fitting  their  way  up.  When  it 
became  evident  that  the  Royalist  party  had  failed,  the 
congress  declined  with  it.  The  sessions  ceased  when 
Leo  XIII,  on  receiving  the  oongratulatoxy  telegram  of 
the  oongreas  of  1892,  expressed  the  hope  that,  follow^ 
'  ing  his  wishes,  they  should  uphold  the  Republican 
constitution.  The  place  of  the  former  organization 
was  taken  by  the  ''Congrds  nationaux  catholiques". 
The  first  session,  held  at  Reims,  was  a  preparatory 
one;  tibia  was  followed  bv  two  oonRresBes  at  Paris, 
1897  and  1898.  Both  their  organisation  and  aim 
were  the  same  as  those  of  the  congress  of  the  **  Comit68 
catholiques",  but  the  political  views  held  were  differ- 
ent; the  meetings  were  gatherings  or  ^Ralli^",  that 
is,  of  Royalists  who  had  become  Republicana  and  of 
CSiristian  Democrats.  The  history  of  this  organixa* 
tion  is,  briefly,  that  of  the  *'  Ralli^^'  movement,  and  it 
went  to  pieces  with  the  latter.  A  working  together  in 
the  eonpresB  of  those  who  were  democrats  from  honest 
conviction,  the  politically  indifferent  "New  Catho* 
lies",  and  the  "Rallies",  or  ''Constitutional  Ri^ht- 
ers",  who  obeyed  the  papal  command  against  inclina- 
tion and  conviction,  proved  to  be  impossible.  The 
** Christian  Democrats*'  met  separately,  in  1896  and 
1897,  at  Lyons  and  received  the  blessing  of  Leo  XIII. 
But  it  was  found  that  the  views  of  the  members  were 
too  divergent  to  make  a  continuation  of  these  assem<- 
blies  profitable.  The  meetings  of  the  "Cercles 
d'ouvriers"  also  came  to  an  end  through  the  failure  of 
the  ''  Ralli^  "  or  "  Constitutional  Right ' '.  From  the 
decade  1880-90  these  circles,  like  those  of  the  "*  Unkm 
des  associations  ouvridres'',  were  gradually  trans** 
formed  by  their  leaders  into  pious  comratemities,  and 
the  clergy  sought  to  control  tnem  more  than  was  wise, 
making  the  members  feel  like  irresponsible  children. 
Most  of  the  members  of  the  circles  were  Royalists,  and 
few  of  them  obeyed  the  suggestion  of  the  pope  as  sin<- 
cerely  as  did  De  Mun.  In  1892  the  congress  assem- 
bled for  the  last  time;  but  even  before  this,  of  the 
1200  still  existing  circles,  a  part  had  combined  with 
the  new  diocesan  organisations,  and  a  part  with  the 
''Association  catholique  de  la  jeunesse  fran^ise". 

Fourth  Period  of  Development, — The  fourth  and 
latest  period  in  the  development  of  the  Catholic  Con- 
gresses dates  from  the  last  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  About  1890,  the  year  when  the  "People's 
Union  [Volksverein]  of  Catholic  Germany'^  was 
founded,  the  Cathouc  social  movement  reached  its 
full  strength  and  became  the  leading  factor  amons 
German  Catholic  societies.  Its  influence  was  well 
shown  by  the  multiplying  of  Catholic  societies  in  all 
directions  *  it  shapea  the  form  and  aims  of  oigaaisar 
tion,  checked  the  spirit  of  particularism,  induced  the 
societies  to  oombine  in  a  united  bodv,  and  brought 
thousands  of  new  membera  into  the  branch  associa- 
tions, while  directing  Catholic  orsanization  more  and 
more  toward  practi^  social  worx.  The  meetings  cl 
the  congresses  are  the  tangible  s^  of  this  social 
movement;  their  increase  in  strength  and  influence  is 
furthered  by  the  growing  interest  of  the  civiliised 
world  in  all  kinds  of  congresses.  It  is  owing  to  the 
centralized,    many-sided    propaganda   of   the  well- 


oiiganized  '' Volksverein'',  with  its  000|000  membera, 
that  the  German  Cadiolic  CongreBses  have  been  mo 
successful.  The  aims  of  the  soeieties  are  limited  to 
social  work  of  a  practical  duiracter,  and  the  annuftl 
meetiiuES  are  held  on  one  of  the  five  days  o^  the  sesaioa 
of  the  Catholic  Congress  and  at  the  same  place.  Since 
the  Mannheim  Congress  of  1892  the  meetings  of  the 
congresses  have  been  attended  l^  lari^r  numbera  <^ 
workmen  than  any  other  such  conventions  in  £urope, 
from  twentv-five  thousand  to  forty  tiioiMsand  besne: 
present  at  the  sessions,  the  number  at  a  single  sessian 
often  reaching  ten  thousand  persons.  In  Austria 
alter  two  decfildes  of  hard  struggle  Christian  sociaiisxn 
finally  reached  success.  After  1867  it  was  for  a  kmg 
time  almost  impossible  to  hold  a  Catholic  convention 
in  Austria;  now  a  Genen^  Catholic  Congress  is  held 
every  oth^  year,  while  numerous  asBemulBS  oonvcsie 
in  the  different  states  forming  the  Austio-Hungariaa 
Monarchy;  the  general  congress  of  November,  1907, 
attained  neariy  as  much  influence  over  miblio  opinion 
as  the  German  Congress;  a  speech  of  Buiigomaster 
Luegers  of  Yiennastarted  the  *'  hig^-school  movement " 
which  has  since  greatly  agitated  Austria.  Since  1900 
a  Catholic  Congress  has  been  held  annuallv  in  Hun- 
gary; in  Spain  since  1889  Catholic  asBemblies  have 
met  from  time  to  time;  in  Switaerland,  after  suspen- 
sion for  a  generation,  the  first  genend  congress  was 
held  in  1903  on  the  basis  of  an  acceUent  organisation. 
In  1906  the  Danish  Catholics  of  the  CopeiAsigen  dis- 
trict met  for  the  first  time  to  diseuas  their  schcx>l 
interests.  Before  this,  in  1886  and  1889,  they  had 
met  for  aoniversajy  celebrations,  the  first  time,  in  1886, 
in  ecmjunction  with  representatives  ffom  Sweden  and 
Norway.  About  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century 
a  congress  was  held  in  Italy  r^refientinff  all  the 
Catholic  organisaticMis  of  that  country.  Not  only 
among  ihe  above-named  great  nations  of  Eufope  has 
Catiiolac  seal  led  to  the  meeting  of  general  ooQgresses, 
but  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean  hardly  a  year  passes 
in  which  the  Catholics  of  some  country  do  not  unite 
in  a  public  congress. 

However  numerous  and  huge  these  assemblies, 
whether  general  or  special,  have  been,  they  do  not 
represent  the  whole  number  of  Catholics  who  take  an 
interest  in  social  reorganisation.  Catholies  have 
taken  a  prominent  part  in  many  movements  which 
have  an  interdenominational,  universal  Christian,  or 
neutral  character,  because  this  form  of  organisation 
can  lead  to  better  results.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  " Christian  Trade  Unions"  of  Germany,  the 
"Christian  Fanners'  Unions"  of  Germany  and  Aus- 
tria, and  the  "Soci^t^  d'^conomie  sociale  et  Union 
de  la  paix  sociale"  of  France,  founded  by  Le  Play,  in 
1866,  with  annual  congresses  since  1882.  A  German 
branch  is  ihe  "Gesellschaft  fOr  social  Reform" 
(founded  1890),  which  gives  its  attentkxi  largely  to 
scientific  investigations,  but  has  at  times  also  had 
much  influence  on  legislation;  besides  these  may  be 
cited  the  '' Workin^^en's  Gaixiens",  founded  in  1897 
by  Abb^  Lemire,  with  international  ccmeresses  in  1903 
and  1906;  the  work  of  the  ''Haiffeisen  Bank"  (inter- 
national assemblies  at  Tarbes,  1897,  and  Paris,  1900); 
the  ''Anti-DueUing  Society",  founded  by  Prince 
Ldwenstein,  the  last  international  convention  being 
held  at  Budapest,  1908;  and  the  association  for  sup- 
pressing public  vice,  which  held  an  international  con- 
gress in  1908. 

II.  Intbrnational  CoNcrBBasBS. — ^The  forerunner 
of  the  international  congresses  of  the  present  was  the 
Mechlin  general  congress  of  1863-64.  Since  then 
interiiational  Catholic  congresses  of  general  scope  have 
been  abandooed  as  unlikelv  to  be  profitable,  and  it 
has  been  sufllcient,  especially  as  between  Germany, 
Austria,  and  Switserland,  to  invite  a  few  foreign  rep- 
resentatives. It  was  only  by  limisting  the  scope  of 
ffiscussion  to  a  few  tooios,  especially  religious,  that 
it  has  been  possible  to  nold  Catholic  congresses  of  an 


ooHoaBssia 


245 


inieniAiional  character  Among  the  best  known  of 
these  aflBemblies  is  the  '^  Eucharistic  ConmBs'',  the 
aim  of  which  is  to  increase  and  deepen  ue  love  of 
Christ  in  every  way  tolerated  by  the  Churoh:  by 
general  communions,  general  adoration  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  and  discussion  of  the  best  means  of  inr 
creasing  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  Between 
its  sessions  the  Eucharistic  League  endeavours  to  pro- 
mote and  intensify  Eucharistic  devotion  in  the  various 
dioceses  in  which  it  ifforganised.  Nineteen  of  these  meet- 
ings have  been  held  since  the  first  in  lille  in  1881,  most 
of  them  being  preponderatinsly  Frendi,  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  first  coming  from  Mer.  de  S^ur.  The  first 
to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Catholic  world  was  that 
held  at  Jerusalem  in  1893,  and  they  have  since  grown 
more  solenm  and  influential,  A  general  congress  was 
held  at  Rome,  1905,  another  at  Mets,  1907,  and  one  in 
London  9-13  September,  1908.  Both  Leo  XIII  and 
Pius  X  manifested  great  interest  in  these  congresses. 
Less  successful,  however,  was  the  attempt  of  Leo 
XIII,  by  means  of  international  congresses,  to  make 
the  Tlurd  Order  of  St.  Francis  once  more  a  great 
Bocio-religious  influence.  After  he  had  indicated  his 
tAbsi  of  Christian  social  politics  in  his  encyclical 
^Novarum  refum'\  he  hoped  to  change  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis  from  a  purely  pious  ofganisation 
into  an  instrument  for  the  regeneration  of  society  such 
as  it  had  been  in  the  thirteenth  century.  For  a  time 
efforts  were  made,  especially  in  France,  to  carry  out 
thia  ambition  of  the  pope.  A  committee  met  at  Val^ 
des-Bois,  July,  1893,  at  the  call  of  the  Minister- 
General  of  the  Franciscans,  and  under  the  presidency 
of  JAon  Harmel  a  plan  of  action  was  drawn  up:  sev- 
eral meetinfls  were  hdd  in  France,  and  in  1900  an 
international  congress  met  at  Rome.  After  this  the 
movement  came  to  an  end.  The  political-sociid 
scientists,  who  were  too  much  absorbed  in  their  politi" 
cal  schemes,  were  unable  to  grasp  the  grandeur  of  the 
pontiff's  idea,  and  the  Tertiaries  clung  to  their  aecue- 
tomed  exero&ies  and  preferred  to  remain  a  pious  con- 
fraternity rather  than  to  transform  themselves  into  a 
world-wide  relisious  and  social  organization. 

For  a  time  ue  Congress  of  Catholic  Savants  had 
nearly  as  successful  a  career  as  the  Eucharistic  Con- 
ns. This  was  also  of  French  origin,  and  founded 
Hgr.  d'Hulst,  rector  of  the  Institut  Catholique  at 
ris,  in  pursuance  of  a  suggestion  of  Canon  Duilh6 
de  Saint-Projet.  The  founders  meant  to  prove  to 
mankind  that  Catholics,  instead  of  being  opposed  to 
aeience,  were  vigorously  active  in  scientific  work;  to 
show  the  haTmcmy  of  faith  and  science,  and  to  stimu- 
late the  slackened  interest  of  Cathoticsin  science.  The 
plan  of  the  congress  was.  therefore,  largely  apologetic; 
it  received  the  approval  of  Leo  XIII,  and  from  1888 


the  sessions  were  triennial.  •  The  first  two  meetings, 
at  Paris,  had  an  attendance,  respectivdv,  of  1006  aiid 
2494  persons;  the  third  cona^,  at  Brussels,  2618; 
the  fourth,  at  Fribourg,  in  Switseriand,  3007:  the 
fifth,  at  Munich,  3367;  a  sixth  was  to  be  held  at  Rome, 
1003,  but  it  did  not  take  place.  Originally  this  con- 
gress was  divided  into  six  sections;  theology,  philoso- 
phy, law,  history,  natural  sciences,  anthropology; 
four  more  were  added  later:  exegesis,  philology,  bi- 
ology, and  Christian  art.  Tne  character  of  the  inter^ 
national  congress  of  Catholic  physicians  which  met  at 
Rome,  1900,  was  laigely  religious. 

International  meetings  are  also  held  by  the  ^As- 
sociation catholiaue  intemationale  pour  la  protection 
de  la  leune  fille  ,  a  society  that  looks  after  youi^ 
eirls  who  are  seeking  employment,  guards  them  from 
migers,  and  aids  in  their  training  and  secures  em- 
ployment for  them.  It  was  found^  by  a  Swiss  lady, 
Fiau  von  Reynold,  1896-97.  Up  to  1897  the  sessions 
were  at  Fribourg,  Switzerland;  1900,  at  Paris;  1902, 
at  Munich;  and  ui  1906,  again  at  Paris.  Fribourg, 
Switseriand,  is  the  headauartere  of  the  society.  Ten 
countries  are  represented  in  it,  among  them  Argen- 


tina, South  America.  Each  national  society  holds  its 
own  annual  meeting;  the  French  branch,  formed  in 
1898,  alternately  in  the  provinces  and  at  Paris;  the 
German,  founded  1906,  at  the  session  of  the  Strasburg 
Cathohc  Congress  in  connexion  with  the  Oiarities 
Congress.  Among  national  Oatholic  assemblages 
may  be  also  included  the  so-called  "Social  WeeK" 
started  by  the  "  Volksverein"  (People's  Union)  of  Cath- 
olic Germaav.  Its  sessions  were  held  annually,  189^ 
1900,  with  the  exception  of  1897,  in  different  places. 
About  a  week  was  given  to  an  introduction  to  prac- 
tical social  work.  The  original  attendance  of  682  in 
time  rose  to  about  1000.  The  sessions  were  devoted 
not  to  discussions,  but  to  ii^ tructive  lectures  and  the 
answering  of  questions,  thus  making  what  mi^t  be 
called  a  popular  travelling  school.  But  a  week  was 
too  short  a  period  of  instruction,  and  the  constant 
change  of  place  made  it  difficult  to  obtain  good  teach- 
ers, consequently  a  permanent  home  was  given  to  the 
association  at  MQncnen-Gladbach,  and  the  annual  ses- 
sion was  made  a  two  months'  course  in  political  econ- 
omy. A  limited  number  of  men  and  women  selected 
by  a  committee  of  the  **  Volksverein"  assisted  at  these 
lectures.  Since  1904  the  shorter  courses,  in  improved 
form,  have  been  resumed  in  addition  to  the  longer 
ones,  and  the  attendance  has  laigely  increased.  Hie 
French  Oathohcs  were  the  first  to  imitate  this  ex- 
ample, holding  a  similar  assembly  at  Lyons  in  1904; 
since  then  sessions  have  been  held  at  various  places^ 
that  of  1907  being  at  Amiens,  and  the  next  at  Biar- 
seilles.  The  best  of  their  national  economists  mve 
their  assistance :  the  programme  differs  from  the  Ger- 
man in  as  much  as  the  topics  treated  are  not  exclu- 
sively practical,  but  that  the  lectures  include  the 
philoeophical  and  rriigious  premises  of  modem  social 
politics,  and  the  part  Christians  should  take  in  politi- 
cal life.  The  movement  spread  to  the  other  Romance 
countries  during  1906-08,  and  also  to  Belgium  and 
Holland,  and  made  great  progress,  thanks  to  the  ef- 
forts of  Professor  Toniolo  in  organising  a  social-science 
week  at  Pisa,  followed  by  a  larger  meeting  at  Pistoja  in 
October  and  another  at  Valencia  in  December,  1907. 
In  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  this  social-edence  week 
will  hereafter  be  held  according  to  a  joint  programme. 

III.  National  Catholic  CoNoaBSSBS. — France. — 
Since  1898  the  French  Catholics  have  held  provincial 
conventions  in  place  of  general  congresses,  and  since 
the  separation  of  Church  and  State,  these  have  given 
place  to  diocesan  conferences.  Such  gatherings  nave 
been  held  in  about  half  of  the  dioceses,  the  most  im- 
portant being  those  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Paris. 
Their  aim  is  to  unite  all  Catholic  social  societies,  eepe- 
cially  those  for  the  young  which  In  many  dioceses 
have  a  large  membership.  In  results  they  are- not  as 
effective  a^  general  Catholic  congresses,  but  they 
seem  rather  to  tend  to  supply  what  nas  hitherto  been 
lacking  in  France,  a  steaay  and  even  attention  to  de- 
tails, SA  the  VolkBverein  has  done  in  Germany,  elo- 
quent orations  giving  place  to  quiet,  practical  work. 
This  would  be  an  important  result.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  possible  that  the  inclination  of  the  French 
to  overburden  even  socio-political  societies  with  relig- 
ious issues,  to  give  them  a  denominational  aspect,  and 
place  them  under  strict  clerical  control,  may  be  kept 
alive  by  the  diocesan  societies.  Before  this  the  im- 
pulse to  permanent  oi^ganization  came  from  a  con- 
gress, whereas  now  the  oishop  or  an  ecclesiastic  com- 
missioned by  him  is  the  head  of  the  diocesan  commit- 
tee, and  the  parish  priest  of  the  parish  committee. 

ReligiooB  Congresses. — In  certain  French  dioceses 
e.  g.  at  Paris,  1902-1908,  special  diocesan  Eucharistic 
Congresses  have  been  held.  A  "Congrte  national  de 
I'oBUvre  dee  Cat^diismes'^  was  held  at  Paris  under  the 
presidency  of  Mgr.  Amette,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  24*- 
26  February,  1908.  Seventy  dioceses  were  ofhciallv 
represented,  and  the  attendance  was  over  2000.  it 
was  reported  that  20,000  lay  catechists,  chiefly  women, 


OOHORBSSttl 


246 


00NaBE88K8 


voluntarily  awisted  the  French  clergy  in  the  ivUgiuus 
instruction  of  the  young.  These  teachere  are  united 
in  an  archconfratemity,  publish  a  periodical,  and  re- 
ceive special  preparatory  training.  Charitable  and 
social  care  of  the  famiUes  of  the  pupils  is  united  with 
the  catechetical  work. 

Sociological  Congresses. — ^The  "Union  des  associa- 
tions ouvridres  catholiaues"  has  held,  sinoe  1871,  an- 
nual meetings  attended  by  about  500  delegates.  The 
''Association  catholique  de  la  jeunesse  francaise'', 
founded  in  1886  by  Robert  de  Roquefeuil,  whicn  aims 
to  gather  together  the  Catholic  youth  of  the  country, 
in  order  to  strengthen  them  in  their  Faith  and  to  train 
them  to  do  their  duty  in  the  stru^le  for  the  reorgani- 
sation of  French  society  in  a  Christian  spirit,  has  held 
several  hundred  interesting  meetings.  They  have 
served  in  part  to  spread  a  more  thorough  knowledge 
of  certain  social  truths  or  of  certain  important  prob- 
lems of  religious  life;  but  they  have  principallv 
made  known  the  work  of  the  "Jeunesse  catholiaue 
throughout  France.  Their  assemblies  which  took  up 
the  mst  mentioned  class  of  subjects  were  held  at 
Ch^ons,  1903,  where  trusts  were  discussed :  at  Arras, 
1904,  which  discussed  mutual  benefit  schemes;  at 
Albi,  1906,  regulations  governing  the  labour  of  youth- 
ful workmen  was  the  topic;  and  at  Angers,  1908,  the 
agrarian  movement.  The  treatment  of  these  prob- 
lems at  these  conventions  was  excellent.  The  meet- 
ingp  held  to  arouse  interest  in  the  membership  were 
chiefly  movincial,  only  a  few  being  national  assem- 
blies. The  erowth  of  the  association  is  best  shown  by 
the  national  conventions:  Angers,  1887,  17  groups 
having  782  membera  were  represented;  Besan^n, 
1898,  25  groups  with  16,000  members;  Bordeaux, 
1907,  180  groups  with  75,000  members.  There  has 
been  a  great  increase  since  the  meeting  at  Besan^n, 
chiefly  by  the  admission  of  young  mechanics  and  farm 
labourers  as  well  as  of  the  student  class.  The  associa- 
tion has  placed  itself  in  all  things  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Church  authorities,  consequentlv,  its  social  as 
well  as  its  religious  activities  rest  on  a  denominational 
basis  without  any  further  enunciation  of  principles, 
and  it  has  always  been  very  favourably  regarded  both 
by  the  bishops  and  the  Roman  authorities.  The 
"Jeunesse  catholique "  has  not  been  undisturbed  by 
the  political  troubles  of  French  Catholics.  At  the 
conmss  of  Grenoble,  1892,  it  accepted  unconditional- 
ly the  advice  of  Leo  XIII,  but  declared  at  the  same 
time  that,  in  accordance  with  its  statutes,  the  associa- 
tion had  nothing  to  do  with  party  conflicts.  Some  of 
the  groups,  however,  still  adhere  to  the  Monarchists. 
Fortunately,  these  differences  of  opinion  have  not 
checked  the  development  of  the  society,  the  religious 
and  social  influence  of  which  on  the  youth  of  France  is 
not  equalled  by  that  of  any  other  organization. 

About  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  Marc 
Sangnier  and  some  of  his  friends  founded  the  society 
called  the  "Sillon"  (the  Furrow).  Convinced  that  in 
.  future  democracy,  which  they  took  as  their  ideal, 
would  rule  the  State  and  society,  and  desiring  to  pre- 
vent its  degeneration  under  bad  and  godless  leaders, 
while  hoping  to  keep  it  from  turning  against  the 
Church,  these  yoimg  men  resolved  to  build  up  a 
democratic  constituency  of  high-minded  Christians 
devoted  to  the  Church  and  well-informed  on  political 
snd  social  questions.  The  idealism  characteristic  of 
the  ''Sillon"  has  gained  for  it  the  respect  of  the 
working-classes.  In  the  beginning  the  tendencies  of 
the  society  were  not  clear,  as  was  shown  in  the  first 
four  general  meetings:  Paris,  1902;  Tours,  1903; 
Lyons,  1904;  Paris,  1905.  More  definiteness  of  plan 
was  evident  at  the  later  gathering,  Paris,  1906;  Or- 
leans, 1907;  and  especially  at  Paris,  1908,  giving 
promise  that  the  "Sillon  '  would  develop  into  a 
socio-political  party  taking  an  active  part  in  national 
politics.  This  explains  why  it  asserted  its  indepen- 
dence of  the  bishops  and  intention  always  to  support 


any  political  measure  that  may  aid  in  improving  the 
condition  of  the  working-cla^wes,  and  especially  all 
efforts  aiming  at  thorough  social  regeneration  and  a 
genuinely  democratic  form  of  societv  and  govern- 
ment. Only  in  this  way,  it  is  held,  will  the  workman 
be  able  to  obtain  an  equal  share  of  the  material,  in- 
tellectual, and  moral  possessions  belonging  to  the 
whole  nation.  Collectivism  is  absolutely  rejected  by 
the  association.  The  growth  of  the  ''Sillon"  into  an 
independent  socio-jpolitical  party,  its  refusal  to  be 
"avant  tout  cathohque"  aroused  the  distrust  of  some 
of  the  bishops.  Consequently  the  cleigy  held  back 
from  it.  Nevertheless,  the  membership  did  not  fall 
off.  The  first  congress  represented  45  members;  the 
second,  300;  the  third,  800;  the  fourth,  1100;  the 
fifth,  1500;  the  sixth,  1896.  The  "F^^ration  gym- 
nastique  et  sportive  des  patronages  catholiques  de 
France"  intended  to  aid  all  CathoUc  societies  in 
honour  of  a  local  saint  by  arranging  sports  for  the 
members  of  the  patronage  has  held  annual  meet- 
inga  since  1898  when  the  federation  began  in  a  union 
of  13  patronages;  the  number  is  now  450,  represent- 
ing 50,000  young  people  in  all  parts  of  France. 

Political  Congresses. — ^The  ''Action  lib^rale  popu- 
laire",  founded  oy  M.  Piou  on  the  basis  of  the  Asso- 
ciations Law  of  1901,  is  a  political  association  led 
by  him  with  much  skill  and  energy.  Its  task  is  to 
defend  civil  rights  derived  from  the  Constitution  in 
all  legal  ways,  to  promote  reform  in  law-making  by 
energetic  work  at  elections,  to  develop  or  create  anew 
sociological  influence  and  methods,  and  to  improve 
the  lot  of  the  workingman.  Only  Catholics  are  mem- 
bers, but  it  claims  that  it  is  not  a  "Catholic  party." 
Its  first  general  session  convened  at  Paris,  December, 
1904,  with  900  delegates  representing  648  cowUtds  or 
branches  and  150,000  members.  The  statistics  for 
the  following  years  are  as  follows:  Paris,  1905,  1400 
deleg^ites  from  1000  camit^a  with  200,000  members; 
Lyons,  1906,  ICOO  delegates  representing  loOO 
comity  and  225,000  members:  Bordeaux,  1907,  1740 
comitie  with  250,000  members.  The  proceeding?  of 
all  four  congresses  were  of  great  interest.  The  so- 
ciety, conducted  bv  a  central  committee,  is  divided 
into  provincial  and  town  committees  which,  though 
controlled  by  the  general  committee,  are  allowed  much 
independence  of  action.  Besides  assiduous  efforts  to 
educate  the  voter  the  society  has  turned  its  attenti(9n 
more  and  more  to  practical  sociological  work,  as  the  dis- 
cussions held  at  tne  various  congresses  show.  The  re- 
actionary methods  which  so  greatly  damaged  the 
Monarchists  have  never  been  adopted.  However,  the 
growth  of  the  association  has  not  eaualled  expecta- 
tions, because  at  the  first  election  which  took  place 
after  its  establishment  (1906),  while  the  "Action 
lib^rale"  did  not  disappoint  its  friends,  the  parties  of 
the  Right,  without  the  aid  of  which  it  could  not  suc- 
ceed, were  completely  defeated  at  the  polls.  Besides, 
the  distrust  of  many  Frenchmen  was  aroused  because 
in  order  to  gain  numerical  strength  it  admitted  as 
members  many  who,  until  their  reception  into  its 
ranks,  had  been  known  as  opponents  ot  the  Republic. 

The  Women's  Movement. — The  "  Ligue  patriotique 
des  Frangaises",  formed  in  1901,  to  collect  funds  for 
the  election  expenses  of  the  candidates  of  the  "Ac- 
tion lib^rale  populaire''.  tLVOOH  to  arouse  interest  among 
women  in  the  efforts  oi  the  "  Action  *'  to  defend  civil 
liberty. and  to  promote  sociological  activity.  Since 
then  tKe  league  has  declared  that  it  does  not  pursue 
political  ends.  The  movement  had  as  its  leaders  such 
able  women  as  the  Baroness  Reille,  Mademoiselle 
Frossard,  Mademoiselle  de  Valette,  and  others,  and 
in  1008  the  league  numbered  700  branches  with 
328,000  members,  28,000  more  than  in  1j906.  The 
league  holds  numerous  district  sessions  and  an  an- 
nual general  meeting.  At  the  last  two  annual  sessions 
at  Lourdes,  2000  women  attended.  The  addresses 
and  discussions  at  these  conventioDS  ahow  that  the 


0OirO]tC88X8 


247 


eONa&£S8£8 


altcuition  of  the  league  is  more  and  iuoi*e  (Ixed  ou 
attaiiung  practical  social  ends.  This,  however,  is 
made  noore  difficult  by  the  miwtaken  conception  that 
all  Catholic  Frenchwomen,  because  they  are  Catholics, 
should  belong  to  the  league;  consequently,  the  pro- 
gramme  lacks  definiteness,  and  n:iany  problems  are 
taken  up  in  a  hesitating  and  incomplete  manner. 
Moreover,  this  policy  prevents  a  correct  perception  of 
the  sociological  character  of  the  organizations  m  que^- 
tion  and  meur  accommodation  to  the  needs  of  the 
workingman.  Thev  are  turned  too  much  into  the 
direction  of  charitaole  and  benevolent  activities.  Hie 
work  of  the  league  in  social  economics  is  as  ^et  only 
in  its  infancy.  The  ^'Jeanne  d'Arc"  Federation  aims 
to  unite  all  CathoUc  women  of  France  who  take  up 
questions  of  social  betterment,  in  an  annual  assembly 
for  exchange  of  views  and  combined  effort.  Since 
1901  a  well-attended  annual  meeting  has  been  held  at 
Paris,  but  so  far  has  resulted  only  in  an  interchange  of 
opinion  and  resolutions.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  federation  has  no  regular  and  recognized  authority 
over  the  mamfold  associations  affiliated  in  it. 

Educational  Congresses. — Up  to  1908  three  con- 
gresses of  French  priests  had  been  held:  Saint- 
Quentin,  1895;  Reims,  1897;  Bouiges,  1898.  The 
fiist,  which  differed  in  aims  from  those  following,  met 
at  the  suggestion  of  L^n  Harmel  and  confined  itself 
to  oonsidenng  the  share  the  clergy  should  take  in  the 
efforts  to  better  present  social  conditions.  The  at- 
tendance was  about  two  hundred.  The  two  following 
congresses  called  by  the  Abb6  Lemire,  supported  by 
the  Abb^  Dabry,  Naudet,  Gibier,  Lacroix,  had  an 
attraidanoe  of  from  six  hundred  to  eight  hundred  per- 
sons. Questions  touching  the  sacerdotal  life  were 
discussed:  training  of  the  clergy;  continuation  of 
clerical  studies;  activity  in  the  cure  of  souls:  organi- 
zation to  secure  a  continuous  succession  oi  clergy; 
priests'  unions ;  mutual  aid  societies,  etc.  The  con- 
ventions were  presided  over  by  bishops,  Leo  XIII  sent 
his  blessing,  and  the  influence  on  the  yoimger  clergy 
was  excellent.  There  was  much  opposition  to  them, 
however,  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  oishops  and  some 
of  the  older  clergy,  and  especially  on  the  part  of  the 
Conservatives  in  politics.  The ''  Congr^  de  I'AUiance 
des  grands-«6minaires ''  met  at  Paris,  21-22,  July,  1908, 
the  (questions  taken  up  were  mainly  the  preparatory 
trainmg  of  the  clergy  in  letters  and  in  ascetic  life. 
Conventions  of  delegates  of  the  teachers  of  higher  and 
elementary  schools  not  under  State  control,  the  "Syn- 
dicats  et  associations  de  I'enseignement  libre'',  met: 
at  Bordeaux.  1906;  Poitiers,  1907;  Paris,  1908.  At 
Paris,  the  delegates  represented  2300  teachers  belong- 
ing to  teachers'  unions  and  3000  not  connected  witn 
such  oiganizations,  from  a  teaching  force  of  20,000. 
Among  the  subjects  discussed  were  peda^^cal  ques- 
tions, school-organization,  instruction  m  industrial 
and  high  schools,  matters  of  professional  interest. 
The  association  of  Catholic  Lawyers  has  met  yeariy 
since  1876,  the  first  session  being  held  at  Lyons,  that 
of  1907  at  Anjgers.  Those  legal  questions  are  taken 
up  which,  at  the  moment,  are  of  practical  importance 
for  the  continuance  of  the  Church  as  an  organized 
society,  for  its  endowments  and  institutions.  The 
''Alliance  des  maisons  d'Mucation  chr^tienne"  aims 
to  secure  for  independent  schools  those  advantages 
which  a  centralized  organization  confers  on  those 
luder  State  control.  Up  to  1908  the  annual  sessions 
were  organized  by  Al^  ^^^^*  Professor  at  the 
Catholic  Institute  of  Paris.  The  subiects  discussed 
^  methods  of  instruction  and  school  organization. 
The  Alliance  originally  represented  76  schools;  the 
number  rose  to  600,  but  on  account  of  the  law  of  1901, 
^"hich  reduced  the  number  of  schools  independent  of 
^e  State,  those  in  the  Alliance  fell  to  500  in  1908. 

Oermany, — Up  to  1908,  fifty-five  congresses  have 
been  held,  the  last,  1908,  at  Dtisseldorf ,  those  previous 
raet  at:  Mannheim,  1902;  Cologne,  1903;  Rntisbon, 


1904;  Strasburg,  1905;  Essen,  1900;  Warzbttig, 
1907.  The  Central  Committee,  formed  in  1868,  super- 
intends the  preparations  for  the  sessions  and  directs 
the  conventions.  When  the  KuUurkampf  began  the 
committee  was  dissolved,  and  its  work  was  done  by 
Prince  Karl  Ldwenstein-Wertheim-Roeenbei^,  the 
"Standing  commissioner  of  the  Catholic  Congress '\ 
In  1898  a  new  conmiittee  was  formed,  Count  Clenciens 
Droste-Vischering  being  chairman.  The  president  dt 
the  congress  dianges  every  year,  and  the  most  distin-^ 
guished  representatives  of  Catholicism  in  Germany 
and  the  leading  members  of  the  nobility  aie  regularly 
selected  for  the  oresidency,  which  office  is  always  held 
by  a  layman.  On  the  other  hand  the  chairman  of  the 
oommittee  of  arrangements  is  always  the  bishop  of  ^e 
diocese  in  which  me  coming  session  is  to  be  held. 
Each  congress  lasts  five  days,  the  meetmg  being  held 
in  August.  A  number  of  Catholic  societies,  especially 
the  Yolksverein,  founded  1901,  the  St.  Aupistine 
Association  for  the  Development  of  the  Cnthoho 
Press,  founded  1877,  at  the  second  Catholic  congress 
at  Wilrzburg,  and  the  Catholic  Students'  societies, 
founded  1867,  take  advantage  of  the  occasion  to  hold 
their  own  oonventiona  at  the  same  time  and  place.  In 
addition  to  the  sessions  of  the  General  Catholic  Con- 
gress, in  1850  arrangements  were  made  for  diooesan 
conventions;  these,  however,  seldom  meet.  Conven- 
tions are  more  oonomon  for  the  various  Prussian  prov- 
inces and  the  different  states  of  the  confederation, 
e.  g.  for  Silesia,  Bavaria,  and  the  last  held  for  WOiv 
temberg  at  Ulm,  1901.  Early  in  1904,  by  order  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Ck>l(^;ne,  all  the  charitable  societies  and 
those  for  social  betterment  of  the  diocese  were  feder- 
ated, the  first  convention  of  thia  general  oiganization 
meeting  in  May,  1904.  The  first  congress  of  the 
"  Bonimcius  Association"  was  held  8-9  ^Iv,  1908,  at 
Paderbom ;  the  object  of  the  society  is  to  collect  funds 
for  Catholic  churches  and  schools  among  Gennana 
scattered  abroad,  for  the  Scandinavian  mission,  and 
to  aid  the  religious  needs  of  the  Catholics. 

Social  Congresses. — General  conventions  are  held  of 
the  "  Arbeiterwohr*  (Society  for  Bettering  the  Condi-' 
tion  of  the  Working-Classes);  "Society  of  Catholic 
Manufacturers  and  Friends  of  Workingmen",  founded 
in  1905;  and  ''Society  for  Social  Culture  and  Com- 
munal Betterment",  founded  1880  with  the  aid  of 
Franz  Brandts,  Hitze,  etc.  At  the  last-named  gen- 
eral assembly  heki  annually  all  members  can  take  part 
in  the  discussions  of  the  questions  brought  up.  A 
congress  of  the '' Yolksverein"  haa  been  held  annually 
since  1890  in  connexion  with  the  General  Catholic  Con- 
gress. At  these  sessions,  open  to  all,  annual  reports 
and  explanation  of  the  object  of  the  imion  are  given. 
The  president  of  these  annual  congresses  was  gener* 
ally  Franz  Brandts  of  Manchen-Gladbach,  and  the 
chief  speakers  Gr6bcr,  Trimbome,  and  Lieber.  Under 
the  direction  and  leadenship  of  Mgr.  Werthmann  of 
Freiburg,  Baden,  the  Association  for  Charitable  Work 
has  met  annually  as  a  national  assembly  since  1896, 
when  it  convened  at  Schw&bisch-Gmund.  The  ses- 
sion of  1907  was  at  Hildesheim,  the  next,  the  thir- 
teenth, at  Ravensburg.  Reports  of  conmiittees  and 
addresses  are  alternately  made  at  the  sessions.  The 
Congress  for  Charitable  Work  came  into  existence 
through  the  sociological  activity  of  the  "  Yolksverein"; 
its  aim  being  to  show  that  Catholic  charities  should  be 
more  extensively  guided  by  sociological  considerar 
tions,  and  that  they  stand  in  need  of  doser  union  and 
greater  zeal.  In  1897  a  "Union  of  Charitable  Soci- 
eties'' grew  out  of  this  congress;  the  Union  is  divided 
into  local  and  provincial  societies  under  the  direction 
of  a  well-organized  central  management  which,  with- 
out interfering  with  the  subordmate  organizations, 
exerts  on  them  a  beneficial  influence.  Especially 
important  are  its  training  courses;  the  local  and  pro- 
vincial societies  also  frequently  hold  district  and  dio- 
cesan conventions.    A  reorganization  of  the  St.  Yin- 


00NOB2S8CS 


248 


ooiraiassni 


eent  de  Paul  societies  has  been  broached,  the  societies 
for  the  protection  of  young  girls,  and  the  women's 
movement  have  also  received  encouragement  from 
this  charitable  ox^nisation.  The  United  Catholic 
Workinemen's  Union  has  its  head-quartens  at  Berlin. 
Althou^  the  greater  number  of  organised  Catholic 
worionen  are  members  of  trade  unions  not  denomina- 
tional in  character,  an  effort  has  been  made,  since  the 
end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  to  unite  other  Catholic 
woridnen  in  a  denominational  union.  This  work  has 
been  done  chiefly  among  the  East  German  workmen 
and  in  the  Diocese  of  Trier.  Conventions  of  delates 
have  been  held  annually  since  1898,  the  eleventh  hav- 
ing taken  place  in  1908.  The  Union  of  ihe  Associa- 
tions of  Catholic  Wage-earning  Women  and  Girls  is  a 
branch  of  the  one  just  mentioned.  Four  congresses 
have  been  held,  the  fourth  in  1908.  The  Catholic  As- 
Booiatiion  for  German  Young  Men  was  formed  to  exert 
religious  influence  on  boys  who  have  left  school  and 
are  apprentices  until  they  are  prepared  to  enter  a 
workingmen's  union.  So  far,  not  over  twenty  per 
cent  of  Catholic  apprentices  have  joined  the  union. 
To  remedy  this  it  nas  been  proposed  to  give  a  more 
social  character  to  the  union,  and  to  form  diocesan 
and  a  national  imion,  and  to  convene  the  presidents  of 
all  the  branch  unions  throughout  Germany  in  a  ^en- 
O'al  meeting.  The  first  of  these  general  conventions 
was  held  in  1896;  followed  by  four  others,  up  to  1899; 
then  the  assemblies  lapsed  until  1905,  when,  through 
the  efforts  of  the  "  Arbeiterwohr*  (Society  for  Better- 
ing the  Condition  of  the  Working-Classes)  the  union 
was  reomnized,  and  a  general  meeting  held  at  Col- 
ogne.   Fiiture  sessions  are  to  be  held  triennially. 

The  "  Association  of  Catholic  Women  "  was  founded 
at  the  Congress  for  Charitable  Work  held  at  Frankfort, 
1903.  Two  meetings  have  been  held :  Frankfort,  1904 : 
Munich,  1906.  Its  weakness,  so  far,  has  been  a  lack  ox 
definiteness  in  its  aims,  for,  although  an  offshoot  of  the 
*Charitasverband"  (Ch^itable  Union),  it  has  been 
influenced,  more  or  less,  by  the  general  women's 
movement  in  Germany  and  ite  tendencies,  which  deal 
less  with  sociological  problems  than  with  the  general 
interests  of  the  sex.  It  works  for  sociological  im- 
provement through  charity;  for  the  education  of 
women;  and  in  the  interests  of  wage-earning  women 
and  women  outside  of  the  family  circle. 

The  "Catholic  Teachers'  Union*'  in  Germany,  com- 
prising male  teachers  of  primary  and  middle  schools, 
was  founded  in  1899,  at  Bochum.  It  numbers  19,000 
members,  and  thirteen  conventions,  semi-annual  as  a 
rule,  have  been  held ;  latterly  it  has  met  at  Strasburg, 
Berlin,  and  Breslau.  The  union  is  made  up  of  sixteen 
brandies  which  meet,  generally,  once  a  ^^ar.  W^tir- 
temberg  has  formed  a  imion  of  its  own.  The  "  Union 
c4  Catholic  Women  Teachers  of  Germany",  founded  in 
1885,  developed  slowlv  imtil  1891.  Thirteen  conven- 
tions have  been  held,  the  last  three  in  Strasburg, 
Bochum,  and  Munich.  It  is  composed  of  teachers, 
both  of  the  primary  and  higher  schools  for  girls;  in 
1903  it  organiiied  a  section  of  the  teachers  in  middle 
and  hi^er  girls'  schools  which  holds  special  sessions 
during  the  meeting  of  the  general  convention.  The 
''Union  of  the  As£>ciations  of  Catholic  Merchants", 
with  head-quarters  at  Essen,  founded  in  1877,  has 
20,000  members;  its  delegates  hold  a  meeting  a  few 
days  before  the  General  Catholic  Congress  and  at  an- 
other place.  The  union  of  the  Catholic  Students' 
Corps  who  do  not  wear  colours,  has  held  regular  an- 
nual conventions  since  1866,  the  sessions  convened  in  a 
different  university  town  each  year  with  the  exception 
of  1906,  when  Wiesbaden  was  chosen.  Some  sixty 
societies  are  thus  united;  as  many  societies  belong 
to  the  union  of  Catholic  Students'  Corps  in  which 
are  included  also  some  Swiss  and  Austrian  or^anisar* 
tions.  The  St.  Cecilia  Society  was  founded  in  1868 
to  promote  interest  in  Church  musie.  The  eighteenth 
general  assembly  took  place  at  Eichstfttt  in  1908. 


Political  Congresses. — As  political  oongresseB,  up 
to  1907,  should  bo  mentioned  the  general  meetingB  of 
the  "  Windlterstbund  ",  the  first  session  of  whidi  was 
held  at  Essen,  1895.  Their  object  was  to  interest  young 
Catholics  in  politics  so  as  to  insure  constant  recruits 
for  the  Centie  Partjr.  The  membership  inereasuig,  it 
was  formed  into  unions.  Since  1897  an  annual  con- 
vention of  delegates  has  met.  At  Wiesbaden,  1907,  it 
was  decided  that,  in  accordance  with  its  statutes  axid 
the  partv  it  represented,  the  local  unions  could  xx>t 
have  a  cfenominational  character,  consequently  some 
of  them  withdrew  from  the  association. 

Educational  Congresses. — ^The  Association  of 
Catholic  Lawyers,  held  two  meetings  without  achieving 
success,  and  was  merged,  1907,  with  the  ''GOrres  Asso- 
ciation" for  the  encouragCTnent  of  science  in  Catholic 
Germany,  founded  1876,  at  Coblens.  Since  this  first 
^neral  session,  the  latter  society  has  held  annual  ses- 
sions in  other  cities.  Its  importance  lies  in  the  dis- 
cussions of  its  different  sections.  At  first,  these  treated 
topics  in  philosophy  and  history,  only  of  late  oth^* 
sections  have  been  added  for  the  natural  sdenoes,  law, 
and  archeology.  At  times,  there  are  two  meetings 
with  lectures  tor  larger  audiences,  which  are  attended 
by  members  and  theirguests.  A  general  meetins  of 
the  ''Association  for  Christian  Art"  has  taken  p&oe 
annually,  the  object  of  which  is  to  encourage  Cauiolie 
artists  and  develop  religious  art.  The  ''Catholic 
Press  Club",  largely  a  Baviman  association,  is  in- 
tended to  encourage  Catholic  journals.  Catholic  popu- 
lar libraries,  and  Catholic  culture.  Its  annual  meet- 
inffl  are  held  at  Munich. 

Denmark. — In  1886  various  Catholic  conununities, 
with  del^ates  from  Norway  and  Sweden,  united  to 
celebrate  the  eight-hundredtn  anniveisaiy  of  the  mar- 
^rrdom  of  King  Canute  (Knut)  by  a  festival  at 
Odense.  Some  two  hundred  persons  attended,  and 
the  exercises  were  largely  religious.  In  1889  a  meet- 
ing was  held  at  Ranoers  to  c^ebrate  ^e  seven  hun- 
dredth anniversaiy  of  the  canonisation  of  St.  Kjeld, 
the  attendance  being  entirely  Danish.  In  1908  the 
Catholics  of  Copenhagen  and  its  vicinity  met  to  dis- 
cuss questions  concerning  the  Church  and  sdiools  for 
all  Denmark.  Seven  comerences  of  the  Society  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  have  been  held  since  1885. 

Switzerland. — Besides  the  general  assemblies  of  the 
nineteenth  century  mentioned  above,  two  sessions 
of  a  General  Catholic  Congress,  in  imitation  of  the 
Geiman  Congress,  have  been  held  in  Switserland: 
Lucerne,  27-29  September,  1903;  Freiburg,  22-25 
September,  1906.  At  Lucone  it  was  molved  to 
umte  all  Catholic  associations  into  one  organisation, 
of  which  the  Swiss  "Volksverein"  (People's  Union) 
was  to  be  the  nucleus.  This  arrangement  hdd  untU 
1906.  The  central  committee  of  the  "Volksverein" 
now  forms  the  standing  committee  of  the  Catholic 
Congresses,  and  all  Catholic  societies  of  S¥niierland, 
charitable,  social,  and  relieious,  societies  to  further 
education,  culture,  women's,  and  trades'  unions  are 
affiliated  with  it.  The  general  organization  is  divided 
into  cantonal  unions,  of  which  several  meet  annually. 
Special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  first  Swiss 
congress  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  at  Einsiedeln, 
20-21  Au^t,  1907.  At  the  suggestion  of  Bishop 
Mermillod  international  conferences  of  those  interestea 
in  political  movements  for  sodsil  betterment  met  annu- 
ally at  Freiburg,  Switserland,  1883-93,  to  discuas  the 
principles  imderlying  modem  political  economy.  A 
similar  meeting  was  held  here,  20-22  October,  1903; 
the  discussions  concerned  Christian  Socialism  in  the 
different  countries,  trade  unions,  women's  work,  and 
the  international  protection  of  labourers.  Fluotical 
courses  in  sociology  were  held  at:  Lucerne,  1^6; 
Zurich,  1898,  and  1904;  in  1894  a  ''Congi^  d'dtude 
et  de  propagande"  was  held  at  Freiburc  for  the 
French  Swiss;  after  this,  these  assembues 
adopted  by  the  French  Cathdies. 


o<»iaass&i8 


249 


OONOEXMM 


Austria  (including  Bohemia). — Up  to  1867  the  Au9- 
tiiaii  General  Con^pas  fonned  part  of  the  Gennan 
CongresB;  since  this  date  six  independent  Austrian 
congreases  have  met,  the  last  at  Vienna,  16-19  Novem- 
ber, 1907.  The  organization  is  similar  to  the  German, 
consequently,  the  annual  meetings  of  various  other 
societies  are  held  at  the  same  time  as  the  iniportant 
"Pius  Verein"  for  the  development  of  the  Catholic 
press.  Besides  the  General  Congress  there  are  various 
national  congresses:  (1)  The  first  congress  for  North- 
em  Bohemia  was  held  in  1887;  the  fourth,  1890;  after 
a  long  intermission  the  fifth,  1904;  the  sixth,  1906. 
(2)  The  first  congress  for  Lower  Austria  met,  1894; 
the  second,  1898;  the  third,  1903:  this  was  followed, 
1905,  bv  a  meeting  of  del^ates  of  the  Catholic  socie- 
ties of  tne  crown  lands;  a  national  assembly  was  held 
in  1908.  (3)  The  first  Slovenian  congress  was  held  in 
1892;  the  second,  1900.  (4)  A  CzcSh  congress  was 
held  in  1907  with  an  attendance  of  about  30,000  pei^ 
sons.  In  1903  the  "Union  of  Catholic  Benevolent 
Societies  of  the  Austrian  Empire"  was  founded;  a 
charity  congress  met  at  Vienna,  1901;  a  second  at 
Graa,  1903;  a  third  at  Linz,  1906.  The  second  as- 
sembly brought  about  the  formation  of  the  Charity 
Union  for  the  whole  empire.  This  union  includes  the 
benevolent  associations  of  the  different  crown  lands 
without,  however,  lessening  their  independence,  and 
the  latter  include  the  individual  societies  of  each  part 
of  the  empire.  Besides  the  general  congress,  the  im- 
perial organization,  in  accordance  with  its  statutes, 
holds  semi-annually  a  convention  to  which  the  pro* 
vindal  unions  sena  delegates.  During  the  last  de- 
cade a  number  of  various  other  assemblies  have  been 
held  in  Austria,  among  them  a  congress  for  priests, 
one  session;  a  congress  for  the  veneration  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  St.  Poelten.  1901;  Prague,  1906,  ete. 

Hungary. — Six  Catholic  congresses  have  been  held 
in  Hungary  since  1900,  the  first  at  Stuhlweissenburg, 
the  four  lollowing  at  Budapest,  the  last,  1907,  at 
FUnfkirchen.  The  language  used  is  Magyar,  but  the 
language  spoken  at  tne  place  of  meetmg  receives 
recognition.  The  perpetual  nresident  is  Count  Jo- 
hanni  Zichy,  Jr.,  president  of  tne  Central  Union  of  the 
Catholic  Societies  of  Hungary.  Up  to  1908  the  meet- 
ings of  the  congress  mainly  discussed  the  press  and 
the  needs  of  Catholic  young  men.  At  the  last  meeting 
a  Catholic  Federation,  similar  to  the  Volksverein  of 
Germany,  was  founded.  Some  of  the  bishops  are 
greatly  mterested  in  the  congresses  and  their  results. 

Belgium. — In  Belgium  a  laige  number  of  societies 
hold  conventions^  but  owin^  to  the  many  divisions  of 
Catholic  associations  statistics  are  not  available. 

HoUand. — Each  diocese  of  Holland  holds  a  con- 
vention from  time  to  time  of  all  its  Catholic  organ- 
izations; the  agricultural  associations  as  well  as 
societies  for  schools,  religious  or  social  purposes,  are 
included,  but  each  society  holds  its  own  sessions  and 
also  joins  in  a  general  meeting  of  all.  The  "Soci- 
olc^cal  Week''  has  been  held  three  times  in  the  last 
few  years.  The  bishop  of  the  diocese  controls  the 
or^nization. 

^pam. — Since  1889  six  Catholic  congresses  have 
been  hdd,  the  last  in  1903.  Lately  more  attention 
has  been  paid  to  social  improvement,  especially  by 
means  of  sociological  associations;  consequently,  the 
scheme  of  the  Sociological  Week  is  developing.  The 
International  Marian  Congress  met  at  Lyons,  1900, 
at  Einseidehi,  1906,  and  at  Saragossa,  Sept.,  1908. 

ArqenJtma. — ^Up  to  1908  two  Catholic  congresses 
were  neld  at  Buenos  Aires,  one,  15-30  August,  1884: 
the  other,  20-28  October,  1907.  The  first  aroused 
great  enthusiasm,  but  the  results  were  meagre.  The 
second  had  an  attendance  of  about  350  delegates,  the 
president  being  Dr.  Emil  Lamarca.  Its  chief  aim  was 
to  found  a  Catholic  daily  newspaper.  Besides  this  a 
Cathob'c  Education  League  was  oi^ganized  to  reform 
the  srhcHil-laws. 


MAT.<Oe«eAifi&te  der  general  Vermmmlungen  der  kathotitehen 
DeiUsehlanda  ^Cologne.  1M4);  BbOck.  Geediithie  der  JkaAtH 
heehen  Ktreh^  im  neunuhnUn  Jahrhundert  (MOoBter,  1905); 
CatKUic  Social  Work  in  Cfermany  in  The  Dublin  Review  (Lon* 
don,  July,  1908).  Mahtin  Spahn. 

^  III.  In  ENGLisH-sPEAKiNa  CoTJNTBiBS. — In  Eng- 
lish-Speaking countries  the  term  "congress"  is  usualfy 
applied  only  to  gatherings  of  an  important  national 
character,  hence  the  assemblies  in  the  United  States 
of  such  bodies  as  the  Federation  of  Catholic  Societies, 
the  Central  Verein,  the  Staats-verbund,  the  Catholic 
Young  Men's  National  Union,  the  Catholic  Total  Ab- 
stinence Union,  and  other  associations  are  treated 
under  their  separate  titles. 

In  England,  meetings  are  held  annually  of  the 
Catholic  Truth  Society,  founded  in  1872  by  Cardinal 
Vaughan,  at  which  papers  are  read  on  various  sub- 
jects connected  with  Catholic  interests.  The  Catholic 
Truth  Society  of  Ireland,  organized  in  1903,  has  also 
done  excellent  work  by  its  conventions  and  the  dif- 
fusion of  sound  Catholic  literature  in  popular  form 
(see  Truth  Societies,  Catholic).  Federations  for 
the  defence  of  Catholic  interests  have  been  formed  in 
the  dioceses  of  Salf ord,  Westminster,  and  Leeds.  This 
federation  movement  has  done  much  to  organize  the 
Catholic  forces,  and  has  been  characterized  by  the 
number  of  popular  gatherings  which  it  has  promoted 
especially  in  connexion  with  the  defence  of  Catholic 
education.  The  Catholic  Union  of  Great  Britain 
which  represents  an  influential  body  of  English  Cath- 
olics; the  Catholic  Association,  to  promote  Catholic 
organization  and  organizes  social  gatherings;  the 
Catholic  Young  Men's  Society  (founded  in  1854) ;  the 
Catholic  Education  Council,  established  by  the  bishops 
of  Great  Britain  in  1905;  the  Conference  of  Catholic 
Colleges,  founded  by  Cardinal  Vaughan  1896,  and 
other  bodies  representing  Catholic  education  hold 
annual  or  occasional  conventions.  Conferences  for 
specific  social  or  religious  purposes  are  held  by  such 
bodies  as  the  Catholic  Guardians  Association  (chari- 
table), the  League  of  the  Cross  (temperance),  the 
Guild  of  Our  Lady  of  Hansom  (conversion  of  England). 
Diocesan  or  local  conventions  are  found  especially  in 
London  and  Lancashire.  The  Catholics  of  Birmingham 
have  held  an  annual  reunion  for  over  half  a  century. 
Catholic  women  are  being  effectively  organized  by  the 
Catholic  Women's  League,  founded  by  Miss  Fletcher, 
London,  1907,  with  branches  in  the  provinces. 

The  most  imposing  religious  convocation  England 
has  seen  since  pre-&formation  times  was  the  inter- 
national congress  of  the  Eucharistic  League  held  in 
London,  9-13  September,  1908.  Vincenzo  Vannur 
telli,  Cardinal-Bisnop  of  Palestrina,  presided  as  the 
legate  of  the  pope — the  first  occasion  on  which  so 
exalted  a  representetive  of  the  Holy  See  had  appeared 
in  England  since  the  days  of  Reginald  Pole.  France 
and  Germany,  as  well  as  all  the  Engfishnspeaking 
countries,  were  represented  by  such  a  gathering  of 
cardinals  as  is  seldom  seen  outside  of  Rome.  More 
than  one  hundred  archbishops,  bishops,  and  mitred  . 
abbots,  from  all  parts  of  the  world — even  the  great 
missionary  fields  of  Central  Africa,  Cape  Colony, 
India,  Burma,  with  thousands  of  the  laity,  were  also 
in  attendance.  The  religious  functions  took  place  in 
Westminster  Cathedral,  where,  on  one  of  the  mornings 
during  the  congress,  by  speciafpermission  of  lie  pope, 
a  high  Mass  according  to  the  Greek  Rite  was  sung? 

The  United  Stales. — There  have  been  two  congresses 
of  Catholic  laymen  held  in  the  United  States.  In 
conjunction  with  the  celebration  of  the  centenary  of 
the  establishment  of  the  hierarchy  of  the  United 
States  by  Pius  VII  in  1789,  and  the  dedication  of  the 
Catholic  University,  at  Washington,  the  first  Catho- 
lic Congress  of  the  United  Stat.es  met  in  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  on  November  11  and  12,  1889.  ITie  dele- 
gates were  selected  by  the  bishops  of  the  various  dio- 
ceses and  were  in  the  main  representative  of  t\  certain 


OONOaSSSES 


250 


ooiraRESsEfi 


percentage  of  the  Catholic  population  in  each.  *  About 
twelve  hundred  delegates  were  present.  In  prepara- 
tion for  the  gathering  a  meeting  had  been  held  in 
Chicago  the  previouB  May  attended  by  Archbishop 
Ireland  of  St.  Paul  and  Messrs.  Henry  J.  Spaunhorst. 
of  St.  Louis,  William  J.  Onahan,  of  Chicago,  and 
Heniy  F.  Brownson,  of  Detroit.  The  objects  proposed 
for  the  congress  were  the  closer  imion  of  all  tne  mem- 
bers of  the  Catholic  body  in  the  coimtry,  increased 
activity  of  the  laity  in  aid  of  the  clergy  in  religious 
work,  and  a  declaration  of  views  on  the  important 
questions  of  the  hour,  and  for  the  assistance  and  relief 
of  the  poorer  classes  of  society.  Cardinal  Gibbons, 
considering  the  congress  as  in  some  sense  part  of  the 
religious  function  taking  place  at  the  centenary  cele- 
bration in  Baltimore,  deemed  it  desirable  that  the 
papers  to  be  read  diu*ing  its  sessions  should  tot  be 
submitted  to  an  advisory  committee  of  the  hierarchy 
and  named  as  such  committee:  Archbishop  Ireland 
(chairman)  and  Bishops  Gilmour,  of  Cleveland,  Maes, 
of  Covington,  Ryan,  of  Buffalo,  Harkins,  of  Provi- 
dence, and  Foley,  of  Detroit.  A  committee  on  Or- 
ganization, consisting  of  Messrs.  Onahan,  Spaunhorst, 
D.  A.  Rudd,  of  Cincinnati,  J.  D.  Keiley,  of  Brooklyn, 
and  Dr. , John  Gilmary  Shea,  the  historian,  was  au- 
thorized to  issue  a  call  for  the  congress  and  to  organize 
it;  and  a  Committee  on  Papers — Messrs.  Brownson, 
Peter  L.  Foy,  of  St.  Louis,  and  M.  J.  Harson,  of  Provi- 
dence— to  prepare  the  work  for  the  several  sessions. 

Beginning  with  a  solemn  pontifical  Mass  at  the 
cathedral  on  the  morning  of  11  November,  celebrated 
by  Archbishop  Corrigan  of  New  York,  and  at  which 
Archbishop  Gross  of  Oregon  preached,  the  sessions  of 
the  congress  were  opened  in  the  Concordia  Opera 
House,  former  Governor  John  Lee  Carroll,  of  Maryland, 
presiding.  The  Most  Rev.  Archbishop  Francesco 
Satolli,  representing  the  pope,  Cardinals  Taschereau 
of  Quebec,  Gibbons  of  Baltimore,  with  represent- 
atives of  the  English  and  Irish  hierarchy,  and  from 
Mexico,  with  many  of  the  bishops  of  the  United 
States,  in  addition  to  the  lay  delegates,  were  present. 
The  pope,  through  Cardinal  RampoUa,  sent  his  bless- 
ing to  the  congress,  and  at  the  first  session  addresses 
weramade  by  Cardinal  Gibbons,  the  Rev.  James  Nu- 
gent of  Liverpool,  England,  Daniel  Dougherty,  Fran- 
cis Keman,  Honors  Mercier,  Premier  of  Quebec,  fol- , 
lowed  by  the  formal  papers  of  the  programme: 
"Catholic  Congresses*',  by  Dr.  John  Giknary  Shea; 
"Lay  Action  of  the  Church",  by  Henry  F.  Brownson; 
and  "The  Independence  of  tne  Holy  See*',  by  Charles 
J.  Bonaparte.  On  the  second  day,  the  firat  paper, 
"Archbishop  Carroll  as  a  Statesman",  was  read  by 
Honor6  Mercier,  Premier  of  Quebec,  and  at  its  con- 
clusion a  formal  resolution  sending  greetings  to  the 
people  of  Quebec  was  adopted.  Mgr.  Gadd  who 
represented  Cardinal  Manning,  Archbishop  of  West- 
minster, then  tendered  the  greetings  of  tnat  prelate 
and  the  English  hierarchy  to  the  congress,  ana  Peter 
L.  Foy,  of  St.  Louis,  read  the  fourth  regular  paper, 
"The  New  Social  Order,"  which  dealt  with  philan- 
thropic movements  in  general.  Other  papers  read 
were  "Education:  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  State, 
the  Church,  and  the  Parent  in  that  Regard",  by  Ed- 
mund F.  Dunne,  of  Florida;  "The  Catholic  Periodical 
Press",  by  George  Deering  Wolf  of  Norristown,  Penn- 
8vlvania|  "Societies",  by  Henry  J.  SpaunhorHt,  of 
St.  Louis;  "Catholic  American  Literature",  by 
Cond^  B.  Fallen,  of  St.  Louis;  "Temperance",  by 
John  H.  Campbell,  of  Philadelphia;  "Sunday  Ob- 
servance", by  Manly  Telle,  of  Cleveland;  "Labour 
and  Capital  ^^  by  William  Richards,  of  Washington; 
"What  Catholics  have  Done  in  the  Last  Hundred 
Years'*  by  Richard  H.  Qarke,  of  New  York; "  Church 
Music  *%  by  Heman  Allen,  of  Chicago. 

The  resolutiors  adopted  rejoiced  in  the  progress  of 
the  Church,  advocated  sound  Catholic  education,  de- 
nounced Mornionisiu,  divorce,  ami  secret  sociotic^s; 


Nihilism,  Socialism,  and  Communism;  commended 
Catholic  charitable,  social,  and  benevolent  societieB, 
the  support  of  the  Catholic  press,  Sunday  observance; 
and  pledged  loyalty  and  aevotion  to  the  pope  and 
demanded  the  temporal  freedom  of  the  Holy  See.  It 
was  resolved  to  hold  the  next  congress  during  the 
Columbian  celebration  of  1892,  and  in  the  concluding 
address  of  the  congress  Archbishop  Ireland  said: — "I 
am  overjoyed  to  see  so  many  laymen,  overjoyed  to 
listen  to  such  magnificent  discourses  and  such  grand 
papers,  and  to  have  realized  that  there  is  among  our 
Catholics  in  America  so  much  talent,  so  much  strong 
faith.  As  one  of  your  bishops  I  am  ashamed  of  my- 
self that  I  was  not  conscious  before  this  of  the  power 
existing  in  the  midst  of  the  laity,  and  that  I  have  not 
done  anything  to  bring  it  out.  But  one  thine  I  will 
do  with  God's  help.  In  the  future  I  shall  do  s3l  I  can 
to  bring  out  this  power. " 

Second  Congress. — The  sessions  of  the  Second  Catho- 
lic Congress  of  the  United  States  were  held  at  Chicapo 
on  4,  5,  and  6  September,  1893,  as  incidental  to  the 
Worid's  Coimresses  Auxiliary  of  the  Columbus  Expo- 
sition and  World's  Fair  of  that  year.  Archbishop 
Feehan  of  Chicago  and  William  J.  Onahan  were  presi- 
dent and  secretary  of  the  committee  on  oi*ganization, 
by  which  it  was  decided  that  three  topics  should  be 
treated  during  the  sessions:  "The  Social  Question  as 
outlined  by  Leo  XIII  in  his  encyclical  'Rerum  No\'a- 
rum'",  "Catholic  Education",  and  "The  Indepen- 
dence of  the  Holy  See".  No  discussion  of  the  papers 
was  allowed,  but  each  was  submitted  to  its  proper 
section  for  consideration.  Archbishop  Feehan  opened 
the  congress,  and  President  Bonnev,  of  the  World's 
Congress  Auxiliary,  welcomed  the  delegates  "on  behalf 
of  the  World's  Exposition  and  the  fifty  million  non- 
Cathojics  who  loved  justice  and  relicious  liberty". 
Cardinal  Gibbons  also  spoke,  and  on  the  second  day 
Archbishop  Satolli,  who  represented  the  pope  at  the 
World's  Exposition,  greeted  the  congress  m  the  name 
of  the  Holy  Father.  Other  visitors  were  Archbishop 
Redwood  of  Australia,  and  Count  de  Kaefstetn  of 
Austria.  Letters  from  Cardinals  Vaughan  and  Logue 
were  read. 

Judge  Morgan  J.  O'Brien,  of  New  York,  presided 
over  the  sessions  during  which  these  papers  were  read : 
"The  Relations  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Social, 
Civil,  and  Political  Institutions  of  the  United  States", 
Edgar  H.  Cans,  of  Baltimore ;  "Civil  Government  and 
the  Catholic  Citizen",  Walter  Geoi^  Smith,  of  Phila- 
delphia; "The  Independence  of  the  Holy  See",  Mar- 
tin P.  Morris,  of  Washington;  "Coliunbus,  His  Mis- 
sion and  Character",  Richard  H.  Clarke,  of  New  York ; 
"Isabella  the  Catholic",  Mary  J.  Onahan,  of  Chicago; 
"  The  Colonization  of  the  American  Continent  * ',  George 
Parsons  Lathrop,  of  New  York;  "The  Encyclical  of 
Pope  Leo  XIIl  on  the  Condition  of  Labor",  H.  C 
Semple,  of  Montgomerjr^  Alabama*  "The  Rights  of 
Labour  and  the  Duties  ot  Capital",  Edward  O.  Brown, 
of  Chicago,  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  William  Barry  of  Dor- 
chester, Endand;  "Pauperism,  the  Cause  and  the 
Remedy".  Dr.  Thomas  Dwight,  of  Boston,  and  Miss 
M.  T.  Elder  of  New  Orleans;  "Public  and  Private 
Charities",  Charles  A.  Wingerer,  of  Wheeling,  Thomas 
F.  Ri^  of  Boston,  R.  R.  Elliott  of  Detroit,  and  the 
Rev.  Francis  Maguire  of  Albany;  "Workincmen's 
Organizations  and  Societies  for  Young  Men",  Warren 
T.  Mosher  of  Youngstown ;  "Trade  Combinations  and 
Arbitration",  Robert  M.  Douglas,  Greensboro;  "Tem- 
perance", the  Rev.  James  M.  Cleary;  "Women's 
Work  in  Religious  Communities",  F.  M.  Edselas; 
"Women  in  the  Middle  Ages",  Anna  T.  Sadlier;  "Life 
Insurance  and  Pension  Funds  for  Wa^  Workers", 
John  P.  Lauth,  of  Cliicago;  "Immigration  and  Colo- 
nization ",  the  Rev.  M.  J.  Callahan,  of  New  York;  "The 
'Seed  o'  Catholic  Colleges",  Maurice  Francis  Eean. 

Australia. — Two  congresses  have  been  held  by  the 
Catholics  of  Australasia,  the  first  at  Sydney  in  Sep- 


OOKdlSSS 


251 


ooircninsM 


lember,  1900^  and  the  second  at  Melbourne  in  October, 
1904.  T^e  first  congress  followed  immediatdy  after 
the  dedication  of  Bt.  Marv's  cathedral,  Sydney,  on  9 
September,  1900,  at  whicn  Cardinal  Moran  presided, 
and  three  archbishops,  eight  bishops,  two  nundred 
priests,  with  the  Governors  of  New  South  Wales, 
Queensland,  New  Guinea,  and  a  great  oon^pegation  of 
the  laity  were  present.  TTie  congress  received  its  im- 
petus nt>m  Rome,  as  affording  Catholics  an  oppor- 
tunity to  manifest  their  faith  and  devotion  at  the  dose 
of  the  nineteenth  century;  to  make  non-Catholics  un- 
derstand more  about  their  religion;  to  answer  calum- 
nies such  as  were  made  current  in  the  Dreyfus  case; 
to  urge  a  reform  of  divorce  laws;  and  to  promote 
harmonious  relations  between  capital  and  labour.  In 
^)ening  the  congress  Cardinal  Moran  spoke  on  "The 
C&thohc  Church  in  the  Nineteenth  Century",  using 
the  progress  of  Catholicism  in  the  United  States  as 
an  illustration.  The  sessions  of  the  congress,  which 
last^  a  week,  were  held  in  the  cathedral  and  the 
topics  treated  included  social  questions,  Catiiolic  apol^ 
ogetics,  education,  science,  and  sacred  art,  ethnology 
and  statistics,  history  and  the  Catholic  missions. 

The  seoona  congress  met  in  Cathedral  Hs^  Mel- 
bourne, 24  to  31  October,  1904,  the  Most  Rev.  Thomaa 
J.  Carr,  Archbishop  of  Melbourne,  presiding,  and  the 
gathering  was  made  one  of  the  details  of  the  local 
celebration  of  the  golden  jubilee  of  the  proclamation 
of  the  dopma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  Its 
delegates  mcluded  bishops,  priests,  and  laymen  not 
only  from  all  the  States  of  the  Conmionwealth,  but 
also  from  New  Zealand  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 
The  topics  discussed  in  the  various  sections  were 
Marian  and  religious:  Education,  History,  and  Mis- 
sions, Charitabfe  Organizations,  Social  Questions, 
Sacred  Art,  Science,  Christian  Woman,  Medical  Ques- 
tions, and  the  Catholic  Newspaper.  Pex^aps  the 
most  practical  outcome  of  the  gathering  was  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Catholic  Truth  Society  of  Australia. 

Souvenir  Volume  of  (Ae  Ceniiomial  Ceiebrat%on  and  Catholie 
Cimaren  {Detroit,  1880);  Brnxiaer^B  Catholio  FamAy  Almanac 
(New  York.  1894);  Catholio  Nw>b  (New  York);  Freeman'* 
Journal  (Sydney);  Advocate  (Melbourne),  contemporaneoufl 
hies;  Proce9din(fe  cf  the  Second  AuatraUuian  Catholie  CongreM 
(MetbouRM.  1804). 

Thoiias  F,  Mebhan. 

Oongresa  of  Vieiine.    See  Vibnne,  Congress  of. 

Oongruft  (i.  e.  Congrua  Portio},  a  canonical  term 
to  designate  the  lowest  stun  proper  for  the  yearly  in- 
come of  a  cleric  It  is  sometimes  used  in  the  same 
sense  aa  competency  (q.  v.).  Owing  to  the  many 
charges  to  which  a  bencnce  is  liable,  it  oecame  nece»- 
sarv  for  the  ecclesiastical  authority  to  decree  that  first 
an(l  foremost  the  proper  sustenance  of  the  holder  of 
the  benefice  shoula  be  provided  for.  and  that  a  mini- 
mum revenue  should  be  determined,  below  which  his 
inoome  was  not  to  fall.  This  was  all  the  more  neces- 
sary in  eases  where  benefices  had  been  incorporated 
with  monasteries  or  collegiate  churches.  Veiy  often 
the  curate  of  such  incorporated  benefices  received  only 
one-sixteenth  of  the  revenue.  To  remedy  this  abuse 
a  number  of  ordinances  were  passed  whi(^  reserved 
to  the  person  having  cure  of  souls  a  decent  subsist- 
ence. The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXI,  c.  iv,  de 
Kef.)  leaves  the  determination  of  the  congrua  to  the 
judgment  of  the  bishop.  This  sum  must,  of  course, 
vary  with  the  fluctuation  of  values  at  different  times. 
It  must  not  be  so  parsimoniously  fixed  as  to  provide 
for  the  beneficiary  the  mere  necessaries  of  life.  To  be 
a  proper  income  m  accordance  with  the  dignity  of  his 
state,  it  should  likewise  be  sufficient  to  enable  him  to 
dispense  moderate  hospitality  and  almsgiving  and 
Bupply  hipiself  with  books,  etc.  The  Council  of  Trent 
did  not  determine  the  amount  of  the  congrua.  It 
suggested,  however,  that  about  one-thirfl  of  the  rev- 
enue of  the  benefice  should  be  ossignckl  to  the  vicar. 
When  the  benefice  can  not  furnish  a  proper  sustenance. 


it  is  the  duty  of  the  bishop  to  see  thAt  several  bene* 
fices  be  umtod  or  that  the  deficit  be  made  up  from 
other  sources,  as  tithes,  collections,  etc.  If  these 
means  fail,  the  benefice  must  be  suppressed.  It  is  to 
be  noted  tnat  in  determining  the  congrua  the  bishop 
can  not  take  into  considera^on  emoluments  that  are 
uncertain,  such  as  offerings  at  funerals  or  marriages, 
or  Mass  stipends;  nor  what  the  vicar  might  earn  by 
his  labour;  nor  what  he  receives  from  his  patrimonv; 
for  these  are  not  fruits  of  the  benefice.  When  the 
congrua  has  been  fixed  for  a  certain  benefice,  it  is 
always  presumed  to  be  sufficient,  unless  it  be  proved 
to  have  been  lessenecL  Hence,  if  the  beneficiary  de- 
clare the  consrua  to  be  insufficient,  especially  when  it 
has  sufficed  for  his  predecessors,  the  burden  of  proof 
rests  on  him.  If  the  congrua  had  been  sufficient  at 
the  time  a  pension  was  reserved  to  another  from  the 
fruits  of  the  benefice  and  later  became  insufficient,  the 
amount  necessary  to  provide  proper  sustenance  must 
be  taken  fTom  the  pension,  for  those  who  have  cure  of 
souls  are  to  be  preferred  to  pensioners.  Even  a  curate 
who  is  removaole  and  a  temporary  vicar  are  to  have  a 
congrua  assigned  to  them.  Althou,gh,  in  speaking  of 
the  congrua,  authors  generally  limit  the  question  to 
the  inferior  deigy,  yet  all  rectors  of  churches,  hence 
also  bishops,  are  entitled  to  it.  The  Coimcil  of  Trent 
(Sess.  XaIv,  cap.  xiii)  declared  that  a  cathedral 
church  whose  revenue  did  not  ^Eceed  one  thousand 
9cudi  (about  one  thousand  dollars)  should  not  be  bur- 
dened with  pensions  or  reservations.  The  bishop  is 
entitled  to  an  income  that  will  allow  him  to  live  ac 
cording  to -his  dignitv.  If  he  have  a  coadjutor,  the 
ordinary  must  provioe  a  congrua  for  him.  In  many 
European  countries,  whore  church  property  has 
passed  into  the  possession  of  .the  State,  the  civil  laws 
nave  determined  the  congrua  of  the  deigy  more  or  less 
liberally.  Such  laws  are  yet  in  force  in  Austria  and 
Germany,  and  until  the  end  of  1905  existed  in  France. 
Hie  salary  for  rectors  of  churches  in  the  United  States, 
fixed  by  plenary  or  diocesan  synods,  has  nothing  in 
common  with  the  canonical  congrua. 

FsBRABxa.  BtbUothooa  Canoniea  (Rom^  1886),  11;  HABTiia, 
Zur  Conorua-Frage  in  (Esterreich  (Grai,  1883);  ANDRt-Wxa- 
NBR,  l>ict.  du  Droit  Can.  (Fftris,  1001);  Verino,  Lehrbtuh  dee 
kath.  orient,  und  prot.  Kir^kenrethle  (FreiburR,  1803),  424,  647, 
708;  BucHBBHOBB,  Kitthl,  Handlex.  (Municb,  1006),  0.  v. 

WiLUAM  H.  W.  Failing. 

OongrtdMm(cangrua,  suitable,  adapted)  is  the  term  bv 
which  theoloffiaiis  denote  a  theory  according  to  which 
the  efficacy  of  efficacious  grace  (see  Grace)  is  due,  at 
least  in  ps^  t  to  the  fact  that  the  grace  is  given  in  cir- 
cumstances favourable  to  its  operation,  i.  e.  '*  congru^ 
ous"  in  that  sense.  The  distmction  between  gnOia 
congrua  and  groHa  incongrua  is  foimd  in  St.  Augustine 
where  he  speaks  of  the  elect  as  congmenier  vocaU  (Ad 
Simplieianum,  Bk.  I,  Q.  ii,  no.  13).  The  system 
known  as  Coi^ruism  was  developed  by  eminent  Jesuit 
theologians  at  the  dose  of  the  sixteenth  century  and 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth.  All  Molinists  re- 
gard actual  grace  as  being  really  identified  with  super* 
natural  action,  actual  grace  of  will,  technically  called 
inspiration,  being  an  act  of  will.  This  act  invariably 
be^;ins  necessarily^  and  may  become  free  at  a  certain 
pomt  in  its  duration :  so,  however,  that,  should  it  be* 
come  free,  there  will  oe  no  complete  break  in  the  indi* 
viduality,  but  only  a  modification  of  the  action:  the 
original  necessary  motion  continuing  in  a  modified 
form  after  the  point  where  freedom  commences  has 
been  reached.  An  actual  grace  of  will  which  is  merely 
sufficient  never  gets  beyond  this  point.  Whenever 
the  motion  does  get  beyond  and  become  free,  it  is 
called  an  efficacious  grace;  the  term  being  applied,  not 
merely  to  the  second  stage  of  the  action,  wherein  it  is 
free,  but  even  to  the  first  stage,  wherein  it  was  neces- 
saiy^  with  a  tendency,  however,  to  continue  after  the 
crucial  point  where  freedom  begins.  This  tendency  to 
continue  as  a  free  act  is  found  in  the  grace  which  re* 


0OVIMB8I0BH8E8 


252. 


OOHIMBmOKNSSS 


nunnfl  merely  sufficimit,  in  the  sense  that  the  second, 
or  free,  stage  may  be,  but  is  not,  reached  in  that  case; 
whereas,  in  the  case  of  efficacious  grace,  the  second  or 
free  stage  is  actually  attained. 

Hereupon  the  question  arises:  what  is  the  precise 
reason  wny,of  two  motions  which  may  be  supposed  to 
be  similar  in  every  respect  as  far  as  their  intrinsic  con- 
stitution is  concerned — to  be  of  the  same  intensity  as 
well  as  of  the  same  kind — one  does  not  last  beyond  the 
critical  point  where  freedom  begins,  whereas  the  other 
does?  It  is  of  the  essence  of  Molinism  that  this  is  due 
in  part  to  the  will  itself  continuing  to  act  under  the 
Divine  grace  or  not  continuing.  To  which  Bellarmine 
adds  that  grace  which  proves  efficacious  is  given  by 
God  to  one  who.  He  foresees,  will  use  it  freely ;  whereas 
He  foresees  no  less  surely,  when  giving  a  grace  which 
remains  merely  sufficient,  that  it  will  not  last  in  the 
recipient  b&vond  the  initial  or  necessary  stage  of  its 
duration.  ConRruism  further  insists  that  the  motion 
passes  into  the  free  stage  when  the  circumstances  €kre 
comparatively  favourable  (oongruous)  to  it;  but  Y/hem 
they  are  comjparativelv  adverse  (not  congruous),  it 
will  not  contmue,  at  least  as  a  rule.  The  circum^ 
stances  are  to  be  deemed  favourable  or  unfavourable 
not  absolutely,  but  oomparativelv,  that  is,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  intensity  of  the  grace;  for  it  is  plain  tnat,  no 
matter  how  adverse  they  may  be,  God  can  overcome 
them  by  a  strong  impulse  of  {race  such  as  would  not 
be  needed  in  other  less  stubborn  cases ;  and,  vice  versa, 
very  powerful  Divine  impulses  may  fail  where  the 
temptation  to  sin  is  very  great.  Not  that  in  the  necefr- 
sary  stage  of  the  motion  there  is  not  sufficient  energy, 
as  we  may  say,  to  continue,  always  supposing  freedom; 
or  that  it  is  not  within  Uie  competence  of  the  will, 
when  the  crucial  point  has  been  reached,  to  discon- 
tinue the  motion  which  is  congruous  or  to  continue 
that  which  is  rot  so.  The  will  can  continue  to  act  or 
can  abstain  in  either  case;  as  a  rule,  however,  it  con^ 
tinues  to  act  when  the  circumstances  are  favourable  to 
that  precise  form  and  intensity  of  motion,  thereby  he* 
coming  efficacious;  and  does  not  continue  when  the 
circumstances  are.  unfavourable,  thereby  proving  a 
merely  sufficient  grace. 

To  anyone  who  reflects  on  the  way  in  which  th^  will 
is  influenced  by  motives  it  must  be  obvious  that  any 
movement  or  tendency  that  may  arise  towards  a  par- 
ticular object,  whether  sood  or  evil,  is  more  or  less 
likely  to  continue  according  as  it  harmonizes  or  con- 
flicts with  other  motions  or  tendencies  towards  objects 
which  are  incompatible  with  the  first.  The  whole 
theory  of  reflection  or  meditation  is  based  on  this 
truth.  Concomitant  states,  in  sympathy  with  the 
motions  of  grace,  make  the  favourable  or  congruous 
circumstances  in  which  these  motions  operate ;  just  as 
a  tendency  towards  vice,  if  accompanied  by  other  ap- 
petites favourable  to  its  working,  must  be  deemed  oon- 
gruous or  fortunate  as  regards  the  circumstances  in 
which  it  intervenes.  Jansenists,  Augustinians,  Molin- 
ists,  Determinists,  all  should  and  do  agree,  therefore,  in 
admitting  the  strengthening  influence  of  a  number  of 
confluent  motions  and,  conversely,  the  weakening 
effect  on  any  tendency  of  a  simultaneous  tendency  in 
an  opposite  direction.  So  far  all  are  Congruists;  the 
difference  being  that  whereas  Jansenists  and  Deter^ 
minists  do  not  admit  that  the  will  is  free  to  resist  the 
stronger  combination  of  motives ;  and  while  Augustin- 
ians proclaim  this  in  words  but  seem  to  deny  it  in  real- 
ity;  all  Molinists  maintain  that  the  will  can  effectually 
cease  to  tend  towards  an  object,  even  though  it  should 
be  proposed  as  more  perfect  than  what  is  seen  to  be  in- 
compatible with  it;  provided  always  this  more  perfect 
object  is  not  presented  as  absolutely  or  infinitely  per- 
fect in  every  way.  The  will  is  likely  to  be  drawn,  and 
almost  invariably  is  drawn,  by  the  stronger,  i.  e.  more 
congruous,  motive ;  it  is  not,  however,  drawn  of  neces- 
sity, nor  even  quite  invariably,  if  Molinism  is  true.  In 
this,  which  is  the  only  psychologically  intelligible  sense 


of  Coi^(ruism,  Molina^  Lessiusi,  and  all  thfiir  followen 
were  Congruists  just  as  much  as  Suarex  or  Bellarmine. 

AH  true  Molinists  admit  and  contend  that,  antece- 
dently to  the  concession  of  grace,  whether  merely  suffi- 
cient or  efficacious,  God  knows  by  9cientia  media 
whether  it  will  actually  result  in  the  free  action  for 
whidi  it  is  given^  or  will  remain  inefficacious  though 
sufficient.  All  likewise  admit  and  prodaixn  that  a 
specially  benevolent  Providence  is  exercised  towards 
the  recipient  of  grace  when,  with  His  knowledge  of 
conditioiaal  results,  God  eives  eraoes  whidi  He  fore- 
sees to  be  efficacious,  rauier  man  others  which  He 
foresees  would  be  inefficacious  and  which  He  is  free  to 
give..  Bellarmine  (De  Grati&et  Lib.  Arbitrio,  Bk.  I, 
oh.  xii)  seems  to  accuse  Molina,  imjustly,  of  not  admit- 
ting this  latter  point.  Difference  of  opinion  among 
Molinists  is  manifested  only  when  they  proceed  to  in- 
(juira  into  the  cause  of  the  Divine  selection:  whether  it 
is  due  to  any  antecedent  decree  of  predestination 
which  God  means  to  carry  out  at  all  costo,  selecting 
purposely  to  this  end  only  such  graces  as  He  foresees 
to  prove  efficacious,  and  passing  over  or  omitting  to  se- 
lect, no  less  purposely,  such  as  he  foresees  would  be 
without  result  if  given.  Snares  holds  that  the  sdeo- 
tipn  of  graces  which  are  foreseeL  to  prove  efficacious  is 
consequent  on  and  necessitated  by  such  an  antecedent 
decree,  whereby  all.  and  only,  those  who  will  actually  be 
saved  were  infaUibly  predestined  to  salvation,  and  this 
antecedently  to  any  foreknowledge  wnether  of  their 
actual  or  merely  conditional  correspondence  with  the 
graces  they  may  receive.  The  great  body  of  the  theo- 
logians of  the  Societv  of  Jesus,  as  well  as  of  other  fol- 
lowers of  Molina,  wnile  admitting  that  individuals, 
such  as  St.  Paul,  may  be,  and  have  been,  predestinea 
in  that  way,  do  not  regard  it  as  the  only,  or  even  the 
ordinary,  course  of  Divme  Providence.  (See  Predes- 
tination.) 

Thou^  this  difference  of  opinion  has  really  nothing 
to  do  with  Congruism,  it  b  probably  the  main  reason 
why  Billuart  and  other  opponents  of  Molinism  have 
mamtained  that  Suarez  and  Bellannine  differ  from 
Molina  and  Lessius  not  merely  as  regards  predestinar 
tion,  but  also  as  regards  the  nature  of  efficacious  grace ; 
that  the  opinion  ol  Suarez  is  the  only  true  Congruism 
as  distinguished  from  the  pure  Molinism  of  the  others; 
and  that  Coneruism  in  this  sense  was  made  obligatory 
on  all  the  sdaools  of  the  Society  by  Aoquaviva,  the 
fifth  general  (1613).  The  precise  bearing  of  hja  decree 
has  been  rather  hotly  disputed.  Father  Schneemann, 
Cardinal  Mazella,  and  others  maintaining  that  it  did 
not  in  any  way  command  a  departure  from  the  teach- 
ing of  Molina,  P^  de  Regnon  candidly,  and  rightly, 
aomits  that  it  did;  not  as  regards  the  nature  of  effica- 
cious grace  but  only  as  regards  predestination.  (See 
CoNoiuBOATio  n£  Auxiuis;  Grace;  Pbeoestination; 
Molina;  Suarez.) 

On  Congruism  proper  tUe  best  author  ia  probably  Suarez. 
pe  Gratid,  Bk.  V,  ch.  xxi,  nos.  4  sqq.;  Idem,  ibid..  Appendix 
Prior,  D4  verd  inteUiaerUid,  etc.;  Idbm,  Opuac  i  de  aiwiZtu,  et«M 
Bk.  III«  ch.  xiv.  Of  recent  wiiten  4e«  Mazzxuji,  D^  Gratid 
Chrixli  «rd  ed..  Rome.  1882),  nos.  677  sqq.;  Ch.  Pescs,  Dt 
Gratid  (Freibuq?,  1897),  Prop,  xxil;  Bcrnekuann,  Controvern- 
arum  de  Div.  CfraHd,  etc.  (Fretbure.  1881),  aect.  1,  no.  10;  La- 


aousBV.  De  Oraiid  JHvindt  aoe.  213  eqq.;  db  Bxonon,  BaAez  et, 
Molina  (Paris,  1883).  Bk.  II,  sect.  8.-— On  the  predestination  ss- 
2t  see  FranzeuNj  De  Deo  LVw  (Rome,  1876),  Th.  Iv,  lix- 


Ixvi;  Billot,  De  Deo  <Prato.  1898),  pp.  268  aqq.— As  to 
whether  Congniism  is  or  implies  a  departure  from  the  piinciples 
of  Molina,  and  on  the  bearing  of  Acc^uaviva's  decree  see  on  the 
one  side  BcLLARtfiNB,  De  Oraiid  et  Ltb.  Arb.,  Bk.  I,  ch.  xii.  jdii; 
BtLLUAflT,  De  Gratid,  diss,  v,  art.  2,  sect.  3:  Obawson,  Bpi'-' 
telUf  theol.ihiaL'poleiniccB  (Bassaoo,  1785).  Classis  I,  n.  L  pp.  5 
sqq.;  Gaxzaniqa,  De  Gratid,  Pt.  I,  diss,  v,  ch.  ii,  no,  110.  ror 
the  views  of  the  other  side  see  Mazella,  op.  cH.,  nos.  717  sqq.; 
ScRiPFiT^i.  De  GrMid  (Ffeibmv,  1901),  IV,  no.  276;  Svmtss- 
MANN,  Controveravammt  0tCn  sect.  16;  de  Reqnon^op.  ci(.,  loc 

cit.  Walter  McDokald. 


Oonimbricenses  (or  Collegium  Conimbricensb). 
the  name  by  which  the  Jesuits  of  the  University  ot 
Coimbra  (q.  v.)  in  Portugal  were  known.  On  the  reg- 
i.sl<T  of  the  college  at  various  times  appeared  the  namrti 


OOJillluK 


253 


oovnttonctft 


&f  two  hundred  Jesuits  including  professors  and  stu- 
dents. Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  and 
the  beipnning  of  the  seventeenth,  voluminous  com- 
mentaries on  the  philosophical  writings  of  Aristotle 
went  forth  from  the  university.  These  commen- 
taiies  were  dictations  to  the  students  by  the  professors 
and  as  such  were  not  intended  for  publication.  Still 
they  were  actually  published,  but  fraudulently.  In 
order  to  intercept  and  disown  incorrect  and  unauthor* 
ised  editions,  Father  Claudius  Aquaviva,  the  General 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  assigned  to  Father  Peter  Fon- 
seca,  the  provincial  of  the  Portuguese  province,  the 
task  of  supervisingthe  revision  of  these  commentaries 
for  publication.  Father  Fonseea  was  widely  known 
88  tne  Aristotle  of  Portugal.  The  different  treatises 
appealed  in  the  following  order: — (1)  "Oommentarii 
CknXe^  Conimbricensis  Societatis  Jesu  in  octo  libros 
Physioormn  Aiistotolis  Sta^rriUe"  (Coimbra,  1591). 
(2)  '^Gommentarii  Ck>llegii  Conimbricensis  Societatis 
Jesu  in  quattuor  libros  Anstotolis  de  Coelo"  (Coimbra, 
1592).  (3)  *'Commentarii  ete.  in  libros  meteorum 
AristoteHs  Stagyrit®"  (Coimbra,  1592).  (4)  ''Com- 
mentarii  etc.  in  libros  Anstotolis  qui  parva  naturalia 
appellantur"  (Coimbra,  1592).  (5)  "Commentarii 
etc.  in  libros  Ethicorum  Anstotolis  ad  Nichomachum 
aliquot  Cursus  Conimbricensis  disputationes  in  quibus 
pnecipua  quasdam  Ethicse  disciphnae  capita  continen- 
tur"  (Coimbra,  1595).  (6)  "Commentarii  eto.  in 
duos  libros  Anstotolis  de  generatione  et  corruptione 
(Coimbra,  1595).  (7)  "Commentarii  eto.  in  tres 
libros  Aiistotolis  de  Animit"  (Coimbra,  1595).  This 
treatise  was  published  after  the  death  of  Father  Em- 
manuel GoU  (whom  Father  Fonseea  had  commis- 
sioned to  publish  the  earlier  volumes)  by  Father  Cob- 
mas  Mamilliano  (Magalhsens).  To  it  he  added  a 
tBeatise  ^Father  Balthasar  Alvarez  "  De  Anim&  Sep- 
arate" and  his  own  work  "Tractatio  aliquot  proble- 
matum  ad  quinoue  Sensus  Spectantium  *  \  (8)  "  Com- 
mentarii eto.  m  universam  dialecticam  Aristotelis 
nunc  primum"  (ed.  Venice,  1606). 

To  this  last  treatise  was  prefixed  a  foreword  dis- 
owning any  connexion  whatever  with  the  work  pub- 
lished at  Frankfort  in  1604  and  claiming  to  be  the 
'^  Commentarii  Conimbricenses".  The  portion  of  the 
preface  here  referred  to  is  substantially  the  following: 

*  Before  we  could  finish  the  task  entrusted  to  us  of  ed- 
iting our  Logic,  to  which  we  were  bound  by  many 

romises,   certain   German  publishers  fraudulentlv 

rought  out  a  work  professing  to  be  from  us,  abound- 
ing in  errors  and  inaccuracies  which  were  really  their 
own.  They  also  substituted  for  our  commentaries 
certain  glosses  gotten  furtively.  It  is  true  these  writ- 
ings thirty  yean  previously  were  the  work  of  one  of 
our  professors  not  indeed  intended  for  publication. 
They  were  the  fruit  of  his  zeal  and  he  never  dreamed 
they  would  appear  in  print".  The  last  treatise  was 
prepared  for  printing  by  Father  Sebastian  Couto. 
The  entire  eight  parts  formed  five  quarto  volumes,  en- 
joyed a  wide  circulation,  and  appeared  in  many  edi- 
tions, the  best  known  being  those  of  Lyons,  Lisbon, 
and  Cologne.  The  Commentaries  are  in  flowing  Latin 
and  are  supplemented  by  reliable  explanations  of  the 
text  and  exnaustive  disoussibn  of  the  system  of  Aris* 
totle.  Kari  Werner  says  that  the  Jesuits  of  Coimbra 
gave  to  the  world  a  masterpiece,  whose  equal  is  yet  to 
be  seen  and  which  has  received  the  admiration  that  it 
deserves.  Father  de  Backer  gives  an  exact  list  of  all 
the  editions.  The  later  ones  have  added  the  Greek 
text  of  AriJBtotle. 

Lavobqrr  in  KirehenUx.,  b.  v.;  doMUEByooBL*  BM.  de  la 
c.  de  J.,  II;   Braoa,  Hiaioria  da  Univenidode  de  Coimbra  (Lis- 


E 


bon,  1892-1902). 


John  J.  Cassidy. 


Oonlaeky  Otlss  ns  (also  called  Rboitjs),  Jesuit 
theologiao,  b.  20  Deo.,  1671,  at  Bailleul  in  French 
Flanden;  d.  31  May,  1633,  at  Louvatn.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-one  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus.    During 


bis  course  of  studies  at  Louvain  he  had  Lessius  among 
his  professors,  and  became  the  worthy  successor  of  his 
illustrious  teacher  in  the  chair  of  scholastic  theology, 
which  he  held  for  eighteen  years.  St.  Alphonsus  con- 
siders Coninck  a  moral  theologian  of  distinction. 
Though  de  Lugo  impugned  his  views  on  many  ques- 
tions, he  is  acknowledged  to  have  rendered  consider- 
able services  to  moral  theology.  His  style  is  concise, 
clear,  and  direct;  on  sevenu  points  his  writings  are 
exhaustive.  Coninck's  principal  works  are:  ''Com- 
mentariorum  ac  disputationum  in  universam  doc- 
trinam  D.  Thomse",  eto.  (Antwerp,  1616;  enlarged 
and  revised  1619, 1624;  Lyons,  1619, 1624, 1625, 1643; 
Rouen,  1630.  The  last  edition  was  among  the  Jesuit 
works  condemned  to  be  torn  and  burnt,  by  an  act  of 
the  parliament  of  Rouen,  12  Feb.,  1762).  "De  Mora- 
litato,  natur&  et  effectibus  actuum  supematuralium'*, 
eto.  (Antwerp,  1623;  Lyons,  1623;  Paris,  1624.  The 
author  is  said  to  have  left  very  ample  additions  in- 
tonded  to  appear  in  the  subsequent  editions  of  the 
work.  Father  MQllendorff  assures  his  readers  that 
this  treatise  may  be  recommended  to  the  theologians 
even  of  to-day).  "  Responsio  ad  dissertationem  im- 
pu^antem  absolutionem  nioribundi  sensibus  desti- 
tuti",  ete.  (Antwerp,  1625);  "Disputationes  theo- 
logicffi"  (Antwerp,  1645,  publishea  posthumously, 
though  finished  twelve  years  before  the  author's 
death). 

HuBTBB,  Nommdator  (Innabnick,  1S92),  I,  361;  MCllbn- 
DORFF  io  A«rvA«nter..  III.  947 ;  Sommkrtoobl.  BiblMUUquedMlA 
e.  ds  J..  II,  1369  aq.  A.  J    MaaS. 

Oonnecticitt. — This  State,  comprising  an  area  of 
substantially  5000  square  miles,  was  one  of  the  thir- 
teen colonies  which,  m  1776,  declared  their  independ- 
ence from  Ei^land.  It  was  among  the  first  to  ratify 
the  Federal  6)nstitution  under  which,  in  1789,  the 
republic  known  as  the  United 
States  of  America  established 
its  present  form  of  government. 
The  population  enrolled  in  the 
census  of  1900  was  908,420,  and 
in  1908  undoubtedly  exceeded 
1,000,000,  the  increase  being  in 
the  cities,  while  the  rural  com- 
munities barely  held  their  own. 
Manufacturing  industries, 
rather  than  agricultural  or  com- 
mercial, are  the  principal  re- 
sources of  the  State.  „ 

Early  Settlers.— The  firet  ^"^  ^^  Connecticot 
English  settlement  was  estab- 
lished on  the  Ooimecticut  River  at  Windsor  by 
traders  from  the  Plymouth  Colony  in  1633.  In 
the  same  year  the  Dutch  from  New  Amsterdam  had 
sailed  up  the  river  and  erected  a  trading  house  and 
fort  where  the  city  of  Hartford  now  stands,  a  few 
miles  below  Windsor.  The  Dutoh  soon  after 
withdrew,  leaving  the  English  to  establish  the  first, 
permanent  settlements  within  the  boundaries  of  Con- 
necticut. Saybrook,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut 
River,  was  settled  by  the  English  in  1636,  and  New 
Haven  by  colonists  from  Massachusetts  Bay  in  1638. 
In  1664  the  New  Haven  Colony,  then  comprising  the 
various  settlements  along  the  coast,  was  forced  to 
unite  with  those  in  the  Connecticut  valley,  thus  form- 
ing one  commonwealth  thereafter  known  as  Connec- 
ticut. 

On'  24  January,  1639,  settlers  of  Windsor.  Hartford, 
and  Wethersfield  then  "cohabiting  and  awelling  in 
and  upon  the  River  of  Connectecotte  and  the  lands 
thereunto  adjoining"  united  in  the  adoption  of  the 
first  written  constitution  known  in  history.  The 
"Fundimental  Orders",  as  they  were  called,  estab- 
lished a  Christian  commonwealth,  and  provided  for 
the  election  of  a  governor  and  other  magistrates,  to- 
gether with  a  General  Court  havmg  both  legislative 


OOHKBOnoUT 


254 


OORHIOTZOUT 


tnd  judicial  powers.  This  General  Court  consisted  of 
deputies  who  were  to  be  Freemen  elected  from  the 
several  towns.  The  towns  named  above  were  each  to 
send  four  deputies,  and  other  towns  thereafter  added 
to  the  jurisdiction  were  to  send  such  numbers  as  the 
court  should  judge  meet,  to  be  reasonably  propor- 
tioned to  the  number  of  Freemen  in  each  town.  In 
1661  Governor  Winthrop  was  sent  to  England  to  peti- 
tion the  king  for  a  charter  confirming  such  privileges 
and  liberties  as  were  necessary  for  the  permanent  wel- 
fare of  the  colony.  He  secured  from  the  reigning 
sovereign,  Charles  II,  a  most  liberal  charter  whidi  re- 
mained the  oi^nic  law  of  the  commonwealth  until 
the  adoption  of  the  present  State  Constitution  in  1818, 
almost  naif  a  century  after  the  State  had  severed  its 
allegiance  to  the  Ei^s^ish  Crown.  This  charter  con- 
ferred upon  the  people  of  the  colony  the  right  to  elect 
their  own  governor  and  other  officers,  and  the  largest 
measure  of  self-government.  It  is  of  interest  to  note 
the  territorial  boundaries  of  the  colony  set  forth  in  the 
charter.  It  was  bounded  on  the  east  oy  Narragansett 
Bay,  on  the  north  bv  the  line  of  the  Massachusetts 
Pkmtation,  and  on  the  south  by  the  sea.  It  was  to 
extend  to  the  west  in  longitude  with  the  lipe  of  the 
Massachusetts  Colony  to  the  South  Sea  ''on  the  west 
part  with  the  islands  there  adjoining". 

In  1786  Connecticut  ceded  to  the  United  States  all 
its  public  land,  reserving,  however,  about  three  and  a 
half  million  acres  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Ohio. 
TWs  was  known  for  many  years  as  the  '*  Connecticut 
Reserve"  or  "Western  Reserve".  The  legislature 
granted  some  five  hundred  thousand  acres  of  the  res- 
ervation to  the  citizens  of  the  towns  of  Danbury,  Fair- 
field, Norwalk,  New  London,  and  Groton  to  indem- 
nify them  for  special  losses  during  the  War  of  the  Revo- 
lution when  tnese  towns  were  burned  by  the  British 
troops.  The  grant  was  afterwards  known  as  the 
"Fire  Lands".  In  1795  a  conunittee  was  appointed 
to  dispose  of  the  reservation.  It  was  sold  to  a  syndi- 
cate oi-ganized  to  effect  the  purchase  for  $1,200,000. 
The  income  from  this  fund  is  devoted  to  the  support 
of  common  schools,  and  the  State  Constitution  declares 
it  shall  never  be  directed  to  any  other  purpose. 

The  present  Constitution  was  adopted  in  1818. 
Under  its  provisions  the  town  is  the  basis  of  represen- 
tation in  tne  lower  house  of  the  legislature  rather  than 
population.  This  has  brought  about,  by  the  growth 
of  the  larger  cities  and  towns,  a  most  undemocratic 
form  of  government.  The  cities  of  New  Haven,  Hart- 
ford anaBridgeport,  each  having  a  population  of  more 
than  100,000,  have  only  two  representatives  in  the 
lower  house,  while  a  laige  number  of  towns  with  a 
population  of  less  than  1000  have  the  same  number 
of  representatives.  In  1902  a  constitutional  conven- 
tion was  held  in  the  hope  that  this  inequitable  system 
of  repres^itation  would  be  corrected.  The  conven- 
tion was  so  constituted,  however,  as  to  make  any  hope 
ol  a  radical  change  of  the  system  of  representation 
impossible.  The  convention  numbered  167  delegates, 
one  from  each  town.  The  constitution  finally  pro- 
posed b^  this  convention  made  but  a  slight  ch^ige  in 
the  basis  of  representation,  and  was  rejected  by  the 
people  when  submitted  for  their  ratification. 

The  early  settlers  of  Connecticut  were  for  the  most 
part  English  of  the  upper  middle  class.  Their  minis- 
ters, many  of  them,  had  been  clergymen  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  who  had  been  deprived  of  their  English 
livings  for  non-conformHy.  Their  devoted  congr^a* 
tions  followed  them  across  the  Atlantic  and  founded 
the  settlement  at  Massachusetts  Bay.  From  thence 
came  chiefiy  the  first  emigrants,  attracted  by  the  fer- 
tile soil  of  the  Connecticut  valley  and  the  sequestered 
haibours  along  the  Soimd.  Before  the  War  of  the 
Revolution,  however,  Ireland  had  contributed  quite  a 
noticeable  percentage  to  the  population  of  the  various 
settlements.  This  seems  to  be  established  from  the 
considerable  number  of  Irish  names  disclosed  in  the 


official  military  documents  of  that  period.  The  vast 
majority  of  the  population,  however,  remained  dis- 
tinctively English  of  Puritan  origin  until  the  great 
emigration  set  in  from  Ireland,  prompted  by  the  dis- ' 
astrous  famine  in  1846.  There  is  also  a  considerable 
German  element  distributed  pretty  evenlv  through- 
out the  State.  Since  the  close  of  the  CSvU  War  French 
Canadians  have  come  down  from  the  Province  of 
Quebec,  and  have  settled  more  numerously  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  State  where  they  have  found  em- 
ployment in  the  manufacturing  towns.  More  recently 
the  Italians,  in  large  numbers,  have  located  in  the 
cities  and  larger  towns.  New  Haven,  alone,  it  m  esti- 
mated, has  an  Italian  population  of  upwards  of  20,000. 
Russian  Jews  have  also  oecome  very  numerous,  prin- 
cipally in  the  cities,  while  Scandinavians,  lithuajuana, 
and  Greeks  are  becoming  an  increasingly  prominent 
element  of  the  urban  population.  In  common  with 
all  the  other  States  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  while  the 
language  and  customs  of  the  An^lo-Saxon  are  still 
overwhelmingly  dominant,  the  strain  of  English  blood 
is  becoming  more  and  more  attenuated  with  the  pass- 
ing of  each  decade.  In  colonial  times  and  during  the 
earlier  days  of  the  Republic,  Connecticut  occupied  a 
place  of  distinction  and  comnu^iding  influence  among 
her  sister  commonwealths.  At  the  close  of  the  War 
of  the  Revolution  she  was  the  eighth  in  respect  to 
population  among  the  thirteen  States  that  formed  the 
Union,  having  by  the  census  of  1790,  238,141  souls. 
She  furnished,  however,  ^31,959  soldiers  to  armies  of 
the  Revolution,  thus  exceeding  by  5281  the  number 
furnished  by  Viiiginia,  then  the  most  populous  of  all 
the  States,  and  having  at  that  time  more  than  three 
times  the  population  of  Connecticut.  In  this  respect 
Connecticut  was  surpassed  only  by  Massachusetts, 
which  furnished  67,097  soldiers,  from  a  population  of 
475,257  souls. 

Reugious  Polity. — ^The  planters  of  the  Connecti- 
cut River  towns,  in  formulating  their  first  constitu- 
tion in  1639,  were  all  of  them  Puritans  of  the  sect  sub- 
sequently known  throughout  all  of  the  New  Eiu^and 
States  as  Congr^ationalists.  The  distinctive  theory 
of  their  ecclesiastical  polity  regarded  each  congrega- 
tion as  a  self-governing  body,  with  power  to  formu- 
late its  own  creed  and  prescribe  its  own  conditions  of 
membership.  They  repudiated  all  allegiance  to  any 
central  ecdesiastical  authority,  and  the  various  con- 
p;regations  or  churches,  as  they  were  then  called,  were 
mdependent  and  self-governing,  bound  to  each  other 
by  ties  of  fellowship  and  community  of  interest,  rather 
than  by  canons  prescribed  by  any  superior  ecclesias- 
tical authority.  (See  CoNGJiBGATiONALiaM.)  There 
was  from  the  very  first,  however,  the  most  intimate 
relation  between  the  churches  and  the  civil  authority. 
Church  membership  was  an  indispensable  qualifica- 
tion for  civil  office,  and  for  the  exercise  of  the  ri^ts  of 
Freemen.  In  the  preamble  of  their  first  constitution 
they  declared  that  they  were  entering  into  a  combini^ 
tion  or  confederation  "  to  maintain  and  preserve  the 
liberty  and  purity  of  the  Gospel  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
which  we  now  profess,  as  also  the  discipline  of  the 
churches  which  according  to  the  truth  of  the  said 
Gospel  is  now  practiced  among  us".  Freedom  of 
religious  worship,  as  now  understood  and  dmanded 
everywhere  in  America,  was  a  principle  to  which  they 
accorded  iMit  scant  and  reluctant  acceptance.  For  a 
centuiy  and  a  half  Congregationalism  was  the  estab- 
lished religion  supported  by  public  taxation.  Other 
Christian  sects  were  merely  tolerated.  Not  until  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  1818  did  the  principle 
of  true  religious  freedom  receive  governmental  recog- 
nition. It  was  then  declared  that  it  being  the  duty 
of  all  men  to  worship  the  Supreme  Being,  and  to  ren- 
der their  worship  in  the  mode  most  consistent  With 
the  dictates  of  their  consciences,  that  no  person 
should  by  law  be  compelled  to  join  or  auj^port,  be 
classed  with,  *  or  associated  to  any  oongregation. 


OONKIfiOTlOUT 


255 


OOMNBOnOUT 


bhureh  or  religious  aasociaiion.  It  waa  further  de- 
clared that  eveiy  society  or  denomination  of  GhriB- 
tians  should  have  and  enjoy  the  same  and  equal  paw- 
eiB,  rights,  and  privileges.  Amon|;  such  powers  was 
specified  authontjr  in  such  denominations  to  support 
fluod  maintain  ministers  or  teachers,  and  to  build  and 
repair  houses  for  public  worship  by  a  tax  on  the  mem- 
bers of  such  society  only,  to  be  laid  by  a  msjority  vote 
of  the  legal  voters  sssembled  at  any  society  mee'ting 
warned  and  held  according  to  law  or  in  an;^  manner. 
It  was  further  provided  that  any  person  ought  sep^ar 
rate  himself  from  the  societv  or  denomination  of  Chris- 
tians to  which  he  belonged  by  leaving  a  written  notice 
te  that  effect  with  the  derk  of  the  society,  and  dioukl 
thereupon  cease  to  be  liable  for  any  future  expenses 
incurred  by  such  society.  This  power  of  taxation  has 
for  manv  jrean  ceased  to  be  exercised  by  the  constit- 
uent societies  of  any  of  the  denominations,  which  are 
now  usually  maintained  by  pew  rents,  voluntary  offers 
ings,  and  the  income  of  specific  charitable  trusts 
wh^re  such  exist. 

Tlie  observance  of  Sunday  has  always  been  strictly 
provided  for  by  law.  The  statutes  now  in  force  had 
their  origin  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
centuiy.  They  forbid  any  secular  business  or  labour, 
except  works  of  necessity  or  mercy,  the  keeping  open 
of  any  shop,  warehouse,  or  manufacturing  establiah- 
ment,  the  exposing  of  any  property  for  rale,  or  the 
engaging  in  any  sport  on  Sunday,  and  the  person 
offending  may  be  fined  not  to  exceed  fifty  doUars. 
These  statutes  ako  provide  that  any  person  who  is 
present  at  any  concert  of  music,  dancing,  or  other 
public  diversion  on  Sunday,  or  the  evemng  thereof, 
may  be  fined  not  more  than  four  dollars.  The  keep* 
ing  open  of  saloons  and  sale  of  liquor  on  Sunday  is 
also  prohibited  under  severe  penalties.  These  laws 
still  have  public  opinion  strongly  in  their  favour,  and 
are  in  consequence  pretty  generally  respected  and 
enforced.  Special  laws  allow  the  running  of  r^way 
trains  and  trolley  cars  on  Sundays  during  su<^  hours 
and  with  such  frequency  as  the  State  railroad  com- 
missioners may,  from  time  to  time,  prescr&e. 

All  judges  and  ma^trates,  clerks  of  courts,  and 
c^tain  other  officials  m  special  cases  are  empowered 
by  statute  to  administer  oaths.  An  oath  of  faithful 
performance  is  usually  required  from  the  incumbent 
before  entering  upon  the  duties  of  any  public  office. 
Administrators  and  others  when  making  return  of  the 
duties  they  have  performed  are  required  to  make  oath 
that  the  diuties  have  been  faithfully  perfonned  or  that 
the  return  thev  make  thereof  is  true  and  eorrect. 
The  ceremonial  of  the  oath  universally  employed  is 
by  raising  the  right  hand  in  the  presence  of  the 
magistrate  administering  it,  who  recites  the  statutory 
form,  always  beannin^;  with  the  words  "  You  solemnly 
swear",  and  encung  with  the  invocation  ''So  help  you 
God".  For  many  years  the  statutes  have  permitted 
any  person  having  conscientious  scruples  to  affiim  in 
lieu  of  bein^  sworn.  Such  persons  ''solemnly  and 
sincerely  afl&m  and  declare' ,  "upon  the  pains  and 
penalties  of  perjuiy".  If  the  authority  administer- 
ins  the  oath  shall  have  reason  to  believe  that  any 
other  ceremony  will  be  more  binding  upon  the  con- 
science of  a  witness,  he  may  permit  or  require  any 
other  ceremony  to  be  used. 

Statutes  a^unst  blasphemy  and  profanity  have 
been  in  existence  since  tne  settlement  of  the  colony, 
and  in  the  seventeenth  century  these  crimes  were 
severely  punished.  The  statutes  now  in  force  are 
traced  to  Iraslation  of  1642  and  1650,  and  provide 
that  one  who  shall  blaspheme  against  God,  either 
person  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  the  Christian  reli^n, 
or  the  Holy  Sisriptures,  shall  be  fined  not  m<M«  than 
one  hundred  doUars  and  imprisoned  not  more  than 
one  year,  and  bound  to  his  good  behaviour.  One  who 
shall  use  anv  profane  oath  or  wickedly  curse  another 
shall  be  fined  one  dollar. 


It  has  always  been  the  custom  to  open  each  daily 
session  of  botn  houses  of  the  General  Assembly  with 
prayer,  and  chaplains  are  appointed  by  each  body 
whose  salaries  are  fixed  by  law.  It  is  still  the  custom 
to  open  each  term  of  the  Supreme  and  Superior  courts 
with  prayer.  The  clerk  invites  some  cleigyman  to 
perform  that  office*  and  pays  him  an  honorarium 
which  is  taxed  in  the  r^[ular  expenses  of  the  court. 
The  great  festival  of  Christmas  received  little  recog- 
nition among  the  Congregationahsts  of  Connecticut 
and  the  other  New  England  States  until  the  latter 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Almost  from  the 
settlement  of  the  colony  it  was  the  custom  for  the 

g>vemor  to  proclaim  a  day  of  thanks^ving  in  the 
te  autumn  to  be  observed  as  a  religious  noliday. 
It  was  originally  intended  to  be  and  is  still  considered 
as  a  sort  of  hi^est  festival,  and  has  long  be&a,  es* 
teemed  in  Connecticut  as  a  day  for  family  reunions 
and  feasting.  ^It  was  not  until  Episcopalians  or,  still 
later,  Catholics  became  such  prominent  factors  in  the 
population  that  the  25th  of  December  was  declared 
by  statute  to  be  a  l^al  holiday.  Good  Friday,  as 
such,  has  never  been  made  a  legal  holiday.  The 
earlier  settlers  and  their  descendants  were  accustomed 
to  observe  a  day  in  the  early  spring,  proclaimed  by 
legal  authority  as  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer.  For 
many  years  now  it  has  been  the  custom  for  the  gov- 
ernor to  select  Good  Friday  for  the  annual  spring 
fast.  Thus  Christmas  and  Good  Friday  have  in 
recent  years  received  somewhat  indirectly  the  recog- 
nition of  civil  authority.  No  statutes  have  been 
enacted,  however,  to  compel  their  observance,  and 
the  statutes  relating  to  Sunday  observance  are  in  no 
way  applicable  to  these  days.  No  other  holy  days 
of  the  Church  are  recognised  in  any  manner  by  the 
law. 

No  privily  under  the  law  attaches  in  any  way  to 
communications  made  to  a  priest  under  the  seal  of 
confession.  As  yet  such  pnvil^^  extends  only  to 
communications  between  a  lawyer  and  his  client, 
which  the  common  law  of  England  has  always  pro- 
tected. It  may  be  doubted  if  a  law  extending  such 
privile^  to  priests  or  indeed  to  clergymen  of  any 
denomination  could  be  passed  through  the  legislature 
as  at  present  constituted.  No  instance,  however, 
exists,  certainly  in  recent  years,  where  an  attempt 
has  been  made  in  any  court  of  justice  to  compel  a 
priest  to  disclose  any  knowledge  which  came  to  him 
through  the  confessional,  and  it  is  quite  certain  that 
public  opinion  would  strongly  disapprove  any  such 
attempt. 

EccLESiAsncAji  Corporations. — The  statutes  of 
Coimecticut  contain  quite  elaborate  provisions  regu- 
lating ecclesiastical  societies  and  the  moorporation  of 
diurches.  Many  of  those  still  in  force  were  originally 
pass^  when  the  Congregational  denomination  was 
practically  the  State  religion,  and  its  various  eccle- 
siastical societies  had  power  to  lay  taxes  for  their 
support.  Originally  such  a  society  was  distinct  from 
the  church,  constituting  a  separate  organization. 
Individuals  might  be  l^al  members  of  the  society 
and  not  members  of  the  church.  This  condition  still 
remains  in  many  communities,  although,  as  before 
stated,  one  may  escape  liability  of  taxation  by  with- 
drawing from  tne  society.  It  would  be  legally  possi- 
ble for  an  ecclesiastical  society  to  be  incorporated 
under  these  laws  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a 
church  in  communion  with  the  Catholic  Church.  In 
early  times  before  statutes  were  enacted  for  the 
organization  and  govcjmment  of  these  societies,  the 
several  towns  hsa  the  functions  of  ecclesiastical 
societies. 

In  recent  years  special  statutory  provisions  have 
been  made  for  the  government  of  other  denomina- 
tions. Prior  to  1866,  when  a  law  was  passed  having 
special  reference  to  the  Catholic  Churcn,  the  title  to 
most  of  its  property  was  vested  in  the  bishop  and  his 


OdlYKKOTlOTTT 


256 


OOHVEOTIOUT 


sucoessore.  In  that  vear  an  act  was  paased  by  the 
legiBlature  providing  for  the  organization  of  a  corpora- 
tion in  connexion  with  any  Catholic  church  or  congre- 
gation. Such  corporation  consists  .of  the  bishop  and 
vicar-general  Of  the  diocese,  the  pastor  and  two  lay- 
men of  the  congr^ation.  The  lay  members  are  &p- 
gointed  annually  by  the  ex-officio  or  clerical  members, 
uch  corporation  is  empowered  to  hold  aU  property 
conveyed  to  it  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  religious 
worship  according  to  the  doctrine,  discipline,  and 
ritual  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  for  the  support  of 
the  educatiopal  or  charitable  institutions  of  that 
church.  A  restriction  exists  to  the  effect  that  no  one 
incorporated  church  or  congregation  may  possess  an 
amount  of  property,  except  church  buildmgs,  parson- 
ages, school-houses,  asylums  and  cemeteries,  the 
annual  income  of  which  exceeds  three  thousand 
dollars.  Such  corporation  shall  at  all  times  be  sub- 
ject to  the  general  laws  and  discipline  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  shall  hold  and  enjoy  its  franchise  solely 
for  the  purposes  above  mentioned.  Upon  a  forfeiture 
of  its  franchise  or  surrender  of  its  charter  itfi  property 
vests  in  the  bishop  and  his  successors,  in  trust  for  such 
congregation.  This  law  has  in  the  main  worked  with 
entire  satisfaction.  Property  of  various  religious 
orders  is  usually  legally  vested  in  a  corporation  either 
specially  chartered  or  organized  under  the  general 
laws  of  the  State  where  the  mother-house  of  the  com- 
munity is  located. 

Tax  Exemption. — In  the  general  statute  providing 
for  exemption  from  taxation  are  included  buildings 
exclusively  occupied  as  colleges,  academies,  churches, 
public  school-houses,  or  infirmaries,  and  parsonages 
of  any  ecclesiastical  society  to  the  value  of  five  thou- 
sand dollars,  while  used  solely  as  such.  So  also  are 
buildings  belonging  to  and  used  exclusively  for  scien- 
tific, literary,  benevolent  or  ecclesiastical  societies. 
Clei^gymen  are  not  exempt  under  the  law  from  lia- 
bility to  perform  jury  duty  or  rendering  military 
service.  They  are,  however,  rarely  if  ever  found  in 
a  jury  panel,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  customary 
to  place  their  names  on  the  lists  from  which  jurors 
are  drawn. 

Marriage  and  Divorcb. — ^The  laws  relating  to 
marriage  reouire  that  no  persons  shall  be  married 
until  one  of  tnem  under  oath  shall  inform  the  registrar 
of  the  town  in  which  the  marriage  is  to  be  celebrated 
of  the  name,  age,  colour,  occupation,  birthplace,  resi- 
dence and  condition  (whether  single,  widowed,  or 
divorced)  of  each.  The  registrar  thereupon  issues  a 
certificate  that  the  parties  have  complied  with  the 
provisions  of  law,  which  certificate  is  a  license  to  any 
person  authorized  to  celebrate  marriage,  to  join  them 
m  marria^  in  that  town.  No  such  certificate  shall 
be  issued  if  either  party  is  a  minor  without  the  writ- 
ten consent  of  the  parent  or  guardian  of  such  minor. 
The  person  celebrating  the  marriage  is  required  to 
certify  that  fact  upon  the  license,  stating  the  time 
and  place  of  such  marriage,  and  return  the  s&me  to  the 
registrar  before  or  during  the  first  week  of  the  month 
following  the  marriage.  If  he  fails  to  do  so  he  is 
liable  to  a  fine  of  ten  dollars.  All  judges  and  justices 
of  the  peace  and  ordained  or  licensed  clergymen 
belonging  to  the  State  or  any  other  State,  so  lon^  as 
they  continue  in  the  work  of  the  ministry,  may  join 
persons  in  marriage.  A  clergjrman  in  solemnizing 
marriage  is  regarded  in  the  law  as  a  public  officer,  and 
his  acts  in  that  capacity  are  prima  facie  evidence  of 
his  character.  Any  person  who  attempts  to  join 
persons  in  marriage,  knowing  that  he  is  not  authorized 
so  to  do,  may  be  fined  not  more  than  $500  or  kn- 
prisoned  not  more  than  one  year,  or  both. 

Divorces  are  granted  by  the  superior  court  on  any 
of  the  following  grounds:  adultery;  fraudulent  con- 
tract; wilful  oesertion  for  three  years  with  total 
Dedect  of  duty;  seven  years'  absence,  whereabouts 
miKnown' habitual  intemperance;  intolerable  crudty; 


sentence  to  imprisonment  for  life,  or  for  any  infamous 
crime  involving  a.  violation- of  conjugal  dtrtypuniah- 
able  by  imprisonment  in  the  State's  prison.  The  Gen- 
eral Assembly  may  pass  an  act  dissolving  a  marriage 
so  far  as  its  civic  relation  is  concerned,  but  in  recent 
years  applicationB  to  that  body  have  been  regarded 
with  disfavour  and  are  very  exceptional.  Notwith- 
stan^iing  the  fact  that  the  judges  have  in  recent  years 
been  increasingly  vigilant  in  requiring  strict  proof  of 
the  facts  upon  wnich,  under  the  law,  a  divorce  may  be 
adjudged,  the  number  of  divorces  has  alarmin^^y 
increased. 

CHARmss  AND  ExciSE. — The  State  is  well  supplied 
with  hospitals  and  orphan  asylums.  The  former, 
located  in  all  of  the  principal  cities,  are,  most  of  ibem, 
controlled  by  secular  coiporations,  but  in  Hartford, 
Bridgeport,  and  New  Haven,  Catholic  ho^itaJs  have 
been  established  in  recent  years.  All  hospitals,  secu- 
lar and  Catholic,  receive  liberal  annual  grants  from 
the  State.  Several  orphan  asylums  are  supported  by 
the  charity  of  non-Catholics,  while  the  St.  Francis 
Asylum,  located  in  New  Haven,  provides  for  the 
needs  of  the  Catholic  population.  County  houses 
for  dependent  children  who  would  otherwise  have  to 
be  committed  to  the  town  poorhouses  are  established 
by  law  in  each  county  and  supported  by  public  grants. 

For  many  years  the  sale  of  spirituous  and  utoxi- 
cating  liquors  has  been  regulated  by  a  law  which 
secures  local  option  to  each  dty  and  town.  On 
petition  of  twenty-five  legal  voters  of  any  town  a 
secret  ballot  must  be  held  at  the  next  annual  Section 
on  the  (question  of  licence  or  no  licence.  Unless  the 
vote  is  m  the  affirmative  the  sale  of  liquor  in  that 
town  is  absolutely  prohibited,  except  by  a  public 
agent  for  limited  purposes  of  necessity.  Licences  are 
^nted  by  the  county  commissioners.  The  licence  fee 
in  towns  of  over  9000  inhabitants  is  $450,  and  in  other 
towns  $250.  The  business  of  the  licencees  is  very 
strictly  regulated  by  law,  and  their  places  must  be 
dosed  from  twelve  o'dock  at  night  until  five  the  next 
morning,  and  on  Sundays  and  ui  days  on  whi<^  any 
public  dection  is  held. 

There  is  one  State  prison,  located  at  Wettiersfield, 
a  reformatory  for  boys  at  Meriden,  and  an  industrial 
school  for  p:irls  at  Middletown.  No  reformatory  for 
adult  convicts  has  yet  been  established  in  the  ^tate, 
though  the  matter  has  received  legidative  sanction, 
and  the  establishment  of  such  a  reformatory  will 
doubtless  be  accomplished. 

The  statute  of  wills  has  been  in  force  from  the 
establishment  of  the  colony.  All  persons  of  sound 
mind  above  eighteen  years  of  age  may  dispose  of 
then*  estate  by  will.  A  will  must l>e  in  writii^,  sub- 
scribed by  the  testator,  and  attested  by  three  wit- 
nesses, each  of  them  subscribing  in  his  presence. 

The  common  law  of  public  and  charitable  uses  has 
always  been  in  force  in  Connecticut.  Grants  for  the 
''maintenance  of  the  ministry  of  the  Gospel",  of 
schools  of  learning,  the  relief  of  the  poor,  the  main- 
tenance of  any  cemetery  or  lot  therein,  or  monuments 
thereon,  are  especially  dedaied  to  be  within  the  law 
of  charitable  uses. 

Educational,  FAjdumas. — ^New  Haven,  the  prin- 
cipal dty,  having  a  population  in  1900  of  106,027,  and 
in  1908  estimated  to  be  upwards  of  125,000,  is  chiefly 
noted  as  being  the  seat  ot  Yale  Univerraty.  The  col- 
lege from  which  this  university  has  grown  was  char- 
tmd  as  a  collegiate  echoed  by  the  Colonial  Assembly 
in  1701,  and  first  opened  at  Saybrook,  a  town  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Connecticut  River.  Its  promoters  were 
the  leading  Congregational  ministers  of  the  colony, 
nearly  all  of  whom  had  been  graduated  at  Hanrara 
College  which  had  been  founded  at  Caminidge  by  th« 
General  Court  of  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  in 
1636.  In  1718  the  college  was  transferred  to  New 
Haven  where  the  Gret  building  was  eitsoAed,  and  where 
it  took  the  name  of  Yale  College  on  account  of  a  donsr 


COMNOLLT 


257 


COniTOLLT 


iion  of  books  and  money  of  the  value  of  about  £800, 
made  by  £lihu  Yale.  Yale  was  bom  near  Boston  in 
1648,  but  on  his  maturity  removed  to  England  where 
he  died  in  1721,  never  having  returned  to  the  oolonies. 
The  declared  intention  of  the  founders  of  the  College 
was  to  educate  young  men  for  the  ministry  of  the 
Congregational  sect,  then,  and  for  many  years  after, 
(iie  established  religion  of  the  eobny.  It  received 
from  time  to  time  substantial  grants  from  the  CcHonial 
Assembly,  and  the  only  one  of  its  ancient  group  of 
buildings  still  remaining,  and  rec^itly  restored,  was 
erected  with  funds  granted  for  that  puri>0Be  by  the 
legislature.    In  1715  it  received  a  new  charter. 

To  the  original  college  other  faculties  and  depart- 
ments have  from  time  to  time  been  added.  In  1812 
a  school  of  medicine  was  established:  in  1822,  theo- 
logy; in  1824,  law;  in  1847,  a  school  of  science^  now 
known  as  the  Sheffield  Scientific  Schod;  in  1868,  a 
school  of  fine  arts;  in  18d4,  a  department  of  music, 
and  in  1900,  a  forest  school.  These  several  schools 
and  departments,  together  with  the  Peabody  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  founded  in  1866,  and  the  Win- 
chester Observatory  in  1871,  together  constitute  Yale 
University.  More  than  3,000  students  are  enrolled  in 
ail  of  its  departments,  and  its  various  faculties  num- 
ber 320  professors  ana  instructors.  Its  libraries  con- 
tain about  500,000  volumes.  In  1907  its  property 
and  funds  amounted  to  nearly  nine  millions  of  dollars 
in  value,  and  it  esqpended  in  that  year  more  than  one 
million  doUars  in  its  operations.  Vale  has  long  since 
ceased  to  be  denominational  or  sectarian  in  its  char« 
acter  and  influence,  and  has  become  substantially  a 
si^ular  institution.  Upwards  of  300  Catholics  are 
numbered  among  its  students,  and  several  among  the 
instructors. 

Other  f jolieges  in  tiie  State  are  Trinity,  established 
in  Hartford,  the  capital  of  the  State,  by  the  Episco- 
palians in  1824,  which  has  200  students,  and  Wesleyan 
University  at  Middletown,  chartered  in  1831,  and 
Uiider  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episccpatians. 
This  institution  has  about  350  students,  and  thirtyfive 
pk-ofesBors  and  instructors.  There  is  no  State  uni- 
viirsrty,  as  suc^,  although  a  school  of  agriculture  was 
efitabbshed  by  the  State  in  the  town  of  Mansfield  in 
l^iSl,  upon  the  bequest  of  Augustus  Storrs.  This  in- 
stitution now  receives  the  income  of  the  various  grants 
from  the  United  States  to  Connecticut  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  colleges  for  instruction  in  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arte,  and  is  duly  incorporated  as  the  Con- 
necticut Agricultural  Colfece.  It  has  an  enroUment 
^of  about  140  students,  with  twenty-^^t  professors 
and  instnictors.  The  Sheffield  Scientific  School  oi 
Yaie  University  XQaintains  advanced  courses  in  civil, 
mechanical,  electrical,  and  minixig  engineering,  which 
are  pursued  by  large  numbers  ofstudoits. 

In  the  State  system  of  public  schools,  high  schools 
are  nudntained  m  all  cities  and  considerable  towns, 
and  diitrict  or  grammar  schools  are  conveniently  ac- 
cessible to  every  ohUd  in  the  State.  The  public 
schools  have  a  total  enrollment  of  163,141  pupils,  with 
4,281  teachers.  The  total  amount  expended  for  the 
maintenance  of  these  schools,  including  expenditures 
for  new  buildings  and  repairs,  was  for  the  year  1905, 
$3,795,259.  Besides  the  State  schools^  good  schools 
of  the  grammar  grade  are  maintained  m  most  of  the 
larger  Cathoiio  parishes.  There  are  75  of  these 
parochial  schools  in  the  State,  with  31,877  pupils,  and 
714  teachers.  The  teachers  are  almost  exclusively 
members  of  various  sisterhoods.  The  establishment 
of  these  parochial  schools  has  cost  the  Catholic  popu- 
lation of  the  State  $3,290,700,  and  the  annual  cost  of 
their  maintenance  has  reached  the  sum  of  $475,355. 
These  sdxools  receive  no  aid  from  the  State  or  other 
public  funds. 

Chttbch  Statiswcs. — ^The  See  of  Hartford  was 
erected  18  September,  1843,  with  jurisdiction  over 
the  States  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Iriand.  These 
IV.— 17 


States  had  formerly  been  included  in  the  Diocese  of 
Boston.  The  first  Bisliop  of  Hartford  was  the  Bight 
Reverend  William  Taylor,  who,  with  his  successors, 
maintained  the  episcopal  residence  in  the  city  of 
Providence  until  1872,  when  Rhode  Island  was  set 
apart  as  the  Diocese  of  Providence,  and  Bishop  Mc- 
Farland  then  took  up  his  residence  in  Hartford.  In 
1835  a  census  taken  by  Bishop  Fenwick  of  Boston 
found  about  720  Catholics  in  Connecticut,  and  in 
1844  Catholics  numbered  4817.  In  1890  they  had 
increased  to  152,945,  outnumbering  the  communi- 
cants of  all  Protestant  denominations  by  more  than 
5000.  In  1899  the  Catholic  population  in  Connecticut 
exceeded  250,000,  and  in  1908  had  reached  395,354, 
with  a  remaining  non-Catholic  population  of  725,000. 
Neither  the  coloured  nor  the  Indian  races  contribute 
appreciably  to  this  nimiber.  For  the  most  part  the 
Catholics  of  Connecticut  are  of  Irish  ancestry,  largely 
augmented  by  the  German,  Italian,  French  Canadian, 
and  Polish  immigrations  of  recent  years.  Compara- 
tively few  trace  their  ancestrv  to  the  early  settlers  of 
the  colony,  and  these  generallyare  converts  or  belong 
to  the  fancies  of  converts.  The  number  of  conver- 
sions has  been  slowly  but  steadily  increasing,  but  the 
enormous  growth  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Connecti- 
cut is  styi  chiefly  due  to  the  ^preat  tide  of  immigration 
from  European  countries  dunng  the  last  half-century. 
The  Congr^^tionalists  are  the  most  numerous  of 
the  Protestant  denominations,  having,  according  to 
the  religious  census  taken  in  1890,  59,154  members. 
The  same  census  disclosed  26,652  Protestant  Episco- 
palians. 29,411  Methodists,  and  22,372  Baptists.  It 
is  notable  that  of  Presbyterians,  probably  in  other 
parts  of  the  United  States  one  of  the  most  numerous 
of  the  Protestant  bodies,  there  were  in  Connecticut 
at  the  time  of  the  taking  of  this  census  only  1680 
communicants. 

HoLunvH,  HUtoty  of  Conneetieut  (Hew  Haven,  1855),  II; 
LivBBJiORB*  Republic  of  New  Hattn  (Baltimore,  1886);  Bab- 
BRR.  Connediput  Historical  Collections  (New  Haven,  1836); 
TkrUBULL,  History  of  Connecticut  (New  London,  1898).  II; 
Colonial  Records  of  Connedieut^  eds.  Trumbull  and  Hoadlby 
(Hartford.  1850^1800).  XV;  New  Haven  Colonial  Records,  ed. 
HoAJ>LBT  (Hartford,  1857-8).  II;  O'Donnbll,  History  of  the 
Diocese  of  Hartford  (Boston,  IdOO). 

James  Henry  Webb. 

Coimollj,  John,  second  Bishop  of  New  York,  U. 
S.  A.,  b.  at  Slane,  Co.  Meath,  Ireland,  1750;  d.  New 
York,  6  Fdbruary,  1825.  Ho  joined  the  Dominican 
Order  in  early  youth  and  was  sent  to  Rome,  where, 
alter  ordination  to  the  priesthood,  he  became  profes- 
sor at  St.  Ctoient's,  theologian  of  the  Minerva,  agent 
of  the  Irish  Bishops,  and  Pnor  <rf  St.  Clement's.  Both 
Pius  VI  and  Pius  VII  held  him  in  high  esteem.  Bv 
his  influence  he  sayed  the  Irish,  Scotch,  and  English 
colleges  and  his  own  convoit,  church,  and  library 
from  being  plimdered  by  the  French  invaders.  He 
was  nominated  Bishop  of  New  York  as  successor  to 
Bishop  Concanen,  who  had  desired  his  appointment 
in  the  first  instance.  He  was  consecrated  in  Rome. 
6  November,  1814,  but  did  not  reach  New  York  until 
24  November,  1816.  Despite  advanced  years  and 
untoward  circumstances,  he  did  the  fruitful  work  of 
both  bishop  and  missionary  almost  to  the  day  of  his 
death.  The  diocese  then  included  all  New  York  and 
part  of  New  Jersey,  for  which  there  were  only  four 
priests.  He  built  several  churches^  founded  an  or- 
phan asylum,  and  introduced  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 
Actively  interested  in  religious  progress  throughout 
the  country,  he  advocated  the  idea  of  a  diocese  in 
every  state  as  the  best  means  of  inromoting  the  cause 
of  the  Church. 

Batlbt,  a  Brief  Sketch  of  the  Hiat.  of  the  Cath.  Ch.  on  the 
Island  of  New  York  (New  York,  1853);  Dr  Courcy  and  Shba. 
Hittory  ofthsCaih,  Ch,  in  the  V.  8.  (New  York,  1856):  Clabkb. 
Lives  of  the  Deceased  Bishops  (New  York.  1872),  I,  192;  Cath- 
olic Miscellany  (Charleston),  6Ies  1824  and  1825  paanm. 

Victor  F.  O'Daniel. 
GonnaUyr  Thomas  Louib.   See  Halifax. 


oomroB 


258 


oomuD 


Oonnor,  Diocess  of.    See  Down  and  CSonnor. 

Oonon,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.,  after  a 
long  illness,  21  September,  687.  The  son,  seemingly, 
of  an  officer  in  the  Thracesian  troop,  he  was  educated 
in  Sicily  and  ordained  priest  at  Rome.  His  age,  ven- 
erable appearance,  and  simple  character  caused  the 
clergy  and  soldiery  of  Rome,  who  were  in  disagree- 
ment, to  put  aside  their  respective  candidates  and  to 
elect  him  as  pope.  He  was  consecrated  (21  October, 
686)  after  notice  of  his  election  had  been  sent  to  the 
Exarch  of  Ravenna,  or  after  it  had  been  confiimed  by 
him  (see  Benedict  I-X,  Popes,  under  Benedict  II). 
He  received  the  Irish  missionaries,  St.  Kilian  and  his 
companions,  consecrated  Kilian  bishop,  and  commis- 
sioned him  and  the  others  to  preach  the  Faith  in 
Franconia.  (Vita  S.  Kiliani,  in  Canisius,  Lect. 
Antique,  III,  175-180.)  He  was  in  favour  with  the 
savage  Emperor  Justinian  II  who  informed  him  that 
he  had  recovered  the  Acts  of  the  Sixth  General 
Council,  by  which,  he  wrote,  it  was  his  intention  to 
abide.  Justinian  also  remitted  certain  taxes  and 
dues  owin^  to  the  imperial  exchequer  from  several 
papal  patnmonies. 

Ada  SS.,  8  July,  II.  612  sq.:  Duchbsnb  ed..  Liber  Pontifi- 
adit,  I.  368  aq.;  Mann.  Livea  of  the  Po9eM,  I,  pt.  II,  72  eq. 

HoRACB  K.  Mann. 

Oononites.    See  Tritheists. 

Oonqoistadores.  See  Spanish  Exploration  and 
Colonization. 

Oonradin  of  BomadA  (or  of  Brescia),  Dominican 
preacher,  b.  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury; d.  at  Bologna,  1  November,  1429.  His  parents, 
noble  and  wealthy  Brescians,  were  devoted  adherents 
of  the  Church  in  a  time  of  many  ills,  including  the 
great  Western  Schism.  They  fi^ve  their  son  a  careful 
education  and  sent  him,  at  Uie  ace  of  sixteen,  to  study 
civil  and  canon  law  at  the  University  of  Padua. 
There  for  five  years  amid  the  perils  of  the  unbridled 
licence  and  moral  disorders  of  the  times,  the  ^outh 
was  conspicuous  for  both  talent  and  virtue,  winning 
the  esteem  of  his  masters  and  compelling  the  respect 
of  his  fellow-students.  He  entered  the  Domimcan 
Order  at  Padua  in  1419,  and  was  speedily  found  to  be 
a  model  of  religious  observance.  After  his  ordination 
his  zeal  found  fruitful  expression  in  his  eloquent 
He  was  made  prior  of  Brescia  and  shortly 

neral, 


afterwards,  by  appointment  of  the  master  gene 

Erior  of  the  convent  of  St.  ]>om]nic  at  Bologna,  where 
e  was  to  restore  strict  observance.  During  a  visita-. 
tion  of  the  black  plague  he  displayed  heroic  seal  and 
intrepidity  in  mmistering  to  the  stricken  people. 
Amia  political  upheavals,  when  Bologna  under  the 
influence  of  the  Bentivogli  had  revoltedf  against  papal 
authority,  Conradin  took  a  fiim  stand  against  the 
conduct  of  the  misguided  populace.  For  publishing 
the  papal  interdict,  which  they  had  incurred  out  which 
they  had  disregarded,  he  was  twice  seized  and  impris- 
oned, suffering  many  indignities  and  cru^ties.  His 
courageous  baring  and  constant  mediation  finally 

SrevaUed,  however,  and  peace  was  restored.  Pope 
[artin  V,  in  recognition  of  his  services,  sou^t  to 
create  him  a  cardiiml,  but  the  humble  servant  of  God 
resolutely  declined  the  honour.  The  plague  breaking 
out  anew.  Conradin  fell  a  victim  to  nis  charity  and 
dic^d  in  tne  midst  of  his  heroic  ministrations.  His 
eariy  biographers  generally  refer  to  him  as  Blessed. 

TouBON.  Hommea  iiluatrea  d»  Fardre  de  SaitU-Dmninique 
(Paris.  1746).  m.  163.  ,  ^    ^^ 

John  R.  Volz. 

Conrad  of  Ascoli,  Blessed,  Friar  Minor  and  mis- 
sionary, b.  at  Ascoli  in  the  Maorch  of  Ancona  in  1234; 
d.  there,  19  April,  1289.  He  belonged  to  the  noble 
family  of  Milliano  and  from  his  earnest  years  made 
penance  the  ppedominating  element  of  his  life.  He 
entered  the  Onlnr  of  IViars  Minor  at  Asooli  together 


with  his  townsman  and  lifelong  friend,  GirolaiDO 
d'Asooli,  afterwards  minister  seneral,  and  later  pope 
under  the  Utle  of  Nicholas  IV.  Having  completed 
his  studies  at  Perugia,  Conrad  was  sent  to  Rovne  to 
teach  theology.  Later  he  obtained  permiaaion  to  go 
to  Africa,  where  he  preached  with  much  frtiit  through 
the  dififerent  provinces  of  libvaand  worked  nunmous 
miracles.  He  was  recalled  from  Africa  to  go  on  a 
mission  to  the  King  of  France,  then  at  war  with  Spain, 
and  subsequently  he  became  lector  of  theology  at 
Paris.     When    not    engaged    in    teaching,    Conrad 

E reached  to  the  people  or  ministered  to  the  sick  in 
ospitals.  In  1288  be  was  summoned  to  Rome  by 
the  new  pope,  Nicholas  IV,  who  wished  to  make  him 
cardinal,  but  Coorad  died  on  the  way  after  reaching 
his  native  city,  being  then  fifty-five  vears  of  age. 
Nicholas  IV  was  deeply  grieved  at  tne  losa  of  his 
saintly  friend,  on  whose  counsel  and  seal  he  had 
counted  so  much,  and  dedared  that  Conrad's  death 
was  a  great  loss  to  the  Church.  The  people  of  Ascoli 
erected  a  splendid  tomb  over  the  remains  of  Blessed 
Conrad,  in  1371,  when  his  body  was  removed  to  the 
new  church  of  the  Franciscans,  it  was  found  Incsorrupt 
and  gave  f cHth  a  siroet  odour.  Pius  VI  approved  the 
cultus  of  Blessed  Conrad.  His  feast  is  kept  in  the 
Order  of  Friars  Minor  on  19  April. 

Wadding.  AnnaUt  Minorumj  V,  212-215;  Aela  SS.,  Apnl. 
II,  38-^;  Lbmmbnb,  ed.,  CalalcffuM  Sattdorum  FnUrum  AUn- 
orutn  (Rome,  1903).  18;  Lbo,  Lwea  of  the  Samta  and  Biased 
of  the  Three  Orders  of  St.  Franeia  (TMinton,  1886),  II.  S3-Sf 

Stbphbn  M.  Donovan. 

Ckmrad  of  Hoehatadt  (Hobta»bn),  Arehbishop  of 
Cologne  and  Imperial  Elector  (1238-1261),  aiKi  son  of 
Count  Lothar  of  Hochstadt  and  Mathilcie  of  Vian- 
den,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  28  September,  1261. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  eari^  youth.  In  1216  he 
became  beneficiary  of  the  parish  of  Wevelingfaoven 
near  Diksseldorf ;  in  1226  he  was  canon  and,  some 
years  later,  provost  of  the  cathedral  of  Cologne. 
After  the  death  of  Henry  of  Molenark  (26  March, 
1238)  the  cathedral  clu4>ter  elected  Conrad  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne.  He  received  the  archiepisoopal 
insignia  from  the  Emperor  Frederic  II  at  Brescia 
in  August  of  the  same  year.  The  following  jrear,  28 
October,  he  was  ordamed  priest  and  consecrated 
arehbii^p  by  LUdolf  of  Milnster. 

During  the  first  few  months  of  his  reign  the  new 
archbishop  was  on  the  side  of  the  emperor  in  his  con- 
flict with  Pope  Gregory  IX,  but  for  unknown  reasons 
went  over  to  the  papal  party  shortlv  after  the  em- 
peror's excommunication  (12  Maren,  1239).  The 
whole  temporal  administration  of  Conrad  was  a  series 
ol  struggles  with  some  neighbouring:  princes  and  with 
the  dtisens  of  Cologne,  who  refused  to  acknowledi^e 
the  tenoporal  sovereignty  of  the  arehbishop  over  their 
city.  Conrad  was  geneoraUy  victorious,  but  his  often 
treacherous  manner  of  wsirfare  has  left  many  dark 
spots  on  his  r^utation.  When  Pope  Innocent  IV 
deposed  Frederic  II  (17  July,  1246),  it  was  chiefly  due 
to  the  influence  of  Conrad  that  the  pope's  candidate. 
Henry  Raspe,  Landgrave  of  Thuringia,  was  elected 
king,  and  wnen  Henry  died  after  a  short  reign  of  seven 
months  (17  February,  1247),  it  was  again  the  influ- 
ence of  Conrad  that  placed  the  crown  on  the  head  of 
the  youthful  William  of  Holland. 

In  recognition  of  these  services,  Pope  Innocent 
made  him  Apostohc  legate  in  Ciermany  (14  Mareh, 
1249),  an  office  which  had  become  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Archbishop  Sifrit  of  Mains,  five  days  previ- 
ously. The  deigy  and  Uuty  of  Mains  desired  to  have 
the  powerful  Conrad  of  Cologne  as  their  new  areh- 
fai^iop.  Conrad  seems  to  have  secretly  encouraged 
them,  but  for  diplomatic  reasons  referred  them  to  the 
pope,  who  kindly  but  firmly  refused  to  phioe  the  two 
most  important  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  Germany 
under  the  power  of  one  man.  Shortly  after  this  decis- 
ion the  hitherto  friend^  relations  between  P6pe  In 


259 


0QlfR4D 


nocent  IV  and  the  archbiahop  ceased,  and  in  April, 
1250,  the  Apostolic  Lsgation  in  Gennany  waa  commitr 
ted  to  Peter,  Bishop  of  Albano.  At  the  same  time 
be^pui  Conrad's  'estrangement  from  Kin^  William, 
which  finally  led  to  open  rebellion.  With  all  the 
means  of  a  powerful  and  unscrupulous  prince,  Con-^ 
rad  attonpted  to  dethrone  William  and  would  prob-' 
ably  have  been  successful  had  not  the  king^s  prema- 
ture death  made  the  intrigues  of  the  archbishop  un- 
necessary. After  the  death  of  King  William  (2B 
January,  1256),  Conrad  played  an  important  but  de- 
spicable r61e  in  the  election  of  the  new  kiog*  For  a 
lailge  sum  he  sold  his  vote  to  Richard  of  Cornwall, 
brother  of  Henry  III  of  E^ngland,  and  crowned  him  at 
Aachen,  17  May,  1257.  This  was  the  last  important 
act  of  Conrad.  He  is  buried  in  the  cathedral  of 
Cologne,  of  which  he  laid  the  comer-stone,  15  August, 
1248. 

Cajbdauns,  Kanrad  van  BaaUiden,  SnbueKof  von  Kdln, 
ltSS-^1  (CoIocDe.  1880);  Id^  RtauUn  det  Kdlnm-  SrtinachofM 
Konrad  von  Ho$taden  m  Annaun  des  hxai.  Vertina  fUr  den 
Nttderrhtin  (Ooloipe,  1880).  No.  35;  Bobcxhabdt,  Konrad 
von  HoeKatadtn  (Bonn.  1843);  AnnaUs  MonaaUrii  8.  FomXor 
ieoni$  in  Mon.  Qtrm.  HiaL:  SerijU.,  XXII,  630  sqq. 

Michael  Ott. 

Oonrad  of  Leonberg  (Lbontorius)^  a  Cistercian 
monk  and  Humanist,  b.  at  Leonberg  m  Swabia  in 
1460;  d.  at  Engentbal  near  Basle  after  1520.  He 
took  vowB  at  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Maulbronn 
in  the  Neckar  district,  which;  unlike  most  other  Cis- 
tercian monasteries  of  those  tunes,  was  then  exgoying 
its  golden  af^e.  In  1490  he  became  secretary  to  the 
general  of  his  order.  When  the  German  Humanists 
began  to  revive  the  study  of  the  Latin  and  Greek 
classics,  as  Conrad  deplored  the.  barbarous  Latin  in 
which  the  scholastic  pnilosopheis  and  theolo^ns  of 
Gennany  were  expounding  the  doctrine  of  their  great 
masters,  he  was  in  full  accord  with  their  endeavours 
to  restore  the  classical  Latinity  of  the  Ciceronian  Age. 
He  also,  by  word  and  example,  encouraged  tlie 
study  of  Greek,  but  was  especially  attracted  by  the 
great  Hebrew  scholar  Reuchlin  (d.  1522)  who  in- 
spired Conrad  with  his  own  enthusiasm  for  the  study 
of  Hebrew.  like  Reuchlin,  his  friend  and  teacher; 
Conrad  was  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  Hebrew  for 
a  thorough  imderstanding  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
became  one  of  the  few  great  Hebrew  scholars  of  his 
time.  He  was  in  correspondence  with  the  best  writers 
in  sacred  and  profane  literature,  and  was  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  learned  men  of  his  period.  For  a  time 
he  appears  to  have  been  engaged  as  proof-reader  in 
the  celebrated  printing-office  of  Amerbach  at  Basle. 
Besides  writing  numerous  Latin  poems,  orations,  and 
epistles,  hepublished  (Basle,  150&-8)  tne  Latin  Bible 
with  the  "Rwtilla"  and  "MoraUtates"  of  the  Oxford 
Franciscan  Nicolas  d^  Lyra,  together  with  the  "  Addi- 
tiones  "  of  Paul  of  Burffos  (d.  1435)  and  the  "  Replicss  " 
of  Mathias  Thoring  (d.  1469). 

WvHi.  Lignum  YiUv  (Vmioe,  1605).  I.  78;  Httstbr,  Nomon^ 
dator    (Innabrack,    1007).    II.    040;     Haobn,    DeuUehlanda 

1841).  I.  151.  ^^ 

Michael  Ott. 

Oonrad  of  UchtMnfta.    See  LicareNAtr. 

Oonrad  of  Marbnrgt  confessor  of  Saint  Elisabeth 
of  Thuringia  and  papal  inquisitor,  b.  at  or  near  Mar- 
bui^,  Germany,  in  the  seeond  half  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury; d.  30  July,  1233.  His  contemporaries  called 
him  Magitier,  a  proof  that  he  had  finisned  the  course 
of  studies  at  some  universitjr,  perhaps  Paris  or  Bo- 
logna. According  to  the  Thunnspan  court-chaplain 
Berthold,  and  Csesarius  of  Hei8ten>ach,  he  was  prob- 
ably a  secular  priest,  therefore  neither  a  Dominican, 
as  nausrath  states,  nor  a  Franciscan,  as  is  asserted  by 
Henke  and,  others.  Papal  letters  and  oontemponury 
chroniders  describe  Conrad  as  a  man  of  mudi  ability, 
large  theological  learning  great  eloouence,  ardent 
seal  in  defence  of  the  purity  of  Catholic  Faith,  and  a 


severe  ascetic.  Tliejr  also  agree  as  to  the  stemno0B  of 
his  character.  He  is  first  heard  of  as  a  vigorous* 
preacher  of  the  crusade  proclaimed  in  1213  by  Inno- 
cent III.  The  death  of  innoeent  and  the  consequent 
relaxation  of  interest  in  the  crusade,  did  not  dampen 
the  ardour  of  Conrad,  while,  in  addition,  he  was 
charged  with  various  important  oommissions.  Hon- 
(Mrius  III  authorized  him  (1219)  to  adjust  the  differ- 
ences of  the  convent  of  Nihenbur|;  with  the  Duke  of 
Saxony  and  the  Count  of  Askamen.  The  abbot  of 
Hayna,  the  provost  of  St.  Stephen,  Mainz,  and  Con- 
rad were  appointed  in  1227  papal  commissioners  for 
the  separation  of  Marburg  from  the  parish  of  Ober- 
Weimar.  The  synod  of  Mainz  (I22o)  had  issued  sev- 
eral decrees  for  the  improvement  of  the  clergy  and 
Conrad  was  intrusted  with  their  execution;  he  was 
also  charged  with  the  reform  of  certain  convents,  as 
Nordhausen.  In  1232  he  describes  himself  as  visiter 
tor  rnonoMeruirum  in  Alemofmid.  In  the  course  of 
these  labours  Conrad  became  acquainted  with  the 
Landgrave  Ludwig  of  Thuringia  and  his  wife,  St« 
Elizabeth.  The  prince  held  Conrad  in  high  esteem, 
and  the  latter  exercised  great  influ^ice  at  the  Thur- 
ingian  court,  being  authorized  by  Ludwig  to  appoint 
to  all  ecclesiastical  offices  in  the  eft  of  the  landgrave. 
This  power  of  appointing  to  ecclesiastical  livings  waa 
confinned  (12  June,  1227}  by  Gr^ry  IX  (Mon.  Geitn. 
Hist.:  Epistoia  Sec.  XIII,  ed.  Bodenberg,  1, 276,  iw 
361). 

In  1225,  after  the  recall  of  the  Franciscan  Rodeger, 
Conrad  became  the  spiritual  director  and  confessor  of 
the  pious  landgravine.  He  treated  her  with  the 
same  severity  tnat-  he  used  a^inst  himself,  a  pro- 
cedure in  accordance  with  her  own  wishes.  At  times, 
however,  he  checked  her  pious  zeal  and  forbade  ex- 
cessive mortifications.  Conrad  has  been  often 
blamed,  quite  unjustly,  for  the  direction,  in  keeping 
with  the  custom  of  the  time,  which  he  imparted  to  the 
soul  of  St.  Elizabeth.  After  the  death  of  St.  £3iza- 
beth  on  19  November,  1231,  Conrad  was  deputed, 
with  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz  and  the  Abbot  or  Eber- 
bach,  to  examine  witnesses  concerning  her  life  and  the 
miracles  attributed  to  her  intercession.  He  also 
wrote  for  the  process  of  canonization  a  shQ^  life  of  St. 
Elizabeth.  In  his  later  years  Conrad  was  very  active 
in  Grermany  as  papal  inquisitor.  The  heresies  of  the 
Catharists  and  tne  Waldenses  were  spreadix^  throng* 
out  the  land;  to  Catharism,  in  particular,  was  owuu^ 
the  fantastic  sect  of  the  Jjuciferians  (see  Michael, 
Geschichte  des  deutschen  Volkes,  II,  266).  From  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  (jerman  ecele- 
siastical  authority,  in  union  with  the  civil  power,  had 

Sroceeded  vigorously  against  all  heresies.  The  con- 
ict  in  which  Conrad  had  so  large  a  share  was  waged 
according  to  the  medieval  views  of  public  right  and 
welfare.  The  first  process  in  which  he  took  part  waa 
that  directed  against  Heinrich  Minaike,^ .  Provost  of 
Goslar.  In  1224  after  a  trial  that  lasted  two  years, 
Minnike  was  declared  guilty  of  heresy,  delivered  to  the 
secular  arm,  and  perished  at  the  stake.  In  the  follow- 
ingyears  Conrad  preached  with  great  vigour  against  the 
heretics  and  was  waimly  praised  and  encouraged  to 
greater  zeal  by  Gregory  IX  in  a  letter  of  1227.  The 
Archbishops  of  Trier  and  of  Mainz  both  wrote  to  the 
pope  in  1231  in  praise  of  the  extraordinary  activity  of 
Conrad  and  reported  his  triumphs  over  several  hereti- 
cal leaders.  Thereupon  Pope  (xregory  conferred  OAt 
Conrad  (11  October,  1231)  tne  extensive  authoritv  of 
papal  inqubitor,  the  first  such  officer  appointed  in 
Germany.  At  the  same  time  the  pope  released  Con-, 
rad  from  the  obligation  of  following  the  ordinary 
canonical  procedure  (te  a  cognUwmbus  eausarum 
habere  volumue  exoueaium)  and  authorized  him  to  pro- 
CMd  resolutely  against  heretics  as  he  thought  best,, 
but  with  due  observance  of  the  papal  decrees  on  the 
subject. 
In  the  exercise  of  this  authority,  even  acoording  to 


oomukD 


260 


OOMBAD 


the  sympathetic  accounts  of  contemporary  annalists, 
Conrad  proved  too  severe  and  harsh.  His  assistants) 
Conrad  vono,  a  Dominican  lay  brother,  and  John,  a 
layman,  were  ignorant  fanatics  unqualified  for  such 
work.  Conrad  believed  too  easily  the  declarations  of 
persons  accused  of  heresv;  on  the  strength  of  their 
statements,  and  without  further  investigation,  others 
were  arrested  and  treated  as  heretics.  The  accused 
either  confessed  their  guilt  and  had  their  heads  shaved 
for  penance,  or  denied  their  guilt,  were  delivered  as 
obstinate  heretics  to  the  secular  arm,  and  perished  at 
the  stake.  How  ^reat  was  the  number  of  victims  caiv- 
not  now  be  ascertamed.  In  Western  Germany  a  general 
panic  followed  ^e  appearance  of  this  severe  judge  of 
neretics,  who  did  not  fear  to  summon  before  his  tri- 
bunal powerful  nobles,  suspected  of  heresv,  among 
such  the  Count  of  ^yn.  The  count  appealed  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Mains  who  convened  a  synod  of  his  suf- 
fragans (25  July,  1233),  at  which  King  Heni^  also  as- 
sisted. Both  the  bishops  and  the  indSuential  nobles 
were  generally  ill-disposed  towards  Conrad,  who  was 
present  at  the  synod,  and  it  was  found  impossible  to 
prove  the  charge  of  heresy  against  the  Count  of  Sayn. 
Theraapon  Conrad  undertook,  in  the  exercise  of  nis 
papal  commission,  to  preach  a  crusade  afl»inst  heretic 
nobles.  Shortly  afterwards  (30  July,  1233)  both  he 
and  his  companion,  the  Franciscan  Gerhard  Luteel- 
kolb,  were  mimlered  while  returning  to  Marburg.  He 
was  buried  in  Marbiirg  near  St.  Elizabeth.  I>&spite 
the  unfavourable  action  of  the  synod  of  Mainz,  Greg- 
ory IX  extended  his  protection  to  the  memory  of  the 
deceased  inquisitor  and  insisted  that  severe  punish- 
ment be  meted  out  to  his  murderers. 

Hxif  KB,  Kanrad  vcm  Marbura,  Beiehtvaier  der  M,  Eluabelh  und 
Jnauititor  (MarbuiSt  1861);  Haubrath,  I>er  Ketzerme%9ter  Ken- 
rod  von  Marburo,  in  Kleine  Schriften  (Leipsig,  1883).  137-233; 
Bbck,  Konrad  von  Marbiarg,  hwuiaitor  in  Deutaehland  (Breslau, 
1871);  KxiirBR,  Kownd  von  Marburg  vnd  die  Inquisition  m 
Deut9chlattd  (Pmgue.  1882):  Michael,  Geseh.  des  deuUehen 
VoUcM  (FreibuiYTlSOQ).  II.  109. 206.  sqq.:  318.  sqq.;  Huybkens. 
ZvM  700.  Oeburttiaoe  der  hi,  BliacMh  von  ThUringen,  Studien  aber 
ddo  QueU,  ihnr  Geaeh.  in  Hitiar.  Jahrb.  (1907),  XXVIII,  499 
aqq»739  8qq.  t    «    -r^ 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Oonrad  of  OAda,  Blbssbd,  Friar  Minor,  b.  at  Of- 
fida,  a  little  town  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  c.  1241; 
d.  at  Bastia  in  Umbria,  12  December,  1306.  When 
barely  fourteen  years  old  he  entered  the  Order  of 
FViars  Minor  at  Ascoli,  and  was  making  rapid  progress 
in  the  study  of  sacred  sciences,  when  an  internal  voice 
called  him  to  humbler  offices  of  the  religious  life.  He 
therefore  abandoned  his  studies  with  the  consent  of 
his  superiors,  and  for  many  years  was  emploved  as 
cook  and  questor.  His  superiors  subsequently  had 
him  ordained  and  sent  him  forth  to  preach.  His  im- 
passioned sermons  touched  the  hearts  of  the  most 
haniened.  Conrad  modelled  his  life  after  that  of  his 
seraf^ic  father,  St.  Francis.  He  was  especially  zeal- 
ous for  the  observance  of  poverty.  During  his  long 
religious  life  he  always  wore  the  same  habit  and 
always  went  barefoot,  without  sandals.  The  early 
l^^nd  declares  that  Conrad's  guardian  ai|«;el  was  the 
same  that  had  formeriy  fulfilled  this  omce  for  St. 
Francis,  and  that  Blessed  Giles  came  back  to  earth  to 
teach  him  the  mysteries  of  contemplation.  When 
Brother  Leo,  the  companion  and  confessor  of  St. 
Fllmcis,  was  dying,  he  sent  for  Conrad  and  made  him 
the  depositary  of  his  writings.  Conrad  was  allied 
with  Angelo  Uareno  and  intimately  united  with  John 
of  La  Penna,  John  of  Parma,  Peter  of  John  Olivi, 
f^ter  of  Monticello,  and  others  of  the  *' Spirituals". 
In  1204  he  obtained  permission  from  Celestine  V  to 
separate  from  the  mam  body  of  the  order  and  found 
the  Celestinee  by  whom  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis  was 
observed  in  all  its  purity.  When  this  congregation 
was  supiMressed  by  Boniface  VIII,  Conrad  unme* 
diately  returned  under  the  authority  of  the  superiors 
of  the  order.  The  letter  written  in  1296  by  Pteter  of 


John  Olivi  to  Blessed  Conrad  in  which  the  legitimacy 
of  Boniface  VIH's  election  is  defended,  has  been 
edited  by  Ignatius  Jeiler  (Historisches  Jahrbuch,  III. 
649).  Dunng  a  course  of  nussions  he  was  giving  at 
Bastia,  he  pafi»ed  away  at  the  age  of  about  sbcty-five 
years  and  was  buried  in  that  place.  Fffty-oix  years 
later  his  remains  were  carriea  off  by  the  Perugians 
and  buried  at  San  Francesco.  They  now  repoee  be- 
side those  of  Blessed  Giles  in  the  ch<^r  of  the  cathe- 
dral at  Perugia.  Pius  VII  in  1817  ratified  the  cultus 
of  Blessed  Conrad.  His  feast  is  kept  in  the  Order 
of  Friars  Minor  <$n  19  December. 

See  the  early  Vita  Ft.  Conmdi  in  AntOoeia  Fremeiaeana 
(Quaraochi.  1897).  Ul,  42^-i30:  aa  epitoin*  of  the  Mune  u 
ffivea  in  Analecta  Franciscana  (Quaraechi,  1906),  IV,  233-4; 
Verba  B.  Conradi  in  Opuaeulea  de  critiquea  hi^ortgust,  I.  370; 
MiaeOlanm  Franciseana,  VII,  182;  WAiyDiMO,  AmtaUo  Mino' 
rum,  1. 165;  III.  364;  iy,232;  V.2iaii«iKiiMwsam;  LsifMWffl, 
ed.,  Caialogiu  Sanctorum  Minorum  (Rome,  1903),  8;  CLJOnifo, 
TribuUUione8t  ed.  Ehbxb  in  Archiv  fUr  Ltteratur  und  Kirdten- 
qmehieku  da  MiUdaUera,  II.  306;  Sabatikr.  ed..  Actus  B. 
Francisci  CParia,  1902).  50-53;  JaCobxllx.  ViU  de'  SmUi  s 
BeatiddL*  Umbna,  III,  12  December;  Sabatdbr,  ed..  Speculum 
Perfedionis  (Paris,  1898).  cxi-cxiv;  Lbo,  Lives  of  the  Saints 
and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St.  Francis  (Taunton,  1887). 
IV.  174-7;  MACDONBI.L,  Sons  of  Francis  (London,  10(^), 
303-316. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Oonrad  of  Ptacensa,  Saint,  hermit  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  date  of  birth  imcertain:  d,  atNoto 
in  Sicily,  19  February,  1351.  He  belonged  to  one  of 
the  noblest  families  of  Piaoenza,  and  naving  mar- 
ried when  he  was  quite  youn^,  led  a  virtuous  and 
God-fearing  life.  On  one  occasion,  when  he  was  en- 
gaged in  his  usual  pastime  of  himting,  he  ordered  his 
attendants  to  fire  some  brushwood  in  which  game  had 
taken  refuge.  The  prevailing  wind  caused  the  flames 
to  spread  rapidly,  and  the  surrounding  fields  and  forest 
were  soon  in  a  state  of  conflagration.  A  mendicant, 
who  happened  to  be  found  near  the  i^ace  where  the 
fire  had  originated,  was  accused  of  being  the  author. 
He  was  imprisoned,  tried,  and  condemned  to  death. 
As  the  poor  man  was  being  led  to  execution,  Oonrad, 
stricken  with  remorse,  made  open  confession  of  his 
g^lt;  and  in  order  to  repair  the  damage  of  which  he 
had  been  the  cause,  was  obliged  to  sell  all  his  posses- 
sions. Thus  reduced  to  poverty,  Conrad  retired  to  a 
lonely  hermitage  some  distance  from  Piaoenza,  while 
his  wife  entered  the  Order  of  Poor  Clares.  Later  he 
went  to  Rome,  and  thence  to  Sicily,  where  for  thirty 
years  he  lived  a  most  austere  and  penitential  life  and 
worked  numerous  miracles.  He  is  especially  invoked 
for  the  cure  of  hernia.  In  1515  Leo  A  j)ermitted  the 
town  of  Noto  to  celebrate  his  feast,  which  permission 
was  later  extended  by  Urban  YIII  to  the  wnole  Order 
of  St.  Francis.  Though  bearing  the  title  of  saints 
Conrad  was  never  formally  canoiuzed.  His  feast  is 
kept  in  the  Franciscan  Order  on  19  February. 

Wadding.  Annates  Minorum,  Vl.  240-242.  VIII,  62;  Acta 
SS.,  February.  III.  162-170;  Lso.  Lives  of  the  SainU  and 
Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St.  Francis  (Tsonton.  1885),  I« 
261-265. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Oonrad  of  Saxony  (also  c^M  Co^vradus  Saxo^ 

Oonrad  op  Brunswick,  or  Conradus  Holtingeb), 
Friar  Minor  and  ascetical  writer,  date  and  place  of 
birth  uncertain;  d.  at  Bologna  in  1279.  Holyinger  is 
perhaps  his  family  name.  l*he  error  has  been  made 
by  some  of  confounding  Oonrad  of  Saxony  with  an- 
other person  of  the  same  name  who  suffered  for  the 
Faith  m  1284,  whereas  it  is  certain  that  they  were  two 
distinct  individuals,  though  belonging  to  the  same 
province  of  the  order  in  Germany.  Oonrad  became 
provincial  minister  of  the  province  of  Saxony  in  1245, 
and  for  sixteen  years  ruled  the  province  with  much 
zeal  and  prudence.  While  on  his  way  to  the  general 
chapter  of  1279,  he  was  attacked  with  a  grievous 
illness  and  died  at  Bo]OT;na  in  the  same  year.  The 
writings  of  Oonrad  of  Saxony  Include  several  ser- 


OOX&AD 


261 


mom  and  the  "Speeulvm  Beftte  Marie  Virginis'';  the 
latter,  at  times  enroneoudy  attributed  to  St.  Bona- 
▼entiue>  has  recently  been  edited  by  the  Friars  Minor 
at  Qnara^ohL  The  preface  to  this  excellent  edition  of 
the  ''Speculum"  contains  a  brief  sketch  of  the  life  of 
Conrad  of  Saxony  and  a  critical  estimate  of  his  other 
writings. 

Spteulum  B,  M,  V,  Ft,  dmradiaSaaunUa  (Quamcdu,  1904); 
AnaiMia  FmneUeana  (Quazacchi,  1887),  U.  09,  83. 

Stephen  M,  Donovan. 

Oonrad  of  Uraeh,  Caidinal-Bishop  of  Porto  and 
Santa  Rufina;  bom  about  1180;  d.  1227.  At  an  early 
skge  he  became  canon  of  the  church  of  St.  Lambert, 
the  cathedral  of  Ii§^.  lit  1199  he  entered  the  Cister* 
cian  monastery  of  ViUers  in  Belsium,  of  which  he  soon 
became  prior  and,  in  1209,  aboot.  In  1214  he  was 
choeen  Abbot  of  Clairvaux  and,  in  1217,  Abbot  of 
Otteaux  and  general  of  his  order.  Pope  Honorius  III 
created  him  cardinal,  8  Januarjr,  1219,  and  charged 
him  with  two  important  legations,  one  in  France 
(1220-23),  to  suppress  the  Albigenses;  the  other  in 
Germany  (1224-26),  to  preach  and  arrange  the  crusade 
which  Frederick  IT  had  vowed  to  undertake.  After 
the  death  of  Honorius  III  the  cardinals  agreed  to  elect 
him  pope,  but  he  refused  the  dignity.  The  CSstercians 
venerate  nlm  as  Blessed  (30  September). 

Glonino,  C&nrad  •on  Uraeh,  CatdinaUnBchcf  von  Porto  und 
mmtta  RuHna  (Auffbuiv,  1901);  OlAmbnt,  Conrad  d^Ufacht  de 
Vordm  do  CttooMX,  LSgat  en  France  et  en  AUemagne  in  Revuo 
BirUdielino  (Maredaous,  1905).  XXII,  232  sqq.;  Bchkbckbic- 
vrkzN,  Konrtad  von  Uraek  aU  CardindUoffot  in  ueuUchland  in 
Form^mtgon  fur  doutaehm  Oeichiehte  (GdttinsMi.  1867),  VU, 
321-493. 

Michael  Orr. 

Oonrad  of  Utrecht,  Bishop,  b.  in  Swabia  at  an 
unknown  date;  lulled  at  Utrecht,  14  April,  1099. 
Before  becomiiu;  bishop  he  was  chamberiam  of  Arch- 
bishop Anno  IT  of  Cologjue  and,  for  a  time,  tutor  of 
Prince  Heniy,  the  future  Emperor  Henry  IV.  When 
the  excommunicated  Bishop  William  of  Utrecht 
died  in  1076,  the  emperor  gave  the  episcopal  See  of 
Utrecht  to  Conrad,  who,  like  his  predecessor,  sided 
with  Heniy  IV  in  his  coniOicts  with  Gregory  Vll,  and 
at  the  Synod  of  Brixen  in  1080  even  condemned  the 
pope  as  a  heretic.  The  contemporary  annalist,  Lam- 
bert of  Hersfeld,  caUs  Conrad  a  schisxnatic  bishop,  uni* 
worthy  of  holding  an  episcopal  see.  In  a  battle  with 
Robert,  Count  of  Flandera,  Conrad  was  defeated, 
afterwards  taken  captive  and  compelled  to  jield  part 
of  South  Holland  to  Robert.  This  territorial  loss  of 
the  bishop  was  compensated  by  the  emperor,  who,  in 
1077,  gave  him  the  district  of  Stavoren  in  Friesland, 
and  in  1086  added  the  two  other  Frisian  districts, 
Ostergau  and  Westeigau.  Conrad  is  the  founder  and 
architect  of  the  collegiate  church  of  Notre-Dame  at 
Utrecht.  He  was  assassinated,  shortl]^  after  com- 
pleting the  Holy  Sacrifice,  by  his  Frisian  architect 
whom  he  had  discharged,  and  who,  in  the  opinion  of 
some,  was  instigated  by  a  certain  nobleman  whose 
domains  Conrad  held  unjustly.  He  is  said  to  have 
written  the  discourse  "Pro  Imperatore  contra 
PtLptan'*,  and  to  have  delivered  it  at  the  Synod  of 
Oerstnngen  in  1085.  It  is  inserted  by  Aventmus  (d. 
1534)  in  his  "Vita  Henrici  IV"  and  by  Goldast  (d. 
1606)  in  his  "Fh>  Henrico  IV  imperatore".  Hefele 
(Oondlienii^eschichte,  V,  180,  note)  is  of  the  opinion 
that  the  mscourse  is  falsely  attributed  to  Conrad  of 
Utrecht,  and  that  Aventinus  himself  is  the  author. 
Kuperti  Chronioon  in  Afon.  Oonn.  Hid.:  Saripi.,  VIII.  278. 

Michael  Orr. 

Oonry  (or  Conrot),  Florbncs,  in  Irish  Flaithri 
OliAOiiCONAiRB  (OlfuLcosniT),  Archbu^op  of  Tuam, 
patriot,  tbedogiaa,  and  founder  of  the  Irish  (Fran- 
ciscan) College  of  St.  Anthony  at  Louvain,  b.  in  Gal- 
way,  1560;  d.  at  Madrid,  18  Nov.,  1629.  His  early 
studies  were  made  on  the  Continent,  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  in  Spain;  at  Salamanca  he  joined  the  Fran^ 


ciscans.  In  1588  he  was  appointed  provineial  of  tho 
order  in  Ireland  and  as  suoh  sailed  with  the  Spanish 
Armada;  we  have  no  details  as  to  the  manner  of  his 
escape  from  the  disaster  which  overtook  that  ill-fated 
eiq)editu>n.  At  all  times  active  in  the  interest  of  his 
native  land  he  was  asain  sent  to  Ireland,  this  time  by 
Clement  VIII,  to  aid  with  counsel  and  influence  the 
Irish  and  their  Spanish  allies  during  the  last  struggle 
of  Hugh  O'Neill  (Tyrone's  Rebellion)  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  Ireland.  After  the  disaster  of  Kinsale 
(1601)  he  accompanied  Hug^  Roe  O'Donnell  (Prince 
of  TVTconnell)  to  Spain  in  the  hope  of  interesting  anew 
the  Spanish  Court  But  the  great  chieftain  soon  died 
at  Simancas,  being  assisted  on  his  death-bed  by 
Father  Coniv^  (Four  Masters,  ad  an.  1602)  who  also 
accompanied  the  remains  to  their  last  resting  place  in 
the  Franciscan  church  at  Valladolid.  Corny  was  also 
deeply  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  Irish  College  at 
Salamanca  (q.  v.).  When  the  native  Irish  chieftains, 
the  Eari  of  Tyrone  (Hugh  O'Neill)  and  the  Eari  of 
lyrconndl  (Rory  O'Donnell,  brother  of  Hugh  Roe), 
fled  from  Ireland  in  1607,  Conry  proved  a  devoted 
friend  in  their  exile  and  accompanied  them  to  Rome. 
For  the  so-called  ''Revelations"  of  Christopher  St. 
Laurence,  Baron  of  Howth,  impUcating  Father  Coory 
and  the  principal  Irish  in  an  imaginary  plot  to  seize 
Dublin  Csstle  and  raise  a  new  rebellion  just  previous 
to  the  "Flight  of  the  £arls"8ee  Meehan  (dted below), 
pp.  67-73.  At  Rome  Father  Coniy  was  consecrated 
Archbishop  of  Tuam  in  1609  by  Cudinal  Maifeo  Bar- 
berini  (later  Urban  VIII),  always  a  warm  friend  of  the 
persecuted  Irish  Catholics.  In  1614  Coniy  wrote  from 
Valladolid  a  vigofous  remonstrance  to  the  Catholic 
members  of  the  Irish  Parliament  for  their  oowardl^r 
adhesion  to  the  Bill  of  Attainder  that  deprived  of  their 
estates  the  fugitive  Irish  earls  and  their  adherents  and 
vested  six  whole  counties  of  Ulster  in  the  English 
Crown.  Meehan  says  of  this  document  that  it  is 
''stamped  in  its  every  line  with  the  impress  of  a  great 
mind''  (Fate  and  Fortunes  of  the  Earls  of  lyrone  and 
T^roonnell,  Dublin,  1886,  3d  ed.,  pp.  262.  395). 

In  1616  Archbishop  Conry  founded  at  Louvain  for 
Irish  Franciscan  youth  the  College  of  St.  Anthony  of 
Padua,  principally  with  means  furnished  by  Princess 
Isabella,  wife  of  Archduke  Albert,  and  daughter  of 
Philip  the  Second.  The  archbishop  was  himself  the 
foremost  member  of  this  famous  Irish  Franciscan 
house  of  studies  whence  came  a  long  line  of  erudite  and 
virtuous  historians  and  archeologtsts  (CClenr,  Col- 

fm,  Hu^  Ward,  Francis  Walsh,  and  others:  cf.  V.  De 
uck,  ''Xi'arch^Iogie  irlandaise  au  convent  de  Saint- 
Antoinede  Padoue  a  Louvain  ",  Paris,  1860),  and  where 
the  most  active  Irish  printing  press  on  the  Continent 
was  long  in  operation.  One  of  the  earliest  works  of 
Conry  was  a  translation  from  Spanish  into  very  pure 
Irish  of  a  catechism  known  as  "  The  Mirror  of  Christian 
life",  printed  at  Louvain  in  1626,  but  probably  cur- 
rent in  manuscript  at  an  earlier  date,  both  in  Ireland 
and  among  the  Irish  troops  in  the  Netheriands;  tins 
was  composed,  as  he  says  himself  "out  of  charitv  for 
the  souls  of  the  Gael".  As  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  Conry 
never  took  possession  of  his  see,  owing  to  the  roysl 

groclamations  of  1606,  1614.  1623,  commanding  all 
ishops  and  priests,  under  tne  gravest  penalties,  to 
quit  the  kingiiom.  But  he  governed  Tuam  throudi 
vicars-generiu  and  continued  to  live  principally  at  St. 
Anthony's  in  Louvain,  not  improbably  on  the  hountr 
of  the  King  of  Spain,  as  was  the  case  with  manv  Irish 
ecclesiastics  of  tne  time.  His  influence  in  Irish  mat- 
ters at  the  royal  court  vma  always  considerable :  thus, 
as  late  as  1618  we  find  him  presenting  to  the  (x>uncil 
of  Spain  Philip  O'Sullivan  Beare's  '^  Relation  of  Ire- 
land and  the  Number  of  Irish  therein",  and  in  the 
following  year  his  own  "Statement  of  the  Severities 
Practised  by  England  against  the  Irish  Catholics". 
Like  his  fellow-FninciBcan,  Luke  Wadding,  and  Peter 
Lombard,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  he  was  ever  at  th«. 


oranukLvi 


262 


00H8ALVZ 


dilipOBition  of  his  exiled  countrymen.  He  commuoi- 
csated  (1610)  to  the  Ck>uncil  of  Spain  a  translation  of 
the  original  (Irish)  statem^rt  of  one  Francis  Maguire 
concerning  his  observations  In  the  "State  of  Vir- 
ginia", between  160S  and  1610,  a  curious  and  unique 
document  for  the  earUest  English  settlements  in  the 
New  World  and  the  life  and  habits  of  the  Indian 
tribes  (Alexander  Brown,  The  Qeneeis  of  the  United 
States,  Boston.  1890,  I,  302-^). 

Archbishop  Conry  was  a  profound  scholatrtic  theo* 
logian,  very  learned  especially  in  the  writinf;B  of 
St.  Augustine,  all  of  whose  works  he  read  seven  tunes, 
while  Uiose  pertaining  to  grace  he  read  some  twenty 
times.  In  the  interpretation  of  the  more  difficult 
passages  he  frequentiv  had  recouree  to  prayer  and 
tasting.  At  Louvain  he  sat  at  the  feet  of  Baius,  and 
was  siso  a  friend  of  Jansenius  (d.  1638).  He  had, 
however,  by  his  own  efforts  arrived  independently  at 
conclusions  concerning  the  teaching  of  St.  Augustine 
on  gr&ce  and  free  will  quite  similar  to  those  of  his 
teacners.  Most  of  his  writings  on  these  subjects  were 
published  after  his  death.  His  work  On  the  fate  of 
unbaptised  children  (De  statu  parvulorum  sine  bap* 
tismo  deoedentium  ex  hac  vita  juxta  sensiun  beati 
Augustini,  Louvain,  1624,  1635;  Rouen,  1643)  was 
reprinted  bv  the  Jansenists  as  an  appendix  to  the  1662 
edition  of  the  **  Augustinus".  Cardinal  Noris  (Vindic. 
Aug.,  ch.  iii,  §  5)  says  that  in  it  Conrv  abundantly 
demonstrates  from  the  Scriptures  and  Augustine  the 
sensible  character  of  the  suffering  of  sudi  unbapttzed 
children.  His  Tercgrinus  Jenchontinus,  h.  e.  de 
naturft  humanft  feliciter  instituti,  infeliciter  laps&, 
miserabiliter  vuhieratA,  misericoitliter  restauratA'' 
(ed.  Thadv  MacNamara,  Paris,  1641)  treats  of  orig- 
inal sin,  tne  grace  of  Christ,  free  will,  etc.,  the  ''Pu«* 
grim  of  Jericho"  bdng  human  nature  itself,  the  rob- 
ber Satan,  the  ^ood  Samaritan  Our  Lord.  Hurter 
says  ih&t  this  edition  was  owing  to  Amauld,  and  that 
the  same  ardent  Jansenist  is  possibly  the  autiior  of  the 
(Paris,  1645)  French  version.  Conry  wrote  also  other 
works  expository  of  the  teaching  and  opinions  of  the 
great  Doctor  of  Grace,  e.g.  "De  gratis  Christi" 
(Paris,  1646);  ''De  fla^Uis  justorum'^  (Paris,  1644); 
*'De  Augustini  sensu  circa  b.  Mari»  Viri^inis  concep- 
tionem"  (Antwerp,  1619).  In  1654  his  body  was 
brought  hBuck  from  Madrid  and  buried  in  the  col- 
legiate chapel  of  St.  Anthony's,  near  the  high  altar, 
where  an  epitaph  by  Nidioias  Aylmer  recorded  his 
virtues,  learning,  and  love  of  country: — 

Orc&nis  aHus  honor,  fidei  patriseque  honos, 
Pontificum  merito  laude  perenne  jubar. 
Thomas  Darcy  Magee  sa^rs  of  this  patriotic  scholar: 
**  He  is  the  leading  figure  in  a  class  of  exiled  Catholic 
churchmen  who  were  of  great  service  to  religion  and 
letters  and  not  seldom  powerful  allies  of  their  county. 
From  the  founding  of  a  college  to  the  composition  of  a 
catechism  he  shrank  from  no  labour  that  could,  ac- 
cording to  his  convictions,  benefit  the  people  of  his 
native  land." 

Wab»>Hajuu8,  Wrilen  of  Ireland  (Dublin.  173»-^):  Rapin, 
Hitt.  du  Jant^rUame  ed.  DoicaNBCH  (Paria,  1861);  Hubteb, 
Nomendator,  253:  Meehan,  Tfu  FaU  and  Fortunes  of  Hugh 
O'Neill,  Earl  of  Turone,  and  Rory  O'Donel,  Earl  of  Tyrconnel, 
their  Fliohtfrvm  Ireland  and  Dmth  in  ExOe  ^Dublin,  1886); 
H<AROU>k  I^*  <ff  Luke  Wadding t  pr^Ace  to  the  Epitome  AnnaU^ 
um  (Rome.  1662);  Renehan,  (JoUediona  of  Irish  Churdi  His- 
toru  (Dublin.  1861).  I.  399.  400;  O'CTlery.  Life  of  Hugh  Roe 
CyDonneU,  ea.  Murfhy  (Dublin,  1895).  cxlv,  exhx,  diii;  Jbilbb 
m'KirthBnlts.^  Ill,  949;  Moran,  SpicHegium  Oteorimse  (Dub- 
lin, 1874-85).  I.  162:  Maobe,  Lives  of  the  trith  Writers  of  the 
Seventeenth  Centvry  (Dublin,  1848).  13-24. 

STepHEi?  M.  Donovan. 

Oonsalvl,  Ercolg,  cardinal  and  statesman,  b.  in 
Rome,  8  June,  1757;  d.  there,  24  January,  1824.  His 
ancestors  belonged  to  the  noble  family  of  the  Bru- 
nacci  in  Pisa,  one  of  whom  settled  in  the  town  of 
Toscanella  in  the  Papal  States  about  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  The  grandfather  of  the 
cardinal,  Gregorio  Bruuacci,  inherited  from  Eroole 


Consalvi  of  Rome  a  large  fortune  on  eonditiao  off 
taking  the  name  and  arms  of  the  Consalvi  famfly. 
In  this  way  Gregorio  Brunacd  became  Majcheac 
Gr^orio  Consalvi,  with  residenoe  in  Rome.  At  the 
age  of  nine,  Eroole  Consalvi  was  placed  in  tbe  col- 
lege of  the  Scolopii  or  Brothers  of  tiie  Pious  Sdux^ 
at  Urbino,  where  he  remained  from  1766  to  1771. 
From  1771  to  1776  he  was  in  the  seminary  of  Fraa- 
cati,  where  he  finished  his  studies  in  rhetoric,  phil- 
osophy and  theology;  it  was  there  also  that  be 
gained  the  powerful  protection  of  the  Caidinal,  Duke 
of  York,  Bishop  of  Frascati.  The  years  from  1776 
to  1782  were  devoted  to  the  studies  of  juri^^xrudenoe 
and  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Academia  Ecdesi- 
astica  of  Rome,  where  he  had  among  other  professors 
the  Jesuit  scholar,  Zaocaria.  He  thex)  entered  on 
his  public  career.  Named  private  chamberlain  by 
Pius  VI  in  AprU,  1783,  m  1786  he  was  made  PanenU 
del  bticn  gavemo,  i.e.  member  of  a  congregation 
charged  with  the  direction  of  municipal  affairs.  Ap- 
pointed in  1787  secretary  of  the  congr^;ation  com- 
missioned to  administer  tae  Ospisio  olSui  Michele  a 
Ripa,  in  1700  he  became  VcUmie  di  ISeffnatwna,  or 
member  of  a  hi^  court  of  appeals^  and  m  17d2  ob- 
tained the  nomination  of  UdUare  dk  B^ta,  or  member 
of  the  high  court  of  justice.  He  was. made  assessor 
in  1706  of  a  militaiy  commission  established  by 
Pius  VI  for  the  purpose  of  preventiii^  revohiti<mary 
disturbances  ana  intervention  of  the  French  Direc- 
tory in  the  Papal  States.  In  this  latter  ewacity  he 
accomplished  his  work  with  such  tact,  prudeooe,  and 
foresjmt  that  no  serious  troubles  arose,  whidi 
could  nave  served  as  an  excuse  for  an  invasion  of 
Rome  by  the  armies  of  the  French  Republic^  Un- 
fortunately on  28  December,  1707,  the  Trench  gen- 
eral Duphot  was  killed  in  Rome;  he  was  himself 
largely  to  blame,  and  the  event  took  place  without 
the  slightest  fault  of  the  Papal  Government.  Still  it 
was  used  as  a  pretext  for  the  occupation  of  the  city. 
On  10  February,  1708,  General  Berthier  entered 
Rome  with  an  army,  and  five  days  afterwards  the 
pope  was  deprived  of  his  temporal  soverei^tv,  and 
a  Roman  republic  proclaimed.  Consalvi,  havine 
been  assessor  of  the  military  commission,  was  plaoea 
first  on  Uie  list  of  those  who  were  to  be  handed  over 
to  the  French  Government.  He  was  arrested,  im- 
prisoned in  the  fortress  of  Sant'  Angelo,  sent  to  dvU 
taveochia  en  route  to  Cayenne,  French  Guiana, 
brought  back  to  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  and  ^en 
sent  to  Terracina,  whence  he  was  fin^y  pennitted 
to  repair  to  Naples. 

Consalvi  thus  recovered  his  personal  liberty; 
but  he  disliked  to  remain  in  Naples,  and  wishea 
rather  to  join  Pius  VI,  who  snortly  after  t^e 
occupation  of  Rome  was  taken  from  his  capital 
and  held  a  captive  In  a  Carthusian  monastery 
near  Florence.  Having  obtained  permission  from 
the  Neapolitan  Government,  he  went  by  sea  to  Leg- 
horn and  thence  to  Florence,  where  ne  made  two 
visits  to  the  pope;  his  wish  to  remain  with  the  pontiff 
was  frustrated  by  the  French  envoy  at  Florence. 
Towards  the  end  of  September,  1708,  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  Venice.  After  the  death  of  Pius  VI  at 
Valence  in  France,  20  Ausust,  1790,  the  caxdinals  as- 
sembled in  Venice  for  the  conclave,  and  Consalvi 
was  chosen  secretary  by  an  almost  unanimous 
vote.  He  had  a  large  share  in  securii^  the  election 
of  Cardinal  Chiaramonti,  Bishop  of  Imola  (14  March, 
1800).  Tbe  new  pope,  Pius  VII  (1800-23),  soon  ap- 
pointed Consalvi  pro-secretary  of  state;  and  thus 
Consalvi  accompanied  the  pope' to  Rome,  where  tfaey 
arrived  3  July,  1800.  Shortly  before,  the  pppe  had 
recovered  possession  of  the  Papal  States,  wni(»  were 
then  partly  under  the  control  of  Austria  and  parUy  un- 
der that  of  Naples.  On  11  August,  1800,  Consalvi 
was  made  cardmal  and  appointed  defiaitively  secre- 
tary of  state.    In  this  capacity  he  first  endeavoured 


ERCOLE  CARDINAL  CONSALVI 


OONSALVI 


263 


OONSALVI 


to  restore  better  conditions  in  the  Papal  States.  He 
abolished  the  custom  of  furnishing  food  to  the 
I>eopIe  at  low  prices,  introduced  free  trade,  with- 
drew from  dreulation  all  depreciated  money,  and  ad- 
mitted a  large  number  of  lavmen  to  Qovemment 
offices.  He  did  much  to  embellish  Rome  and  to 
make  it  an  art-centre  by  designing  public  promen- 
ades along  the  Tiber,  restoring  the  ancient  monu- 
ments, and  filling  the  museums  with  statues  un- 
earthed by  excavations  made  under  his  direction.  In 
his  negotiations  with  the  various  courts  or  Govern- 
ments of  Europe  he  was  ever  watchful  in  saf^;uard- 
in^  the  interests  of  the  Holv  See,  both  temporal  and 
spiritual,  the  latter  especially,  in  which  the  pope  as 
the  h^id  of  Christendom  was  primarily  concerned. 
In  this  respect  he  rendered  an  incalculable  service  to 
religion  in  signing  the  French  Concordat.  The  nego- 
tiations commenced  for  that  purpose  by  Monsignor 
Spina,  Arehbishop  of  Corinth,  and  Father  Caselli, 
former  Superior  General  of  the  Servites,  seemed  to 
lag;  in  oraer  not  to  interrupt  them  completely  Con- 
saTvi  was  sent  to  Paris  in  June,  1801.  Loi^  and 
painful  discussions  followed  with  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, then  First  Consul  of  the  French  Republic,  or 
his  commissioners,  until  finally,  on  iike  I5m  of  Juiy, 
the  Concordat  was  signed  by  the  papal  and  the 
Frendi  commissioners,  and  afterwards  ratified  by 
the  pope  and  the  French  Government.  Consalvi 
left  immediately  for  Rome,  where  he  arrived  on  the 
6th  of  August.  With  what  are  known  as  the  ''Or- 
ganic Artides",  added  by  the  Frendi  Government  to 
the  Concordat,  Consalvi  had  nothing  to  do;  on  the 
contrary  he  condemned  them  unequivocally  as  de- 
structive of  the  Concordat,  of  which  they  pretended 
to  be  commentaries.  He  was  also  prominent  in  the 
negotiations  that  preceded  the  Italian  Concordat, 
concluded  with  the  Cisalpine  Republic  on  the  16th  of 
September,  1803. 

When  Napoleon  was  proclaimed  emperor  in  1804, 
Consalvi  urged  Pius  VII  to  accept  Bonaparte's  invi- 
tation to  crown  him  as  ^e  new  sovereign  of  France ,  and 
during  the  pope's  absence  (November,  1804,  to  May, 
1805)  Consalvi  acted  as  his  representative  to  the  entire 
satisfaction  of  his  master.  When  the  discussions  be- 
tween Napoleon  and  Pius  VII  commenced,  Consalvi 
was  blamed  for  the  refusal  of  the  pope  to  consider 
himself  a  vassal  of  the  French  emperor.  The  sus- 
picions of  Napoleon  were  confided  to  Cardinal  Fesch, 
then  French  ambassador  at  Rome;  and  the  dismissal 
of  Consalvi  was  insisted  upon.  Consalvi,  hoping  to 
secure  peace  for  his  master,  asked  repeatedly  to  be 
relieved;  but  only  after  long  hesitation  did  the  pope 
consent  to  the  demand.  Consalvi  left  ihe  secr^ 
tariate  of  state  on  17  June,  1806,  but  was  often  con- 
sulted privately  on  matters  of  importance.  The  im- 
perial persecution  of  the  pope  reached  its  climax  with 
the  annexation  of  the  Papal  States  to  the  French 
Empire  (20  June,  1809),  and  the  deportation  of 
the  pope  to  ^vona  durmg  the  night  of  5-6  July. 
Conmlvi  was  forced  to  depart  from  Rome,  10  De- 
cember following;  in  company  with  Cardinal  di 
Pietro  he  journeyed  to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  20 
February,  1810.  Ihere  he  lived  in  retirement  as 
much  as  possible,  and  refused  a  pension  of  30,000 
francs  assigned  to  him  by  the  French  Government. 
On  the  occasion  of  Napoleon's  marriage  to  the  Areh- 
duchess  Marie  Louise  of  Austria,  Constuvi  with  twelve 
other  cardinals  declined  to  assist  at  the  civil  and  re- 
ligious ceremony,  held  1-2  April,  1810,  thoi^  he 
was  present  at  the  semi-solemn  reception  at  Saint- 
Ooua,  31  Mareh,  and  went  also  to  tne  Tuileries  in 
Paris  for  the  great  reception,  on  3  April.  He  did  not 
wish  to  appear  as  approving  the  second  marriage  of 
Napoleon,  as  long  as  the  pope  had  not  pronounced 
on  the  validity  of  the  first.  Napoleon  was  so  in- 
censed at  his  action,  that  he  expelled  him  with  the 
other  cardinals  of  like  sentiments  from  the  Tuileries 


on  3  April,  and  in  the  first  moment  of  passion  gave 
orders  to  have  him  shot.  However,  he  modified  his 
rash  judgment  and  decreed  that  Consalvi  and  the 
twelve  other  cardinals  should  be  deprived  of  their 
property  and  of  their  cardinalitial  dignity.  From 
that  moment  these  princes  of  the  Chureh  were  com- 
pelled to  wear  black  garments,  whence  their  name 
of  ''black  cardinals",  and  on  11  June  they  were  all 
banished  to  various  cities  of  France^  Coxisalvi  was 
sent  to  Reims;  it  was  there  in  his  enforced  retire- 
ment that  he  wrote  his  memoirs.  Set  free  on  26 
January,  1813,  he  hastened  to  Pius  VII,  then  at 
Fontamebleau.  At  his  suggestion  the  pope  re- 
tracted (24  March)  the  concessions  made  to  Mapoleon 
in  a  Brief  from  Savona  and  in  a  new  concordat 
agreed  upon  at  Fontainebleau;  as  a  consequence 
Consalvi  was  restricted  in  his  free  intercourse  with 
the  pope.  When  Pius  VII  left  Fbntainebleau  for 
Italy  (23  January,  1814)  Consalvi  followed  a  few 
days  afterwards,  at  first  under  a  military  escort  as 
far  as  Hosiers.  Having  heard  of  Napoleon's  abdica- 
tion in  Fontainebleau  (11  April,  1814)  he  asked  for 
a  passport  and  rejoined  Pius  VII  in  Italy.  He  was 
at  once  reappointed  secretary  of  state  by  papal  letter 
written  from  Folkpio,  19  May,   1814. 

Before  taking  office  Consalvi  went  to  Paris  for  the 
purpose  of  claiming  from  the  allied  Powers  of  Europe 
the  restoration  of  tne  Papal  States  under  the  sovereigni- 
ty of  the  pope.  With  the  same  object  in  view  he  went 
also  to  England,  and  asmsted  afterwards  at  the  Con* 
eress  of  VMnna  (September,  1814,  to  Jtme»  1815). 
He  was  successful  in  his  negotiatrans,  and  obtained 
the  restitution  of  all  papal  territoiy  such  as  it  had 
been  before  the  French  Revolution,  with  the  excep* 
tion  of  Avignon,  Venaissin,  and  a  small  strip  of  hmd 
in  the  k^tion  dl  Ferrara.  After  his  return  to  Rome 
Consalvi  continued  to  work  for  the  welfare  of  the 
Papal  States  and  of  the  Church.  He  aboli^ed  the 
ancient  privileges  of  the  nobility  and  of  the  papal 
dties,  devised  a  new  plan  of  administration  for  the 
papal  territory,  readjusted  the  finances,  prepared  a 
new  civil  and  criminal  code  of  laws,  reorganised  the 
system  of  education,  and  provided  for  puolic  safety. 
He  continued  the  elaboration  of  his  plans  for  the 
embellishment  of  Rome  and  the  improvement  of  the 
Campagna;  he  endeavoured,  as  already  said,  to  make 
Rome  a  centre  of  art,  and  extended  his  protection 
to  such  famous  artists  as  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen. 
At  the  same  time  he  maintained  with  firmness  the 
ri^ts  and  soverdsnty  of  the  pope.  When  in  1817 
the  Carbonari  tried  to  bring  about,  a  rebellion,  a  few 
of  their  leaders  were  prosecuted,  banished,  or  im- 
prisoned; and  in  1821  a  Bull  was  issued  against 
these  disturbers.  During  this  period  several  con- 
cordats or  similar  agreements  were  concluded  with 
foreign  Powers:  with  Bavaria  in  1817,  with  Prussia 
and  the  princes  of  the  Upper  Rhine  in  1821,  with 
Hanover  m  1823,  with  Victor  Emmanuel  of  Saitlinia 
in  1817,  with  King  Ferdinand  I  of  the  Two  Sicilies 
in  1818.  The  new  French  Concordat  concluded  in 
1817  with  King  Louis  XVIII  never  received  legal 
force  in  France;  hence  that  of  1801  continued  in  ex- 
istence. Hie  career  of  Consalvi  came  to  an  end 
with  the  death  of  Pius  VII  (20  August,  1823). 
After  his  retirement  his  thoughts  were  devoted  to 
the  erection  of  a  monument  at  St.  Peter's  in  honour 
of  his  former  master;  only  a  few  months  afterwards 
he  was  carried  himself  to  his  tomb  in  San  Lorenzo, 
while  his  heart  was  taken  to  the  Pantheon.  Ap- 
propriate monuments  were  erected  to  his  memory  m 
Dotn  places. 

Eroole  Consalvi  is  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
greatest  statesmen  who  has  ever  served  the  papal 
oomt ;  his  eminent  qualities  were  at  all  times  apparent 
during  the  great  trials  of  the  papacy.  If  not  always 
Bucceffiful  in  his  enterprises,  it  was  largely  because  of 
the  scareity  of  means  at  his  disposal  and  the  prejudices 


OONAANGUmXTT 


264 


ooNaAHauxxmr 


of  his  age.  The  purity  of  his  life  was  the  more  ad- 
mired because  in  his  position  he  had  to  mingle  much 
with  a  worldlv  society.  He  was  devoted  to  works 
of  charity  ana  religion;  the  poor  knew  him  as  their 
friend,  and  in  his  exercises  of  devotion  he  was  most 
punctual.  Finally  he  was  very  unselfish  and  disin- 
terested. He  served  the  pope  and  the  Church  loy- 
ally without  looking  for  personal  advantage.  He 
never  asked  for  a  position,  except  for  that  pf  Udiiare 
di  Rota,  which  appeared  desirable  owing  to  the 
studies  he  had  made  and  the  Rreat  opportunities  it 
offered  for  travelling  during  the  vacation  months. 
The  many  gifts,  pensions,  or  legacies,  offered  him. 
and  at  times  persistently,  by  friends,  admirera,  and 
patrons,  were  invariably  declined.  All  in  all,  both 
for  tiie  work  he  accomplished  and  for  his  personal 
character,  Consalvi  is  one  of  the  purest  glories  of 
the  Church  of  Rome. 

Ce^tinbau-Jolt,  Mimoirm  du  Cardinal  Conaalvh  ed. 
Drochon  (Paris.  1895);  Wisbman,  RecoU^ionM  of  the  LaH 
Four  Popn  (London,  1858);  Rxnuri,  La  diplomana  poiUifieia 
nd  secolo  XIX  (Rome,  1002);  Idbm,  11  eongrfso  di  Vienna  e 
la  Safita  Sede  (Rome,  1004);  Tbbinbb.  Hietoire  det  deuxcon" 
eordaU  CPans,  1860) ;  Artaud,  Hiataire  du  Pave  Pie  VJI  (Paris, 
1837);  Wbbnbb  in  Kirehenlex.  (Frrfburs,  1884).  s.  v.;  Nnu* 
■BN  in  Realencyk.  f.  prel,  TheU.,  s.  v. 

Francis  J.  Schabfbr. 

OoBLBanguiiiity  (in  Canon  Law),  a  diriment  im- 
pediment of  marriage  as  far  as  the  fourth  degree  oi 
kinship  inclusive.  The  term  canaanguiniiy  here 
means,  within  certain  limitations  defined  by  the  law 
of  nature,  the  positive  law  of  God,  or  the  supreme  au- 
thority of  State  or  Church,  the  blood-relationship 
(cognatio  naturalie),  or  the  natural  bond  between  per- 
sons descended  from  the  same  stock.  In  view  of  the 
recognised  descent  of  all  men  from  one  common  stock, 
t^ere  is  a  general  blood-relationship  between  all  men; 
hence  the  limitation  mentioned  has  reference  to  the 
nearest  root  or  source  of  consanguinity.  This  bond  or 
union  of  blood  takes  place  in  one  case  throueh  the 
desc^it  of  one  person  from  the  other;  this  is  called  the 
direct  line.  In  another  case  it  takes  place  because 
the  common  blood  is  drawn  from  a  common  root,  the 
same  ancestor,  from  whom  both  persons  descend, 
thoush  they  do  not  descend  one  from  the  other,  ana 
are  therefore  not  in  a  direct  but  in  a  transverse  or  col- 
lateral line.  By  the  law  of  nature,  it  is  univeraally 
conceded,  marriage  is  prohibited  between  parent  and 
child,  for  the  reverential  relation  between  tnem  is  rec- 
ognized as  incompatible  with  the  equality  of  relations 
engendered  by  the  bond  of  marriage.  The  univensal 
sentiment  of  peoples  is  likewise  opposed  to  marriage 
between  all  persons  related  in  any  cfegree  in  the  direct 
line,  thus  between  grandparent  and  grandchild. 

History  op  Impboimbnt. — ^Because  of  the  acknowl- 
edged derivation  of  the  human  race  from  the  common 
progenitors,  Adam  and  Eve,  it  is  difficult  to  accept  the 
opinion  of  some  theologians  that  the  marriage  of 
brother  and  sister  is  against  the  law  of  nature;  other- 
wise the  propagation  of  the  human  race  would  have 
begun  by  violation  of  the  natural  law.  It  is  readily 
understood  that,  considering  the  freedom  of  inter* 
course  between  such  persons,  some  effort  would  soon 
be  made  (in  the  interest  of  the  sodal  welfare)  to  pre- 
vent eariy  corruption  within  the  close  family  circle  by 
placing  a  bar  to  the  hope  of  marriage.  Hence  among 
all  peoples  there  has  arisen  a  natural  repugnance  to 
the  marriage  of  brother  and  sister.  Some  theologians 
suppose  herein  a  positive  Divine  law,  but  it  is  not  easy 
to  point  out  any  such  early  Divine  enactment.  Abrar 
ham  married  Sarah  who  was  his  sister  by  his  father, 
though  of  a  different  mother  (Gen.,  xi;  cf.  Gen.  xx, 
12).  Marriage  was  allowed  at  Athena  with  half-aiB- 
ters  by  the  same  father  (Plutarch,  Cim.,  iv;  Themist., 
xxxii),  with  half-sisters  by  the  same  mother  at  Sparta 
(Philo,  De  Special.  I^eg.,  tr.  Yonge,  HI,  306),  and  with 
full-sisters  in  It^Rirpt  (Diodonis  Siculus,  I,  27)  and 
Persia,  as  illustrated  in  the  well-known  instances  of 


the  Ptolemies  in  the  former,  and  of  Cambyses  in  the 
latter,  country  (Herodian,  III,  31).  For  w  good  sum- 
mary of  non-Christian  customs  in  this  re&i>ect  see 
Melody,  "Marriage  of  Near  Kin"  in  "Catholic  Uni- 
versity Bulletin''^  (Washington,  Jan.,  1903,  pp.  4<>- 
60). 

In  the  earUer  history  of  the  human  race  tliere  was  a 
tendency  in  a  family  group  to  keep  marriages  of  its 
members  within  the  group.    Of  this  we  have  exam- 
ples in  the  marriage  of  Isaac  and  Rebecca  (Gen.,  xxiv) 
and  Jacob  and  laarRachel  (ibid.,  xxix).     We  know 
from  Exodus,  vi,  20,  that  Amram  took  Joc^iabed,  his 
father's  sister,  to  wife,  and  she  bore  him  Aaron  and 
Moses.    The  Mosaic  Law,  however,  introduced  im- 
P|Ortant  modifications  into  the  arrangements  of  m&i^ 
riage  or  carnal  intercourse  between  near  relations  by 
blwd  as  also  by  affinity;  these  modifications   were 
founded  mainly  upon  the  sharpened  instincts  of  hu- 
man nature  and  the  importance  of  guarding;  against 
the  dangers  of  corruption  from  the  mtxmac^  of  very 
near  relations,  which. prompted  the  cutting  on  all  hope 
of  covering  past  impurity  by  subsequent  marriage. 
Undoubtedly  this  danger  incressed  the  instinctive 
natural  repugnance  to  marriage  between  those  con- 
nected by  the  closest  ties  of  blood  and  family  affection. 
These  prohibitions  relating  to  consanguinity,  between 
aman  and  the  "  flesh  of  his  flesh ' ',  are  contained  mainly 
in  Lev.,  xviii,  7-13,  and  xx,  17, 19.  Specific  prohibi- 
tions are  here  made  with  regard  to  marriage  or  caimal 
intercourse  with  a  mother,  granddaughter,  aunt  by 
blood  on  either  side,  sister,  or  half-sister,  whether 
"bom  at  home  or  abroad".    This  expression  ha8 
generally  been  understood  as  eouivalent  to  "  in  or  our 
of  wedlock".     Yet,  as  late  as  David's  time,  the  lan- 
guage of  Thamar  towards  her  half-brother  Amnon  (II 
K.,  xiii,  13)  seems  to  implv  the  possibility  of  their 
union  with  consent  of  their  mther,  perhaps  because  be 
was  also  king  (for  a  contrary  opimon  see  Wema,  Jus 
Decretalium,  Rome,  1894,  II,  634).    Some  theologians 
held  the  daughters  of  Lot  {Gen.,  xix,  30*38)  some- 
what excusalue  because  they  thoui^t  that  the  human 
race  had  been  swaUowed  up  by  fire,  and  could  be  con- 
tinued through  their  father  alone  (Kenrick,  De  Im- 
ped.  Matr.,  <£.  v,  p.  318). 

In  eariy  Roman  times  marriage  of  cousins  was  not 
allowed,  thou^  it  was  not  infrequent  after  the  Second 
Punic  War.  fif arriage  between  uncle  and  niece  wa« 
unlawful  among  Romans.  Consanguinity  in  the  di- 
rect line,  to  any  extent,  was  recognized  by  the  Church 
as  an  impediment  to  marriage.  Worthy  of  notice  is 
the  declaration  bv  Nicliolas  1  (858-67)  in  his  letter  to 
the  Bulgarians,  that  "between  those  persons  who  are 
related  as  parents  and  children  marriage  cannot  be 
contracted,  as  between  father  and  daughter,  grand' 
father  and  granddaushter,  or  mother  ana  son, 
mndmother  and  grandson,  and  so  on  indefinitely '^ 
Billuart,  however,  caHs  attention  to  the  fact  that  Inno- 
cent III,  without  dLstinotion  of  lines,  allowsindisorim' 
inately  infidels  converted  to  Christianity  to  retain 
their  wives  who  are  blood-relations  in  the  second  de- 
gree. Other  theologians  take  it  for  granted  that  this 
declaration  of  Innocent  III  has  no  reference  to  the  di- 
rect line.  In  the  early  ages  ttxe  Church  accepted  the 
collateral  degrees  put  forward  by  the  State  as  an  uor 
pediment  to  marriage.  St.  Ambnose  (Ep.  Ix  in  P.  L., 
XVI,  1185)  and  St.  Augustine  (De  Qv.  Dei,  XV,  xvi) 
wpro ved  the  law  of  Theodosius  which  forbade  ^c  384) 
the  marriage  of  cousins.  This  law  was  retained  in  the 
Western  Cnurdi,  though  it  was  revoked  (400),  at 
least  in  the  East,  by  Arcadius,  for  which  reason, 
doubtless,  the  text  of  the  law  has  been  lost,  llie  Code 
of  Justinian  permitted  the  marriage  of  first  cousins 
{oonaobrini),  but  the  Greek  Church  in  092  (Second 
Trullan  Synods  can.  liv)  condemned  such  marriages, 
and,  according  to  Balsamon,  even  those  of  second 
cousins  (solnrini). 

This  discipline  continued  throughout  the  Churob 


ocnreAimuiiim 


265 


ooM&AiffaTnNrrr 


till  the  eighth  century.     We  then  meet  with  the  cauon 
(^c.  16,  C.  55,  q.  2)|  attribated  to  various  popes  and  em- 
bodied in  a  letter  of  Gregory  III  (732),  which  forbids 
marriage  among  the  Germans  to  the  seventh  degree  of 
consanguinity.    Wems  <Jub  Decretal.,  IV,  p.  624), 
Bays  that  at  this  date  so  severe  a  prohibition  cannot  be 
baised  on  tiie  canonical  computation,  but  rather  on 
that  of  the  Roman  low;  it  is,  therefore,  no  proof  of  eo 
early  an  acceptance  by  the  Church  of  the  Germanic 
coxn{Mitation.    For  a  fuller  exposition  of  the  theory 
that  the  canonical  computation  is  borrowed  from  the 
(iermanic  system  see  Von  Scherer,  ^Handbuch  des 
Kirchenrechts''  (Gras,  1898),  II,  291,  and  theexcel- 
lent  expose  of  Wems,  ''Jus  Decretalium",  IV,  616-25, 
eepecially  p.  621,  where  he  sets  forth  with  moderation 
both  the  free  and  original  action  of  the  Church  in  es^ 
tablishing  the  degrees  within  which  it  was  forbidden 
relations  to  marry  vAd  her  natural  tendency,  bo  often 
exhibited  in  other  mattens,  to  accept  whatever  was 
good  or  useful  in  the  mannem  and  institutions  of  newly 
converted  peoples.    Von  Scherer  calls  attention  (op. 
cit.,  II,  296-9)  to  the  influence  of  the  ninth-century 
Pseudo-Isidore  (and  the  canonical  collections  based  on 
him,  e.  g.  the  **  Decretum"  of  Burchard)  in  familiaris- 
ing the  West  with  the  Germanic  computation,  and 
s&ys  that  it  does  not  appear  in  any  genuine  papal  de> 
cietals  before  Alexander  II,  and  that  its  exact  charac- 
ter is  not  yet  thorou^ly  ascertained.    The  Roman 
canonist  De  Angelis  (Prffilectiones  Jur.  Can.,  Bk.  Ill; 
tit.  xiv)  holds  rightly  that  the  computation  of  d^rees 
was  or^^inally  the  same  as  that  of  tne  Roman  civil  law 
for  inheritance.     He  states  that  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury Alexander  11  (c.  2,  C.  35,  q.  5)  adopted  the  now 
usual  system  of  computation,  which  established  for 
collateral  consanguinity  the  principle  that  persons 
were  remote  from  one  another  by  as  many  degrees  as 
they  are  remote  from  the  common  stock,  omitting  the 
i-ommon  stock  (Wema,  however,  op.  cit.,  IV,  623,  be- 
lieves that  this  system,  de  facto  the  (jermanic  compu- 
lation   was  adopted  at  some  earlier  period,  though 
doubtless  not  so  early  as  Gasparri  maintains).    In 
this  way  the  degrees  of  relationship  were  determined 
by  the  number  of  venerations  on  one  side  only;  while 
in  the  Roman  civil  system  the  number  of  degrees  re- 
liulted  from  the  sum  of  the  generations  on  both  sides. 
In  the  Roman  svstem  (computatio  Romana  civUiB)  first 
(ousins  would  be  in  the  fourth  degree,  while  in  the 
new  computation  thev  would  be  in  the  second  degree 
cff  consanguinity.    This,  as  is  seen,  would  extend  the 
impediment  of  consanguinity. 

bome  have  called  the  new  computation  Germanic 
{cxunpuintio  Oermaniea)  because  it  has  a  similarity  to 
the  peculiar  Germanic  system  of  determining  inherit- 
ance, and  whose  technical  tenns  were  borrowed  from 
tfie  seven  joints  of  the  body  (on  both  sides)  from  the 
neck  to  the  finger-tips.  But  8anti-Leitner  calls  atten- 
tion (ed.  1905,  III,  241,  against  Gasparri)  to  various 
discrepancies  between  the  ecclesiastical  {compuiatio 
eanomea)  and  the  Germanic  systems  which  often  led 
the  newly-converted  Franks  and  other  Germans  to  op- 
pose the  system  of  the  Church.  The  latter  syston 
was  more  directly  connected  with  the  natural  relsr 
tions  of  marriage,  and  Alexander  II  (1061-73)  treated 
it  as  peculiarly  ecclesiastical  law  (c.  2,  C.  35,  q.  5)  and 
threatened  severely  all  advocates  of  a  return  to  the 
Roman,  or  civil,  calculation.  The  reception  and  ex- 
tension of  this  severe  discipline  regarding  the  itnpedi- 
ment  of  ccmsanguinity  came  about  gradually  and  by 
custom,  says  Wemz,  from  the  sixth  and  seventh  cen- 
turies (when  first  the  thhd  and  then  the  fourth  de^ 
gree,  i.  e.  respectively  second  and  third  cousins, 
\ias  the  limit)  to  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cen- 
turies; in  the  eleventh  century  the  controversy  of 
St.  Peter  Damian  C'De  parentete  gradibus"  m  P.  L., 
XLIV,  191  sqq.)  with  the  Roman  legists  of  Ravenna, 
decided  in  his  favour  by  Alexander  11,  helped  to  fix  the 
popular  view  in  the  sense  of  extreme  strictness.    It  is, 


however,  doubtful  whether  the  sixth  and  seventh  de- 
grees of  consimguinity  were  ever  a  diriment  impedi- 
ment, at  least  everywhere.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
even  the  fifth  was  only  a  preventive  impediment 
(Wemz,  op.  cit.,  IV,  626).  While  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury the  theory  of  the  remote  degrees  was  strictly 
mamtalned  by  canonists,  councils,  and  popes,  in  prac- 
tice marriages  ignorantly  contracted  within  them  were 
healed  by  dispensation  or  dissimulation  (Wems,  loc. 
oit.)<  llnally,  in  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215) 
Innocent  III  restricted  consanguinity  as  a  diriment 
impediment  to  the  fourth  degree.  He  explains  that  it 
was  foimd  difficult  to  carry  out  the  extension  to  fur- 
ther degrees.  In  those  days  of  imperfect  registration 
it  was,  of  course,  often  impossible  to  ascertain  the  dis- 
tant degrees  of  relationship.  (For  a  defence  of  his  il- 
lustrative reference  to  the  current  theoiy  of  the  "four 
bodily  humours",  borrowed  from  the  ancient  physiol- 
ogy, see  Santi-Leitner,  op.  cit.  Ill,  248;  cf.  Wems,  op. 
cit,  IV,  629.) 

Gregoiy  I  (590-604),  if  the  letter  in  question  be 
truly  his,  granted  to  the  newly  converted  Anglo- 
Saxons  restriction  of  the  impediment  to  the  fourth  de- 
gree of  consanguinity  (c.  20,  C.  35,  qq.  2,  3) ;  Paul  III 
restricted  it  to  the  second  degree  for  American  Indians 
(Zitelli,  Apparat.  Jur.  Eccl.,  405),  and  also  for  natives 
of  the  Philippines.  Benedict  XIV  (Letter  "JEbIbs 
Anni",  11  Oct.,  1757)  states  that  the  Roman  pontiffs 
have  never  eranted  ^pensation  from  the  first  degree 
of  eollatersa  consanguinity  (brothers  and  sisters). 
For  converted  infidels  it  is  recognized  that  the  Church 
does  not  insist  upon  annulment  of  marriages  beyond 
thra  first  decree  of  consanguinity.  (For  further  de- 
tails of  the  history  of  ecclesiastical  legislation  concern- 
ing this  impediment  see  Esmein,  **  Le  mariage  en  droit 
canomque^',  Paris,  1891,  I,  335-56;  II,  258,  345; 
Santi-Leitner,  op.  cit.  below,  247-48;  and  Werms, 
"Jus  Deci^tal",  II,  614  sqq.) 

Motives  of  Impediment. — ^Tlie  Church  was 
prompted  by  various  reasons  first  to  recognize  the  pro- 
nibilive  legislation  of  the  Roman  State  and  then  to  ex- 
tend the  impediment  of  consanguinity  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  civil  legislation.  The  welfare  of  the 
social  order,  according  to  St.  Augustine  (De  Civ.  Dei, 
XV,  xvi)  and  St.  Thomas  (Suppl.  Q.  liii,  a.  3).  de- 
manded the  widest  possible  extension  of  frienoship 
and  love  among  all  humankind,  to  which  desirable  aim 
the  intermarriage  of  close  blood-relations  was  opposed ; 
this  was  especially  true  in  the  first  half  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  when  the  best  interests  of  society  required  the 
unification  of  the  numerous  tribes  and  peoples  which 
had  settled  on  the  soil  of  the  Roman  Empire.  By 
overthrowing  the  barriers  between  inimical  families 
and  races,  ruinous  internecine  warfare  was  diminished 
and  greater  peace  and  harmony  secured  among  the 
newlv-converted  Christians.  In  the  moral  order  the 
prohibition  of  marriage  between  near  relations  served 
as  a  barrier  against  early  corruption  among  young  per- 
sons of  either  sex  broiight  hatrituallv  into  close  inti- 
macy with  one  another;  it  tended  also  to  strenffthen 
the  natural  feeling  of  respect  for  closely  related  per- 
sons (St.  Thomas,  II-II,  Q.  div,  a.  9;  St.  Augustine, 
De  Civ.  Dei,  XV,  x).  Nature  itself  seemed  to  abhor 
the  marriage  of  close  kin,  since  such  unions  are  often 
diildless  and  their  offspring  seem  subject  to  grave 
physical  and  mental  weakness  (epilepsy,  deaf-mute- 
ness, weak  eyes,  nervous  diseases),  and  incur  easily 
and  transmit  the  defects,  phjrsical  or  moral,  of  theit 
parents,  especially  when  tne  interbreeding  of  blood- 
relations  is  repeated  (Santi-Leitner,  op.  cit.,  IV,  252; 
Huth,  "  The  Marriage  of  Near  Kin,  considered  with  re- 
spect to  the  Law  of  Nations,  the  results  of  Experience 
and  the  teachings  of  Biology'',  London,  1875;  Sur- 
bled,  ''La  morale  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  m^ecine 
et  ITiygi^ne''^  Paris,  1892,  II,  245-^55;  Eschbach. 
^'Disputat.  ph3r8iologico-theolog.",99sqci.;  Luckock, 
^The  History  of  Marriage,  Jewish  and  Christian,  in 


ooKaANannriTT 


266 


oovsAHaumnr 


relation  to  divorce  and  certain  forbidden  degrees", 
London,  1894;  Esmeini  ''Le  mariage  en  droit  canoni* 

?ue",  Paris,  1891, 1,  337,  sqq. ;  see  also  Wemz,  op.  cit. 
V,  636-37,  and  the  Encyclical  of  Gi^ory  XVI,  22 
Nov.,  1836). 

Mode  of  Calculation. — ^In  calculating  the  desree 
of  conaanguinity  special  attention  must  be  paia  to 
three  things,  the  line,  the  degree,  and  the  stock  or  root. 
The  siock,  or  root,  is  the  common  ancestor,  or  the  per- 
son, male  or  female,  from  whom  descend  as  from  the 
nearest  conmion  bond  the  persons  whose  blood*iela- 
tionship  is  to  be  determine  The  degree  is  the  dis- 
tance of  one  person  from  the  other  in  regard  to  blood- 
relationship.  The  liTie  is  the  classified  series  of  per- 
sons descending  from  the  common  stock  through  one 
or  more  generations.  The  line  is  dired  when  the  series 
of  persons  descend  one  from  the  other,  as  father  and 
son,  grandfather  and  grandchild.  The  line  is  trans- 
verse, or  collateral,  when  the  blood-relations  spring 
from  a  common  stock,  yet  do  not  descend  one  from 
the  o^er  but  form  different  branches  side  by  side,  as 
two  brothers,  two  nephews.  This  collateral  line  is 
equal  or  unequal  according  as  these  persons  derive 
equally  or  imeaually  from  the  same  stock  or  root.  The 
blood-relationship  is  computed  according  to  the  dis- 
tance from  the  stock  whence  it  is  derived,  and  this  is 
the  rule  by  which  the  degrees  or  steps  of  consanguinity 
are  determined. 

In  the  direct  line  the  Roman  civil  and  the  canon  law 
agree  on  the  principle  that  there  are  as  many  degrees 
as  generations;  hence  as  many  degrees  as  there  are 
persons,  omitting  the  stock  or  root.  A  son  is  one 
degree  from  his  father,  a  grandchild  two  demes 
from  the  grandfather.  In  the  computation  of  the 
decrees  of  the  transverse  or  collateral  line  there  is  a 
senous  difference  between  the  Roman  civil  and  the 
canon  law.  The  civil  law  founded  its  degrees  upon 
the  number  of  generations,  the  number  of  degrees 
being  eaual  to  the  nimiber  of  generations;  thus 
between  orothers  there  are  two  degrees  as  there  are 
two  generations;  between  first  cousins  four  degrees, 
corresponding  to  the  four  generations.  The  degrees 
are  ejaculated  easily  in  the  civil  law  by  summing 
up  the  number  of  persons  in  each  line,  omitting  the 
common  ancestor.  Except  for  marriage,  the  canon 
law  follows  regularly  the  computation  of  the  civil  law, 
e.  g.  in  the  question  of  inheritance.  But  the  canon 
law,  in  the  collateral  line  of  consanguinity,  compites 
for  marriage  one  series  onlv  of  generations,  and  if  the 
series  are  imequal,  only  the  longer  one.  Hence  the 
principle  of  canon  law  that  in  the  transverse  or  col- 
lateral line  there  are  as  manv  degrees  of  consanguinity 
as  there  are  persons  in  the  longer  series,  omitting  the 
common  stock  or  root.  If  the  two  series  are  eaual, 
the  distance  is  the  number  of  degrees  of  either  from 
the  common  stock.  Thus  brother  and  sister  are  in  the 
first  degjtee,  first  cousins  in  the  second  degree;  unde 
and  niece  in  the  second  degree  because  the  niece  is  two 
degrees  from  the  grandfather  who  is  the  common 
stock.  Thus  if  Caius  has  two  sons,  Titius  and  Sem- 
pronius,  and  Sempronius  has  a  son  and  grandchild,  the 
relationship  of  the  grandchild  of  Sempronius  to  Titius 
is  in  the  third  degree,  because  this  grandchild  is  dis- 
tant three  degrees  from  the  common  stock,  Caius. 
This  rule  holds  if  the  common  stock  should  only  be 
one  person;  thus  half-brothers  and  half-sisters,  tliat  is 
from  either  father  or  mother,  are  in  the  firrt  degree. 
Children  of  the  same  father  and  mother  are  called  ger- 
man,  as  from  the  common  germ;  those  of  the  same 
mother  and  not  of  the  same  father  are  called  uterine, 
as  from  the  same  womb;  and  children  of  the  same 
father  and  different  mother  are  called  blood-children. 
The  legitimacy  or  illep^itimacy  of  any  member  of  the 
series  does  not  modify  the  relationship  as  a  bar  to 
marriage. 

For  civil  effects  the  civil  law's  computation  of  de- 
grees must  be  known.    In  most  European  countries 


the  law  follows  mainly  the  computation  of  the  Roman 
civil  law.  In  England,  since  the  Reformation,  the 
Levitical  law  has  been  recognised  as  the  standard  by 
which  to  determine  the  prohibitions  of  marriage.  For 
Catholics  everywhere,  as  Alexander  II  decreed  (c.  2, 
C.  35,  q.  5),  the  ecclesiastical  calculation  (com- 
putaHo  canonica)  must  be  followed  for  the  direct  ques- 
tion of  the  lawfulness  of  marriage.  Clement  V,  in  the 
Council  of  Vienne  (1311),  decieed  that  any  one  who 
knowingly  contracted  marriage*  within  the  forbidden 
degrees  should  by  the  fact  incur  exoommunieation, 
though  not  reserved;  this  penalty<has  ceased  ainee  the 
BuU  "ApostoUc»  Sedis"  of  Pius  IX  (1860).  The 
Council  of  Trent  (1563)  rec|uired  the  absolute  separa- 
tion of  those  who  knowingly  contracted  marria^ 
within  the  prohibited  d^rees,  and  denied  all  hope  of 
obtaining  a  dispensation,  especially  if  the  attempted 
marriage  had  been  consummated.  But  in  this  regaxd 
the  practice  of  the  Church,  probably  on  account  of  the 
recognition  of  such  marriages  by  the  Stsite,  and  the 
consequent  difficulty  of  enforcing  the  dissolution  of 
Ulicit  unions,  has  tended  towards  greater  leniency. 
The  Council  of  Trent,  it  is  true  (Sess.  XXIV,  c  v,  De 
ref.,  matr.),  made  no  changes  in  the  existing  leosla- 
tion,  despite  the  wishes  of  many  for  a  reduction  ci  the 
limits  of  the  impediment  (Themer,  Acta  Cone  Tiid., 
Leipzig,  1874, 336,  342).  Such  reduction  would  in  all 
prooability  have  been  discussed  at  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil (1870),  had  it  not  been  interrupted  (L&mmer,  Zur 
edification  des  can.  Rechts,  Freiburg,  1899,  137, 
sqq.,  and  Martin,  Coll.  docum.  Cone  Vat.,  p.  162  aqq.). 
In  the  Uniat  Eastern  Churches,  the  marriage  of 
bkxxi-relatiotts  is  forbidden  in  the  collateral  line  to  the 
seventh  civil  degree,  L  e.  second  cousins  touching  third, 
but  in  that  d^iee  is  only  preventive,  not  diriment 
(Wemx,  IV,  627).  Among  the  Italo-Greeks,  however, 
the  Maronites,  and  the  Syrians  the  legislation  of  the 
Roman  Church  obtains  (Benedict  XIV,  Etsi  Pastor- 
alis,  26  May,  1742;  Synod  of  Mount  Lebanon.  1736; 
&mod.  Sciarf.  Syror..  1888).  In  the  schismatic 
CJhurchee  of  the  East  aU  marriaffea  of  relations  in  the 
direct  line  are  prohibited;  in  the  collateral  Une  the 
seventh  (civil)  degree  is  the  limit  of  prohibition;  the 
remotest  degree,  however,  is  only  a  preventive  im- 
pediment. In  the  National  Greek  Church,  since 
1873,  marriage  is  forbidden  within  the  sixth  (civil)  de- 
mee,  i.  e.  second  cousins;  in  Russia,  since  1870,  within 
tiie  fourth  (civil)  decree,  i.  e.  first  cousins  (cf.  Zhish- 
man,  Eheredit  d.  oriental.  Kirche,  Vienna,  1864,  and 
Milas,  Das  Kirchenrecht  der  morgenl&nd.  Kudie, 
Mostar,  1897). 

DlSPBNBATION  FROM  THE  iMPEDIMBNT.-j-WhateVer 

dispensing  power  is  available  resides  principally  in  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  (]hiut^,  namely  the  Apostolic 
See.  The  pope  generally  exercises  his  power  of  dis- 
pensing throtigh  tne  Roman  Congregations.  For  pub- 
lic dispensations  (in  foro  extemo)  the  Dataria  (see 
Roman  Curia)  is  the  ordinary  medium  for  so-called 
Catholic  countries;  the  Sacra  PemierUiaria  for  cases 
of  conscience  (occiUt  impediments)  and  of  late  for  the 
cases  of  the  poor.  The  Congr^^tion  of  Propaganda 
is  the  medium  for  countries  dependent  on  it,  e.  g. 
(^reat  Britain  and  its  dependencies  and  the  United 
States.  This  power  of  dispensation  with  the  right  to 
subdele^te  is  often  delegated  to  bishops,  vicars 
Apostohc,  and  others  having  pastoral  authority  over 
souls.  In.  whatever  is  fqrbiaden  by  the  law  of  nature 
there  is  no  dispensation.  In  the  direct  line  of  conaan- 
uty  Nicholas  I  supposes  that  there  is  no  room  for 
msation.  However,  in  cases  of  infidels  when  one 
or  t>oth  are  converted,  while  it  is  to  be  held  that  noar- 
riages  within  the  first  decree  of  the  direct  line  are  in- 
vaud,  in  all  others  the  Holy  See  has  to  be  consulted. 
The  Holy  See  has  the  supreme  ri^t  in  doubtful  eases 
to  determine  what  may  or  may  not  be  forbidden  by 
the  law  of  nature  or  by  the  Divine  positive  law.  Bene- 
dict XIV,  as  alrrady  said,  emphasised  the  fact  that  the 


267 


QomAMwmnrr 


popes  bad  never  granted  a  dispensation  for  a  marriage 
between  bzoiher  and  sister,  even  where  the  union 
mi^t  haye  ooourred  without  a  knowledgie  of  the  re* 
lataonship  on  the  part  of  the  contracting  persons. 

Consanguinity  may  be  duplicated  as  arising  from 
two  souvoes:  fint»  fmm  two  roots,  e.  g.  two  Mothen 
manying  two  women  who  are  cousins :  the  children  of 
each  brother  will  be  related  to  those  of  the  other  in  the 
■eeond  d^^ree  on  the  father's  side,  and  in  the  third  de- 
gree on  the  mother's  aide;  aeoona,  from  one  root,  but 
when  the  deacendants  intennarry.  Hence,  where 
there  is  a  double  consanguinity,  there  is  a  double  im- 
pediment which  muat  be  expressed  in  the  petition  for 
dispensation;  and  should  there  be  a  more  extensive 


is  also  required  if  an  attempt  at  mairiage  had  been 
made,  even  if  not  consummated. 

Civil  Lboisi^tion. — ^In  the  Eastern  Church  the 
Quinisext  Council  (692)  forbade,  as  we  have  seen,  mar- 
riages between  first  cousina  In  the  eighth  century 
Emperors  Leo  and  Gonstantine  oonfirmed  this  deeree 
and  forbade  alliances  between  persons  in  the  sixth 
degree  of  consan^nity  according  to  the  computation 
of  the  Roman  civil  law,  i.  e.  between  thegraodehlldren 
of  brothers  and  sistezs,  and  still  later  Un,  the  seventh 
degree  of  the  same  computation.  This  holda  to-day 
in  the  Greek-Church.  The  question  ol  consanguinity 
is  important  in  determining  civil  rights,  which  are 
mainly  under  control  of  the  State,  thou^  Ul^timacy 


TABLE  OF  CONSANGUINITY 


ON  TBS  rATHBR'S  8X0B 

*  ^  *  *  * 

•Their  mnd-— — Tfaeir*— Great-<r«at-«-Greftt-great« 
«hildreti         childrm  unete  gn»dfatlMr 

Gn^t-Mnat'      Graat-great 
aunt  grandmother 


ON  THE,   MOTBBR'b  SIDE 

4  4  4 

-Great-great- —Their— —Their  grand-  —Their  great- 

unole  ohildren         ohildinen 

Great-great- 

aunt 


—Their  greal 
grandcfiildr 


ildrati 


Their  great- 
grandchildren 

o^dren 


8  3  3  3 

-Their  grand- ^—Their-^—  Great-uncle-^^reat-grand- 

children         children      Great-aunt  father 


8 

coufina 


Gieat-grand- 
motner 

I 

2 

•Orandfathei^ 

Grandmother 


-Great-uncle      Their  '      Their  grand-- 
Great-aunt     children        children 


2 

-Unele. 
Aunt 


2  8 

-Firat  8eeond« 

cousina  cousins 


i— Their  great- 
grandcoUdreo 


4 
—Their 
children 


Great-grand-— Grand-nephew^Nephew  — Brotheiw— 

nephew  Qnuid-^ieee       Niece       Half-brother 

Gi«ait-gnAd> . 


Mother 


John 
Mary 

I 

Son 
Daughter 

2 

Qnndaon 

Granddaughter 


12  3 

■  Rater  ■        Nephew  ■■  Onand-pephefw« 
Half-mster       Niece        Grand-nieoe 


'— Qreat-^grand- 
nepheW 
Great-grand- 


3 

t-gr 
children 


Great-grand« 
lildren 


Great-great- 
grandcfiildr 


Idren 


duplication  by  still  further  intennarriages,  all  the  for- 
biaden  d^tees  regulling  from  the  blood-relationship 
should  be  mentioned  in  seeking  dispensation*  In  the 
petition  for  dispensatioii,  both  series  in  the  collateral 
oonB|8ngutnity  must  be  mentioned,  thou^  this  is  not 
necessary  for  validity  of  the  dispensation.  A  special 
proviso  la  made  when  dispensation  is  aou^t  from  cot* 
lateral  consanguinity.  It  must  be  mentioned,  even 
for  validity,  if  the  one  part  is  next  of  kin  to  the  root  or 
common  ancestor  and  the  other  within  the  forbidden 
degrees;  the  sex  of  the  next  of  kin  should  also  be  men- 
tioned, because  of  the  greater  difficulty  of  the  dispen- 
sation for  a  nephew  to  marry  his  aunt.  If  the  f artnest 
should  be  in  the  fifth  degree,  there  is  even  in  that  case 
no  pn^ffaitioD  of  marriage.  The  impediment  of  mar- 
riage  arises  also  from  any  carnal  intercourse,  even  out- 
side of  marfti^,  to  the  fourth  d^^ree  of  consanguinity. 
To  oonsaaguinity  within  the  prohibited  degrees  may 
bettddeduiegrBvamedof  the  crime  of  incest  If  the 
incest  were  committed  in  the  hope  of  f acflitatfaig  the 
gnmt  of  a  dispsnsation,  this  eincumistance  must  be 
'in  tb0  petition  for  dispensation;  mention 


often  produces  ecclesiastical  disbarments  (see  Birth). 
The  hindrances  to  marriage  basedon  consanguinity  vai^ 
ccMisiderably  in  different  States.  In  Germany  oonsan- 
euinity  is  a  bar  only  in  the  direct  line,  and  between 
brothers  and  sisters.  In  France  uncle  and  niece,  aunt 
and  nephew,  are  forbidden  to  intennarry,  but  dispen- 
sation may  be  granted  by  the  head  of  the  State.  The 
prohibition  does  not  extend  to  this  relationship  aris- 
ing from  an  illegitimate  union.  Even  in  the  most 
conservative  Catholic  coimtries,  there  is  a  tendency  to 
limit  the  impediment  of  eonsanguinity.  In  England 
the  statutes  of  Henry  VIII,  rej^ed  in  part  by  Ed- 
ward VI  and  wholly  hy  Phillip  and  Mary,  were  revived 
in  EKzabeth's  first  year,  the  provision  being  that  ''no 
prohibition,  Qod^  law  except,  shall  trouble  or  im-* 
peach  any  marriage  outside  Levitical  law".  The  ety 
desiastieal  interpretation  was  that  consanffuiniW  was 
an  impedhneni  to  marriage  as  far  as  the  third  degree 
of  civil  computation.  A  man  might  not  marry  hil 
aunt,  or  his  niece,  but  midit  marry  his  first  counn* 
Relationship  by  ^  half-blood  was  put  on  the  same 
footint;  as  the  full-blood,  and  illegitimate  consanguift* 


ooHsomos 


268 


ity  was  treated  as  ociuivalent  to  If^itiniate  blood  rela- 
tionship. The  courts  regarded  marriages  within  the 
f  (»t>idaen  degree  as  voidable  rather  than  void,  but  such 
marriages  were  declared  void  by  an  act  of  5  and  6  Wil- 
liam IV  (1835).  In  the  United  States  all  the  States 
prohibit  marriage  between  lineal  descendants;  most 
of  ^em  prohibit  marriages  between  uncle  and  niece, 
nep^w  and  aunt,  and  between  first  cousins  (Des- 
mond, The  Church  and  the  Law,  Chicago,  1898,  C.  X). 
Gbnsau>oical  Table. — ^We  subjoin  a  genealogical 
table  which  esdiibits  the  various  degrees  of  consan- 
guinitv  according  to  a  custom  in  use  in  the  Western 
Church  since  the  seventh  century  (Isidore  of  Seville). 
This  will  be  a  useful  guide  in  determining  the  extent 
of  the  impediment  of  affinity  (q.  v.).  Affinity  from  a 
true  marriage  is  a  diriment  impediment  to  the  fourth 
degree  of  consanguinity  of  the  deceased  spouse;  ac- 
coniing  to  the  ecclesiastical  law  a  widower  may  not 
marry  any  of  his  deceased  wife's  blood-relations  as  far 
as  the  fourth  d^ree  inclusively,  nor  a  widow  her  de- 
oeased  husband's  blood-relations.  •  There  is  a  modifi- 
cation if  tiie  afl^ty  be  one  arising  from  illicit  inter- 
eoane, 

Fbjs,  De  Impedim.  H  Diapetu.  Matrim.  (Louvaan,  1885).  cfa. 
xiii,  xzx.  xxxi;  Scayinx,  Theol.  Mor,,  Bk.  Ill,  De  imped.  Matr., 
art.  2  OtilMD,  1858);  Db  Anokub,  Fral.  Jur,  Can.,  vol  III.  pt. 
I.  tit.  3dv  (Rome,  1880);  Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (Lon- 
don, 1906)  s.  v.:  ZiTBLU,  Apparat.  Juria  Bed.,  Bk.  11,  ch.  ii, 
art.  7,  p.  439  (Rome,  1888):  Santi-Lextner,  Pral.  Jur,  Can. 
Uih  ed..  New  York,  1905).  111.  245-61;  Kbnrxck,  Theol.  Mor., 
Tract,  xxi.  De  Mair.,  eh.  v.  (Mechlin,  1861);  Aodu  and  Ab- 
NOLD,  Catholie  Ditiionaru  (Jxmdon,  1903).  e.  v.;    CRAxaaoN, 


Man.  Jur,  Can,,  vol.  III.  Bk.  II,  ch.  viu,  De  Imped,  d 
(PoUien,  1880):  Laubbntiub,  Inet,  Jur.  Can.  (Froburg,  l9l 
1 151;  AndbA-Waonbb,  Did.  de  droit  canon.  (Paris,  1901),  s. 


Coanat. 
.  lS03). 


D'AviNO,  Bncidopedia  deW BceUaiaelicq.  a.  v.  Imped,  del  Mair. 
(Turin.  1878);  HAaiiNoa,  Did.  of  the  BtUe  (New  York,  1902), 
8.  V.  Marriage:  Chbtnb,  BncydopcBdia  BiUiea  (New  York, 
1899).  8.  V.  Marriage. 

RiCTHARD  L.   BURTBELL. 

OoDBcittiee. — ^I.Thb  Name. — In  En^ish  we  have 
done  with  a  Latin  word  what  neither  the  Latins  nor  the 
French  have  done:  we  have  doubled  the  term,  making 
"  conscience ' '  stand  for  the  moral  department  and  leav- 
ing ''consciousness"  for  the  universal  field  of  objects 
about  which  we  become  aware.  In  Cicero  we  have  to  de- 
pend upon  the  context  for  the  specific  limitation  to  the 
ethical  area,  as  in  the  sentence:  **  mea  mihi  conscientia 
pluris  est  quam  omnium  sermo"  (Att.,  XII,  xxviii,  2). 
Sir  W.  Himulton  has  discussed  how  far  we  can  be  said 
to  be  conscious  of  the  outer  objects  which  we  know, 
and  how  far  ''consciousness"  o^sht  to  be  held  a  term 
restricted  to  states  of  self  or  sel&consciousness.  (See 
Thiele,  Die  Philosophic  desSelbstbewusstseins,  Berlin, 
1895.)  In  the  two  words  Betmisstaein  and  Uetvis9en 
the  Germans  have  made  a  serviceable  distinction  an- 
swering to  our  "consciousness"  and  "conscience". 
The  ancients  mostly  neglected  such  a  discrimination. 
The  Greeks  often  used  ^pdn^ftt  where  we  ^ould  use 
"conscience",  but  the  two  terms  are  far  from  coinci- 
dent. They  also  used  ^vdhta-itf  which  occurs  repeat^ 
edly  for  the  purpose  in  hand  both  in  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament.  The  Hebrews  had  no  formal  psy- 
chology though  DelitBsch  has  endeavoured  to  fincT  one 
in  Scripture.  There  the  heart  often  stands  for  con- 
science. 

II.  Origin  of  Conscience  in  the  Race  and  in  the 
Individual. — Of  anthropologists  some  do  and  some  do 
not  accept  the  Biblical  account  of  man's  origin;  and 
the  former  class,  admitting  that  Adam's  descendants 
might  soon  have  lost  the  traces  of  their  higlber  deseent, 
are  willing  to  hear,  with  no  pledge  of  endorsing,  what 
the  latter  class  have  to  say  on  the  assumption  of  the 
human  devdopment  even  from  an  animal  ancestry, 
and  on  the  further  assumption  that  in  the  use  of  evi- 
dences they  ma^  nedect  sequence  of  time  and  place. 
It  is  not  maintainecTby  any  serious  student  that  the 
Darwinian  pedigree  is  certainly  accuiate:  it  has  the 
value  of  a  diagram  giving  some  notion  of  the  lines 
along  which  forces  are  suDDoaed  to  have  acted.  Not, 


then,  as  accepting  for  fact,  but  as  using  it  for  a  very 
limited  purpose,  we  may  give  a  characteristic  sketch  oif 
ethical  development  as  suggested  in  the  last  chapter  of 
Mr.  L.  T.  Houiouse's  "  Morals  m  Evolutk>n  ".  It  is  a 
conjectural  storv,  verjr  like  what  other  anthropolo- 
gists offer  for  what  it  is  worth  and  not  for  fully  oerti- 
ned  science. 

Ethics  is  conduct  or  regulated  life;  and  regulation 
has  a  crude  beginning  in  the  lowest  animal  life  as  a  re* 
sponse  to  stimulus,  as  reflex  action,  as  useful  adapta- 
tion to  environment.  Thus  the  amoeba  doubles  itself 
round  its  food  in  the  water  and  lives ;  it  propagates  by 
self-division.  At  another  stage  in  the  ammal  snies 
we  find  blind  impulses  for  the  benefit  of  life  and  its 
propagation  taking  a  more  complex  shape,  untfl  some- 
thing like  instinctive  purpose  is  displayed.  Useful 
actions  are  performed,  not  apparently  pleasurable  in 
themselves,  yet  with  good  in  the  seauel  which  cannot 
have  been  foreseen.  The  care  of  tne  animal  for  its 
youn^,  the  provision  for  the  need  of  its  future  offspring 
IS  a  kmd  of  foreshadowed  sense  of  duty.  St.  Thomas 
is  bold  to  follow  the  terminolo^  of  Koman  lawyers, 
and  to  assert  a  sort  of  moralitj  m  the  pairing  and  the 
propagating  of  the  higher  anunals:  "ius  naturale  est 
quod  natura  omnia  animalia  docuit".  (It  is  the  na- 
tural law  which  nature  has  taugjit  all  animab. — "In 
IV  Sent.",  dist.  xxxiii,  a.  1,  art.  4.)  Customs  are 
formed  imder  the  pressures  and  the  interactions  of  ac- 
tual living;  they  are  fixed  by  heredity^  and  they  await 
the  analysis  and  the  improvements  ot  nascent  reason. 
With  the  advent  of  man,  in  his  rudest  state — however 
he  came  to  be  in  that  state,  whether  by  ascent  or  de- 
scent— ^there  dawns  a  conscience,  which,  in  the  devd- 
opment  theory,  will  have  to  pass  through  many  stages. 
At  first  its  categories  of  ri^t  and  wrong  are  in  a  very 
fluid  condition.  Keeping  no  fixed  form,  and  easily  inter- 
mixing, as  in  the  chaos  of  a  child's  dreams,  fancies,  il- 
lusions, and  fictions.  The  reauirements  of  social  life, 
which  becomes  the  great  moraliser  of  social  actbn,  are 
continually  changing,  and  with  them  ethics  varies  its 
adaptations.  As  society  advances,  its  ethics  im- 
proves. "  The  lines  on  which  custom  is  formed  are  de- 
termined in  each  society  by  the  pressures,  the  thousand 
interactions  of  those  forces  of  individual  character  and 
social  relationship,  which  never  cease  remoulding  until 
they  have  made  men's  loves  and  hates,  their  hopes  and 
fears  for  themselves  and  their  children,  their  oread  of 
unseen  agencies,  their  j^ousies,  their  resentments, 
their  antipathies,  their  sociability  and  dim  sense  of  mu- 
tual dependence — all  their  (qualities  good  and  bad,  sel- 
fish and  sympathetic,  social  and  anti-social."  (Op. 
cit..  Vol.  II,  p.  262.)  The  grasp  of  experience  widens 
ana  power  of  analysis  increases,  till,  in  a  people  like  the 
Greeks,  we  come  ti^xm  thinkers  who  can  distinctly  re- 
flect on  human  conduct,  and  can  put  in  practice  the 
ywQ$i  amvrSp  (know  thyself),  so  that  henceforth  the 
method  of  ethics  is  secured  for  all  times,  with  indefinite 
scope  left  for  its  better  and  better  application.  "  Here 
we  nave  reached  the  levd  of  philoso]:dluoal  or  apiritaal 
religions,  systems  which  seek  to  concentrate  all  experi- 
ence in  one  focus,  and  to  illuminate  all  morality  nom 
one  centre,  thou^t,  as  ever,  becoming  more  compre- 
hensive as  it  beoomes  moie  explicit ' '.    (ibid«,  p.  266.) 

What  is  said  of  the  rads  is  applied  to  the  individual, 
as  in  him  custoniary  rules  acquire  ethical  character  by 
the  recognition  of  distinct  prinomles  and  ideals,  aU 
tending  to  a  final  unity  or  goal,  which  for  the  mere  evo* 
lutionist  is  left  very  indeterminate,  but  for  the  Oirie- 
tian  has  adequate  definition  in  a  perfect  possession  ai 
God  -by  knowledge  and  love,  without  the  contingency 
of  further  lapses  from  duty.  To  come  to  the  fullness  oJF 
knowled^B  possible  in  this  workl  is  for  the  individual  a 
process  of  growth.  The  brain  at  first  hsB  not  the  o^• 
ganiaation  whidi  would  enable  it  to  be  the  Instrument 
of  ratkmal  thou^t:  probably  it  is  a  necessity  of  our 
mind's  nature  i&t  we  diould  not  start  with  ttie  fully 
formed  brain  but  that  the  first  elem«kts  of  knowledge 


2R9 


should  be  gatfaered  with  the  gradations  of  the  develop- 
ing etnioture.  •  In  the  moraUy  p>od  familv  the  child 
slowly  leania  right  oondoct  by  imitation,  by  instrue- 
tton,  by  aanctiGai  in  the  way  of  rewards  and  puniab- 
Dients.  Bain  esaggsrates  the  predominance  of  the 
last  named  element  as  the  soime  whence  the  sense  of 
obligBtipn  comes,  and  therein  he  is  like  Shaftesbury 
(Inquiry,  II,  n.  I),  who  sees  in  conscience  only  the  re- 
prover. This  view  is  favoured  also  by  Carlyle  in  his 
''  £]saay  on  Characteristics",  and  by  Dr.  Mackenxie  in 
his  ''Manual  of  Ethics"  (3rd  ed..  Ill,  §  14),  where  we 
read :  '^  I  should  prefer  to  sa^  simpiv  that  conscience  is 
a  feeling  of  fMun  accompanying  and  resulting  f ^om  oiv 
non-conformity  to  prmotple.''  Newman  also  has  put 
the  stress  on  the  reprovingoffice  of  conscienoe.  (}Eurlyle 
says  we  diould  not  observe  that  we  had  a  conscienoe  if 
we  had  never  offended.  Green  thinks  that  ethmd 
theory  is  mostlj  of  negative  use  for  conduct.  (Fktile* 
^mena  to  Ethics,  IV,  1 .)    It  is  better  to  keep  in  view 


3th  sides  of  tiie  truth  and  say  that  the  mind  ethically 
developed  comes  to  a  sense  of  satisfaction  in  ri^t  doing 
and  of  dissatisfacdon  in  wronsdoing,  and  that  the  re- 
wards and  the  puniMunents  judicioiuly  assigned  to  the 
young  have  for  their  purpose,  as  Aristotle  puts  it,  to 
teach  the  teachable  hcrar  to  find  pleasure  in  what  ouf^t 
to  please  and  displeasure  in  what  ou^t  to  displease. 
Tine  immature  mmd  mist  be  civen' external  sanctJons 
before  it  can  reach  the  inward.  Its  earliest  glimmer^ 
in^  of  duty  cannot  be  clear  light:  it  begins  by  distin- 
guishing conduct  as  nice  or  as  nasty  and  natu^ty:  aS 
approved  or  disapproved  by  parents  and  teachers,  be- 
hmd  whom  in  a  dim  way  stands  the  ofi>4nentioned 
Ciod,  conceived,  not  only  in  an  anthropomc»phie,  but 
in  a  nepiomon^io  way,  net  oorrect  yet  more  correct 
than  Oahban's  speculations  about  Setebos.  The  per- 
ception of  sin  in  the  genuine  sense  is  gradually  formed 
until  the  age  which  we  roughly  designateas  the  seventh 
year,  and  henceforth  the  agent  entere  upon  the  awful 
career  of  responsibility  according  to  the  dictates  of  con- 
science. On  grounds  not  ethical  but  scholastieally 
theological,  St.  Thomas  explains  a  theory  that  the  unr 
baptised  person  at  the  dawn  of  resaon  eoes  through  a 
first  crisis  in  moral  discrimination  which  turns  simply 
on  the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  God,  and  entails  mor- 
tal sin  in  case  of  faflure.    (I-II,  Q.  Ixzziz,  a.  6.) 

in.   WbaT  GoNSCUBltCE  Is  IN  THE  SoUL  OF  MaN?— 

It  is  oftm  a  good  maxim  not  to  mind  for  a  time  how  a 
thing  came  to  bCy  but  to  see  what  it  actually  is.  To  do 
so  in  regard  to  oonsdenee  before  we  take  up  the  history 
of  philosophy  in  its  regard  is  wise  poltcv,  for  it  will  sive 
us  Bome  dear  doctrine  upon  whicii  to  lay  hold,  v^ile 
we  travel  throng  a  region  perplexed  by  much  confus- 
ion (A  thoudit.  The  following  points  are  cardinal :  (a) 
The  natural  conscience  is  no  distinct  faculty,  but  the 
one  intelleot  oi  a  man  inasmuch  as  it  considers  right 
and  wrong  in  conduct,  aided  meanwhile  by  a  good  will, 
b V  the  use  of  the  emotions,  by  the  practical  experience 
of  living,  and  by  idl  External  helps  that  are  to  the  pur- 
pose, (b)  The  natural  conscience  of  the  Ghristian  is 
known  by  him  to  act  aotakme,  but  under  the  enlight- 
enment and  the  impulse  derived  from  revelation  and 
grace  in  a  strictly  simeniatural  order,  (o)  As  to  the 
order  of  nature,  whi  7n  does  not  exist  but  which  mis^t 
have  existed,  St.  Thomas  (I-II,  O.  cix,  a.  3)  teadMs 
that  both  for  the  I  nowiedge  of  (}oa  and  for  the  knowl- 
edge of  moral  duty,  men  such  as  we  are  would  require 
some  assistance  from  God  to  make  their  knowledge  suf- 
ficiently extensive,  clear,  constant,  effective,  and  rela- 
tively adequate;  and  especially  to  put  it  within  readi 
of  tfatose  whoare  much  ensrossed  with  the  cares  of  ma- 
terial Itfe.  It  would  be  absurd  to  suppose  that  in  the 
cnder  of  nature  God  oould  be  debarred  from  any  reve- 
lation of  Himself,  and  would  leave  Himself  to  be 
settfched  for  quite  irresponsively.  (d)  Being  a  prae- 
tical  thing,  eonsc»nce  depends  in  large  measure  for  its 
oorreotness  upon  the  good  use  of  it  and  on  proper  care 
taken  to  heed  its  deliverances,  eulttvate  its  powera, 


and  frustrate  its  enemies,  (e)  Even  where  due  ditt* 
^ence  is  employed  conscience  will  err  sometimes,  but 
its  inculpable  mistakes  will  be  admitted  by  (Sod  to  be 
not  blameworthy.  These  are  so  many  prindi^as 
needed  to  steady  us  as  we  tread  some  of  the  mju  of 
elhical  history,  ^ere  pitfalls  are  many. 

IV.  The  FknxMonn  of  Conscience  CowaiPERwn 
HiSTDEzcALLT. — (1)  In  pre^krutian  times. — ^The  earl- 
iest written  testimonies  that  we  can  consult  tell  us  of 
recognised  principles  in  morals,  and  if  we  confine  our 
attention  to  the  good  which  we  find  and  neglect  for  the 
present  Uie  inconstancy  and  the  admixture  of  many 
evils,  we  AnXL  experience  a  satisfaction  in  the  history. 
The  Persians  stood  for  virtue  against  vice  in  their  sup- 
port of  Ahura  Masda  against  Ariman;  and  it  was  an 
excellence  of  theirs  to  rise  above  "  independent  ethics ' ' 
to  the  conception  of  God  as  the  rewaraer  and  the  pun- 
isher.  They  even  touched  the  doctrine  of  Ghiist's  say- 
ing, ''What  doth  it  profit  a  man  if  he  gain  the  whole 
wdrld,  and  lose  his  own  soul?"  when  to  the  question, 
what  is  the  worth  of  the  whole  creation  displayed  before 
us,  the  Zend-Avesta  hss  the  reply:  ''the  man  therein 
who  is  delivered  from  evil  in  thought,  word,  and 
deed:  he  is  the  most  valuable  object  on  earth."  Here 
conscience  was  cleariy  enlightened.  Of  the  morel  vir- 
tues among  the  Persians  truthfulness  was  conspicuous. 
Herodotus  says  that  the  vouth  were  tau^t  ''to  ride 
and  shoot  with  the  bow's  and  "to  speak  the  truth". 
The  unveracious  Greeks,  who  admired  the  wiles  of  an 
Odysseus,  were  surprised  at  Penian  veraci^  (Herodo- 
tus, 1, 136, 138);  and  it  may  be  that  Herodotus  is  not 
fair  on  Ihis  head  to  Darius  (III,  72).  The  Hindus  in 
the  Vedas  do  not  rise  hi^,  but  in  Brahminism  there  is 
something  more  spirited,  and  still  more  in  the  Bud- 
dhist refonn  on  its  best  side,  considered  apart  from  the 
pessimistic  view  of  life  upon  which  its  f aliBe  asceticism 
was  grounded.  Buddhism  had  ten  prc^ibiUve  com- 
mandments: three  concerning  the  body,  forbidding 
murder,  theft,  and  unchastity ;  four  concerning  speech, 
forbidding  lying*  slander,  abusive  language,  and  vain 
converuition ;  and  threeooDoerning  the  mind  internally, 
covetousness,  malicious  thoughts,  and  the  doubting 
spirit.  The  Egyptians  show  the  woridnos  of  con- 
science. In  the  ^Book  of  the  Dead"  we  find  an  ex- 
amination of  conscience,  or  rather  profession  of  inno- 
cence, before  the  Supreme  Judge  after  death.  Two 
confessions  are  given  enunciating  most  of  the  virtues 
(chap,  oxxv):  reverence  for  Gkxi;  duties  to  the  dead; 
chanty  to  neighboun ;  duties  of  superiors  and  subjects ; 
care  for  human  life  and  limb ;  chastity,  honesty,  truth- 
fulness, and  avoidance  of  slander ;  freedom  from  t»  vet- 
ousnesB.  The  Assjrro-Babylonian  monuments  offer  us 
many  items  on  the  favourable  side;  nor  could  the  peo- 
ple whence  issued  the  Gode  of  Hammurabi,  at  a  date 
anterior  to  the  Mosaic  legislation  by  perhaps  seven 
himdred  years,  be  ethically  undeveloped.  If  the  Code 
of  Hammurabi  has  no  precepts  of  reverence  to  Ckxi 
correspcmding  with  the  first  three  Gonmiandments  of 
the  Mosaic  Law,  at  least  its  preface  contains  a  recogni- 
tion of  Ckxl's  supremacy.  In  China  Confucius  (c. 
600  B.  c),  in  connexion  with  an  idea  of  heaven,  deliv- 
ered a  hish  morality;  and  Mencius  (c.  300  b.  g.)  de- 
veloped &is  code  of  upr^htness  and  benevolence  as 
''Heaven's  appointment  .  Greek  ethics  began  to  pass 
from  its  gnomic  condition  when  Socrates  fixed  attention 
on  the  7WMi  emvT6w  in  the  interests  of  moral  reflection. 
Soon  followed  Aristotle,  who  put  the  science  on  a  lasting 
basis,  with  the  great  drawback  oi  neglecting  the  theistic 
side  and  consequoitly  the  full  doctrine  of  obligation. 
Neither  for  "obligation"  nor  for  "conscienoe"  had  the 
Greeks  a  fixed  term.  Still  the  pleasures  of  a  good  con- 
science and  the  pains  of  an  evil  one  were  welfset  forth 
in  the  fragments  collected  by  Stobnus  wtpl  rev  ^vmiMtos. 
Penandros,  asked  what  was  true  freedom,  answered : "  '\ 
good  conscience"  (Gaisford's  Stobieus,  vol.  I,  p.  429). 

(2)  In  the  ChritUan  Fatheri. — The  patristic  treat- 
ment of  ethics  joined  together  Holy  Scripture  and  the 


oowuuBim 


270 


classical  authors  of  paganism ;  no  system  was  reached, 
but  each  Father  did  what  was  characteristic.  Teitul- 
Han  was  a  lawy^  and  speke  in  legal  terms:  espedally 
his  M ontanism  ureed  hmi  to  inquire  which  were  the 
mortal  mm,  and  thus  he  started  for  futiue  investigar 
tors  a  good  line  of  inquiry.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
was  aUegodc  and  mystic:  a  combiner  of  Orientalism, 
Hellenism,  Judaism,  and  Christianity  in  their  bearing 
on  the  several  virtues  and  vices.  The  apologists,  in 
defending  the  Christian  character,  dwelt  on  the  marks 
of  ethical  conduct.  Sti  Justin  attributed  this  excel- 
lence to  the  Divine  Logos,  and  thought  that  to  Him. 
through  Moses,  the  pagan  philosophers  were  indebted 
<Apol.,  I,  xliv).  Similarly  Origen  accounted  for  pre- 
Christian  examples  of  Christian  virtue.  As  a  Roman 
skilled  in  l^al  administration  St.  Ambrose  was  largdy 
guided  by  Latin  versions  of  Greek  ethics,  as -is  vorv 
well  illustrated  by  his  imitation  in  style  of  Cicero^ 
*'  De  Officiis",  which  he  made  the  title  of  his  own  work. 
He  discusses  fumestum  et  tUile  (I,  ix) ;  decorum,  or  t6 
wp4ww,  as  eodiibited  in  Holy  Scripture  (x) ;  various  de- 
grees of  goodness,  mediocre  and  perfect,  in  connexion 
with  the  text,  **if  thou  wilt  be  perfect"  (xi);  the  pas- 
sions of  hot  youth  (xvii).  Subsequent  chapters  dwell 
on  the  various  virtues,  as  fortitude  in  war  and  its  allied 
quality>  courage  in  mart^rtdom  (xl,  xli).  The  second 
book  opens  witn  a  discussion  of  beatitude,  and  then  ne- 
tums  to  tihe  d^erent  virtues.  It  is  the  pupil  of  St. 
Ambrose,  St.  Augustine,  who  is,  perhaps,  tne  most  im- 
portani  of  the  Fathers  in  the  development  of  the  Chris* 
tian  doctrine  of  conscience,  not  so  much  on  accoimt  of 
his  fluent  discourses  about  moral  subjects,  as  be- 
cause of  the  Platonism  which  he  drank  in  before  his 
conversion,  and  afterwards  got  rid  of  only  by  degrees. 
The  abiding  residt  to  the  Sdiolastic  system  was  that 
many  writers  traced  their  ethics  and  tneology  more  or 
ksss  to  innate  ideas,  or  innate  dispositicxis,  or  Divine 
'illuminations,  after  the  example  of  St.  Augustine. 
£ven  in  St.  lliomas,  who  was  so  distinctly  an  Aristote- 
lean  empiricist,  some  fancy  that  Hhey  detect  oocasibnal 
remnants  of  Augustinianism  on  its  Flatanic  side. 

Before  leaving  the  Fathers  we  may  mention  St. 
Basil  as  one  who  illustrates  a  theorizing  attitude.  He 
was  sotod  enough  in  recc^izihg  sin  to  be  graver  and 
less  gmve;  yet  in  the  stress  of  argument  against  some 
persons  who  seemed  to  admit  only  the  worst  ofifences 
against  God  to  be  real  sins,  he  ventured,  without  ap- 
proving of  Stoic  doctrine,  to  point  out  a  sort  of  equal- 
ity in  all  sm,  so  far  as  ail  sin  is  a  disobedience  to  God 
(Hom«  de  Justiti^  Dei,  v-viii).  Later  Abelard  and  re- 
cently Dr.  Schell  abused  this  suggestion.  But  it  has 
had  no  influence  in  anyway  like  that  of  St.  Augustine's 
ihatonism,  of  which  a  specimen  may  be  seen  in  St. 
Bonaventure,  when  he  is  treating  precisely  of  conr- 
science,  in  a  passage  very  useful  as  diedding  lisht  on  a 
subsequent  part  of  this  article.  Some  habits,  ne  says, 
are  acquired,  some  iniude  as  regards  knowledge  of  sm*- 
gulars  and  knowledge  of  universals.  *'  Quum  enim  ad 
cognitionem  duo  concurrant  neoessario,  videUcet  prse- 
sentia  cognoscibilis  et  lumen  quo  mediante  de  iUo  judi- 
camus,  habitus  cognoecitivi  sunt  quodammodo  nobis 
innaH  ratione  luminis  animo  inditi;  sunt  etiam  ac- 
quisiti  ratione  speoiei ' ' — **  For  as  two  things  necessarily 
concur  for  cognition,  namely,  the  presence  of  some- 
thing cognoscmle,  and  the  light  by  which  we  judge  con- 
cemmg  it,  cognoscitive  habits  are  in  a  certain  sense  imr 
note,  by  reason  of  the  light  wherewith  the  mind  is  oi- 
dowed;  uid  they  are  also  acquired,  by  reason  of  the 
epeciee."  (** Comment,  in  II  Lib.  Sent.",  dist.  xxxiz, 
art.  1,  Q.  ii.  Of.  St.  Thomas,  '*  De  Veritate  ",  Q.  xi,  art. 
1:  ''Principia  dicuntur  innata  qus  statim  lumine  in- 
tellectus  agentis  cognoscuntur  per  species  a  sensifous 
Idbstractas  . — Principles  are  called  innate  when  they 
are  known  at  once  by  the  light  of  the  active  intellect 
throu^  the  speciee  abstracted  from  the  senses.) 
Then  comes  the  very  noticeable  and  easily  mis- 
understood  addition   a  little  later:  'si  que  sunt 


cognoBcibiiia  per  sui  essentiam,  non  per  speoem, 
respectu  talium  poterit  dici  oonadentia  esse  hab>Uut 
eimpUcUer  innaiut,  u^3ote  respectu  hujus  quod  est 
Deum  amare  et  timere;  Deus  emm  non  cogDoscitur  per 
SMnQitudinem  a  eensu,  immo  'Dei  notitia  natunJiter 
est  nobis  inserta',  siout  dicit  Augustinus" — ^''if  tbne 
are  some  things  cognoscible  throu|^  their  very  enence 
and  not  throu^  the  species,  eonsoienoe,  with  regaxti  to 
such  things,  may  be  called  a  habii  simpiy  innaU,  as,  for 
example,  with  regard  to  loving  and  serving  God;  for 
God  is  not  known  by  sense  through  an  ima^e;  rather, 
Hhe  knowledge  of  God  is  implanted  in  us  by  nature', 
as  Augustine  says''  C'  In  Joan.",  Tract.  ovL  a.  4;  ^Con- 
fess.", X,  XX,  xxix;  "De  Lib.  Afbitr.",  I,  xiv,  xxxi; 
"De  Mor.  Eccl.",  iii,  iv;  "De  Trin.",  XIII,  iii,  vi; 
"  Joan.  Dam.  de  Fide ' ',  I,  i,  iii).  We  must  remember 
that  St.  Bonaventure  is  not  only  a  theok)giaa  but  also 
a  mystic,  supposing  in  man  ocvme  cands,  octiius  raii- 
enis  and  octduB  eonUsmpiatumis  (the  eye  of  the  flesh, 
the  eye  of  reason,  and  the  eye  of  contemplation) ;  and 
that  he  so  seriously  regards  man's  power  to  prove  by 
arguments  the  existence  of  God  as  to  devote  his  labour 
to  explaining  that  lo^cal  conviction  is  ooiuristent  with 
faith  in  the  same  existence  (Comm.  in  III  Sent.»  dist. 
xxiv,  art.  1,  Q.  iv).  AU  these  matteis  are  highly  sig- 
nificant for  those  who  take  up  aay  thorou^  examina- 
tion of  the  Question  as  to  what  the  Scholastics  thought 
about  man  naving  a  conscience  by  his  veiy  nature  as 
a  rational  being.  The  point  recuiss  frequently  in  S<^io- 
lastic  literature,  to  which  we  must  next  turn. 

(3)  In  SchoUuiie  timee,— It  will  help  to  make  iatellir 
gible  the  subtle  and  variable  theories  which  follow,  if  it 
be  premised  that  the  Scholastics  are  apt  to  puade 
reaaers  by  mixing  up  with  their  philosophy  of  reason  a 
real  or  apparent  apriorism,  whim  is  caUed  Augustin- 
ianism, Platonism,  or  Mysticism,  (a)  As  a  rule,  to 
which  Durandus  with  some  others  was  an  exception, 
the  Schoolmen  regarded  created  causes  as  unable  to  is- 
sue in  any  definite  act  unless  applied  or  stimulated  by 
God,  the  Prime  Mover:  whence  came  the  Thmnistic 
doctrine  of  vrwmolio  phyaioa  even  for  the  intellect  and 
the  will,  ana  the  simple  eonetirstit  of  the  non-Thomiats. 

(b)  Furthermora  they  supposed  some  powers  to  be 
poUnHcd  and  poMuie,  that  is,  to  need  acreative  deter- 
minant received  into  them  as  their  oomfdement:  of 
which  kind  a  prominent  example  was  the  inteUectus 
poesUnUs  informed  by  the  ^wetes  i$ddUfibiiiB,  and  an- 
other instance  was  in  relation  to  oonsacDoe)  the  sytk- 
teresis.     (St.  Thomas,  De  Vent.,  Q.  xvi, art.  L  ad  13.) 

(c)  First  principles  or  halnts  inherent  in  intellect  and 
will  were  deariy  traced  by  St*  Thomas  to  an  origin  in 
experience  and  abstraction;  but  othen  spoke  more 
ambiguously  or  even  contracUetorily ;  St.  Thomas  himr 
self,  in  isolated  passages,  mi^t  seon  to  afford  material 
for  the  priorist  to  utilise  m  favour  of  innate  forma. 
But  the  Thomistic  explanation  of  ofpeHtue  winslus,  as 
contrasted  with  eldeiiue,  saves  thesituati<m. 

Abelaid,  m  his  "  Ethics  ",  or  *<  NosceTdpsum",  does 
not  plunge  us  into  these  depths,  and  yethe  taught  such 
an  indwdling  of  the  Hdy  Ghost  in  virtuous  pagans  as 
too  unrestrictedly  to  make  their  virtues  to  oe  Chris- 
tian. He  placed  morality  so  nuu^  in  the  inward  act 
that  he  denied  the  morality  of  the  outward,  and  sin  he 
placed  not  in  the  objectively  disordered  deed  but  in 
contempt  for  Gkxl,  in  which  opinion  he  was  imitated  by 
Prof.  SoheU.  Moreover  he  opened  a  way  to  wrong 
opinions  by  calling  free  will "  the  free  judgoaent  about 
the  will ".  In  his  errors,  however,  he  was  notso  wholhr 
astray  as  careless  reading  mig^t  lead  some  to  infer.  It 
was  with  Alexander  of  Hates  that  discussions  which 
some  will  regard  as  the  tedious  minutis  of  Scholastic 
speoulstion  began.  The  orioyi  lay  in  the  introduction 
from  St.  Jerome  (in  Esech.,  I^Bk.  I,  oh.  1)  of  the  temi 
eynierene  or  synderesis.  Then  tiie  oommentaAor,  hav- 
ing treated  tmee  of  the  mystic  animals  in  the  Prophr 
ecy  as  symbolising  respectivdy  three  Platonic  powers 
of  the  soul:  r6  tfrc^vrueiir  (the  appetitive),  r6  0v§tUBhf 


0ON80XBN0S 


271 


OONSOIEKOS 


(the  irascible),  and  rb  \oyiK6p  (the  rational),  uses  the 
fourth  animal,  the  eagle,  to  represent  what  he  calls 
c^yr-^fiifau.  The  last,  according  to  the  texts  em- 
ployed by  him  to  describe  it,  is  a  supernatural  Imowl- 
edge:  it  is  the  Spirit  Who  groans  in  man  (Rom.,  viii, 
26),  the  Spirit  wno  alone  knows  what  is  in  man  (I  Cor., 
ii,  11^,  the  Spirit  who  with  the  body  and  the  soul  forms 
the  Patdine  trichotomy  of  I  Thess.,  v,  23.  Alexander 
of  Hales  neglects  this  limitation  to  the  supernatural, 
and  takes  synteresis  as  neither  a  poteniia  alone,' nor  a 
habilus  alone,  but  a  poienHa  habittudiSy  something  na- 
tive, essential,  indestructible  in  the80ul,3ret  liable  to  be 
obscured  and  baffled.  It  resides  both  in  the  intdli- 
genee  and  in  the  will:  it  is  identified -with  conscience, 
not  indeed  on  its  lower  side,  as  it  is  deliberative' and 
makes  concrete  applications,  but  on  its  higgler  side  as 
it  is  wholly  general  in  principle,  intuitive,  a  lumen  tn- 
natum  in  tne  intellect  and  a  native  inclination  to  good 
in  the  will,  voluntas  naiuralis  non  deliberaHva  (Summa 
Theol.,  Pt.  IT,  QQ.  Ixxi-lxxvii).  St.  Bonaventure,  the 
pupil,  follows  on  the  same  lines  in  his  "Commentarium 
in  II  Sent."  (dist.  xxxix),  with  the  diiferenoe  that  he 
locates  the  synteresis  as  color  et  pondua  in  the  will  only, 
distinguishing  it  from  the  conscience  in  the  practical 
intellect,  which  he  calls  an  innate  habit — ''rationale 
iudicatoriimi,  habitus  cognoscitivus  moralitmi  princi- 
piorum" — "a  rational  judnnent,  a  habit  cognoscitive 
of  moral  principles".  Umike  Alexander  he  retains 
the  name  conscience  for  descent  to  particulars:  "con- 
scientia  non  solum  consistit  in  universali  sed  etiam  de- 
soendit  ad  particularia  ddiberativa" — "conscience  not 
only  consists  in  the  universal  but  also  descends  to  de- 
liberative particulars".  As  regards  general  principles 
in  the  conscience,  the  habits  are  innate:  while  as  re- 
gards particular  applications,  they  are  acquired  (II 
Sent.,  dist  xxxix,  art.  1,  Q.  ii). 

As  forming  a  transition  from  the  Franciscan  to  the 
Dominican  ^hool  we  may  take  one  whom  the  Servite 
Order  can  at  least  claim  as  a  great  patron,  thoueh  he 
seems  not  to  have  joined  their  body,  Henry  of  Ghent. 
He  places  conscience  in  the  intellect,  not  in  the  affec- 
tive part — "non  ad  affectivam  jpertinet" — ^by  which 
the  Scholastics  meant  generally  the  will  without  special 
reference  to  feeling  or  emotion  as  distinguished  m  the 
modem  sense  from  will.  While  Nicholas  of  Cusa  de- 
scribed the  Divine  illumination  as  acting  in  blind-bom 
man  (virtus  illuminati  coecinati  qui  per  fidem  visum 
acquirit),  Henry  of  Ghent  required  only  assistances 
to  human  sight.  Therefore  he  supposed:  (a)  an 
xnfuentia  generalis  Dei  to  apprehend  concrete  ob- 
jects and  to  generalize  thence  ideas  and  principles; 
(b)  a  light  of  faith;  (c)  a  lumen  specude  wherewith 
was  known  the  sincera  et  limmda  Veritas  rerum  by 
chosen  men  only,  who  saw  tnings  in  their  Divine 
exemplars  but  not  God  Himself;  (d)  the  lumen 
glonm  to  see  God.  For  our  purpose  we  specially  note 
this:  "oonscientia  ad  partem  animse  co^itivam  non 
pertinet,  sed  ad  affectivam'' — "conscience  belongs 
not  to  the  co^itive  part  of  the  mind,  but  to  the  affec- 
tive" (Quodlibet.,  I,  xviii).  St.  Thomas,  leading  the 
Dominicans,  places  synteresis  not  in  the  will  but  in  the 
intellect,  andne  applies  the  term  conscience  to  the  con- 
crete determinations  of  the  general  principle  which  the 
synteresis  furnishes:  "By  conscience  the  knowledge 
given  through  synteresis  is  applied  to  particular  ac- 
tions". ("Be  Verit.",  Q.  xvii,  a.  2.  Cf.  "Summa 
Theol.",  Q.  bcxfac,  a.  13;  ^*III  Sent.",  dist.  xiv,  a.  1, 
Q.  ii;  "Ck>ntra  Gent.",  II,  59.)  Albcrtus  agrees  with 
St.  Thomas  in  assigning  to  the  intellect  the  sjmteresis, 
which  he  unfortunately  derives  from  syn  and  h(erere 
(haerens  in  aliquo)  (Summa  Theol.,  Pt.  II,  Q.  xcix, 
memb.  2, 3;  Summa  de  Creaturis,  Pt.  II,  Q.  bdx,  a.  1). 
Yet  he  does  not  deny  all  place  to  the  will:  "Est  ra- 
tionis  practicse  .  .  .  non  sine  voluntate  naturali,  sed 
nihfl  est  voluntatis  deliberativse  (Summa  Theol.,  Pt. 
II ,  Q.  xcix,  memb .  1 ) .  TTie  preference  of  the  Francis- 
can School  for  the  prominence  of  will,  and  the  prefer- 


ence of  the  Thomistic  School  for  the  prominence  of  in- 
tellect is  characteristic.  (See  Scotus,  IV  Sent.,  dist. 
xlix,  Q.  iv.)  Often  this  preference  is  less  sig^iiiicant 
than  it  seems.  Fouill6e,  the  great  defender  of  the 
idSe  force — idea  as  the  active  principle — allows  in  a 
oontrovensy  with  Speneer  that  feeling  and  will  may  be 
involved  in  the  idea. '  Having  shown  how  Scholasti- 
cism began  its  research  into  conscience  as  a  fixed  termi- 
nologv,  we  must  leave  the  matter  there,  adding  only 
threeheads  under  which  occasion  was  given  for  serious 
errors  outside  the  Catholic  tradition: — 

(a)  While  St.  Augustine  did  excellent  service  in  de- 
veloping the  doctrine  of  grace,  he  never  so  clearly 
defined  the  exact  character  of  the  supernatural  as  to , 
approach  the  precision  which  was  given  through  the 
condemnation  of  propositions  tau^tby  Baius  and  Jan- 
senius;  and  in  consequence  his  doctrine  of  ori^nal  sin 
remained  unsatisfactory.  When  Alexander  of  Hales, 
without  distinction  of  natural  and  supernatural,  in- 
troduced among  the  Scholastics  the  words  of  St. 
Jerome  about  synteresis  as  seinttUa  conscientiOf  and 
called  it  lumen  tnnatum,  he  helped  to  perpetuate  the 
Aimistinian  obscurity. 

(d)  As  regards  the  intellect,  several  Scholastics  in- 
clined to  the  Arabian  doctrine  of  inteUectus  agenSf  or  to 
the  Aristotelean  doctrine  of  the  Divine  poGs  higher 
than  the  human  soul  and  not  perishable  with  it.  Roger 
Bacon  called  the  inteUectus  agens  a  distinct  substance. 
Allied  with  this  went  Exemplarism,  or  the  doctrine 
of  archetypic  ideas  and  the  supposed  knowledge  of 
things  in  these  Divine  ideas,  [(jompare  Hie  Tpok^w 
%li^vr^  of  the  Stoics,  which  were  universab,  xoimt 
MfvoMi  (Zeller,  Stoics,  ch.  vi)].  H»uy  of  Ghent  distin- 
guished in  man  a  double  knowledge:  "primum  exem- 
plar rei  est  species  eius  universalis  causata  a  re:  secun- 
dum est  ars  divina,  continens  rerum  ideates  rationes" 
— ^"the  first  exemplar  of  a  thing  is  universal  species  of 
it  caused  by  the  thing:  the  second  is  the  Divine  Art 
containing  the  ideal  reasons  (rationed)  of  things" 
(Theol.,  I,  2,  n.  15).  Of  the  former  he  says:  "per  tale 
exemplar  acauisitum  certa  et  infallibilis  notitia  veri- 
tatis  est  omnino  impossibilis" — "through  such  an  ac- 
quired exemplar,  certain  and  infallible  knowledge  of 
truth  is  utterly  impossible"  (n.  17) ;  and  of  the  latter: 
''illi  soli  certam  veritatem  valent  agnoscere  qui  cam 
in  exemplar!  (»temo)  valent  aspicere,  quod  non  omnes 
valent" — "they  alone  can  know  certain  truth  who 
can  behold  it  in  the  (eternal)  exemplar,  which  not  all 
can  do"  (I,  1,  n.  26).  The  perplexity  was  further  in- 
creased when  some,  with  Occam,  asserted  a  confused 
intuition  of  things  singular  as  opposed  to  the  clearer 
idea  ^t  by  the  process  of  abstraction:  "Cognitio  sin- 
gulans  abistractiva  pnesupponit  intuitivam  ejusdem 
objecti" — "  alratractive  cognition  of  a  sin^ar  presup- 
poses intuitive  cognition  of  the  same  object"  (Quod- 
lib.,  I,  Q.  xiii).  Scotus  also  has  taught  the  confused 
intuition  of  the  singulars.  Here  was  much  occasion 
for  perplexity  on  the  intellectual  side,  about  the 
knowledge  of  general  principles  in  ethics  and  their  ap- 
plication when  the  pnority  of  the  general  to  the  par- 
ticular was  in  question. 

(c)  The  will  also  was  a  source  of  obscurity.  Des- 
cartes supposed  the  free  will  of  God  to  have  deter- 
mined what  for  conscience  was  to  be  right  and  what 
wrong,  and  he  placed  the  act  of  volition  in  an  affirma- 
tion of  the  judgment.  Scotus  did  not  fgp  thus  far,  but 
some  Scotists  exaggerated  the  determming  power  of 
Divine  will,  especiafly  so  as  to  leave  it  to  the  choice  of 
God  indefinitely  to  enlai^  a  creature's  natural  facul- 
ties in  a  way  that  made  it  hard  to  distinguish  the  nat- 
ural from  the  supernatural.  Connected  with  the  phil- 
osophy of  the  will  in  matters  of  conscience  is  another 
statement  open  to  controversy,  namelv,  that  the  wUl 
can  tend  to  any  good  object  in  particular  onl^  by  rea- 
son of  its  universal  tendency  to  the  good.  This  is  what 
Alexander  of  Hales  means  by  synteresis  as  it  exists  in 
the  will,  when  he  says  that  it  is  not  an  inactive  habit 


OOBTSOISNOX 


272 


ooHsonaraB 


but  a  habit  in  some  aenae  active  of  itself,  or  a  general 
tendency,  disposition,  bias,  weight,  or  virtuality. 
With  this  we  might  contrast  Kant's  pure  noumenal 
will,  good  apart  from  all  determinedly  pood  objects. 

(4)  Anti-Scholastic  Schools. — ^The  "history  of  ethics 
outside  the  Scholastic  domain,  so  far  as  it  is  antagonis- 
tic, has  its  extremes  in  Monism  or  Pantheism  on  the 
one  side  and  in  Materialism  on  the  other. 

(a)  Spinoza  is  a  type  of  the  Pantheistic  opposition. 
His  views  are  erroneous  inasmuch  as  they  r^ard  all 
thin^  in  the  light  of  a  fated  necessity,  with  no  free 
will  m  either  God  or  man;  no  preventable  evil  in  the 
natural  course  of  things;  no  purposed  good  of  crea* 

^  tion;  no  individual  destiny  or  immortality  for  the  re- 
'  sponsible  agent:  indeed  no  strict  responsibility  and  no 
strict  retribution  by  reward  or  punishment.  On  the 
other  hand  many  of  Spinoza's  sayings,  if  lifted  into  the 
theistic  region,  may  be  transformed  into  something 
noble.  The  theist,  taking  up  Spinoza's  phraseology 
in  a  converted  sense,  may,  imder  this  new  interpreta- 
tion, view  all  passionate  action,  all  sinful  choice,  as  an 
''inadequate  idea  of  things",  as  'Hhe  preference  of  a 
part  to  the  detriment  of  the  whole",  while  all  virtue  is 
seen  as  an  ''adequate  idea"  taking  in  man's  "full  rela- 
tion to  himself  as  a  whole,  to  human  society  and  to 
God".  Again,  Spinoza's  amor  Dei  inteUecliLalis  be- 
comes finally,  when  duly  corrected,  the  Beatific  Vi- 
sion, after  having  been  the  darker  understanding  of 
God  enjoyed  by  holy  men  before  death,  who  love  all 
objects  in  reference  to  God.  Spinoza  was  not  an  anti- 
nomian  in  conduct;  he  recommended  and  practised 
virtues.  He  was  better  than  his  philosophy  on  its  bad 
side,  and  worse  than  his  phUosophjr  on  its  good  side 
after  it  has  been  improved  by  Christian  inteipretation. 

(b)  Hobbes  stands  for  ethics  on  a  Materialistic  basis. 
Tracing  all  human  action  to  self-love,  he  had  to  ex- 
plain the  generous  virtues  as  the  more  respectable  ex- 
hibitions of  that  quality  when  modified  by  social  life. 
He  set  various  schools  of  antagonistic  thought  devis- 
ing hypotheses  to  account  for  disinterested  action  in 
man.  The  Cambrid^  Platonists  unsatisfactorily  at- 
tacked him  on  the  principle  of  their  eponymous  philos- 
opher, supposing  the  innate  vo-fnukra  to  rule  the  em- 
pirical oUrHiitara  By  the  aid  of  what  Henry  More 
called  a  "boniform  faculty",  which  tasted  "  the  sweet- 
ness and  savour  of  virtue".  This  calling  in  of  a  spe- 
cial faculty  had  imitators  outside  the  Platonic  School ; 
for  example  in  Hutcheson,  who  had  recourse  to  Divine 
"implantations"  of  benevolent  disposition  and  moral 
sense,  which  remind  us  somewhat  of  synteresis  as  im- 
perfectly described  by  Alexander  of  Hales.  A  robust 
reliance  on  reason  to  prove  ethical  truth  as  it  proved 
mathematical  truths,  by  inspection  and  analysis,  char- 
acterized the  opposition  which  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke  pre- 
sented to  Hobb^.  It  was  a  fashion  of  the  age  to  treat 
philosophy  with  mathematical  rigour ;  but  very  diffei^ 
ent  was  the  "geometrical  ethics'  of  Spinoza,  the  nec- 
essarian, from  that  of  Descartes,  the  libertarian,  who 
thought  that  God's  free  will  chose  even  the  ultimate 
reasons  of  right  and  wrong  and  might  have  chosen 
otherwise.  l7  Hobbes  has  his  representatives  in  the 
Utilitarians,  the  Cambridge  Platonists  have  their  rep- 
resentatives in  more  or  less  of  the  school  of  which  T. 
H.  Green  is  a  leading  light.  A  universal  infinite  mind 
seeks  to  realize  itself  fmitely  in  each  human  mind  or 
brain,  which  therefore  must  seek  to  free  itself  from  the 
bondage  of  mere  natural  causality  and  rise  to  the  lib- 
erty of  the  spirit,  to  a  complete  self-realization  in  the 
infinite  Self  and  after  its  pattern.  What  this  pattern 
ultimately  is  Green  cannot  say;  but  he  holds  tnat  our 
way  towards  it  at  present  is  through  the  recognized 
virtues  of  European  civilization,  together  with  the  cul- 
tivation of  science  and  art.  In  the  like  spirit  G.  £. 
Moore  finds  the  ascertainable  objects  that  at  present 
can  be  called  "good  in  themselves"  to  be  social  inter- 
oourae  and  aesthetic  delight. 

(g)  Kant  may  stand  midway  between  the  Pantheis- 


tic and  the  purely  Empirical  ethics.  On  the  one  sido 
he  limited  our  knowledge,  strictly  so  called,  of  things 
good  to  sense-experiences;  but  on  the  otho*  he  al- 
lowed a  practical,  regulative  etystem  of  ideas  lifting  us 
up  to  God.  Duty  as  referred  to  Divine  commands 
was  religion,  not  ethics:  it  was  religion,  not  ethics,  to 
r^ard  mor^  precepts  in  the  light  of  the  commands  of 
God.  In  ethics  these  were  restricted  to  the  autonom- 
ous aspect,  that  is,  to  the  aspect  of  them  under  which 
the  will  of  each  man  was  its  own  legislator.  Man,  the 
noumenon.  not  the  phenomenon,  was  his  own  law- 
giver and  nis  own  end  so  far  as  morality  went:  annr* 
thing  beyond  was  outside  ethics  proper.  Again,  the 
objects  prescribed  as  good  or  forbidden  as  bad  did  not 
enter  in  among  the  constituents  of  ethical  Quality: 
they  were- only  extrinsic  conditions.  The  whole  of 
moralitv  intrinsically  was  in  the  good  will  as  pure 
from  all  content  or  object  of  a  definite  kind,  from  all 
definite  inclination  to  benevolence  and  as  dmving  its 
whole  dignity  from  respect  for  the  moral  law  simply  as 
a  moral  law,  self-imposed,  and  at  the  same  time  uni- 
versalized for  all  other  autonomous  individuals  of  the 
rational  order.  For  each  moral  agent  as  noumenal 
willed  that  the  maxim  of  his  conduct  should  become  a 
principle  for  all  moral  agents. 

We  have  to  be  careful  how  in  practice  we  impute 
consequences  to  men  who  hold  false  theories  of  con- 
science. In  our  historical  sketch  we  have  found 
Spinoza  a  necessarian  or  fatalist;  but  he  believed  in 
effort  and  exhortation  as  aids  to  good  life.  We  have 
seen  Kant  assert  the  non-morality  of  Divine  precept 
and  of  the  objective  fitness  of  thin^,  but  he  tound  a 
place  for  both  these  elements  in  his  system.  Simi- 
larly Paulsen  gives  in  the  body  of  his  work  a  mundane 
ethics  quite  unaffected  by  his  metaphysical  principles 
as  stated  in  his  preface  to  Book  II.  Luther  logicsdly 
might  be  inferred  to  be  a  thorough  antinomian:  he 
declared  tlie  human  will  to  be  enslaved,  with  a  natural 
freedom  only  for  civic  duties;  he  taught  a  theory  of 
justification  which  was  in  spite  of  evil  deeds ;  he  cfuled 
nature  radically  corrupt  and  forcibly  held  captive  by 
the  lusts  of  the  fiesh;  he  regarded  Divine  grace  as  a 
due  and  necessary  complement  to  human  nature, 
which  as  constituted  by  mere  body  and  soul  was  a 
nature  depraved;  his  justification  was  bv  faith,  not 
only  without  works,  but  even  in  spite  of  evil  works 
which  were  not  imputed.  Nevertheless  he  asserted 
that  tlie  sood  tree  of  the  faith-justified  man  mu^t 
bring  forth  good  works;  he  condemned  vice  most  bit- 
terly, and  exhorted  men  to  virtue.  Hence  Protest- 
ants can  depict  a  Luther  simply  the  preacher  of  good, 
while  Catholics  may  regard  simply  the  preacher  of 
evil.     Luther  has  both  sides. 

V.  Conscience  in  rrs  Practical  Working. — (1) 
The  supremacy  of  coiisdence  is  a  great  theme  of  dis- 
course. "  Were  its  might  eaual  to  its  right  * ',  says  But- 
ler, "it  would  rule  the  world".  With  Kant  we  could 
say  that  conscience  is  autonomously  supreme,  if 
against  Kant  we  added  that  thereby  we  meant  onlv 
that  every  duty  must  be  brought  home  to  the  indi\'ici- 
ual  by  his  own  individual  conscience,  and  is  to  this  ex- 
tent imposed  by  it;  so  that  even  he  who  follows  author- 
ity contrary  to  his  own  private  judgment  should  do  so 
on  his  own  private  conviction  that  the  former  has  the 
better  claim.  If  the  Church  stands  between  God  and 
conscience,  then  in  another  sense  also  the  conscience  is 
between  God  and  the  Church.  Unless  a  man  Ls  con- 
scientiously submissive  to  the  Catholic  Church  his  sub- 
jection is  not  really  a  matter  of  inner  morality  but  a 
mechanical  obedience. 

(2)  Conscience  as  a  matter  of  education  and  perfed'- 
bility. — As  in  all  other  concerns  of  education,  so  in  tUe 
training  of  conscience  we  must  use  the  sevex^  meaa^. 
As  a  check  on  individual  caprice,  especially  in  youth, 
we  must  consult  the  best  living  authorities  and  the  bent 
traditions  of  the  past.  At  the  same  time  that  we  are 
recipient  our  own  active  faculties  must  exert  them- 


CON80IBV0B 


273 


OQMfCHflllOil 


selves  in  tlie  purauit  with  akeenoutlookforthe  ohanoes 
of  error.  Really  unavoidable  mistakeB  will  not  count 
Hgainst  us:  but  many  enons  are  remotely,  when  not 
proximately,  preventable.  From  all  our  blunders  we 
should  learn  a  lesson.  The  dili^nt  examiner  and  cor- 
rector of  his  own  conscience  has  it  in  his  power,  by  long 
diUgence  to  reach  a  great  delicacy  and  responsiveness 
to  the  call  of  dutv  and  of  higher  virtue,  whereas  the 
ii^^igent,  and  still  more  the  perverse,  may  in  some 
sense  become  dead  to  conscience.  The  burdening  of 
the  heart  and  the  bad  power  to  put  light  for  darkness 
and  darkness  for  light  are  results  which  may  be 
achieved  with  only  too  much  ease.  Even  the  best 
criteria  will  leave  residual  perplexities  for  which  pro- 
vision has  to  be  made  in  an  ethical  theory  of  probabili- 
ties which  will  be  explained  in  thearticlePROBABiLisif . 
Suffice  it  to  say  here  that  the  theory  leaves  intact  the 
old  rule  that  a  man  in  so  acting  must  judge  that  he  cer- 
tainly is  allowed  thus  to  act,  even  though  sometimes  it 
might  be  more  commendable  to  do  otherwise.  In  in- 
ferring something  to  be  permissible,  the  extremes  of 
scrupulosity  and  of  laxity  have  to  be  avoided. 

(3)  The  apfrowUa  and  reprovaU  of  conadence, — The 
office  of  conscience  is  sometimes  treated  under  too  nar- 
row a  conception.  Some  writers,  after  the  manner  of 
Socrates  when  he  spoke  of  his  damon  as  rather  a  re- 
strainer  than  a  promoterof  action,  assign  to  conscience 
the  office  of  forbidding,  as  others  assign  to  law  and  go  v- 
emm^it  the  negative  duty  of  checkmg  invasion  upon 
individual  liberty.  Shaftesbury  (Inquiry  II,  2,  1)  re- 
gards conscience  as  the  consciousness  of  wrongdoing, 
not  of  rightdoing.  Carlyle  in  his  ''Essay  on  Charao- 
teristics  asserts  that  we  should  have  no  sense  of  hav- 
ing a  conscience  but  for  the  fact  that  we  have  sinned; 
with  which  view  we  may  compare  Green's  idea  about  a 
reasoned  system  of  ethics  (Prol^.,  Bk.  IV,  oh.  ii,  sect. 
311)  that  its  use  is  negative  ''to  provide  a  safeguard 
aesunst  the  pretext  which  in  a  speculative  age  some  in- 
adequate and  misapplied  theories  ma^  afford  our  scdf- 
ifihness  rather  than  in  the  way  of  pomting  out  duties 
previously  ignored".  Others  say  that  an  ethics  of 
conscience  should  no  more  be  hortatory  than  art  should 
be  didactic.  Mackenzie  (Ethics,  3rd  ed.,  Bk.  Ill,  ch.  i, 
sect.  14)  prefers  to  say  simply  that  "conscience  is  a 
feeling  of  pain  accompanyinc^and  resulting  from  non- 
conformity to  principle".  The  suggestion  which,  by 
way  of  contrary,  these  remarks  o£fer  is  that  we  should 
use  conscience  largely  as  an  approving  and  an  instigs^ 
ting  and  an  inspiring  a^ncy  to  advance  us  in  the  right 
way.  We  should  not  m  morals  copy  the  physicists, 
who  deny  all  attractive  force  and  limit  force  to  vU  a 
tergOf  a  push  from  behind.  Nor  must  we  think  that 
the  positive  side  of  conscience  is  exhausted  in  lurging 
obligations:  it  may  go  on  in  spite  of  Kant,  beyond 
duty  to  works  of  supererogation.  Of  course  there 
is  a  theor>r  inrhich  denies  the  existence  of  such  works 
on  the  principle  that  every  one  is  simply  bound  to 
the  better  and  the  best  if  he  feels  himself  equal  to 
the  heroic  achievement.  This  philosophy  would  la^ 
it  down  that  he  who  can  renounce  all  and  give  it 
to  the  poor  is  simply  obliged  to  do  so,  though  a  less 
generous  nature  is  not  bound,  and  may  take  advan- 
tage— if  it  be  an  advantage — of  its  own  inferiority. 
Not  such  was  the  way  in  which  Christ  put  the  case :  He 
said  hypothetically,  '  if  thou  wilt  be  perfect",  and  His 
follower  St.  Peter  said  to  Ananias  **  Was  not  [thy  land] 
thine  own?  and  after  it  was  sold,  was  it  not  in  thine 
own  power?  . . .  Thou  hast  not  lied  unto  men,  but  unto 
God.*'  (Acts,  V,  4.)  We  have,  then,  a  sphere  of  duty 
and  beyond  that  a  sphere  of  free  virtue,  and  we  include 
both  under  the  domain  of  conscience.  It  is  objected 
Uiat  only  a  prig  considers  the  approving  side  of  his  conr 
science,  but  that  is  true  only  of  the  priggLsh  manner, 
not  of  the  thiiug  itself ;  for  a  sound  mind  may  verv  well 
seek  the  joy  which  comes  of  a  faithful,  generous  heart, 
aud  make  it  an  elTort  of  a  conscience  that  outstrips  duty 
to  aim  at  higher  perfection,  not  under  the  false  persua 
IV,— 18 


sion  that  only  after  duty  has  been  fulfilled  does  merit 
be^,  but  under  the  true  conviction  that  duty  is  meri- 
torious, and  that  so  also  is  goodness  in  excess  of  duty. 
Not  that  the  eye  is  to  be  too  narrowly  fixed  on  rewaros: 
these  are  included,  while  virtue  for  virtue's  sake  and 
for  the  sake  of  God  is  carefully  cultivated. 

AsuTOTUS,  Eth.  Nic.t  VI,  5;  Pet£B  Lohbard.  II  Sent.,  diat. 
xxjdx,  Q.  iii;  Alexander  or  Haleb,  Sutnma,  Pt.  II,  Q.  Ixxl; 
St.  BoNAVENTtrxB,  M  Lib.  Sent.,  loo.  dt.;  Aiskbtub  If  aonus, 
Summa  Theol.,  Pt.  II,  Q.  xeix,  mamb.  2,  8:  Jj»EM,8ufnma  de 
Creai.,  Pt.  II,  Q.  box.  a.  1;  St.  Tbomab.  Summa,  X  Q.  Ixxix, 
aa.  12, 13;  I-II,  Q.  xix.  aa.  6,  6:  Idem,  De  Verit.,  Q,  xvi;  tehn 
von  Weten  de»  GewisMm  in  der  SfkoUttHk  dew  ISen  Jahthunderte 
(Freibitts  im  Br.,  1895);  Thibiue.  Die  PAOoaopkia  dee  Seibe^ 
hewueeieeine  (Berlin.  1895);  Gass.  Geacfnchte  der  ehrUaichen 
Ethik  (Berlin,  1881-1887);  Luthardt,  History  of  ChrieHan  Ethiee 
to  the  Reformation,  tr.  from  German  (Edinburgh,  1868);  Janvf 
AND  86AXULE8,  Hittory  of  the  Frobleme  of  Phuoeoj^  tr.  from 
French  by  Monahan  (London,  1902);  Paux*  Janet,  Tfie  Theory 
of  Atorala,  tr.  Chapman  (Edinburgh);  Sidgwick,  History  of 
Sthice  (London.  1896);  Butxab,  Sermone;  Newman,  Grammar 
of  Assent  (London,  1903);  StoowzcK,  Methods  of  Etkies  (Lon- 
don, 1901):  BncRBERaEB,  Kirchlichss  Handlexikon  (Munich, 
1907);  DB  Wjii.r,  Henri  de€fand(hanvBin,  1894);  Hvmthbbt, 
Coneeienee  and  Law  (London,  1896). 

John  Rickabt. 

Ooiuicienc^  BIxamination  of.  gee  Examination 
OF  Conscience. 

Oozuicienca,  Hendbik,  a  Flemish  novelist,  b.  at 
Anttrerp,  3  Deoember,  1812;  d.  at  BraBKb;  10  Sep- 
tember, 1883.  Hb  father  was  Freneh  and  his  mother 
Flemish.  Until  the  age  of  seven  Oonsoienoe  was  a 
cripple,  and  was  constantly  under  the  care  of  his 
mother  who  used  to  tell  him  wonderful  tales  of  fairies 
and  angels.  little  by  little,  how<9v«r,  he  grew 
stronger,  and  was  able  to  take  part  in  the  games  of 
other  ehUdren^  but,  as  soon  as  he  could  md,  books 
were  his  favourite  companions.  In  faefe,  it  was  hj 
reading  that  he  mainly  educated  himself,  for  his 
schooling  was  limited  to  what  would  be  considered 
tOHky  as  the  elementary  grade.  In  1890  he  was  a 
tutor  in  tlie  Delin  School,  to  some  degree  a  fashion- 
able institution  of  Antwerp,  but  at  tli^  vevy  begin- 
ning of  the  struggle  for  mdependence  he  resigned 
his-  position  and  entered  the  army  as  a  private. 

His  militaiy  service,  which  lasted  six  years,  brought 
him  into  contact  with  the  peasants  of  the  northern 
part  of  Belgium,  and  gave  him  an  opportunity  to 
study  their  mannera,  their  customs,  and  to  see  the 
attractive  skies  of  their  character,  rough  as  it  is  on 
the  surface.  After  leaving  the  arm^r  he  was  suoces- 
sively  connected  with  the  local  adminiitration  of  Ant- 
werp, the  mcadany  of  the  same  city,  and,  in  1857, 
with  the  local  administration  of  Courtrui.  In  1868 
he  was  appointed  commissioner  of  the  royal  museums 
of  paintmg  and  sculpture*  He  had  taught  Flemish 
to  the  sons  of  Ki^g  Leopold  I,  and  in  1868  refused 
the  chair  of  Flemish  literature  in  the  University  of 
Ghent.  In  1869  be  became  a  member  of  the  Eoyal 
Aoidemy  of  Belgium. 

While  in  the  lurmy  Oonsoienoe  began  to  write,  but 
in  French.  In  1887,  following  the  advice  of  his  friend 
Jan  Delaet,  he  made  up  his  mind  to  write  in  Flemish^ 
an  idiom  which  was  then  considered  too  rude  for 
literary  composition.  In  this  language  he  published 
hisfiistnovd,  '"The  Wonderful  Year",  and  six  months 
later  a  volume  of  verse  and  prose,  '' Phaatasij ". 
These  two  highly  romantic  {Hroductions,  where  every* 
thing,  romance,  style,  and  even  laoi^iage,  lay  open  to 
criticism,  were  failures.  Conscience,  however,  was  in 
no  way  dismayed  and  took  in  hand  another  woric. 
This  time  his  efforts  were  crowned  with  success. 
When,  in  1838,  "The  Lk>n  of  Flanders"  i4>peared, 
it  enriched  Flemish  literature  with  «  masteri»eee. 
After  this  success  he  never  ceased  writing.  His  com ' 
plete  worics  embrace  more  than  a  hundred  volumes 

Conscience  got  his  inspiration  from  three  mais 
sources:  the  tetherland,  the  family,  and  loyalty  tc 
the  Church.  His  conception  of  art  is  an  kieawtic 
one,  thoi^h  he  gives  a  vivid  account  of  the  reaHties 
of  life.    Bis  avowed  purpose  was  always  to  inspire 


OOKSOnSHOX 


274 


coirsoioirsHsss 


the  people  with  a  love  for  the  good  and  the  beautiful. 
He  possesses  to  a  high  d^iee  the  sense  of  the  dra- 
matic and  pathetic;  he  has  a  wonderful  power  of  grasp- 
ing the  picturesQue  side  of  things,  ana  often  renders 
it  with  a  rare  felicity  of  expression.  His  works  en- 
joyed a  great  vogue,  and  have  been  translated  into 
most  of  the  European  languages.  Several  English 
editions  appeared  in  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Balti- 
more. Among  his  historical  novels  '^The  lion  of 
Flanders"  and  ''Jacob  van  Artevelde''  are  consid- 
ered his  best  achievements;  among  his  studies  of  life 
and  manners  the  most  successful  were  ''Siska  van 
Roosemael"  and  "The  Blessing  of  Being  Rich"; 
among  his  village  tales  the  best  known  are  ''The 
Conscript"  and ^' Baas  Gansendonck".  The  city  of 
Antwerp  raised  a  monument  to  this  famous  son, 
which  was  unveiled  some  weeks  before  his  death. 

OoNsamcB,  Oe9cMedmvu  mijner  jeuod;  Ekkhoud.  Henri 
Canacienot  (BnuBeb,  1881);  db  Mont,  Hendrik  Catucimce, 
ntn  Uven  en  aijne  werken  (Ghent,  1883);  Mabxston,  JLea 
riamanda  h  jtrovoa  de  la  moft  ae  H.  Conadenee:  Le  sentiment  de 
race  (Lyons,  1884);  db  Konxnck,  Bibliographie  natumale  bdge 
(BrusMls.  1886).  ^    ,    ,, 

P.  J.  Mabique. 
Ooiuieieneev  Libebty  of.    See  Toleration. 

Oonacioiuniesa  (Lat.  amaeieniia;  Qer.  BewusMsnn) 
cannot,  strictly  speaking,  be  defined.  In  its  widest 
sense  it  includes  all  our  sensations,  thoughts,  f eelines, 
and  volitions — in  fact  the  sum  total  of  our  mental  lue. 
We  indicate  the  meanins  of  the  term  best  by  con- 
trasting conscious  life  witn  the  unconscious  state  of  a 
swoon,  or  of  deep,  dreamless  sleep.  We  are  said  to  be 
oonaoious  of  mental  states  when  we  are  alive  to  them, 
or  are  aware  of  them  in  any  d^;ree.  The  tenn  aelf- 
conscious  is  employed  to  denote  the  higher  or  more 
reflective  form  of  knowledge,  in  which  we  formally 
recognise  our  states  as  our  own.  Consciousness  in  the 
wide  sense  has  come  to  be  recessed  in  modem  times 
as  the  subject-matter  of  a  special  science,  psychology; 
or,  more  definitely,  phenomenal  or  empirical  psy- 
chology. The  investigation  of  the  facts  of  conscious- 
ness, viewed  as  phenomena  of  the  human  mind,  their 
observation,  description,  and  analysis,  their  classifi- 
cation, the  studv  of  the  conditi<m8  of  their  growth  and 
development,  tne  laws  exhibited  in  their  manifesta- 
tion, and,  in  general,  the  explanation  of  the  more  com- 
plex mental  operations  ana  products  by  their  reduc- 
tion to  more  oementary  states  and  processes,  is  held 
to  be  the  business  of  the  scientific  p^rchdogist  at  the 
present  day. 

HnrroRT. — ^The  scientifio  or  qrstematic  study  of  the 
phenomena  of  consciousness  is  modem.  Particular 
mental  operations,  however,  attracted  the  attention 
of  acute  thinkers  from  ancient  times.  Some  of  the 
i^enomena  connected  with  vdition,  such  as  motive, 
mtention,  choice,  and  the  like,  owing  to  their  etiiical 
importance,  were  elaborately  investigated  and  de- 
scribed by  eariy  Christian  moralists;  whilst  some  of 
our  cognitive  operations  were  a  subject  of  interest  to 
the  earliest  Greek  philosophers  in  their  speculations 
on  the  problem  of  numan  knowledge.  The  common 
character,  however,  of  all  bran(jhes  of  phQosophy  hi 
the  ancient  worid,  was  objective,  an  inouiry  into  the 
nature  of  being  and  becoming  in  general,  and  of  cer- 
tain forms  of  being  m  particular.  Even  when  epis- 
temological  questions,  investigations  into  the  nature 
of  knowing,  were  undertaken,  as  e.  g.  by  the  School  of 
Democritus,  there  seems  to  have  been  very  little 
effort  made  to  test  the  theories  by  careful  comparison 
with  the  actual  experience  of  our  oonseiousness.  Ac- 
cordin^y,  crude  hypotheses  received  a  considerable 
amount  of  support.  The  great  difference  between 
ancient  and  modem  methods  of  investigating  the 
human  mind  will  be  best  seen  by  comparing  Aris- 
totle's "De  Anim&"  and  any  modem  treatise  such  as 
Wflliam  James'  "  Principles  of  Psychology*',  or  James 
Ward's  article  on  psychology  in  the  ninth  edition  of 


the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica".  Although  there  » 
plenty  of  evidence  of  inductive  inquiry  in  the  Gneck 
philosopher's  book,  it  is  mainly  of  an  objective  Aar- 
acter ;  and  whilst  there  are  incidentally  acute  obecrva- 
tions  on  the  operations  of  the  senses  and  the  constitu- 
tion of  some  mental  states,  the  bulk  of  the  treatise  is 
either  physiological  or  metaphysical.  On  the  other 
hand  tne  aim  of  the  modem  inquirer  throughout  is 
the  diligent  study  by  introspection  of  different  forms 
of  consciousness,  and  the  explanation  of  all  complex 
forms  of  consciousness  by  resolving  them  into  their 
simplest  elements.  The  Schoolmen,  in  the  main, 
followed  the  lines  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  especially 
Aristotle.'  There  is  a  striking  uniformity  in  the  trac- 
tate "De  Anim&"  in  the  hands  of  each  successive 
writer  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Middle  Ages.  TTie 
object  and  conditions  of  the  operations  of  the  ec^ni- 
tive  and  appetitive  faculties  of  the  soul,  the  constitu- 
tion of  species f  the  character  of  the  distinction  between 
the  soul  and  its  faculties,  the  connexion  of  sou^  and 
body,  the  inner  nature  of  the  soul,  its  origin  and  des- 
tiny arc  discussed  in  each  treatise  from  the  twelfth  to 
the  sixteenth  century;  whilst  the  method  of  ars:ument 
throughout  rests  rather  on  an  ontological  anarysis  of 
our  concepts  of  the  various  phenomena  than  on  pains- 
taking introspective  study  of  the  character  of  our 
mental  activities  themselves. 

However,  as  time  went  on,  the  importance  of  cer- 
tain problems  of  Christian  theology,  not  so  vividly 
realized  by  the  ancients,  compellea  a  more  searching 
observation  of  consciousness  and  helped  on  the  sub- 
jective movement.  Free  will,  responsibility,  inten- 
tion, consent,  repentance,  and  conscience  acouired  a 
significance  imknown  to  the  old  pagan  worid.  This 
procured  an  increasingly  copious  treatment  of  these 
subjects  from  the  moral  theologians.  Tlie  difficulties 
surrounding  the  relations  between  sensuous  and  in- 
tellectual knowledge  evoked  more  systematic  treat- 
ment in  successive  controversies.  Certain  questions 
in  ascetical  and  mystical  theology  also  necessitated 
more  direct  appeal  to  strictly  psychological  investi- 
gation among  the  later  Schoolmen.  Still,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  careful  inductive  observation  and 
analysis  of  our  consciousness,  so  characteristic  of 
modem  psychological  literature,  occupies  a  relatively 
small  space  in  the  classical  De  animd  of  the  medieval 
schools.  The  nature  of  our  mental  states  and  pro- 
cesses is  usually  assumed  to  be  so  obvious  that  de- 
tailed description  is  needless,  and  the  main  part  of  the 
writer's  ene^  is  devoted  to  metaphysical  aigument. 
Locke's  "Essay  Concerning  Human  XJnderstaiKiing" 
(1690)  and  the  writings  of  Thomas  Hobbes  (15^ 
1679),  both  of  which  combine  with  confused  and 
superficial  metaphysics  much  acute  observation  and 
genuinely  scientific  attempts  at  analysis  of  various 
mental  states,  inaugurated  the  systematic  inductive 
study  of  the  phenomena  of  the  mind  whidi  has  grown 
into  the  mooem  science  of  consciousness,  the  empir- 
ical or  phenomenal  psvcholog^  of  the  present  day.  In 
Great  Britain  the  idealism  of  Berkeley,  which  resolved 
the  seemingly  independent  material  world  into  a  series 
of  ideas  awakened  by  God  in  the  mind,  and  the  seep* 
ticism  of  Hume,  which  professed  to  carry  the  analysis 
still  farther,  dissolving  the  mind  itself  mto  a  cluster  of 
states  of  consciousness,  focused  philosophical  specu- 
lation more  and  more  on  the  analytic  study  of  mental 
phenomena,  and  gave  rise  to  the  Associationist  School. 
This  came  at  last  virtually  to  identify  all  philosophy 
with  psychology.  Reid  and  Stewart,  the  ablest 
representatives  of  the  Scotch  School,  whilst  opposini^ 
Hume's  teaching  with  a  better  psychology,  still 
strengthened  by  their  method  the  same  tendency 
Meantime,  on  tiie  Continent,  Descartes'  system  ol 
methodic  doubt,  which  would  reduce  all  philosophical 
assumptions  to  his  ultimate  cogtto,  ergo  sum,  furthered 
the  stibjective  movement  of  speculation  from  another 
side,  for  it  planted  the  seed  of  the  sundry  modem 


OONSOXOUSHSSS 


275 


oovocnotmms 


plillosophiM  of  ooDBciousneas,  destined  to  be  evolved 
along  varioua  lines  by  Fiehte,  Sdielling,  and  Hart* 


Such  being  in  outline  the  histoiy  of  modem  speeu- 
lation  in  T^ud  to  human  oonBciousness,  the  question 
of  primary  mterest  here  is:  Viewed  from  the  stand* 
point  of  Catholio  theologieal  and  philosophical  teach- 
ing, what  estimate  is  to  be  fonned  of  this  modern 
psychological  method,  and  of  the  modem  science  of 
the  phenomena  of  ocmsciousness?    It  seepis  to  the 
presefnt  writer  that  the  method  of  careful  hidustrious 
observation  of  the  activities  of  the  mind,  the  accurate 
description  and  dassificsEttion  of  the  various  forms  of 
oonscMnisness,  and  the  effort  to  analyse  complex  men- 
tal products  into  their  simplest  elements,  and  to  trace 
Hie  laws  of  the  growth  and  development  of  our  several 
faculties,  constitute  a  sound  rational  procedure  which 
is  as  deserving  of  oonunendation  as  the  employment  of 
sound  sctentinc  method  in  any  other  brandi  of  knowl- 
edge.    Furtiter,  since  the  only  natural  means  of 
aoquirii^  information  respectingtiie  inner  nature  of  the 
soul  is  by  theinvestkation  of  its  activities,  thescientifio 
study  of  the  facts  of  consciousness  is  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary at  the  present  day  to  any  satisfactory  meta* 
physics  of  the  soul.    Assuredly  no  philosophy  of  the 
human  soul  which  ignores  the  results  of  seientifio  ob- 
servation and  ecq)eriment  applied  to  the  phenomena 
of  conseiousness  can  to^ay  <naim  assent  to  its  teach- 
ing with  much  hope  of  success.    On  the  other  hand, 
most  En^ish-speaking  psychologists  since  the  time  of 
Locke,  partly  uiroug^  excessive  devotion  to  the  study 
of  these  |^enomena,  partly  throu^  contempt  for 
metaphysics,  seem  to  have  f  aUen  into  the  error  of  for- 
getting that  the  main  ground  for  interest  in  the  study 
of  our  mental  activities  lies  in  the  hope  that  we  may 
draw  from  them  inferences  as  to  the  inner  constitution 
of  the  being,  subject,  or  agent  from  which  these  activi- 
ties proceed.    Inis  error  nas  made  the  science  of  con- 
sciousness, in  tile  hands  of  many  writers,  a  ''pifychol- 
ogy  without  a  soul''.    This  is,  of  course,  no  necessaiy 
consequence  of  the  method.    With  respect  to  the  relsr 
tion  between  the  study  of  Tx>nsciousnesB  and  philoso- 
phy in  general,  Cathofic  thinkers  would,  for  tne  most 
part,  h^  that  a  diligent  investigation  of  the  various 
forms  of  oar  cogxiitive  consciousness  must  be  under- 
taken as  one  of  me  first  steps  in  phik)sophy ;  that  one^ 
own  conscious  existence  must  be  the  ultimate  fact  in 
every  philosophical  eyntem;  and  that  the  veracity  of 
our  cognitive  faculties,  when  carefully  scrutinized, 
must  be  the  ultimate  postulate  in  every  sound  theory 
of  oognitioiL    But  the  prcepect  of  oonstractin^  a  gen- 
eral philo80];^y  of  consciousness  on  idealistic  Imes 
that  win  harmonijse  with  sundry  theological  doctrines 
whidi  the  Church  has  stamped  with  her  authority, 
does  not  seem  promising.    At  the  same  time,  although 
much  of  our  dogmatic  theology  has  been  formulated 
in  the  technical  language  of  theAristotelean  physios 
and  metaphysics,  and  though  it  would  be,  to  sa;^  the 
ieast,  extremely  difficult  to  disentan^e  the  Divinely 
revealed  relisious  element  horn  the  human  and  im- 
perfect vehi(Ue  by  whi^  it  is  communicated,  yet  it  is 
most  important  to  remember  that  the  conceptions  of 
Anstotelean  metaphysics  are  no  mora  part  of  Divine 
Revelation  than  are  the  hypotheses  of  Aristotelean 
physics :  and  that  tilie  technical  lan^age  with  its  philo- 
sophical associations  and  implications  in  which  mai^ 
of  our  theologusl  doctrines  are  clothed,  is  a  hiunan 
bstrument,  subject  to  alteration  and  correction. 

QUANTTTATIVB   SciENCB   OP  CONSCIOUSNESS. — ^Thc 

term  psychophysics  is  employed  to  denote  a  branch  of 
expenmental  psychologv  which  seeks  to  establish 
quantitative  laws  descnbing  the  general  relations  of 
intensity"  exhibited  in  various  kinds  of  conscious  states 
under  certain  conditions.  Elaborate  en)eriments 
and  ingeiiious  instruments  have  been  devised  by 
Weber;  Fechner,  Wundt.  and  others  for  the  purpose 
of  measuring  the  strength  of  the  stimulus  needed  to 


awaken  the  sensations  of  the  several  senses,  the  quaB*> 
tity  of  variation  in  the  stimulus  required  to  produce  a 
consciously  distinguishable  sensation,  and  so  to  dis- 
oov^  a  minimum  morement  or  unit  of  consciousness; 
also  to  measure  the  exact  duration  of  particular  con- 
scious pnicesses,  the  ''reaction-time-'  or  interval  be* 
tween  the  stimulaticm  of  a  sense-organ  and  the  per* 
formancQ  of  a  responsive  movement,  and  similar  facts. 
These  results  have  been  stated  in  certam  approximate 
laws.  The  best  established  of  these  is  the  Weber- 
Fechner  generalisation,  which  enunciates  the  general 
fact  that  the  stimulus  of  a  sensation  must  be  increased 
in  geometrical  progression  in  order  that  the  intensity 
of  the  resulting  sensation  be  augmented  in  arith- 
metical progression.  The  law  is  true,  however,  onl^  of 
certain  kinds  of  sensation  and  within  limits.  Whilst 
these  attempts  to  reach  quantitative  measurement — 
characteristic  of  the  exact  sciences — ^in  the  study  of 
consciousness  have  not  been  directly  very  fruitful  in 
new  results,  they  have  nevertheless  been  indirectly 
valuable  in  stimulating  the  pursuit  of  greater  aocu<- 
zacjrand  precision  in  all  methods  of  observing  and 
registering  the  phenomena  of  consciousness. 

Sblt-Conscioitbnbss. — ^A  most  important  form  of 
consciousness  from  both  a  philos(]^i<»d  and  a  psycho- 
logioal  point  of  view  is  self-consciousness.  By  uiis  is 
understood  the  mind's  consciousness  of  its  operations 
as  its  own.  Out  of  this  cognition  combined  with 
memory  of  the  past  emerges  the  knowledge  of  our  own 
abiding  personality.  We  not  only  have  conscious 
states  uke  the  lower  animals,  but  we  can  reflect  upon 
these  states,  recognize  them  as  our  own,  and  at  the 
same  time  distinguish  them  from  the  peraianent  self 
of  which  they  are  the  transitory  modifications. 
Viewed  as  the  form  of  consciousness  by  whidi  we 
study  our  own  states,  this  inner  activity  is  called  in- 
trospection. It  is  the  chief  instrument  emplc^ed  in 
the  building  up  of  the  science  of  psychology,  and  it  is 
one  of  the  many  differentia  whidi  separate  the  human 
from  the  animal  mind.  It  has  sometimes  been 
spoken  of  as  an  '^  intomal  sense",  the  proper  object  of 
which  is  the  phenomena  of  consciousness^  as  that  of 
the  external  senses  is  the  phenomena  of  ph3r8ical  na^ 
ture.  Introspection  is,  however,  m«nely  the  function 
of  the  intellect  applied  to  the  observation  of  our  own 
mental  hfe.  The  peculiar  reflective  activity  exhibited 
in  all  forms  of  sell-consciousness  has  led  modem  psy- 
chologists who  defend  the  spirituality  of  the  soul,  in- 
creasingly to  insist  on  this  operation  of  tiie  human 
mind  as  a  main  argument  agunst  materialism.  The 
cruder  fonn  of  materialism  advocated  in  the  last  cen- 
tury by  Broussais,  Vog^,  Molesdiott,  and  at  times  by 
Huxley,  which  maintained  that  thought  is  merely  a 
** product",  ''secretion",  or  '^ function"  of  the  brain, 
is  shown  to  be  untenable  by  a  brief  consideration  of 
any  form  of  consciousness;  All  ''secretions"  and 
''products"  of  material  agents  of  which  we  have  ex- 
perience, are  substances  which  occupy  space,  are  ob- 
servable by  the  external  senses,  and  continue  to  exist 
when  unobserved.  But  all  states  of  consciousness  are 
non-spatial;  they  caimot  be  observed  by  the  senses, 
and  they  exist  only  as  we  are  conscious  or  them — their 
esK  m  percipi,  similarly  ''functions"  of  material 
agents  are,  in  the  last  resort,  resolvable  into  taore* 
ments  of  portions  of  matter.  But  states  of  conscious- 
ness are  not  movemente  any  more  than  they  are 
"secretions"  of  matter.  The  contention,  however, 
that  all  states  of  consciousness,  though  not  "secre- 
tions "  or  "  products"  of  matter,  are  yet  forms  of  activ- 
ity which  have  their  ultimate  source  in  the  brain  and 
are  intrinsically  and  absolutely  dependent  on  the  lat* 
ter  is  not  disposed  of  by  this  reasoning. 

To  meet  this  objection,  attention  is  directed  to  the 
form  of  intellectual  activity  exhibited  in  reflective 
self-consciousness.  In  this  process  there  is  recogni- 
tion of  complete  identity  between  the  knowing  agent 
and  the  object  which  is  known ;  the  690  is  at  once  sub- 


CmUEOBATXOir 


276 


OmBMOLATUm 


iect  and  object.  This  feature  of  our  menial  life  has 
been  adduced  in  evidence  of  the  immateriality  of  the 
soul  by  former  writers,  but  under  the  title  of  an  argu- 
ment from  the  unity  of  consciousness  it  has  been 
stated  in  perhaps  its  most  effective  form  by  Lotse. 
The  phrase  ''continuity  of  consciousness ''has  been 
employed  to  designate  the  apparent  connectedness 
whidi  characterizes  our  inner  experience,  and  the 
term  '^ stream''  of  consciousness  has  been  popularised 
by  Professor  James  as  an  apt  designation  of  our  con- 
scious life  as  a  whole.  Strictly  speaking,  this  continu- 
ity does  not  pertain  to  the  "states"  or  phenomena  of 
consciousness.  One  obviously  large  class  of  inter- 
ruptions is  to  be  found  in  the  nightly  suspension  of 
consciousness  during  sleep.  The  connecting  contin- 
uity is  really  in  the  underlying  subject  of  conscious- 
ness. It  is  only  through  the  reality  of  a  permanent, 
abiding  principle  or  being  which  endures  the  same 
whiLst  the  transitory  states  come  and  go  that  the  past 
experience  can  be  linked  with  the  present,  and  the 
apparent  unity  and  continuity  of  our  inner  life  be  pre* 
served.  The  effort  to  explain  the  seeming  continuity 
of  our  mental  existence  has,  in  the  form  of  the  prob- 
lem of  personal  identity,  proved  a  hopeless  crux  to  all 
sdiools  of  philosophy  which  decline  to  admit  the  real- 
ity of  some  permanent  principle  such  as  the  human 
soul  is  conceived  to  be  m  the  Scholastic  philosophy. 
John  Stuart  Mill,  adhering  to  the  principles  of  Hume, 
was  driven  to  the  conclusion  that  the  human  mind  is 
merely  "  a  series  of  states  of  consciousness  aware  of 
itself  as  a  series".  This  has  been  rightly  termed  by 
James  "the  definite  bankruptcy"  of  the  Association- 
ist  theory  of  the  human  mind.  James'  own  account 
of  the  ego  as  "a  stream  of  consciousness"  in  which 
^eaoh  passing  thought"  is  the  only  "thinker"  is  not 
mudi  more  satirfactory. 

Abnormal  Forms  of  Conbciousness.— In  pro- 
cesses of  self-conscious  activity  the  relative  prominence 
of  the  self  and  tihe  states  varies  much.  When  the 
mind  is  keenly  interested  in  some  external  event,  e.  g. 
a  race,  the  notice  of  self  may  be  diminished  ahnost  to 
aero.  On  the  other  hand,  in  efforts  of  difficult  self- 
restraint  and  deliberate  reflection,  the  consciousness 
of  the  ego  reaches  its  highest  level.  Besides  this 
experience  of  the  varying  degrees  of  the  obtru- 
siveness  of  the  self,  we  are  all  conscious  at 
times  of  trains  of  thought  taking  place  auto- 
matically within  us,  which  seem  to  possess  a  certain 
independence  of  the  main  current  of  our  mental  life. 
Whilst  going  throu^  some  familiar  intellectual  opera- 
tion with  more  or  less  attention,  our  mind  may  at  the 
same  time  be  occupied  in  working  out  a  second  series 
of  thoughts  connected  and  coherent  in  themselves,  yet 
quite  separate  from  the  other  process  in  which  our 
intellect  is  engaged.  These  secondary  "splitrroff" 
processes  of  thought  may,  in  certain  rare  cases,  de- 
velop into  very  (Sstinct,  consistent,  and  protracted 
streams  of  consciousness;  and  they  may  occasionally 
become  so  complete  in  themselves  and  so  isolated 
from  the  main  current  of  our  mental  Ufe,  as  to  possess 
at  least  a  superficiiJ  appearance  of  being  the  outcome 
of  a  separate  personality.  We  have  here  the  phenom- 
enon of  the  so-called  "double  ego".  Sometmies  the 
sections  or  fragments  of  one  fairly  consistent  stream 
of  consciousness  alternate  in  succession  with  the  sec- 
tions of  another  current,  and  we  have  the  alleged 
"mutations  of  the  ego",  in  which  two  or  more  dis- 
tinct personalities  seem  to  occupy  the  same  body  in 
turn.  Sometimes  the  second  stream  of  thought  ap- 
pears to  run  on  concomitantly  with  the  main  current 
of  conscious  experience,  though  so  shut  off  as  only  to 
manifest  its  existence  occasionally.  These  paralld 
currents  of  mental  life  have  been  adduced  by  some 
writers  in  support  of  an  hypothesis  of  concomitant 
"multiple  personalities".  The  psychological  literar 
ture  deEiluDg  with  these  phenomena  which  has  grown 
up  in  recent  years  is  ahready  very  large.    Here  it  suf- 


fices to  observe  in  passing  that  all  these  . 
belong  to  morbid  mental  life,  that  their  nature  and 
origin  are  admittedly  extremely  obscure,  and  that  the 
cases  in  which  the  eao  or  subject  of  one  stream  of  ocm- 
sciousness  has  absolutely  no  knowledge  or  memoiy  of 
the  experiences  of  the  other,  are  extremely  few  and 
very  doubtful.  The  careful  and  industrious  obaerva- 
tions,  however,  which  are  being  collected  in  this  field 
of  mental  pathology  are  valuable  for  many  purposes; 
and  even  if  they  nave  not  so  far  thrown  mudi  li^ 
on  the  problem  of  the  inner  nature  of  the  soul,  at  aA 
events  they  stimulate  effort  towards  an  important 
knowledge  of  the  nervous  conditions  of  mental  pro- 
cesses, and  they  ought  ultimately  to  prove  fruitful  for 
the  study  of  mental  disease. 

Reverie,  dreams,  and  somnambulistic  expeiiencei 
are  forms  of  consciousness  mediating  between  nonnal 
life  and  the  eccentric  species  of  mentality  we  have  just 
been  discussing.  One  particular  form  of  abnormal 
consciousness  which  has  attracted  much  attention 
during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  is  that  exhibited 
in  hypnotism  (q.  v.).  The  type  of  consciousneas  pre- 
sented here  is  in  many  respects  similar  to  that  of 
somnambulism.  The  main  feature  in  which  it  differs 
is  that  the  hypnotic  state  is  artificially  induced  and 
that  the  subject  of  tlus  state  remains  in  a  condition  of 
rapport  or  special  relation  with  the  hypnotiser  of  such 
a  kind  that  he  is  singularly  susceptible  to  the  suggestions 
of  the  latter.  One  feature  of  the  hypnotio  state  in 
common  with  some  types  of  somnambuusm  and  certai  n 
forms  of  the  "split^cff  "  streams  of  consciousness  con- 
sists in  the  fact  that  experiences  which  occurred  in  a 
previous  section  of  the  particular  abnormal  state, 
Uiou^  quite  forgotten  during  the  succeeding  normal 
consciousness,  may  be  remembered  during  a  return  of 
the  abnormal  state.  These  and  some  other  kindrei^ 
facts  have  recently  given  rise  to  much  ingenious  ^>ec- 
ulation  as  to  the  nature  of  mental  Ufe  bdow  th.? 
"threshold"  or  "margin"  of  consciousness.  Certain 
writers  have  adopted  tne  hypothesis  of  a  "  subliminal ", 
in  addition  to  our  ordinary  "  supraliminal ' ',  conscious  - 
ness,  and  ascribe  a  somewhat  mystic  character  to  th/« 
former.  Some  assume  a  universal,  pantheistic,  sub* 
liminal  consciousness  continuous  witn  Uie  subliminal 
consciousness  of  the  individual  Of  this  universal 
mind  they  maintain  that  each  particular  mind  is  but  a 
part.  The  question,  indeed^  as  to  the  existence  and 
nature  of  unconscious  ment^  operations  in  individual 
minds  has  been  in  one  shape  or  another  the  subject  of 
controversy  from  the  time  of  Leibnis.  That  during 
our  normal  conscious  existence  obscure,  subconsciouii 
mental  processes,  at  best  but  faintly  recognisable,  do 
take  place,  is  indisputable.  That  latent  activities  of 
the  soul  which  are  strictly  unoooscbus,  can  be  truly 
mental  or  intellectual  operations  is  the  point  in  debate. 
Whatever  conclusions  be  adopted  with  respect  t9 
those  various  problems,  the  discussion  of  them  nas  et»- 
tablished  beyond  doubt  the  fact  that  our  normal  corr 
sciousness  of  everyday  life  is  profoundly  affected  by 
subconscious  processes  of  the  soul  whicn  themselves 
escape  our  notice.  (See  Person alitt;  Pbtohology; 
Soui,.) 

John  Rickabt,  Fint  Principlea  (London,  1901).  part  II«  v; 
BKiMt»,  Fundamental  PhUoaophu  (New  York.  ISHMI),  I,  xxin; 
Jambs,  Prineiplea  of  Ptytholooy  (New  Yoric  ana  London,  1800), 
vit.  ix,  z;  Febiubb,  An  AUrotktcUon  to  Ike  PhSUmopky  of  Cim- 
adoutness  (London,  1966);  htyrzE.MetaphyBic,  tr.  (Oxford,  188i). 
Ill .  i;  Ladd,  PhOowphy  of  Mnut  (London  and  New  York,  1895), 
v;  Janet,  VAvJUnmaH^mB  Pavckologique  (Paris,  1800),  8^*44, 
84-140.  30&-336;  Uahbii,  Pwdkology,  BmpiriaU  and  RaHomd 
(London  and  New  York.  1007).  26-28,  a6(Sh367.  47&-402. 

Michael  Mahxr. 

Oonsecration,  in  general,  is  an  act  by  which  a 
thing  is  separated  from  a  common  and  profane  to  a 
sacreid  use,  or  by  which  a  person  or  thing  is  dedicated 
to  the  service  and  worahip  of  God  by  prayers,  rites, 
and  ceremonies.  The  custom  of  consecrating  penons 
to  the  Divine  service  and  things  to  serve  in  the  war- 


GOiraiOBATION 


277 


OOVSIOBATIOV 


ship  of  CSod  may  be  traced  to  the  remotest  times.    We 
&id  rites  of  conseoration  mentioned  in  the  early  cult 
of  the  E^i^tiaoB  and  other  pagan  nations.    Amons 
the  Semitic  triberit  oonsistea  in  the  threefold  act  o! 
separating,  Baiictif3ing)  or  pur^hring,  and  devoting  or 
offering  to  the  Deity.    In  the  Hebrew  Law  we  find  it 
applied  to  the  entire  people  whom  Moses,  by  a  solemn 
act  of  oonaecration,  aesignates  as  the  People  of  God: 
As  described  in  the  Book  of  Exodus  (xxiv),  the  rite 
used  on  this  occasion  consisted  (1)  of  the  erection  of  an 
altar  and  twelve  memorial  stones  (to  represent  the 
twd ve  tribes) ;  (2)  of  the  selection  of  twelve  youths  to 
perform  Uie  burnt-offering  of  the  holocaust ;  (3)  Moses 
read  the  covenant,  and  the  people  made  their  profes- 
sion of  obedience;  (4)  Moses  sprinkled  upon  the  peo- 
ple the  blood  reserved  from  the  holocaust.     Later  on 
we  read  of  the  consecration  of  the  priests — ^Aaron  and 
his  sons  (Ebcod.,  zxix) — ^who  had  been  previously 
elected  (Exod.,  xxviii).  Here  we  have  the  act  of  conse- 
cration consisting  of  purifying,  investing,  and  anoint- 
ing (Lev.,  viii)  as  a  preparation  for  their  offering  public 
sacnfioe.     The  placing  of.  the  meat  in  their  nands 
(Exod.,  zxix)  was  considered  an  essential  part  of  the 
eoemony  of  consecration,  whence  the  expression  fiU- 
%ng  the  hand  has  been  considered  identi(»d  with  conr- 
atxrating.    As  to  the  oil  used  in  this  consecration,  we 
find  the  paxticulars  in  Exodus  (xxx,  23, 24 ;  xxxvii,  29). 
Distinct  from  the  priestly  consecration  is  that  of  the 
Jjevites  (Num.,  m.  6)  who  represent  the  first-bom  of 
fdl  the  tribes.    Tne  rite  of  uieir  consecration  is  de- 
scribed in  Numbers,  viii.    Another  kind  of  perM>nal 
fionsecntion  among  the  Hebrews  was  that  of  the  Nas- 
aritea  (Num.,  vi).    It  implied  the  voluntary  separa- 
tion from  certain  things,  dedication  to  Glod,  and  a  vow 
(if  special  sanctity.    SimSariy,  the  rites  of  consecra- 
tion of  objects-Hnidi  as  temples,  lUtars,  firstfrnits, 
spoys  of  war,  etc. — are  minutely  described  in  th^  Old 
Testament.    Among  the  Romans  whatever  was  de- 
voted to  the  worship  of  their  gods  (fields,  animals,  etc. 
was  said  to  be  eonieeraied^  and  the  objects  which  per- 
tained intimately  to  their  woiship  (temples,  altars, 
etc.)  were  said  to  be  dedicated.    These  words  were, 
however,  often  used  indiscriminately,  and  in  both 
cases  it  was  understood  that  the  object  once  conse- 
crated or  dedicated  remained  sacred  in  perpehtum. 

The  CShurch  dirtinguishes  conseoration  from  bless- 
ing, both  in  regpEud  to  persons  and  to  things.  Hence 
the  Roman  Pontifical  treats  of  the  consecration  of  a 
bishop  and  of  the  blessing  of  an  abbot,  of  the  blessing 
of  a  corner-stone  and  the  consecration  of  a  church  or 
altar.  In  both,  ^e  persons  or  things  pass  from  a  com- 
mon, or  profane,  order  to  a  new  state,  and  become  the 
subjects  or  the  instruments  of  Divine  protection.  At 
a  conseoration  the  ceremonies  are  more  solemn  and 
elaborate  than  at  a  blessing.  The  ordinary  minister 
of  a  consecration  is  a  bishop,  whilst  the  ordmary  min- 
ister of  a  blessing  is  a  priest.  At  every  consecration 
the  holy  oils  are  used;  at  a  blessing  customarily  only 
holy  water.  The  new  state  to  which  consecration  ele- 
vates persons  or  thiz^  is  permanent,  and  the  rite  can 
never  be  repeated,  which  is  not  the  case  at  a  blessing; 
the  graces  attadied  to  consecration  are  more  numer^ 
ous  and  efficacious  than  those  attached  to  a  blessing; 
the  profanation  of  a  consecrated  person  or  thin^  car- 
ries with  it  a  new  species  of  sin,  namely  sacrilege, 
which  the  profanation  of  a  blessed  person  or  thing  does 
not  always  do. 

Of  consecrations  proper  the  Roman  Pontifical  con- 
tains one  &[  persons,  tliat  is  of  a  bishop,  and  four  of 
^ng«,  that  is,  of  a  fixed  altar,  of  an  altar-stone,  of  a 
church,  and  of  a  chalice  and  paten.  Hie  consecration 
of  a  churdi  is  also  ealled  its  dedication  (q.  v.),  in  ac- 
(x>rdance  with  the  distinction  between  consecration 
wd  dedication  among  the  ancient  Romans  pointed 
<jat  above.  To  these  might  be  probablv  added  con- 
55'*n»tion  and  Holy  orders,  for  which,  however,  the 
■^^niaii  PontlficiU,  because  they  are  distinct  sacra- 


ments, has  retained  their  proper  names.  If  we  except 
the  consecration  of  a  biimop,  which  is  a  sacrament^ 
althouf^  there  is  a  question  among  theologians, 
whether  the  sacrament  and  the  character  imprinted  by 
it  are  distinct  from  the  sacrament  and  character  of 
the  priesthood,  or  only  a  certain  extension  of  the  sacer- 
dotal sacrament  and  character — ^all  the  other  conse- 
crations are»  sacramentals.  These  are  inanimate 
things  whidi  are  not  susceptible  of  Divine  grace,  but 
are  a  medium  of  its  communication,  since  bv  tiieir  con- 
secration they  acquire  a  certain  spiritual  power  by 
which  they  are  rendered  inperpetuum  fit  and  suitable 
for  Divine  worship.  (St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Summa 
Theol.,  in,  Q.  Ixxxiii,  a.  3,  ad  3  and  4.) 

In  the  Eastern  Churches  the  prayers  at  the  conse- 
cration of  altars  and  sacred  vessels  are  of  the  same 
import  as  those  used  in  the  La^  Church,  and  they  are 
accompanied  by  the  sign  of  the  cross  and  the  anointing 
with  holy  oils  ^Renaudot,  **  Liturgiarum  Orient.  Col- 
lectio",  I,  Ad  benedictiones).  At  the  consecration  of 
a  bishop,  the  Orientals  hxAd,  with  the  Latins,  that  the 
essence  consists  in  the  laying-on  of  hands,  and  they 
entirely  omit  the  anointing  with  holy  oils  (Morinus, 
De  sacris  EScclesisB  ordinationibus.  Pars  III,  Appen- 
dix). 

When  we  speak  of  consecration  without  any  special 
qualification,  we  ordinarily  understand  it  as  tne  act  by 
whidi,  in  the  celebration  of  Holy  Mass,  the  bread  and 
wine  are  changed  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Chnst. 
It  is  called  tran&ubstantiati&n,  for  in  the  Sacrament  ot 
the  Eucharist  the  substance  of  bread  and  wine  do  not 
remain,  but  the  entire  subetanoe  of  bread  is  changed 
into  the  body  of  Christ,  and  the  entire  substance  of 
wine  is  clumgiBd  into  His  blood,  the  species  or  outward 
semblance  of  bread  and  wine  alone  remainii^.  This 
change  is  produced  in  virtue  of  the  words:  This  is  my 
body  and  This  is  my  Uood,  or  This  is  the  chalice  of  my 
blood,  pronounced  by  the  priest  assuming  the  pcnon 
of  Christ  and  using  the  same  ceremonies  that  Christ 
used  at  the  Last  supper.  Tliat  tiiis  is  the  essential 
form  has  been  the  constant  belief  and  teaching  of  both 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  (Renaudot,  "  li- 
turgiarum Orientalium  CoUectio,  I,  i). 

L  Consecration  of  a  Bishop. — ^The  consecration 
of  a  bishop  marks  the  plenitude  of  the  priesthood, 
and  it  is  probable  that  on  this  account  the  "  Pontificale 
Romanum"  places  the  ceremony  of  episcopal  conse- 
cration immediately  after  that  of  the  ordination  of 
priests,  Tit.  XIII,  "  De  eonsecratione  electa  in  Episco- 
pum''.  Episcopal  jurisdiction  is  acquired  by  the  act 
of  election  and  confirmation  or  by  definite  appoint- 
ment, whilst  the  ftdlness  of  the  priestly  power  itself  is 
obtained  in  consecration,  as  the  completion  of  hierar- 
chical orders.  Formerly  the  consecration  of  a  suffra- 
gan bishop  was  performed  jure  communi  by  the  metro- 
politan oi  the  province,  who  could  delegate  another 
bishop.  An  archbishop  was  consecrated  by  one  of  his 
suffragans,  the  senior  bemg  usualhr  sdected.  If  the 
bishop-elect  was  not  a  suffragan  of  any  ecclesiastical 
province,  the  nearest  bishop  performed  the  ceremony. 
According  to  the  present  dSuscipline  of  the  Church  the 
office  of  consecrator  is  reserved  to  the  Roman  pontiff, 
who  performs  the  consecration  in  person  or  delegates 
it  to  another  (Benedict  XIV,  Const.  '*In  postremo", 
10  Oct.,  1756,  I  17).  If  the  consecration  takes  place 
in  Rome,  and  the  bishop-elect  receives  the  permission 
to  choose  the  consecrator,  he  must  select  a  cardinal 
who  is  a  bishop,  or  one  of  the  four  titular  Latin  patri- 
archs residing  m  Rome.  If  they  refuse  to  perforai  the 
ceremony,  he  may  choose  any  archbishop  or  bishop. 
A  suffragan,  however,  is  obliged  to  select  the  metro- 
politan or  his  province,  if  the  latter  be  in  Rome  (ibidem). 
In  Rome  the  consecration  takes  place  in  a  consecrated 
church  or  in  the  papal  chapel  (Cong.  Sac.  Hit,,  Deer. 
V  of  latest  edit.,  no  date).  If  the  consecration  is  to 
take  place  outside  of  Rome,  an  Apostolic  commission 
is  sent  to  the  bishop-elect,  in  which  the  Roman  pontiff 


aoKsscnunoN 


278 


omraacouTiOH 


grants  him  the  faculty  of  chooeing  any  bishop  having' 
-  communion  with  the  Holy  See  to  consecrate  him  and 
Administer  the  oath,  a  please  of  obedience  and  respect 
to  the  Apostolic  See.  Besides  the  consecrator,  the  an- 
cient canons  and  the  general  practice  of  the  Church 
require  two  assistant  bishops.  This  is  not  of  Divine 
but  of  ApcNBtolic  institution  (Santi,  ''Prslectiones 
Juris  Canonici")  Vol.  I,  Tit.  vi,  n.  49),  and  hence,  in 
cases  of  necessity,  when  it  is  impossible  to  procure 
three  bishops,  the  places  of  the  two  assistant  Dishops 
may,  bv  Apostolic  favour,  be  filled  bv  priests,  who 
should  be  dignitaries  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  16  Julv,  1605). 
These  priests  must  observe  the  rubrics  of  the ''  Pontifi- 
cale  Romanum"  with  regard  to  the  imposition  of 
hands  and  the  kiss  of  peace  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  9  June, 
1853).  Benedict  XIV  (De  Synod,  Dioec.,  Lib.  XIII, 
cap.  xiii,  n.  2  sqq.)  holds  that  the  consecration  of  a 
bishop,  when  the  consecrator  is  assisted  by  one  priest, 
although  the  Apostolic  Brief  required  two  assistant 
priests,  is  valid  although  UUcit.  In  missionaiy  coun- 
tries the  consecrator  may  perform  the  ceremony  with- 
out the  assistance  even  of  priests  (Zitelii,  '^  Apparatus 
Juris  Ecdesiastici",  Lib.  I,  Tit.  i,  §  iv).  The  selection 
of  the  assistant  bishops  or  priests  is  left  to  the  conse- 
crator, whose  choice  is,  however,  understood  to  be  in 
harmony  with  the  wishes  of  the  bishop-elect  (Mar- 
tinucci,  Lib.  VII,  cap.  iv,  n.  5). 

The  day  of  consecration  should  be  a  Sunday  or  the 
feast  of  an  Apostle,  that  is  to  say  a  dies  ntUaUlia,  and 
not  merdy  a  day  which  commemorates  some  event  of 
his  life,  e.  g.  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul.  Since  in 
liturey  Evangelists  are  rei^arded  as  Apostles  (Cong. 
Saa  Kit.,  17  July,  1706)  their  feast  days  may  be  se- 
lected. The  choice  of  aiiy  other  day  must  be  ratified 
by  special  indult  of  the  Holy  See.  Outside  of  Rome 
the  consecration  ought  to  be  performed,  if  it  can  be 
conveniently  done,  in  the  cathedral  of  the  diocese,  and 
within  the  province  of  the  bishop-elect;  the  latter 
may,  however,  select  any  church  or  chapel  for  the 
ceremony.  A  bishop  must  be  consecrated  before  the 
expiration  of  three  numths  after  his  election  or  ap- 
pointments If  it  is  delayed  beyond  this  time  without 
sufficient  reason,  the  bishop  is  obliged  to  relinquish  the 
revenues  to  which  he  is  entitled ;  if  it  is  delayed  six 
months,  he  may  be  deprived  of  his  episcopal  see  (Cone 
TridM  Sees.  XXIII,  cap.  ii,  De  Reform.).  Tituhu* 
bishops. forfeit  their  right  of  episcopal  digni^  unless 
they  are  consecrated  within  six  months  of  their  ap-' 
pointment  (Benedict  XIV,  Const.  "Quum  a  nobis",  4 
Aug.,  1747,  §  H»c  sane).  According  to  the  ancient 
canons,  both  the  consecrator  and  the  oishop-elect  are 
expected  to  observe  the  day  preceding  the  consecra- 
tion as  a  fast  day. 

The  ceremomf  of  consecration  of  a  bishop  is  one  of 
the  most  splendid  and  impressive  known  to  the 
Church.  It  may  be  divided  mto  four  parts:  the  pre- 
ludeSf  the  amseeratian  proper,  the  presenUUian  of  the 
insignia,  and  the  conclusion.  It  takes  place  during 
Mass  celebrated  by  both  the  consecrator  and  the  bish- 
op-elect For  this  purpose  a  separate  altar  is  erected 
for  the  bishop-elect  near  the  altar  at  which  the  conse- 
crator celebrates  Mass,  either  in  a  side  chapel,  or  in  the 
sanctuary,  or  just  outside  of  it. 

Preludes. — ^Ilie  consecrator  is  vested  in  full  pontifi- 
cals of  the  colour  of  the  Mass  of  the  day ;  the  assistant 
bishops,  in  amice,  stole,  and  cope  of  the  same  colour, 
and  a  white  linen  or  damask  mitre;  the  bishop-elect 
in  amice,  alb,  cincture,  white  stole  crossed  on  the 
breast,  and  cope  and  biretta.  The  consecrator  is  seat* 
ed  on  a  faldstool  placed  on  the  predella  of  the  altar, 
facing  the  bishop-^lect,  who  sits  between  the  assistant 
bishops,  upon  a  seat  placed  on  the  sanctuary  floor. 
The  senior  assistant  bishop  presents  the  elect  to  the 
consecrator,  after  which  the  Apostolic  commission  is 
called  for  and  read.  Ttien  the  elect,  kneeling  before 
the  consecrator.  takes  an  oath  in  which  he  promises  to 
be  obedient  to  the  Hefy  See,  to  promote  its  rights,  hon- 


ours, privileges,  and  authority,  visit  the  City  of  Rome 
at  stated  times,  render  an  account  of  hs  whale  pas- 
toral office  to  the  pope,  execute  all  Apostolie  man- 
dates, and  preserve  mviolable  all  the  poeeesstons  of  hia 
Church.  Then  foUows  the  examination,  in  which  ser- 
enteen  questions  oonoeming  the  canons  of  the  Church 
and  articles  of  faith  are  proposed,  to  which  the  elect 
answers,  "I  will",  and,  ^I  do  believe",  respectivehr, 
each  time  rising  slightly  and  imcovering  nis  head. 
Mass  is  now  bc^un  at  we  foot  of  tiie  oonseerator's 
altar  and  continued  down  to  "  Oremus.  Auf er  a  nobis ' ' 
inclusively,  llie  elect  is  then  led  b^  the  aasistoiit 
bishop  to  the  side  altar,  at  which,  having  been  clad  in 
his  pontifical  vestments,  he  oomtinuQB  the  Mass,  siinul- 
taneously  with  the  consecrator,  down  to  the  last  yrerse 
of  the  Gradual,  Tract,  or  Sequence  exclusively,  with- 
out any  chan^  in  the  liturgy,  except  that  the  cx>Ueet 
for  the  elect  is  added  to  the  prayer  of  tiie  dar  under 
one  condusion.  llie  elect  is  again  presented  to  the 
consecrator,  who  sets  forth  the  duties  and  powem  of  a 
bishop:  "It  behooves  a  bishop  to  judge,  interoret, 
consecrate,  offer,  baptise  and  confirm.''  The  clergy 
and  the  faithful  are  tnen  invited  to  pray  that  God  znay 
bestow  the  abundance  of  His  grace  on  the  elect.  The 
Litany  of  the  Saints  is  now  recited  or  chanted,  while 
the  elect  lies  prostrate  on  the  floior  of  the  sanetoaiy 
and  all  the  otners  kneel. 

ConaeeraHon, — ^The  consecrator,  aided  by  the  aasos- 
tant  bishops,  takes  the  bode  of  the  Goepda  and,  open- 
ing it,  places  it  on  the  nedc  and  shopldem  of  the  ^eet, 
so  that  the  bottom  of  the  page  be  next  to  the  elect's 
head,  and  the  book  is  held  in  this  manner  by  one  of  the 
deigy  \mtil  it  is  to  be  given  to  the  elect  after  the  pres- 
entation of  the  rixig.    This  rite  is  found  in  all  the  an- 
cient rituals — ^Latin,  Greek  and  Syriac — though  in 
early  times  it  seems  not  to  have  been  univenal  among 
the  ^Latins.    Now  follows  the  imposition  of  hands, 
which,  according  to  the  common  opinion,  is  the  ea- 
sence  of  the  consecration.    Both  the  oonseorator  and 
the  assistant  bishops  place  both  hands,  to  express  the 
plenitude  of  the  power  conferred  and  of  the  grace 
asked  for,  on  the  head  of  the  elect,  saying,  '^  Receive 
the  Holy  Ghost"— without  restriction  and  with  ail 
His  gifts,  as  the  simple  formula  indicates.    Theolo- 
mans  do  not  agree  as  to  whether  the  communication  of 
uie  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  directly  implied  in  these 
words,  but  the  prayers  whidi  follow  seem  to  determine 
the  imposition  of  hands  l^  which  the  grace  and  power 
of  the  episcopacy  is  signified  and  comerred.    In  the 
Greek  ritual  the  prayer  which  aoeMnpaDies  the  impo- 
sition of  hands  is  eleariy  the  form.    The  **  Veni,  Crea- 
tor Spiritus"  is  sung,  during  which  the  consecrator 
first  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  holy  chrism  on 
the  crown  or  tonsure  oi  the  new  bishop  and  then 
anoints  the  rest  of  the  crown.    That  this  undion  is  to 
^pibolise  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost  with  which  the 
Qiurch  desires  a  bishop  to  be  filled,  is  evident  from  the 
praver  which  follows,  ^*  May  constancy  of  faith,  purity 
of  love,  sincerity  of  peace  abound  in  him".     The 
anointing  of  the  hands  of  the  bidiop  in  the  f onn  of  a 
cross,  and  afterwards  of  the  entire  palms,  then  foUowa. 
This  unction  indicates  the  poweni  that  are  given  to 
him.    The  consecrator  then  makes  thrice  the  sign  of 
the  cross  over  the  hands  thus  anointed  and  prays: 
**  Whatsoever  thou  shalt  bless,  may  it  be  blessea ;  uid 
whatsoever  thou  shalt  sanctify  may  it  be  sanctified: 
and  mav  the  imposition  of  this  consecrated  hand  ana 
thumb  be  profitable  in  all  things  to  salvation."    The 
hands  of  the  bishop  are  then  joined,  the  ri^t  resting 
on  the  left,  and  placed  in  a  unen  doth  wludi  is  sus- 
pended from  his  neck. 

PresenUUion  of  the  episcopal  insignia, — ^The  crosier 
is  then  blessed  and  handed  to  the  bishop,  yrho  receives 
it  between  the  index  and  middle  fingers,  ike  hands  re- 
maining joined.  The  consecrator  at  the  same  time 
admonishjBS  him,  as  the  Ritual  indicates,  that  the  true 
character  of  the  ecclesiastical  shepherd  is  to  t«nper 


OONaSORATIOir 


279 


oovsMBAnoir 


the  cxerciee  of  justice  with  meekness,  and  not  to  neg- 
lect strictness  of  discipline  througjbi  love  of  tranquillity. 
The  consecrator  then  blesses  the  ring  and  places  it  on 
the  third  finger  of  the  bishop's  right  hand,  reminding 
the  latter  that  it  is  the  symbol  of  fidelity  which  he  owes 
to  Holy  Church.  The  book  of  the  Gospels  is  taken 
from  the  bishop's  shoulders  and  handed  to  him',  with 
the  command  to  go  and  preach  to  the  people  commit- 
ted to  his  care.  He  then  receives  the  kiss  of  peace 
from  the  consecrator  and  the  assistant  bishops,  and 
the  latter  conduct  him  to  his  altar,  where  the  crown  of 
his  head  is  cleansed  with  crumbs  of  bread,  and  his  hair 
is  adjusted.  Afterwards  the  bishop  washes  his  hands, 
and  both  he  and  the  consecrator,  at  their  respective 
altars,  continue  the  Mass  as  uaual,  down  to  the  prayer 
of  the  Offertory  inclusively.  After  the  Offertory  the 
new  bifiliop  is  led  to  the  consecrator's  altar  where  he 
presents  to  the  latter  two  lighted  torches,  two  loaves 
of  bread,  and  two  small  barrSs  of  wine.  This  offering 
IB  a  relic  of  ancient  discipline,  according  to  which  the 
faithful  made  their  offerin£)B  on  such  occasions  for  the 
support  of  the  clergy  and  other  purposes  connected 
with  religion.  From  the  Offertory  to  the  Communion 
the  bishop  stands  at  the  Epistle  side  of  the  consecra- 
tor's altar  and  recites  and  acts  toother  with  the  latter 
everything  as  indicated  in  the  Missal.  After  the  con- 
secrator has  consumed  one-half  of  the  Host  which  he 
consecrated  at  Mass,  and  partaken  of  one-half  of  the 
Precious  Blood  together  with  the  particle  of  the  coDse- 
cratttl  Host  that  was  dropped  mto  the  chalice,  he 
Communicates  the  bishop  by  giving  him,  first,  the 
other  half  of  the  consecrated  Host,  and  then  the  Pre- 
cious Blood  remaining  in  the  chalice.  Both  take  the 
ablutions  from  different  chalices,  after  which  the  new 
bishop  goes  to  the  Gospel  side  of  the  consecrator's 
altar,  and  with  the  consecrator  continues  the  Mass 
down  to  the  blessing  inclusively.  The  consecrator 
then  blesses  the  mitre  and  places  it  on  the  head  of  the 
bishop,  referring  to  its  mystical  signification  as  a  hel- 
met of  protection  and  salvation,  that  the  wearer  of  it 
may  seem  terrible  to  the  opponents  of  truth  and  be 
their  sturdy  adversaxy.  The  gloves  are  then  blessed 
and  put  on  the  hands  of  the  bishop,  referring  to  the 
action  of  Jacob,  who,  having  his  hands  covered  with 
the  skins  of  kids,  implored  and  received  the  paternal 
blessing.  In  like  manner  the  consecrator  prays  that 
the  wearer  of  the  gloves  may  deserve  to  implore  and 
receive  the  blessing  of  Divine  srace  by  means  of  the 
saving  Host  offered  by  his  hanoB. 

Condusion, — The  new  bishop  is  then  enthroned  on 
the  faldstool  on  the  predella,  from  which  the  conse- 
crator haa  risen,  or,  if  the  ceremony  be  performed  in 
the  cathedral  of  the  new  bishop,  on  uie  usual  episcopal 
throne.  The  Te  Deum  is  now  intoned  by  the  conse- 
crator, and  while  the  hynm  is  being  sung  the  new  bish- 
op is  led  by  the  assistant  bi^ops  tnroii^  the  church, 
that  he  may  bless  itie  people.  Having  returned  to  the 
altar — or  to  the  throne  in  nis  own  cathedral — the  bish- 
op gives  the  final  solemn  blessing  as  usuaL  The  con- 
secrator and  assistant  bishops  move  towards  the  Gos- 
pel comer  of  the  altar  and  lace  the  Epistle  side;  the 
new  bishop  goes  to  the  Epistle  comer,  and  there,  with 
mitre  ana  crosier,  facing  the  consecrator,  makes  a 
genuflexion  and  cnants  '^Ad  multos  annos".  He  pro- 
ceeds to  the  middle  of  the  predella  and  performs  the 
same  ceremony,  chanting  m  a  higher  tone  of  voice. 
Finally,  approaching  the  feet  of  the  consecrator,  he 
again  genuflects,  chanting  in  a  still  higher  tone  of 
voice.  After  this  the  consecrator  and  assistant  bish- 
ops receive  him  to  tJie  kiss  of  peace.  Accompanied  by 
the  assistant  bishops,  he  returns  to  his  altar,  reciting 
the  Gospel  of  St.  John.  All  then  lay  aside  their  vest- 
ments and  depart  in  peace. 

MAHTtai*,    De    anti^ia    Ecde$%a  riitbua    (Venice.    1753);. 

Ahbiwib,  PaHoniiheolooie  (Ratisbon.  1884),  II;    Bkbnard, 

^n  d0  Uhirgit  romame—U  PorUifieal  (Pane.  1002).  I;  Knr* 

^CK,  Form  tfCcnueraHon  of  a  Biahop  (Baltiioore,  1868). 

n.  Ck>NaBciiATioN  OF  A  FixsD  Ai^TAB. — ^At  the  con-* 


secration  of  a  church  at  least  one  fixed  altar  must  be 
consecrated.  Altars,  permanent  structures  of  stone, 
may  be  consecrated  at  other  times,  but  only  in. 
churches  that  have  been  consecrated  or  at  least  sol- 
emnly blessed.  We  have  instances  in  which  a  simple 
priest  has  performed  this  rite.  Walaf  ridus  Strabo,  in 
the  Life  of  St.  Gall  (ch.  vi),  says  that  St.  Columban,  at 
that  time  being  a  priest,  having  dedicated  the  cburdi 
of  St  Aurelia  at  Bregenx  on  the  Lake  of  Constance, 
anointed  the  altar,  deposited  the  relics  of  St.  Auielia 
under  it,  and  celebrated  Mass  on  it.  But  according 
to  the  present  discipline  of  the  Church,  the  ordinary 
minister'  of  its  consecration  is  the  diocesan  bishop. 
Without  the  permission  of  the  ordinary,  a  bishop  of 
another  diocese  cannot  UciUy  oonsecrate  an  altar,  al- 
thou^  without  such  pennission  the  consecration 
would  be  valid.  One  and  the  same  bishop  must  ner- 
f orm  the  rite  from  the  beginning  to  the  end.  An  utar 
may  be  consecrated  on  any  day  of  the  year,  but  a  Sun- 
day or  feast  day  is  to  be  preferred  (Pontificale 
Komanum).  It  is  difficult  to  determine  when  the 
rite  used  at  present  was  introduced.  To  the  essen- 
tials c^  consecration  reference  is  made  as  eariy  as  the 
sixth  century  by  the  Council  of  Apie  (606):  "  Altaans 
are  to  be  consecrated  not  only  by  the  chrism,  but  with 
the  sacerdotal  blessing ' ' ;  and  by  St  Cssarius  of  Aries 
(d.  about  542)  in  a  sermon  deliveied  at  the  oonseorar 
tion  of  an  altar:  ''We  have  to-day  oonseorated  an 
altar,  the  stone  of  which  was  blessed  or  anointed'' 
(Migne,  P.  L.,  LXYII,  Serm.  ccxzx). 

The  ceremonies  of  the  exposition  of  the  relics  on  the 
evening  before  the  day  of  consecration,  the  keeping  of 
the  vigil,  the  blessing  of  the  Gregoriaf^  water,  the  - 
sprinkEng  of  the  altar,  and  the  translation  of  the  lelicB 
to  the  chureh  are  the  same  as  those  described  at  the 
consecration  of  a  church  (see  IV,  below).  When  the 
relics  have  been  carried  to  the  church,  the  consecrator 
anoints  with  holy  chrism,  at  the  four  comers,  the  sep* 
ulchre  of  the  altar  (see  Altar),  in  which  the  relics  are 
to  be  enclosed,  thereby  sanctifying  the  cavity  in  which 
the  venerated  remains  of  the  martyrs  are  to  rest,  and 
then  reverently  places  therein  the  case  containing  the 
relics  and  incenses  them.  Having  anointed  with  noly 
chrism  the  nether  side  of  the  small  slab  that  is  to  cover 
the  sepulchre,  he  spreads  blessed  cement  over  the 
ledge  of  the  sepuldire  on  the  inside  and  fits  the  dab 
into  the  cavity,  after  which  he  anoints  the  upper  side 
of  the  slab  and  the  altar-table  near  it  He  then  in- 
censes the  altar,  first,  on  every  side — rigiht,  left,  front 
and  on  top— whilst  the  chanters  sing  the  antiphon 
"Stetit  angelus";  secondly,  in  the  form  of  a  cross  on 
the  top,  ifi  the  middle,  and  at  the  four  comers; 
thirdly,  whilst  ^(Mng  round  the  altar  three  times. 
After  the  third  mcensation,  the  censer  is  given  to  a 
priest,  vested  in  surplice,  who,  till  the  end  of  the  oon- 
secratioui  continues  going  around  the  altar,  incensing 
it  on  all  sides,  save  when  the  bishop  uses  the  censer. 
The  incense  symbolizes  the  sweet  odour  of  prayer 
which  is  to  ascend  from  th6  altar  to  heaven,  whilst  the 
fullness  of  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  is  to 


descend  on  the  altar  and  the  faithful,  is  indicated  bv 
,  nym  recited  after  the  three  unctions  which  fol- 
low." The  oonsecrator  then  anoints  the  table  of  the 


altar  at  the  middle  and  the  four  comers,  twice  with 
the  oil  of  catechumens,  and  the  thind  time  with  holy 
chrism.  After  each  unction  he  goes  round  the  altar 
once,  incensing  it  continuously,  the  first  and  second 
time  passing  by  the  Epistle  side,  and  third  time  by  the 
Gospel  side.  Finally,  as  if  to  indicate  the  complete 
sanctification  of  the  altar,  he  pours  and  spreads  over 
its  table  the  oil  of  catechumens  and  holy  chrism  to- 
flethor,  rubbing  the  holy  oils  over  it  with  his  right 
hand,  whilst  the  chanters  sing  the  appropriate  anti- 
phon, ''Behold  the  smell  of  my  son  is  as  the  smell  of  a 
pl^tiful  Md'\  etc.  (Gen.,  xxvii,  27,  28).  When  the 
church  is  oonaeorated  at  the  same  time,  the  twelve 
crosses  on  the  inner  walls  are  now  anointed  with  holy 


coirsioBAnoii 


280 


OOKSSORATION 


chriHiii  and  incensed.  The  conseerator  then  bleeses 
the  incense  and  sprinkles  it  ivith  holy  water.  Hien  he 
forais  it  into  five  ezosses,  each  consisting  of  five  grains, 
on  the  table  oi  the  altar,  in  the  middle  and  at  the  four 
comeiB.  Over  each  cross  of  incense  he  places  a  cross 
made  of  thin  wax  taper.  The  ends  of  each  cross  are 
lighted,  and  with  them  the  incense  is  burned  and  con- 
sumed. This  ceremonv  symbolizes  the  true  sacrifice 
which  is  thereafter  to  be  offered  on  the  alt>ar;  and  it 
indicates  that  our  prayers  must  be  fervent  and  ani- 
mated by  true  and  lively  faith  if  they  are  to  be  accept- 
able to  Uod  and  efhcacious  against  our  spiritual  ene- 
mies. Finally,  the  bishop  traces  with  holj  chrism  a 
cross  on  the  nront  of  the  altar  and  on  the  juncture  of 
the  table  and  the  base  on  which  it  rests  at  the  four 
oomers,  as  if  to  join  them  together,  to  indicate  that 
this  altar  is  to  be  in  future  a  firmly  fixed  and  constant 
source  of  grace  to  all  who  with  faith  approach  it. 
Then  follow  the  blesmngs  of  the  altar-cloths,  vases, 
and  ornaments  of  the  altar,  the  celebration  of  Mkss, 
and  the  publication  of  the  Indulgences,  as  at  th^  end  of 
the  consecration  of  a  church. 

L0O88  of  Consecration, — -An  altar  loses  its  consecra- 
tion: (1)  when  the  table  of  the  altar  is  broken  into 
two  or  more  large  pieces ;  (2)  when  at  the  comer  of  the 
table  that  portion  which  the  conseerator  anointed 
with  holy  oil  is  broken  off;  (3)  when  several  large 
stones  di  the  support  of  the  table  are  removed ;  (4) 
when  one  of  the  cc^umns  which  support  the  table  at 
the  comers  is  removed ;  (5)  if  for  any  reason  whatever 
the  table  is  removed  from  the  support,  or  only  raised 
from  it — e.  g.,  to  renew  the  cement;  (6)  by  the  re- 
moval of  th^^ics,  or  by  the  fracture  or  removal,  by 
chance  or  design,  of  the  small  cover,  or  slab,  placed 
over  the  cavity  containing  the  relics*  (See  also  Ax- 
tar,  History  of  thr  Christian.) 

Bona,  Berum  lAiurmcarum  Hbri  duo  (Turin,  1747-68); 
MARTfeNE.  De  antiquit  ecdena  ritHnu  (Venioe,  1753);  BsB- 
NARD,  Coun  de  liiurgie  romaine — U  Pontifical  (Paris,  1002),  11; 
AMBKtiaKSLpcuicniUheUoaie  (RatSBbon,  1884).  II;    Van  der 


Stappbn,  Saam  LUurma  (MechUn,  1002),  III;  Uttini,  Cono  di 
Scienza  Lituraica  (Bologna,  1004);  S.  L.  T..  The  AUar,  in  Am, 
Eed.  Rei>.,  July,   1904;    Schtjlte,  Consecranda  (New  York, 


1907). 


III.  Gonsbcration  op  an  Altar-Stonb. — ^Mass 
must  be  celebrated  either  on  an  altar  which  has  been 
consecrated  or  on  a  ocmsecrated  altar-stone,  or  port- 
able altar  (Ruhr.  Gen.  Miss.,  XX).  Its  consecration 
is  a  less  solemn  function  than  the  consecration  of  an 
altar.  It  may  take  place  on  any  day  of  the  year,  in 
the  morning,  as,  after  its  consecration,  Mass  must  be 
celebrated  upon  it  the  same  day.  If  several  stones 
are  consecrated,  it  suffices  to  celebrate  Ma^  on  one  of 
the  altars  so  consecrated.  The  ceremonv  may  take 
place  in  the  church,  sacristy,  or  any  otner  suitable 
place. 

The  cavitv  for  the  relics  is  made  on  the  top  of  the 
stone,  usually  near  its  front  edge.  It  may  be  in  the 
centre  of  the  stone,  but  never  on  its  front  edge  (Cong. 
Sac.  Eit.,  13  June,  1899).'  Relics  of  two  martyrs, 
with  three  grains  of  incense,  are  placed  immediately 
(i.  e.  without  a  reliauary)  in  its  cavity,  which  is  closed 
with  a  small  slab  ot  natural  stone  fitting  exactly  upon 
the  opening.  The  Oong.  Sac.  Hit.  (16  Feb.,  1906)  de- 
clarea  that  for  valid  consecration  it  suffices  to  have 
enclosed  in  the  cavity  the  relics  of  one  martyr.  The 
Pontifical  makes  no  mention  of  the  blessing  of  ihe  ce- 
ment with  which  the  slab  is  secured,  but  the  Oong. 
Saa  Rit.  (10  lAay,  1890)  presmbes  it. 

Ordinarilv,  only  a  bishop  may  consecrate  an  altar^ 
stone,  but  by  pontifical  privile^  some  abbots  have 
this  faculty  for  altar-stones  used  in  their  own  churches. 
The  Holv  See  frequently  grants  this  privilege  to 
priests  laJoourii^e  in  miEHUonary  coimtries.  lite  high- 
er of  the  United  States  have  vbe  faculty  of  delegating 
priests  to  perform  this  function  by  virtue  of  the^  Fao- 
uhates  Extraordinaris'',  C»  VI.  The  reHos  are  not 
eipoted,  nor  are  Matins  and  Lauds  recit^  on  the 


evening  before  the  consecration;  neither  is  the  vizQ 
kept.  The  ceremonies  are  similar  to  those  used  at  the 
consecration  of  an  altar.  Hence  the  blessing  of  the 
Gregorian  water,  the  sprinkling  and  inf^nsation,  the 
anointing  with  holy  chrism  and  the  oil  of  catechu- 
mens, the  burning  of  incense  and  the  offering  of  the 
Holy  Sacrifice,  take  place;  and  the  symbolical  meaxv- 
ings  of  these  ceremonies  are  the  same  as  those  given  at 
the  consecration  of  an  altar. 

IV.  Consecration  of  a  Chxtrch. — By  a  decree  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  (Scss.  XXII),  Mass  should  not  be 
celebrated  in  any  place  except  a  consecrated  or 
blessed  chm-ch.  Hence  it  is  the  wish  of  the  Church 
that  at  least  cathedrals  and  parish  churches  be  sol- 
emnly consecrated,  and  that  smaller  churches  be 
blessed  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  7  Aug.,  1875),  but  any 
church  and  public  or  semi-public  oratory  may  be  con- 
secrated (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  6  June,  1899).  Both  by 
consecration  and  by  blessing  a  church  is  dedicated  to 
Divine  worship,  which  forbids  its  use  for  common  or 
profane  purposes.  Consecration  is  a  rite  reserved  to  a 
Dishop,  who  by  the  solemn  anointing  with  holv 
chrism,  and  in  the  prescribed  form,  dedicates  a  build- 
ing to  the  service  of  God,  thereby  raising  it  %n  ner- 
petuum  to  a  higher  order,  removing  it  from  the  malign 
influence  of  Satan,  and  rendering  it  a  place  in  which 
the  prayers  of  the  faithful  are  more  readily  heard  and 
favours  are  more  graciously  granted  by  (k>d  (Pontifi- 
cale  Romanum).  The  blessing  of  a  cnurch  is  a  less 
solemn  rite,  which  may  be  performed  by  a  priest  dele- 
gated by  the  diocesan  bishop.  It  consists  in  the 
sprinkling  with  holy  water  ana  the  recital  of  prayers, 
tnus  malang  it  a  sacred  place,  though  not  necessarily 
in  perpetuum.  Consecration  differs  from  mere  bless- 
ing in  this,  that  it  imprints  an  indelible  mark  (St. 
Thomas,  II-II,  Q.  xxxix,  a.  3)  on  the  building,  by 
reason  of  which  it  may  never  be  transferred  to  com- 
mon or  profane  uses. 

The  consecration  of  churches  dates  probably  from 
Apostolic  times  and  is,  in  a  sense,  a  continuation  of 
the  Jewish  rite  instituted  by  Solomon.  Some  authors 
attribute  its  oricin  to  Pope  St.  Evaristus  (d.  105),  but 
it  is  more  probable  that  he  merely  promulgated  form- 
ally as  a  law  what  had  been  the  custom  before  his 
time,  or  prescribed  that  a  church  cannot  be  conse- 
crated without  the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice. 
That  churches  were  consecrated  before  peace  had 
been  granted  to  the  Church  would  appear  not  only 
from  the  life  of  St.  Cecilia  (Roman  Breviary,  22  No- 
vember), who  prayed  for  a  cessation  from  hostilities 
against  the  Chnstians  in  order  that  her  home  might  be 
consecrated  as  a  church  by  St.  Urban  I  (222-230),  but 
also  from  the  life  of  St.  Marcellus  (308-309),  who  ap- 
pears to  have  actually  consecrated  a  church  in  the 
home  of  St.  Lucina  (Roman  Breviary,  16  January). 
Before  the  time  of  CJonstantine  the  consecration  of 
churches  was,  on  account  of  the  persecutions,  neces- 
sarily private,  but  after  the  conversion  of  that  em- 
peror it  became  a  solemn  public  rite,  as  appears  from 
Eusebius  of  Csesarea  (Hist.  Eccl.,  X):  "After  these 
things  a  spectacle  earnestly  prayed  for  and  much  de- 
sired by  us  all  appeared,  viz.  the  solemnization  of  the 
festival  of  the  dedication  of  churches  throughout 
every  city,  and  the  consecration  of  newly-built  ora- 
tories. "  The  passage  clearly  indicates  that  churches 
were  consecrated  b«ore,  and  that  accordingly  the  an- 
niversaries of  the  dedication  might  now  be  publicly 
celebrated. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  in  what  the  rite  of  conse- 
cration consisted  in  early  times.  Many  sermons 
g reached  on  these  occasion/^  are  still  extant,  and  we 
nd  occasional  notices  of  the  vigil  kept  before  the  con- 
secration, of  the  translation  of  the  relics,  and  of  the 
tracing  of  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  alphabet  on  the 
pavement  of  the  church.  The  lelics  were  not  always 
the  whole  body  of  a  saint  or  even  large  portions  of  it, 
but  sometimes  merely  articles  with  which  the  martyr 


OOHSlOEATIOll 


281 


mmmamaiom 


came  in  contact.  Churohes  were  sometiiiies  coiue- 
crated  without  depositii^  relics.  Some  ancient  fonna 
of  consecration  prescribe  that  the  Host  consecrated  bv 
the  bishop  be  deposited.  Often  only  the  Greek  al- 
phabet or  the  Latin  was  written  twice;  and  same- 
times  to  the  Greek  and  Latin  the  Hebrew  alphabet 
waa  added  (Martdne,  De  Antiquis  Ecclesise  Ritibus, 
II).  The  rite  does  not  appear  to  have  always  been 
one  and  the  same,  but  the  essential  element  of  the 
ceremony — ^namely,  the  actual  separation  of  any 
buildinfl  from  common  to  a  sacred  use,  which  would 
be  the  Sret  reli^ous  act  in  the  process  of  initiating  and 
appropriating  it  to  a  Divine  use — was  always  called  its 
consecration.  In  allusion  to  this  fact  the  first  begin- 
ning of  anything  is  often  styled  its  dedication  (Bing- 
ham, Origines  sive  Antiquit.  Eccles.,  VIII,  ix,  §1), 
which  word  the  Roman  Pontifical  uses  in  this  place 
only — "De  £cclesi»  Dedicatione  seu  Consecratione'' 
— elsewhere  the  word  consecratio  only  is  used.  It  cut- 
not  be  definitely  decided  when  the  nte  of  consecration 
in  use  at  present  began  to  be  employed.  The  Pontifi- , 
cal  of  Egbert,  Archbishop  of  York  (733-767),  bears 
a  striking  resemblance  to  it. 

The  ordinary  minister  of  consecration  is  the  dio- 
cesan bishop.    He  may,  however,  delegate  another 
bishop  to  perform  this  function.    A  bishop  of  another 
diocese  cannot  licitly  consecrate  a  church  without  the 
permission  of  the  diocesan  bishop,  althou^  without 
such  permission  the  church  would  be  validly  conae- 
cratea.     A  priest  cannot  perform  this  rite  unless  he  be 
del^ated  in  a  special  manner  by  the  Roman  pontiff 
(Benedict  XIV,  Const.  "Ex  tujs  precibus",  16  No- 
vember, 1748,  §2).    To  consecrate  a  church  licitly  it 
is  necessary  to  consecrate  a  fixed  altar  in  the  same 
church,  which  altar  ordinarily  ought  to  be  the  main 
one  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  19  Sept.,  1665).    If  this  altar  is 
already  consecrated,  one  of  the  side  altars  may  be  con- 
secrated (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  31  Aug.,  1872).    If  all  the 
altars  of  a  church  are  already  consecrated,  it  cannot  be 
licitly  consecrated  except  by  special  Apostolic  indult. 
One  and  the  same  bishop  must  consecrate  both  the 
church  and  the  altar  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  3  March,  1866). 
Although  the  consecration  of  the  altar  may  for  some 
reason  be  invalid,  yet  the  church  remains  consecrated 
(Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  17  June,  1843).    The  essence  of  the 
consecration  of  a  church  consists  in  the  anointing 
of  the  twelve  crosses  on  the  inner  walls  with  the 
form:    " Sanctificetur  et  consecretur  hoc  templum", 
eta    If  before  this  ceremony  the  consecrator  should 
become  incapacitated  for  finishing  the  function)  the 
whole  rite  must  be  repeated  from  the  banning  (Cong. 
Sac.  Rit.,  12  April,  1614).    The  church  should  stand 
free  on  all  sides  so  that  the  bishop  may  pass  around  it. 
If  there  be  obstructions  at  only  some  points,  the 
church  may  be  consecrated  (Con^  Sac.  Rit.,  19  Sep- 
tember, 1665),  but  if  the  obstructions  be  of  such  a  na- 
ture that  the  exterior  walls  cannot  be  reached,  the 
church  may  not  be  consecrated  without  a  special 
Apostolic  indult  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  22  February,  1888). 
On  the  waJk  inside  the  church  twelve  crosses  must  be 
painted,  or  (if  they  are  made  of  stone  or  metal)  at- 
tached to  the  walls.    These  crosses  are  not  to  be  of 
wood  or  of  any  fragile  material.    They  must  never  be 
removed  (Con^.  Sac.  Rit.,  18  Februaxy,  1696),  and, 
documents  failing,  they  serve  to  prove  that  the  church 
has  been  consecrated.    Under  each  cross  a  bracket 
holding  a  candle  is  affixed. 

The  consecration  may  take  place  on  any  day  of  the 
year,  but  a  Sunday  or  feast  day  is  to  be  preferred 
(Pontificale  Romanum).  The  consecrator  and 
those  who  ssk  for  the  consecration  (Van  der  Stappen, 
HI,  quaest.  32,  iii,  says,  ''all  the  parishioners,  if  it  oe  a 
parish 'church";  Bernard,  "Le  Pontifical",  II,  p.  7, 
only  the  deigy  attached  to  the  church ;  Marc,  '*  Institu- 
tiones  Mora&*',  I,  n.  1221,  nota  2**,  only  the  parish 
pru>8t,  if  he  alone  asked)  are  obliged  to  observe  the  day 
before  the  conseoration  as  a  day  of  fasting  and  absti- 


nence. If  the  oonseeration  takes  place  on  MondMr» 
the  fast  is  observed  on  the  preoeding  Saturday.  On 
the  evening  preceding  the  day  of  conaecration^  the 
coBseorating  bidK^  phioes  in  a  reliquaiy  the  relics  of 
the  mart^TB^  which  are  to  be  placed  in  the  altar,  three 
grains  of  incense,  and  an  attestation  written  on  parch- 
ment. The  Cong.  Sao^  Rit.,  16  February,  1906.  de- 
clared that  for  the  vaUd  consecration  it  sumees  to  have 
enclosed  the  relics  of  one  martyr.  The  teliquarvis 
then  placed  in  an  urn  or  in  the  tabemaele  of  an  utar 
in  a  nearby  church  or  oratory,  or  in  an  adjaoent  zoom 
or  the  sacnsty.-  At  least  two  cadidles  are  kept  burning 
before  these  relics  during  the  night,  and  Matins  and 
Lauds  de  cmrnnwU  phuritMrum  martyrunt  or  ci  tike 
proper  Office  of  the  martyrs  whose  relica  have  been 
plaoed  in  the  reliqua- 
ry, are  sung  or  recited. 
At  the  beginning  of 
liie  eonsecration  on 
the  next  dav  the  can- 
dles under  tne  crosses 
on  the  walls  are 
lighted.  After  this 
the  bishop  and  the 
oleigy  go  to  the  plaee 
in  which  the  rehcsof 
the  martyrs  were  de- 
posited the  evening 
before,  the  church 
meanwhile  being  left 
in  charge  of  a  deaoon. 
Whilst  the  bishop  is 
being  vested  the 
Seven  Penitential 
Psalms  are  recited, 
after  which  all  pro- 
ceed to  the  main  en- 
trance of  the  ohurdi, 
where,  remaining  out>- 
side,  the  bishop  Meases 
the  water.  The  bishop 
th^i  goes  three  times 
roundthe  outside  of  the  church,  the  first  time  sprinkling 
the  upper  part  of  the  walls,  the  second  time  the  k>wer 
part,  and  tne  third  time  on  a  level  with  his  face.  After 
each  circuit  the  bishop  strikes  the  door  with  the  base 
of  his  crosier  and  says,  "  Lift  up  your  gates,  ye  princes, 
and  be  ye  lifted  up,  ye  everlasting  doors,  and  the  King 
of  Glory  shall  come  in."  Thr«e  times  the  deacon 
within  the  churoh  asks,  *'  Who  is  this  King  of  Glory?" 
Twice  the  bishop  answers,  ''The  Lord,  strong  and 
mighty;  the  Lord  mi^^ity  in  battle";  and  the  third 
time  he  saya, ''  The  Lord  of  Anbies,  He  ia  ^e  King  of 
Glory".  This  triple  sprinkUns  and  cironit  of  the 
walls,  according  to  Bl.  Yves  of  Chartres  (Sermo  de 
Sacramentis  Dedicationis),  symbolises  thettfiple  im- 
mersion at  holy  baptism,  t&e  consecration  of  taie  soul 
as  the  iqnritual  temple  of  God,  to  which  the  material 
bears  a  certain  analofigr. 

The  bishop  and  hjs  attendants  now  enter  tiie 
churoh,  leaving  the  clergy  and  pe(»ple  outiande,  and  the 
door  is  dosed.  The  chanters  sing  the  **  Veni,  Creator 
Spiritus"  and  chant  or  recite  the  Litany  of  the  Saints. 
After  this,  whilst  the  cantide  '^Benedictus"  is  being 
chanted,  the  bishop  traces  with  the  point  of  his  cro- 
sier, in  the  ashes  spread  on  the  floor,  first,  the  Greek 
alphabet,  be^nning  at  the  left  side  of  the  church  door 
and  proceeding  to  the  Eputle  cornier  of  the  ehinrch 
near  the  altar,  then  the  Latin  alphabet,  banning  at 
the  ri^t  side  of  the  church  door  and  prooeemng  to  the 
Gospel  comer  of  the  churdi  near  the  altar.  The  **  Li* 
berSaoramentorum"irf St.  Gregory  I  and  the  ''Pon- 
tificale" of  Egbert,  Archbishop  of  Yoric,  attest  the  an* 
tiquity  oi  tms  ceremony,  which  symboiises  the  in- 
struction given  to  the  newly  baptised  in  the  elements 
of  faith  and  piety.  The  crossing  of  the  two  lines 
points  to  the  cross,  that  is  Christ  crucified,  aa  the  priiH 


0CI1I8S0R4TX0V 


282 


CX>MSB0BATIOV 


dpal  dogma  of  the  CSuristiati  religion.  The  Greek  and 
Latin  languages  m>reBent  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  re- 
spectively. The  Greek  alphabet  is  written  first  be- 
cause the  Jews  were  first  called  to  the  Christian  Faith. 
The  bishop  then  blesses  the  Gregorian  water,  a  mia^ 
ture  of  water,  salt,  ashes,  and  wine,  prescribed  hv 
St.  Gregory  I  to  be  used  at  the  consecration  of  a  church 
(P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  152  sqq.).  After  this  he  goes  to  the 
main  door  of  the  chun^  and  with  the  point  of  the  cro- 
sier traces  a  cross  on  the  upper  part  and  another  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  door  inside.  The  ingredients  of  ihia 
water  are  to  recall  to  our  mind  the  l^al  purifications 
and  the  sacrifices  of  the  Jewi^  people,  the  wine  taking 
tibe  place  of  the  blood.  The  symbolism  of  this  mix- 
ture is  explained  by  authors  in  various  manners.  The 
cross  traced  on  the  door  is  to  be,  as  it  were,  a  guard 
lest  the  work  of  redemption  in  the  church  be  thwarted 
by  the  malignant  infiuences  from  without.  The  bish- 
op now  traces,  with  the  Gregorian  water,  five  crosses 
on  the  altar  and  then  sprinldes  the  support  and  table 
of  the  altar  seven  times,  passing  roimd  it  sevei!!  times, 
whilst  the  chanters  sing  or  recite  the  Psahn  '^Mise' 
rere''.  He  then  sprinkles  the  walls  in  the  interior  of 
the  church  three  times,  first  the  lower  part,  ijtken  on  a 
level  with  his  face,  and  lastly,  the  upper  part,  after 
which  he  sprinkles  the  floor  of  the  church  in  the  form 
of  a  cross,  passing  from  the  altar  to  the  door,  and 
from  the  Gospel  to  the  Epistle  side  in  the  middle  of 
the  church.  Having  returned  to  the  middle  of  the 
church,  he  sprinkles  with  one  swing  each  time  the 
floor  before  him,  behind  him,  at  his  left,  and  at  his 
right. 

The  bishop,  deigy,  and  laity  then  go  to  the  place  in 
which  the  relics  repose  and  in  solemn  procession  cany 
them  to  the  church.  Before  entering,  the  relics  are 
borne  round  the  outside  of  the  church,  whilst  the 
clergy  and  people  repeat  "Lord,  have  mercy  on  us". 
Havins  returned  to  the  church  door,  the  bishop  gives 
a  suitM>le  exhortation  to  the  people  and  addmnes  the 
founder  of  the  church.  Then  one  of  tne  clergy  reads 
the  two  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  from  the  Pon- 
tifical. The  bishop  next  anoints  with  holy  chrism, 
three  times,  the  pillar  on  each  side  of  the  door,  after 
which  the  clergy  and  the  laity  enter  the  church,  and 
the  consecration  of  the  altar  takes  place.  (See  II 
above.)  Finally,  the  twelve  crosses  on  the  interior 
walls  are  anointed  with  holy  chrism  and  incensed  by 
the  bishop;  the  altar-cloths,  vases,  and  ornaments  of 
the  churcn  and  altar  are  blessed,  and  solemn  or  low 
Mass  is  celebrated  by  the  bishop.  If  he  be  too  fa- 
tigued, he  may  appoint  a  priest  to  celebrate  a  high 
Idass  in  his  stead.  If  more  than  one  altar  has  been 
consecrated,  it  will  sufiioe  to  celebrate  Mass  on  the 
principal  one  (Cong.  Sao.  Bit.,  22  February,  1888). 
At  the  end  of  the  Mass  an  Indulgence  of  one  year  is 
publisdied,  which  may  be  gained  by  all  who  visit  the 
church  on  the  day  of  consecration.  At  the  same  time 
another  Indulgence  which  may  be  gained  in  the  same 
manner  on  the  anniversary  of  the  consecration  is 
publidied.  If  the  latter  Indulgence  is  granted  by  a 
cardinal  in  his  titular  church  or  in  his  diocese,  it  may 
be  of  two  hundred  days;  if  by  an  arehbiriiop, 
of  one  hundred  days;  if  fay  a  bishop,  of  fifty  da^ns^ 
in  their  respective  cQooeses.  (S.  0.  Indulg.,  28  Aug., 
1903.) 

The  annivena^  of  the  consecration  is  kept  solemn- 
ly as  a  double  of  the  first  class  with  an  octave  each 
recurring  year,  until  the  church  falls  into  ruin  or  is 
profaned.  In  order  to  avoid  the  inconveniences  likely 
to  arise  from  its  clashing  with  other  solemnities,  tfate 
bishop  is  empowered  to  apooint,  in  the  act  of  conse- 
cration, another  day  for  tne  anniversary,  provided 
such  day  be  not  a  ciouble  feast  of  the  first  or  second 
class  in  the  Universal  Church,  a  privileged  Sunday,  or 
a  local  feast  of  the  first  clam  (0>ng.  Sac.  Rtt.,  4  Feb., 
1896),  or  a  day  in  Advent  or  liPnt  (Cong.  Sac,  Kit.,  12 
JuBei  1660).    Should  the  bi^op  fail  to  do  so,  or  defer 


making  such  arrangement,  the  anniversary  miurt  be 
kept  on  the  recurring  actual  ^y,  or  recouTBC  must  be 
had  to  the  Apostolic  See  (Gardellini,  Adnot.  super 
Deer.  dat.  6  Sept.,  1834). 

Besides  the  anniversary  of  the  consecration  of  indi- 
vidual or  parish  churches,  the  annivereazy  of  the  con- 
secration of  the  cathedral  of  a  diocese  is  celebrated  as 
a  double  of  th6  first  class  with  an  octave  by  the  secular 
clergy  living  within  the  limits  of  the  cathedral  city; 
the  secular  clergy  living  outside  the  cathedral  dty  cA- 
ebrate  it  as  a  double  of  the  first  class  without  an 
octave,  the  re^ar  clergy  living  within  the  limits  of 
the  cathedral  city  celebrate  it  as  a  double  of  the  second 
class  without  an  octave ;  the  regular  clergy  outside  the 
cathedral  city  are  not  obliged  to  celebrate  it  in  any 
manner  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  9  July,  1895).  In  some  dio- 
ceses the  simultaneous  celebration  on  a  fixed  day  of 
the  consecration  of  all  the  churches  of  a  diocese,  irre- 
spective of  the  fact  that  some  of  the  churches  are  not 
consecrated,  ia  granted  by  special  indult.  In  this  case 
individual  consecrated  churches  are  not  allowed  to 
celebrate  the  anniversary  of  the  consecration  of  their 
respective  churches.  This  day  of  common  celebration 
is  a  double  of  the  first  class  for  all  the  clergy  in  the  dio- 
cese, with  this  distinction,  that  it  is  a  primanr  feast 
for  those  attached  to  consecrated  churches  and  a  seo- 
ondaty  feast  for  the  others  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  24  MEarcfa, 
1900). 

LoM  of  Cansecraiion, — ^From  the  axiom  in  canon  law 
''Consecratio  adheeret  parietibus  Eksclesiae",  it  follows 
that  a  church  loses  its  consecration  (1)  ^en  the  walls 
of  the  church  are  totally  or  in  ^^eater  part  simuiiane" 
oudy  demolished ;  (2)  when  the  inner  walls  are  totally 
or  in  greater  part  simuUanetmdy  destroyed  by  fire; 
(3)  when  an  addition  is  made  to  the  walls  of  the  Aurch 
in  length,  breadth,  or  height,  greater  than  the  origina] 
walls. 

Bona,  Rerum  Lilurmcarum  libri  duo  (Turin,  1747-53); 
MABTfeNB,  De  aniiquia  ^edeauB  rUOnu  (Venice,  1753);  Ber- 
nard, Coun  de  liturme  romame — le  PonU^joal  (Paris,  1902),  II; 
Ambeboxr.  Paatornltkeoloou  (Ratisbon,  1884),  II;  Van  Dsa 
Stappbn,  (Sacra  Liturgia  (Mechliii,  1902).  Ill:  Santi.  iVceteo 
tumes  Juria  Canonici  (Ratisbon,  1886),  III;  Schuxa'E,  Conse- 
cranda  (New  York,  1907). 

V.  Consecration  op  a  Chalice  ani>  Paten. — ^The 
ordinary  minister  of  the  consecration  of  the  chalice 
and  paten  used  at  Mass  is  a  bishop.  In  missionary 
countries  some  priests,  by  Apostolic  indult,  have  the 
privilege  of  consecrating  these  sacred  vessels.  The 
bishops  of  the  United  States  have  the  faculty  of  dele- 
gating priests  for  performing  this  rite  bv  virtue  of  the 
Facultates  Extra6rdinaris,  C,  VI.  These  two  altar 
vessels  must  be  consecrated  before  they  can  be  used 
at  the  altar.  Thev  are  always  consecrated  at  the  same 
time,  because  both  are  indispensable  at  the  celebration 
of  Mass,  the  paten  for  holding  the  Body  of  Christ  and 
the  chalice  for  containing  the  Precious  Blood.  Chal- 
ices ^ich  were  formeriy  used  for  the  offeringB  of  wine 
made  by  the  faithful,  for  the  ornamentation  of  the 
altar,  and  at  the  administration  of  baptism,  to  give  to 
the  newly  baptised  a  symbolical  beverage  composed 
of  milk  and  honey,  were  not  consecrated.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  patens  used  at  present  at  the  Communion 
of  the  faithful  to  prevent  consecrated  Particles  from 
falling  to  the  floor. 

Chalices  and  patens  may  be  consecrated  on  any  day 
of  the  year  ana  at  any  hour,  without  solemnity,  al- 
thou^  in  many  places  this  rite  takes  place  after  Mass 
and  at  the  altar.  Firet  the  paten  is  consecrated,  prob- 
ably because  it  is  to  hold  the  Sacred  Host,  which  is  con- 
secrated before  the  Precious  Blood,  and  because  the 
species  of  bread  is  always  mentioned  before  the  species 
of  wine.  The  function  b^ins  with  an  address  to  the 
faithful,  or  at  least  to  the  attendants,  eschorting  them 
to  imf^re  the  blessing  of  God  on  the  action  the  oonse- 
cmtor  is  about  to  perform.  This  is  followed  by  a 
prayer  that  God  may  render  the  rite  efficacious,  after 


OORSENT 


283 


OONSBHT 


which  the  oonsecrator  anoints  the  paten  twice  with 
holy  chriBTn^  from  rim  to  rim,  in  the  fonn  of  a  crossi 
and  rubs  the  oiIb  over  the  whole  upper  side  of  it,  recit- 
ing at  the  same  time  the  oonsecratoiy  form.  The 
sanie  ceremony  with  a  special  address,  prayer,  and 
form,  is  performed  over  tne  chalice,  except  that  the 
consecratcn'  anoints  the  inside  of  the  chalice  twice  from 
rim  to  rim,  and  ruhs  ihe  oil  all  over  the  inside  of  the 
cup.  The  consecrator  then  recites  a  prayer  in  which 
allusion  is  made  to  the  symbolical  meaning  of  the 
chalioe  andpaten,  the  former  of  which,  according  to 
Benedict  XlV  (De  Sacrificio  Missae,  Sect,  i,  n.  31), 
represents  the  tomb  in  which  the  body  of  Christ  was 
laid,  and  the  latter  the  stone  with  which  the  tomb  was 
closed.  Finally,  he  sprinkles  both  vessels  with  holy 
water,  saying  nothing. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  when  the  Church  began 
to  consecrate  chalices  and  patens.  Some  lituigists  are 
of  opinion  that  the  custom  of  doing  so  goes  back  to  the 
time  of  St.  Sixtus  I  (d.  127),  ik^o,  by  a  decree,  forbade 
any  other  than  those  constituted  in  Sacred  orders  to 
touch  the  sacred  vessels  (Rom.  Breviary,  16  April). 
Even  if  this  decree  is  authentic,  it  would  probably  oidy 
prove  that  the  prohibition  was  made  out  of  respect  due 
to  the  vessds  which  contained  the  Sacred  Species. 
Others  refer  to  a  passage  of  St.  Ambrose  (d.  ^7)  in 
which  he  says  that  the  vaaa  EcdetkB  initiaia  may  be 
sold  for  the  relief  of  the  poor.  Conmientators  inter- 
pret imttaia  to  mean  not  conaeerataj  but  rather  nsOy  or 
vessels  wiiidi  had  been  used  for  the  sacred  mysteries. 
The  ancient  canons  and  decrees  decide  tiie  material  of 
which  chalices  and  patens  must  be  made,  but  they  do 
not  say  a  word  of  the  consecration,  although  they  treat 
of  the  consecration  of  churches,  altars,  bishops,  etc. ; 
hence  we  may  conclude  that  chalices  and  patens  were 
not  consecrated  by  a  special  form  before  the  thirteenth 
century. 

LoM  of  ConaeeroHon, — The  chalice  and  paten  lose 
their  consecration  (1)  when  they  are  regilt;  (2)  when 
they  become  battered  or  broken  to  such  an  extent  that 
it  would  be  imbecoming  to  use  them;  (3)  when  the 
slightest  sUt  or  break  appears  in  the  chalice  near  the 
bottom ;  not  so,  however,  if  the  break  be  near  the  up- 
per part,  so  that  without  fear  of  spilling  its  contents 
consecration  can  take  place  in  it;  (4)  when  a  break 
appears  in  the  paten  so  laige  that  particles  may  fall 
through  it. 

Bona,  Rerum  LUurgicarum  Hbri  duo  (Turin,  1747-B3); 
Mabt^mb.  De  antiqui»  Eedesim  ritiinu  (Venice.  1753);  Bsa- 
RASD.  Coun  de  hturffie  romatfK— <«  I-<mtifi4xd  (Paris.  1902), 
11;  Amb£bg£B,  PasiamUheolooie  (Ratisbon,  1884).  It;    Van 


DEB  Stappbn,  Sacra  lAturgia  (Mechlin,  1902).  Ill;  ScHULflrs, 
ConMcnxfufa  (New  York,  1007);  Urmn,  Ctrrwo  di  Sderua  LUur- 
0^  (Bologna.  1004);   Steujl,  JnatUutumes  Liturvica  (Rome, 

A.  J.   SCHULTE. 

Oonsent  (in  Canon  Law),  the  deliberate  agreement 
reauired  of  those  concerned  in  legal  transactions  in 
order  to  legalize  such  actions.  Words,  deeds,  writing, 
or  silence  bear  witness  to  the  existence  of  this  consent. 
Completeness  of  consent  is  gauged  not  so  much  by  the 
preliminaries  of  transactions  as  by  their  ratification, 
which  is  the  psychological  development  of  incipient 
wnsent,  and  gives  consistency  to  le^  transactions. 
Jhe  consent  necessary  to  constitute  contracts  must 
be  internal,  external,  mutual,  and  deliberate.  Some 
authorities  claim  that  contracts  formed  without  any 
intention  on  the  part  of  the  contracting  parties  to 
oblige  themselves  are  valid;  others  more  rightly  main- 
tain the  contrary,  since  the  very  essence  of  contracts 
embodies  obligation.  Consequently,  whoever  is  un- 
prepared to  admit  this  obligation  is  in  no  position  to 
'^"^^*»e  a  contract.  Two  possible  suppositions  here 
present  themsdves.  In  the  first  the  promise  and  in- 
tention of  not  assuming  any  obligation  concern  the 
?ame  object  under  the  same  respect.  Promises  made 
»n  this  way  are  utterly  meaningless.  Tn  the  second 
Buppontion  the  promise  and  intention  of  waiving  the 


obligation  refer  to  the  same  object  under  different 
respects.  In  such  cases  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain 
which  of  these  two  contrary  tendencies  of  the  will  is 
dominant.  If  the  intention  of  making  a  oontract 
possess  greater  efficacy,  the  obligation  thereunto  cor^ 
responding  unquestionably  holds  good.  On  the  con- 
trary, if  the  intention  of  accepting  no  obli^tion 
prevail,  no  oontract  can  be  formed.  Finally,  if  one 
mtention  is  just  as  efficacious  as  another,  th^e  forma- 
tion of  a  oontract  would  then  involve  quest  for  an 
unattainable  result.  Contracts  made  by  individuals 
haying  absolutely  no  intention  of  abiding  by  the  obli- 
gation connected  therewith  are  altogether  invalid, 
and  the  parties  thus  fictitiously  contracting  are  bound 
to  indemnify  those  whose  interests  thereby  suffer. 
The  contract  in  question  must  always  be  capable  of 
begetting  an  obligation.  It  is  not  impossible  to  find 
genuine  oonsent  which  is  worthless  for  giving  consis- 
tency to  contracts  either  because  it  is  nullified 
beforehand  bv  positive  law  or  because  it  is  the  result 
of  error,  fraud,  or  fear  (see  Contract). 

Error  affecting  the  very  nature  of  the  contract,  or 
concerning  the  substance  of  the  object  in  question  or 
a  naturally  substantial  quality  of  the  object,  or  one 
considered  indispensable  bv  the  contraetingparties, 
vitiates  oonsent  and  invalidates  contracts.  EiTor  re- 
garding an  accidental  qualitv  of  the  contract,  or  per- 
taining to  the  motive  undenying  the  contract,  or  to 
its  material  object,  is  insufficient  to  vitiate  consent  or 
nullify  contracts.  In  like  manner  fraud,  whether  in- 
troduced by  one  of  the  contracting  parties  or  by  an 
extern,  for  the  sake  of  provoking  consult  in  the  other 
party,  counteracts  oonsent  as  orten  as  such  fraud  cir- 
cumscribes the  nature  of  the  contract,  the  substance 
of  the  obje^  at  stake,  or  a  quality  naturally  substan- 
tiated in  that  object  or  esteemed  as  substantial  by  the 
one  upon  whom  the  fraud  is  perpetrated.  As  often  as 
accidental  fraud  induces  another,  in  some  measure, 
to  oonsent,  he  is  at  liberty  to  rescind  the  contract, 
provided  it  is  naturally  dissoluble.  In  general,  giave 
fear  lawfully  superinduced  does  not  militate  against 
consent  in  the  will,  and  therefore  renders  contracts 
neither  invalid  nor  rescindable.  On  the  other  hand, 
while  fear  unlawfully  superinduced  to  extort  consent 
does  not  invalidate  contracts,  it  gives  the  intimidated 
party  the  liberty  of  rescinding  them.  According  to  the 
civil  law  of  the  United  States,  no  contract  is  binding 
without  the  mutual  assent  of  both  parties.  They  must 
assent  at  the  same  time  and  to  the  same  thing.  This 
mutual  assent  consists  of  an  offer  by  one  party  and  its 
acceptance  by  another.  When  the  offer  is  verbali  and 
tiie  time  allowed  for  acceptance  is  not  mentioned,  the 
offer  must  be  immediately  accepted  to  constitute  aeon- 
tract.  In  case  the  offer  and  acceptance  are  written  and 
pass  through  the  mail,  the  contract  is  complete  when 
the  acceptance  is  mailed,  provided  the  party  accepting 
has  received  no  notice  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  offer 
before  mailing  his  letter.  As  far  as  the  validity  of 
matrimony  is  concerned,  genuine,  internal,  personal 
oonsent  of  both  parties,  covermg  the  present  and  indi- 
cated by  external  signs,  is  unquestionably  required. 
While  internal  consent  must  be  complemented  by 
some  external  manifestation,  words  are  by  no  means 
necessary.  The  Congregation  of  the  Inquisition  (22 
August,  1860)  decided  that  marriages  are  entirely 
valid  when  the  ceremony  takes  place  in  the  presence 
of  witnesses  and  according  to  the  custom  of  tne  coun- 
try in  a  manner  which  indicates  that  the  contiaoting 
parties  here  and  now  mutually  agree  to  enter  wedlock. 
At  the  same  time,  if  one  or  both  contracting  parties 
have  no  present  intention  of  marrying  in  circumstances 
such  as  those  outlined,  they  can  make  no  marriage 
oontract.  Hie  required  matrimonial  consent  signi- 
fied by  proxy  does  not  militate  against  the  validity  of 
tiie  marriage  contract.  This  consent  must  include 
the  material  object  of  the  matrimonial  contract,  which 
material  (^ject  is  the  mutual  right  of  one  party  to  the 


oonsBKnus 


284 


OONSERVATOR 


body  of  the  other,  a  rig^t  that  carries  with  it  eveiy 
prerogative  vested  therein  by  the  laws  of  nature,  it 
IS  not  necessary,  however,  that  the  intention  of  parties 
to  a  marriage  contract  should  be  explicitly  directed  to 
all  its  conditions  or  circumstances.  On  the  oontraiy, 
an  intention  implicitly  thereunto  directed  is  entirely 
sufiScient  for  all  practical  intents  and  purposes. 
Hence,  as  often  as  marriageable  parties  intend  to  con- 
tract marriage  in  the  way  in  which  men  and  women 
ordinarily  understand  that  agreement,  or  according 
to  the  way  in  which  it  was  instituted  by  the  Author 
of  this  sacrament,  they  exhibit  consent  sufficient  to 
render  their  marriage  contract  entirelv  valid,  provided 
nothing  essential  is  positively  excluded  by  a  counter 
intention  usurping  the  place  of  the  chief,  indispensable 
intention  in  entering  matrimony.  While  marriage 
contracts  are  null  unless  based  on  the  consent  of  those 
concerned,  it  is  usually  very  difficiilt  to  establish  the 
actual  absence  of  this  consent  so  as  to  satisfy  the  judge 
in  a  matrimonial  court,  once  the  marriage  ceremony 
has  really  taken  place.  (For  the  renewal  of  consent 
in  the  case  of  invalid  marriages,  see  Rbvalidation, 
and  for  the  consent  requisite  for  espousals,  see  Espon- 
SAi^s.)  While  in  canon  law  the  consent  of  parents  is 
not  necMary  to  validate  the  marriages  of  their  chil- 
dren, it  is  usually  required  to  render  such  marriages 
legitimate.  [For  the  civil  law  concerning  the  consent 
of  parents  in  France  (modified  1907),  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, Switzerland,  Canada,  etc.,  see  Marriage.] 

In  the  United  States  the  common  law  exacts 
no  solemnity  to  validate  matrimonial  consent.  In 
many  of  the  Stated,  however,  special  statutes  carry- 
ing a  penalty  require  certain  conditions  for  the  legit- 
imacy of  such  consent.  Ck>mmon  law  regards  mar- 
riage  as  a  dvil  contract  for  which  cons^t  alone  is 
essential.  It  demands  no  legal  forms,  nor  religious 
solemnities,  nor  special  mode  of  proof.  According  to 
common  law,  oonsent  indicated  b^  words  covering  the 
present,  whether  consummation  follows  or  not,  or  by 
words  pertaining  to  the  future  together  with  consum- 
mation, constitutes  a  valid  marriage.  In  New  York, 
Illinois,  and  Rhode  Island  words  pertaining  to  the  fu- 
ture, even  with  subsequent  consummation,  no  longer 
render  a  marriage  valia.  Even  without  explicit  proof 
of  words  implying  consent,  cohabitation,  acknowledg- 
ment of  a  marriaee  by  the  parties  concerned,  reception 
of  such  parties  as  husband  and  wife  by  relatives,  friends, 
or  society,  are  sufficient  to  establish  a  valid  marriage. 

Canon  law  reauires  the  oonsent  of  cathedral  chap- 
ters to  lend  validity  to  certain  official  acts  of  bishops. 
In  general,  this  consent  is  necessary  in  such  matters 
as  usually  involve  a  serious  obligation  or  the  possi- 
bility of  a  notable  damage,  or  in  matters  which  simul- 
taneously pertain  to  bishops  and  their  chapters. 
Nevertheless,  unwritten  law  can  narrow  the  rights  of 
chapters  and  widen  the  liberty  of  bishops  in  these 
mattere  unless  ciroumstances  conspire  to  stamp  par- 
ticular measures  as  unreasonable.  In  like  manner, 
unwritten  law  may  exact  the  consent  of  chapters 
in  matters  of  secondary  importance,  a  requirement 
sometimes  enjoined  by  special  statutes.  When  im- 
mediate action  is  necessary,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
convoke  their  chapters,  bishops  may  proceed  validly 
without  the  chapters'  consent.  Inasmuch  as  there 
are  no  cathedral  chapters  in  the  United  States,  dioc- 
esan oonsultors  constitute  the  advisory  board  of  the 
bishops.  The  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 
specines  several  instances  in  whi(^  the  bishops, 
though  not  obliged  to  abide  by  the  advice  of  their 
consultors,  are  bound  to  seek  such  advice,  else  their 
acts  in  such  cases  are  liable  to  nullification. 

For  consent  in  its  relation  to  sinful  acts,  see  Sin, 
and  for  the  consent  of  the  legislative  authority  in  the 
formation  of  consuetudinafy law,  see  Custom. 

Ojrrn.  Synopttin  tfrmn  maraliwrn  et  jutib  ponUfieii  (Prato, 
1904);  fnstructio  Hastoralw  tCyeateUenais  (Freiburg,  190"2),  in- 
dex, n.  V.  Const-nsu:*:  Hkinkr,  OrundnnH  ties  kalh.  Eht'rt'chfa 
(Munstcr,  1905),  index,  a.  v.  Konaena;   HERueNHdTiiKR-Hoi.Lr 


WBGK,  Lehrbuch  des  hath.  KirthenrethU   (FrailmrB.  i90ff),  is* 


dex.  8.  V.  Conaensua;  PsRMANEDsa  in  Kircheniex  . 

and  in  general  all  manuals  and  dictionariee  oi  

(Roman),  and  national  legielationa.     For  the  histofy 
aemt  in  aU  that  pertaina  to  the  mantaBe  ocMitraei, 
__.'_.,  ,-  Stnt  coMoniaue  (Pazis.  Uwl' 
ConsentemenL 


Mw^. 


).  IL  in  indi 
j^.  6.  CN 


xnx. 


Oonsentiufl. — ^The  name  of  a  fifth-centuiy  Gallo- 
Roman  family,  three  of  whoee  repre8a:itBitveB  are 
known  in  history: 

(1)  CoNSXNTiTJS  OP  Nabbomnb,  dorisnmuSt  "who 
combined  the  honour  of  a  prefecture  with  philoeophy", 
was  a  correspondent  of  Sidonius  Apollinaiis*  ^nio 
dedicated  to  nim  a  poem  on  Narbonne.  He  used 
all  metres — iambic,  elegiac,  hendecasyllabic,  and 
the  hexameter — and  wrote  in  Greek  as  well  as  in 
Latin.  His  poems  are  redolent  of  flowers  and  thyme 
(Sidonius,  Cfarm.,  xsdii,  20,  and  234-240;  Epist., 
Ill,  6;  VIII,  4;  IX,  15).  However,  these  praises 
must  not  be  taken  too  literally,  as  Sidonius  counted 
among  his  friends  thirty  men  who  were  similariy 
gifted.  The  authors  of  the  "Histoire  litt^nure  de 
la  France''  make  a  distinction  b^ween  the  Coo- 
sentius  to  whom  the  poem  was  dedicated  and  Con- 
sentius  the  epistolary  author,  maintaining  the  former 
to  have  be^  the  father  of  the  latter. — (2)  Cok- 
SENTIUS,  father  of  the  former,  a  native  of  Marbonne 
and  a  poet,  a  contemporary  of  Valentinian,  and  son- 
in-law  of  Flavius  Valens  Jovinus,  consul  in  367. — 
(3)  CoNSBNTiuB,  a  Gallic  grammarian,,  was  the  author 
of  two  treatises,  which  are  perhi^M  the  fragmeots  of  a 
complete  grammar:  one  on  the  noun  and  the  verb, 
mucn  used  durinjs  the  Carlovingian  period,  and  the 
other  on  barbarisms  and  metaplasm.  An  edition 
of  these  treatises  has  been  published  by  Keil  in 
"Grammatici  Latini"  (Leipssig),  vol.  V,p.  336. 

Biatavre  liU^raire  <U  la  France  (Pari«.  1735).  II.  249-60.  431- 
33.  653-56;  Teufpel,  Geschichte  der  rdmiaehen  Littratur  (Leip- 
■ig.  1890);  Keil.  Orammatici  Latini  (1885).  V.  338. 404. 

Paul  Lbjat. 

Conservator  (from  Lat.  conaervare),  a  judge  dele- 
gated by  the  pope  to  defend  certain  privilegea  classes 
of  persons — sa  universities,  religious  orders,  chapters, 
the  poor — ^from  manifest  or  notorious  injury  or  vio- 
lence, without  recourse  to  a  judicial  process.  Con- 
servators were  appointed  as  early  as  the  thirteenth 
century.  Innocent  IV  presupposes  their  existence  in 
the  decree  (c.  15,  de  off.  et  pot.  jud.,  del.  1, 14,  in  VF) 
from  which  we  first  learn  their  power.  Owing  to 
abuses  and  complaints  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XIV,  c.  V,  de  ref.)  limited  their  jurisdiction,  but  new 
controversies,  often  recurring,  caused  Clement  VIII, 
Gregory  XV,  and  Innocent  X  to  define  their  privileges 
more  precisely.  Troubles  continuing  to  arise,  espe- 
cially concerning  the  conservators  of  religious  orders, 
Clement  XIII  (23  April,  1762)  decreed  that  in  mis- 
sionary countries  such  officials  should  no  longer  be 
chosen,  but  that  all  controversies  should  be  referred  to 
the  Holy  See.  From  that  time  forth  conservators  fell 
into  practical  desuetude.  According  to  law,  these 
officials  were  to  be  chosen  from  among  the  prelates  or 
dignitaries  of  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches;  later 
from  the  synodal  judges.  .When  a  conservator  had 
been  chosen  by  regulars  he  could  not  be  removed  for 
five  years  without  cause.  He  had  no  jurisdiction  ia 
cases  that  required  juridical  examination.  While  he 
took  cognizance  of  all  complaints  against  r^;ulai8,  he 
had  no  authority  to  receive  those  of  the  ra;;ulazs 
against  others  unless  they  were  notorious.  La  the 
latter  case  the  conservator  decided  the  question  sum- 
marily. He  could  punish  with  ecclesiastical  penalties 
even  high  church  dignitaries  who  interfered  with  his 
duties.  His  power  was  limited,  however,  to  the  one 
diocese  in  which  he  had  been  elected,  nor  could  the 
same  conservator  have  power  in  several  dioceses. 

AxDRt-tTAniiBR,  Did.  de  droit  can.  (3d  ed.,  Paris,  1901),  I; 
Werne.  Jub  DecrettUium  (Home,  1899),  II;  Bomx.  De  Jurt  tU* 
ffuiar.  (3a  Mi..  PariA.  1883).  II. 

William  H.  W.  Famnino. 


o<»8iaTxxn8 


285 


OOKSISTORT 


ConsiBtentM  (BrsTANDBim).    See  Pbnitbncb. 

OoiiaifttOffy»  Papal. — ^I.  Dsfinttion. — ^During  the 
Roman  imperial  epoch  the  term  conaisUfnum  (Lat. 
conrsisiere,  to  stand  together)  was  used  to  designate 
the  sacred  oounoil  of  the  emperore.  In  time  it  came 
to  designate  the  senate  oC  the  Roman  pontiff,  tiiat  is» 
**  the  assemblage  of  the  Cardinals  in  council  around  the 
Pope"  (Innocrat  III  to  the  Bishop  of  Ely  and  the  Arch- 
deacon of  Norwich,  in  1212;  see  Gonzales,  ''Commen- 
taria  in  textus  decretalium  Gr^jorii  IX",  III,  vii,  108). 
II.  Origin  and  Historical  Dbvelopment. — The 
origin  of  the  papal  consistory  is  closely  connected  with 
the  history  of  the  Roman  mesbytery  or  body  of  the 
Roman  clergy.  In  the  old  Itoman  pretbyterium  there 
were  deacons,  in  chaige  of  the  ecclesiastical  temporali- 
ties in  the  various  r^ons  of  Rome;  priests,  at  the 
head  of  the  principal  churches  of  the  city,  called  tituli; 
and  (at  least  by  the  eighth  century)  the  bishops  of  the 
dioceses  in  the  nei^bourhood  of  Rome.  The  cardi- 
nals of  to-day  (divided  likewise  into  the  three  orders 
of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons)  have  succeeded  the 
members  of  the  ancient  presbytery  not  only  in  the 
offices  attaching  to  these  three  grades,  thou^  with 
somewhat  different  functions,  but  also,  and  chiefly,  in 
the  capa4nt}r  of  assisting  the  pOpe  in  the  management 
of  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

From  the  earliest  Christian  times  the  popes  were 
wont  to  confer  with  the  Roman  presbytery  on  mat- 
ters affecting  the  interests  of  the  Church.     From  a 
letter  of  Pope  Cornelius  (254-255)  to  St.  CJyprian  we 
learn  that  ne  had  summoned  his  presbyteiy  before 
agreeing  to  the  reconciliation  of  three  schismatics. 
Lokewise,    Pope   Liberius    (352-363)    informed   the 
Roman  clerf^  about  the  course  of  action  he  had 
deemed  advisable  to  take  during  his  exile.    Pope 
Siricius  (384-398)  condenmed  the  neresy  of  Jovinian 
after  havii^  convoked  his  presbytery.     How  far  the 
more  prominent  members  of  the  Roman  clergy,  event- 
ually called  cardinals,  were  being  gradually  entrusted 
with  the  management  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  is  shown 
by  the  action  of  Leo  IV  and  John  VIII  in  the  ninth 
centuiy.    The  former  ordered  that  the  Roman  cardi- 
nals should  meet  twice  a  week  in  the  Sacred  Palace  to 
provide  for  the  administration  of  the  churches,  look 
after  the  discipline  of  the  der;^,  and  decide*  the  cases 
of  laymeni     llie  latter  ordered  them  to  meet  at  least 
twice  a  month  in  order  to  take  cognizance  of  and 
decide  cases  of  clerics  and  laymen  brought  before 
the  pope's  tribunal.    For  many  centuries,  however, 
the  Roman  presbytery  did  not  form  the  senate  of  the 
popes  to  the  exclusion  of  aU  other  clerics,  at  least  in 
matters  of  greater  importance.    These  matters  were 
discussed  and  decided  in  the  Roman  councils,  which, 
though  admitting  the  Roman  dergy  to  an  active  part, 
consisted  diiefly  of  bishops  summoned  by  the  pope 
from  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  as  well  as  of  other 
bishops  who  happened  to  be  in  Rome  at  the  time. 
These  councils  were  very  frequent  until  the  beginning 
of  the  twelfth  century.    Thenceforth,  the  popes  held 
them  more  reur^,  finding  it  difficult  to  convoke  them 
tt  often  as  the  ever  increasing  volume  of  business  de* 
manded.    In  thw  stead  the  popes  transacted  the 
Affairs  biou^t  before  their  court  m  the  presence  and 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Roman  cardinats,  who  about 
the  same  time  had  grown  in  dignity  and  importance, 
owing  to  the  fact  toat  the  right  of  electing  the  pope 
JM)w  rested  in  them  exclusively.    Thus  the  Sacred 
^lleee  of  C!ardinals,  assembled  in  consistory,  became 
the  chief  organ  of  the  supreme  and  universal  govern* 
nwnt  of  the  Church. 

,  At  first,  matters  of  judicial  as  well  as  of  administra- 
tive character  were  referred  to  the  consistory.  In 
course  of  time,  however,  the  former  were  transferred 
to  the  Tribunal  of  the  Sacied  Rota.  The  ''Corpus 
Juris''  contains  many  of  the  decisions  givea,  by  the 
popes  in  amsistory,  aa  is  evidenced  by  the  frequent 


formula  de  fratrum  noslwrum  coruilio  (with  the  advice 
of  oiir  brethren).  The  papal  consistory  has  continued 
ever  since  to  act  as  the  supreme  oounol  of  the  popes, 
though  it  lost  much  of  its  importance  when  m  the 
fifteenth  and  sixte^ith  centuries  the  Roman  Oongre- 
gations  were  instituted.  The  amount  of  business 
brought  before  ihe  Holy  See  had  gradually  increased 
to  such  a  vast  extent  thiat  it  had  to  be  divided  among 
several  particular  committees  of  cardinab.  These 
committees  were  at  first  temporary  but  gradually 
became  pennanent,  and  to  each  of  them  a  definite 
kind  of  ecdesiastaoal  affairs  was  assigned.  These 
permanent  committees  came  to  be  known  as  oongre* 
gations.  The  first  of  them  was  instituted  b^  Paul  III, 
others  by  Pius  IV  and  Pius  V,  but  most  of  them  owe 
their  origin  to  Sixtus  V.  Once  the  Roman  Congregsr 
tions,  embracing  in  their  scope  dmoet  the  whole  range 
of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  were  instituted,  it  was  but 
natural  that  the  papal  consistory  should  lose  in  im- 
portance. However,  it  did  not  so  into  desuetude 
altogether;  it  continued  to  be  held,  but  more  rardy, 
and  only  in  the  form  which  we  proceed  to  describe. 

III.  Prbssnt  Practiob. — Consistories  are  of  three 
kinds:  secret  or  ordinary,  public  or  extraordinary, 
and  semi-public. — (1)  The  secret  consistory  is  so 
called  because  no  one  save  the  pope  and  the  Qiidinals 
is  present  at  its  deliberations.  ForaAerly  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  pope,  soon  after  entering  the  hall  of 
consistory,  to  confer  singly  with  the  cardinals  on  such 
personal  matters  as  they  wished  to  bring  before  him, 
and  it  was  only  after  this  audience  was  over  that 
nobles  and  prelates  were  excluded  from  the  hall .  But 
at  the  present  day  this  audience  is  omitted.  The 
consistory  is  frequently  opened  with  an  address,  or 
allocution,  in  which  the  pope  often  reviews  the  oondi> 
tion  of  the  Church  in  general  or  in  some  particular 
country,  pointing  out  what  deserves  praise  or  needs 
to  be  condemned.  Such  allocutions  are  afterwards 
given  to  the  public  in  order  that  the  world  at  larse 
may  know  the  mind  of  the  pope  on  these  matters.  At 
the  end  of  the  allocution  the  creation  of  new  cardinals 
takes  place.  The  pope  announces  the  names  of  those 
whom  he  intends  to  raise  to  the  cardinalate,  and  asks 
the  cardinals  for  their  opinion;  the  cardinals  remove 
their  caps  as  a  sign  of  consent,  and  the  pope  proceeds 
immediately  to  uie  formal  appointment.  It  is  also 
in  the  secret  consistory  that  the  cardinals  receive 
from  the  pope  the  carainal's  ring,  are  appointed  to 
some  titular  church  or  deaconry,  exerdse  the  option 
of  passing  from  one  titular  churdi  to  another,  and  of 
ascending  from  the  order  of  deacons  and  priests  to  the 
order  of  priests  and  bishops  respectively.  It  is  also 
here  that  the  .pope  appoints  the  camerlengo  and  the 
Vice-Chancellor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church,  and  per- 
forms the  ceremony  of  "closing*'  and  "opening"  the 
mouth  of  the  new  cardinals.  To  this  consistoiv  be- 
long also  the  appointments  of  bishops,  archbishops, 
ancf  patriarchs,  the  transfers  of  these  dignitaries  frpm 
one  see  to  another,  the  ^pointments  of  coadjutors, 
the  creation  and  announcement  of  new  dioceses,  the 
division  and  union  of  dioceses  already  existing.  But 
the  detaib  are  not  discussed  in  the  consistory  itself. 
All  the  previous  consultations  that  are  required  m  order 
that  the  pope  may  come  to  a  prudent  conclusion  have 
taken  place  in  a  congregation  called  consistorial,  and 
the  pope  in  the  consistory  itself  only  gives  his  decision. 
There  are  some  sees  whose  bishops  are  tuppointed 
through  a  Brief  outside  the  consistory.  Such  ar^ 
those  in  territories  depending  on  the  Sacred  Congre- 
gation of  Propaganda,  and  others  as  necessity  may 
require.  These  appointments  are  merely  promuljB;ated 
in  the  secret  consistory.  At  the  end  of  the  coiuustoxy 
the  advocates  called  consistorial  are  admitted  to  re- 
qoesfty  with  the  usual  formalities,  the  pallium  for  newly 
appointed  arehbishops;  their  petition  is  gmnted  im- 
inediately,  but  the  conferring  of  the  pallium  takes 
place  later. 


OOirSTABLB 


286 


OOHSTAJICm 


(2)  The  public  oonsistory  is  so  called  because  per- 
sons foreign  to  the  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals,  suoi  as 
Apostolic  prothonotaries,  the  auditors  of  tiie  Sacred 
Rota,  and  other  prelates  are  called  to  it.  Laymen 
also,  who  have  made  previous  application,  are  per« 
mitted  to  be  present.  Formerly,  in  this  oonsistory 
the  pope  usea  to  give  solemn  reception  to  kines, 
princes,  and  ambassadors;  but  this  is  no  longer  the 
custom.  In  the  public  oonsistoiy  the  pope  Deforms 
the  ceremony  of  aelivering  the  red  hat  to  the  newly 
created  cardinals.  Moreover,  the  consistorial  advo- 
cates plead  here  the  causes  of  beatification  and  canon- 
ization. These  pleadings  are  of  two  kinds.  In  the 
first  permission  is  asked  that  the  ordinary  process  of 
beatification  or  canonization  may  be  introduced,  or 
continued,  or  brought  to  completion.  The  second  has 
reference  only  to  causes  of  canonization.  For  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  practice  of  ttxe  Holy  See,  even 
after  it  has  been  conclusively  proved  that  the  mira- 
cles required  for  canonization  have  been  performed 
through  the  intercession  of  one  declared  blessed,  the 
honours  of  a  saint  are  not  decreed  to  him,  unless  the 
question  as  to  whether  canonization  should  take  place 
has  been  treated  in  three  consistories:  secret,  public, 
and  semi-public.  In* the  secret  oonsistory  tiie  pope 
asks  the  opinions  of  the  cardinals,  who  express  it 
singly  by  answering  placet  or  non  placet  (aye  or  no). 
In  the  public  consistory  one  of  the  consistorial  advo- 
cates pleads  the  cause  and  a  prelate  answers  in  the 
pope's  name,  inviting  all  to  pray  in  order  that  the 
pope  may  be  enlightened  on  the  subject.  The  final 
voting  takes  place  in  the  semi-public  consistory. 

(3)  Hie  semi-public  oonsistoiy  is  so  called  beicause, 
besides  the  cardinals,  bishops  also  take  part  in  it.  To 
this  consistory  the  bishops  residing  within  one  hun- 
dred miles  of  Rome  are  summoned,  while  invitations 
are  sent  to  all  the  other  bishops  of  Italy;  moreover, 
titular  patriarchs  and  archbisnops  and  bishops  who 
live  in  Rome,  as  well  as  bishops  who  happen  to  be 
sojourning  there  at  the  time,  are  likewise  present. 
After  all  the  Fathers  have  expressed  their  opinions  on 
the  subject,  the  pope  closes  tne  assembly  with  an  ad- 
dress on  the  following  canonization.  With  regard  to 
the  time  for  holding  the  consistories,  the  old  practice 
of  assembling  them  at  fixed  intervals  has  passed  out 
of  use  and  tcvday  they  meet,  as  occasion  demands,  at 
the  pope's  wish. 

HiLUNQ,  Procedure  at  ihe  Rotnan  Curia  (New  York,  1007); 
Baabt,  The  Roman  CouH  (New  York«  1895):  Hukphsey.  Urba 
et  OrbUior  The  Pope  aa  Btshop  and  as  PorUiff  (London,  1899); 
Smith.  ElemerUa  of  EccUsioBtioal  Law  (New  York,  1895).  I,  270; 
HcROBNiidTHKR*HoLLWscK.  Lehfbueh  dee  kathUieehen  Kirehen- 
rechU  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1905),  292;  von  Schbrer,  Handbuchdea 
kaiholiffchen  KtrchenrechU  ((iraa,  1886).  I,  481;  Andr^-Waq- 
NfiR.  IHcl.  de  Drtfit  Carum.  (Paris.  1901),  I.  655;  Wbrne,  Jue 
Decretalium  (Rome.  1906),  II.  394;  Coreluus.  Notilia  Cardy- 
naialue  (Rome,  1653);  Leoa,  De  Judiciis  Eedeaiaatieie  (Rome, 
1898),  II.  253. 

Hector  Papi. 

Oonstable  (formerly  Tunbtall),  Cuthbert,  date 
of  birth  uncertain;  d.  27  March,  1746.  He  was  the 
son  of  Francis  Tunstall  of  WycliflFe  Hall,  Yorkshire, 
England,  and  Cicely,  dauj^ter  of  John  Constable, 
second  Viscount  Dunbar.  When  in  1718  he  succeeded, 
on  the  death  of  his  uncle,  the  last  Viscount  Dijnbar, 
to  thd  estates  of  Burton  Constable,  he  changed  his 
surname  from  Tunstall  to  Constable.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Douai  and  subsequently  studied  medicine 
at  Montpellier,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Medicine.  He  formed  a  large  collection  of  books 
and  MSS.  at  Burton  Constable^  and  in  other  ways 
was  a  constant  patron  of  Catholic  literature,  assist- 
ing Bishop  Challoner  by  lending  him  documents  for 
the  "Memoirs  of  Missionary  Priests",  and  Dodd,  by 
contributing  to  the  expenses  of  the  "  History  of  the 
Church  of  England".  He  also  maintained  friendly 
relations  with  non-<^tholic  scholars;  and  among  the 
Burton  Constable  pap«9  are  two  volumes  of  his  coi^ 
respondenoe  with  Mr.  Ntohnlson  of  TTniveniity  Col- 


lege, Oxford,  and  the  well«4cnown  antiquaiy,  Thomas 
Heame.  His  correspondence  with  the  former  waa 
chiefly  ooncemed  with  particulam  for  the  bjogniphy 
of  Abraham  Woodheaa,  for  whom  he  had  a  great 
veneration.  His  only  publication  is  a  life  of  Wood- 
head  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  '*  The  Third  Part  of  the 
Brief  Account  of  Church  Govenament",  written  by 
that  author  (London,  1736).  Gillow  (BibL  DicL  Eog. 
Cath.,  I J  549)  states  that  even  this  was  lai^ely  taken 
from  Nicholson,  but  is  valuable  for  the  complete 
Woodhead  bibliography.  The  other  woiks  enumer- 
ated by  Qillow  (toe  cit.)  aie  not  by  Constable,  but 
were  MSS.  in  his  collection.  The  collection  itself 
was  sold  by  auction  in  1889,  some  of  the  MSS.  being 
l>urchased  b^r  Lord  Herries  and  added  to  his  collec- 
tion at  Everingham.  Con8table>  wxms  twice  marned, 
first  to  Amy,  daughter  of  Hugh,  third  Lord  CUfford, 
by;  whom  he  had  three  children,  William,  Cicely,  and 
Winifred,  and  secondly  to  Elisabeth  Heneage,  by 
whom  he  had  one  son,  Maimaduke,  who  inherited  the 
estate  of  Wycliffe  and  resumed  the  family  jiame  of 
Tunstall. 

KiRX.  Biographiee  (London.  1908):  Ca<ft.  MiecdUmy  (1830), 
p.  134;  Gii<LOW.  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath,  (London,  1885),  I,  548 
sag.;  Hamilton,  Chronide  of  the  Eng.  Auguftinian  Canonnen 
of  St.  Monica's  at  Louvain  (London,  1906),  II. 

Edwin  Bubix>n. 

OonBtable  (alias  Lacht),  John,  controversialist 
(pen-name  Clerophilus  Alethes),  b.  in  Lincoln- 
shire, 10  November,  1676  or  1678;  d.  28  March,  1743. 
In  1695  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus.  For  many 
years  he  served  the  Fitzherbert  family  at  Swinnerton, 
where  he  is  buried.  Constable's  chief  controversial 
opponents  were:  the  Abb^  Courayer  (1681-1776; 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  XII,  328)i  who  championed  Anglican 
orders,  came  over  to  England  in  17^,  was  lionized, 
and  eventually  buried  in  the  cloisters  of  Westminster  j 
and  Charles  Dodd  vere  Hugh  Tootell,  who  wrote  with 
a  prejudice  against  Jesuits.  The  chief  writing  of 
Constable  are:  "Remarks  upon  Courayer's  Book  in 
Defence  of  English  Ordinations,  wherem  their  inva- 
lidity is  fully  proved",  an  answer  to  Courayer's  "Dis- 
sertations" of  1723;  "The  Stratagem  Discovered  to 
show  that  Courayer  writes '  Booty',  and  is  only  a  sham 
defender  of  these  ordinations",  by  "Clerophilus  Ale- 
thes", an  answer  to  Courayer's  "Defense";  "The 
Convocation  Controvertist",  by  "Clerophilus  Ale- 
thes" (8vo,  1729),  aeamst  Rev.  Joseph  Trapp's  ''De- 
fence of  the  Churda  of  England";  "^Doctrine  of 
Antiquity  concerning  the  Eucharist",  by  "Clerophilus 
Alethes"  (8vo,  1736);  "Specimen  of^  Amendments 
proposed  to  the  Compiler  of  'The  Church  History  of 
England'",  by  "aerophilus  Alethes"  (12mo,  1741); 
"Advice  to  the  Author  of  'The  Church  History  of 
England"',  MS.  at  Stonyhurst.  GilTow  enumerates  a 
few  other  writings  by  Cfonstable. 

OuvBR,  CoUedanea  8.  J.,  73:  Folkt.  Records  8.  Jl,  III.  207; 
VII  (i).  169;  SOMMBBVOGSL,  BiUiothims  deiaC.de  J„  U,  ral. 
1374;  GiLLOW,  l>ict.  of  Eng.  Co/A.,  I,  552  aqq.:  Coopsr  in  Diet, 
Nat.  Biog.,  XII,  36. 

Patrick  Ryan. 

Ck>ii8tance  (Lat.  Corutantia,  Ger.  Kanatofu  or 
Conaianz,  Ceechic  name  KoeiwUz)^  formerly  the  seat 
of  a  diocese.  Constance,  a  very  ancient  town  sit- 
uated where  the  River  Rhine  flows  out  of  the  Bodensee 
(between  the  Bodensee  and  the  Untenee)  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  was  origin- 
ally a  village  of  lake-dwellers  which  under  Roman  rule 
was  fortified  by  Constantius  Chlotnis  in  304.  Chris- 
tianity seems  to  have  been  introduced  into  0>nstance 
and  the  neighbouring  country  by  Roman  l^ionaries  as 
early  as  the  end  of  the  second  or  the  begiiming  of  the 
third  century.  The  episcopal  see  was  first  at  Vin- 
donissa,  the  present  Windiscn  in  the  Canton  of  Aaif^ 
in  Switserland.  It  is  not  known  when  this  see  was 
erected.  The  first  bishop  of  whom  history  has  pre- 
served any  record  is  Bubulcus  who  was  pfcsent  at  the 
Burgimdian  Synod  of  Epaon  in  &17.    (Mansi,  AmpL 


00N8TAH0I 


287 


OOmTAMOl 


Coll.  Cone.,  VIII,  565.)  He  was  sucoeeded  by  Gram- 
matius,  who  attended  a  Frankkh  synod  at  Clennont  in 
535  (ibid.,  VIU,  863),  one  at  Origans  in  541  (ibid.,  IX, 
120),  and  a  third  at  Orleans  in  540  (ibid.,  IX,  136). 
After  this  time  history  makes  no  further  mention  of 
the  Dioeese  of  Vindonissa.  Since,  however,  the  neigh- 
bouring dty  of  Constance  is  for  the  first  time  men- 
tioned as  an  episcopal  see  about  this  time,  it  becomes 
almost  a  certainty  that  from  Vindonissa  the  see  was 
transferred  to  Constance.  The  episcopal  catalogues 
of  Constance  designate  Maximus  as  the  first  and 
Rudolph  as  the  second  bishop,  but  nothing  further  is 
known  about  them.  Walafrid  Strabo,  in  his  *'Vita 
S.  Galli",  speaks  of  a  certain  Gaudentius  as  Bii^op  of 
Constance,  after  whose  death  (c.  613)  the  bishc^ric 
was  offered  to 
St.  Gall  who, 
however^  re- 
fused the  dig- 
nity and  recom- 
mended his  dis- 
ciple John  in  his 
stead.  The  ser- 
mon which  St. 
Gall  preached  at 
John's  consecra^ 
tion  is  still  ex- 
tant (H.  Cani- 
sius,  "Antiquffi 
Lectiones",  ed- 
ited by  Basnage, 
" Thesaurus 

monum.  eccl.  et  bLst.*^  Antwerp,  1725,  I^  78i>). 
Nothing  is  known  of  Marcian,  JUmo,  Gangalf, 
Fidelis,  and  Rudol]>1i,  who  are  generally  Hcsir- 
nated  as  successors  i^f  John. 

The  limits  of  the  l>ioet?«e  af  Const:mce  were 
fixed  during  the  se  vc  n t  b  vm^ i ury .  Tht^  river  1 1 ler 
Reparated  it  from  tho  Dioeesf  af  AupiburK. 
From  the  influx  of  the  llltT  into  the  Dtiutjhethe 
*  lx)undary  turned  tuwLirri^  tht^  nortVi-wrat.  past 
Cimiind,  across  the  Ne^^kar,  north  of  Miirbach, 
thence  south-westerly  t'dl  it  reaches!  the  Rtiitie 
south  of  Breisach  [Altbreisadj).  It  foUowfMJ 
the  Rhine  upward  tu  tlu^  inllux  of  the  Aar,  then 
up  this  river  to  the  St.  Gotthard,  whence  it  turned 
north-easterly  across  Canton  St.  Gall  to  the  source 
of  the  nier.  The  dioceses  surrounding  it  were 
Auesburg,  Speyer,  Strasburg,  Basle,  Lausanne,  Chur, 
and  (since  742)  WUrzburg.  There  was  not  a  diocese  in 
Germaxw'  which  surpassed  Constance  either  in  area  or 
population.  It  belonged  to  the  province  of  Besanoon 
until  it  became  a  suffragan  of  Mamz  in  747.  With  tew 
changes  it  retained  the  above-mentioned  dimensions 
till  the  time  of  t^e  Reformation.  In  the  year  1436  the 
diocese  had  17,060  priests,  1760  parishes,  and  350 
monasteries  and  convents.  During  liie  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries  the  bishops  of  Constance  repeatedly 
infringed  upon  the  rights  of  the  Abbots  of  Reichenau 
and  St.  Gall  and  sometimes  combined  the  abbatial  with 
the  episcopal  dignitv.  Bishop  Sidonius  (746-760) 
was  instrumental  in  the  unjust  deposition  and  impris- 
onment of  St.  Othmar,  the  Abbot  of  St.  Gall,  in  758  or 
759  (Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte,  in,  596).  Most 
bishops  of  the  tenUi  century  were  great  and  holy  men. 
Solomon  III  (890-919)  had  previously  (885)  been  im- 
perial chancellor  and  was  eoually  beloved  as  Abbot  of 
Heichenau  and  St.  Gall  ana  as  Bishop  of  Constance. 
St  Conrad  (934-975)  was  ^  great  friend  of  the  poor, 
made  three  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land,  built  three 
new  churches  and  renovated  many  old  ones.  He  was 
canonixed  in  1123  and  became  patron  of  the  diocese. 
St.  GebliMd  II  (979-995)  founded  the  Abbey  of  Petera- 
hausen  in  983,  bc^an  to  be  honoured  as  a  saint  soost 
after  his  death,  and  became  patron  of  the  city  of  Co»- 
|tance.  During  the  conflict  between  Pope  Gregory 
VII  and  EJmperor  Henry  IV,  concerning  the  right  of 


investiture,  the  episcopat  See  of  Constance  was  occu- 
pied by  Otto  I  (1071-1086),  who  sided  with  the  em- 
peror and  was  excommunicated  because  he  took  part 
m  the  deposition  of  Gregory  VII  at  the  ^nod  of 
Worms  (1076).  His  successor  Gebhaid  Ul  (1084- 
1110)  was  an  intrepid  defender  of  the  papal  rights 
against  Henry  V,  became  Vicar  Apostolic  lor  Germany 
under  Urban  II  (Mansi,  Ampl.  CoU.  Cone,  XX,  666 
and  715),  consecrated  the  new  cathedral  at  Constance 
in  1089,  heki  a  sjmod  in  1094,  at  which  wholesome 
ecclesiastical  reforms  were  decreed,  and  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  pope  freed  Henry  V  from  the  ban  in  1095. 
I>uring  the  piUMil  oonfliets  with  the  Emperors  Freder- 
kk  I  and  Frederick  II  the  bishops  sidea  with  the  em- 
peroiB  until  Bishop  Henry  I,  von  Thann  (1233-1248) 
returned  to  papal  aliegianoe  in  1246.  Bishop 
Kudrilph  von  Motiifort,  nH22-1334)  supported 
Pope  Jahn  XXII  in  his  Btntggle  against  Louis  the 
Bavarian  until  1332»  when  h<?  joined  the  party  of 
the  emperor.  His  successor  Nicholas,  von  Kreuc^ 
tinpen  ( 1  :V14-1344).  sided  with  the  popes.     While 

tne  Council  of 
Constance  (q. 
▼.)  was  in  ses- 
sion  (1414- 
1418)  the  epis- 
copalSeeof  Con- 
stance was  oc- 
cupied by  Otto 
III,  von  Hoch- 
berg  (1411- 
1434).  From 
the  thirteenth 
century  the 
bishops  of  Con- 
stance  were 
princes  of  the 
German  Em- 
pire. Their  ter- 
ritory, as  tem- 
poral rulers,  ex- 
tended over 
twenty  -  two 
German  (about 
482  fkoglish) 
square  miles, 
with  a  popula- 
tion of  about 
50,000,  and  lasted  until  it  was  divided  between  Baden 
and  Switzerland  in  1802. 

The  decline  of  the  diocese  beginB  with  the  Protestant 
Reformation.  The  Swiss  Cantons  Zurich,  Bern,  St. 
Gall,  Scha^hauseii,  and  Thurgau  were  first  to  adopt 
the  new  doctrine  (Zwinglianism).  They  were  follow«l 
in  1526  by  the  city  of  Constance  and  in  1534  by  the 
Duchy  of  Wtirtemberg.  Baden  became  Protestant 
in  1556,  but  here  the  Catholic  religion  was  restored  in 
1571.  The  old  Faith  was  also  slowly  restored  in  the 
city  of  Constance  from  1548  when  that  city  came  un- 
der Austrian  rule.  From  1526  the  bishcps  of  Conn 
stance  resided  at  Meersbuig.  Despite  the  great  losses 
sustained  during  the  Reformation,  the  diocese  in  1750 
atill  numbered  3774  secular  priests,  2764  monks,  3147 
nuns,  and  a  Catholic  popidation  of  891,948.  In  1814 
the  portion  of  the  diocese  situated  on  Swiss  territory 
was  detached  and  apportioned  to  the  Swiss  dioceses  of 
C:hur,  Basle,  and  St.  Gall.  After  the  death  of  Bishop 
Karl  Theodor  von  Dalbeig  in  1817,  the  portion  of  the 
diocese  Ijring  in  Wtirtemberg  came  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  vicai^general  of  EUwangen-Rottenburp,  and 
all  the  Bavarian  territory  was  attached  to  the  Diocese 
of  Augsbuig.  In  1821  Pope  Pius  VII  dissolved  the 
Diocese  of  Constance  and  joined  its  remaining  terri- 
tory to  the  newly  erected  Archdiocese  of  Freiburg. 
The  most  important  rulers  of  the  diocese  since  tM 
Reformation  were:  Cardinal  Marcus  Sitticus  von 
Hohenems  (Altemps),  1561-1580;  Cardinal  Androw 


Cathxdsaih  Gosstanob 


flOHITAMOl 


288 


0OH8TAVOB 


of  Austria  (158^1600),  Jacob  Fugger  (1604-1626),  ICarl 
Theodor  von  Dalberg  (1800-1817)  and  his  Vicar-Gen* 
eral  Heinrich  Ignaz  von  We88eid>erg.  The  last  two  es* 
poused  the  doctrine  of  Febronius.  Dalberg  joined  the 
Freemasons  and  the  lUuminati,  of  whose  real  tenden- 
cies he  was  igncmmt  ^  and  Wessenbeig  was  heart  and  soul 
for  the  anti-ecclesiastical  reforms  of  Emperor  Joseph  II. 
The  city  of  Constance  received  municipal  ri^ts  in 
780,  became  a  free  imperial  city  in  1192  and  was  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  nourishing  cities  of  Grermany  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages.  Its  population  is  said  to  have 
exceeded  40,000.  Here  the  famous  Peace  of  Con- 
stance, a  treatv  between  Barbarossa  and  the  Lombard 
cities  was  declared  in  1183  and  an  imperial  diet  was 
convened  by  Maximilian  I  in  1507.  Commercially  it 
was  highly  important  on  account  of  its  manufacture 
of  choice  linen  the  famous  tela  di  Codama  whidi 
was  known  throughout  Europe.  Its  ecclesiastical 
renown  it  owes  to  the  fact  that  it  was  the  seat  of 
perhaps  the  largest  diocese  in  Germany  and  that  from 
1414-18  the  Sixteenth  (Ecumenical  Council  was  cele- 
brated there.  For  joining  the  Smalkaldic  League 
and  refusing  to  accept  the  Interim  of  Augsburg  in 
1548,  it  was  deprived  of  its  privileges  as  a  free  and 
imperial  city  and  given  to  Austria  by  Emperor  Charles 
V.  It  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the  Swedes  in 
1633,  pillaged  b^r  the  French  (1740-45),  and  finally 
joined  to  Baden  m  1805.  Its  population  in  1900  con- 
sisted of  15,917  Catholics,  711  Old  Catholics,  and  565 
Jews. 

Mekok,  Chronik  du  Bisthuma  KonUanz  (Gonstwice,  ld27): 
Nbuqabt,  £'pi8C9palv«  ConstarUiensia  (to  1806),  (St.  BUrien, 
1803  and  Freiburg,  1S62);  Idkm,  Codex  DiplomaHcua  (St.  Blaaien, 
1791-6):  Laoxwig.  Regesta  Episcoporum  Conakmlimmvm  (in 
Gennao)  von  Bvbmcua  bia  Thomu  BerUnoer,  617-1406  (Inns- 
bruck,  1S8&-90);.  Lupwio.  l>ie* KonaUnuer  GeschiehtMachreibuno 
bia  turn  18.  Jakrh.  (Strasburs,  i894).  For  the  city  of  Ck>n- 
atanee:  EiaELSiN,  Geachxchie  und  Bfadtreibunq  der  Stadt  Kon- 
atom  ((^nstanoe,  1861);  BsYEttue,  Konatani  im  SO^Mrigen 
Krieg  (1900);  Insii .  QnmdeioanlhwnavarhAUniaae  und  Bibrgar' 
redU  im  mUfeUdUrlichen  Ktmatant  (1900-02). 

"    Michael  Ott. 

OonBta&ee,  Council  of,  a  (partly)  oecumenical 
council  held  at  Constance,  now  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Baden,  from  5  Nov.,  1414,  to  22  April,  1418.  Its 
forty-five  general  sessions  were  devoted  to  three  chief 
purposes :  (I)  The  Extinction  of  the  So-Called  Western 
Schism;  (II)  The  Reformation  of  EcclesiajBtical  Gov- 
ernment and  Life;  (III)  Hie  Repression  of  Heresy. 
The  article  will  abo  take  up:  (IV)  Attendance  at 
the  Council;  General  Considerations. 

I.  The  Extinction  of  the  So^ALLsn  Western 
Schism. — ^In  its  attempt  to  restore  to  the  Church  her 
immemorial  unity  oi  headship  theCouncil  of  Pisa  (q.  v.) 
in  1409  had  onlv  added  to  tne  confusion  ^nd  scandal 
that  afflicted  au  Christendom  since  1378  (see  Schism, 
Western).  There  were  now  three  popes,  the  two 
deposed  by  the  oomtdl  (Gregory  XII  and  Benedict 
XIII)  and  its  own  creation,  Alexander  V;  the  latter 
soon  died  (3  May,  1410)  and  was  succeeded  b(y  Cardi- 
nal Baldassare  Cossa  as  John  XXIII.  Obedient  to  a 
ciecree  of  the  Council  of  Pisa  that  ordered  a  general 
council  every  three  years,  this  pope  convoked  such  an 
assetnblv  at  Rome  for  April,  1412,  but  with  so  little 
success  that  it  was  prorogued  and  again  convoked  for 
the  beginning  of  1413;  its  only  important  decree  was 
a  ooD&mnation  of  the  writing?  of  Wyclif.  In  the 
meantime  the  treachery  and  violence  of  Ladislaus  of 
Naples  made  John  XXIII  quite  dependent  politically 
on  the  new  Emperor-elect  Sigismund  whose  anxiety 
for  a  general  council  on  German  territory  was  finaiW* 
satisfm  by  the  pope,  then  an  exile  from  Rome.  lie 
convoked  it  from  Lodi,  9  December,  1413,  for  1  No- 
vember, 1414,  at  Constance,  a  free  city  of  the  empire, 
on  Lake  Constance.  It  was  solemnly  opened  5  Novenn 
ber  in  the  cathechul  of  Constance,  where  all  the  public 
sessions  were  held.  The  first  public  session  took  pUoe 
16  November  under  the  presidency  of  John  XaIII, 
and  for  a  while  it  considered  itseu  a  oontinufttion  of 


the  Council  of  Pisa,  and  John  XX III  the  sole  legiti- 
mate pope.    It  was  soon  evident,  however,  that  many 
members  of  the  new  assembly  (comparatively  few 
bishops,  many  doctors  of  theology  ana  of  canon  and 
civil  law,  procurators  of  bishops,  deputies  of  univer- 
sities, cathedral  chapters,  provosts,  etc,  agents  and 
representatives  of  princes,  etc.)  favoured  stn>n$!:ly 
the  voluntary  abdication  of  all  three  popes.    This 
was  also  the  idea  of  Emperor  Sigismund   (q.  v.) 
present  since  Christmas  Eve,  1414,  and  destined  to 
exercise  a  profound  and  continuous  influence  on  the 
course  cd  the  council  in  his  character  of  imperial 
protector  of  the  Church.    The  French  deputies  es- 
pecially ursed  this  solution  of  the  intolerable  crisis, 
under  the  leadership  of  Pierre  d'Ailly  (Cardinal  and 
Bishop  of  Cambrai),  Guillaume  Fillastre    (Cardinal 
and  Bishop  of  San  Marco),  and  Jean   Chariier  de 
Gerson,  chancellor  of  the  University  ol  Paris,  rep- 
resentative of  the  French  king,  and   known  with 
d'Ailly,  as  "the  soul  of  the  council".     The  Italian 
bishops  who  had  accompanied  John  XXIII  in  large 
numbera  and  stood  for  his  legitimacy  vrere  soon 
rendered  helpless  by  new  methods  of  diiscussion  and 
voting.    Early  in  January,  1415,  envoys  of  Benedict 
XIII   appeared,   but   only   tb   propose    a    personal 
meeting  at  Nice  of  their   pope  and  the  emperor. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  month  Gregory  XII  (Angelo 
Corrario)  offered,  through  his  representatives,  to  re- 
^n,  on  condition  that  tne  other  popes  did  the  same. 
Tne  execution  of  this  project,  henceforth  the  main 
object  of  the  council,  was  long  delayed  for  reasons 
that  will  appear  below.     Pressure  was  at  onoe  brought 
to  bear  on  John  XXIII  by  Emperor  Sigismund  and  by 
the  non-Italian  members.    His  resistajice  was  finally 
broken  by  the  resolution  of  the  members  to  vote  bj 
"nations  '  and  not  by  persons.    The  legality  of  this 
measure,  an  imitation  of  the  "nations"  of  the  univer- 
sities, was  more  than  questionable,  but  during  Febru- 
aiy,  1415,  it  was  carried  through  and  thenceforth  ac- 
cepted in  practice,  though  never  authorised  by  any 
formal  decree  of  the  council  (Finke,  Foischungen, 
31^33)  and  opposed  by  d'Ailly  and  Fillastre,  who 
want^.  indeed,  a  considerable  enlaigement  of  the 
voting  body,  by  the  inclusion  of  professors  (doctors) 
of  theology,  pi^ish  priests,  etc.,  but  not  the  abandon- 
ment of  ^e  traditional  individual  vote;  the  former 
was  willing  to  compromise  on  a  vote  according  to 
ecclesiastic^  provinces.    The  vote  by  nations  was  in 
neat  measure  the  work  of  the  English,  German,  and 
French  members,  but  the  Italians  did  not  long  resist, 
and  on  this  basis  the  council's  work  was  organised  and 
executed  as  follows :  By  each  of  the  four  nations  repre- 
sented at  the  council,  i.  e.  Germans  (with  whom  were 
counted  the  few  Poles,  Hungarians,  Danes,  and  Scan- 
dinavians), English,  French,  and  Italians,  several  dep* 
uties,  ecclesiastical  and  lay,  were  appointed  to  repre- 
sent the  entire  membership  of  the  nation  prosnit  at 
Constance.    These  national  deputies  met  separately 
under  a  president  of  their  own  choice,  but  changed 
from  month  to  month.    Their  decisions  were  reached 
by  a  majority  vote,  and  were  then  communicated  to 
the  General  Congregation  of  all  four  nations  in  which 
the  vote  of  a  majority  (three)  was  decisive.    There 
seems  also  to  have  been  (Finke,  Forschungen,  36-37) 
an  important  general  committee  appointed  by  the 
nations  to  prepare  the  subjects  of  discussion  for  the 
individual  nations,  and  to  act  generally  as  intermedi- 
ary.   At  the  seventh  session  (2  May,  1415)  the  right 
to  vote  apart  was  withdrawn  from  the  cardinalB: 
henceforth  they  could  only  vote  like  other  individual 
deputies  in  the  meetings  of  their  respective  nations* 
The  Roman  Church,  therefore,  was  not  represented  as 
such,  while  the  small  English  nation  (20  deputies,  3 
bishops)  was  equal  in  Influence  to  the  entire  Italian 
representation,  as  individuals  about  one-half  the 
oonncil.    The  decisions  of  the  general  congregations 
were  presented  at  the  public  sessions  of  the  council 


OOKfiTANai 


289 


Q6il3TA]rai 


and  there  promulgated,  unanimously,  ab   ooneiliar- 
decrees. 

While  these  measures  were  being  tak^i  John  XXIII 
grew  daily  more  suspicious  of  the  council.    NeverUie- 
less,  and  partly  in  consequence  of  a  fierce  anonvmous 
attack,  from  an  Italian  source,  on  his  life  and  charac- 
ter, he  promised  under  oath  (2  March,  1415)  to  resign. 
On  20  March,  however,  he  secretly  fled  from  Constance 
and  took  refuge  at  Schaffhausen  on  territory  of  his 
friend  Frederick,  Duke  of  AustriarTvroL    Tnis  step 
filled  the  council  with  oonstemation,  for  it  threatened 
both  its  existence  and  its  authority.    Emperor  Sigis- 
mund,  however,  held  together  the  wavering  assembly. 
Then  followed  the  public  sessions  (third  to  fifth)  of  26 
and  30  March  and  5  April  out  of  which  came  the  fa^ 
mouB  decrees  "Articles  of  Constance",  long  a  chief 
argimient  of  Gallicanism  (q.  v.).    As  finally  adopted 
in  the  fifth  session  they  were  five  in  number  ana  de^ 
dared  that  the  council,  legitimately  called  in  the  Holy 
Spirit,    is   a  general  council,  represents  the  whole 
Cnurdi  Militant,  has  its  authority  directly  from  God ; 
and  that  in  all  that  pertains  to  faith,  the  extinction  of 
the  schism  and  reformation  in  head  and  membecB» . 
every  Christian,  even  the  pope,  is  bound  to  obey  it; 
that  in  case  of  refusal  to  ooey  the  couneil  all  reealci* 
trant  Christians  (ev^i  the  pope)  are  subject  to  ecclesi* 
astical  puniidiment  and  in  case  of  necessity  to  other 
(civil)  sanctions;   that  without  the  consent  of  the 
coimcil  Pope  John  cannot  call  away  from  Constance 
the  Roman  Curia  and  its  officials,  whose  absence 
might  compel  the  closing  of  ihe  council  or  hinder  its 
work ;  that  all  censures  inflicted  since  his  departure  b^ 
the  pope  on  members  and  supporters  of  me  council 
are  void,  and  that  Pope  John  and  the  members  of  the 
council  have  hitherto  enjoyed  full  liberty.    In  the 
meantime  (29  March,  1415)  the  English,  German,  and 
French  nations  had  agreed  to  four  articles,  in  the  first 
two  of  which  was  expressed  the  complete  supremacy 
of  the  council  over  tne  pope;  these  two  were  incor- 
porated in  the  aforesaid  articles  of  the  fifth  session. 
It  has  been  maintained   that  these  decrees  were 
meant  only  for  the  extraordinary  situation  which  then 
faced  the  council;    they  express,  nevertheless,  the 
well-known  persuasion  of  the  majority  of  the  peculiar 
ecclesiastical  representation  at  Constance  tnat  the 
council,  independently  of  the  pope,  was  the  final  de- 
pository of  supreme  ecclesiastical  authority;  indeed, 
by  virtue  of  these  decrees  they  proceeded  at  once  to 
judge  and  depose  John  XXIII,  hitherto  for  them  the 
legitimate  pope.    It  is  to  be  noted  that  of  lixe  twelve 
cardinals  present  at  Constance  only  seven  or  eight  as- 
sisted at  the  fifth  session,  and  they  solely  to  avoid 
scandal  (among  the  absent  was  d'Ailiy).    Nor  would 
any  cardinal  announce  these  decrees;  that  office  fell 
to  a  bishop,  Andrew  of  Posen.    The  emperor  was 
present  at  their  promulgation,  also  200  members, 
mostly  doctors,  etc.    These  decrees,  it  must  be  re- 
membered, thou^  adopted  at  Basle  and  often  quoted 
by  the  disciples  of  Gallicanism  and  other  opponents  of 
^pal  supremacy,  were  formulated  and  accepted  at 
Constance  amid  quite  unusual  circumstances,  in  much 
haste,  and  in  quasi  despair  at  the  threatened  failure  of 
the  long-desired  general  council ;  they  ran  counter  to 
the  immemorial  praxis  of  the  Church,  and  substituted 
for  its  Divine  constitution  the  will  of  the  multitude  or 
at  best  a  kind  of  theological  parliamentarism.    They 
were  never  approved  by  the  Apostolic  See  (Funk, 
Kirchengeschichtliche  Studien,  Paderbom,  1897,  I, 
489-98)  and  were  almost  at  once  implicitly  rejected  by 
Martin  V  (Mansi,  Coll.  Cone. ,  XXVIII,  200).    The  rest 
of  March,  and  the  months  of  April  and  May  were  con- 
fi^njed  in  a  tragic  conflict  of  the  council  with  John 
XXIIT.    He  did  not  withdraw  his  resifjjnatton,  but 
P<»ited  conditions  that  the  council  refused;  he  called 
wav  from  Constance  several  cardinals  and  members 
01  the  Cnria,  who  were  soon,  however,  obliged  to  re- 
turn; put  forth  a  plea  of  lack  of  liberty;  complained 
IV— 19 


to  the  ICing  of  France  concerning  the  method  of  vot- 
ingy  as  well  as  his  treatment  by  the  council  and  the 
emperor;  and  finally  fled  from  Schaflhausen  to  Lauen- 
buig,  giving  the  council  reason  to  fear  either  his  final 
escape  from  imperial  reach  or  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Italian  representatives.  The  pope  soon  fled  again,  this 
time  to  freibuii^  in  the  Breisgau,  and  thence  to  Brei- 
sach  on  the  Bhine,  but  was  soon  compelled  to  return 
to  Freiburg,  whence  eventually  (17  May)  he  was 
brought  by  d^uties  of  the  council  to  the  vicinity  of 
Constance,  and  there  held  prisoner,  while  the  council 
proceeded  to  his  trial.  He  had  eidiausted  ^  means 
of  resistance,  and  was  morally  vanqiushed.  Unwill- 
ing to  undergo  the  ordeal  of  the  impending  trial  he  re- 
nounced all  right  of  defence  and  threw  himself  on  the 
mercy  of  the  council.  He  was  deposed  in  the  twelfth 
session  (29  Ma^,  1415),  not  for  heresy  but  for  notorious 
simony,  abeitmg  of  schism,  and  scandidous  life,  hav- 
ing already  been  suspended  by  ibe  council  in  the  tenth 
session  (14  May).  Two  da^  later  he  ratified  under 
oath  the  action  of  the  council  and  was  condemned  to 
indefinite  impriscmment  in  the  custody  of  the  em- 
peror. He  was  held  sttocessiveiy  in  uie  castles  of 
Glottlieben,  Heidelbeig,  and  Mannheim,  but  was 
eventually  released,  for  a  heavy  ransom,  with  the  help 
of  Martin  V,  and  in  1419  died  at  Florence  as  Cardinal- 
Bishop  of  Tuaoulum.  (For  a  fuller  treatment  of  the 
diaiges  against  him,  see  John  XXIII.)  The  prom- 
ised resignation  of  Qreepry  XII  (q.  v.)  was  now  in 
order,  and  was  accomplished  with  the  dignity  to  be 
expected  from  the  pope  usually  considered  by  Catho- 
lic historians  the  Intimate  oocupajit  of  the  See  of 
Peter,  though  at  tms  time  his  obedience  had  practi- 
cally vanished,  being  confined  to  Rimini  and  a  few 
German  dioceses,  liunoudi  his  protector  and  pleni- 
potentiary. Carlo  Malatesui,  Lord  of  Rimini,  he  pos- 
ited as  ooncBtions  that  the  council  should  be  recon- 
voked  by  himself,  and  that  in  the  session  which 
accepted  his  resignation  neither  Baldassare  Cossa  nor 
any  representative  of  him  should  preside.  The  coun- 
cil agreed  to  these  oonditionB.  The  fourteenth  session 
(4  July,  1415>  had,  therefore,  for  its  president  the  Em- 
peror Sigismund,  whereby  it  appeared,  as  the  support- 
ers of  Gregoiy  wished  it  to  appear,  that  hitherto  the 
council  was  an  assembly  convoked  by  the  civil  au- 
thority. The  famous  Dominican  Cardinal  John  of 
Ragusa  (Johannes  Dominid),  friend  and  adviser  of 
Gregory  XII,  and  sinee  19  Dec.,  1414,  the  pope's  repre- 
sentative at  Constance,  convoked  anew  tne  council  in 
the  pope's  name  and  authorised  its  future  acts.  I^e 
reunion  of  both  obediences  (Gregory  XII  and  John 
XXIII)  was  then  proclaimed,  whereupon  the  Cardinal^ 
Bishop  of  Ostia  (  Viviers)  assumed  the  presidency,  and 
Malatesta  pronounced,  in  ihe  name  of  Gregory,  the 
latter 's  abdication  of  all  right  whatsoever  to  the  papacy. 
Gregory  confirmed  these  acts  in  the  seventeenth  ee^ 
sion  (14  July)  and  was  himself  confirmed  as  Cardinal- 
Bishop  of  Porto,  Dean  of  the  Sacred  Collie  and  per- 
petual Legate  of  Ancona,  in  which  position  he  died 
(IS  Get.,  1417)  at  Recanati,  in  his  ninetieth  year  in 
the  odour  of  sanctity.  From  the  fourteenth  session, 
in  which  he  convoked  the  council,  it  is  considered  b^ 
many  with  Phillips  (Km;henrecht,  I,  266)  a  legiti- 
mate general  council. 

There  remained  now  to  obtain  the  resignation  of 
Benedict  XIII  (Pedro  de  Luna).  For  this  purpose, 
and  because  he  insisted  on  personal  dealings  with  him- 
self,  Emperor  SKgismund  and  deputies  of  the  council 
went  to  Perpignan,  then  Spanish  territory,  to  confer 
with  him,  but  the  stubborn  old  man,  despite  his  pre- 
tended willingness  to  resign,  was  not  to  be  moved 
(Sept.-Gct.,  1415)  from  the  claims  he  had  so  peraist- 
ently  and  amid  so  great  vicissitudes  defended.  Soon, 
however,  he  was  abandoned  by  the  Kings  of  Aragon, 
Castile,  and  Navarre,  hitherto  his  chief  suppbrlere. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Narbonne  (13  Dec.,  1416),  they 
bound  themselves  to  co-operate  with  the  Coimeil  of 


CX>HSTAKOI 


290 


CON8TAH0I 


Oonstance  for  the  depoeitioii  of  Benedict  and  the  elec- 
tion of  a  new  pope.  St.  Vincent  Ft'ircr  (q.  v.)  hither- 
to the  main  support  of  Benedict,  and  his  confessor, 
now  save  him  up  as  a  perjurer;  the  council  confirmed 
(4  Feb.,  1416)  the  articles  of  Narbonne,  the  immediate 
execution  of  which  was  retarded,  among  other  causes, 
by  the  flight  of  Benedict  (13  Nov.,  1415)  from  the 
fortress  of  Perpignan  to  the  inaccessible  rock  of  Pefiis- 
oola  on  the  sea-coast  near  Valencia,  where  he  died  in 
1423,  maintaining  to  the  end  his  good  right  (see  Luna, 
Pedro  db). 

Various  causes,  as  just  said,  held  back  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Spanish  deputies  at  the  coimcil.  Finally 
they  arrived  at  Oonstance  for  the  twenty-first  session 
(15  Oct.,  1416)  and  were  thenceforth  counted  as  the 
fifth  nation  (Fromme,  Die  spanische  Nation  und  das 
Konzil  von  Konstanz,  MtSnster,  1896).  The  next 
eight  months  were  largely  taken  up  with  complicated 
canonical  procedure  destined  to  compel  the  abdication 
or  justify  the  deposition  of  Benedict  XIII,  who  in  the 
meantime  had  excommunicated  solemnly  his  former 
royal  adherents  and  with  a  courage  worthy  of  a  better 
cause  maintained  that  Holy  Church,  the  Ark  of  Noe, 
was  now  on  the  wave-worn  peak  of  Pefiiscola,  in  the 
little  group  of  a  few  thousand  soub  who  yet  clung  to 
his  shadowy  authority,  and  not  at  Constance.  He  was 
finally  deposed  in  the  thirty-seventh  session  (26  July, 
1417)  as  guilty  of  perjury,  a  schismatic,  and  a  heretic: 
his  private  life  and  priestly  character,  unlike  those  ot 
John  XXIII,  were  never  assailed.  The  Western 
Schism  was  thus  at  an  end,  after  neariy  forty  years  of 
disastrous  life;  one  pope  (Gregoiy  XII)  had  volun- 
tarilv  abdicated;  another  (John  aXIII)  had  been  sus- 
pended and  then  deposed,  but  had  submitted  in  canon- 
ical form;  the  third  daimant  (Benedict  XIII)  was  cut 
off  from  the  body  of  the  Church,  ''a  pope  without  a 
Church,  a  shepherd  without  a  flock"  (Hergenrfifther- 
Kirsch).  It  had  come  about  that,  whichever  of  the 
three  claimants  of  the  papacy  was  the  legitimate  suc- 
cessor of  Peter,  there  reigned  throughout  the  (]3xurch 
a  universal  uncertainty  and  an  intolerable  confusion, 
so  that  saints  and  scholars  and  upright  souls  were  to 
be  found  in  aU  three  obediences.  On  the  principle 
that  a  doubtful  pope  is  no  pope,  the  Apostolic  See  ap- 
peared really  vacant,  and  under  the  circumstances 
could  not  possibly  be  otherwise  filled  than  by  the 
action  of  a  general  council. 

The  canonical  irregularities  of  the  council  seem  less 
blameworthy  when  to  this  practical  vacancy  of  the 
papal  chair  we  add  the  universal  disgust  and  weariness 
at  the  continuance  of  the  so-called  schism,  despite  all 
imaginable  efforts  to  restore  to  the  Church  its  unity  of 
headship,  the  jtistified  fear  of  new  complications,  the 
imminent  peril  of  Catholic  doctrine  and  discipline 
amid  the  temporary  wreckage  of  the  traditional  au- 
thority of  the  Apostolic  See,  and  the  rapid  growth  of 
false  teachings  equally  ruinous  to  Church  and  State. 

Election  of  Martin  V. — Under  the  circumstances 
the  usual  form  of  papal  election  by  the  cardinals  alone 
(see  Conclave)  was  unpossible,  if  only  for  the  stron^lv 
inimical  feeling  of  the  majority  of  the  council,  which 
held  them  responsible  not  only  for  the  horrors  of  the 
schism,  but  also  for  many  of  the  administrative  abuses 
of  the  Roman  Curia  (see  below),  the  immediate  cor- 
rection of  which  seemed  to  not  a  tew  of  no  less  impor- 
tance, to  say  the  least,  tiian  the  election  of  a  pope. 
This  object  was  not  obscured  by  minor  dissensions, 
e.  f .  concerning  the  rightful  rank  of  the  Spanish 
nation,  the  number  of  votes  of  the  Aragonese  and 
CastOians,  respectively,  the  ri^t  of  the  £ngliih  to 
constitute  a  nation,  etc.  The  French,  Spanish,  and 
Italian  nations  desired  an  immediate  papal  election: 
a  CSiurch  without  a  head  was  a  monstrosity,  said 
d'Ailly.  Under  Bishop  Robert  of  Salisbury  the  Eng- 
lish held  stoutly  for  the  reforms  that  seemed  im- 
perative in  the  administration  of  the  papacy  and  the 
Ouria ;  Emperor  Sigismund  was  foremost  among  the 


Germans  for  the  same  xsause,  and  was  ready  to  take 
violent  measures  in  its  interest.  But  Robert  of  Salis- 
bury died,  and  curiously  enough,  it  was  by  another 
English  bishop,  Henry  of  Winchester,  then  on  his 
way  to  Palestme,  and  a  near  relative  of  the  King  of 
England,  that  the  antagomstio  measures  of  papal  Sec- 
tion and  curial  reform  were  reconciled  in  favour  of  the 
priority  of  the  former,  but  with  satisfactoiy  aasur- 
ance,  among  other  points,  that  the  new  pope  would  at 
once  undertake  a  serious  reform  of  all  abuses;  that 
those  reforms  would  be  at  once  prodauned  by  the 
council  on  which  all  the  nations  a^^eed;  and  that  the 
manner  of  the  imminent  papal  election  should  be  left 
to  a  special  commission.  Amon^  the  five  reform  de- 
crees passed  at  once  by  Uie  council  in  its  thirty-ninth 
session  (9  Oct.,  1417)  was  the  famous  "Frequwis" 
which  provided  for  a  general  council  every  ten  yeara; 
the  ndct  two,  however,  were  to  be  convoked  by  the 
pope  after  five  and  seven  years  respectively,  the  first 
of  them  at  Pavia. 

In  the  fortieth  session  finally  (30  Oct.)  was  dis- 
cussed the  manner  of  the  new  papal  election.  Hie 
coimcil  decreed  that  for  this  occasion  to  the  twmity- 
three  cardinals  should  be  added  thirty  deputies  of  the 
council  (six  from  each  nation)  making  a  body  of  fifty- 
three  electors.  Another  decree  of  this  session  pro- 
vided for  the  immediate  and  serious  attention  of  the 
new  pope  to  eighteen  points  concerning  refarmaiio 
in  capite  et  Curia  Romano.  The  forty-first  session 
(8  Nov.)  provided  for  the  details  of  the  election  and 
for  this  purpose  had  the  Bull  of  Clement  VI  (6  T>ec., 
1351)  read.  That  afternoon  the  electors  assembled 
in  conclave  and  after  three  days  chose  for  the  pope 
the  Roman  Cardinal  Odo  Colonna,  who  took  the  name 
of  Martin  V  (q.  v.).  He  was  only  a  subdeacon,  and  so 
was  successivelymade  deacon,  priest,  and  bishop 
(Fromme.  ''Die  Wahl  Martinfl  V.'',  in  *R6m.  Quartal- 
schrift ' ',  1896) .  His  coronation  took  place  2 1 N ovem- 
ber,  1417.  At  its  fort^-fifth  session  he  solemnly 
closed  the  council  (22  April,  1418),  whereupon,  declin- 
ing invitations  to  Avignon  or  to  some  German  city,  ha 
returned  to  Italy,  and  after  a  short  stav  in  Florence 
entered  Rome,  28  Sept.,  1420,  and  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  the  Vatican,  thereby  restoring  to  the  See  of 
Peter  its  ancient  rights  and  prestige  in  Christendom. 

II.  Reformation  of  Ecclbsiasticajl  Govsrn- 
MBMT  AND  LiFB. — ^Thc  long  absence  of  the  popes 
from  Rome  in  the  fourteenth  century,  entailmg 
the  economical  and  political  ruin  of  tne  ancient 
Patrimony  of  Peter;  the  many  grave  abuses  directly 
or  indirectly  connected  with  the  administration 
of.  French  popes  at  Avignon ;  the  general  civil  dis- 
orders of  the  time  (Hundred  Years  War,  Condottieri, 
etc.),  and  other  causes,  had  created,  long  before 
Uie  Council  of  Constance,  an  earnest  demand  for  a 
refonnation  of  ecclesiastical  conditions.  Hie  writ- 
ings of  theologians  and  canonists  and  the  utterances 
of  several  popular  saints  (St.  Bridget  of  Sweden.  St. 
Catherine  of  Siena)  are  alone  enough  to  show  how 
well  justified  was  this  universal  demand  (Rooquain). 
In  the  minds  of  many  members  of  the  council  this  re- 
formation, as  already  stated,  was  of  equal  importance 
with  the  closing  of  the  schism ;  and  to  some,  especially 
to  the  Grermans,  it  seemed  to  overshadow  even  the 
need  of  a  head  for  the  Church.  It  was  precisely  the 
pope  and  the  cardinals,  they  argued,  whose  adminis- 
tration most  needed  refonn,  and  now,  when  both  were 
weakest  and  for  the  first  time  in  their  history  had  felt 
the  mastery  of  the  theologians  and  canonists^  seemed 
to  this  party  the  psychological  moment  to  wnto  these 
reforms  into  the  common  ecclesiastical  law,  whence 
they  could  not  easily  be  expunged.  Since  July,  14 Id, 
there  had  been  a  reform  commission  of  thirty-five 
members:  a  new  one  of  twentv-five  members  had  been 
appointed  aftor  the  entry  of  the  Spanish  nation  in 
October,  1416.  During  its  long  career  many  memo- 
rials were  presented  to  the  council  concerning  every 


OOMtTAlfOB 


201 


OOmTAHOI 


iiniiginiible  abuse.    In  its  general  oongragationt  and 
aesoioiui  bitter  reproaches  were  often  uttered  on  the 
same  themes.    Tne  acAdemic  equality  of  man>r  of  the 
memben,  the  prostrate  condition  of  ecclesiastical 
heaflahip,  the  peculiar  freedom  of  discussion  in  the 
**  nation''  meetingi,  and  other  causes  made  this  coun* 
oil  a  unique  forum  for  the  discussion  of  all  points  and 
methods  of  reformation.    More  would  certainly  have 
been  accomplished  had  the  learned  men  and  the  zeal- 
ous preachers  been  able  to  reach  some  desree  of  unani- 
mity as  to  the  importance  and  order  of  the  reforms 
called  for,  and  had  there  been  m<M«  general  anxiety  for 
personal  reformation  and  less  passion  in  denouncing 
the  past  abuses  of  papal  and  curial  administration. 
The  Germans  (Avisamenta  nationis  germanicffi)  and 
the  English  were  ardent  for  a  reformation  of  the  Ro- 
man Curia,  so  that  a  new,  holy,  and  just  pope  would 
find  his  way  made  straight  before  him.    The  former 
asserted  that  for  150  years  the  i>opes  had  ceased  te 
govern  with  that  justice  which  for  twelve  centuries  had 
characterised  them.  The  cardinals,  they  said;  had  loved 
riches  too  much,  and  ecclesiastical  synods  had  been 
neglected.    These  were  the  true  causes,  according  to 
them,  of  the  corruption  of  the  dergy,  the  decay 
of  good  studies,  the  ruin  of  churches  anaabbe3rs.    Re- 
forms had  been  promised  at  Pisa,  but  what  had  be* 
come  of  these  premises?    As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, the  reforms  most  loudlv  called  for  meant  the 
restoration  to  the  bishops  of  oieir  ancient  freedom  in 
the  collation  of  benefices,  also  a  notable  diminution  in 
the  various  dues  and  assessments  payable  to  Rome 
from  the  ecclesiastical  properties  and  revenues  of  the 
various  nations,  which  for  several  reasons  had  been 
growing  in   number  and  size  during  the  previous 
oentuiyy  and  were  not  always  unjustified  or  inec|ui- 
table.     We  have  already  seen  that  it  was  much  against 
their  wifl  that  the  Germans  agreed  to  a  papal  election 
before  receiving  full  satisfaction  in  the  matter  of  the 
aforesaid  reforms.    The  day  after  his  coronation 
Martin  V  appointed  a  (third)  reform  commjssion, 
but  its  members  showed  no  more  unanimity  than  their 
predecessore  in  the  same  office.    The  new  pnjpe  de- 
clared that  he  was  ready  to  accept  any  propositions 
that  were  unanimously  agreed  on.    Eventually,  after 
much  discussion  and  various  suggestions  seven  points 
were  agreed  to  in  the  forty-thnrd  session  (21  March. 
1418).    All  exemptions  jgranted  durinc  the  synod 
were  witiidrawn,  and  in  the  future  should  be  granted 
with  difficulty;  unions  and  incorporations  m  bene- 
fices were  likewise  to  be  diminiriied:  the  pope  agreed 
to  renounce  the  revenues  of  vacant  benefices;  all  sim* 
ony  was  forbidden,  likewise  the  custom  of  dispens- 
ine  beneficed  persons  from  the  obligation  of  takins 
oraera ;  the  papal  right  to  impose  tithes  on  dei^  and 
churches  was  sensibly  restricted;  ecclesiastics  must 
henceforth  wear  tlie  dress  of  their  order  (Mansi,  Cone, 
XXVII,  1114-77).    Other  informs  were  left  to  the 
initiative  of  each  nation  which  provided  for  them  by 
special  concordats,  a  term  said  to  have  been  here  used 
for  the  first  time.    The  German  Ooncordat  (including 
Poland,  Hungary,  and  Scandinavia)  and*  that  with 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  ran  for  five  years;  the  Eng- 
lish Concordat  was  mdefinlte  (for  the  details  see 
Mansi,  op.  cit,  XXVII,  1189  sqq.,  and  Htbler,  Die 
Konstanzer  Reform  und  die  Konkdrdate  von  1418, 
Leipzig,  1867),    The  number  of  cardinals  was  fixed  at 
twenty-four,  and  they  were  to  be  taken  proportion- 
ately from  the  great  nations.    Stricter  regulation  was 
ftlso  agreed  on  fr  r  papal  reservations,  annates,  com- 
mendams,  Indul^nces,  etc.    Nevertheless,  in  a  papal 
consistory  (10  March,  1418),  Martin  V  rejected  any 
right  of  appeal  from  the  Apostolic  See  to  a  future 
wuncfl,  and  asserted  the  Supreme  atrthority  of  the 
Roman  pontiff  as  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ  oft  fearth  in  all 
questions  of  Catholic  Faith  (Nulli  fas  est  a  supremo 
judice  viddicet  ApostoKcA  sede  Seu  Rom.  Pontif .  Jesu 
(^Hsti  vicario  in  tetris  appi^lare  aut  ilfiuB  Judicium  in 


causis  fidei,  quae  tamquam  maiores  ad  ipsum  et  sedem 
Apostolicam  deferendffi  simt,  declinare,  Mansi,  Cone, 
XXVIII,  200).  Von  Funk  has  shown  (op.  cit.,  489 
sqq.),  that  the  oft-maintained  confirmation  of  the  de- 
crees of  Constance  by  Martin  V,  in  the  last  session  of 
the  council  (omnia  et  singula  determinata  et  decreta  in 
materiis  fidei  per  prsesens  concilium  oonciliariter  et 
non  alitor  nee  alio  modo)  must  be  understood  only  of  a 
specific  case  (Falkenberg,  9ee  below),  and  not  of  any 
notable  part  of,  much  less  of  all,  the  decrees  of  Con- 
stance. It  is  true  that  in  the  Bull  ''Inter  Cunctas", 
22  Feb.,  1418,  apropos  of  the  Wycliffites  and  Hussites, 
he  calls  for  a  formal  approval  of  the  decrees  of  Con- 
stance in  favorem  fidei  et  aalutem  animartan,  but 
these  words  are  easily  understood  of  the  council's 
action  against  the  aforesaid  heresies  and  its  efforts  to 
restore  to  the  Churoh  a  certain  head.  In  particular 
the  famous  five  articles  of  the  fifth  session,  establishing 
the  supremacy  of  the  coimcil,  never  received  papal  con- 
firmation (HergenrOthex^Kirsch,  II,  862,  and  Baudril- 
lart,  in  Diet,  de  th6ol.  cath.,  II,  1219-23).  For  a  refu- 
tation of  the  Glallican  claim  that  these  decrees  possess 
a  dogmatic  character,  see  Gallicanism.  Neverthe- 
less, the  Council  of  Constance  is  usually  reckoned  the 
Sixteenth  Genoal  Council ,'  some,  as  stated  above,  ac- 
knowledge it  as  such  after  the  fourteenth  session  (re- 
convocation  by  Gregory  XII);  others  again  (Salem- 
bier)  after  the  thirtv-fiith  session  (adherence  of  the 
Spanish  nation);  iiefele  only  in  the  final  sessions 
(rorty-seoond  to  forty-fifth)  under  Martin  V.  No 
papKU  approbation  of  it  was  ever  meant  to  confirm  its 
anti-papal  acts;  thus  Eugene  IV  (22  July,  1446)  ap- 
proved the  council,  with  oue  reserve  of  the  rights,  d^- 
nity,  and  supremacy  of  the  Apostolic  See  (absque 
tamen  pnejudicio  juris  dignitatis  et  prsBeminentin 
Sedis  ApostolicfB).  See  Bouix,  '*  De  papa,  ubi  et  de 
ooncilio  cscumenico"  (Paris,  1869),  and  Salembier 
(below),  313-23. 

III.  The  REPRsasiON  of  Heresy. — At  various 
times  the  council  dealt  with  current  heresies,  among 
them  those  of  John  Wy  clif  and  John  Hus.  Condemnor 
Hen  of  Forty-five  WydtffiU  Propaeitione, — ^In  the  eighth 
session  it  was  question  of  Wydif ,  whose  writings  had 
already  been  condemned  at  the  Council  of  Rome  (1412- 
13)  under  John  XXIII.  In  this  session  forty-five 
propositions  of  Wydif,  already  condemned  by  the  uni- 
versities of  Paris  and  Prague,  were  censured  as  hereti- 
cal, and  in  a  later  session  another  long  list  of  260 
MTors.  All  his  writings  were  ordered  to  be  burned 
and  his  body  was  condemned  to  be  dug  up  and  cast 
out  of  consecrated  ground  (this  was  not  done  until 
1428  under  Bishop  Robert  Fleming  of  Lincoln).  In 
1418  Martin  V,  by  the  aforesaid  Bull"  Inter  Cunctas  ", 
approved  the  action  of  the  council  (Mansi,  op.  dt., 
XXVII,  1210  sq.;  see  WTCLmrrEs). 

Condemnation  and  Execution  of  John  Hue. — Since 
1408  John  Hus,  an  elo<}uent  preacher  of  Prajgue,  had 
openly  taught  the  Wydiffite  heresies.  By  his  ardent 
Bea\  for  ecdesiastical  reforms  oa  the  basis  of  Wyclif 's 
teachings,  his  patriotic  insistence  on  the  purity  of  Bo- 
hemian faith  and  his  assertion  of  Bohemian  nation- 
alism, he  had  gone  rapidly  to  the  front  as  a  leader  of 
his  nation,  then  deeply  embittered  against  the  Ger- 
mans dominant  in  tne  political  and  academic  life  of 
Bidiemia.  Since  1412  he  had  been  banished  from 
Prague,  but  was  only  the  more  dangerous,  bv  his  fiery 
discourse  and  hi^  writings,  among  the  highly  excited 
B<^«nians,  who  mostly  saw  in  him  the  flower  of  their 
national  genius,  and  were  otherwise  embittered 
against  a  clergy  which  then  offered  too  many  elements 
of  weakness  to  the  attacks  of  such  reformers  as  John 
Hus  and  his  friend  and  admirer  Jerome  (Hierony- 
mus)  of  Prague.  The  errors  of  Hus  concerned  chiefly 
the  nature  of  the  Church  (only  the  predestined),  the 
papal  headship,  the  rule  df  faith  (Scripture  and  the 
law  of  Christ),  Communion  under  both  kinds  (q«  v. 
also  HvBsrncB),  auricular  ooafession   (unnecessary). 


0OXSTAN08 


292 


OOMS^TAJMB 


dvil  authority  (dependent  among  Christians  on  state 
of  grace).  More  tnan  once  (e.  g.  1411)  Hus  had  ap- 
posed to  a  general  council,  and  when  at  the  opening 
of  the  Council  of  Constance  Emperor  Sigismund  and 
King  Wenceslaus  of  Bohemia  urged  him  to  present 
himself,  he  was  not  unwilling;  it  was  made  up,  he 
knew,  of  ardent  reformers,  and  he  oould  hope  by  his 
eloquence  to  convert  them  to  his  own  intense  faith  in 
the  ideas'of  Wyclif .  He  left  Prague,  1 1  October,  1414. 
in  the  company  of  three  Bohemian  nobles  and  assured 
of  a  safe-concluct  {salvua  conductus)  from  Emperor 
Sigismund.  They  entered  Constance  3  November, 
where  Hus  took  up  his  residence  in  a  private  house, 
and  where  (6  November)  the  safe-conduct  was  deliv- 
ered to  him.  The  dav  after  his  arrival  he  appeared 
before  John  XXIII,  who  treated  him  courteously,  re- 
moved the  censures  of  excommimication  and  mter* 
diet,  but  forbade  him  to  say  Mass  or  to  preach,  also  to 
appear  at  public  ecclesiastical  functions  (his  thor- 
oughly heretical  and  even  revolutionary  doctrines 
were  long  notorious  and,  as  said  above,  had  already 
been  condemned  at  Rome) .  He  appeared  again  b^ore 
the  pope  and  the  cardinals,  28  November,  dedared 
himself  innocent  of  a  single  error,  and  said  he  was 
ready  to  retract  and  do  penance  if  convicted  of  any: 
He  had  continued,  however,  to  violate  the  papal  pro- 
hibition, said  Mass  daily  and  preached  to  the  people 
present.  Consequently  he  was  the  same  day  arrested, 
oy  order  of  the  Bishop  of  Constance,  and  a  little  later 
(6  December)  placed  m  the  Dominican  convent.  On 
conoplaining  of  the  imsanitaiy  condition  of  his  place  of 
connnement  he  was  transferred  to  the  castle  oi  Gott- 
heben,  and  later  to  the  Franciscan  convent  at  Con- 
stance (June,  1415).  His  examination  went  on  dur- 
B^  Apnl  and  May,  and  was  conducted  by  d'Ailly  and 
Fulastre;  in  the  meantime  he  carried  on  an  extensive 
correspondence,  wrote  various  treatises,  and  replied  to 
the  charges  of  his  opponents.  His  Bonemian  friends 
protested  against  the  arrest  of  Hus,  and  exhibited  the 
emperor's  safe-conduct  (but  only  after  the  arrest). 
Sirasmund  was  at  firet  wroth  over  the  arrest,  but  later 
(1  Jan.,  1415)  declared  that  he  would  not  prevent  the 
council  from  dealing  according  to  law  with  persons 
accused  of  heresy.  The  aforesaid  condemnation  (4 
May)  of  the  forty-five  propositions  of  Wyclif  fore- 
shadowed the  fate  of  Hus,  despite  the  protests  of  Bo- 
hemians and  Poles  against  his  severe  incarceration, 
the  slanders  against  Bohemian  faith,  the  delay  of  jus- 
tice, secrecy  of  the  proceedings,  and  the  violation  of 
the  imperial  safe-conduct  (Raynaldus,  ad  an.  1414, 
no.  10).  The  public  trial  tooK  place  on  5,  7,  and  8 
June,  1415;  extracts  from  his  works  were  read,  wit- 
nesses were  heard.  He  denied  some  of  the  teachings 
attributed  to  him,  defended  others,  notably  opinions 
of  Wyclif,  declared  that  no  Bohemian  was  a  heretic, 
etc.  He  refused  all  formulse  of  submission,  again  de- 
clared himself  conscious  of  no  error^  nor,  as  he  saidy 
had  any  been  proved  against  him  from  the  Scrip- 
tures. He  declared  that  he  would  not  condemn  the 
truth,  nor  perjure  himself.  His  books  w&e  burned  by 
order  of  the  council  (24  June).  New  efforts  to  obtain 
a  retractation  proved  fruitless.  He  was  brought  for 
final  sentence  before  the  fifteenth  session  (6  July, 
1415),  at  which  the  emperor  assisted,  and  on  which 
occasion  thirty  propositions,  taken  mostly  from  the 
work  of  Hus  '^On  the  Church"  (De  EccfesiA),  werd 
read  publicly.  He  refused  to  retract'anything  and  so 
was  condemned  as  a  heretic,  deposed,  and  degraded, 
and  handed  over  to  the  secular  arm^  which  m  turn 
condemned  him  to  perish  at  the  stake,  at  that  time  the 
usual  legal  punishment  of  convicted  heretics.  He  suf- 
fered that  cruel  death  with  self-possession  and  courage 
and  when  about  to  expire  cried  out,  it  is  said:  "Christi 
Son  of  the  living  God,  have  mercy  on  us  t "  His  ashes 
were  thrown  into  the  Rhine.  Owing  largely  to  the  dram* 
atic  circumstances  of  his  death,  he  became  at  onoe  the 
hero  ctf  Bohemian  patriotism  and  the  martyitfaint  of 


multitudes  in  Bohenua  and  elsewhere  who  «hai«d  hii 
demagogic  and  revolutionary  principles.  Ihef  were 
surely  incompatible  with  either  the  ecclesiastical  or 
the  civil  order  of  the  time,  and  would  at  any  period 
have  bred  both  rel^^oUs  and  civil  anarchy,  had  they 
been  put  into  practice.  As  to  the  safe-conduct  of  the 
emperor,  we  must  distinguish,  says  Dr.  von  Funk 
(Kmshengeschichte,  3d  ed.,  Fre&uig,  1902,  p.  495, 
and  the  more  recent  Uterature  theie  quotea;  also 
'<Der  Katholik",  1898,  LXXVUI,  18&-90,  and  K. 
Mtiller,  non-^atholio,  in  the  "Hist.  Viertdjahisdirift", 
1898,  41-86)  between  the  arrest  of  Hus  at  Constance 
and  his  execution.  The  former  act  was  always  ae- 
ooimted  in  Bohemia  a  violation  of  the  safe-oonduct 
and  a  breach  of  faith  on  the  emperor's  part;  on  the 
other  hand  they  knew  well,  and  so  did  Hua,  that  the 
safe-conduct  was  only  a  guarantee  asainst  illegal  vio- 
lence and  could  not  protect  him  from  toe  sentence  of  his 
legitimate  judges.  (On  the  deatii  penalty  for  heresy, 
seeFicker,  ''DtegesetslicbeEinfQhrungderTodestiiae 
fur  H&iesie"  in  ''Mittheil.  d.  Inst  Least.  Gochiohts- 
forschung",  1888, 177  sqq.,  and  Havet,  **L'h^r6aie  et 
le  bras  seculierau  moyen  &ge  jusqu'au  XIIP  sidde", 
Paris,  1881 ;  see  also  Gosselin,  '*  Temporal  Power  of  the 
Pope  in  the  Middle  Ages  ",  1, 85-89).  In  the  medieval 
German  codes  known  as  the  Sacosenspiegd  (about 
1225)  and  the  Schwabensniegel  (about  1275),  heresy  is 
already  punishable  with'  tne  stake*  li  is  not  tnie  that 
the  council  declared  that  no  faith  should  be  kept  with 
aheretic(seePallavioino,  ''Hist. Cone  Trid.",  All,  15, 
8;  Hdfler in  "Hist,  polit.  Bl&tter",  IV,  421,  and  Hefele, 
''ConciUengesch.".  VII,  227,  also  Baudrillart,  op.  dt, 
II,  1217).  In  the  following  year  Jerome  (Hieronymus) 
of  Prague,  the  friend  of  Hus,  suffered  the  same  fate  at 
Constance.  He  had  come  voluntarily  to  the  council  in 
April,  1415,  but  soon  fled  the  city;  afterwards,  mind- 
ful of  the  fate  of  Hus,  he  obtained  from  the  council  a 
safe-conduct  to  return  for  his  defence.  He  did  not  ap- 
pear, however,  and  was  soon  seized  in  Bavaria  and 
broujB^t  in  chains  to  Constance.  In  Sept«nber,  141 5, 
he  abjured  the  forty-five  propositions  of  Wyclif  and 
the  tmrty  of  Hus,  but  did  not  r^ain  his  freedom,  as 
his  sincerity  was  suspected,  and. new  charges  were 
made  against  him.  Finally,  be  was  brought  before 
the  council,  23  May,  1416,  one  year  after  his  anest. 
Ihis  time  he  solemiily  withdrew  his  abjuration  as  a 
sinful  act  and  compelled  by  fear,  and  proclaimed  Hus 
a  holy  and  upiignt  man.  He  was  forthwith  con- 
demned as  a  na»tio  in  the  twenty-first  session  (30 
May,  1416)  and  perished  at  the  stake  with  no  less 
courage  than  Hus.  The  humanist  IV»ffliQ  was  an 
eyewitness  of  his  death,  and  his  lett^  to  Leonardo  oi 
Aretso,  describing  the  ftcene,  may  be  seen  in  Hefele, 
**  Conciliengesch.'%  VII,  280  aqo.  The  death  of  both 
Hus  and  t^rcmie  of  Prague  affected  stron^y  other 
humanists  of  the  time;  &ie9B  Sylvius  (later  Pius  II) 
said  that  th^  went  to  their  deaths  as  m^  invited  to  a 
banquet.  The  immediate  consequences  were  grave 
enough,  L  e.  the  long  Utraquist  wars.  For  an  eouit- 
able  criticism  of  tlie  defects  in  the  trials  of  both  Hua 
and  Jerome  see  BaudriJlart  in  "Diet,  de  th4ol.  cath.", 
11,1216-17.    (See  also  HU86IXB3.) 

Jean  Petit  (Johanne9.P<trvua)  and  Johann  von  Folk" 
enbei^g.—Tbe  question  of  the  licity  of  Wrannicide  oc 
oupied  the  attention  of  the  counoL  The  Franciscan 
Jean  Petit  (Parvus)  had  publicly  defended  (in  nine 
theses)  the  Duke  of  Buiigundy  for  his  share  in  the 
murder  of  Louis  d'Ori^ans  (23  Nov.,  1407),  on  the 
ground  that  any  subject  might  kill  or  cause  to  be 
killed  a  tyraimioa)  ruler  (Kervyn  de  Lettenhove,  Jean 
sans  peur  et  -  I'apologie  du  tyrannicide,  Brussels, 
1861)i  After  several  ^ears  of  discussion  this  thesis 
was  condemned  at  Pans  in  1414  by  the  bishop,  the  in- 
quisitor,  and  tha  university*  The  Duke  of  Buigundy 
appealed  to  the  Roman  See.  At  Constance  the  mat- 
ter was  dlpQussed  in  the  fifteenth  session  (6  July, 
1415);  many  French  doctor^  were  eager  for  the  for« 


oonxAKcn 


293 


OONSTAMOI 


mal  ecmdemnation  of  Petit  and  his  theses,  but  his 
f^anciscan  brethven  defended  him  in  a  oommon  me* 
morial;    the  oounofl  fiiyallY  was  content  with  con- 
demning  in  a  genenl  wav  the  proposition  that,  regard* 
less  of  his  oatn  and  without  awaiting  a  iudidal  sen- 
tence, any  vaasal  or  subject  mig^t  licitly  Kill,  or  cause 
to  be  killed,  a  tyrant.    Quite  similar  was  the  case  of 
Johaan  von  Faikenberg,  a  Qenaan  Dominican,  who 
had  xnaizitained  in  a  vlMent  work  against  the  Kins  of 
Poland  that  it  was  allowed  to  kill  him  and  all  other 
Poles  (Mansi,  Cone,  XXVII,  765).    Many  demanded 
with  mudi  earnestness  the  condemnation  of  Falken* 
berg,  hut  no  definite  sentence  was  pronounced,  des* 
pite^the  ardent  discussions  (see  TntANNiciD£),  not 
even  in  the  fort^-^lh  (last)  session  when  the  Poles 
urged  it  on  Ifiartin  V;  he  declared  that  in  matters  of 
faith  he  would  approve  only  what  had  been  decided 
bv  the  ho]y  genml  council  ooncUiarUerj  i.  e.  by  the 
wnole  council  and  not  by  one  or  more  nations.    As 
noted  above,  these  words  of  the  pope  refer  onlv  to  the 
particular  (Falkenbeig)  matter  before  hhn  ana  not  to 
all  the  decxees  of  the  council,  even  in  matters  of  faith. 
IV.     Attendanob  at  thb  Council;    Genbral 
CoNSiDBRATioNS. — Owing  to  its  long  duration  the  at- 
tendance at  the  council  varied  much.    The  highest 
figures  reached  were:   29  cardinals,  3  patriarchs,  33 
archbishops,  IfiO  bishops,  100  abbots,  50  provosts,  300 
doctors  (mostly  of  theolo^).    It  was  calculated  that 
some  5000  monks  and  f nara  were  present  and  in  all 
about  18,000  ecclesiastics.    The  visitors  are  variously 
reckoned  from  50,000  to  100,000  or  more.    Many  Eu- 
ropean sovereigns  and  princes  were  present,  invited 
by  the  emperor,  among  them  (besides  Emperor  Sigds- 
mimd  ana  his  suite)  the  Electors  Ludwie  von  der 
Pfal2  and  Rudolph  of  Saxony,  the  Dukes  of  Bavaria, 
Austria,  Saxony,  Schleswig,  Mecklenburg.  Lorraine, 
and  Teck,  the  Mamave  of  Brandenburg,  also  the  am- 
bassadoiB  of  the  lungs  of  France,  England,  Scotland, 
Denmark,  Poland,  Naples,  and  the  Spanish  kingdoms. 
Towards  the  end  the  Greek  ^nperor,  Michael  Paksolo- 
gus,  was  also  present  (19  Feb.,  1418,  with  19  Greek 
bishops).    In  some  respects  the  council  resembled  more 
a  modem  Catholic  congress  than  a  traditional  eccles- 
iastical synod.     The  numerous  princes  and  nobles  by 
their  tournaments  and  splendid  amusements ;  the  mer- 
chants  by  their  rich  and  curious  wares ;  the  travellers  by 
their  number  and  importance;  the  fringe  of  fakirs  and 
mountebanks  found  at  all  popular  gatherings,  made 
Constance  for  the  time  the  cynosure  of  all  Europe  and 
even  of  the  Greek  worid.    Tnere  is,  of  course,  no  rea* 
son  to  wonder  that  in  so  moUey  a  throng,  suddenly 
gathered  frcmi  all  quartern,  moral  disorders  and  loose 
living  should  have  manifested  themselveB.    Quite 
apart  from  the  reliability  or  animus  of  some  gossipy 
ctfironiclen,  liie  council  was  directly  responsible  only 
for  its  own  acts  and  not  for  the  life  of  the  city  of  Con* 
stance;    It  most  also  be  remembered  that  in  one  way 
or  another  unforeseen  events  and  situations  pro- 
tracted the  council  bejrond  all  ordinary  prevision. 
Among  these  were:  the  flifi^t  of  John  XXIII;  the 
lengthy    process    of   Benecuct   XIII;   the   general 
jealousy  and  dislike  of  the  cardinals,  and  in  turn, 
the  natural  effolrts  of  the  latter  to  save  the  eccle- 
siastical constitution  from  thorough  ruin  at  the  un- 
hapinest  moment  for  the  papal  authority,  hitherto  its 
eorneMitone;  the  passionate  longing  for  a  public  can- 
ODKal  purification  of  Catholicism  from  its  acknowl- 
edged abuses  and  excrescences  (in  the  head  and  in  the 
Roman  Curia).    We  need  not  wonder  that  at  the  ^d 
of  his  remarkable  diary  of  the  coancil»  Cardinal  Guil- 
laume  Fillastre  wrote  as  follows  (Finke  ed.,  For- 
■cfaun^  und  Quellen,  p.  242):  "Hoe  Constantiense 
eoncihum  . . .  omnibus  qusB  preeeBsemnt  generalibus 
epneOiis  fuit  in  congregando  difficilius,  in  progressu 
BiiMPilarius,  mirabilius  et  periculosius.  et  tempore  diu- 
*«mius",  i  e.  no  previous  council  was  gqtten  together 
^tb  so  much  difficulty,  or  ran  a  career  so  unique, 


marvellous  and  perilous,  or  lasted  so  long.  From 
an  ecclesiastical  point  of  view,  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance mav  truly  be  said  to  close  the  medieval  and 
to  open  tne  modem  period.  It  was  an  anti-climax 
for  the  all-dominant  medieval  papacy,  while  in  Siras- 
mund  (Emperor-elect,  King  of  Hungary,  heir  of  Bo- 
hemia, etc.;  for  the  last  time  appears  a  pale  image  of 
the  ideal  office  of  the  medieval  empire.  The  language 
of  its  orators  and  its  "Acta''  exhibits  a  certain  dawn 
of  Humanism  (Finke)  while  there  for  the  first  time 
modem  nationalism,  quite  different  from  its  medieval 
prototype,  comes  to  the  front,  dominates  the  entire 
situation,  menaces  even  the  immemorial  unity  of  the 
Church,  and  begins  its  long  career  of  discordant  rela- 
tions  with  the  central  administration  of  Catholicism 
(see  Galucanism;  Hontheim,  Johann).  Not  a  few 
elements  of  the  later  ecclesiastical  revolution  under 
Luther  (q.  v.)  are  already  visibly  present  at  Constance. 
The  German  nation  in  particular  remained  grievously 
discontented  with  the  local  results  of  the  second  of 
the  ereat  reform  councils  (Pisa,  Constance,  Basle), 
and  Uiroufi^out  the  fifteenth  century  sought  variously, 
but  with  uttle  success,  to  realize  the  demands  put 
forth  at  the  Council  of  Constance.  [See  Eugene 
IV;  Mabtin  V;  Sigismund,  Emperor;  F.  Rocquain, 
"La  cour  de  Rome  et  I'esprit  de  r^forme  avantLuther  " 
(Paris,  1900),  also  Pastor  (see  below),  and  Janssen, 
"  Hist,  of  the  German  People  ",  etc.  Pope  ;  IShmacy  ; 
Reformation;  Churc?h;  Trent,  CJouncil  of;  Vat- 
ican, Councils  of  the.] 

Acts  ef  th$  Council.— The  chief,  coUection  of  Uiq  Acto  of  the 
council  and  pertinent  documents  ia  that  of  von  der  Hardt,  in 
six  folio  volumes.  Magnum  cecnmenicum  Constantiense  concilium 
(Frankfort  and  Leipzig,  1692-1700).  whence  they  passed  into 
Hakdouin  (VIII)  and  Manbi  (XXVU-XXVIII),  All  former 
editions,  however,  of  these  Acts  and  documents  are  in  many 
ways  imperfect  and  uncritically  edited,  and  must  give  way  to 
the  (partly  finished)  edition  of  Hjunricb  Fznkb,  Acta  Coneilii 
CotutanlienaiB  /.  (Manster.  1896).  from  1410  to  1414;  Acta 
Aroffonensia  (1907);  cf.  Zur  Krilik  der  Akien,  etc.,  in  his 
Forachungen  und  QuelUn  (below),  52-68;  also  Noii<  Valois,  in . 
prefaoe  to  Vol.  Ill  of  La  France  et  le  grand  achtsme  d'Oeeiaent 
(Paris.  1901).  Many  important  documents  are  in  RaynaX4>us. 
Ann.  Bed.,  ad  ann.  1414-18:  see  also  for  important  correspon- 
dence and  other  documents  MartI:ne  AND  DIJR.VND,  T?iesaurii8 
novua  aneed..  II,  and  Dolunoer,  BeUr&ge  eur  Geech.  dee 
X  V-XVL  Jahrhunderte  (Munich.  1863).  II.  a.  Deuteche  Retche- 
taoeakten,  IV-XI.  from  1400  to  1438  (Munich  and  Gotha,  1878- 
1900),  a  very  important  collection  of  civil  and  ecclesfastical 
interest;  also  ^e  writings  of  Pierre  d'Ailly  and  Gerson. 

Modem  Hieicriee  df  the  Cotmcif.— Lenfamt  (CTalvioist),  Hiei. 
du  ConeiU  de  Ctmetanoe  (2od  ed.,  Amsterdam,  1727);  Rotko 
(Jos^phinrat),  Gcach.  der  grosaen  aUg.  Kirchenveraammtniig  zu 
Coatnitz  (Prague  and  Vienna.  1782);  Wessenbbro  (Febrdnian),  . 
Die  groeeen  Kirehenversammiungen  dee  XV.  und  XvJ.  Jahrhun- 
derte (C>>nstance,  1840);  Crexohton  (non-€athoIic).  A  Hietory 
of  the  PajKLCu  during  the  Period  of  the  Reformation,  I:  The  Great 
Schism  and  the  Council  of  Conetance  (London,  1882).  Excellent 
Catholic  accounts:    Toari.  Storia    del    ConeUio  d«   Coatama 

i Naples,  1883);  Hefels,  ConcUiengeach.,  VII,  26,  66  sqq.; 
^ABTOR,  Hietory  of  the  Popes,  Vol.  I,  bk.  11:  SaLembier,  Lc 
grand  schieme  ^Occident  (Paris,  1902),  291-410,  has  good  litei^ 
atura  of  the  subject;  VLKVMOfi.Daa  KonzU  zu  Conetane^  (ibid., 
1898):  Bllbmbtzbzedeb,  Dae  Generalkonzil  eu  Conetam  (1904). 
Dtariea  and  Chronicles. — ^The  most  important  of  the  contem- 
porary accounts  of  the  council  is  the  Diary  of  Ottillaomk  Fil- 
hAtrttM,  Oardinal.  of  San  Maroo.  and  a  leading  spirit  during  the 
entire  council.  Dr.  Finke  savs  (p.  77)  that  it  is  throughout 
trustworthy  and  exact  (it  has  been  edilc<l  by  him  from  Vatican 
MS3.  4173  and  4175.  in  Forachungen  und  QueUen  (below),  163- 
242).  Among  the  ohroniclers  of  the  council  are  Theooorxcus 
(DivnutiCH)  DE  Vrib,  an  Gsnabrflck  Augustinian.  De  conaola- 
tione  Ecdeeice,  ecu  Hist.  Cone.  Cont^f.,  m  the  first  volume  of 

VON  DER  HaRDT;    THEODOMCnS  (DXETERICH)  VON  NiEM,  a  well- 

informed  but  partial  and  vindictive  writer.  De  eehismate  liini  111 
ed.  Erleb  (Leipsig.  1890),  Id..  A'em«4S  unionie  (Basle.  1566).  and 
Id,,  Hiatoria  de  vUd  Johannia  XX III,  in  the  second  volume  of 
VON  DER  Hardt;  Ulrich  von  Richenthal,  Chronik  dee  Kon- 
etamer  Komile,  ed.  M.  R.  Buck,  in  Bild.  d.  liUer&r,  Vereine  in 
SlutlgaH  (TQbingen.  1882).  Vol.  CLVIII. 

Lives  of  Prominent  Participants. — Asgbbach.  Geschichte 
Kaiser  Sigismunda  (Hamburg,  1838-46);  Jeep.  Gereon,  Widiff 
und  Hu99  (Oattingen,  1857):  Lobbsth.  J.  Hues  und  Widtf 
(Piagne,  1884);  Schwab.  Johannee  Gereon  (Wfkrzbure.  1858); 
Mabbon,  Jean  Gerson  (Lyons.  1894);  Salrmbier,  Petr^is  de 
AUiaoo  (Lllle,  1886)  ;T»chackert,  Peterwm  AiUi  (Gotha,  1877); 
Faobs.  Hiel.  de  Saint  Vincent  Ferrier  (2nd  ed..  Louvain.  1901). 

Special  Dieeertations. — Kneer.  Die  Enlatehung  der  komiliaren 
Theorte  (Rome,  1893);  Bess,  Studien  z.  Geech.  des  Konsianter 
Konc&s  (1891),  I:  Deniflb,  Lee  dSUguSe  des  unitfersiUefran- 
paises  au  Caneue  ae  Conelanee  in  Remie  dee  Bibliothkquee  (Paris, 
1892);    also  his  Df eolation  dee  iglieea,  dee  monasttres  ef  de$ 


00K8TAHTIA 


294 


oovnAMTm 


h^pitaiuc  de  Fnxnee  durant  la  auerre  dt  oaU  an$  (Pans,  1889); 
FntKB,  Fonehungen  vnd  Quellen  tur  OtuchichU  de»  K&nakmMer 
Konnla  (Paderbom,  1880);  Idem,  BUder  vom  Korutamer  KoruU 
in  the  Almanack  al  ihit  Bad.  HisL  Commianon  for  190S:  Kbp- 
PLBR,  Die  PdMk  dea  KardinaUkoUegiunu  inKonakm*  (MQiuter, 
1899):  F.  MOllbb.  Der  Kampf  wn  die  AvloriUU  auf  dem  KoruU 
gu  KoMtanx  (Bertin,  1860)^  Siebexino,  Die  Organieation  u. 
OtechAfieordnuno  dea  CoatniUer  KoruHa  (Leipsiff,  1875),  and 
Stohb,  Die  Organiaation  u.  OeachAftaordnung  dea  Fiaoner  v. 
KonaL  KomHa  (Sohwerin,  1891);  TanfrMANN.  Daa  KonUave 

aufdem  KoruU  au  Conatanz  (Freibuix,  1899).     , 

Encydopedia  Ariidea.—KVim:n  in  Kirchenlex.  VII,  978- 
1006;  Voiot-Bbm  in  Hauck.  RealeneykL  XI.  30^34:  ZBLLBam 
KirJdiehea  HandlexUum  (Munich.  1908).  II.  470  aqg..  Bau- 
OBZLLART  in  Dict.  de  thiol,  cath,  (Paris,  1908),  II.  120(h24. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Oonstantia,  a  titular  see  of  Arabia  and  suffragan 
^  of  Bostra.  It  figures  in  Hierocles'  "Synecdemus'* 
about  533,  in  the  "NotiticB  episcopatuum"  of  Ansa- 
tasius  I,  Patriarch  of  Antloch,  in  the  sixth  oentuij, 
and  in  Qeorgius  Cyprius'  "Descriptio  orbis  Romam" 
in  the  beginning  or  the  seventh  century.  Two  bish- 
ops only  are  known:  Chilon,  present  at  Constanti- 
nople in  381  (Mansi,  CJoll.  Con.,  Ill,  669;  Leouien,  II, 
865,  says  wron^y  at  Nicsa  in  325),  and  Solemus  at 
Chalcedon  in  451  (Mansi,  VII.  168).  Eubel  mentions 
(1, 21 1)  three  Latin  bishops  of  Constantia  in  Phoenicia 
during  the  fourteenth  century;  this  city  is  otherwise 
unknown  and  may  be  our  Arabian  see.  Waddington 
(Inscriptions  grecques  et  latines  .  .  .  Syrie,  575)  has 
identified  with  much  likelihood  Constantia  with  Brftk. 
north  of  Ledja,  in  Trachonitis.  Br&k  had  a  special 
era,  and  inscriptions  prove  that  it  had  been  embel- 
lished by  Constantine,  whence  it  took  its  name  Con- 
stantia (also  Constantine,  or  Constantiana).  The 
ruins  are  rather  important.  There  have  recently  set- 
tled on  this  site  some  Circassian  immigrants.  Con- 
stantia in  Arabia  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
Constantia,  a  suffragan  see  of  Amida  in  Mesopotamia; 
Constantia,  or  Telia,  a  renowned  Jacobite  bishopric 
whose  ruins  are  at  Viran-Shehir,  half-way  between 
Mardin  and  Edessa;  nor  with  Constantia,  or  Salamis, 
metropolis  of  Cyprus. 
R€oua  biUique  (1898).  VII,  9<^100.  283-285. 

S.  VailhI:. 

CtonBtantine,  Pops,  consecrated  25  March,  708;  d. 
9  April,  715;  a  Syrian,  the  son  of  John,  and  "a  remark- 
ably affable  man".  The  first  half  of  his  reien  was 
niarked  by  a  cruel  famine  in  Rome,  the  secona  by  an 
extraordinary  abundance.  For  some  time  he  had 
trouble  with  Felix,  Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  whom  he 
had  himself  consecrated.  Relying  on  the  secular 
power,  the  new  bishop  refused  to  offer  the  pope  due 
obedience.  It  was  only  after  he  had  tasted  of  dire 
misfortune  that  FeUx  submitted.  Constantine  re- 
ceived as  pilgrims  two  An^o-Saxon  kings,  Coenied 
of  Mercia  and  Offa  of  the  East  Saxons.  They  both 
received  the  tonsure  in  Rome  and  embraced  the 
monastic' life.  (Bede,  Hist,  ecd.,  V,  xix,  zx.)  St. 
Egwin,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  went  to  Rome  alonf 
with  them  ana  obtained  from  the  pope  various  privi- 
leges for  his  monastery  of  Evesham.  ("Cinron. 
Abbat.  de  Evesham'',  in  R.  S.;  ''St.  Egwin  and  his 
Abbey  of  Evesham",  London,  1904.)  The  extant 
documents  regarding  this  monastery  which  bear  this 
pope's  name  are  all  spurious.  (They  are  to  be  found 
m  Haddan  and  Stubbs,  "Councils  '\  III,  281.)  But 
his  privilege  for  the  monasteries  of  Bermondsey  and 
WoKing  (ibid.,  276)  may  be  genuine. 

In  ^2  the  Emperor  Justinian  II  had  caused  to 
assemble  the  6o-<^led  Quinisext  or  Trullan  Council. 
At  this  assembly,  which  was  attended  only  bv  Greek 
bishops,  102  canons  were  passed,  many  of  which 
estabushed  customs  opposed  to  those  of  Rome.  By 
canon  xiii  the  celibacy  of  the  Greek  secular  clergy 
became  a  thing  of  the  past;  and  by  canon  xxxvi  a 
further  step  was  taken  m  the  direction  of  rendering 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  quite  independent 
of  the  Holy  See.     Justinian  made  every  effort  to 


secure  the  adhesion  of  the  popes  to  these  decroca. 
But  one  after  another  they  aU  fefused.  At  length  be 
sent  an  order  to  Constantinq  to  repair  to  Constanti- 
nople. Leaving  behind  him,  aoomins  to  the  custom 
at  the  time,  the  arch^Niest,  the  arehdeaeon,  and  the 
FrimiceriuM,  or  chief  of  the  notaries,  to  govern  the 
Church  in  his  absence,  he  set  sail  for  the  East  (709) 
with  a  number  of  bishops  and  cla«r«  Wherevor  his 
vessel  touched,  he  was,  by  Justinian's  orders,  received 
with  as  much  honour  as  the  emperor  himmf.  He 
entered  Constantinople  in  triumph,  and  at  Justinian's 
re<^ue8t  crossed  over  to  Nioomedia,  where  he  was  then 
residing.  Strange  to  say,  this  cruel  prince  leoeived 
the  pope  with  the  greatest  honour,  prostrating  him- 
self beiore  him  and  kissing  his  feet.  After  receiving 
Holy  Communion  at  the  hands  of  the  pope,  he 
renewed  all  the  privileges  of  the  Roman  CnurdL 
Exactly  what  passed  between  them  on  the  subject  of 
the  Quinisext  Council  is  not  known.  It  would 
appear,  however,  that  Constantine  api»oved  those 
canons  which  were  not  opposed  to  the  true  Faith  or 
to  sound  morals,  and  that  with  this  qualified  approval 
of  his  council  the  emperor  was  content. 

Soon  after  Constantine's  return  to  Rome  (Oct, 
711).  Justinian  II  was  dethroned  by  Philippicus 
Baraanes.  The  new  emperor  strove  to  revive 
Monothehsm,  and  sent  a  letter  to  the  pope  which  the 
hitter  caused  to  be  examined  in  a  synod  and  con- 
demned. Further,  as  the  emperor  burnt  the  Acts 
of  the  Sixth  General  Council,  restored  to  the  diptychs 
the  names  which  that  council  had  caused  to  be 
erased,  re-erected  their  images,  and  removed  the 
rejMesentation  of  the  council  which  was  hanging  in 
front  of  the  palace,  the  pope  and  the  people  of  Rome 
placed  in  the  portico  of  St.  Peter's  a  series  of  repre- 
sentations of  tne  six  general  councils,  and  refuaea  to 
place  the  new  emperor's  name  on  tneir  charters  or 
their  money.  They  also  declined  to  place  his  statue, 
according  to  custom,  in  the  oflSciai  chapel  of  St. 
CflBsarius  on  the  Palatine,  the  site  of  whicn  has  just 
been  discovered  (1907),  or  to  pray  for  him  in  the 
Canon  of  the  Mass.  To  punish  the  Romans  tot  theae 
daring  measures,  a  new  duke  was  sent  to  Rome,  and 
they  would  no  doubt  have  had  much  to  suffer  but  for 
the  opportune  deposition  of  Philippicus  by  the  or- 
thodox Anastasius  (Whitsun  Eve,  713).  The  new 
emperor  made  haste  to  dispatch  to  Rome,  through 
the  Exarch  Scholasticus,  a  letter  in  which  he  pro- 
fessed his  orthodoxy  and  his  adhenon  to  the  Sixth 
General  Coimcil,  which  had  condemned  Monothelism. 
Constantine  also  received  a  letter  from  J(rfm,  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  acknowledging  that  the 
"apostolical  pre-eminence  of  the  Pope  is  to  the  whole 
Church,  what  the  head  is  to  the  tXKly",  and  that 
"according  to  the  canons  he  is  the  head  of  the 
Christian  priesthood ''.  John  assured  the  pope  that, 
while  co-operating  with  the  Emperor  Phihppicus,  he 
had  always  been  orthodox  at  neart,  ami  that  the 
decree,  drawn  up  at  the  council  in  which  the  heretical 
emperor  had  hoped  to  re-establish  Monothelism 
(712),  was  really  orthodox  in  sense,  althou|^  not 
apparently  so  in  wwds.  (See  John's  letter  in  the 
epilogue  of  the  Deacon  Agatho,  in  Mansi,  "Coll. 
Omic.",  XII,  192.) 

Among  other  distinguished  men  who  came  to  Rome 
in  the  days  of  Constantine  was  Benedict,  Archbishop 
of  Milan.  He  came  not  only  to  pray  at  the  duines 
of  the  Apostles,  for  he  was  a  man.of  such  remarkable 
holiness  that  he  was  distinguished  for  it  in  all  Italy 
(Paul  the  Deacon,  Hist.,  Vl,  xxix),  but  also  to  discuss 
with  the  pope  as  to  whose  immediate  jurisdiction 
belonged  the  Church  of  Pavia.  At  one  time,  cer^ 
tainly  in  the  fifth  century,  the  bishops  of  Pavia  were 
subject  to  the  bishops  of  Milan  and  were  consecrated 
by  them.  For  some  reason,  perhaps  because  the 
Lombards  made  Pavia  their  capital,  its  bishops  had 
ceased  to  be  dependent  on  those  of  MUan,  and  had 


0ON8TAHTINX 


296 


OOXSTANTINa 


become  directly  subject  to  the  popes.  Accordiiiglyi 
when  it  had  been  proved  to  Benedict  that  for  some 
long  time  at  least  they  had  been  consecrated  at  Rome, 
he  definitely  surrendered  his  claim  to  jurisdiction 
over  them.  The  visit  of  a  pope  to  a  city  at  any  dis- 
tance from  Rome  being  so  comparatively  rare,  the 
people  of  several  places  at  which  Constantine  touched 
m  ms  journey  to  and  from  Constantinople  were  only 
too  pleased  to  be  able  to  a vaO  themselves  of  the  oppor- 
tunity of  getting  him  to  consecrate  a  bishop  for  them. 
It  is  on  record  that  he  consecrated  twelve  m  this  way, 
and,  at  the  customary  times  and  places,  no  less  than 
sixty-four. 

_  Lib,  poniifioalis,  ed.  Ddchesnb,  I,  3S9;  Mann,  Lives  of  the 
Papet  (Lonclon.  St.  Louis.  1902),  I,  pt.  II,  127  eqa. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Ck>nBtantixie  (Cirta),  Diocese  op  (Constantin- 
fana),  comprises  t)ie  present  arrondissement  of  Con- 
stantine in  Algeria.  It  was  separated  from  the  Dio- 
cese of  Algiers  25  July,  186d.    A  pontifical  Brief, 


.^*t3^,»^' 


,^ 


^i? 


\;ONflrTAMTlNB  TROU  THE  KOCB    OF   THK   ittABTTBS 

dated  1867,  authorized  its  bishop  to  adopt  the  title 
of  Bishop  of  Constantine  and  Hippo. 

The  city  of  Cirta,  nhich  took  in  the  fourth  centurv 
the  name  of  its  resto/er,  Constantine,  and  in  which 
this  emperor  built  two  churches,  was  an  episcopal  see 
from  the  second  century  up  to  the  time  of  the  Mussul- 
man invasion.  The  Bishops  Agapius  and  Secundinus. 
the  soldier  ^milianus,  axid  the  virgins  Tertulla  ana 
Antonia  were  martyred  there  under  Valerian  (253- 
60).  A  Latin  inscription  cut  in  the  rocks  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Rummel  Pass  (Corpus  Inscriptionum 
Latinarum:  Africa,  7924)  mentions  Sts.  Marian  and 
James  as  martjrrs  either  at  Cirta  or  Lambesa  during 
the  same  persecution.  Within  the  territory  now  com- 
prising the  Diocese  of  Constantine  there  were,  in 
the  fifth  century,  195  dioceses,  whose  titles  and  epis- 
copal lists  have  been*  published  by  Mgr.  Toulotte, 
among  them  the  Diocese  of  Hippo,  governed  by  St. 
Augustine  in  the  fifth  century.  On  30  August,  1842, 
Mgr.  Dupuch,  Bishop  of  Algiers,  brou^t  the  ridiit 
arm  of  St.  Augustine  from  ravia  to  Hippo,  and  tne 
anniversary  of  the  translation  of  this  precious  relic 
is  celebrated  annually.  A  new  basilica  erected  on 
the  hill  of  Hippo,  purchased  by  Mgr.  Lavigerie  in 
1880,  was  consecrated  11  March,  1900.  Prior  to  the 
enforcement  of  the  law  of  1901,  there  were  in  the 
diocese  Laisarists,  the  Little  Brothers  of  Mary,  and  the 
White  Fathers;  at  present  only  the  latter  remain.  In 
1900  the  diocese  contained  2  foundling  asylums,  22 
infant  luylums,  2  boys'  orphanages,  4  girls'  orphan- 
ft^,  3  industrial  schools,  2  houses  of  shelter,  13  hos- 
piUk  and.  hospices,  7  dispensaries,  and  15  houses  of 
religious  who  care  for  the  sick.  At  the  close  of  1905 
(end  of  the  period  under  the  Concordat)  the  diocese 
bad  a  population  of  137,041;  5  pastorates,  67  9uccur- 


sal  parishes  (mission  churches),  and  17  curacies  i^ 
munerated  by  the  State. 

Toci^TTE.  Gioar,  de  VAfri^ue  chrH.  (Akpria.  1804);  Gsxll. 
Obeenahananir  rtnecnp.  dee  marturs  deConetantine  (Algiers, 
1807);  M  pBATO.  L'igUee  afrieame  (ToaiB,  1804);  CmsYA- 
Luut,  Topo-atbL,  a.  v. 

Georges  Gotau. 


Constantine,  Donation  of. 
Constantine. 


See  Donation  op 


Oonstantine  Afrieanns,  a  medieval  medical  writer 
and  teacher;  bom  c.  1015-  died  o.  10^.  His  name, 
Africanus,  comes  from  the  place  of  his  nativity. 
Garthage  in  Africa.  Early  in  life  he  devoted  himiBelf 
to  the  study  of  medicine,  smd  as  was  the  custom  of 
the  times  made  distant  journeys,  some  of  which 
brougjht  him  into  the  Far  East.  He  became  familiar 
with  the  Oriental  langua^  and  studied  Arabian  lit- 
eratiure  verv  deeply.  His  studies  in  Arabian  medi- 
cine taugjht  nim  many  things  unknown  to  his  Western 
contemporaries.  On  his  return  to  C^urthage  this  led 
to  great  jealousy  on  the  part  of  his  professional 
brethren  and  to  so  much  unpleasantness,  for  he  is 
even  said  to  have  been  accused  of  practising  magic, 
that  he  gladly  accepted  the  position  of  secretaiy  to 
Duke  Robert  of  Salerno.  Before  this  he  was,  for  a 
short  time  at  least,  secretaiy  of  the  l^peror  Con- 
stantine Monomachus  in  Reggio,  a  small  town  near 
Byzantium.  While  in  Salerno  Constantine  became 
a  professor  of  medicine  and  attracted  widespread  at- 
tention. He  remained  but  a  few  years  in  this  posi- 
tion, however,  and  gave  up  his  honours  and  his 
worldly  soods  to  become  a  Benedictine  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Monte  Cassino.  He  was  received  with 
open  arms  by  the  Abbot  Desiderius,  one  of  liie  most 
learned  men  of  the  time,  who  afterwards  became 
Pope  Victor  III.  Neariy  twenty  years  of  Constan- 
tine's  life  were  spent  at  Monte  Cassino.    He  occu- 

Eied  himself  with  the  writing  of  books,  bein^  stimu- 
kted  thereto  by  Desiderius  who  was  his  most  intimate 
friend.  His  best-known  work  is  the  so-called  ''Liber 
Pantegni",  which  is  really  a  translation  of  the 
"Khitaab  el  Maleki"  of  All  Ben  el-Abbas.  This 
book  he  dedicated  to  Desiderius.  He  also  wrote 
some  original  works,  but  it  has  been  found  so  diffi- 
cult to  separate  what  is  undoubtedly  genuine  from 
what  came  to  be  attributed  to  him  in  time,  that 
there  is  no  certainty  as  to  his  original  contributions 
to  medicine.  With  Constantine  benns  the  second 
epoch  of  the  Salemitan  School  of  Medicine,  espe- 
cially notable  for  its  translation  of  all  the  great 
writers  on  medicine,  Greek  as  well  as  Arabian,  and 
for  original  work  of  a  high  order.  Many  of  the  dis- 
tingui^ed  professors  of  the  twelfth  century  at  Sar 
lemo  were  proud  to  proclaim  Constantine  as  their 
master.  Or  the  many  editions  of  his  works  the  chief 
is  that  of  Basle  (in  fol.,  1536). 

SraiNscHNBrDKR,  Canst.  Afr.  und  eem*  arabieehsn  QueUen 
in  Virchow^Archiv,  XXXVII;  Paobl  in  Puschiiann,  Otech. 
d.  Med.,  I;  Deidechee  Archiv  f,  Geeeh.  d.  Med.,  1870. 

Jambs  J.  Walsh. 

Ctonatantine  the  Great. — His  coins  dve  his  name 
as  M.,  or  more  frequently  as  C,  Flavins  Valerius  Con- 
stantmus.  He  was  bom  at  Naissus,  now  Nisch  in 
Servia,  the  son  of  a  Roman  officer,  Constantius,  who 
later  became  Roman  Emperor,  and  St.  Helena,  a 
woman  of  humble  extraction  but  remarkable  charac- 
ter and  unusual  ability.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  not 
certain,  being  given  as  early  as  275  (Schiller)  and 
as  late  as  288  (Otto  Seeck).  After  his  father's 
elevation  to  the  dignity  of  Csesar  we  find  him  at  the 
court  of  Diocletian  and  later  (305)  fightmg  under 
Galerius  on  the  Danube.  When,  on  the  resignation  of 
Diocletian  and  Maximian  (305),  his  father  Con- 
stantius was  made  Augustus,  the  new  Emperor  of  the 
West  asked  Galeriiis,  the  Ejistem  Emperor,  to  let  Con- 
stautine,  whom  he  had  not  seen  for  a  long  time,  retuni 


OONSTANnNE 


296 


OONSTAHTHTB 


to  his  father^s  court.  This  was  reluctanthr  sranted. 
Constantine  joined  his  father,  under  whom  he  nad  just 
time  to  distinguish  himself  in  Britain  before  death 
carried  of!  Gonstantius  (25  July,  306).  Constantine 
was  immediately  proclaimed  CsBsar  by  his  troops,  and 
his  title  was  acknowledged  by  Galerius  somewhat  hesi- 
tatingly. Hiis  event  was  the  first  break  in  Diocle- 
tian's scheme  of  a  four-headed  empire  (tetrarchy)  and 
was  soon  followed  by  the  proclamation  In  Rome  of 
Maxentius,  the  son  of  Maximian,  a  tyrant  and  profli- 
gate, as  Caesar,  October,  306. 

During  the  wars  between  Majcentius  and  the  Em- 
perors ^verus  and  Galerius,  Constantine  remained 
maotive  in  his  provinces.  The  attempt  which  the  old 
Emperors  Diocletian  and  Maximian  made,  at  Car-> 
mentum  in  307,  to  restore  order  in  the  empire  having 
failed,  the  promotion  of  Licinius  to  the  position  ol 
Augustus,  me  assumption  of  the  imperial  title  by 
Maximinus  Daia,  and  Maxentius'  claim  to  be  sole  em- 
peror (April,  30^, led  to  the  proclamation  of  Constan- 
tine as  Augustus.  Constantine,  having  the  most  effi- 
cient army,  was  acknowledged  as  such  by  Galerius, 
who  was  fightinjg  against  I^i^iximinus  in  the  East,  as 
well  as  by  Licinius. 

So  far  Constantine^  who  was  at  this  time  defending 
his  own  frontier  agamst  the  Germans,  had  taken  no 
part  in  the  quarrels  of  the  other  claimants  to  the 
throne.  But  when,  in  311,  Galerius,  the  eldest  Au- 
gustus and  the  most  violent  persecutor  of  the  Chris- 
tians, had  died  a  miserable  death,  after  cancelling  his 
edicts  against  the  Christians,  and  when  Maxentius, 
after  throwing  down  Constantine's  statues,  proclaimed 
him  a  tyrant,  the  latter  saw  that  war  was  inevitable. 
Though  his  army  was  far  inferior  to  that  of  Maxentius, 
numbering  according  to  various  statements  from 
25,000  to  100,000  men,  while  Maxentius  disposed  of 
fuUy  190,000,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  march  rapidly 
into  Italy  (spring  of  312).  After  storming  Susa  and 
almost  anmhilatine  a  powerful  army  near  Turin,  he 
continued  his  marcn  southward.  At  Verona  he  niet  a 
hostile  armv  under  the  prefect  of  Maxentius'  guard, 
Ruricius,  who  shut  himself  up  in  the  fortress.  While 
besieging  the  city  Constantine,  with  a  detachment  of 
his  army,  boldly  assailed  a  fresh  force  of  the  enemy 
coming  to  the  relief  of  the  besieged  fortress  and  com- 
pletely defeated  it.  Tlie  surrender  of  Verona  was  the 
consequence.  In  spite  of  the  overwhelming  numbers 
of  his  enemy  (Seeck  reckons  Maxentius'  army  at  1(X),- 
000  against  20,000  in  Constantine's  army)  the  em- 
peror confidently  marched  forward  to  Rome.  A 
vision  had  assured  him  that  he  should  conquer  in  the 
sign  of  the  Qirist,  and  his  warriors  carried  Christ's 
monogram  on  tiieir  shields,  though  the  majority  of 
them  were  paeans.  The  opposing  forces  met  near  the 
bridge  over  the  Tiber  called  the  Milvian  Bridge,  and 
here  Maxentius*  troops  suffered  a  complete  defeat,  the 
tyrant  himself  losing  his  life  in  the  Tiber  (28  October, 
312).  Of  his  gratitude  to  the  God  of  the  CSiristians  the 
victor  immediately  gave  convincing  proof;  the  Chris- 
tian worship  was  henceforth  tolerated  throughout  the 
empire  (Edict  of  Milan,  early  in  313).  His  enemies 
he  treated  with  the  greatest  magnanimity;  no  bloody 
executions  followed  the  victory  of  the  Milvian  Bridge, 
(jonstantine  stayed  in  Rome  but  a  short  time  after  his 
victory.  Proceeding  to  Milan  (end  of  312,  or  begin- 
ning of  313)  he  met  nis  colleague  the  Au^pstus  Licin- 
ius, married  his  sister  to  him,  secured  his  protection 
for  the  Christians  in  the  East,  andpromisea  him  sup- 
port against  Maximinus  Daia.  Tne  last,  a  bigoted 
pagan  and  a  cruel  tyrant,  who  persecuted  the  Qiris- 
tians  even  after  Galerius'  death,  was  now  defeated  by 
licinius,  whose  soldiers,  by  his  orders,  bad  invoked 
the  God  of  the  Christians  on  the  battle-field  (30  April, 
313).  Maximinus,  in  his  turn,  implored  the  God  of  the 
Christians,  but  died  of  a  painful  disease  in  the  follow- 
ing autumn. 

Of  all  Diodetian's  tetrarchs  Licinius  was  now  the 


only  survivor.    His  treachery  soon  compdled  Con- 
stantine to  make  war  on  him.    Pushing  forward  with 
his  wonted  impetuosity,  the  emperor  struck  him  a  de- 
cisive blow  at  Cibalae  (8  October,  314).     But  Licinius 
was  able  to  recover  himself,  and  the  battle  fought  be- 
tween the  two  rivals  at  Castra  Jarba  (November,  314) 
left  the  two  armies  in  such  a  position  that  both  parties 
thought  it  best  to  make  p^e.    For  ten  yeazs  the 
peace  lasted,  but  when,  about  322,  Licinius,  not  con- 
tent with  openly  professing  paganism,  began  to  perse- 
cute the  Christians,  while  at  the  same  time  he  ti%at<>d 
with  contempt  Constantine's  undoubted   ri^ts  and 
privileges,  the  outbreak  of  war  was  certain,  and  Con- 
stantine gathered  an  army  of  125,000  infantry  and 
10,000  cavalrv,  besides  a  fleet  of  200  vessels  to  gain 
control    of   the   Bosporus.    Licinius,   on  the  other 
hand,  by  leaving  the  eastern  boundaries  of  the  empire 
imdefended  succeeded  in  ooUecting  an  even  more 
numerous     army, 
made  up  of  160,- 
000  infantry  and 
15,000  cavalry, 
while  his  fleet  con- 
sisted of  no  fewer 
than    350    ships. 
The    opposing 
armies  met   at 
Adrianople,3  July, 
324,  and  Constan- 
tine's well  discip- 
lined  troops    de- 
feated and  put  to 
flight  the  less  dis- 
ciplined forces  of 
Licinius.   Licinius 
strengthened    the 
garrison  of  Byzan- 
tium so  that  an  at- 
tack seemed  likely 
to  result  in  failure, 
and  the  only  hope 
of  taking  the  for- 
tress lay  m  a  block- 
ade and    famine. 
This  required  the 
assistance  of  Constantine's  fleet,  but  his  opponent's 
ships  barred  the  way.    A  sea  fight  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Dardanelles  was  indecisive,  and  Constantine's  detach- 
ment retired  to  Elains,  where  it  joined  the  bulk  of  his 
fleet.    When  the  fleet  of  the  Ucinian  admiral  Abantus 
pursued  on  the  following  day,  it  was  overtaken  by  a 
violent  storm  which  destroyed  130  ships  and  5000 
men.    Constantine  crossed  the  Bosporus,  leaving  a 
sufficient  corps  to  maintain  the  blockade  of  Bvzan- 
tium,  and  overtook  his  opponent's  main  body  at 
Chrysopolis,  near  Chalcedon.    Again  he  inflicted  on 
him  a  crushing  defeat,  killing  25,000  men  and  scatter- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  remainder.    Licinius  with 
30,000  men  escaped  to  Nicomedia,    But  he  now  saw 
that  further  resistance  was  useless.    He  surrendered 
at  discretion,  and  his  noble-hearted  conqueror  spared 
his  life.    But  when,  in  the  following  year  (325),  Licin- 
ius renewed  his  treacheroos  practices  he  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  Roman  Senate  and  executed. 
Henceforth,  Constantine  was  sole  master  of  the 
Roman  Empire.    Shortly  after  the  defeat  of  Licinius, 
Constantine  determined  to  make  Constantinople  the 
future  capital  ot  the  empiro,  and  with  his  usual  energy 
he  took  every  measiire  to  enlarge,  strengthen,  and 
beautify  it.    For  the  next  ten  vears  of  his  rei^n  he  de- 
voted himself  to  promoting  tne  moral,  political,  and 
economical  welfare  of  his  possessions  and  made  dis- 
positions for  the  future  government  <A  the  empire. 
While  he  placed  his  nephews,  Dalmatiiis  <and  Hanni- 
balianus  in  char^  of  lesser  provinces,  he  designated 
his  sons  Constantius,  Constantine,  and  Constans  as  the 
future  rulers  of  the  empire.    Not  long  brfore  his  end, 


EtfPKROR  CONSTAMTTNS,  RoiCS 


oonnMxma 


297 


0Omf!AllTDIfi 


tlio  hostile  movement  uf  Uie  Persian  king,  ShapCU*, 
a«d]i  summoned  him  into  the  field.  When  he  was 
aEout  to  march  against  the  enemy  he  was  seized  with 
&IX  illness  of  which-he  died  in  May,  337,  after  receiving 
baptism. 

Charlbs  G.  Hbrbbrmann. 

Historical  Appreciation. — Constantine  can  right- 
f uliv  daim  the  title  of  Oreai,  for  he  turned  the  history 
of  toe  world  into  a  new  course  and  made  Christianity, 
vrhich  until  then  had  su£fered  bloody  persecution,  the 
religion  of  the  State.  It  is  true  that  the  deeper  reasons 
for  this  change  are  to  be  found  in  the  religious  move- 
ment of  the  time,  but  these  reasons  were  hardly  im- 
perative, as  the  Christians  formed  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  population,  being  a  fifth  part  in  the  West  and 
the  half  of  the  population  in  a  larse  section  of  the 
E^ast.  Constantme's  decision  depended  less  oi>  general 
conditions  than  on  a  personal  act;  his  personality, 
therefore,  deserves  careful  consideration. 

Long  before  this,  belief  in  the  old  polytheism  had 
heen  shaken;  in  more  stolid  natures,  as  Diocletian,  it 
showed  its  strength  only  in  the  form  of  superstition, 
magic,  and  divination.  The  world  was  fully  ripe  for 
monotheism  or  its  modified  form,  henotheisTn,  but 
this  monotheism  offered  itself  in  varied  guises,  under 
the  fonns  of  various  Oriental  religions:  in  the  worship 
of  the  sun,  in  the  veneration  of  Mithras,  in  Judaism, 
and  in  Christianity.  Whoever  wished  to  avoid  mak- 
ing a  violent  break  with  the  past  and  his  siuroundings 
sou^t  out  some  Oriental  form  of  worship  which  did 
not  demand  from  him  too  severe  a  sacrifice ;  in  such 
cases  Christianity  naturally  came  last.  Probablv 
many  of  the  more  noble-minded  recognized  the  truth 
contained  in  Judaism  and  Christianity,  but  believed 
that  they  cQuld  appropriate  it  without  being  obliged 
on  that  account  to  renounce  the  beauty  of  other  wor- 
ships. Such  a  man  was  the  Emperor  Alexander 
Scverus;  another  thus  minded  was  Aurelian,  whose 
opinions  Were  confirmed  by  Christians  like  Paul  of 
Samosata.  Not  only  Gnostics  and  other  heretics,  but 
Christians  who  considered  themselves  faithful,  held  in 
a  measure  to  the  worship  of  the  sun.  Leo  the  Great 
in  his  day  says  that  it  was  the  custom  of  many  Chris- 
tians to  stand  on  the  steps  of  the  church  of  St.  Peter 
and  pay  homage  to  the  sun  by  obeisance  and  prayers 
(cf.  Euseb.  Alexand.  in.  Mai,  "Nov.  Patr.  Bibl." 


il,  523;  Augustine, 


'Enarratio  in  Ps.  x";  Leo  I, 
Serm.  xxvi;  Grupp,  '^  Kulturgeschichte  der  rOnii- 
schen  Kaisexseit",  II,  130,  317,  348).  When  such 
conditions  prevailed  it  is  easy  to  understand  that 
many  of  the  emperors  yielded  to  the  delusion  that 
they  could  unite  all  their  subjects  in  the  adoration  c^ 
the  one  sun-god  who  combined  in  himself  the  Father- 
God  of  the  Christians  and  the  much-worshipped 
Mithras;  thus  the  empire  could  be  founded  anew  on 
unity  of  rdigion.  Even  Constantine,  as  will  be 
shown  farther  on,  for  a  time  cherished  this  mistaken 
belief.  It  looks  almost  as  though  the  last  persecu- 
tions of  the  Christians  were  directed  more  against  all 
inreooncilables  and  extremists  than  against  the  great 
body  of  Christians.  The  polioy  of  the  emperors  was 
not  a  consistent  one;  Diocletian  was  at  first  friendly 
towards  Christianity;  even  its  grimmest  foe,  Julian, 
wavered.  Ceesar  Constantius,  Constantine's  falser, 
protected  the  Christians  during  a  most  cruel  per- 
secution. 

Constantine  grew  up  under  the  influence  of  his 
father's  ideas.  He  was  the  son  of  Constantius 
Chlorus  by  his  first,  informal  marriage,  called  concTi- 
binatu9,  with  Helena,  a  woman  of  inf^or  birtii.  For 
a  short  time  Constantine  had  been  compelled  to  stay 
at  the  court  of  Galerius,  and  had  evio^tly  not  re- 
ceived a  good  impression  from  his  surroundings  thou 
When  Diocletian  retired,  Constantius  advanced  from 
the  position  of  Cssar  to  that  of  Augustus,  and  the 
army,  against  the  wishes  of  the  other  emperors,  raised 


the  young  Constantine  to  the  vacant  position.  Right 
here  was  seen  at  once  how  unsuccesstul  would  be  tne 
artificial  system  of  division  of  the  empire  and  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  by  which  Diocletian  sought  to  frus- 
trate the  overweening  power  of  the  Pnetorian  Guard. 
Diocletian's  personality  is  full  of  contradictions;  he 
was  Just  as  crude  in  his  religious  feehngs  as  he  was 
shrewd  and  far-seeing  in  state  affairs;  a  man  of  auto- 
cratic nature,  but  one  who,  und^  certain  circum- 
stances, voluntarily  set  bounds  to  himself.  He  began 
a  reconstruction  of  the  empire,  which  Constantine 
completed.  The  existence  of  the  empire  was  threat- 
ened by  many  serious  evils,  the  lack  of  national  and 
religious  imity,  its  financial  and  miUtary  weakness. 
Consequentlv  the  system  of  taxation  had  to  be  ao- 
oommodated  to  the  revived  economic  barter  system. 
The  taxes  bore  most  heavily  on  the  peasants,  the  peas- 
ant communities,  and  the  landed  proprietors;  in- 
creasingly heav^  compulsory  service  was  also  laid  on 
those  engaged  m  industrial  piumiits,  and  th^  were 
therefore  combined  into  state  guUds.  The  army  was 
strengthened,  the  troops  on  the  irontier  being  increased 
to  360,000  men<  In  addition,  the  tribes  living  on  the 
frontiers  were  taken  into  the  pay  of  the  State  as  allies, 
many  cities  were  fortified,  and  new  fortresses  and  ^r- 
risons  were  established,  bringing  soldiers  and  civihans 
more  into  contact,  contrary  to  the  old  Roman  axiom. 
When  a  frontier  was  endangered  the  household  troops 
took  the  field.  This  body  of  soldiers,  known  as  fata" 
Hni,  eom%UUense9,  which  had  taken  the  place  of  the 
Preetorian  Guard,  numbered  not  quite  200,000  men 
(sometimes  given  as  194,500).  A  good  postal  service 
maintained  constant  communication  between  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  empire.  The  civil  and  military 
administration  were,  perhaps,  somewhat  more  sharply 
divided  than  before,  i>ut  an  equally  increased  impor- 
tance was  laid  on  the  military  capacity  of  all  state  offi- 
cials. Service  at  court  was  termed  mUitia,  "military 
service".  Over  all,  hke  to  a  ^od,  was  enthroned  the 
emperor,  and  the  imperial  dignity  was  surrounded  by 
a  halo,  a  sacredness,  a  ceremonial,  which  was  borrowed 
from  the  Oriental  theocracies.  The  East  from  the 
earliest  times  had  been  a  favourable  soil  for  theo- 
cratic government;  each  ruler  was  belieyed  by  his 
people  to  be  in  direct  communication  with  the  god- 
nead,  and  the  law  of  the  State  was  regarded  as  re- 
vealed law.  In  the  same  manner  the  emperors  al- 
lowed themsdves  to  be  venerated  as  holv  oracles  and 
deities,  and  everything  coimected  with  them  was 
called  sacred.  Instead  of  imperial,  the  word  sacred 
had  now  always  to  be  used.  A  large  oourt-retinue, 
elaborate  coiuirceremoniab,  and  an  ostentatious 
court^HX)stume  made  access  to  the  emperor  more  diffi- 
cult. Whoever  wished  to  approach  the  head  of  the 
State  must  firat  pass  through  many  ante-rooms  and 
prostrate  himself  before  the  emperor  as  before  a  divin- 
ity. As  the  old  Roman  population  had  no  liking  for 
such  ceremonial,  the  emperors  showed  a  constantly 
increasing  preference  for  the  East,  where  monotheism 
held  ahxK>st  imdisputed  sway,  and  where,  besides, 
economic  conditions  were  better.  Rome  was  no 
longer  able  to  control  the  whole  of  the  great  empire 
with  its  peculiar  civilizations. 

In  aU  directions  new  and  vigorous  national  forces 
began  to  show  themselves.  Onlv  two  policies  were 
possible:  either  to  give  way  to  tne  vanous  national 
movements,  or  to  take  a  nrm  stand  on  the  founda- 
tion of  antiquity,  to  revive  old  Roman  principles, 
the  ancient  military  severity,  and  the  patriotism 
of  Old  Rome.  Several  emperors  had  tried  to  follow 
this  latter  course,  but  in  vain.  It  was  just  as  impoe- 
sible  to  bring  men  back  to  the  old  simplicitv  as  to 
make  them  return  to  the  old  pagan  beliefs  and  to  the 
national  form  of  worship.  Consequently,  the  empire 
had  to  identify  itself  with  the  progressive  movement, 
employ  as  far  as  possible  the  existing  resources  ot 
national. life,  exercise  tolerance,  make  concessions  to 


OONSTANTINC 


298 


OONSTANTIinB 


the  new  religious  tendencies,  and  receive  the 
Germanic  tribes  into  the  empire.  This  conviction 
constantly  spread,  especiallv  as  Constantine's  father 
had  obtamed  good  results  therefrom.  In  Gaul,  Brit- 
ain, and  Spain,  where  Constantius  Chlorus  ruled, 
peace  and  contentment  prevailed,  and  the  prosperity 
of  the  provinces  visibl]^  increased,  while  in  the  East 
prosperity  was  undermined  by  the  existing  confusion 
and  instability.  But  it  was  especially  in  the  western 
part  of  the  enipire  that  the  veneration  of  Mithras  pre- 
dominated. Would  it  not  be  possible  to  gather  all 
the  different  nationalities  around  his  altars?  Could 
not  Sol  Deus  InvictuSy  to  whom  even  Ck>nstantine  dedi- 
cated his  coins  for  a  long  time,  or  Sol  Mithras  Deus  In- 
vidust  venerated  by  Diocletian  and  Galerius,  become 
the  supreme  god  of  the  empire?  Constantine  may 
have  pondered  over  this.  Nor  had  he  absolutely 
rejected  the  thought  even  after  a  miraculous  event 
had  strongly  influenced  him  in  favour  of  the  God  of 
the  Christians. 

In  deciding  for  Christianity  he  was  no  doubt  also 
influenced  by  reasons  of  conscience — treasons  resulting 
from  the  impression  made  on  every  imprejudioed  per- 
son both  by  the  Christians  and  by  the  moral  force  of 
CSiristianity,  and  from  the  practical  knowledge  which 
the  emperors  had  of  the  Christian  military  officers  and 
state  officials.  These  reasons  are,  however,  not  men- 
tioned in  history,  which  gives  the  chief  prominence  to 
a  miraculous  event.  B^ore  Constantine  advanced 
against  his  rival  Maxentius,  according  to  ancient  cus- 
tom he  smnmoned  the  haruspices,  who  prophesied  dis- 
aster; so  reports  a  pagan  panegyrist.  But  when  the 
gods  would  not  aid  him,  contmues  this  writer,  one 
particular  god  lU'ged  him  on,  for  Constantine  had 
close  relations  with  the  divinity  itself.  Under  what 
form  this  connexion  with  the  deity  manifested  itself 
is  told  by  Lactantius  (De  mort.  persec.,  ch.  xliv)  and 
Eusebius  (Vita  Const.,  I,  xxvi-xxxi).  He  saw,  accord- 
ing to  the  one  in  a  dream,  according  to  the  other  in  a 
vision,  a  heavenlv  manifestation,  a  brilliant  light  in 
which  he  believed  he  descried  the  cross  or  the  mono- 
gram of  Christ.  Strengthened  by  this  apparition,  he 
advanced  courageously  to  battle,  defeated  his  rival, 
and  won  the  supreme  power.  It  was  the  result  that 
gave  to  this  vision  its  full  importance,  for  when  the 
emperor  af  terwaitls  reflected  on  the  event  it  was  clear 
to  him  that  the  cross  bore  the  inscription:  hoo  vinces 
(in  this  sign  wilt  thou  conquer).  A  monogram  com- 
bining the  first  letters,  X  and  P,  of  the  name  of  Christ 
(XPI2T02V  a  form  that  cannot  be  proved  to  have 
been  used  oy  Christians  before,  was  made  one  of  the 
tokens  of  the  standard  and  placed  upon  the  Labarum 
(q.  v.).  In  addition,  this  ensign  was  placed  in  the  hand 
of  a  statue  of  the  emperor  at  Rome,  the  pedestal  of 
which  bore  the  inscription: ''  By  the  aid  of  this  salutary 
token  of  strength  I  have  freed  my  city  from  the  yoke  of 
tvrannsr  and  restored  to  the  Roman  Senate  and  People 
the  ancient  splendour  and  elory. ' '  Directly  after  liis 
victory  Constantine  grantedf  tolerance  to  the  Christians 
and  next  year  (313)  took  a  further  step  in  their  favour. 
In  313  Licinius  and  he  issued  at  ^an  the  famous 
joint  edict  of  tolerance.  Tliis  declared  that  the  two 
emperors  had  deUberated  as  to  what  would  be  advan- 
ta^us  for  the  security  and  welfare  of  the  empire  and 
had,  above  all,  taken  into  consideration  the  service 
which  man  owed  to  the  **  deity* '.  Therefore  they  had 
decided  to  grant  Christians  and  all  others  freedom  in 
the  exercise  of  religion.  Eveiyone  mi^t  follow  that 
religion  which  he  considered  the  best.  Tliev  hoped 
that  ''the  deity  enthroned  in  heaven"  would  grant 
favour  and  protection  to  the  emperora  and  their  sub- 
jects. This  was  in  itself  quite  enough  to  throw  the 
pagans  into  the  o-eatest  astonishment.  When  the 
w)(nding  of  the  eoict  is  carefully  examined  there  is 
clear  evidence  of  an  effort  to  express  the  new  thoueht 
in  a  manner  too  unmistakable  to  leave  any  doubt. 
Tbe  edict  contains  more  than  the  bdief,  to  which 


Galerius  at  the  end  had  given  voice,  that  the  persecu- 
tions were  useless,  and  it  granted  tne  Christians  free- 
dom of  worship,  while  at  the  same  time  it  endeavoured 
not  to  affront  the  pagans.  Without  doubt  the  term 
deity  was  deliberately  chosen,  for  it  does  not  exclude  a 
heathen  int^retation.  The  cautious  expression 
probably  originated  in  the  imperial  chancery,  wheie 
pagan  conceptions  and  pagan  forms  of  expresskm  still 
lasted  for  a  long  time.  Nevertheless  the  change  from 
the  bloody  persecution  of  CSiristianity  to  the  tolera- 
tion of  it,  a  step  which  implied  its  recognition,  may 
have  startled  many  heathens  and  may  have  excited  in 
them  tiie  same  astonishment  that  a  German  would  fed 
if  an  emperor  who  was  a  Social  Democrat  were  to 
seise  the  reins  of  government.  The  foundations  of  the 
State  would  seem  to  such  a  one  to  rock.  Hie  CSiris- 
tians  also  may  have  been  taken  aback.  Before  this, 
it  IB  tniei  it  had  occurred  to  Melitorof  Sardes  (Euse- 


Arch  op  Ck>N8TANTiNB,  Rome 

bins,  Hist.  Eccl.,  IV,  xxxiii)  that  the  emperor  might 
some  day  become  a  Christian,  but  Tertullian  had 
thought  otherwise,  and  had  written  (ApoL,  xxi)  the 
memorable  sentence:  ''Sed  et  Csesares  credidissent 
super  Christo,  si  aut  Cffisares  non  esl^nt  sflsculo  neces- 
sarii,  aut  si  et  Christiani  potuissoit  esse  Caosares" 
(But  the  Csesars  also  would  nave  believed  in  CSirist,  if 
either  the  Caesars  had  not  been  necessary  to  the  worid 
or  if  Christians  too  could  have  been  Cffisars).  Hiesame 
opinion  was  held  by  St.  Justin  (I,  xii;  II,  xv).  That 
the  empire  should  become  Christian  seemed  to  Justin 
and  many  others  an  impossibility,  and  th^y  were  just 
as  Uttle  in  the  wrong  as  the  optimiists  were  in  the  right. 
At  all  events,  a  happy  day  now  dawned  for  the  Chris- 
tians. They  must  nave  felt  as  did  the  persecuted  in 
the  time  of  the  French  Revolution  when  Robespierre 
finally  fell  and  the  Reign  of  Terror  was  over.  The 
feeling  of  emancipation  Trom  danger  is  touchingly  ex- 
pressed in  the  treatise  ascribed  to  Lactantius  (De 
mortibus  persecut.,  in  P.  L.,  VII,  52),  concerning  the 
ways  in  whidi  death  overtook  the  perseflmtors.  It 
says:  **  We  should  now  give  thanks  to  the  Lord,  Who 
has  gathered  together  the  flock  that  was  devastated 
by  ravening  wolves.  Who  has  exterminated  the  wild 
beasts  whidi  drove  it  from  the  pasture.  Where  is 
now  the  swarming  multitude  of  our  enemies,  where 
the  hangmen  of  Diocletian  and  Maximian?  God  haa 
swept  them  from  the  earth;  let  us  therefore  celebrate 
His  triumph  with  joy;  let  us  observe  the  victory  of 
the  Lord  with  songs  61  praise,  and  honour  Him  with 
pra^rer  day  and  ni^t,  so  that  t^e  peace  which  we  have 
received  again  after  ten  jem  of  misery  may  be  pre- 
served  to  us.''  Hie  imprisoned  Christians  were  re- 
leased from  the  prisons  and  mines,  and  were  received 
by  their  brethren  in  the  Faith  with  acclamations  of 
joy;  the  churdies  were  again  filled,  and  those  who 
baid  fallen  away  sought  foiigiveness. 


OOVBTAHTIIIB 


299 


OOirSTAHTIlIB 


¥>Ar  a  time  it  seemed  aa  if  merely  toleranoe  and 
equality  were  to  prevaiL    Cbnstantine  showed  equal 
favour  to  both  religious.    As  pontifex  maadmiis  he 
watched  over  the  heathen  woranip  and  protected  its 
rights.     The  one  thing  he  did  was  to  suppreas  divina- 
tion and  magic;  this  the  heathen  emperors  had  also  at 
times  sought  to  do.    ThuBj  in  320,  the  emperor  for- 
bade Uie  diviners  or  haruspioes  to  enter  a  private 
house  under  pain  of  death.    Whoever  by  entreaty  or 
promise  of  ]myment  persuaded  a  haruspex  to  break 
this  law,  that  man's  property  should  be  confiscated 
and  he  himself  should  oe  burned  to  death.    Informers 
were  to  be  rewarded.    Whoever  desired  to  practise 
heathen  usages  must  do  so  openly.    He  must  go  to 
the  public  aftars  and  sacred  places,  and  there  observe 
traditional  forms  of  worship.     "We  do  not  forbid", 
said  the  emperor,  ''the  observance  of  the  old  usages 
in  the  lig^t  of  day. "    And  in  an  ordinance  of  1^  same 
year,  intended  for  the  Roman  city  prefects,  Constan- 
tine  directed  that  if  lightning  struck  an  imperial  pal- 
ace, or  a  public  building,  the  haruspices  were  to  seek 
out  according  to  ancioit  custom  what  the  sign  might 
signify,  and  their  interpretation  was  to  be  written 
down  and  reported  to  the  emperor.    It  was  also  per- 
mitted to  pnvate  individuals  to  make  use  of  this  old 
custom,  but  in  following  this  observance  they  must 
abstain  from  the  forbidden  aacrificia  dameshca,    A 
general  prohibition  of  the  family  sacrifice  cannot  be 
deuced  from  this,  although  in  341  Constantine's  son 
Constantius  refers  to  such  an  interdict  by  his  father 
(Cod.  Theod.,  XVI,  x,  2).    A  prohibition  of  this  kind 
would  have  had  the  most  severe  and  far-reachine 
results,  for  most  sacrifices  were  private  ones.    And 
bow  could  it  have  been  carried  out  while  public 
sacrifices  were  still  customary?  In  the  dedication  of 
Constantinople  in  330  a  ceremonial  half  pagan,  half 
Christian  was  used.    The  chariot  of  the  sun-god  was 
set  in  the  market-place,  and  over  its  head  was  placed 
the  Cross  of  Christ,  while  the  Kyrie  Eleison  was 
sung.    Shortly  before  his  death  Constantine  con- 
firmed the  privileges  (^  the  priests  of  the  ancient  gods. 
Many  other  actions  of  his  have  also  the  appearance  of 
•half-measures,  as  if  he  himself  had  wavered  and  had 
always  held  in  reality  to  some  form  of  syncretistic 
relieion.     llius  he  commanded  the  heathen  troops  to 
make  use  of  a  prayer  in  which  any  monotheist  could 
join,  and  whioi  ran  thus:    ^We  acknowledge  thee 
alone  as  god  and  king,  we  call  upon  thee  as  ournelper. 
From  thee  have  we  received  the  victory,  by  thee  have 
we  overcome  the  foe.    To  thee  we  owe  that  good 
which  we  have  received  up  to  now,  from  thee  do  we 
hope  for  it  in  the  future.    To  thee  we  offer  our  en- 
treaties and  implore  thee  that  thou  wilt  preserve  to  us 
our  emperor  Constantine  and  his  god-fearingsons  for 
many  years  uninjured  and  victorious.''    The  em- 
peror went  at  least  one  step  further  when  he  with- 
drew his  statue  from  the  pasan  temples,  forbade  the 
repair  of  temples  that  had  fallen  into  decay,  and  sup- 
pressed offensive  forms  of  worship.    But  these  meas- 
ures did  not  go  beyond  the  syncretistic  tendency 
which  Constantine  had  shown  for  a  long  time.     Yet 
he  must  have  perceived  more  and  more  clearly  that 
syncretism  was  impossible. 

In  the  same  way  religious  freedom  and  tolerance 
Gould  not  continue  as  a  form  of  equality;  the  age  was 
not  ready  for  such  a  conception.  It  is  true  that 
Christian  writers  defended  religious  liberty;  thus  Ter- 
tullian  said  that  religion  forbids  religious  compulsion 
(Non  est  religionis  oogere  reli^onem  qu»  n>onte  sus- 
cipi  debet  non  vi. — ^**Ad  Soapulam",  near  the  close); 
and  Lactantius,  moreover,  declared:  ^In  order  to  de- 
fend religion  man  must  be  willing  to  die,  but  not  to 
|dn.''  Origen  also  took  up  the  cause  of  freedom. 
Most  probably  oppression  and  persecution  had  made 
men  realise  that  to  have  one'b  way  of  thinking,  one's 
conception  of  the  world  and  of  life,  dictated  to  him 
wasamiBchief-working  compulsion.    In  contrast  to  the 


smotnenng  violence  of  the  ancient  State,  and  to  the 
power  and  custom  of  public  opinion,  the  Christians 
were  the  defenders  of  freedom,  but  not  of  individual 
subiective  freedom,  nor  of  freedom  of  conscience  as 
unclerstood  to-day.  And  even  if  the  Church  had  rec- 
ognised this  form  of  freedom,  the  State  could  not 
have  remained  tolerant.  Without  reidudng  the  full 
import  of  his  actions,  Constantine  granted  the  Church 
one  privilege  after  another.  As  early  as  313  the 
Church  obtained  immunity  for  its  ecclesiastics,  in- 
cluding freedom  from  taxation  and  compidsonr  serv- 
ice, and  from  obligatory  state  offices — such  for  ex- 
ample as  the  curial  digiiity,  which  was  a  heavy  bur- 
den. Ihe  Church  further  obtained  the  right  to  in- 
herit property,  and  Constantine  moreover  placed  Sun- 
day imder  the  protection  of  the  State.  It  is  true  that 
the  believers  in  Mithras  also  observed  Sunday  as  wdl 
as  Christmas.  Conseauently  Constantine  speaks  not 
of  the  day  of  the  Lord,  but  of  the  everlasting;  day  of 
the  sun.  According  to  Eusebius,  the  heathen  also 
were  obliged  on  this  day  to  ^  out  ioto  the  open  coun- 
try and  together  raise  then:  hands  and  repeat  the 
prayer  alr^dy  mentioned,  a  prayer  without  any 
marked  CSuistian  character  (Vita  Const.,  IV,  xx). 
The  emperor  granted  many  privileges  to  the  CSiurch 
for  the  reason  that  it  took  care  of  the  poor  and  was 
active  in  benevolence.  Perhaps  he  showed  his  Chris- 
tian tendencies  most  pronoimcedly  in  removing  the 
legal  disabilities  which,  since  the  time  of  Augustus, 
had  rested  on  oelibac^,  leaving  in  existence  only  the 
leffea  decimaricBf  and  m  recognising  an  extensive  ec- 
clesiastical jurisdiction.  But  it  snould  not  be  for- 
^tten  that  the  Jewish  communities  had  also  their  own 
jurisdiction,  exemptions;  and  immunities,  even  if  in  -a 
more  limited  degree.  A  law  of  318  denied  the  com- 
petence of  civil  courts  if  in  a  suit  an  appeal  was  made 
to  the  court  of  a  Christian  bishop.  Even  after  a  suit 
had  begun  before  the  civil  court,  it  would  still  be  per- 
missible for  one  of  the  parties  to  transfer  it  to  the 
bishop's  court.  If  both  parties  had  been  granted  a 
legal  hearing,  the  decision  of  the  bishop  was  to  be  bind- 
ing. A  law  of  333  commanded  the  state  officials  to 
enforce  the  decisions  of  the  bishops ;  a  bishop's  testi- 
mony should  be  considered  sufficient  bv  all  judges, 
and  no  witness  was  to  be  simunoned  after  a  bishop 
had  testified.  These  concessions  were  so  far-reaching 
that  the  Chiutdi  itself  felt  the  great  increase  of  its 
jurisdiction  as  a  constraint.  Later  enperors  limited 
this  jurisdiction  to  cases  of  voluntary  submission  by 
both  parties  to  the  episcopal  court. 

Constantine  did  much  for  children,  slaves,  and 
women,  those  weaker  members  of  society  whom  the 
old  Roman  law  had  treated  harshly.  But  in  this  he 
only  continued  what  earlier  emperors,  uiider  the  in- 
fluence of  Stoicism,  had  b^im  before  him,  and  he  left 
to  his  successors  the  actual  work  of  their  emancipa- 
tion. Thus  some  emperors  who  reigned  before  Con- 
stantino had  forbidden  the  exposure  of  children, 
althou^  without  success,  as  exposed  children  or 
foundlmgs  were  readily  adopted,  because  they  could 
be  used  mr  many  purposes.  The  Christians  especiallv 
exerted  Uiemselves  to  get  possession  of  such  found- 
linffl,  and  consequently  Constantine  issued  no  direct 
prwiibition  of  exposure,  although  the  Christians 
regarded  exposure  as  equal  to  murder;  he  com- 
manded, instead,  that  foundlings  should  belong  to  the 
finder,  and  did  not  permit  theparents  to  claim  the 
children  they  had  exposed.  Tnose  who  took  such 
children  obtained  a  property  right  in  them  and  could 
make  quite  an  extensive  use  of  this;  th^  were  al- 
lowed to  sell  and  enslave  foundlings,  untu  Justinian 
prohibited  such  enslaving  imder  any  guise.  Even  in 
the  time  of  St.  Ghrysostom  parents  mutilated  their 
children  for  the  sake  of  gain.  When  suffering  from 
famine  or  debt,  man^  parents  could  only  obtain  re- 
lief by  selling  their  children  if  they  did  not  wish  to  sell 
tiiemselves.    All  later  laws  against  such  practices 


oohstantute 


300 


CKnrsTAvrm 


availed  as  little  as  those  af^ainst  emasculation  and 
pandering.  St.  Ambrose  vividly  depicts  the  sad  spec* 
tacle  of  children  being  sold  by  their  fathers,  under 
pressure  of  creditors,  or  by  the  creditors  themselves. 
All  the  many  forms  of  institutions  f6r  feeding  and 
supporting  children  and  the  poor  were  of  little  avail. 
Constantine  himself  establisned  asylums  for  found* 
lings ;  yet  he  recognized  the  ri^t  of  parents  to  sell  their 
children,  and  only  excepted  older  cnildren.  He  ruled 
that  children  who  had  been  sold  could  be  bought  back, 
in  contradistinction  to  children  who  had  been  ex- 
posed ;  but  this  ruling  was  of  no  avail  if  the  children 
were  taken  into  a  foreign  country.  Valentinian,  there- 
fore, prohibited  the  traffic  in  human  beings  with  for- 
eign lands.  The  laws  forbidding  such  practices  con- 
tinually multiplied,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  burden 
of  saving  the  children  fell  on  the  ChUrch. 

Constantine  was  the  first  to  prohibit  the  abduction 
of  girls.  The  abductor  and  those  who  aided  him  by 
influencing  the  girl  were  threatened  with  severe  pun- 
ishment. In  harmony  with  the  views  of  the  Church, 
Constantine  rendered  divorce  more  difficult;  he  made 
no  chan^  where  the  divorce  was  agreed  to  by  both 
parties,  but  imposed  severe  conditions  when  wie  de- 
mand for  separation  came  from  one  side  only.  A 
man  could  put  awav  his  wife  for  adultery,  poisoning, 
and  pandering,  and  retain  her  dowry;  but  if  he  dis- 
carded her  for  any  other  cause,  he  was  to  return  the 
dowry  and  was  forbidden  to  marry  a^in.  If.  never- 
theless, he  remarried,  the  discarded  wife  had  tne  right 
to  enter  his  house  and  take  everything  which  the  new 
wife  had  brought  him.  Constantine  increased  the 
severity  of  the  earlier  law  f orbklding  the  concubinage 
of  a  free  woman  with  a  slave,  and  the  Church  did  not 
regard  this  measure  with  disfavour.  On  the  other 
hand,  his  retention  of  the  distinctions  of  rank  in  the 
marriage  law  was  clearly  contrary  to  the  views  of  the 
CSiurch.  The  Church  rejected  all  class  distinctions  in 
marriage,  and  regarded  informal  marriages  (the  so- 
called  concubinatu8)  as  true  marriages,  in  so  far  as  they 
were  lasting  and  monogamous.  Constantine,  how- 
ever, increased  the  difficulties  of  the  concubinaiits,  and 
forbade  senators  and  the  hi^er  officials  in  the  State 
and  in  the  pagan  priesthoods  to  contract  such  unions 
with  women  of  lower  rank  (Jemince  humilea),  thus  mak- 
ing  it  impossible  for  them  to  marry  women  belonging 
to  the  lower  classes,  although  his  own  mother  was  of 
inferior  rank.  But  in  other  respects  the  emperor 
showed  his  mother,  Helena,  the  greatest  deference. 
Other  concutnnatua  besides  those  mentioned  were 
placed  at  a  disadvantage  in  r^ard  to  property,  and 
the  rights  of  inheritance  of  the  children  and  tfe  con- 
cubines were  restricted.  Constantine,  however,  eiH 
couraged  the  emancipation  of  slaves  and  enacted  that 
manumission  in  the  church  should  have  the  same 
force  as  the  public  manumission  before  State  officials 
and  by  will  (321).  Neither  the  Christian  nor  the 
heathen  cmperore  permitted  slaves  to  seek  their 
freedom  without  authorization  of  law;  the  Christian 
rollers  sought  to  amehorate  slavery  by  limiting  the 
power  of  corjwral  punishment;  the  master  was  al- 
lowed only  to  use  a  rod  or  to  send  a  slave  to  prison, 
and  the  owner  was  not  liable  to  punishment  even  if 
the  slave  died  under  these  circumstances.  But  if 
death  resulted  from  the  use  of  dubs,  stones,  weapons, 
or  instruments  of  torture,  the  person  who  caused  the 
death  was  to  be  treated  as  a  murderer.  As  will  be 
seen  below.  Constantine  was  himself  obli^  to  observe 
this  law  when  he  sought  to  get  rid  of  Lacinianus.  A 
criminal  was  no  longer  to  be  branded  in  the  face,  but 
only  on  the  feet,  as  the  human  face  was  fashioned  in 
the  likeness  of  God. 

When  these  laws  are  compared  with  the  ordinances 
of  those  eariier  emperora  who  were  of  humane  dispo- 
sition, they  do  not  go  far  beyond  the  older  regulations* 
In  eveiything  not  referring  to  religion  Constantine 
followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Diocletian.     In  spite  of  all 


unfortunate  experiences,  he  adhered  to  the  artificial 
division  of  the  empire,  tried  for  a  long  time  to  a(void  a 
breadi  with  Licmuis,  and  divided  the  empire  among 
his  sons.    On  the  other  hand,  the  imperial  power  was 
increased  by  reeeiving  a  reli^ouB  consecration.    The 
Chun^  tc^erated  the  cult  of  the  emperor  under  many 
forms.    It  was  permitted  to  speak  of  the  divinity  of 
the  emperor,  of  the  sacred  palace,  the  sacred  diainber, 
and  of  the  altar  of  the  emperor,  without  being  con- 
ndered  on  this  account  an  idolater.    From  this  point 
ol  view  Constantme's  reheious  change  was  relatively 
trifling;  it  consisted  of  little  more  imn  the  renuncia- 
tion of  a  formality.    For  what  his  predeeessots  had 
aimed  to  attain  by  the  use  of  all  their  authoriW,  and 
at  the  cost  of  incessant  bloodshed,  was  in  truth  only 
the  recognition  of  their  own  divini^;  CMvtantine 
gained  this  end,  thou^  he  renouncecl  the  offering  of 
sacrifices  to  hiinself .    Some  bishops,  blinded  by  the 
splendour  of  the  court,  ev^n  went  so  far  as  to  laud  the 
emperor  as  an  angel  of  God,  as  a  sacred  being,  and  to 
prophesy  that  he  would,  like  the  Son  of  Qod,  r&aa  in 
heaven.    It  has  oonsecjuently  been  asserted  that  Cbn- 
stantine  favoured  Chnstianity  merdy  from  political 
motives,  and  he  has  been  re^uxied  as  an  enlightened 
de^t  who  made  use  of  religion  only  to  advance  his 
pc^cy.     He  certainly  cannot  be  acquitted  of  grasping 
ambition.    Where  ^e  poUcy  of  the  State  requirea,  he 
could  be  cruel.    Even  after  his  conversion  he  cwuied 
the  execution  of  his  brother-in-law  Licinius,  and  of 
the  latter's  son,  as  well  as  of  Crispus  his  own  son  by 
his  first  marriage,  and  of  his  wife  Fausta.     He  quar- 
relled with  his  colleague  Licinius  about  their  religious 
policy,  and  in  323  defeated  him  in  a  bloody  batUe; 
Licinius  surrendered  on  the  promise  of  personal  safety ; 
notwithstanding  this,  half  a  year  later  he  was  stran- 
fi^ed  by  order  of  Constantine.    During  the  joint  reign 
Licinianus,  the  son  of  Licinius,  and  Crispus,  the  son 
of  Constantine,  had  been  the  two  Cffisara.    Both  were 
gradually  set  aside;  Crispus  was  executed  on  the 
charge  of  immorality  maae  aflndnst  him  by  Gonstan- 
tine's  second  wife,  Fausta.    Ine  <^aiige  was  falae,  as 
Constantine  learned  from  his  mother,  Helena,  after 
the  deed  was  done.    In  punishment  Fausta  was  sufib- 
cated  in  a  superheated  oath.    The  young  licinianus 
was  flogged  to  death.    Because  licinianus  was  not 
the  son  of  his  sister,  but  at  a  slave-woman,  Constan- 
tine treated  him  as  a  slave.    In  this  way  Constantine 
evaded  his  own  law  regarding  the  mutflation  of  slaves. 
Aft^  reading  these  cruelties  it  is  hard  to  believe  that 
the  same  emperor  could  at  times  have  mild  and  tender 
impulses;  but  human  nature  is  full  of  ocmtradictions. 
Constantine  was  liberal  to  prodigality,  was  generous 
in  almsgiving,  and  adorned  the  Christian  diurches 
magnificently.    He  paid  more  attention  to  literature 
and  art  than  we  mi^t  expect  from  an  amperor  of  this 
period,  although  this  waa  partly  due  to  vanity,  as  is 
proved  by  his  i^f>preciation  of  the  dedicaticm  of  uterary 
works  to  him.    it  is  likely  that  he  practised  the  fine 
arts  himself,  and  he  frequently  preached  to  those 
around  him.    No  doubt  he  was  endowed  with  a 
strong  religioua  sense^  was  sincerely  pious,  and  de- 
li|riit^  to  be  represented  in  an  attitude  of  nraver. 
with  his  eyes  raised  to  heaven.    In  his  palace  ne  had 
a  chapel  to  which  he  was  fond  of  retiring,  and  where 
he  read  the  Bible  and  prayed.     "  Every  di^  *\  £use- 
bius  tells  us,  "at  a  fixed  hour  he  shut  hiiaadf  up  in  the 
most  secluded  part  of  the  palace,  as  if  to  assist  at  the 
Sacred  Mysteries,  and  there  commune  with  God  alone, 
ardentl3r  beseeching  Him,  on  bended  knees,  for  his 
necessities  *\    As  a  catechumen  he  was  not  permitted 
to  assist  at  the  sacred  Eucharietic  xnystenes.    Re  re> 
mained  a  catechumen  to  the  end  of  his  Ufe,  but  not 
because  he  lacked  conviction  nor  because,  owing  to 
his  passionate  disposition,  he  desired  to  lead  a  pagan 
life.     He  obeyed  as  strictly  as  possible  the  precepts  of 
Christianity,  observing  especially  the  virtue  of  chas- 
tity, which  his  parents  had  impressed  iqwn  him;  he 


VICTORY  OF  CONSTANTINE  THE  GREAT  OVER  MAXENTIUS  AT  THE  MILVIAN  BRIDGE 

DETAIL   OF  THE   FRESCO  "DESIGNED   BY    RAPHAEL,   EXECUTED   BY  GIULIO   ROMANO 
SALA   DI   COSTANTINO,   VATICAN 


OOVSTAVTIirOPUS 


3D1 


OOMBTAirriNOPLE 


respected  celibacy,  freed  it  from  le^  disadvantages, 
soujg^t  to  elevate  morali^,  and  punished  with  great 
severity  the  offences  aeunst  morals  which  the  pagan 
wordiip  had  encouraged.  He  brought  up  his  chilcCen 
as  ChnstiaDs.  Thus  his  life  became  more  and  more 
Christian,  and  thus  gradually  turned  away  from  the 
feeble  syncaretiBm  which  at  times  he  seemecl  to  favour. 
The  God  of  the  Christians  was  indeed  a  jealous  God 
who  tolerated  no  other  gods  beside  him.  The  Church 
ooiild  never  acknowled^  that  she  stood  on  the  same 
plane  with  other  religious  bodies;  she  conquered  for 
neradf  one  domain  after  another. 

Conatantine  himsdf  preferred  the  company  of 
Christian  bishops  to  that  of  pa^an  priests.  The  em- 
peror frequently  invited  the  bishops  to  courts  g^ve 
them  the  iise  of  the  imperial  postal  service,  invited 
them  to  his  table,  called  them  his  brothers,  and  when 
they  had  suffered  for  the  Faith,  kiased  their  scan. 
Wmle  he  chose  bishc^  for  his  counsellors,  the^,  on 
the  other  hand,  often  requested  his  intervention — 
e.  g.  shorUy  after  313.  in  the  Donatist  dispute*  For 
many  years  he  worried  himself  with  the  Arian  trouble, 
and  m  this,  it  ma^  be  said,  he  went  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  allowable,  for  example,  vihea  he  dictated  whom 
AthanasiuB  should  admit  to  the  Church  and  whom  he 
was  to  ^Eoluda  Still  he  avoided  any  direct  interfer- 
ence wilb  dogma,  and  only  sought  to  carry  out  what 
the  proper  authorities— the  synods^-decided.  When 
he  app^oxsd  at  an  cecumenical  council,  it  was  not  so 
rnueki  to  infiunice  the  deliberation  and  the  decision  as 
to  show  his  strong  intnest  and  to  impress  ihe  heathen. 
He  banished  bishops  only  to  avoid  strife  and  discord, 
that  is,  for  reasons  of  state.  He  opposed  Athanasius 
because  he  was  led  to  believe  that  Athanasius  desired 
to  detain  the  cornrships  which  were  intended  for  Con- 
stantinople; Constantine's  alarm  can  be  understood 
when  we  bear  in  mind  how  powerful  the  patriarchs 
eventuallv  became.    When  at  last  he  felt  the  w- 

C roach  of  death  he  received  baptism,  declaring  to  the 
ishops  who  had  assemUed  around  him  that,  after 
the  example  of  Christ,  he  had  desired  to  receive  the 
saving  seal  in  the  Jordan,  but  that  God  had  ordained 
otherwise,  and  he  would  no  longer  delay  baptism. 
Laying  aside  the  purple,  the  emperor,  in  the  white 
robe  Of  a  neophyte,  peac^ully  and  almost  joyfully 
awaited  the  end. 

Of  Constantine's  sons  the  ddest,  Constantine  II, 
showed  decided  leaniimB  to  heathenism,  and  his  poins 
bear  many  pagan  emmems;  the  second  and  favourite 
son,  Constantius,  was  a  more  pronounced  Christian, 
but  it  wae  Arian  Christianity  to  whidi  he  adhered. 
Constantius  was  an  unwavering  opponent  of  paganism ; 
he  dosed  all  the  temples  and  forbade  sacrifices  under 
pain  of  death.  His  maxim  was:  ''Cesset  superstitio; 
sacrifidortim  aboleatur  insania''  (Let  superstition 
cease;  let  the  folly  of  sacrifices  be  abolished).  Their 
successors  had  recourse  to  religious  persecution  sagsAnst 
heretics  and  pagans.  Their  laws  (Cod.  Theod.,  AVI, 
v)  had  an  unfavourable  influence  on  the  Middle  Ages 
and  were  the  basis  of  themuch-abused  Inquisition.  (See 
Persecutions;  Gonbtaotinoplb;  Robian  Empire.) 

BtTBcKHARDT,  Di4  ZtU  Con.  d.  Or.  (Ist  ed.,  Basle,  1853;  2nd 
ed.,  Ldptiir.  1880);  Kvsu.Dtr  UebertnU  Con.d,  Or.tumChria- 
tmtum  (Zuiich,  1862);  FiAScai,  Con,  d.  Or.  aU  arUtr  ehriatltcher 
Aataer  (Wa«burgj_1801);  Sjcuptebt.  CorutatUina  Geaetxe  und 
dew  Christenhim  (Wflrtburg.  1891);  Funk  in  TiUring.  theol. 
QuortaMkrift  (18M);  QObris  in  Ztittehrift  fUr  wisseruchafa. 
XW.  (1887-88);  Si»CK»  i&ui  (1890);  Bcaouns,  OesehtcMe  d. 
VrUerMnget  deajprieeh.-rlim.  Heidentuma  (1887-92).  II;  Sseck. 
^t9ch\<Att  deg  VnUrgonaea  der  aniiken  WeU  (1897-1901),  II; 
Rpi;rAu,  Da»  ForOeben  dm  Heideniuma  in  der  altchriUlieken 
5V^  (1W)6){  GpiUfP,  KvkwrgMchichU  der  rHn,  Kaiaertni 
a903-04),  II;  JUddbn,  Chriatian  EnMema  on  the  Coina  of 
tonatantina  /,  the  Oreat  (London,  1877-78) ;  Boisster,  La  Con- 
f«^(!ton  da  Conakmiin  in  Revue  dea  Deux  Mondea  (1886). 
I'XXyi,  51-72;  OK  BhqouCs  (Catholic).  h'Bgtiae  H  Vemnire 
nmatn au  IV«  aiicU  (1866;  1807).  I.  II ;  Firth  (non-CathoGc). 
\^^i^ine  the  Oreai  in  Heroea  of  the  NcOicna  Seriea  (New  York. 
!SS3*  BtntT,  Hiatory  of  ihe  Later  Roman  Empire  (London, 
{.^d).  I;  FiMLAT,  A  UuAory  of  Oreeee  from  ita  Conquaat  hy  IHka 
ttonwiia.cd.TozEB  (Oxford,  1877).  GbOBO  GbUPP. 


Oonstantiiiople  (Gr.  KwivraiTcpo^oAif ,  City  of  Con- 
stantine), capital,  fonnerly  of  the  Byzantme,  now 
of  the  Ottoman,  £mpire. 

The  Modern  Citt. — ^It  occupies  oite  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  advantageous  sites  in  the  world,  uniting 
as  it  does  Europe  with  Asia  and  putting  in  commun^ 
catbn  the  Black  Sea  and  all  Soutnem  Russia  with  the 
sreater  port  of  Europe  and  Asia^  and  even  with  distant 
America.  It  is  surrounded  by  water  on  all  sides  ex- 
cept the  west,  which  is  protcxsted  by  walls.  Its  sea 
front  is  about  ei^t  miles  in  length.  Ine  air  is  generally 
pure,  and  the  climate  very  temperate.  Constanti- 
pople  fonns  a  special  district  (sanitary  cordon)  divided 
into  three  principal  sections,  two  in  Europe  and  one 
in  Asia.  The  two  European  sectbns  are  Stamboul 
(anoint  Bysantium),  whose  suburbs  border  the  Sea  of 
Marmora;  Galata  sjod  Pera,  more  or  less  European- 
ised  quartern,  with  many  villages  rising  in  rows  along 
the  ^een  hills  that  look  down  on  the  (}olden  Horn  and 
the  Bo^wrus.  The  Asiatic  section  is  Scutari  (Turk. 
Uskudar;  Chrysopolis)  and  Kadi-Keui  (Qtalcedon), 
with  their  extensive  suburl)s  on  the  Asiatic  shore  of  the 
Bosporus,  the  pleasant  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Nioo> 
media,^  and  the  Isles  of  the  Princes.  The  city  is  di- 
vided into  ten  quarters  or  cirdes,  each  with  its  own 
municipality.  The  population  is  estimated  (1908)  at 
1,200,000  inhabitants,  tour-fifths  of  whom  are  in  Eu- 
rope* There  are  about  600,000  Turks  or  other  Mussui- 
mans;  the  remainder  include,  in  order  of  numeri<sal 
importance,  Greeks,  Armenians,  Jews,  and  foreigners 
of  various  nationalities. 

The  Bosporus  separates  Europe  from  Asia;  it  is 
about  eighteen  miles  lone  ahd  varies  in  width  from 
about  half  a  mile  to  a  mue  and  a  half.  The  Golden 
Horn  separates  Stamboul  from  Galata  and  Pera,  ex- 
tends inland  for  about  four  £uid  one-half  miles,  and 
ends  abruptly  at  the  Valley  of  the  Sweet  Waters  be- 
yond Eyoub.  Two  wooden  bridges  unite  Galata  with 
Stamboul,  which  latter  section  is  mostly  inhabited  by 
Turks,  and  still  preserves  its  ancient  ramparts  with 
their  towers  and  gates.  The  chief  monuments  of  the 
city  are:  St.  Sophia,  the  magnificent  church  built  in 
the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century  by  the  Emperor 
Justinian,  now  a  mosque;  about  2000  other  mosques 


(e.  g.  the  Suleimanieh,  the  Ahmedieh,  the  Bayaeidieh, 
Mohammed's  mosque,  etc.) ;  many  ancient  churches ; 
beautiful  fountains;  imposing  "turb^'^  or  tombs  of 
sultans  and  other  great  personages;  t^  S^'askierat  or 
war  office,  with  its  enormous  tower;  the  Tcharshi,  or 
baxaar  (more  than  10,000  merchants) ;  Yedi-Kouleh  or 
the  Seven  Towers  Castle,  where  ambassadors  and 
other  men  of  note  were  often  impris^ed;  the  palace 
of  the  public  debt;  the  lar^e  postomce;  the  old  se- 
raglio of  the  sultans.  The  imperial  museum  has  a 
remarkable  collection  of  sarcophagi  and  another  of 
cuneiform  texts.  In  the  Galata  section  the  Genoese 
Tower  (over  150  feet)  attracts  attention,  as  in  Pera 
the  residences  of  the  ambassadors.  Beyond,  on  the 
European  shore  of  the  Bosporus  are  the  laree  palaces 
of  DolmarBaghtch^  and  Tchera^n,  also  tne  Yildiz 
Kiosk,  the  residence  of  the  reigning  sultan.  On  the 
Asiatic  shore  are  the  palace  of  Beylerbey,  many  beau- 
tiful mosQues,  and  the  great  Mussulman  cemetery  at 
Scutari,  the  Selimieh  barracks  (largest  in  the  world), 
the  magnificent  new  school  of  medicine,  quite  dose  to 
which  is  the  little  port  of  Haldar-Pasha,  whence  starts 
the  railway  line  to  Bagdad. 

Early  History  of  BYZAi»rnuM. — Ck)nstantinople 
was  founded  c,  658  b.  c.  by  a  Greek  colony  from  Ide- 
sara;  the  site  was  then  occupied  by  the  Thracian  vil- 
lage of  Lygos.  The  chief  of  the  Megarian  expedition 
was  Byzas,  after  whom  the  city  was  naturally  called 
Bysantion  (Lat.  Byzantium).  Despite  its  perfect 
situation,  the  colony  did  not  prosper  at  first;  it  suf- 
fered much  during  the  Medic  wars,  chiefly  from  the 
satraps  of  Darius  and  Xerxes.  Later  on,  its  control 
was  aisput€d  by  Laceds^monians  and  Athenians ;  for 


ooHSTAirriiiopui 


302 


cxnrsTumifOFUi 


two  years  (341--339  b.  c.)  it  held  out  against  Philip  of 
Macedon.  It  succeeded  in  maintaining  its  independ- 
ence even  against  victorious  Rome,  was  granted  the 
title  and  limfs  of  an  allied  city,  and  its  ambassadors 
were  accorded  at  Rome  the  same  honours  as  those 

Stven  to  allied  kings;  it  enjoyed,  moreover,  all  transit 
uties  on  the  Bosporus.  Cicero  defended  it  in  the 
Roman  Senate,  and  put  an  end  to  the  exactions  of 
Fiso.  Later  on,  the  Roman  emperors  entrusted  the 
government  of  Uie  city  to  prsetors,  at  once  civil  and 
militaiy  magistrates,  who  maintained,  however,  the 
earlier  democratic  forms  of  government.  For  a  while 
Vespasian  placed  it  under  the  Governor  of  Moesia. 
The  city  continued  prosperous  to  the  reign  of  Sei>ti- 
mius  Severus,  when  it  sided  with  his  rival,  Pescennius 
Niger.  After  a  siege  of  three  years  (193-196)  Severus 
razed  to  the  ground  its  walls  and  public  monuments, 
and  made  it  subject  to  Perinthus  or  Heraclea  in  Thrace. 
But  he  soon  forgave  this  resistance,  restored  its  former 
privileges,  built  there  the  baths  of  Zeuxippus,  and 
began  the  hippodrome.  It  was  devastateci  again  by 
the  soldiers  of  Gallienus  in  262,  but  was  rebuilt  almost 
at  once.  In  the  long  war  between  Constantine  and 
Licinius  (314-323)  it  embraced  the  fortunes  of  the 
latter^  but,  after  his  defeat  at  Chrysopolis  (Scutari), 
submitted  to  the  victor. 

The  Christian  City. — ^It  has  quite  lately  been  es- 
tablished that  Byzantium  received  its  new  name  of 
Constantinople  as  early  as  the  end  of  324  (Cent^naire 
de  la  soci^  nationale  des  antiquaires  de  France, 
Paris,  1904,  p.  281  sqq.).  Nevertheless,  the  solemn 
inauguration  of  Uie  new  city  did  not  occur  until  11 
May,  330;  only  after  this  date  did  the  Court  and 
Government  settle  permanently  in  the  new  capital. 
It  was  soon  filled  with  sumptuous  edifices  like  those  of 
Rome;  like  the  latter  it  was  situated  on  seven  hills 
and  divided  into  fourteen  regions;  in  the  matter  of 
privileges  also  it  was  similar  to  Rome.  Among  the 
new  public  bufldings  were  a  senate  house,  forums,  a 
capitol.  circuses,  porticoes,  many  churches  (particu- 
lany  that  of  the  Holy  Apostles  destined  to  be  the 
bunal-place  of  the  emperors).  The  most  beautiful 
statues  of  antiquity  were  gathered  from  various  parts 
of  the  empire  to  adorn  its  public  places.  In  general 
the  other  cities  of  the  Roman  wond  were  stripped  to 
embellish  the  "New  Rome'',  destined  henceforth  to 
surpass  them  all  in  greatness  and  magnificence. 
Traces  of  Christianity  do  not  appear  here  before  the 
end  of  the  second  or  the  beginning  of  the  third  oentui^. 
In  212  Tertullian  commemorates  the  joy  of  the  Chris- 
tians at  the  defeat  of  Pescennius  Niger  ("Ad  Scapu- 
lam",  iii:  "Csecilius  Capella  in  iUo  exitu  Byzantmo: 
Christiani  gaudete")*  About  190,  an  Antitrinitarian 
heretic,  Theodotus  the  Currier,  a  native  of  Byzantium, 
was  expelled  from  the  Roman  Church  ("  Philosophou- 
mena'%  VIII,  xxxv;  St.  Epiphanius,  "Adv.  Il»r.," 
liv).  A  probably  reliable  tradition  makes  the  Byzan- 
tine Church  a  siinragan  of  Heraclea  in  Thrace  at  the 
beginning  of  the  thini  century.  In  the  fifth  century 
we  meet  with  a  spurious  document  attributed  to  a 
certain  Dorotheus,  Bishop  of  Tyre  at  the  end  of  the 
third  century,  according  to  which  the  Church  of  By- 
zantium was  founded  by  the  Apostle  St.  Andrew,  its 
first  bishop  being  his  disciple  Stachys  (cf .  Rom.,  xvi, 
9).  The  mtention  of  the  forger  is  plain:  in  this  way 
the  Church  of  Rome  is  made  inferior  to  that  of  Con- 
stantinople, St.  Andrew  having  been  chosen  an 
Apostle  by  Jesus  before  his  brother  St.  Peter,  the 
founder  of  the  Roman  Church. 

The  first  historically  known  Bishop  of  Byzantium 
is  St.  Metrophanes  (30&-314),  thoudi  the  see  had  per- 
haps been  occupied  during  the  thira  century.  It  was 
at  first  subject  to  the  metropolitan  authority  of  Her- 
aclea, and  remained  so,  at  least  canonically,  until  381, 
when  the  Second  CEcumenical  Councfl  (can.  iii)  gave 
the  Bishop  of  Constantinople  the  first  place  after  the 
Bishop  of  Rome.    (For  the  exact  meaning  of  this 


canon  see  Hefele,  Hist,  des  Counciles,  tr.,  Ledenq, 
Paris,  1908,  II,  24-27.)  Fuller  details  are  given  m 
Fischer, ''  De  patriarcharum  Constantinopolitanorum ' ' 
catalogis  (Leipzig,  1894);  Schermann,  "Propheten- 
und  Apostellegexiden  nebst  JQngerkatalojgen  des  Doro- 
theus und  verwandter  Texte''  (Leipzig,  1907); 
Vailh^,  "Origines  de  I'Eglise  de  Constantinople''  in 
"Echos  d'Onent"  (Paris,  1907),  287-295. 

Constantine  had  chosen  this  city  as  the  new  capital 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  but  owin^  to  his  wars  ana  the 
needs  of  the  State,  he  rarely  resided  there.  His  suc- 
cessors were  even  more  frequently  absent.  Constan- 
tins,  Julian,  Jovian,  and  Valens  are  found  more 
habitually  on  the  Danube  or  the  Euphrates  than  on 
the  Bosporus:  they  reside  more  regulariy  in  Antiocb 
than  in  New  Rome.  It  was  oidy  imder  Theodosios 
the  Great  (379-95)  that  Constantinople  assumed 
definitive  rank  as  capital  of  the  Eastern  Roman 
Empire.  However,  its  ambitious  prelates  did  not 
wait  so  lon^  to  forecast  the  future  greatness  of  the 
new  city.  In  339  Eusebius,  and  in  360  Eudozius, 
quitted  the  great  Sees  of  Nicomedia  and  Antioch  for 
what  was  yet,  canonicaUy,  a  simple  bishopric.  Both 
the  city  and  its  inhabitants  suffered  much  during  the 
Arian  controversies;  the  Arian  heretics  held  posses- 
sion of  the  Church  for  forty  years.  Honourabfe  men- 
tion is  due  to  two  of  its  bishops:  St.  Alexander,  whose 
resistance  and  j^rayers  were  crowned  by  the  sudden 
death  of  Arius  in  Constantinople;  and  St.  Paul  the 
Confessor,  a  martyr  for  the  Faith.  We  must  add  the 
eighty  martyrs  put  to  death  simultaneously  by  Em- 
peror Valens.  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  restored 
religious  peace  in  this  Church  early  in  the  reign  of  the 
aforesaid  Tlieodosius.  From  the  council  of  381  may 
be  said  to  date  the  ecclesiastical  fortimes  of  Constan- 
tinople. Its  bishop  began  thenceforth  to  claim  and 
to  exercise  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  over  the  six 
provinces  of  Thrace,  hitherto  subject  to  Heradea, 
and  soon  over  the  twenty-two  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Pontus,  originally  subject  to  Ephesus 
and  Cssarea.  These  rights  of  supremacy,  though 
usurped,  were  acknowledged  by  tne  twenty-eighth 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Chaloedon  (451)^  from  which 
time  the  bishops  of  Constantinople  ruled  over  about 
420  dioceses.  In  431  began  an  ahnost  continuous 
conflict  with  the  Roman  Church,  that  was  crowned 
with  success  in  733,  when  an  Iconoclast  emperor 
withdrew  from  the  jurisdiction  of  Rome  all  ecclesias- 
tical lUyricum,  i.  e.  more  than  a  hundred  dioceses. 
About  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  ^en  Photius 
broke  with  the  Roman  Church,  his  own  patriarchate 
included  624  dioceses  (51  me^politan  sees,  51  ex- 
empt archbishoprics,  and  522  suffragan  bi^oprios). 
At  that  time  the  Roman  Church  certainly  did  not 
govern  so  great  a  number  of  sees.  At  this  period, 
moreover,  by  its  missionaries  and  its  political  influ- 
ence, Constantinople  attracted  to  ChristianiW  the 
Slav  nations,  Serbs,  Russians,  Moravians,  and  Bul- 
gars,  and  obtained  in  these  northern  lands  a  strong 
support  against  the  Roman  and  Frankish  West. 

This  ecclesiastical  prosperity  coincided  with  the 
political  and  municipal  grandeur  of  the  city.  At  the 
death  of  Theodosius  the  Great  (395),  when  the  Roman 
Empire  was  divided  into  two  parts,  Constantinople 
remained  the  centre  and  capital  of  the  Eastern  Ejn- 
pire.  The  Western  Empire  was  destined  soon  to  fall 
before  the  onslaughts  of  the  barbarians.  While  its 
provinces  were  held  by  uncouth  German  tribes,  Con- 
stantinople alone  remained  to  represent  Christian 
civilization  and  the  greatness  of  the  Roman  name. 
Simultaneously  the  city  was  enlamd  and  embellished, 
particularly  under  Theodosius  U,  Justinian,  Hera- 
clius,  and  Basil  the  Macedonian.  In  413  it  reached 
its  actual  (1908)  size  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Golden 
Horn,  under  the  oity  prefect,  Anthemius.  In  625 
Heraclius  added  the  famous  cmarter  of  Blachemffi 
with  its  venerated  church  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  whose 


QONBTAHTXMOPU 


303 


OOHBTANTIirOPI.B 


image  was  coDsidered  u  the  palladium  of  the  city. 
The  curcuzziference  of  the  walls  was  then  (and  still  is) 
eleven   or  twelve  miles.    They  were  often  rebuilt, 
especially  under  Tiberius  III  (c.  700),  Anastasius  II 
(714),  Leo  m  (740),  Nicephonis  I  (803),  Theophilua 
(8dl)»   Micshael  VHI  (1262),  Andxonicus  II  (1316), 
Jolm    VII    (between    1431-1444).    To  protect  the 
tenitorv  of  Thrace  from  the  inw'ons  ot  the  barbor 
riansy   Anastasius  I,  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixth 
century,  built  a  great  wall  about  hity  miles  in  length 
and  about  twenty  feet  in  breadth  from  Silistria  to  the 
Lake  of  I>erkoL    The  ramparts  ol  Constantinople  had 
many  g^tes:  the  principal  one  was  the  Golden  Gate, 
the  terminus  of  the  Triumphal  Way.    On  the  Sea  ot 
Marmora  numerous  havens  gave  shelter  to  boats  and 
barques ;   the  present  unique  port  of  the  Golden  Horn 
had   not   yet  been  created.    The  strongly  fortified 
Great  Pialaoe  was  a  real  town.    Other  splendid  pal- 
aces adorned  the  city  (Boucoieon,  Chalks,  nlachemie); 
many    graced  the  European  and  Asiatic  suburbs. 
Hundreds  of  churches  and  monasteries,  thousands  of 
clerics,  of  monks,  and  nims,  attested  an  intensely 
religious  life.    The  church  of  St.  Soplua  alone,  the 
^ory  of  Justinian's  reign,  owned  365  estates.    How 
vast  these  dcnnains  were  may  be  judged  from  a  law 
of  HeracliuB  (627)  that  established  626  clerics  as  the 
number  necessary  for  the  service  of  St.  Sophia.    The 
little  church  of  BlachemsB  had  75  endowed  clerics. 
The  names  of  at  least  463  churches  are  known,  64  of 
which  were  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin.    As  early 
as  536,  68  superiors  of  local  monasteries  were  present 
at  a  council  m  the  citv. 

So  many  rich  churches  and  monasteries,  imperial 
or  private  palaces,  not  to  speak  of  the  luxury  <^ 
the  court  and  the  great  imperial  dignitaries,  natu- 
rally excited  the  covetousness  of  baroarian  peoples. 
Constantinople  had,  therefore,  to  sustain  numberleas 
sieges;   it  was  attacked  in  378  by  the  Cioths,  by  the 
Avars  and  Persians  durinp  the  reign  of  Heradius 
(610-41)^  by  the  Arabs  dunng  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tlne  Pogonatus  (668-85),  and  again  by  the  Arabs  under 
Moslemeh  in  717;  many  times  also  by  Bulgarians, 
Patzinaks,  Russians,  and  Khazars.    But  the  city  al- 
ways defied  its  besiegers,  thanks  to  the  solidity  of  its 
walls,  often  to  the  vsuour  of  its  soldiers,  but  chiefly  to 
the  gold  that  it  distributed  in  profusion.    More  griev- 
ous, perhaps,  were  the  domestic  conflicts  tiiat  broke 
out  m  almost  every  new  reign;  the  quarrels  between 
the  Blue  and  Green  factions  that  clamoured  for  im- 
perial favour  in  the  races  of  the  hippodrome ;  the  con- 
nagrations  and  earthquakes  that  sometimes  levelled 
the  city  with  the  ground,  e.  g.  the  conflagration  that 
broke  out  during  the  Nika  revolt  (532),  on  which  oc- 
casion Justinian  neariy  lost  his  throne,  more  than 
80,000  persons  were  killed,  and  fire  destroyed  the 
greater  part  of  the  city. 

Herbbt  and  Schism. — ^When  Photius  (d.  891)  be- 
^an  the  schism  consmnmated  by  Michael  Gmrularius 
in  1054,  the  Bysantine  Church  had,  since  the  death 
of  Emperor  Constantine  in  337,  been  formally  out  of 
communion  with  the  Roman  Church  during  248  years 
(55  years  on  account  of  Arianism,  11  on  account  of  the 
condemnation  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  35  on  account 
of  2^o's  Henotioon,  41  on  account  of  Monothelism, 
90  on  account  of  Iconoclasm,  16  on  account  of  the 
adulterous  marriage  of  Constantine  VI).    On  the 
whole,  therefore,  C!onstantinople  had  been  out  of  com- 
munion with  the  Apostolic  See  one  out  of  every  two 
years.     During  this  period  nineteen  patriardis  of 
Constantinople  were  open  heretics,  some  of  them  auite 
famous,  e.  g.  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  Eudoxius,  Mace- 
donius,  Nestorius,  Acacius,  Sergius,  Pyrrhus.    On  the 
other  hand  must  be  mentioned  several,  orthodox 
^hops,  e.  g.  St.  Gregory  of  Nasianxus,  St..^John 
^puysostom,  St  Flavian,  St.  Germanus,  St.  Tarasius, 
St.  Methodius,  and  St.  Ignatius,  the  opponent  of 
rhotiu^  whose  virtues  and  literary  fame  compensate 


for  the  scandalous  heterodoxy  of  their  confreres.  Nor 
can  we  omit  illustrious  monki  and  hymnographero  like 
St.  RcHnanus  (Melodus),  the  greatest  liturgical  poet 
of  the  Bysantine  Church,  St.  fiaximus  Comessor,  St 
Theodore,  the  noble  abbot  of  the  famous  monastery 
of  Studium  (Stoudk>n),  and  many  others  who  suffered 
martyrdom  during  the  reigns  of  Iconoclast  emperors. 

Many  councils  were  held  in  Constantinople,  some^ 
tiznes  against  heresies,  sometimes  in  favour  of  them. 
Chief  among  these  councils  are:  the  cecumenical 
eouncilB  of  381,  553,  681,  and  869;  the  Trullan  Coun- 
cil (602),  veijr  important  for  the  history  of  canonical 
legislation;  the  councils  of  712  and  878  which  ratified, 
reB|>ectively,  Monothelism  and  the  revolt  of  Photius 
against  Rome.  The  schism  of  Photius  was  not  at 
once  followed  by  its  worst  consequences.  The  learned 
but  ambitious  patriarch  was  yet  living  when  union 
with  the  Ex>man  Church  was  re-estabbshed  by  Em- 
peror Leo  the  Wise  in  886;  he  obliged  Photius  to  quit 
the  patriarchal  throne.  From  that  time  to  the  patri- 
archate of  Michael  Csrularius  (1043-1049),  in  spite 
of  the  Filioque  question,  relations  with  the  papacy 
were  generally  cordial.  There  were  indeed,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  tenth  century,  some  difficulties 
caused  by  the  emperor's  fourth  marriage,  but  in  this 
conflict  both  the  opposing  patriarchs  attempted  to 
obtain  from  the  Roman  Church  justification  of  their 
conduct.  It  was  onl^  under  Michael  CsBrularius  that 
the  schismatic  condition  was  finally  confirmed,  almost 
without  any  apparent  motive  and  only  through  the 
bad  will  of  this  patriarch.  After  long  and  shaip  dis- 
putes between  the  two  Churches,  the  pope's  legates, 
with  the  approbation  of  the  imperial  court,  deposited, 
15  July,  1054,  on  the  altar  of  St.  Sophia  the  Bull  of 
excommunication  against  the  patriarch.  This  apt 
resulted  in  a  popular  revolution.  Five  da^s  later 
Michael  Casrularius  repUed  b^  excommunicating  the 
pope  and  the  '^azymite"  Latins.  The  weak-mmded 
and  lewd  emperor,  Constantine  Monomachus,  dared 
not  resist  the  all-powerful  patriarch.  It  must  be 
noted,  however,  that,  unhappily,  the  idea  of  schism 
had  long  been  familiar  to  the  mmds  and  hearts  of  the 
Greeks.  The  first  period  of  the  schism  was  coeval, 
especially  at  Constantinople,  with  a  remarkable  Uter- 
aiy  revival,  inai^rated  as  early  as  the  tenth  century 
by  the  Macedonian  dynasty  and  carried  to  its  perfec- 
tion under  the  Comneni  and  the  Palsologi.  This 
revival,  unfortunately,  did  not  affect  favourably  the 
moraiity  of  the  population,  beinjg  chiefly  an  uncon- 
scious return  to  mcdels  of  anticjmty,  indeed  a  kind  of 
neo-paf^anism.  We  owe  to  it,  however,  beautiful 
works  m  literature,  architecture,  and  painting. 

iMPSRUJi  Succession;  Crusades;  Latin  JSmfiiuq 
OF  CoNSTANTiNOPUS. — ^Aftcr  the  division  of  the 
Roman  Empire  in  395,  Constantinople  beheld  the 
passage  of  many  great  dynasties:  that  of  Theodosius, 
prolonged  by  a^doption  until  602;  that  of  Heraclius, 
from  610  to  711,  with  intrusion  of  several  usurpers; 
that  of  Leo  the  Isaurian,  from  717  to  802;  the  Amo- 
rium  dynasty  from  820  to  867 ;  that  of  Basil  the  Mace- 
donian from  867  to  1057;  finally  from  1081  to  the 
Frankish  conquest  in  1204,  that  of  the  Comneni  and 
the  Angeli.  Succession,  of  course,  was  not  always 
regular;  even  in  the  legitimate  dynasties  murder  and 
cruelty,  it  is  well  known,  often  marked  the  accession 
of  an  emperor.  Sometimes  the  streets  of  the  capital 
were  on  the  same  day  decked  with  flowers  and 
drenched  with  blood.  Nevertheless,  till  the  middle 
of  the  eleventh  century,  the  eiz^pire  held  its  own  in 
Asia  Minor  against  the  Arabs.  The  latter  were  now 
mdually  supplanted  by  their  coreligionists,  the 
Turks,  who,  towards  the  end  of  that  century,  occu- 
pied most  of  the  Asiatic  peninsula  and  set  up  their 
capital  at  Nicsea,  not  far  from  Constantinople.  Then 
b^an  the  Crusades,  that  great  overflow  of  the  West 
towards  the  East,  started  by  the  pious  wi^  of  all 
Christian  Europe  to  deliver  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  Con- 


OONSTANTINOPLE 


304 


COHSrAKTIVOPLS 


stantinople  saw  the  crusaders  for  the  first  time  in 
1096.  llie  contact  between  the  two  eiviiusations  was 
not  cordial;  the  Greeks  gave^nerally  to  the  crusad- 
ers an  unkindly  reception.  Iney  looked  on  them  as 
enemies  no  less  than  the  Turks,  except  that  the  cru- 
saders, marching  in  the  name  of  Christ  and  backed  by 
all  the  strength  of  the  West,  appeared  much  more 
dangerous  than  the  Mussulman  Turks.  On  the  other 
hand  the  Franks  were  only  too  ready  to  treat  tiie 
Greeks  as  mere  unbelievers,  and,  but  for  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  popes,  would  have  begun  the  Crusades  with 
the  capture  of  Constantinople. 

These  sad  quarrels  and  the  fratricidal  conflicts  of 
Christian  nations  lasted  nearly  a  oentiuy,  imtil  in 
1182  Emperor  Andronicus  Comnenus,  a  ferocious 
tyrant,  ordered  a  general  massacre  of  the  Latins  in 
lus  capital.  In  1190  the  Greek  patriarch,  Dositheus, 
solemnly  promised  indulgences  to  any  Greek  who 
would  murder  a  Latin.  These  facts,  together  with 
the  selfish  views  of  the  Venetians  and  the  domestic 
divisions  of  the  Greeks,  were  enough  to  provoke  a  con- 
flict. The  Greek  Emperor  Alexius  III  had  de- 
throned his  brother  and  stripped  his  nephew  of  all 
rights  (1195);  the  latter  soudit  a  shelter  in  the  West 
(1201),  and,  together  with  his  brother-in-law,  Em*- 

Siror  Philip  of  »wabia,  with  Venice,  and  Boniface  of 
ontferrat  (chief  of  the  projected  crusade),  he  turned 
aside  the  Fourth  Crusade  and  directed  the  knights, 
first  to  the  siege  of  Zara  in  Dalmatia,  and  afterwards 
to  Constantinople.  In  spite  of  the  formal  veto  of  In- 
nocent III,  the  crusadeiiB  laid  siege  to  the  city,  which 
soon  surrendered  (17  July,  1203).    Emperor  Alexius 

III  took  flight.  His  brother,  Isaac  An^lus,  was 
taken  from  prison  and  crowned  emperor,  with  his  son 
Alexius  IV.  The  crusaders  had  hoped  that  the  new 
emperors  would  keep  their  promises  and  reunite  the 
two  Churches;  confident  of  this  they  wrote  to  Inno- 
cent III  (August,  1203)  to  justify  their  behaviour. 
But  the  imperial  promise  was  not  kept;  indeed,  it 
could  not  be  executed.    In  November,  1205,  Alexius 

IV  broke  off  all  relations  with  the  crusaders.  There- 
upon the  hostility  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Latins 
was  in  almost  daily  evidence;  brawls  and  conflagra- 
tions were  continually  taking  place.  Alexius  IV  and 
his  father  were  dethroned  ana  piit  to  death  (Febru- 
ary, 1204)  by  a  usurper  who  took  the  name  of  Alexius 

V  Murtzuphlos.  The  latter  made  haste  to  put  his  capi- 
tal in  a  state  of  defence,  whereupon  the  crusaders 
began  a  second  siege.  After  several  onslau^ts  the  city 
was  taken  (12  and  13  Aprfl,  1204)  amid  scenes  of  peat 
cruelty;  the  slaughter  was  followed  by  an  unbridled 
plunder  of  the  countless  treasures  heaped  up  during 
so  many  centuries  by  the  Byzantine  emperors.  The 
holy  relics  especially  excited  the  covetousness  of  the 
Latin  clerics;  Villehardouin  asserts  that  there  were 
but  few  cities  in  the  West  that  received  no  sacred 
booty  from  this  pillage.  The  oflficial  booty  alone,  ac- 
cording to  the  same  historian,  amounted  to  about 
eleven  millions  of  dollars  whose  purchasing  power 
was  then  of  course  much  greater  than  at  this  day. 
The  following  9  May,  Baldwm,  Count  of  Flanders,  be- 
came emperor;  Boxuface  of  Montferrat  obtained  Thes- 
salonica  and  Macedonia;  the  knights,  various  feudal 
fees ;  Venice,  the  islands  and  those  regions  of  the  em- 
pire that  assured  her  maritime  supremacy.  ThiB 
new  Latin  Empire,  organized  according  to  feudid  law, 
never  took  deep  root.  It  was  unable  to  hold  its  owli 
against  the  Greeks  (who  had  immediately  created  two 
empires  in  Asia,  at  Nica^a  and  at  Trebizond,  a  despot- 
ate  in  Epirus  and  other  small  States)  nor  against  •the 
Bulgarians,  Comans,  and  Serbs.  After  a  much-dis- 
turbed existence  it  disappeared  in  1261,  and  Con- 
stantinople became  again  the  centre  of  Greek  j^ower 
with  Michael  Palseologus  as  emperor. 

Latin  Patriarchate. — ^Together  with  the  Latin 
Empire  a  Latin  patriarchate?  had  been  established  in 
1204  at  Constantinople,  on  which  occasion  the  Greek 


patriarch  took  refu^  at  Nicflea.  NotwithstandiDg 
the  missions  of  Cardmal  Benedict  a  Sancta  Susanoa 
(1205-1207)  and  Pehigius  of  Albano  (1213),  negotia- 
tions,  and  even  persecutions,  the  Latins  failed  to  in- 
duce all  their  Greek  subjects  to  acknowledge  the  au- 
thority of  the  pope.  In  its  best  days  the  Latin  patri> 
archate  never  numbered  more  than  twenty-two  arch- 
bishoprics and  fifty-nine  suffragan  bishoprics,  situ- 
ated m  Europe,  in  the  islands,  and  even  in  Asia  Minor. 
However,  tl^  Latin  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople 
outlived  the  Latin  Empire,  after  the  fall  of  which  the 
Latiii  patriarchs  resided  in  Greece  or  in  Italy.  From 
1302  the  Holy  See  reserved  to  itself  the  appointmmt 
to  this  office  and  united  with  the  patriarohate  first 
the  Archbishopric  of  Candia,  later  ^e  Bishopric  of 
NegropNont;  this  was  still  the  situation  as  late  as  1463. 
A  oonsistoriai  decree  of  1497  reserved  this  hi^  title 
to  cardinals;  the  rule,  however,  was  subject  to  many 
exceptions.  In  modem  times  a  contrary  practioe  has 
prevailed;  the  Latin  titular  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople ceases  to  bear  this  title  only  on  entrance  to  the 
Sacred  College.  Of  course,  after  the  fall  of  the  Latin 
or  Prankish  Empire  in  1261,  the  Latin  patriarch 
could  not  deal  directly  with  the  Catholics  of  Constan- 
tinople; they  were  committed  to  the  care  of  patri- 
archal vicars,  simple  priests  chosen  usuallv  among  the 
superiors  of  religious  orders  resident  in  the  city,  Ob- 
servantine  or  Conventual  Franciscans,  and  Domini- 
cans. This  lasted  until  1651,  when  the  Latin  patri- 
aroh  WHS  allowed  by  the  sultan  to  have  in  Constanti- 
nople a  patriarchal  suffragan  bishop,  who  was  free  to 
administer  the  diocese  in  the  name  of  the  patriarch. 
Finally,  in  1772,  the  Holv  See  suppressed  the  office  of 
patriarchal  suffragan  ana  appoint^  patriarchal  vicars 
Apostolic,  which  system  is  yet  in  existence. 

Rbstoration  of  Griusk  Ebipire;  Efforts  at 
Reunion  of  ths  Churchbs. — Having  anticipated  a 
little  we  may  here  take  up  the  thread  of  our  narra- 
tive. By  the  recovery  of  Constantinople  in  1261, 
Michael  Palseologus  had  drawn  on  himseu  the  enmity 
of  some  Western  princes,  especially  of  Charies  of 
Anjou,  brother  of  St.  Louis  and  heir  to  the  rifi^ts  of 
the  aforesaid  Latin  emperors  of  Constantinopfe.  To 
forestall  the  crusade  with  which  he  was  threatened 
the  Greek  empercn*  opened  negotiations  with  the  pope 
and  accepted  the  union  of  the  Churdies.  It  was  pro- 
claimed at  the  (Ecumenical  Council  of  Lyons  in  1274, 
and  was  confirmed  at  Constantinople  by  several  par- 
ticular councils  held  under  the  Gxedc  patriarch,  John 
Becous,  a  sincere  Catholic.  It  waa  not,  however,  ac- 
cepted by  the  Greek  people  who  remained  always 
immical  to  the  West,  and,  on  the  emperor's  death  in 
1282,  it  was  rejected  at  a  council  hdd  in  the  Blachemso 
church.  Thenceforth  the  rulers  of  Constantinople 
had  to  reckon  with  the  ambitious  claims  of  Charles  of 
VsUois,  brother  of  Philip  the  Fair,  and  of  other  Latin 
pretenders  to  the  imperial  crown.  The  city  itself 
was  rent  by  the  theological  disputes  of  Barlaamites 
and  Palannsts  arising  from  Hesychaam  (q.  v.),  also 
by  the  domestic  dissensions  of  the  imperial  family 
during  the  reigns  ci  the  two  Andronici,  John  Palso- 
logus,  and  John  Cantacuzene.  With  the  aid  of  Turk- 
ish mercenaries  John  Cantacusene  (the  hope  of  the 
Palamists)  withstood  the  legitimate  emperor  and 
conquered  the  city. 

Tne  Byzantine  £^pii«  was  now  in  face  of  its  last 
and  greatest  peril.  The  smaller  Greek  Empire  of 
Trebizond  controlled  since  1204  a  part  of  its  Asiatic 
provinces.  The  Fourth  Crusade  had  caused  almost 
all  the  islands  and  a  great  part  of  its  possessions  in 
Europe  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Venetians,  Genooac, 
Pmans,  and  local  dvnasts.  It  feared  most,  however, 
the  new  empire  of  the  Omanlis  that  was  rapidly  ovei^ 
flowing  all  Asia  Minor.  The  Osmanlis  were  originally 
a  small  Turkish  tribe  of  Khorassan;  in  the  thirteenth 
century  they  had  settled  near  Dorylsum  (Eski- 
Shehir),  ^euoe  they  gradually  annexed  all  the  sul* 


OOMBTAHTINOPU 


305 


OOMBTAHTZNOPLX 


UoiateB  and  principalities  of  the  Seljuk  Turks  and 
others.  As  early  as  1326  Brusa  in  Bithynia  had 
become  the  centre  of  their  power.  A  Genoese  fleet 
soon  conveyed  theii  army  into  Europe,  where  they 
took  Gallipoli  in  1397.  llienceforth,  while  the  popes 
were  especially  anxious  to  save  the  Greek  East  and 
Constantinople,  the  Byzantines,  excited  by  their 
priests  and  monks,  appeared  daily  more  hostile  to  the 
West  and  exhausted  their  opportunities  in  useless 
theological  disputes.  The  memorable  defeat  of  the 
Serbs  and  Bulgarians  at  Kossovo  in  1389,  and  that 
of  the  crusaders  at  Nicopolis  in  1396,  seemed  to  indi- 
cate the  hopelessness  of  the  Byzantine  cause,  when 
the  Mongol  invasion  of  Timur-Leng  (Tamerlane)  and 
the  defeat  of  Sultan  Bayazid  at  Angora  in  1402  com- 
bined to  assure  another  half-century  of  existence  to 
the  doomed  empire. 

Scarcely  had  Manuel  II  heard  of  the  Turkish  dis- 
astej*  when  he  pulled  down  the  mosoue  in  his  capital 
and  abandoned  his  negotiations  at  Rome^  where  he 
had  initiated  proposals  of  peace,  but  onlv  for  political 
reasons.  However,  the  IHirkish  powe^'  nad  not  been 
destroyed  on  the  plain  of  Angora.  From  June  to 
September,  1422,  Sultan  Murad  II  laid  siege  to  Con- 
stantinople, which  he  nearly  captured.  Though 
finally  repulsed,  the  Turks  tightened  daily  their  con- 
trol over  all  approaches  to  the  city,  which  only  a  new 
crusade  could  have  relieved.  At  the  Council  of 
Florence,  therefore  (1439^,  the  Greeks  apain  declared 
themselves  Catholics.  This  formal  reumon,  however, 
imposed  by  the  emperor  and  again  rejected  by  the 
Greek  nation,  could  not  in  the  bc^nning  be  pro- 
claimed even  at  Constantinople,  in  spite  of  the  election 
of  a  patriarch  favourable  to  Rome,  and  of  Western 

Sromises  to  help  the  Greeks  with  men  and  money, 
[ark  of  Ephcsus  and  after  him  Gennadius  Scholarius 
were  omnipotent  with  clergv  and  people,  and  infused 
into  them  fresh  hatred  of  the  Latins.  Nevertheless, 
the  promised  crusade  took  place  under  the  direction 
of  Cfardinal  Giuliano  CesannL  J^os  Hunyady  and 
Iskender-B^  (Scanderbeg)  performed  miracfes  of 
valour,  but  in  vain.  The  crusaders  were  completelv 
defeated  at  Varna  in  1444,  and  nothing  was  left 
to  Constantinople  but  to  perish  honourably.  The 
reunion  with  Rome,  as  accepted  at  Florence,  was  at 
last  proclaimed  officially  in  St.  Sophia  by  Cardinal 
Isidore,  Metropolitan  of  Kiev  (12  Dec.,  1452).  It 
was  thus  fated  that  Emperor  Constantine  Draeases, 
the  last  heir  of  the  great  Constantme,  was  to  die  in 
the  Catholic  Faith. 

Fall  or  Constantinoplb  ;  Capftal  of  Ottoman 
Empire. — ^When  the  tragic  hour  struck,  the  emperor 
had  only  about  7000  men,  including  all  foreign  suc- 
cour. Since  March,  1453,  the  Turks,  to  the  number 
of  200,000,  had  invested  the  city;  the  preceding  year 
they  had  built  on  the  Bosporus  the  redoubtable 
fortress  of  Rumeli-Hissar.  Tneir  fleet  also  held  the 
entrance  to  the  Dardanelles,  but  was  prevented  from 
entering  the  Golden  Horn  by  a  stroxig  iron  chain  that 
barred  its  mouth.  But  Mohammed  II  caused  seventy 
of  his  ships  to  slide  on  greased  planks  behind  Galata; 
in  this  way  they  entered  the  Golden  Horn  (22  April). 
He  then  ^ist  across  it  a  bridge  of  boats  broad  enou^ 
to  allow  the  passage  of  five  soldiers  abreast,  while  his 
troops,  constantly  renewed,  kept  up  without  ceasing 
their  attacks  by  land.  Eventually  the  defenders  were 
exhausted  by  the  toils  of  a  oontmuous  and  hopeless 
conflict,  while  tiieir  ranks  grew  steadily  thinner 
through  death  or  wounds.  Tne  population  gave  no 
help  and  was  content  to  taunt  the  Latins,  while  wait- 
ing for  ^e  miracle  of  Heaven  that  was  to  save  them. 
Finally,  29  May,  1453.  about  4  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
a  furious  assault  of  tne  Turks  broke  down  the  wafls 
and  gates  of  the  city,  and  the  besiegers  burst  in  from 
every  side.  Emperor  Constantine  fell  like  a  hero  at 
the  gate  of  St.  Romanus.  St.  Sophia  was  imme> 
diat^  transformed  into  a  mosque,  and  during  three 
Tt.— 20 


days  the  unhappy  city  was  abandoned  to  unspeakable 
excesses  of  cruelty  and  debauchery.  The  next  year, 
at  the  demand  of  the  sultan  himself,  Gennadius 
Scholarius,  Rome's  haughty  adversary,  was  ap- 
pointed Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  soon  the 
Greek  Chureh  was  re-established,  almost  in  its  former 
position. 

Thus  was  granted  the  sacrilegious  prayer  of  so 
many  Greeks,  blinded  bv  unreasoning  hate,  that 
henceforth,  not  the  tiara,  but  the  turban  should  rule 
in  the  city  of  Constantine.  Even  the  name  of  the 
city  was  changed.  The  Turks  call  it  officially  (in 
Arabic)  Der-es-Baadet,  Door  of  Happiness,  or  (cniefly 
on  coins)  Konstantinieh.  Their  usual  name  for  it  is 
Stamboul,  or  rather  Istamboul,  a  corruption  of  the 
Gieek  expression  «/f  r^r  t6\ip  (pronoun^  stimuli), 
perhaps  under  the  influence  of  a  form,  Islamboul, 
which  could  pass  for  ''the  city  of  Islam '\  Most  of 
the  churches,  like  St.  Sophia,  were  gradually  con- 
verted into  mosoues.  This  was  the  fate  of  SS.  Sei^ius 
and  Bacchus,  a  oeautiful  monument  built  by  Justin- 
ian, commonly  called  "the  little  St.  Sophia^';  of  the 
church  of  the  monastery  of  Khora,  whose  splendid 
mosaics  and  pictures,  mostly  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  are  among  the  principal  curiosities  of  the 
city;  or  the  churehes  of  the  celebrated  Pantocrator 
and  Studium  monasteries,  etc.  Other  churches  were 
demolished  and  replaced  by  various  buildings;  thus 
the  church  of  the  Holy  Apostles  gave  way  to  Uie  great 
mosqme  built  by  the  conquering  Sultan  Mohammed 
11.  The  imperial  tombs  in  this  church  were  violated; 
some  of  their  gigantic  red  porphyry  sarcophagi  were 
taken  to  the  chureh  of  St.  Irene.  The  latter  is  the 
only  chureh  taken  from  the  Greeks  that  has  not  becm 
changed  into  a  mosque  or  demolished;  it  became,  and 
is  yet  an  arsenal,  or  rather  a  museum  of  ancient 
weapons. 

Tne  sultans  in  turn  endowed  their  new  capital  with 
many  beautiful  monuments.  Mohammed  II  built  the 
castle  of  Yedi-Kouleh,  the  Tchinili-Kiosk  (how  a 
museum),  the  mosques  of  Cheik  Bokhari,  of  the 
Janizaries,  of  Kassim-Pasha,  of  Eyoub,  where  every 
sultan  at  his  accession  is  obli^  to  be  girt  wit^  the 
sword  of  Othman,  etc.  Bayazid  II  built  the  Bayszid- 
ieh  (1458).  Soliman  the  Magnificent  buUt  the  Sulei- 
manieh,  the  most  beautiful  Turkish  monument  in 
Constantinople.  His  architect  Sinan  constructed 
fifty  other  mosques  in  the  empire.  Ahmed  I  built 
(1610)  the  Ahmedleh  on  the  foundations  of  the 
imperial  Great  Palace,  a  pretty  fountain  near  St. 
Sophia,  etc.  The  buildings  of  the  old  seraglio  at 
Seraglio  Point  are  also  of  Turkish  origin;  nothing 
is  left  of  the  Byzantine  imperial  palaces  that  once 
stood  there.  The  Blachenue  palace  has  also  disap- 
peared; its  church  was  accidentally  burned  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  Not  far  distant  are  the  impor- 
tant ruins  of  the  palace  of  the  Porphyrogemtus. 
When  the  Turks  took  Constantinople,  the  hippo- 
drome was  already  in  ruinous  decay.  There  remain 
yet  three  precious  monuments  of  ancient  imperial 
splendour:  the  Egyptian  obelisk  brought  thither  by 
'Aieodosius  the  Great,  the  Serpentine  Column  brought 
from  Delphi  by  Constantine,  and  the  Byzantine  monu- 
ment known  as  the  Walled-up  Column.  Near  them 
has  been  constructed,  on  the  plans  and  at  the  expense 
of  the  German  Emperor,  William  II,  a  fountain  in 
Byzantine  style.  The  Turks  have  also  respected 
some  other  relics  of  antiquity,  espc>cially  the  columns 
of  Constantine,  Mareian,  Theodosius,  and  Areadius, 
the  aqueduct  of  Valens,  and  many  of  the  great  sub- 
terraneous cisterns. 

The  Turkish  City.— This  is  not  the  place  to 
narrate  the  later  history  of  the  city,  so  often  the 
scene  of  sanguinary  events,  revolts  of  the  Janizaries, 
palace-revolutions,  etc.  In  1826  Mahmud  II  sup- 
pressed the  redoubtable  prsetorians,  but  the  tragic 
domestic  revolutions  go  on  as  before.    In  1807  • 


OONSYAKTtltOPLI 


306 


OONBtAKnHOFLB 


British  fleet  threatened  the  city,  which  was  courage- 
ously defended  by  Sultan  Selim  III  and  the  French 
ambanador,  General  Sebastiani.  In  1854  Anglo- 
French  armies  encamped  at  Constantinople  before 
and  after  the  Crimean  expedition  against  Russia. 
In  1878  the  Russians  advanced  to  San  Stefano,  a 
little  village  in  the  European  suburbs,  and  dictated 
there  the  treaty  of  that  name.  In  1821  the  Greek 
patriarch,  Gregory  V,  with  many  bishops  and  laymen, 
was  hanged  on  the  occasion  of  the  outbreak  of  the 
Greek  War  for  Independence.  In  1895-1896  the 
capital,  as  well  as  the  provinces,  saw  many  Armenians 
massacred  by  the  Kurds,  with  the  complicity,  or 
rather  by  order  of  the  Government.  Even  the 
dreadful  physical  catastrophes  of  former  times  have 
been  renewed;  great  conflagrations  in  1864  and  1870 
destroyed  entire  quarters  at  Stamboul  and  Pera. 
In  the  latter  place  many  thousands  of  lives  were  lost 
(most  of  the  houses  are  built  of  timber).  In  1894  an 
earthquake  laid  low  a  Rreat  part  of  the  Bazaar  and 
killed  several  thousana  persons.  The  city  is  now 
undergoing  a  slow  process  of  cleansing;  it  is  lit  by 
gas,  and  there  are  some  tramways  in  its  streets,  most 
of  which  are  still  very  narrow  and  dirty,  and  are  at 
ail  times  obstructed  by  vagrant  dogs.  A  cable  rail- 
wi^  joins  Galata  to  Pera. 

National  and  Religious  Statistics. — The  popu- 
lation, we  have  already  said,  is  (1908)  at  least  1,000,- 
000,  perhaps  1,200,000;  Turkish  statistics  are  very 
uncertain.  The  Turks  seem  to  form  about  three- 
fifths  of  this  population.  There  are  more  than  2000 
mosques,  near  whiclf  are  generally  found  elementary 
schools  for  boys  and  even  for  girls;  often  also  we- 
dreasehB  or  Mussulman  theological  schools.  The 
tekkis  are  Mussulman  monasteries  for  dervishes  of 
various  orders.  Superior  instruction  is  given  at  the 
Lyceum  of  Galata  Seraglio.  It  has  about  1200  pupils 
(mostlv  Mussulmans),  and  instruction  is  given  in  both 
Turkish  and  French.  Efforts  are  being  made  to 
transform  this  college  into  a  university.  There  are 
also  about  20  secondary  schools,  a  university  of  law,  a 
school  of  medicine,  military  schools,  and  other  pro- 
fessional and  special  schools.  The  libraries  annexed 
to  the  great  mosques  contain  precious  Eastern  manu- 
scripts. There  are  many  Turkish  hospitals,  several 
of  which  are  in  charge  of  Catholic  Sisters  of  Charity, 
an  asylum  for  the  poor,  a  Pasteur  institute,  and  other 
charitable  foundations.  The  Persian  Mussulmans, 
generally  Shiites^  have  their  own  religious  oi^niza- 
tion,  with  a  hospital  at  Stamboul,  conducted  by  Sis- 
ters of  Charity.  The  Jewish  population  increases 
rapidly,  and  is  of  two  kinds:  the  Spanish  Jews  who 
came  to  Turkey  in  the  sixteenth  century  when  ex- 
pelled from  Spain,  and  still  speak  a  bad  Spanish; 
others,  who  came  and  still  come  from  Russia,  Ru- 
mania, Austria,  Germany,  etc.  The  latter  often  ob- 
tain good  situations;  not  so  the  former,  whose  social 
status  is  low  and  unnappy.  There  is  also  among  the 
Jews  of  the  city  a  diversity  of  rites,  synagogues, 
schools,  and  works  of  beneficence.  The  Christians 
seem  to  number  over  300,000.  If  we  except  an  insig- 
nificant body  of  Jacobites  and  their  bishop,  the  rest 
may  be  divided  as  Monophysites,  Protestants,  Ortho- 
dox Greeks,  and  Catholics.  The  Monophysites  are 
Armenians,  who  call  themselves  Gregorians,  after 
their  apostle,  St.  Gregory  Illuminator.  They  number 
about  100,0(X),.  with  a  patriarch  resident  at  Koum- 
Kapon  (Stamboul),  many  churches,  53  elementary 
schools,  2  colleges,  a  large  charitable  establishment  at 
Y6di-Kouleh,  etc. 

Protestantism  is  represented  by  English,  American, 
German,  and  other  foreigti  colonies,  also  by  about  one 
thousand  Anno;ilan  converts.  Its  chief  institutions, 
apart  from  several  churches,  are  the  Bible  house  at 
Stamboul  with  its  bran^'ies  (homes  for  sailors  and 
fore^  girls),  Robert  Colle^  al  Rumeli-IIis.«5ar  on 
the  Bosporus  (a  large  American  school  founded  in 


1863,  with  about  600  pupils),  and  a  hig^  school  for 
girls  at  Scutari.  There  are  also  some  elementary 
Protestant  schools  and  a  special  mission  for  the  Jews, 
finally  an  English  and  a  German  hospital.  The 
Schismatic  Greeks  who  call  themselves  Orthodox, 
number  about  150,000,  some  thousands  of  whom  aie 
Hellenes,  i.  e.  subjects  of  the  Kingdom  of  Greecc 
The  oecumenical  patriarch,  who  resides  hi  the  Fanar 
(Greek  quarter,  along  the  Golden  Horn),  is  the  bifihof> 
of  the  duocese  (there  are  metropolites  at  Kadi-Keui 
and  at  Makri-Keui,  the  latter  with  the  title  of  Derki). 
He  is  aided  in  the  administration  of  his  office  by  the 
Great  Protosyncellus.  There  are  40  parishes,  12  of 
which  are  first^  class.  11  second  class,  and  17  third 
class.  The  principal  churches  prefer  instead  of  a 
simple  priest,  a  titular  bishop  or  chorepiscopus:  they 
are  five  in  number.  Recent  statistics  snow  72  schools, 
64  of  which  give  elementary  and  middle,  and  8  supc^ 
rior  teaching.  Amone  the  higher  schools  are  included 
the  so-call^  Great  National  School  in  the  Fanar 
(said  to  date  from  the  Middle  Ages),  the  commercial 
and  theolo^cal  schools  at  Halki,  etc.  The  theolora- 
cal  school  is  a  seminary  for  future  bishops  of  the 
Greek  CHiurch.  These  Greek  schools  have  398  teach- 
ers and  13,217  pupils;  the  elementary  schools  have 
10,665  pupils,  and  the  superior  schools  2562.  We 
may  add  that  many  Greek  boys  and  girls,  also  Armen- 
ians, are  taught  in  foreign  schools,  chiefly  in  those  of 
the  French  religious  congregations  and  at  Robert 
College.  The  Greeks  have  a  large  charitable  estab- 
lishment at  Balekli  and  an  orphanage.  Quite  impor- 
tant also  are  their  various  associations  (syoUogi),  the 
principal  one  being  the  iinportant  learned  body  known 
as  the  Literary  Greek  Society,  with  a  rich  library. 
The  libraries  of  the  Metochion,  of  the  Holy  Sepulchii, 
and  the  theological  school  at  Halki  are  also  remarkable 
for  their  manuscripts.  For  the  general  organization 
of  the  Greek  Schismatics,  see  Greek  Chtjrch.  TTie 
Russians  have  at  Constantinople  3  monasteries,  a 
school,  a  hospital,  and  an  archaeological  institute, 
with  a  rich  library.  The  Serbs  and  Rumanians  have 
also  their  national  establishments.  There  are  In  the 
capital  about  15,000  Bul^rians.  They  are  consid- 
ered schismatics  by  the  Greek  Church,  from  which 
they  have  completely  separated.  Their  exarch,  who 
hasjurisdiction  over  all  native  Bulgarians  and  those 
of  European  Tiu-key,  resides  at  Chichli  (pronounced 
8hiMt)t  where  there  are  also  a  seminary,  a  school,  and 
a  hospital  for  Bulgarians.  His  cathedral  is  at  Balata, 
Stamboul. 

Catholic  Life  and  Statistics. — ^The  Catholics  in- 
clude those  of  the  Roman  or  Latin  Rite,  and  others  of 
Eastern  rites  often  called  Uniats.  Among  the  latter, 
the  Catholic  Armenians  deserve  most  attention;  they 
number  about  5000.  Their  patriarch  resides  at  Pera, 
and  to  their  special  organization  belong: '  6  elementary 
and  3  middle  schools,  also  a  large  charitable  establish- 
ment for  orphans  and  for  poor  or  sick  people.  They 
have  four  congregations  conducted  as  follows:  The 
Mechitarist^  of  Vienna  have  2  residences,  19  monks; 
the  Mechitarists  of  Venice,  1  residence,  8  monks;  the 
Antonines,  1  residence,  8  monks;  Sisters  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception,  3  residences,  about  100  nuns. 
The  Melchites  or  Arabic-speaking  Syrians  of  Byzantine 
Rite  have  a  church  with  3  priests,  one  of  whom  acts  as 
vicar  of  his  patriarch  for  all  affairs  of  the  "nation" 
that  come  before  the  Sublime  Porte.  The  Catholic 
patriarchs  of  the  CJhaldeans  and  the  Syrians  are  simi- 
larly represented  by  vicars  to  whom  are  subject  the 
few  faithful  of  their  rites  present  in  the  city.^  The 
Catholic  Greeks,  few  in  number  as  yet,  are  subject  to 
the  Apostolic  delegate;  they  have  two  parishes,  at 
Koum-Kapou  (Stamboul)  and  Kadi-Keui,  T»nducted 
by  the  Assumptionists,  and  a  mission  at  Pera,  con- 
ducted by  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  The 
former  have  also  missions  for  the  Greeks  at  Csesarea 
in  Cappadocia  ana  at  Per^mos  in  the  Peninsula  of 


OONSTAVTDIOFUB 


307 


comTANTnropu 


Cvzicus;  the  latter  at  Maisara  and  Daoudili  in  Thrace. 
The  Catholic  Bulgarians  have  at  Galata  their  arch* 
bishop  and  one  priest.  The  Catholic  Georgians  are 
few  and  are  subject  to  the  Apostolic  dele^te;  most 
of  them  bdonjg  to  the  Latin  or  the  Armenian  Rite. 

The  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite,  as  already  stated, 
are  ruled  by  an  Apostolic  vicar.  Thou^  a  titular  arch- 
bishop he  enjovB  ordinary  jurisdiction  and  since  1868 
is  Apostolic  aelegate  for  the  Catholics  of  Eastern 
Kites.  He  resides  at  Pancaldi  and  has  there  his  pro- 
eathedral.  His  authority  is  not  adcnowledged  by  the 
Sublime  Porte  and  he  is  obliged  to  use  the  French 
embas^  in  his  lelatbns  with  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment. The  limits  of  his  vicariate  are:  in  Eur(H>e  the 
Vicariate  of  Sofia,  ihe  Archdioceses  of  Usoub  and 
Duraaso,  and  the  Apostolic  Delegation  of  Athens;  in 
Asia,  the  Diocese  of  Tiraspol,  the  Apostolic  DeLega- 
tions  of  Mesopotamia  and  AI^po,  and  the  Archbish- 
ofH-ic  of  Smyrna.  The  Latin  Catholics  subject  to  him 
must  number  (1906)  between  30,000  and  35,000, 
about  22,000  of  whom  are  at  Constantiotople.  Other 
principal  centres  are,  in  Europe:  Salonica,  Gallipoli, 
Cavalla,  Monastir,  Rodosto,  Dedc-Akhatch,  and 
Adrianople,  with  about  6000  souls;  in  Asia:  Brusa, 
Ismid,  Adampol,  Zongoul-Dagh,  Dardanelles,  Eski* 
Shehir,  Angora,  TrebisoncL  Samsoun,  and  Er«eroum 
with  about  3000  souls.  Most  Latin  Catholics  are  of 
foreign  nationalities  and  come  from  Greece,  Italy, 
France,  Austria,  etc. 

Almost  all  the  religious  works  (^  the  Apostolic  vi- 
cariate'are  conducted  by  religious  orders  occongrega- 
tk>ns.  The  secular  clerxy  counts  only  about  ten 
members;  they  possess  tne  two  parishes  of  Pancaldi 
(pro-cathedral)  and  the  Dardanelles.  There  are  foui^ 
teen  parishes  (five  principal)  in  Constantinople  and 
its  suburbs.  Outside  the  capital,  the  vicariate  com- 
prises 7  other  parishes  and  23  missionary  stations. 
There  are  several  seminaries,  but  none  for  the  vicari- 
ate itself:  a  Greek  preparatory  seminary  at  Koum- 
Kapou  (Stamboul),  a  Bulgarian  preparatory  semin- 
ary at  Kara-Aghatch  (Adrianople),  a  Greek-Bulga- 
rian theologicaf  seminary  at  Ivadi-Keuii  conducted 
by  the  Assumptionists,  with  respectively  30,  35,  and 
10  pupils;  the  Eastern  Seminary,  preparatory  and 
theological,  founded  at  Pera  in  1889  by  Fmioh  Capu- 
chins lor  Latin  and  Eastern  Bite  pupils  of  every  East- 
em  diocese,  with  45  to  50  pupils;  the  preparatorv 
Seraphic  Seminary  conducted  smce  1894  at  San  Stef- 
ano  by  Austrian  Capuchins,  30  pupils;  a  Bul^ian 
preparatory  and  theological  seminary  at  Zeitenlik 
(Salonica),  conducted  by  the  Lasarists,  58  pupils. 
Eighty  elementary  or  middle  schools  are  conducted 
by  the  aforesaid  religious  congregations.  There  are 
74  primary  and  boarding  schools,  for  boys  or  girls, 
with  11,400  pupils  (7030  rirls  and  4370  boys),  6  (prop- 
erly so  caUea)  colleges forooys with  1410  pupils  and  a 
commercial  institute.  Moreover,  600  male  and  fe- 
male orphans  are  trained  in  6  oipbanages.  A  profes- 
sional sdiool  has  just  been  founded.  More  than  half 
of  these  schools  are  situated  in  Constantinople  or  its 
suburbs.  Many  of  the  pupils  are  not  Catholics,  and 
manjr  are  Mussulmans  or  Jews.  There  is  at  Feri- 
Keui  a  large  and  beautiful  cemetery. 

Catholic  Ordbbs  and  CoNaRBOATioNS. — Orders^ 
of  Men. — Augustinians  of  the  Assumption,  13  resi- 
dences, 51  priests  (including  6  of  Greek  and  6  of  Slav 
Rite)^  and  28  students  or  lay  brothers,  3  semiiuiries, 
6  parishes,  7  schools.  French  Capuchins,  2  residences, 
59  monks  (25  students  and  10  lay. brothers).  1  semi- 
nary, 1  scholasticate,  and  the  church  of  St.  Louis, 
pansh  of  the  French  embassy.  Austrian  Capuchins, 
1  residence,  with  1  parish,  1  seminary  and  1  novitiate, 
10  monks.  Italian  Capuchios,  3  residences,  8  priests, 
and  4  lay  brothers.  Ckinventuals,  6  residencei^,  5 
paridies,  21  priests,  and  10  lay  brothers.  Franciscans, 
4  residences,  2  parishes,  with  10  priests  and  6  lay 
brothem.    Dominicans,    3   residences,    1    parish,    9 


priests,  and  3  lay  brothers.  Geoigian  Benedictines  of 
the  Immaculate  O>nception,  3  residences,  2  paridbes 
1  school,  with  13  religious  (2  priests  of  Geoman  Rite). 
Jesuits,  6  residences,  42  religious,  about  20  priests^  0 
schools.  Austrian  Lazarists,  1  residence,  1  college, 
12  religious.  French  Lazarists,  7  residences,  71  re- 
ligious (56  priests),  2  colleges,  1  seminary,  several 
schools,  1  parish.  Greek  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Trinitv 
of  Pera,  3  residences,  6  priests,  3  schools.  Polish 
Resurrectionists,  3  residences,  about  30  religious  (12 
priests,  several  of  the  Slav  Rite),  1  coll^.  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools,  150  brothers,  10  residences, 
1  college,  1  commercial  and  10  elementary  schools. 
Brothers  of  Ploennel,  10  brothers,  aiding  the  Assump- 
tionists in  their  schools.  Marist  Brothers,  8  resi- 
dences, 4  schools,  46  brothers,  aid  other  religious 
in  4  more  schools.  Italian  Salesians  of  Dom  Bosco, 
1  technical  school. 

Orders  of  Women. — Cannelites,  6  nuns.  Dominican 
Sisters  of  Mondovf,  2  schools,  14  nuns.  Sisters  of 
Charity,  17  establishments,  210  nuns;  they  conduct 
amons  others  three  Turkish  hospitals,  the  Persian, 
French,  Italian,  and  Austrian  hospitals,  2  asylums, 
7  orphanages,  13  schools.  Franciscan  SLsters  of 
Calais,  1  residence,  10  sisters  for  care  of  sick  people 
at  home.  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Gemona  (Italy\  4 
residences,  30  sisters,  5  schools.  Sisters  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  of  Ivrea  (Italy),  3  residences, 
35  sisters^  1  hospital,  2  schools,  bisters  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  of  Lourdes,  1  residence,  14 
sisters,  lor  the  adoration  of  the  Most  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment and  care  of  Sick  people.  Oblates  of  the  Assump- 
tion, 8  residences,  94  sisters,  7  schools,  1  hospital,  1 
novitiate  for  native  girls.  Oblates  of  the  Assumption 
of  Ntmes,  15  sisters,  3  schools.  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Poor,  1  asylum,  16  sisters.  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of 
the  Apparition,  2  residences,  30  sisters,  2  scnools. 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  L^^ons,  3  residences,  39  sisters,  , 
3  schools,  1  hospital.  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Sion, 
120  sisters,  2  residences,  2  boarding,  and  2  elementary 
schools.  Georgian  Servants  of  Our  Ladyi  2  resi- 
dences, 2  schools,  15  sisters.  Bulgarian  Eudiaristine 
Sisters,  5  residences  with  schools,  30  sisters.  Resur- 
rectionist Sisters,  5  sisters,  1  school  Missioiiary  Sis- 
ters of  t^e  Most  Holy  Heart  of  Mary,  8  sisters^  1 
hospital.  Most  of  these  residences  have  dispensanes, 
with  a  physician,  where  remedies  are  supplied 
gratuitously  to  the  poor.  To  the  works  of  these 
congregations  must  be  added  pious  works  conducted 
by  lay  persons:  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (inferences  (6  at 
Constantinople);  the  Sympnia,  an  association  which 
conducts  a  school  for  (Catholic  Hellenes,  with  90 
pupils,  various  associations  and  brotherhoods,  etc. 

The  Chbistian  City. — CJousi?*,  Hisloire  de  ConttantinapU 
depuia  JusHnien  )U9tu'h  la  fin  de  Vempire  (8  vob.,  Paiia,  IS/l- 
1674):  UuTTON,  ConeUmHnople  (London.  1900);  Babtb,  Con- 
atatUinaiie  (Paiu,  1903);  Du  Canoe,  Corutantinopolia  chrie- 
tiana  in  De  ByzarUina  hietoruB  scriptortbue  (Paiu,  1S87), 
XXII:  Banduri,  Imperium  orientaU  etve  antifuHatea  Conetan- 
twofMaitawB  (2  vol.  fol.,  Venioe,  1729):  lioBimiAKii^aquuee 
topographique  de  Conatantinople  (lille,  1892);  von  Hammbji, 
Cormtarainopolis  und  der  Bosporoe  (Budapest,  1822);  Byzan- 
TToe,  Cowttantinople  (Greek,  Athens,  1851);  CoinrrAirnoB, 
Conetantiniade  au  dtacripUon  de  ConaUmtiinople  aticMime  et 
modeme  (Gonafeantinople,  1846);  Richter,  Queilen  der  hyzan- 
iininchm  Kunnlgeschichie  (Vienna,  1897);  Gedeon,  Ccnalanti' 
nople  in  Bouttras  (Greek).  Dictionary  of  Hieiory  and  Geo- 
graphy (Constantinople,  1881),  III.  929-1121:  Riant.  Ezwria 
eacm  Conetantinopolilanas  (Geneva,  1877);  Bouvy,  Soumnire 
cfiretifns  de  Conatantinople  (Paris,  1896);  Cupebos,  Tradatua 
jmttliminarie  de  patriarchie  ConatantinopolitaniM  in  Ada  S8^ 
ed.  Palme,  Aasust,  I,  vi-ix,  1-272;  LsQUiKif,  Oriene  chrio- 
iianue  (Paris,  1740).  I..1-350.  Ill,  79a-836;  Geoeon,  Harpiap. 
XtKol  vlvaictt  (C!onstaniinop1e,  1887). 

SiEOEe  OF  CON0TANTINOPLE. — Gekland,  GeMicfUe  dee 
laUsiniecken  Kaiaerreichea  von  KonaUM$Uinopei  (Hamburg.  1904); 
Krause,  Die  Eroberunijen  von  Konatantmopel^  %ni  IS,  und  15. 
Jahrhundert  (Halle,  1860);  Pears,  The  Fall  of  ConelanUmopU, 
being  the  Story  of  the  Fourth  Crueade  (London,  1886);  Idem. 
The  Deatruetion  of  the  Greek  Empire  and  the  Story  tf  the  Caphire 
of  Conetantinople  by  the  Turke  (London,  1903);  arAMA-nADBS. 
History  of  the  Capture  of  Byzantium  by  the  Franke  and  of  Thew 
Domination  (Greek,  Athens,  1885);  Kaiuoas.  Beoaue  on 
Jiyzantine  Hiatory  from  the  Former  to  the  Latter  Capture  «/  Con- 


OOlTBTAllTniOFIiB 


308 


OOHSTJJIXXRCIPXJB 


ffttfOmopCe  (Qnak,  Athens,  1894);  Vlasto,  Lt§  dtmien  smun 
d€  ConstmntmopU  m  ms  (Puis.  1883):  Poujoulat,  BiuUrirt 
de  la  conrnMe  el  de  Voccupanon  de  CotutantinopU  vat  lu  LatMB 
(Toun.  IsSfi);  D'OimiEMANN,  ConstanHnopoliM  Bdpiea  mm  de 
rAu»  ouiu  a  Baldmno  tt  Henrico,  impenUariInu  CcfuttaUmth 
pglta  u'oumai.  1643):  Mordtmann,  Bdagtrung  und  Erobenmg 
KoiulantinopeU  durch  die  Turken  im  Jahre  1U5S  (Stuttgart, 
1858);  Vast,  Le  ai^e  et  la  prite  d»  Con»latUinople  aapria  dea 
docuffurUa  nouveaux  m  Revm  hittorique.  XIII.  1-40. 

MopEBN  Reuqioub  STATuncB. — VAiLHft,  Corutantinople 
in  Diet,  de  thiol,  calh..  III.  1307-1519;  Cuinet.  La  Turquie 
d^Aaie  (Paris.  1894),  iV,  589-705;  Misaionea  oaQMieoi  (Rome, 
1907),  pp.  137-140;  Pioubt,  Laa  miaaiona  eaikel*quea  fmactnaaa 
ott  XIX^  aiide,  I,  39-142.  149-184;  Bbun,  Hiatoire  de  la 
LaHniU  da  ConatantinopU  (PariB,  1904);  Hilairk  db  Baban- 
TON,  La  France  oaUioligue  en  Orient  (Parig.  1902);  Almanack  h 
Vuaage  dea  famillea  eatholiquea  de  ConatanUnople  (1901-1906). 

For  extensive  biblionaphiea  tee:  CJbevax.ubb,  Topo-bibl. 
(MoDtb^liard,  1904).  I,  780-787:  Kbcmbachbs,  Oeachiehte  der 
In/zajUiniadien  Litteratur  (Muniob,  1897),  1068-1144;  VailbI!' 
ba  Diet,  de  tMol.  eaih..  Ill,  1616-1619. 

a  Vailh6. 

Oonstantiiiople,  Councils  or. — A.  Gbnbral 
Councils. — ^Four  general  oounclls  of  the  Church  were 
held  in  this  city. 

I.  The  First  Council  of  Ck)NSTANTiNOPiiB  (Second 
General  Ouncil)  was  called  in  May,  381,  by  Emperor 
Theodosius,  to  provide  for  a  Catholic  BucoeBsion  in  the 
patriarchal  See  of  Constantinople,  to  confirm  ihe  Ni- 
cene  Faith,  to  reconcile  the  Semi^Arians  with  the 
Church,  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  Macedonian  heresy. 
Originally  it  was  only  a  coimcil  of  the  Orient;  the  ar- 
guments of  Baronius  (ad  an.  381,  noe.  19, 20)  to  prove 
that  it  was  called  by  Pope  Damasus  are  invalid  (H&- 
fele-Leclercq,  Hist,  des  Conciles,  Paris,  1908,  II,  4). 
It  was  attended  bv  150  Catholic  and  36  heretical 
(Semi'Arian,  Macedonian)  bishops,  and  was  presided 
over  by  Meletius  of  Antioch;  after  his  death,  by  the 
successive  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  St.  Gregory 
Nazianzen  and  Nectarius.  Its  first  measure  was  to 
confirm  St.  Gregory  Naziansen  as  Bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople. Tlie  Acts  of  the  council  have  almost  entirely 
disappeared,  and  its  proceedings  are  known  chiefly 
through  the  accounts  of  the  ecclesiastical  historians 
Socrates,  Sosomeri,  and  Theodoret.  'Hiere  is  good 
reason  to  believe  that  it  drew  up  a  formal  treatise 
(iamos)  on  tiie  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  also 
against  Apollinarianism;  this  important  document  has 
been  lost,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  canon  of  the 
coundl  and  its  famous  creed  (NiciBno-Constantino- 
politanum).  The  latter  is  traditionally  held  to  be  an 
enlargement  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  witn  emphasis  on 
the  Divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  seems,  however, 
to  be  of  earlier  ori^,  ana  was  probably  composed 
(369-73)  by  St.  Cynl  of  Jerusalem  as  an  estpression  of 
the  faith  of  that  Cnureh  (Bois),  though  its  acioption  by 
this  council  gave  it  special  authority,  both  as  a  baptis- 
mal creed  and  as  a  theological  formula.  Recently 
Hamack  (Realencyklop&die  fUr  prot.  Theol.  und 
Kirche,  3rd  ed.,  XI,  12-28)  has  maintained,  on  ap- 
parently inconclusive  grounds,  that  not  till  after  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  was  this  creed  (a  Jerusa- 
lem formula  with  Nicene  additions)  attributed  to  the 
Fathers  of  this  council.  At  Chalcedon,  indeed,  it  was 
twice  recited  and  appears  twice  in  the  Acts  of  that 
council:  it  was  also  read  and  accepted  at  the  Sixth 
General  Council,  held  at  Constantinople  in  680  (see 
below).  The  very  ancient  Latin  version  of  its  text 
(Mansi,  Coll.  Cone,  III,  567)  is  by  Dionysius  Exisuus. 

The  Greeks  recognize  seven  canons,  but  the  oldest 
Latin  versions  have  only  four;  the  other  three  are 
very  probably  (Hefele)  later  additions.  The  first 
canon  is  an  important  dogmatic  condemnation  of  all 
shades  of  Arianism,  also  of  Macedonianism  and  Apol- 
linarianism. The  second  canon  renews  the  Nicene 
I^islation  imposing  upon  the  bishops  the  observance 
ofdiocesan  and  patriarchal  limits.  Hie  fourth  canon 
declares  mvalld  the  consecration  of  Maximus,  the 
Cynic  philosopher  and  rival  of  St.  Gregonr  of  Nazian- 
zus,  as  Bishop  of  Constantinople.  Hie  tamous  third 
canon  declares  that  because  Conataotinople  is  New 


Rome  the  bishop  of  that  city  should  have  a  pre-emi- 
nenoe  of  honour  after  the  Bishop  of  Old  Rome.  Bar- 
onius wrongly  maintained  the  non-authenticity  of 
this  canon,  while  some  medieval  Greeks  maintained 
(an  equally  erroneous  thesis)  that  it  declared  the 
bishop  of  the  royal  city  in  all  things  ^e  equal  of  the 
pope.  The  purely  human  reason  of  Rome's  ancient 
authority,  suggested  by  this  canon,  was  never  ad- 
mitted by  the  Apostolic  See,  which  always  baaed  its 
claim  to  supremacy  on  the  succe8sk>n  <n  St.  Peter. 
Nor  did  Rome  easily  acknowled^  this  unjustifiable 
reordering  of  rank  among  the  ancient  patriardbates  of 
the  East.  It  was  rejected  by  the  papal  legates  at 
Chalcedon.  St.  Leo  the  Great  (Ep.  cvi  m  P.  L,  LIV, 
1(X)3,  1005)  declared  that  this  canon  had  never  been 
submitted  to  the  Apostolic  See  and  that  it  was  a  viola- 
tion of  ihe  Nicene  order.  At  the  Ei^th  General 
Council  m  869  tile  Roman  legatee  (fiCansi,  XVI,  174) 
acknowledged  Constantinople  as  second  in  patriardial 
rank.  In  1215,  at  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (op. 
cit.,  XXII,  991),  this  was  formally  admitted  for  the 
new  Latin  patriarch,  and  in  1439,  at  the  Council  of 
Florence,  for  the  Greek  patriarch  (Hefele-Lederoq, 
Hist,  des  Conciles,  II,  25-27).  The  Roman  oomdora 
of  Gratian  (1582),  at  dist.  xxii,  c  3,  insert  the  words: 
**  canon  hie  ex  iis  est  quos  apostolioa  Romana  sedes  a 
prinoipio  et  longo  poet  tempore  non  redpit.'' 

At  the  close  of  the  council  Emperor  Tbeodoeius  is- 
sued an  imperial  decree  (30  July)  dedaring  tiiat  the 
churches  should  be  restored  to  those  bishops  who  con- 
fessed the  eq|ual  Divinity  of  the  Father,  tne  Son,  and 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  who  held  communion  with  Nec- 
tarius of  Constantinople  and  oth«r  important  Oriental 
prelates  whom  he  named.  The  oecumenical  character 
of  this  council  seems  to  date,  amone  the  Greeks,  from 
the  Council  of  CHialcedon  (451).  According  to  Pho- 
tins  (Mansi,  III,  596)  Pope  Damasus  approved  it,  but 
if  any  part  of  the  council  were  approved  by  this  pope 
it  could  have  been  only  the  aforesaid  creed.  In  the 
latter  half  of  the  fifth  oentury  the  successors  of  Leo 
the  Great  are  silent  as  to  this  council.  Its  mention  in 
the  so-called  '^Decretum  Gelasii",  towards  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century,  is  not  orginal  but  a  later  insertion  in 
that  text  (Hefele).  Gregorv  the  Great,  foUowin^  the 
example  of  Vigilius  and  Peiag^us  II,  reco^oiied  it  as 
one  of  the  four  general  councils,  but  only  in  its  do^ 
matio  utterances  (P.  G.,  LXXVII,  468,  893).  (See 
Sehi- Arianism;  Macedonians;  Gmbgost  of  Nazi- 
ANZUB,  Saint;  Leo  I,  Saint,  Pope;  Theodosius 
THE  Great. 

Hbfbub,  Concaienoaadi.  (Freiburs,  1875).  II,  1-^  Ens.  tr. 
(Edinbuiyfa,  1876),  vol.  II:  and  Lbcubroq's  Fr.  tr.  (PmoA, 
1908).  IlT  1-18.  NoD-CaUiolic:  Bukn,  hUroduction  to  the 
Creeda  and  The  Te  Deum  (London,  1899);  Hobt,  Two  lyiaaerla- 
(ion«.  etc.  (London.  1876):  II.  The  Conatantinpppktan  Creed 
and  Other  Creeda  a^  the  Fourth  Century  (London.  1^6) ;  Bbigqt. 
Canona  of  the  Firat  Four  General  CauneHa  (Oxford,  1892); 
Bethune,  The  Homoouaioa  in  the  Conatantinopotiiam  Creed 
(London.  1906). 

II.  The  Second  Council  of  Conbtamtinoplb 
(Fifth  (jeneral  Council)  was  held  at  Constantinople 
(5  May~2  June,  553),  having  been  called  by  Emperor 
Justiman.  It  was  attendeamostly  by  Oriental  oish- 
ops ;  only  six  Western  (African)  bishops  were  present. 
Tne  president  was  Eutychius,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople. This  assembly  was  in  realitjr  only  the  last 
phase  of  the  lon^  and  violent  conflict  inaugurated  by 
the  edict  of  Justmian  in  543  against  Origemsm  (P.  G., 
LXXXVI,  945-90).  The  emperor  was  persoaded 
that  Nestorianism  continued  to  draw  its  streng^  f  rcnn 
the  writings  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (d.  428} ,  Tbeo- 
dorst  of  C^ruB  (d.  457),  and  Ibas  of  Edessa  (d.  457). 
also  from  the  personal  esteem  in  which  the  mst  two 
of  these  ecclesiastical  writers  were  yet  held  by  many. 
The  events  which  led  to  this  council  will  be  narrated 
more  fully  in  the  articles  VioiLnm,  Pope  and  in  ItexE 
Chapters  ;  only  a  brief  accotmt  will  be  given  hoe. 

Fnnn  25  Jan.,  547,  Pope  Vigitius  was  forcibly  de- 


OOVSTAimROFLl 


309 


OOMSTAimKOPU 


tained  in  the  royal  city;  he  had  originaUy  refused  to 
participate  in  the  condemnation  of  the  Three  Chapters 
(i.  e.  brief  statements  of  anathema  upon  Theodore  of 
Mopsuedtia  and  his  writinn,  upon  Tl^odoret  of  Cyrus 
ana  his  writings  against  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  and 
the  CouncU  of  Ephesus,  and  upon  the  letter  written 
by  Ibas  of  Edessa  to  Maris,  Bishop  of  Hardasdhir  in 
Persia).  Later  (by  his  '*  Judicatum'\  11  April,  64S) 
Vigilius  had  condemned  the  Three  Chapters  (the  doc- 
trine in  question  being  reallv  censurable),  but  he  ex- 
pressly maintained  the  authority  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (461)  wherein  Theodoret  and  Iba» — but 
after  the  condemnation  of  Nestorius — htoA  been  re- 
stored to  their  places;  in  the  West  much  discontent 
was  called  forth  by  this  step  which  seemed  a  weaken- 
ing before  the  civil  power  in  purely  ecclesiastical 
matters  and  an  injustice  to  men  lonp;  dead  and  judged 
bv  God;  it  was  all  the  more  objectionable  as  the 
w  estem  mind  had  no  accurate  knowledge  of  the  theo- 
logical situation  ambi^  the  Qreeks  of  that  day.  In 
consequence  of  this  Vigilius  had  persuaded  Justinian 
to  return  the  aforesaid  papal  document  and  to  pro- 
claim a  truce  on  all  sides  until  a  general  coimeil  could 
be  called  to  decide  these  controyersies.  Both  the 
emperor  and  the  Greek  bishops  violated  this  promise 
of  neutrality;  the  former,  in  particular,  pumisliii^ 
(551)  his  famous  edict,  'OftokiytBi  rijt  wtrrtmy  con- 
demning anew  the  Three  Copters,  and  refusing  to 
withdraw  the  same. 

For  his  digpoified  protest  Vigilius  thereupon  suffered 
various  personal  indignities  at  the  hands  of  ihe  dvU 
authority  and  neariy  lost  lus  life;  he  retired  finally 
to  ChaloiBdon,  in  the  very  church  of  St.  Euphemia 
where  the  great  coimcil  nad  been  held,  whence  he 
informed  the  Christian  worid  of  the  state  of  affairs. 
Soon  the  Oriental  bishops  sou^t  reconciliation  wi^ 
him,  induced  him  to  return  to  the  city,  and  withdrew 
all  that  had  hitherto  been  done  against  the  Three 
Chapters;,  the  new  patriarch,  Eutyohius,  successor 
to  Hennas^  whose  weakness  and  subserviency  were 
the  immediate  cause  of  all  this  violence  and  comusion, 
presented  (6  Jan.,  553)  his  profession  of  faith  to 
Vigilius  and.  in  union  with  other  Oriental  bishops, 
urged  the  calling  of  a  ^neral  council  under  the  prasi- 
dency  of  the  pope.     Vigilius  was  willing,  but  proposed 
that  it  should  be  held  either  in  Italy  or  in  Siciiy,'in 
order  to  secure  the  attendance  of  Western  bishops. 
To  this  Justinian  would  not  agree,  but  proposed, 
instead,  a  kind  of  commission  noade  up  of  delegates 
from  each  of  the  great  patriarchates;   Vigilius  sug- 
gested that  an  equal  number  be  chosen  fton  the  East 
and  the  West;   but  this  was  not  acceptable  to  the 
emptor,  who  thereupon  opened  the  council  by  his 
own  autnority  on  the  date  and  in  the  manner  men- 
tioned above.    Vidlius  refused  to  participate,  not 
only  on  account  of  the  overwhelminqg  proportion  of 
Oriental  bishops,  but  ^so  from  fear  of  violence;  more- 
over, none  of  ms  predecessors  had  ever  taken  part 
personally  in  an  Oriental  council.    To  this  decision 
he  was  faithful,  though  he  expressed  his  wUlingnesB 
to  give  an  independent  judgment  on  the  matters  at 
issue.    Eight  sessions  were  held,  the  result  of  which 
waa  the  final  condemnation  of  the  Three  Chapters  by 
the  165  bishops  present  at  the  last  session  (2  June, 
553),  in  fourteen  anathematisms  similar  to  the  thir- 
teen previously  issued  by  Justinian. 

In  the  meantime  Vigilius  had  sent  to  the  emperor 
(14  May)  a  document  known  as  the  first  "Constitu- 
tum"  (Mansi,  IX,  61-106),  signed  by  himself  and 
sixteen,  mostly  Western,  bishops,  in  which  sixty 
heretical  propositions  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  were 
condemned,  and,  in  five  anathematisms,  his  Christo- 
logical  teacnings  repudiated;  it  was  forixidden,  how- 
ler, to  condemn  his  person,  or  to  proceed  further  in 
condemnation  of  the  writings  or  the  penon  of  Theo* 
doret,  or  of  the  letter  of  Ibas.  It  seemed  indeed, 
under  the  circumstances,  no  easy  task  to  denounce 


fitting!]^  the  certain  errors  of  the  great  Antiocheow 
theologian  and  his  followers  and  yet  uphold  the  repu- 
tation and  authority  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon. 
which  had  been  content  with  obtaining  the  essentials 
of  submission  from  all  sy£apathizers  with  Nestorius, 
but  for  that  veiy  reason  had  never  been  forgiven  by 
the  Monophysite  opponents  of  Nestorius  and  his 
heresy,  who  were  now  in  league  with  the  numerous 
eneniies  of  Origen,  and  until  the  death  (548)  of  Theo- 
dora had  enjoyed  the  support  of  that  influential 
enipress. 

The  decisions  of  the  council  were  executed  with  a 
violence  in  keeping  with  its  conduct,  though  the 
ardently  hoped-tor  reconciliation  of  the  Monophysites 
did  not  follow.  Vigilius,  together  with  other  oppo- 
nents of  the  imperiaiwiD,  as  registered  by  the  subser- 
vknt  eourtrprelates,  seems  to  have  been  banished 
(Hefele,  II,  905),  toother  with  the  faithful  bishops 
and  eodesiastics  of  his  suite,  either  to  Upper  Egypt 
or  to  an  island  in  the  Propontis.  AlreiEuly  in  the 
seventh  session  of  the  council  Justinian  caused  the 
name  of  Violins  to  be  stricken  from  the  diptyohs, 
without  prejudice,  however,  it  was  said,  to  com- 
munion with  the  Apostolic  See.  Soon  the  Roman 
clergy  and  pei^le,  now  freed  by  Narses  from  the 
OotEic  yoke,  requested  the  emperor  to  permit  the 
return  of  the  pope,  which  Justiman  agreed  to  on 
condition  that  vigilius  would  recognize  the  late  coun- 
cil. This  Vigilius  finally  agreed  to  do,  and  ut,  two 
documents  (a  letter  to  Eutychius  of  ConstantinDple, 
8  Deo.,  553,  and  a  second  ''Constitutum''  of  23  Feb., 
554,  probably  addressed  to  the  Western  e^Hscopate) 
condemned,  at  last,  the  Three  Chapters  (Mansi,  IX, 
414-20,  457-88;  ef.  Hefele,  II,  90&~11),  indepen- 
dently, however,  and  without  mention  d  the  council. 
His  opposition  had  never  been  based  on  doctrinal 
grounds  but  on  the  decency  and  opportuneness  d  the 
measures  proposed,  the  wrongful  imperial  violence, 
and  a  delicate  fear  of  injury  to  the  authority  of  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  especially  in  the  West.  Here, 
indeed,  despite  the  admtional  recognition  of  it  by 
Pelagius  I  (555-60),  the  Fifth  General  CounoU  only 
gradually  acquired  in  public  opinion  an  cecumenical 
character.  In  Northern  Italy  the  ecdesiastioal  prov- 
inces of  Milan  and  Aauileia  broke  off  communion  with 
the  ApoetoKe  See;  tne  former  yielding  only  towards 
the  end  of  the  sixth  eentury,  whereas  the  latter 
(Aquileia^Grado)  protracted  its  resistance  to  about 
700  (Hefele,  op.  cit.,  IL  911-27).  (For  an  equitable 
apptedatioD  ol  the  conduct  of  Vigilius  see,  besides  the 
article  VrsiLniB,  the  judgment  of  Bois,  in  DicU  de 
thM.  catfa.,  II,  1238-39.)  The  pope  was  always 
correct  aa  to  the  doctrine  involved,  and  yielded,  lor 
^16  sake  of  peace,  only  when  he  was  satisfied  that  there 
was  no  fear  for  the  authority  of  Chalcedon,  which  he 
at  first,  with  the  eniiie  West,  deemed  in  peril  from 
the  machinations  of  the  Monophvsites. 

The  orif^nal  Greek  Acts  of  the  council  are  lost, 
but  there  is  esrtant  a  very  old  Latin  version,  probably 
contemporarv  and  made  for  the  use  of  Viflalius,  cer- 
tainly quoted  by  his  successor  Peiagius  I.  Tne  Baluse 
ecfition  is  reprinted  in  Mansi,  ''Coll.  Cone",  IX,  163 
sqq.  In  the  next  General  Council  of  Constantino!^ 
(^0)  it  was  foimd  that  the  original  Acts  d  the  Fifth 
Council  had  been  tampered  with  (Hefele,  op.  cit.,  II, 
855-58)  in  favour  of  Monothelism;  nor  is  it  certain 
that  in  tiieir  present  shape  we  have  them  in  their 
original  completeness  (ibid.,  pp.  859-60).  This  has 
a  TOaring  on  the  much  disputed  question  concemiitt 
the  coodemnation  of  Ongenism  at  this  'couneuT 
Hefele,  moved  b^  the  antiquity  and  persistency  of 
the  imorts  of  Oneen's  condemnation,  maintains  (p. 
861)  with  Cardinal  Noris,  that  in  it  Origen  was  con- 
demned, but  only  en  paaaarU,  and  that  his  name  in  the 
eleventh  anathema  is  not  an  interpolation! 

The  cbi«f  sbaroeB  are  tSie  writinsi  of  the  oontempomty  WeM- 
em  (AfrieMi)  Faookdus  of  H«bmt*w»,  J^  defm&»  iriumamm' 


CX>N8TANTIN0PLE 


310 


OOiraTANTIlfOPLE 


Liber  conlm  Mulianum;  and  Jipisl.  fudki  oath. — all  in  /*.  X«., 
LXVII,  527  aqq.;  and  the  Carthaginian  deacon  Foloentius 
FamuNDua,  EpUl.  ad  Pdagium  et  Anaiol,  in  P.  L.,  LXVII, 
921  0qq.  See  Fumkbb,  Papal  Viffiliw  und  der  DnikapikUlnU 
(Munich,  1864);  Visceszi,  In  8,  Qrtg.  Ny»8.  et  Origen.  aeri^ 
H  dodtr.  mova  reeenaio,  cum,  append,  de  actis  Vcecum.  concUii 
(Rome,  1865);  Duchesne^ ^i^  el  P^oife  in  Revue  dee  queeU 


1884).  J&XVJ,  860.  with  noly  ai  OHAUMa^, 
640,  and  the  counter-reply  of  Dd  "  " 

E-    Etude   eur  U   pape    Yigtle   (Ai  

KNEcarr,  Dte  RdimonspciiHk  Kaieer  Juatiniane  I.  (WOnbuis, 


ibid. 
679; 


aL  (Louvain, 
id.,XXXVlU 
'9;    LftvE^uE. 


CBEBME,  ibid., 
(Amiena,    1887); 


1806);  D^BKAMP,  Die  origeniaHatiten  Streitigkeiten  im  VL  Jafi^ 
hundert  (Mttnster,  1890). 

III.  The  Third  Council  of  Constantinoflb 
(Sixth  General  Council)  was  summoned  in  678  by  Em- 
peror Constantine  Pogonatus,  with  a  view  of  restoring 
between  East  and  West  the  religious  harmony  that 
had  been  troubled  by  the  Monothelistic  oontroversies, 
and  pMBirticiUarly  b^  the  violence  of  his  predecessor 
0[>nstans  II,  whose  imperial  edict,  known  as  the  '"ly- 
pus"  (64S-49)  was  a  practical  suppression  of  the  or- 
thodox truth.  Owing  to  the  desiie  of  Pope  Agatho  to 
obtain  the  adhesion  of  his  Western  brethren,  the  papal 
legates  did  not  arrive  at  Constantinople  until  late  in 
680.  The  council,  attended  in  the  banning  by  100 
bishops,  later  by  174,  was  opened  7  Nov.,  680.  in  a 
domed  hall  (trtulua)  of  the  imperial  palace  and  was 
presided  over  by  the  (three)  papal  legates  who  broudit 
to  the  council  a  Ions  dopxiatic  letter  of  Pope  Agatho 
and  another  of  umuar  unport  from  a  Roman  synod 
held  in  the  spring  of  680.  They  were  read  in  the  sec- 
ond session.  Both  letters,  the  pope's  in  particular, 
insist  on  the  faith  of  the  Apostolic  See  as  the  living  and 
stainless  tradition  of  the  Apostles  of  Cluist,  assured  by 
the  promises  of  Christ,  witnessed  by  all  the  popes  in 
their  capacity  of  successors  to  the  Petrine  privilMp  of 
eonfirmmg  the  brethren,  and  therefore  finally  autaoii- 
tative  for  the  Universal  Church. 

The  greater  part  of  the  eighteen  sessions  was  de- 
voted to  an  examination  of  the  Scriptural  and  patriae 
tic  passages  bearing  on  the  question  of  one  or  two 
wills,  one  or  two  operations,  in  Christ.  George,  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  soon  yielded  to  the  evidence 
of  the  orthodox  teacninyg  oonoeming  the  two  wills  and 
two  operations  in  Christ,  but  Macarius  of  Antioch, 
''almcwt  the  onljr  certain  representative  of  Monothel- 
ism  since  the  nme  propositions  of  Qyrus  of  Alexan- 
dria" (Chapman),  resisted  to  the  end,  and  was  finally 
anathconatised  and  deposed  for  "  not  consenting  to  the 
tenor  of  the  orthodox  letters  sent  by  Agatho  the  most 
holy  pope  of  Rome",  i.  e.,  that  in  each  of  the  two  na- 
tures (human  and  Divine)  of  Christ  there  is  a  perfect 
operation  and  a  perfect  will,  against  which  the  Mono- 
tnelites  had  taught  that  there  was  but  one  operation 
and  one  will  (/da  M/tyeta  9€ap9piK^)  quite  in  oonso- 
nance  with  the  Monophysite  confusion  of  the  two  na- 
tures in  Christ.  In  tne  thirteenth  session  (28  March, 
681)  after  anathematising  the  chief  Monothdite  here- 
tics mentioned  in  the  aforesaid  letter  of  Pope  Agatho, 
i.  e.  Sergius  of  Constantinople,  Cyrus  of  Alexandria, 
Pyrrhus,  Paul,  and  Peter  of  (!k)n8tantinople,  and  Theo- 
dore of  Pharan,  the  council  added:  "And  in  addition 
to  these  we  decide  that  Honorius  also,  who  was  Pope 
of  Elder  Rome,  be  with  them  cast  out  of  the  Holy 
Church  of  God,  and  be  anathematised  with  them,  be- 
cause we  have  found  by  his  letter  to  Sergius  that  he 
followed  his  opinion  in  all  things  and  confirmed  his 
wicked  dogmas."  A  similar  ocmdemnation  of  Pope 
Honorius  occurs  in  the  dogmatic  decree  of  the  final 
session  (16  Sept.,  681),  which  was  signed  bv  the  legates 
and  the  emperor.  Reference  is  here  made  to  the  fa- 
mous letter  c^  Honorius  to  Serous  of  Constantinople 
about  634,  around  which  has  arisen  (especially  before 
and  duHng  the  Vatican  Council)  so  laiige  a  oontcover- 
otol  UteractuK.  It  had  been  invoked  three  times  in 
previous  sessions  of  the  council  in  question  by  the 
stubborn  MonotheMte  Macarius  ci  Antiodi,  and  had 
been  publicly  read  in  the  twelfth  session  together  with 
the  letter  of  Sergius  to  which  it  replied.  On  that  oo- 
i  a  second  letter  ol  Honorius  to  Sergius  was  also 


read,  of  which  onl^  a  fragment  has  survived.  (For 
the  question  of  this  pope's  orthodoxy,  see  HovoRir.^ 
I;lNirALUBiuTT;  Monothbutes.) 

There  has  been  in  the  past,  owing  to  (jalUc&nism 
and  the  opponents  ol  papal  .infallibility,  much  con> 
troversy  concerning  the  proper  sense  of  this  oouncil'a 
condemnation  of  Pope  Honorius,  the  theory  (Baxo- 
nius,  Dambei^ger)  of  a  falsification  of  the  Acts  being 
now  quite  abandoned  (HeCele,  III,  299-^13).  Some 
have  maintained,  with  Pennaochi,  that  he  was  indeed 
condemned  as  a  heretic,  but  that  the  Oriental  bishops 
of  the  council  misunderstood  the  thoroughly  orthodox 
(and  dogmatic)  letter  of  Honorius;  othere.  withi  He- 
fele,  that  the  council  condemned  the  neretically 
soundins  expressions  of  the  pope  (though  his  doctrine 
was  reaSy  orthodox);  others  finally,  with  Chapman 
(see  below),  that  he  was  condemned  "because  he  did 
not,  as  he  should  have  done,  declare  authoritatively 
the  Petrine  tradition  of  the  Roman  Church.  To  that 
tradition  he  had  made  no  appeal  but  had  merely  ap- 
proved and  enlarged  upon  the  half-hearted  oQQipn>- 
mise  of  Sergius,  .  .  •  Neither  the  pope  nor  the  coun- 
cil consider  that  Honorius  had  compronused  the  purity 
of  the  Roman  tradition,  for  he  had  never  claimed  to 
re|»esent  it.  Therefore,  just  as  to-day  we  judge  the 
letters  of  Pope  Honorius  bv  the  Vatiean  definition  and 
deny  them  to  be  ax  caihedrd,  because  they  do  not  de- 
fine any  doctrine  and  impose  it  upon  the  whole  Church, 
so  the  Christians  of  the  seventh  century  judged  the 
same  letters  by  the  custom  of  their  day,  and  saw  that 
they  did  not  daim  what  papal  letters  were  wont  to 
claun,  via.,  to  speak  with  the  mouth  of  Peter  in  the 
name  of  Roman  tradition''  (Chapman). 

The  letter  of  the  council  to  Pqpe  Leo,  asking,  after 
the  traditional  manner,  for  confirmation  of  its  Acts, 
while  including  again  the  name  of  Honorius  among  the 
condemned  Monothelites,  lavs  a  remarkable  stress  on 
the  ma^t^al  office  of  the  Roman  Church,  as,  in  gen- 
eral, the  documents  of  the  Sixth  General  Council  fa- 
vour stron^y  the  inerrancy  of  the  See  of  Peter.  "  Ihe 
Council'',  says  Dom  Chapman,  "accepts  the  letter  in 
which  the  Pope  defined  the  faith.  It  deposes  those 
who  refused  to  ftocept  it.  It  asks  [the  pope]  to  con- 
firm its  decisions.  The  Bishops  and  Emperor  declare 
that  they  have  seen  the  letter  to  contain  the  doctrine 
of  the  Fathers.  Agatho  speaks  with  the  voice  of  Pe- 
.ter  himself ;  from  Rome  the  law  had  gone  forth  as  out 
oi  Sion;  Peter  had  kept  the  faith  unaltered."  Pope 
Agatho  died  during  the  council  and  was  succeeded  by 
Leo  II,  who  confirmed  (683)  the  decrees  against  Mono- 
ihelism,  and  expressed  himself  even  more  narshly  than 
the  council  towards  the  memory  of  Honorius  (Hefde, 
Chapman),  though  he  laid  stress  chiefly  on  the  n^lect 
of  that  pope  to  set  forth  the  traditional  teaching  of  the 
Apostolic  See.  whose  spotless  faith  he  treasonably 
tried  to  overthrow  (or,  as  the  Greek  may  be  tran»> 
lated,  permitted  to  be  overthrown). 

The  Acts  of  the  CouncU  an  in  the  eleventh  volume  of  Mansi. 
Coil.  Cone.  The  most  complete  presentation  of  its  history  is  in 
Hepeli;.  ConcUienoeechidite  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg,   1877),   III. 


burg,  1864);  PSNNACCHI,  be  Honorii  I  Rom.  PonStif.  caved  m 
Cone.  VI  (Rome,  1870);  HsBoaNBOiHGs-KiiiacH,  Kirehen- 
oeach,  (4th  ed..  Fnibunc  1904),  I,  633-38:  Mabsbau.,  Hoi^ 
oriua  and  Liberiua  in  Am.  Cath.  QuarteHy  Rev.  (Philadelphia, 
1804).  XIX,  8^-^2;  Bottalla.  Pope  Honoriua  before  the  Tribu' 
not  of  Reaaon  and  Hialory  (London,  1864);  DOlunqbi  (Old 
CathoUo),  FaUea  reapeeting  the  Pcpee  in  the  Miidle  Agea,  Ameri- 
can ed.  of  the  Papatfabdn  (New  York.  1872),  22^-48;  Chaf- 
if  AN,  The  Condemnatton  of  Pope  Honoriua  in  Dublin  Review  for 
1007,  and  r^rinted  by  the  London  Cath.  Tbuih  Socnmr. 
1907;  OmaAK  in  Kirehenie*,,  VI,  230  am.  For  the  exteiuive 
Honorius  literature,  see  (^evausr,  £to-dw.,  8.V. 

IV.  TniB  FouRTB  Council  of  Constantikoplb 
(Eighth  General  Council)  was  opMied.  I»  Oct.,  $69,  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Sophia,  under  tne  presidency  of 
the  legates  of  Adrian  II.  During  the  preceding  de* 
cade  grave  irregtilarities  had  occurred  at  Constantl*- 
nople,  among  wem  the  deposition  of  the  Patriarch 


OORSTAKTINOFLB 


311 


QOHBTiOnaOllfLM 


Ignatius  and  the  intrusion  of  Photius,  whose  violent 
xneafiures  against  the  Roman  Church  culminated  in 
the  attempted  deposition  (867)  of  Nicholas  I.  The 
accession  m  that  year  of  a  new  emperor,  Basil  the 
Macedonian,  chan^  the  situation,  p<^tieal  and  ec- 
clesiaBtical.  Fhotius  was  interned  in  a  monastery; 
Ignatius  was  recalled,  and  friendly  relations  were  re- 
sumed with  the  Apostolic  See.  Both  Ignatius  and 
Basil  sent  representatives  to  Rome  asking  for  a  gen- 
eral council.  After  holding  a  Rtmian  synod  (June, 
869)  in  which  Photius  was  again  condemned,  the  pope 
sent  to  Constantinople  three  legates  to  premde  in  his 
name  over  the  counml.  Besides  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople there  were  present  the  representatives  of 
the  Patnardis  of  Antioch  and  Jerusalem  and,  towmxls 
the  end,  also  the  representatives  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria.  The  attendance  of  Ignatian  biidiops  was 
small  enough  in  the  begimiing;  indeed  there  were 
never  more  than  102  bishops  present. 

Hie  legates  were  asked  to  exhibit  their  commission, 
which  they  did;  then  th^  presented  to  the  memboiB 
of  the  council  the  famous  formula  (UbeBua)  of  Pope 
Hormisdas  (514-23),  binding  its  si^iatories  ''to  fol* 
low  in  everything  the  Apostouc  See  of  Rome  and  teach 
all  its  laws  ...  in  which  conmiunion  is  ihe  whole,  realy 
and  perfect  solidity  of  the  Cluristian  religk>n".  The 
Fathers  of  the  council  were  required  to  sign  thb  docu- 
ment, which  had  originally  be^  drawn  up  to  dose  ike 
Acacian  schism.  Ine  earlier  sessions  were  occupied 
with  the  reading  of  important  documents,  tho  recon- 
ciliation of  Ignatian  bishops  who  had  fallen  away  to 
Photius,  the  exclusion  of  some  Photian  prelates,  and 
the  refutation  c^  the  false  statements  of  two  fonner 
envovB  of  Photius  to  Rome.  In  the  fifth  sessbn  Pho- 
tius nimself  unwillingly  appeared,  but  when  ques- 
tioned observed  a  deep  silence  or  answered  only  in  a 
few  brief  words,  pretendine  blasphemously  to  imitate 
the  attitude  and  speech  of  Christ  before  Caiphas  and 
Pilate.  Through  his  representatives  he  was  given  an- 
other hearing  in  the  next  session ;  they  appealed  to  the 
canons  as  above  the  pope.  In  the  seventh  session  he 
c^peared  again,  this  time  with  his  oonsecarator  Qeorge 
Asoestas.  Thcry  appealed,  as  before,  to  the  ancient 
canons,  refused  to  recognize  the  presence  or  authority 
of  the  Roman  li^ates,  and  rejected  the  authority  (h 
the  Roman  Churdi,  though  they  offered  to  render  an 
account  to  the  emperor.  As  rhotius  would  tiot  re- 
nounce his  usurpea  daim  and  recognise  the  rightful 
patriarch  Ignatius,  the  former  Roman  excommunica- 
tions of  him  were  renewed  by  the  council,  and  he  was 
banished  to  a  monastery  on  the  Bosporus,  whence  he 
did  not  cease  to  denounce  the  council  as  a  triumph  of 
lying  and  impiety,  and  by  a  very  active  correspond- 
ence kept  up  the  courage  of  his  followers,  until  in  877 
the  death  of  Ignatius  opened  the  way  for  his  return  to 
power.  loonoclasm,  in  its  last  remnants,  and  the  in- 
tof  erence  of  the  civil  authority^  in  ecclesiastical  affairs 
were  denounced  by  the  counoiL  The  tenth  and  last 
session  was  held  in  the  presence  of  the  emperor,  his 
son  Constantine,  the  Bulgarian  king,  Micnael,  and 
the  ambassadors  of  Emperor  Louis  II. 

The  twenty-seven  canons  of  this  council  deal  partly 
with  the  situation  created  by  Photius  and  partly  witn 
eeneral  points  of  discipline  or  abuses.  The  decrees  of 
Nicholas  I  and  Adrian  II  against  Photius  and  in 
favour  of  Ignatiurl  were  read  and  confirmed,  the  Pho- 
tian derics  deposed,  and  those  ordained  by  Photius 
reduced  to  lay  communion.  The  council  issued  an 
Encydical  to  all  the  faithful,  and  wrote  to  the  pope 
requesting  his  confirmation  of  its  Acts.  The  pajxd 
legates  signed  its  decrees,  but  with  reservation  of  the 
papal  action.  Here,  for  the  first  time,  Rome  recog^ 
idxd  the  andent  claim  of  Constantinople  to  the  sec* 
ond  place  among  Ihe  five  great  patriarchates.  Greek 
pride,  however,  was  offended  by  the  compulsory 
sisnatme  of  the  af oresud  Roman  tormulary  of  recon- 
ciliation, and  in  a  subsequent  conference  of  Greek 


ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities  the  newly-converted 
Bi^barians  were  declared  subject  to  the  Patriardiate 
of  Constantinople  and  not  to  Rome.  Though  restored 
by  the  Apostouc  See,  Ignatius  proved  ungrateful,  and 
in  this  important  matter  sided  with  the  other  Eastem 
patriarchs  in  consummating,  for  political  reasons,  a 
notable  injustice;  the  territory  henceforth  known  as 
Bulgaria  was  in  reality  part  of  the  ancient  lUyria  that 
had  always  bdonged  to  the  Roman  patriarchate  untfl 
the  loonodast  Leo  III  (71S-41)  violently  withdrew  it 
and  made  it  subject  to  Constantinople,  ienatius  very 
soon  consecrated  an  archbishop  for  the  BuMsarians  and 
sent  thither  many  Cheek  missionaries,  whereupon  the 
Latin  bishops  and  priests  were  obliged  to  retire.  On 
their  way  home  the  papal  legfttes  were  plundered  and 
imprisoned;  they  had,  however,  given  to  the  care  of 
Anastasius,  Librarian  of  the  Roman  Qiurch  (present 
as  a  membor  of  the  Prankish  embassv)  most  of  the 
mibmiBBion-signatures  of  the  Greek  bifiuops.  We  owe 
to  him  the  lAtin  remon  of  these  documents  and  a 
copy  of  the  Greek  Acts  of  the  council  which  he  also 
translated  and  to  whidi  is  due  most  of  our  document- 
ary knowledge  of  the  proceedings.  It  was  in  vain 
that  Adrian  il  and  his  successor  threatened  Ignatius 
with  severe  penalties  if  he  did  not  withdraw  from 
Bulgaria  his  Greek  bishops  and  priests.  The  Roman 
Church  never  r^ained  the  vast  regions  she  then  lost. 
(See  Photius;  IaNATiireoFCk)NBTANTiNOPLB;  Nich- 
olas I.) 

HEBQBNSdVHKR,  PkoHut  (Ratiflboo,  1867-00),  I,  373  a^q^ 
505  sqq..  and  vol.  11:  Idem,  MonumerUa  Graea  ad  Photium 

2*tuque  historiam  perhnerUia  (Ratiabon,  1800);  Toan,  Storia 
iU*  oriffine  dello  aciama  greco  (Florenoe.  1856);  Hsfblb,  Con- 
cUiengMch.  (2nd  ed.,  Frabuic.  1877).  IV,  436  aqa.;  Mxlmaj« 
(Proteatant).  HiaUnv  of  Latin  ChriiHanitu,  Bk.  V,  ch.  iv;  Nob- 
den  (Proteatant),  PapsUum  und  Bytanz  (Berlin.  1003);  FoA- 
TSBCVB,  The  Orthodox  BatUnt  Church  (London,  1007),  166-61. 

B.  Particular  Counciui  of  Constantinoplii;.— L 
In  the  summer  of  382  a  council  of  ihe  Oriental  bishops, 
convoked  by  Hieodosiusi  met  in  the  imperial  city. 
We  still  have  its  important  profession  of  laith,  often 
wrongly  attributed  to  the  Second  General  (Council 
(i.  e.  at  C<»istaniinople  in  the  preceding  year),  ex- 
hibiting the  dootrinal  agreement  of  all  the  Chnstian 
churches:  also  two  canons  (v  and  vi)  wronsiy  put 
among  tne  canons  of  the  Second  General  Uouncil 
[Hefele-Leeleroq,  Hist,  des  Ck>nciles,  Paris,  1907,  II 
(i),  B^-S&l.  In  the  summer  of  the  next  year  (383) 
Theodosius  convoked  another  council,  with  the  nope 
of  uniting  all  factions  and  parties  amons  the  Christians 
on  the  basis  of  a  general  acceptance  of  the  teachings 
of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers.  He  met  with  a  qualified 
success  (Socrates,  V,  10;  Hefele-Ledercq,  op.  cit., 
63-65):  among  the  most  stubborn  of  those  who 
resisted  was  Eunomius  (see  Eunomianism). 

II.  The  council,  held  in  692,  under  Justinian  II  is 
generally  known  as  the  CouncU  in  TruUo,  because  it 
was  held  in  the  same  don^  hall  where  the  Sixth 
General  Council  had  met  (see  above).  Both  the  Fifth 
and  tiie  Sixth  (jeneral  Councils  had  omitted  to  draw 
up  disciplinaiy  canons,  and  as  this  council  was  in- 
tended to  complete  both  in  this  respect,  it  also  took 
the  name  of  Quinisext  (0>nc£Uum  Quinisextum,  Z^i^ 
^  vcrMrrif),  i.  e.  Fifth-Sixth.  It  was  attended  by 
215  bishops,  all  Orientals.  Basil  of  Crort3pa  in  Ulyria, 
however,  belonged  to  the  Roman  patriarchate  and 
called  himself  papal  legate,  though  no  evidence  is 
extant  of  his  right  to  use  a  title  that  in  the  East  served 
to  dothe  the  decrees  with  Roman  authority.  In  fact, 
the  West  never  recognised  the  102  disciplinary  canons 
of  this  council)  in  large  measure  reaffirmations  of 
earlier  canons.  Most  of  the  new  canons  exhibit  an 
inimical  attitude  towards  Churches  not  in  disciplinai}' 
accord  with  Constantinople,  especially  the  Western 
Churches.  Their  customs  are  anathematized  and 
''every  little  detail  of  difference  is  remembered  to  be 
ccmdemned"  (Fortescue).  Canon  iii  of  Constanti- 
nople (381)  and  canon  xxviii  of  (^halcedon  (451)  are 


OOVSTAHtnrOFLX 


312 


omsfjanmonM 


renewedi  the  heresy  of  Honorius  is  again  condcnmed 
(can.  i),  and  marriage  with  a  heretic  is  invalid  because 
Rome  says  it  is  merely  unlawful;  Rome  had  recog- 
niaed  fifty  of  the  Apostolic  Canons ;  therefore  the  other 
thirty-five  obtain  recognition  from  this  council,  and 
as  inspired  teaching  (see  Canons,  Apostolic). 

In  the  matter  of  celibacy  the  Greek  prelates  are  not 
content  to  let  the  Roman  Church  follow  its  own  dis- 
cipline, but  insist  on  making  a  rule  (for  the  whc^ 
Church)  that  all  clerics  except  bishops  may  continue 
in  wedlock,  while  they  excommunicate  anyone  who 
tries  to  separate  a  priest  or  deacon  from  his  wife,  and 
any  cleric  who  leaves  his  wife  because  he  is  ordidned 
(can.  iii,  vi,  xii,  xiii,  xlviii).  The  Orthodox  Crreek 
Church  holds  this  council  an  oecumenical  one,  and 
adds  its  canons  to  the  decrees  of  the  Fifth  and  Sixth 
Councils.  In  the  West  St.  Bede  calls  it  (De  sextA 
mundi  state)  a  reprobate  ssmod,  and  Paul  the  Deacon 
(Hist.  Lang.,  VI,  p.  11)  an  erratic  one.  Dr.  Fortescue 
riditly  says  (op.  cit.  below,  p.  96)  that  intolerance 
of  all  other  customs  with  the  wish  to  make  the  whole 
(Christian  world  conform  to  its  own  local  practices  has 
always  been  and  still  is  a  characteristic  note  of  the 
Byzantine  Church.  For  the  attitude  of  the  popes, 
substantially  identical,  in  face  of  the  various  attempts 
to  obtain  their  approval  of  these  canons,  see  Hefele, 
"Conciliengesch.''  (HI,  345-48). 

III.  In  754  the  Iconoclast  Emperor  Constantine  V 
called  in  the  imperial  city  a  council  of  338  bishops^ 
Throng  cowaroice  and  servility  th^  approved  tne 
heretical  attitude  of  the  emperor  and  his  father  Leo 
III,  also  the  arguments  of  the  Iconoclast  party  and 
their  measures  against  the  defenders  of  tne  sacred 
images.  They  anathematized  St.  Germanus  of  Con- 
stantinople and  St.  John  Damascene,  and  denoimced 
the  orthodox  as  idolaters,  etc. ;  at  the  same  tune  they 
resented  the  spoliation  of  the  churches  imder  pretext 
of  destroying  images  (see  Iconoclasm). 

IV.  For  the  three  Photian  s3mods  of  861  (deposition 
of  Ignatius),  867  (attempted  deposition  of  Nicholas 
I),  and  879  (recognition  of  Photius  as  lawful  patri- 
ardi),  recognized  by  the  Greeks  as  Eighth  General 
Council  in  opposition  to  the  council  of  ^-70,  \Hiich 
they  continue  to  abominate,  see  Photiub. 

V.  In  1639  and  1672  councils  were  held  by  the 
Orthodox  Greeks  at  Constantinople  condemnatory  of 
the  Calvinistic  confession  of  Cyril  Lucaris  and  his 
followers.  (See  Semnoz,  ''Les  demidres  annto  du 
patr.  Cyrille  Lucar"  in  •'Echos  d'Orient"  (1903),  VI, 
97-117,  and  Fortescue,  "Orthodox  Eastern  Church" 
(London,  1907),  267]. 

Tromas  J.  Shahan 

0oxi8tantinople»  Creed  of.    See  Nigene  Creed. 

Oonstantinople,  The  Rite  of  (or  Byzantine 
Rite),  the  Liturgies,  Divine  Office,  forms  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  sacraments  and  for  various  blessings, 
sacramentals,  and  exorcisms,  of  the  Church  of  Con- 
stantinople, which  is  now,  after  the  Roman  Rite,  l^ 
far  the  most  widely  spread  in  the  world.  With  one 
insignificant  exception — ^the  Litur^  of  St.  James  is 
used  once  a  year  at  Jerusalem  and  Zakynthos  (Zacvn- 
thus) — it  is  followed  exclusively  by  all  Orthodox 
Churches,  by  the  Melkites  (Melchites)  in  Syria  and 
EsTpt,  the  Uniats  in  the  Balkans  and  the  Italo-Greeks 
in  Ualabria,  Apulia,  Sicily,  and  Corsica.  So  that  more 
than  a  hundred  millions  of  Christians  perform  their 
devotions  according  to  the  Rite  of  Constantinople. 

I.  History. — ^This  is  not  one  of  the  original  parent- 
rites.  It  is  derived  from  that  of  Antioch.  Even  apart 
from  the  external  evidence  a  comparison  of  the  two 
litur^es  will  show  that  Constantinople  follows  Anti- 
och m  the  disposition  of  the  parts.  There  are  two 
original  Eastern  types  of  liturgy:  that  of  Alexandria, 
in  which  the  great  Intercession  comes  before  the  Con- 
secration, and  that  of  Antioch,  in  which  it  foUows  after 
the  Epiklesis.    The  Byzantine  use  in  both  its  Litui^ 


giee  (of  St.  Basil  and  St.  John  Chrysostom)  foUows  ex- 
actlv  the  order  of  Antioch.  A  number  of  other  par- 
aUeis  make  the  fact  of  this  derivation  clear  from  inter- 
nal evidence,  as  it  is  from  external  witness.  The  tra- 
dition of  the  Chureh  of  Constantinople  ascribes  the 
oldest  of  its  two  litumes  to  St.  Basil  the  Great  (d. 
379),  Metropolitan  of  Csesarea  in  Cappadocia.  This 
tradition  is  confirmed  by  contemporary  evidence.  It 
is  certain  that  St.  Basil  made  a  refonnation  of  the 
Lituigy  of  his  Church,  and  that  the  Byzantine  aervioe 
calledafter  him  represents  his  refoimedLituigy  in  its 
chief  parts,  although  it  has  undei]gone  further  modifi- 
cation since  his  time.  St.  Basil  Imnself  speaks  cm  sev- 
eral occasions  of  the  changes  he  made  in  tne  servioea  of 
CsBsarea.  He  writes  to  thecleigy  of  Neo-Cssarea  in 
Pontus  to  complain  of  opposition  against  himaelf  an 
account  of  the  new  way  ot  singiog  psalms  introduced 
by  his  authority  (Ep.  Basilii,  cvii,  Patr.  Gr.,  XXXII, 
763).    St.  Gregory  of  Naziansos  (Nasianaen,  d.  390) 


says  that  Basd  had  reformed  the  order  of  prayers 
UdxQp  ««lraf€f-Orat.    xx,    P.    G„    XXXV.    fHl). 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  (died  o.  395)  compares  his  brother 
Basil  with  Samud  because  he  "carerully  arranged  the 
form  of  the  Service''  ('Icpovp7k,  In  laudem  fr.  Has., 
P.  G.,  XLVI,  808).    Proklos  (Proclus)  of  Constanti- 
nople (d.  446)  writes:  "When  the  ereat  BasO  .  .  . 
saw  the  carelessness  and  degeneracy  oFmen  who  feared 
the  length  of  the  lituipy — ^not  as  if  he  thought  it  too 
long — he  shortened  its  form,  so  as  to  remove  the  weari- 
ness of  the  clergy  and  assistants"  (De  traditjone  di> 
vinie  Misss,  P.  (i.,  XLV,  849).    The  first  question 
that  presents  itself  is:   What  rite  was  it  that  Basil 
modined  and  shortened?    Certainly  it  was  that  used 
at  Caesarea  before  his  time.    And  this  was  a  local  form 
of  the  ^at  Antiochene  use,  doubtless  with  many 
local  variations  and  additions.    That  the  original  rite 
that  stands  at  the  head  of  this  Hne  of  development  is 
that  of  Antioch  is  proved  from  the  disposition  of  the 
present  Liturgy  of  St.  Basil,  to  which  we  have  already 
referred ;  from  the  fact  that,  before  the  rise  of  the  Pa- 
triarehate  of  Constantinople,  Antioch  was  the  head  of 
the  Churohes  of  Asia  Minor  as  well  as  of  Syria  (and  in- 
variably in  the  East  the  patriarchal  see  gives  the 
norm  in  lituigical  matters,  followed  and  then  gradu- 
ally modified  by  its  suffragan  Churches);  and  lastly 
by  the  absence  of  any  other  source.    At  the  head  of 
ail  Kastem  rites  stand  the  uses  of  Antioch  and  Alex* 
andria.    Lesser  and  later  Churches  do  not  invent  an 
entirely  new  service  for  themselves,  but  form  their 
practice  on  the  model  of  one  of  these  two.    Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Asia  Minor  in  liturgical  matters  derive 
from  Antioch,  just  as  Egypt,  Ab^^inia,  and  Nubia  do 
from  Alexandria.    The  two  Antiochene  lituigies  now 
extant  are  (1)  that  of  the  Eighth  Book  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions  and  (2),  pc^allel  to  it  in  every  way, 
the  Greek  Liturgy  of  St.  James  (see  Antiochene  Lit- 
xjrot).    These  are  the  starting-points  of  the  develop- 
ment we  can  follow.    But  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
St.  Basil  had  before  him  either  of  these  services,  as 
they  now  stand,  when  he  made  the  changes  in  ques- 
tion.   In  the  first  place,  his  source  is  rather  the  Lit- 
urgy of  St.  James  tnan  that  of  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions.   There  are  parallels  to  both  in  the  Basilian 
Rite;  but  the  likeness  is  mudi  greater  to  that  of  St. 
James.    From   the   beginning   of   the   Eucharistic 

grayer  (Vere  diqnwn  ei  jualum  est,  6\u  Preface)  to  the 
ismissaL  Basil's  order  is  almost  exactly  that  of 
James.  But  the  now  extant  lituigy  of  St.  James 
(in  Brightman,  ''liturgies  Eastern  and  Western" 
31-^)  has  itself  been  considerably  modified  in  later 
years.  Its  eariier  part  espedallv  (the  Lituigy  of  the 
Catechumens  and  the  Offertory)  is  certainly  later  than 
the  time  of  St.  Basil  In  any  case,  then,  vc  n?ust  go 
back  to  the  anginal  Antiochene  Rite  aa  the  source. 
But  neither  was  this  the  immediate  origin  of  the  re- 
form. It  must  be  remembered  that  all  living  rites  are 
subject  to  gradual  modification  through  use.    The 


OOVBTAirnVOFIJI 


313 


outliiie  and  frame  remain;  into  thiBirame  new prayeni 
are  fitted.  As  a  general  rule  liturgies  keep  the  disposi- 
tioo  of  their  parts,  but  tend  to  change  the  text  of  the 
prayers.  St.  Baml  took  as  the  basis  of  his  reform  the 
use  of  GsBsarea  in  the  fourth  century.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  that  use,  while  retaining  the  epsential 
Older  of  the  original  Axrtiochene  service,  had  already 
considerably  modified  various  parts,  especially  the 
actual  prayers.  We  have  seen,  for  instance,  that 
Basil  shortened  the  litursnr.  But  the  service  that 
bears  his  name  is  not  at  aU  shorter  than  the  present 
one  of  St.  James.  We  may,  then,  suppose  that  by  htt 
time  the  Liturgy  of  Cnsuea  had  been  oonaidenbly. 
lengthened  by  additional  prayers  (this  is  the  conunon 
development  of  LitiHgies).  When  we  say,  then,  that 
the  rite  of  Constantinople  that  bears  his  name  is  the 
Liturgv  of  St.  James  as  modified  by  St.  Basil,  it  must 
be  understood  that  Basil  is  rather  the  chief  turning* 
point  in  its  development  than  the  only  author  of  the 
change.  It  had  alread^r  passed  through  a  period  of 
development  before  his  time,  and  it  has  developed  fur- 
ther since.  Nevertheless,  St.  Basil  and  his  re£onn  of 
the  rite  of  his  own  city  are  the  starting-point  of  the 
spedal  use  of  Constantinople. 

A  comparison  of  the  present  lituigv  of  St.  Basil 
with  earlser  allusions  shows  that  in  its  «bief  parts  it  ib 
really  the  service  composed  by  him.  Peter  the  Dea^ 
con,  who  was  sent  bv  the  Scythian  monks  to  Pope 
Honnisdas  to  defend  a  famous  formula  they  had 
drawn  up  ("One  of  the  Trinity  was  crucified")  about 
the  year  512,  writes:  ''The  blessed  Basil,  Bishc^  of 
CflBsarea,  says  in  the  praver  of  the  holy  altar  which  is 
used  by  nearly  the  wnde  East:  Give,  oh  Locd, 
strength  and  protection ;  make  the  bad  good,  we  pniyi 
keep  the  sood  in  their  virtue;  for  Thou  oanst  oo  ail 
Uiings,  and  no  one  can  withstand  Thee ;  Thou  dost  save 
whom  Thou  wilt  and  no  one  can  hinder  Thy  will" 
(Petri  diac.  Ep.  ad  Fulgent,  vii,  26,  in  P,  L.,  LXV, 
449).  This  is  a  compilation  of  three  texts  in  the  B»- 
silian  lituiigy:  Keep  the  good  in  their  virtue;  make 
the  bad aooacy  iky  mercy  (Brightman,  op.  oiU,  pp.  333^ 
334) ;  the  words:  Givty  O  Lord,  strength  and  protection 
come  several  times  at  the  beginning  of  prayers;  and 
the  last  words  sae  an  acclamation  made  by  the  dioir 
or  people  at  the  end  of  several  (Renaudot,  I,  p. 
xxxvii).  The  Life  of  St.  Basil  ascribed  to  Aaphi- 
lochioe  (P.  O.,  XXIX,  301,  302)  quotes  as  composed 
by  him  the  begiiming  of  the  Introduetion-prayer  and 
that  of  the  Elevation  exactly  as  they  are  in  tne  existing 
Liturgy  (Bri^tman,  319,  341).  The  Second  CowMal 
of  Nicsa  (787)  says:  ''As  all  priests  of  the  holy  Lit- 
uigy  know,  Basil  sajw  in  the  prayer  of  the  Divine  Ana- 
phora: We  approach  with  confidence  to  the  holy 
altar  .  .  .  ".  The  prayer  is  the  one  that  follows  the 
Anamnesis  in  St.  Basil's  Liturgy  (Brightman,  p.  329. 
Ct.  Hardouin,  IV,  p.  371). 

From  these  and  similar  indications  we  conclude  that 
the  Litur^  of  St.  Basil  in  its  oldest  extant  fonn  m' 
substantiSuv  authentic,  namely,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  Anapnora  to  the  Communion.  The  Mass  of  the 
Catechum^is  and  the  Offertory  iNrayers  have  devel- 
oped siace  his  death.  St.  Gregory  Naaiaiuwn,  in  de- 
scribing the  saint's  famous  encounter  with  Yalens  at 
CsBsarea,  in  372,  describes  the  Offertory  as  a  simpler 
rite,  accompanied  with  psalms  sung  by  the  people  out 
without  aa  audible  Offertory  prayer  (€hreg.  Nas.,Or., 
riiii,  52,  P.  G.,  XXXVI,  661).  This  oldest  form  of 
^eBastlian  Liturgy  is  contained  in  a  manuscript  of 
the  Barberini  Library  of  about  the  year  800  (MS.,  Ill, 
55,  reprinted  in  Brishtman,  309-344).  The  Lituivy 
of  St  Basil  now  used  in  the  Orthodox  and  Melkite  (or 
Meldiite)  Churehes  (Euchok>gion,  Venice,  1898,  pp. 
75^7;  Brightman,  400-411)  1s  printed  after  that  of 
St.  ChiTiostom  and  differs  fhxn  it  onlv  in  the  prayers 
said  br  the  priest,  diiefly  in  the  Anaphora;  it  has  re- 
ceivea  furuier  unimportant  modifications.  It  is 
probable  that  even  before  the  time  of  St.  Jdm  Chiysos- 


tom  the  Liturgy  of  Basil  was  used  at  Constantinople. 
We  have  seen^at  Peter  the  Deaoon  mentk>ns  that  it 
was  '<used  by  nearly  the  whole  Bast".  It  would 
seem  that  the  importance  of  the  See  of  Gnsarea  (even 
beyond  its  own  exarehy),  the  fame  of  St.  Basil,  and 
the  practical  convenience  of  this  short  Lituigy  led  to 
its  adoption  by  many  Qiurches  in  Asia  a^  Syria* 
Hie  '"East"  in  Peter  the  Deacon's  Kmark  would 
probably  meaa  the  Roman  Prefecture  of  the  East 
(Prmfeokura  OrionOa)  that  included  Thrace.  Moie- 
over,  when  St.  Gregory  of  Nasiansos  came  to  Gonstan- 
tinople  to  adnunister  that  diocese  (881)  he  found  in 
use  theiea  Lituigy  that  was  pracUcallv  the  same  as  the 
oneiie  had  known  at  hmne  in  Gappaoocia.  His  Sixth 
Oration  (P.  G.,  XXXV,  721  sq.)  was  hdd  in  Cappi^ 
dooia,  his  Thirty-eighth  (P.  G.,  XXXVI,  811)  at  Con- 
stantinople. In  both  he  refers  to  and  quotes  the  Eu- 
charistie  prayer  that  his  hearen  know.  A  comparison 
of  the  two  texts  shows  that  the  prayer  is  the  same. 
This  proves  that,  at  any  rate  in  its  most  important 
element,  the  liturgy  used  at  the  capital  was  that  of 
Oappadoda^-the  one  that  St  Basil  used  as  a  basis  of 
his  reform.  It  would  therefore  be  most  natural  that 
the  reform  tooshould  in  time  be  adopted  at  Constanti- 
nople. But  it  would  seem  that  before  Chiysostom 
tlus  BasiHan  Bite  (according  to  the  universal  nile)  had 
received  further  development  and  addiUons  at  Con* 
stantinople.  It  has  b^n  suggested  tiiat  the  oldest 
form  of  the  Nestorian  lituxtnr  is  the  original  Byaan- 
tine  Rite,  the  one  that  St.  Uhrysostom  found  in  use 
when  he  became  patriarch  (I^bst,  ''Lit.  des  IV. 
Jah]htB.",413). 

Hie  next  epodb  in  the  history  of  the  Bvaantine  Rite 
is  the  reform  of  St.  John  Chiysostom  (d.  407).  He 
not  only  further  modified  the  Rite  of  Basil,  but  left 
both  his  own  reformed  Lituisy  and  the  unreformed 
Basilian  one  itself,  as  the  exclaaive  uses  of  Coostanti- 
nople.  St.  John  became  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
in  397;  he  reigned  there  till  403,  was  then  banished, 
but  came  back  in  the  same  year;  was  banished  again 
in  404,  and  died  in  exile  in  407.  The  traditi<m  of  his 
Church  says  that  during  the  time  of  his  patriarchate  ■ 
he  composed  from  the  Basilian  Liturgy  a  shorter  form 
that  is  the  one  still  in  ooounon  use  throughout  the 
Orthodox  Churdi.  The  same  text  of  Proklos  (Proe- 
lus)  quoted  above  continues:  ''Not  Ions  afterwards 
our  father,  John  Chrysostom,  sealous  for  tne  salvation 
of  his  flock  as  a  shc^eid  should  be,  considering  the 
cardessness  of  human  nature,  thorou^y  rootwl  up 
every  diabolical  objection.  He  ther^ore  left  out  a 
great  part  and  ahortoned  all  the  forms  lest  anyone . . . 
stay  away  from  this  Apostolic  and  Divine  Institution  * ', 
eta  He  would,  then,  have  treated  St.  Basil's  rite 
exactl^r  as  Basil  treated  the  older  rite  of  Cassarea. 
There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  this  tradition  in  the  main 
issue.  A  comparison  of  the  Lituigy  of  Chrysostom 
with  that  of  Basil  will  show  that  it  follows  the  same 
Older  and  is  shortened  considerably  in  the  text  of  the 
prayers;  a  further  comparison  of  its  text  with  the 
numerous  allusions  to  the  rite  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  ' 
in  Chrysostom's  homilies  will  show  that  the  oldest 
form  we  have  of  the  Liturgy  agtees  substantially  with 
the  one  he  describes  (Briehtman,  530-534).  But  it  is 
also  certain  that  the  modem  Lituisy  of  St.  Chrysos- 
tom has  received  considerable  modifications  and  addi- 
ti<M28  since  his  time.  In  order  to  reconstruct  the  rite 
used  by  him  we  must  take  away  from  the  present 
Lituigy  all  the  IVeparatlon  of  the  Offerings  (JlpoaKo- 
fuii(),  the  ritual  of  the  Little  and  Great  EkiUances,  and 
the  Creed.  The  service  began  with  the  bishop's  greet* 
in^,  "Peace  to  all",  and  the  answer,  ''And  with  thy 
spuit. "  The  lessens  followed  from  the  Prophets  and 
Aposties,  and  the  deacoD  read  the  Grospel.  After  the 
Gospel  the  bishop  or  a  priest  preached  a  homily,  and 
the  prayer  over  the  catechumens  was  said.  (Jrigi- 
nally  it  had  been  followed  by  a  prayer  over  penitents, 
but  Nektarios  ^381-397)  had  abolished  the  discipline 


CKursTAwmronds* 


314 


aOMBTAHmrOPLB 


of  public  penanoe,  so  in  St.  Ohrysofltom's  Liiui^gy  this 
wayer  is  left  out.  Then  came  a  prarer  for  the  faith- 
ful ^ptized)  and  the  difimiagal  of  tiie  catechumens. 
81.  Chiysoetom  mentions  a  new  ritual  for  the  Offer- 
tory: the  choir  accompanied  the  bishop  and  formed  a 
solemn  procession  to  bring  the  bi«ad  and  "srine  firom 
the  protnesis  to  the  altar  (Horn,  xxxvi,  in  I  Cot,f  vi, 
P.  G.,  LXI,  313).  Nevertheless  the  present  cere- 
monies and  the'Clierubic  Chant  that  accompany  tiie 
Qreat  Entrance  are  a  later  development  (Biightman, 
op.  dt^  530).  The  Kiss  of  Peace  apparently  preceded 
the  Offertory  in  Chrysostom's  time  (Bri^mman,  op. 
dt.,  522,  Probst,  op.  cit.,  208).  The  Eucharistio 
prayer  began,  as  everywhere,  witn  the  dialogue:  **  Lift 
up  your  hearts  "  etc.  This  prayer,  which  is  cleariy  an 
abbreviated  form  of  that  in  the  Basilian  Rite,  is  cot- 
tainly  authentically  of  St.  Chrysostom.  It  is  appar- 
ently chiefly  in  reference  to  it  that  Proldos  says  that 
he  has  shortened  the  older  rite.  The  Sanotus  was 
sung  by  the  people  as  now.  The  ceremonies  per- 
formed by  the  deacon  at  the  words  of  Institution  are 
a  later  addition.  Probst  thinks  that  the  origmal 
Epiklesis  of  St.  Chrysostom  ended  at  the  words  ''Send 
thy  Holy  Spirit  down  on  us  and  on  these  gifts  spread 
before  us''  (Brightman,  op.  dt.,  386),  and  that  the 
continuation  (jspeciaUy  tiie  disconnected  interrup- 
tion: Ood  be  mercihd  to  me  a  einnerf  now  inserted  into 
the  Epiklesis;  Maltsew,  ''Die  Liturgien"etc.,  Berlin, 
1894,  p.  88)  are  a  later  addition  (op.  dt.,  414).  The 
Intercession  followed  at  once,  beginning  with  a  mem- 
oiy  of  the  saints.  Hie  prayer  for  t£e  dead  came 
before  that  for  the  living  (ibid.,  216-415).  The  Eu* 
charistic  prayer  ended  with  a  doxology  to  which  the 
people  ans  :ered.  Amen;  and  then  the  bishop  greeted 
them  with  the  text,  **The  mercy  of  our  great  (Sad  and 
Saviour  Jesizi  Christ  be  with  all  of  you'*  (Tit.,  ii,  13), 
to  which  they  answered:  ''And  with  thy  spirit'*,  as 
usual.  The  Lord's  Prayer  followed,  introduced  by  a 
short  litany  spoken  by  the  deacon  and  followed  by  the 
wdl-known  doxology:  ''For  thine  is  the  kingdom" 
etc.  This  ending  was  added  to  the  Our  Father  in  the 
Codex  of  the  New  Testament  used  by  St.  Chrysostom 
(cf.  Hom.  xix  in  P.  G.,  LVH,  282).  Another  greeting 
(Peace  to  all)  with  its  answer  introduced  the  manual 
acts,  first  an  Elevation  with  the  words  "  Holy  things 
for  the  holy"  etc.,  the  Breaking  of  Bread  and  the' 
Communion  under  both  kinds.  In  Chryaostom's  time 
it  seems  that  people  recdved  dther  kmd  separatdy, 
drinking  from  the  chalice.  A  short  prayer  of  thaaks- 
givine  ended  the  Ldtuiigy.  That  is  the  rite  as  we  see 
it  in  tne  saint's  homilies  (cf.  Probst.,  op.  dt.,  156-202, 
202-226).  It  is  true  that  most  of  tnese  homilieB  were 
preached  at  Antioch  (387-397)  before  he  went  to  Con- 
stantinople. It  would  seem,  tiien,  that  the  Lituxgy  of 
St.  ChiyBostom  was  in  great  part  that  of  his  time  at 
Antit^ch,  and  that  he  introduced  it  at  the  capital  when 
he  became  patriarch.  We  have  seen  from  Peter  the 
Deacon  that  St.  Basils  Rite  was  used  by  "nearly  the 
whole  East''.  There  is,  then,  no  difficulty  In  suppos- 
ing that  it  had  penetrated  to  Antioch  and  was  already 
abridged  there  into  the  "  LdtuiTgy  of  Chrysostom"  be- 
fore that  saint  brought  this  abridged  form  to  Constan- 
tinople. 

It  was  this  Chrysostom  Liturgy  that  gradually  be- 
came the  common  Eucharistic  service  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  that  spread  throughout  the  Orthodox 
worid,  as  the  city  that  had  adopted  it  became  more 
and  more  the  acloiowledged  head  of  Eastern  Christen^ 
dom.  It  did  not  completely  displace  the  older  rite  of 
St.  Basil,  but  reduced  its  use  to  a  very  few  days  in  the 
year  on  which  it  is  still  said  (see  below,  under  II). 
MeanwhOe  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Chrysostom  itself  under- 
went further  modification.  The  oldest  form  of  it  now 
extant  is  in  the  same  manuscript  of  the  Barberini 
Library  that  contains  St.  Basil's  Liturgy.  In  this  the 
elaborate  rite  of  the  Proskomide  hns  not  yet  been 
added,  but  it  has  already  received  additions  since  the 


time  of  the  saint  whose  name  it  bean.  The  l^isaaio 
(Holy  God,  Holy  Strong  One,  Holy  Immortal  Qo^ 
have  mercy  on  us)  at  the  little  Entrance  is  aid  to 
have  been  revealea  to  Proklos  of  Constantinople  (434- 
47,  St.  John  Dam.,  De  Fide  Orth.,  Ill,  10) ;  tlus/robsr 
Uy  gives  the  date  of  its  insertion  int>>  the  Litiu  jy. 
l£e  Cherubikon  that  accompanies  the  Great  Entraiioe 
was  apparently  added  by  «lustin  II  (565-78,  Bri^t- 
man,  op.  dt.,  532),  and  the  Creed  that  foUows,  just 
before  the  beginning  of  the  Anaphora,  b  dao  ::aeri  jed 
to  him  (Joonnis  Bidarensis  Chronieon,  P.  Lb,  LXXU, 
803).  Since  the  Barberini  Euchologkm  (ninth  cent) 
the  Preparation  of  the  Offerings  (r/too-c^/u^)  at  the 
credence-table  (called  prothesas)  gradually  cleveloped 
into  the  elaborate  rite  that  now  accompanies  it 
Brightman  (op.  dt.,  539*^2)  gives  a  series  of  docu- 
ments from  whidi  the  evolution  €i  this  rite  may  be 
traced  from  the  ninth  to  the  sixteenth  century. 

These  are  the  two  Liturgies  of  Censtanti  loi^e,  the 
older  one  of  St  Basil,  now  said  on  oiJy  a  f ^w  days, 
and  the  lator  shortened  one  of  St  Chrysostom  that  is 
in  common  use.  Hiere  remains  the  third,  the  Litur^ 
ofthePresanctified(rArir/winrMi^ic^MM')-  Thisservio^ 
that  in  the  Latin  Church  now  occurs  only  on  Good 
Friday,  was  at  one  tune  used  on  the  aliturgical  days  of 
Lent  everywhere  (see  Axituboioal  Days  and  Du- 
chesne, Originee,  222,  238).  This  is  still  the  practice 
of  the  Eastern  Churches.  The  Paschal  Chromde  (see 
Chrontcon  Paschale)  of  the  year  645  (P.  T,  XCII) 
mentions  the  Presanctified  Liturgy,  and  the  fifty- 
second  cancm  of  the  Second  Tnillan  Council  (692) 
orders:  ^  On  all  days  of  the  fast  of  forty  days,  except 
Saturdays  and  Sundays  and  the  day  of  the  Holy 
Annunciation,  ihe  Liturgy  of  the  Preranctified  shall 
be  celebrated.''  The  essence  of  this  Liturgy  is  sitiply 
that  the  Blessed  Sacrament  that  has  been  conaecratcd 
on  the  preceding  Sunday,  and  is  reserved  in  the  taber- 
nacle (dfiTo^6ptop)  under  both  kinds,  is  taken  out  and 
distributed  as  Communion.  It  is  now  always  cele- 
brated at  the  end  of  Vespers  (^(nrc^vdt),  which  form 
its  first  part.  The  lessons  are  read  os  usual,  and  thu 
litanies  sune;  the  catechumens  are  dirmissed,  and 
tben,  the  wnole  Anaphora  being  naturaUy  omitto'l, 
Communion  is  given;  the  Uessing  and  draniss:!  fol- 
low. A  great  pStft  of  the  rite  is  simply  taken  frc  ^Iie 
corresponding  parts  of  St.  Chrysostom's  Liturgy.  The 
present  form,  then,  is  a  comparativdy  kto  onw  H^si 
supposes  ^e  normal  litiurgies  of  ConstaLtinople.  It 
has  oeen  attributed  to  various  persons — St  James,  St 
P^ter,  St.  Basil,  St  Germanos  I  of  Constantinople 
(715-30),  and  so  on  (Brightman,  op.  dt,  p.  xciu). 
But  in  the  service  books  it  is  now  offidally  ascribed  to 
St.  Gregory  Dialogos  (Pope  Gregory  I).  It  is  impjos- 
sible  to  say  how  this  certainly  mistaken  ascription 
bc^an.  The  Greek  legend  is  that,  when  he  was 
apocrisiarius  at  Constantinople  (578),  seeing  that  the 
Gtteeks  had  no  fixed  rite  for  this  Communion-service, 
he  composed  this  cme  for  them. 

The  origin  of  the  Divine  Office  and  of  the  rites  for 
sacraments  and  sacramentals  in  the  Bysantine  Church 
is  more  difficult  to  trace.  Here  too  we  have  now  the 
result  of  a  long  and  gradual  devdopment;  and  the 
starting-point  of  that  development  is  certainly  the  use 
ofAntioch.  But  bereave  no  names  that  stand  out  as 
dhearfjr  as  do  those  of  St  Basil  and  St.  Chrysosto.a  in 
the  history  of  the  Lituigy.  We  may  periiaps  fin  *  tLo 
trace  of  a  dmilar  action  on  their  part  in  the  case  of  the 
Office.  The  new  way  of  ranging  psalms  intvoduced  by 
St.  Basil  (Ep.  cvii,  see  above)  would  in  the  first  lAaM 
affect  the  canonical  Hours.  It  was  the  mannr^  of 
singing  psalms  antiphonally,  that  is  alternately  *)7 
two  choirs,  to  which  we  are  accusUMned,  that  had  J^ 
ready  been  introduced  at  AnModi  in  the  time  or  thfl 
Patnareh  Leontios  (Leontius,  344-57;  llieodoret.  H. 
R,  II,  xxiv).  We  find  one  or  two  other  alludons  to 
reforms  in  various  rites  among  the  works  of  St.  Ouys- 
ostom;  thus  he  desires  people  to  accompany  funeralfi 


OOirSTiUmHOFXiB 


315 


OOHSTAMTXHaPUi 


by  singiDg  psalms  (Hom«  iv,  in  £p.  ad  Hebr..  P»  G., 

With  r^u^d  to  the  Divine  Office  especially,  it  has 
the  srae  general  principles  in  East  and  West  from  a 
veiy  early  age  (see  Brkviart).  Essentially  it  oon- 
sista  in  psalm-«inging.  Its  fint  and  most  important 
part  is  the  Night-watch  {vannrxb,  our  Nocturne) :  at 
dawn  the  6p$pot  (Lauds)  waa  sung;  during  tibe  dav 
the  people  met  again  at  the  third,  sixth,  and  ninth 
hours,  and  at  sunset  for  the  iawtpivd^  (Vespers).  Bo- 
Bides  the  psalms  these  Offices  contained  lessons  f  run 
the  Bible  and  collects.  A  peculiarity  of  the  Antiodi* 
ene  use  was  the  ^Oioria  in  excelsis''  sung  at  the 
OrthroB  (Ps.-Athan.,  De  Virg.,  xx,  P.  G.7xXVin, 
276);  the  evening  hymn,  ^«}t  (Xap6r,  still  sung  in  the 
Bysantine  Rite  at  the  Hesperinos  and  attributed  to 
A'  henogenes  (in  tiie  second  cent.),  is  quoted  by  St. 
Basil  (De  Spir.  Sancto,  famii,  P.  G.,  XXXII,  205). 
Egeria  of  Aquitaine,  the  pilgrmi  to  Jerusalem,  gives  a 
vivid  description  of  the  Office  as  sung  there  accordmg 
to  Antioch  in  the  fourth  century  (''8.  Silvia  (si^ 
peregrin.",  ed.  Gamurrini,  Rome,  1887].  To  tins  series 
of  Hours  two  ^7ere  added  in  the  fourth  century.  John 
Cassian  (Instit.,  Ill,  iv)  describes  the  adqitidn  of 
Prime  by  tlie  monks  of  Palestine,  and  St.  Baaii  refera 
(loc  cit.)  to  OompUn  {dw6dMtirpow)  as  the  monks' 
evening  prayer,  rame  and  CSomplin,  then,  were 
originally  private  pmvetB  said  by  monks  in  addition  to 
the  ricial  Hours.  Tne  Antiochene  manner  of  keepina 
this  Office  wns  famous  all  over  the  Eaat.  Flavian  m 
Antioch  in  387  softened  the  heart  of  Theododus  (after 
the  outra^  to  the  statues)  by  making  his  clerks  sing 
tc  him  ''the  suppliant  chants  of  Antioch''  (Sosom., 
H.  £.,  VII,  xxiii).  And  St.  John  Chiysoetom,  as  soon 
as  he  comes  to  Constantinople,  introduces  the  methods 
of  Antiodi  in  keeping  the  canonical  Hours  (16,  VIII, 
8).  Eventually  the  Eastern  Office  admits  short  ser- 
vices (M«ir6c#/Mi)  between  the  da^  Hours,  and  between 
Vespers  and  Complin.  Into  this  frame  a  number  of 
famous  poets  have  fitted  a  long  succession  of  canons 
(nnmetncal  hymns);  of  these  poets  St.  Romanos  the 
singer  (sixth  cent.)y  St.  Coemas  the  aiumr  (eighth 
cent.),  St.  John  Damascene  (c  780),  St.  Theodore  of 
Studion  (d.  826),  etc,  are  the  most  famous  (see  Btzan* 
TINE  Lttbraturb,  sub-titlc  IV.  Ecdematiical  etc). 
St.  Sabas  (d.  532)  and  St.  John  Damascene  eventually 
arranged  Uie  Office  for  the  whole  year,  though,  like  the 
Idtuigy,  it  has  imdeigone  further  development  since, 
till  it  acquired  its  present  form  (see  below). 

n.  Tbb  Byzanthib  Rttb  at  the  Present  Tub. — 
The  Rite  of  Constantinople  now  used  throu^out  the 
Orthodox  Church  does  not  maintain  any  prmoq>le  c^ 
Hmiformity  in  language  In  various  countries  the 
«ame  prayers  and  forms  are  translated  (with  unim- 
portant variations)  into  what  is  supposed  to  be  more 
or  less  the  vul^r  tongue.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, it  is  only  m  Rumania  that  the  lituittical  language 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  people.  Greek  (from  whidi 
all  the  others  are  translated)  is  used  at  Constantino- 
ple, in  Macedonia  (by  the  ratriardiists),  Greece,  by 
Greek  monks  in  Palestine  and  Syria,  by  nearly  all  Or- 
thodox in  Ekypt;  Arabic  in  parts  of  Syria,  Palestine, 
and  bv  a  few  churches  in  Egypt;  Old  Slavonic 
throu^out  Russia,  in  Bulgaria,  and  by  all  Exarchists, 
in  Csemagora,  Servia,  and  by  the  Orthodox  in  Austria 
and  Hunguy;  and  Rumanian  by  the  Church  of  that 
country.  Tnese  four  are  the  principal  languages. 
Liater  Ruadan  missions  use  Esthonian,  Lettiiui,  and 
German  in  the  Baitio  provinces,  Finnish  and  Tatar  in 
Finland  and  Siberia,  Chinese,  and  Japanese.  (Bright- 
man,  op.  cit.,  LXXXI-LXXXII).  Althou^  the 
Liturgy  has  been  translated  into  English  (see.Hajv- 
good,  op.  dt.  in  bibliography),  a  translation  is  never 
used  in  any  church  of  the  Greek  Rite.  Hie  Uniats 
use  Greek  at  Constantinople,  in  Italy,  and  partially 
in  Syria  and  £en>t,  Arabic  chiefly  in  these  countries. 
Old  Slavonic  in  Slav  Uuids,  and  Rumanian  in  Rumania. 


It  is  curious  to  note  that  in  spite  of  this  great  diversity 
of  languages  the  ordinary  Orthodox  lawman  no  more 
understands  his  Lituigjr  than  if  it  were  m  Greek.  Old 
Slavonic  and  the  semi-classical  Arabic  in  which  it  is 
su^  are  dead  languages. 

The  Calendar. — ^It  is  well  known  that  the  Orthodox 
still  use  the  Julian  Calendar  (Old  Style).  By  this 
time  (1908)  they  are  thirteen  days  behmd  us.  Their 
lituigical  year  b^ns  on  1  September,  "the  begin- 
ning of  the  Indict,  that  is  of  the  new  year".  On  15 
November  begins  the  first  of  their  four  ««at  fasts,  the 
''fast  of  Ourist's  birth"  that  lasts  till  Christmas  (25 
December).  The  fast  of  Easter  b^ios  on  the  Monday 
after  the  sixth  Sunday  before  Easter,  and  they  abstain 
from  flesh-meat  after  the  seventh  Sunday  before  the 
feast  (our  Sexagesima).  The  fast  of  the  Apostles  lasts 
from  the  day  after  the  first  Sunday  after  Pentecost 
(their  All  Saints'  Day)  till  28  June,  the  fast  of  the 
Mother  of  (Sod  from  1  August  to  14  August.  Through-* 
out  this  year  fall  a  great  number  of  feasts.  The  great 
cyeieB  are  the  same  as  ours — Christmas,  followed  oy  a 
Memory  of  the  Mother  of  Crod  on  26  December,  then 
St,  Stephen  on  27  December,  etc.  Easter,  Ascension 
Day,  and  Whitmmd^  follow  as  with  us.  Many  of  the 
other  feeats  are  the  same  as  ours,  though  often  with 
different  names.  They  divide  them  into  three  cate- 
soriesy  feasts  of  our  Lord  (iopral  de^warucaC),  of  the 
Mother  of  Ck>d  (ito/JntirpucaC),  and  of  the  saints  {tQw 
6yimp).  They  count  the  ''Holy  meeting"  (with  St. 
Simeon^  2  Februaiy),  the  Annunciation  (25  March), 
the  Awakening  of  Laiarus  (Saturday  before  Palm 
Sunday),  etc,  as  feasU  of  Our  Lord.  The  .hief  feasts 
of  Our  Lady  are  her  birthday  (8  Septenxber),  Presenta- 
tion in  the  Temple  (21  November),  Conception  (9  De- 
cember), Falling-asleep  (jco^i^if,  15  August),  and 
the  Keeping  of  her  Robe  at  the  Blachems  (at  Con- 
stantinople, 2  July).  Feasts  are  further  divided  ac- 
cording to  their  sol^nnity  into  three  classes:  great, 
middle,  and  less  days.  Easter  of  course  stands  alone 
as  greatest  of  alL  It  is  "The  Feast"  (^  iofn^,  o^kJ); 
there  are  twelve  other  very  p;reat  days  and  twelve 
neat  ones.  Certain  chief  samts  (the  Apostles,  the 
uiree  holy  hierarchs — Sts.  Basil,  Gregory  of  Nazian- 
sus,  and  John  Chrysostom— 30  January,  the  holy  and 
equal-to-the-Apostles  Sovereigns,  Constantino  and 
Helen,  etc.)  have  middle  feasts;  all  the  others  are 
lesser  ones.  The  Sundays  are  named  after  the  subject 
of  their  Gospel ;  the  first  Sunday  of  Lent  is  the  feast  of 
Orthodoxy  (after  Iconoclasm),  the  Saturdays  before 
Meatiess  Sunday  (our  Sexf^^emma)  and  Whitsunday 
are  All  Souls'  days.  Our  Trinity  Sunday  is  their  AU 
Saints.  Wednesdajrs  and  Fridays  throughout  the 
year  are  days  of  abstinence  (Fortescue,  '^Orth.  East- 
em  Church^  39S-401). 

Service^booke, — ^The  Bysantine  Rite  has  no  such 
eompendiums  as  our  Missal  and  Breviary;  it  ia  con- 
tained in  a  number  of  loosely  arranged  books.  Th^ 
are:  theTypikon  (rifircic6ir),  a  perpetual  calendar  con- 
taining f uU  directions  for  all  feasts  and  all  possible  co- 
incidences. The  Euchologion  (c^oX^ioy)  contains 
the  priest's  part  of  the  Hesperinos,  Orthros,  the  three 
Liturgies,  and  other  sacraments  and  sacramentak. 
The  Triodion  (r/M^f  itor)  contains  the  variable  parts  of 
the  Liturgy  and  Divine  Oflice  (except  the  psalms, 
Epistles,  and  Gospeb)  for  the  movable  days  from  the 
tenth  Sunday  before  Easter  to  Holy  Saturday.  The 
Pentekostarion  (ircmfJCD^d/»wr)  continues  the  Trio- 
dion from  Easter  Day  to  the  first  Sunday  after  Pente* 
cost  (All  Saints'  Sundav).  The  Oktoechos  (^crc^iyx' 
os)  gives  the  Offices  of  the  Sundays  for  the  rest  of  the 
year  (arranged  accercUng  to  the  eight  modes  to  whidi 
they  are  sung — 6terA  Ijxoi)  and  the  Parakletike  (vupa- 
kkffTiKi)  is  for  the  weekdays.  The  twelve  Menaias 
(/KfM&u),  one  for  eadi  month,  contain  the  Proper  of 
Saints;  the  Menologion  (firipQ\6yio¥\  is  a  shortened 
version  of  the  Menaia,  and  the  Ilorologion  (ifpoK^tow) 
contains  the  choir's  part  of  the  day  Hours.    Th» 


OCmSTAMTIMOPLS 


316 


OOHRAMTnrOPLl 


Fsalter  (^oXrii^pwr),  Gospel  (€6ayyikbQw\  and  Apos* 
tie  (Ar6ar6\of — Epistles  and  Acts)  contain  the  parts 
of  the  Bible  read  (Fortescue,  "Orth.  E.  Ch.'*,  ^101-402; 
NiUes,  "Kal.  Man.",  XLIV-LVI;  Kattenbusch, 
"Confessionskunde",  I,  478-486). 

The  aUar,  vestments  and  aacred  veasets^^-^A  church  of 
the  Byzantine  Rite  should  have  only  one  altar.  In  a 
few  very  lai^  ones  there  are  side-chapels  with  altars, 
and  the  Uniats  sometimes  copy  the  Latin  multitude  of 
altars  in  one  church ;  this  ic  an  abuse  taat  is  not  con- 
sistent with  their  rite.  The  altar  (if  Ayia  rpdircju) 
stands  in  the  middle  of  the  sanetuarv  (le^retbr) ;  it  is 
covered  to  the  ground  with  a  linen  cloth  over  which  is 
laid  a  silk  or  velvet  covering.  The  Euchologion,  a 
folded  antimension,  and  perhaps  one  or  two  other  in- 
struments used  in  the  Litur^  sLre  laid  on  it;  nothing 
else.  [See  Altar  (in  the  Greek  Crxjrgh).]  Behind 
the  altar,  round  the  apse,  are  seats  for  priests  with  the 
bi^op's  throne  in  the  middle  (in  every  chiu-ch).  On 
the  north  side  of  the  altar  stands  a  large  credence-table 
{irpbStffts) ;  the  first  part  of  the  Liturgy  is  said  here. 
On  the  south  side  is  the  diakonikon,  a  sort  of  sacristy 
where  vessels  and  vestments  are  kept;  but  it  is  in  no 
way  walled  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sanetuarv.  The 
sanctuary  is  divided  from  the  rest  of  the  church  by  the 
ikonostasis  (ckoi^ra^tf,  picture-screen),  a  great 
screen  stretching  across  the  whole  width  and  rea^ng 
high  up  to  the  roof  (see  sub-title  The  Icanostasis  s.  v. 
Altar,  History  op  tbb  Christian).  On  the  outside 
it  is  covered  with  a  great  number  of  pictures  of  Christ 
and  the  saints,  arranged  in  a  more  or  less  determined 
order  (Christ  aiways  to  the  right  of  the  royal  doors  and 
the  Bl.  Virgin  on  &e  left),  before  which  rows  of  lamps 
are  hung.  The  ikonostasis  has  three  doors,  the 
"royal  door"  in  the  middle,  the  deacon's  door  to  the 
souui  (right  hand  as  one  enters  the  church^,  and  an- 
other door  to  the  north.  Between  the  roval  door  and 
the  deacon's  door  the  bishop  has  another  throne  f  acii^ 
the  neople.  Immediately  outside  the  ikonostasis  is 
the  choir.  A  mat  part  of  the  services  take  place  here. 
In  the  body  of  the  church  the  people  stand  (there  are 
no  seats  as  a  rule) ;  then  comes  the  narthex,  a  passage 
across  the  church  at  the  west  end,  from  which  one  en- 
ters by  doors  into  the  nave.  Most  of  the  funeral  rites 
and  other  services  take  place  in  the  narthex.  Churches 
are  roofed  as  a  rule  by  a  succession  of  low  cupolas, 
often  five  (if  the  church  is  croBs-«haped).  In  Russia 
there  is  generally  a  belfry.  The  vestments  were  once 
the  same  as  the  Latin  ones,  though  now  they  look 
very  different.  It  is  a  curious  case  of  parallel  evolu- 
tion. The  bishop  wears  over  his  cassock  the  sticha- 
rion  (mixdpwif)  our  alb;  it  ia  often  of  4silk  and  col- 
oured; then  the  epitrachelion  (iriTpax^^w)i  a  stole 
of  which  the  two  ends  are  sewn  together  and  hang 
straight  down  in  front,  with  a  loop  through  which -the 
head  is  passed.  The  sticharion  and  epitrachelion  are 
held  together  by  the  zone  H^rti,  girdle),  a  narrow  belt 
of  stuff  with  clasps.  Over  the  wnsts  he  wears  the  epi* 
manikia  {iTtfuipUut)^  cuffs  or  ^oves  with  the  part  tor 
the  hand  cut  off.  From  the  girdle  the  epigon^tion 
(iwtYopdr tow),  a  diamond-shaped  piece  of  stuff,  stif- 
fened with  cardboard,  hangs  down  to  the  right  knee. 
Lastly,  he  weare  over  all  the  sakkos  (drdncos),  a  vest- 
ment like  our  dalmatic.  Over  the  sakkos  comes  the 
omophorion  (dffio<^6pw9).  This  is  a  great  pallium  of 
silk  embroidered  with  crosses.  There  is  also  a  smaller 
omophorion  for  some  rites.  He  has  a  pectoral  cross, 
an  enkolpion  (iy«6\ino9,  a  medal  containing  a  reiic), 
a  mitre  formed  of  metal  and  shaped  like  tin  imperial 
crown,  and  a  dikanikion  (itKapUMp),  or  crosiev, 
shorter  than  ours  and  ending  in  two  serpents  between 
which  is  a  cross.  To  give  his  blessing  in  the  Liturgy 
he  uses  the  trikerion  (rpur^w)  in  his  right  and  ttie 
dikerion  (dutfiptpw)  in  his  left  hand.  Iheae  are  a  triple 
and  double  candlestick  with  candles.  The  priest 
wears  the  sticharion,  epitrachelion,  sone,  and  epimani- 
kia.     If  be  is  a  dignitary  he  weaiB  the  epigonation  and 


(in  Russia)  the  mitre  also.  Instead  of  a  sakkos  lie  has 
a  phainolion  (faiv6\to9),  our  chasuble,  but  re&ching 
to  the  feet  hehind  and  at  the  sides,  and  cut  away  in 
front  (see  Chasuble  and  illustrations).  The  deacon 
wears  the  sticharion  and  epimanikia,  but  no  girdip* 
His  stole  is  called  an  orarion  (6pdpior) ;  it  is  pinned  to 
the  left  shoulder  and  hangs  strait  down,  except  that 
he  winds  it  around  his  body  and  over  the  right  shoul- 
der at  the  Cbmmunion.  It  is  embroidered  with  the 
word  '''AFIOS"  three  times.  A  very  oonunon 
abuse  (amone  Melkites  too)  is  for  other  servers  to 
wear  the  oranon.  This  is  ^tpressly  forbidden  by  the 
Ck>imcil  of  Laodicea  (c.  360,  cazu  xzii).  The  Byzan- 
tine Rite  has  no  sequence  of  liturgical  colours.  They 
eenerally  use  black  for  funerals,  otherwise  any  colours 
for  any  day.  The  vessels  used  for  the  holy  Lituzigy 
are  the  chalice  and  paten  (Uvkos),  which  latter  is 
much  larger  than  ouis  and  has  a  foot  to  stand  it  (it  is 
never  put  on  the  chalice),  the  asteriskos  (ArTtpiaiBoty  a 
cross  of  bent  metal  that  stands  over  the  paten  to  pre- 
vent the  veil  from  touching  the  holy  bread,  the  spoon 
(\dftis)  for  giving  Communion,  the  spear  (Mrx^y  to 
cut  up  the  bread,  and  the  fan  (Paridtor)  whicn  the  dea- 
con waves  over  the  Blessed  Sacrament — ^this  is  a  flat 
piece  of  metal  shaped  Uke  an  angel's  head  with  six 
wings  and  a  handle.  The  antimension  (d^fM^^c^O 
is  a  kind  of  corporal  containinp  relics  that  is  spread 
out  at  the  beginning  of  the  Lituivy.  It  is  reallv  a 
portable  altar.  The  Holu  Bread  (aTways  leavened  of 
course)  is  made  as  a  fiat  loaf  marked  in  squares  to  be 
cut  up  during  the  ProskcMnide  with  the  letters  Id 
XC.  NL  KA.  ('IinreSr  Xiwrr^  nc$).  In  Uie  dia- 
konikon a  vessel  is  k^t  with  hot  water  for  the  Uturgy 
(Fortescue,  op.  cit.,  403-409;  "Echos  d'Orient",  V, 
129-139;  R.  Storff,  "Die  gjiech.  Lituig.",  13-14). 

Chiurch  music — ^The  singing  in  the  Bysantine  Rite  is 
always  unaccompanied.  No  musical  instnunent  of 
any  kind  may  be  used  in  their  churches.  They  have  a 
plain  chant  of  eight  modes  that  correspond  to  ouis, 
except  that  they  are  numbered  differently;  the  four 
authentic  modes  (Doric,  Phiyraan,  Lydian,  and  Hixo- 
lydian — our  1st,  3rd,  5th,  and  7th)  come  fiist,  then  the 
Plagal  modes  (our  2nd,  4th,  6th,  and  Sth).  But  their 
scales  are  different.  Whereas  our  plauMong  is  strictly 
diatonic,  theirs  is  enharmonic  with  variable  intervals. 
Thev  always  sing  in  unison  and  frequently  change  the 
mode  in  the  middle  of  a  chant.  One  singer  (generally 
a  boy)  sings  the  dominant  (rh  (ao^)  of  the  mode  to  the 
sound  of  A  continuously,  while  the  rest  execute  thar 
elaborate  pneums  (see  Plain  Chant).  The  result  is 
generally — to  our  ears — ^unmelodious  and  starange, 
tnoug^  in  some  cases  a  carefully  trained  choir  pro- 
duces a  fine  effect.  One  of  the  best  is  that  of  St/ 
Anne's  (Melkite)  Collie  at  Jerusalem,  trained  by  the 
French  P^res  Blancs.  One  of  these,  Pdre  Rebours, 
has  written  an  exhaustive  and  practical  treatise  of 
their  chant  ("Traits  de  psaltique"  etc;  see  biblic»- 
laphy).  In  Russia  and  lately,  to  some  extent,  in  the 
metropolitan  church  of  Athens  they  sing  figured  music 
in  parts  of  a  very  stately  and  beautiful  kind.  It  is 
prooably  the  most  beautiful  and  suitable  church 
music  in  the  worki. 

The  Hciy  Lilurgy, — The  present  use  of  the  Byaan- 
tine  Rite  confines  the  older  Lituigy  of  St.  BasU  to  the 
Sundays  in  Lent  (except  Palm  Sunday),  Maundy 
Thuisday,  and  Holy  Saturday,  also  the  eves  of  Cainst- 
mas  and  the  Epiphany,  and  St.  Basil's  feast  (1  Janu- 
ary). On  all  other  di^  on  whidi  the  Lituigy  is  cele- 
brated they  use  that  of  St.  Chryscstom.  But  on  the 
we^days  m  Lent  (except  Saturday)  they  may  not 
consecrate,  so  they  use  for  them  the  Liturgy  of  the 
Presanctified.  An  Orthodox  priest  does  not  celebrate 
eveiy  day,  but  as  a  rule  only  on  Sundays  and  feast- 
dajTs.  The  Uniats,  however,  in  tlus,  as  in  many  other 
ways,  imitate  the  Latin  custom.  They  also  have  a 
curious  principle  that  the  altar  as  well  as  the  oriebrant 
must  be  fasting,  that  is  to  say  that  it  must  not  have 


ooinftAMraiofMaS 


m 


90UAuamaQptit 


been  uaed  already  on  the  same  day.  So  there  is  only 
one  Utiu^  a  day  in  an  Orthodox  Ghurob.  Where 
manv  priesta  are  preseiit  they  conoelebraie,  all  aayi&g 
the  Anaphora  together  over  the  aame  offeringnk  Thia 
happens  nearly  ^waya  when  a  bishop  celebra^;  he 
is  surrounded  by  his  priests,  who  eelebrate  with  him. 
The  Litumr  d  St.  ChryBostom»  as  being  the  oTie  ootn- 
monly  used,  is  always  printed  first  in  the  Eucholog^ 
It  is  the  franaewofrk  into  which  the  otheiB  are  fitted; 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  Lltui^  is  alw;iyB  said  ao- 
cordin^to  this  form.  After  it  are  printed  the  prayers 
of  St.  Basil  (always  much  longer)  which  are  substi* 
luted  lor  some  of  the  usual  ones  when  his  rite  is  used) 
and  then  the  yariants  of  the  liturgy  of  the  PresanoU- 
(icd.  The  Liturgies  of  Basil  and  ChiyBOstom«  then» 
diflering  only  in  a  certain  number  of  the  prayem»  may 
be  describecl  together. 

The  first  rubric  directs  that  the  celebrant  must  be 
reconciled  to  all  men,  keep  his  heart  from  eyil 
thoughts,  and  be  fasting  since  midnight.    At  the  Bf>- 
pointed  hour  (usually  munediately  after  None)  the 
celebrant  and  deacon  (who  communicates  uid  must 
therefore  also  be  fasting)  say  the  preparatoiy  prayers 
before  the  ikonostasis  (Bri^htman,  op.  cit,,  363-354), 
kiss  the  holy  ikons,  and  go  mto  the  diakonikon.   Here 
they  vest,  the  celebrant  biessinK  each  vestment  as  it  is 
put  on,  say  certain  prayers,  andwash  their  hands,  say- 
mg  verses  6-12  of  Ps.  xxv(''  Lavabo  inter  innooentee" 
etc.,  op.  <sit.,  854-356).    Ilien  the  first  part  of  theXit- 
urgy,  the  PreparaHon  of  the  Offering  (wppvmfuiH  be^ 
gins  at  the  ciedence  taole  (rpS^is).    The  loaves  of 
bread  (generally  five)  are  marked  ia  divisions  as  de- 
scribed above  under  the  caption  AUar.  etc    The  cele- 
brant cuts  away  with  the  holy  lance  the  parts  marked 
IC.  XC.  NI.  KA.,  and  says: '' The  Lambof  God  is  sacri- 
ficed."   These  parts  are  then  called  the  Lamb..  The 
deacon  pours  wine  and  warm  water  into  the  dialice. 
Other  pairts  of  the  bread  are  cut  away  in  honour  of  the 
All-hoiv  Theotokos,  nine  for  various  aaints,  and  others 
for  the  bishop,  Ortihodoz  clers;^,  and  various  people  for 
whom  he  wisnes  to  pray.    Thli  rite  is  aocompamed  by 
many  pravers,  the  particles  (irpotr^paC)  are  arranged 
on  the  diskos  (paten)  by  the  Lamb  (that  of  the  Theo- 
tokos on  the  right,  because  of  the  verse  '"Hie  Queen 
stands  at  thy  right  hand ' '.     A  long  rubrie  explams  all 
this),  eovered  with  the  asteriskos  and  veils,  and  the 
offerings  are  repeatedly  incensed.    The. deacon  thop 
incenses  the  prothesis,  altar,  sanctuary,  nave,  and  the 
celebrant.     (A  detailed  account  of  the  now  elaborate 
rite  of  the  Proskomide  is  given  ia  the  ''Eches  d!Orient", 
III,  65-78.)    Ihey  then  eo  to  the  altar,  kiss  the  Gee- 
pel  on  it  and  the  deacon  holding  up  his  orarion  says: 
It  is  time  to  sacrifice  to  the  Lord.    Here  bc^in  the 
LilQme9  (ixreml  or  ffvpearraS),    The  doors  of  the  ikon- 
ostasis are  opened,  and  the  deacon  goes  out  through 
the  north  door.    Standing  before  the  loytA  doors  he 
chants  the  Great  Litany,  praying  for  peace,  the 
Church,  the  patriarch  or  synod  (in  Orthodox  oountries 
for  the  sovereign  and  his  family),  the  <aty,  iravellem, 
etc,  etc.    To  each  clause  the  dioir  answer  "Kvrie 
eleison".    Then  foUows  the  first  antiphon  (on  Sun- 
days Pa.  cii),  and  the  celebraiit  at  the  altar  says  a 
prayer.    The  Short  Litany  is  sung  in  the  same  way 
(the  dauses  are  different,.  Brightmon,  op.  cit.,  362- 
375)  with  an  antiphon  and  prayer,  and  then  a  third 
litany;  on  Sundays  the  third  antiphon  is  the  Beati- 
tudes, 

Here  follows  the  LiUle  Entrance.  The  deaoon  has 
gone  back  to  the  celebrant's  side.  Thejcota»  out 
throitgh  the  north  door  in  procession,  the  deacon  hold- 
ing the  book  of  the  GospeiB>  with  acolytes  bearizig 
eandles.  The  troparia  (short  hymns)  are  sung,  encP 
mg  with  the  Trisagion:  —  •  ^  <  --  -  - 
Holy  Immortal  One,' 

then  "Gtery  be  to  t , 

^e  berinmng",  etc— and  again  *'Holy  God'\'etc 
Meanwhile  the  celebrant  says  other  prayeok.  A  reader 


sings  the  Epistle;  a  Gradual  is  sung;  the  deaoon  sings 
the  Gospel,  having  incensed  the  book;  more  pn^ers 
follow*  Then  come  prayers  for  the  catechumens,  and 
they  are  dismissed  by  the  deacon:  "All  catechumens 
go  out.  Catechumens  go  out.  All  catechumens  go 
away.  Not  one  of  the  catechumens  {shall  stay]." — 
Of  oourse  nowadays  there  are  no  catechumens. — ^The 
prayers  for.  the  (sateohumens  bringus  to  the  first  vari- 
ant between  the  two  Liturgies.  The  one  said  by  the 
celebrant  is  different  (and,  as  an  exception,  Bhorter)m 
St.  Basil's  rite  (Brightman,  op.  cit,,  374  and  401).  The 
deacon  sa3^,  "All  the  faithful  again  and  again  pray  to 
the  Lord  in  peace",  and  repeats  several  times  the  curi- 
ous exclamation  "Wisdom I"  (ffwpla)  that  occurs  re- 
peatedly in  the  Byzantine  Rite — ^before  the  Gospel  he 
says  "  Wisdom  1  Upright!" — vo^la,  6p99L,  meaning 
that  the  people  should  stand  up. 

The  iMurgy  of  the  Faithful  b^iDs  here.  Prayers  for 
the  faithful  xollow  (different  in  the  two  rites.  Bright- 
man,  op.  cit.,  375-^77  and  400-401) ;  and  then  comes 
the  drcunatic  moment  of  the  Liturgy,  the  Great  En- 
trance. The  celebrant  and  deacon  go  to  the  prothesis, 
the  offerings  are  incensed.  The  deacon  covers  his 
shoulders  with  the  great  veil  (see  Aeb)  ^nd  takes  the 
diskos  (paten)  with  the  bread;  the  thiu'ible  hangs 
from  his  hand;  the  celebrant  follows  with  the  chalice. 
Acolytes  go  in  front  and  form  a  solemn  procession. 
Meanwhile  the  choir  sings  the  Cherubic  Hymn  (Xtfiw- 
ffuiAs  t/jjros):  "Let  us,  who  mystically  represent  the 
Cherubim,  and  who  sing  to  the  Life-giving  Trinity  the 
thrice  holy  hymn,  put  awajr  all  earthly  cares  so  as  to 
receive  the  ICing  of  all  things  [here  the  procession 
comes  out  through  the  north  door]  escorted  by  the 
army  of  angels.  Alleluia,  alleluia,  alleluia."  The 
procession  goes  meanwhile  all  round  the  church  and 
enters  the  sanctuary  by  the  royal  doors.  The  CJheni- 
bic  Hymn  has  a  very  elaborate  and  effective  melody 
(Rebours,  op.  cit.,  156-164)  with  almost  endless 
pneums.  Tliis  ceremony,  with  its  allusion  to  the  en- 
trance of  the  "  King  of  all  things"  before  the  offerings 
are  consecrated,  is  a  curious  instance  of  a  dramatic  rep- 
reeentation  that  anticipates  the  real  moment  of  the 
Consecration.  After  some  more  prayers  at  the  altar, 
different  in  the  two  liturgies,  the  deacon  cries  out, 
"The  doors  I  The  doors  I  Let  us  attend  in  wisdom", 
and  the  doors  of  the  ikonostasis  are  shut.  The  Greed 
ia  then  stmg. 

Here  begms  the  Anaphora  (Canon).  There  is  first  a 
dialogue,  Lift  up  your  hearts"  etc.,  as  with  us,  and 
the  eelebrant  begina  the  Eucharistic  prayer:  "It  is 
meet  and  just  to  sing  to  Thee,  to  bless  Thee,  praise 
Thee  and  give  thanks  to  Thee  in  all  places.  .  .  .''The 
form  in  St.  Ba^'s  Kite  is  much  longer.  It  is  not  said 
aloud,  but  at  the  end  he  lifts  up  his  voice  and  says: 
"  CJrying.  singing,  proclaiming  the  hymn  of  victory  and 
sayin^^— and  the  choir  sings  "Holy,  Holy,  Holy" 
etc.,  as  in  o\ar  Mass.  Very  soon,  after  a  short  prayer 
(considerably  longer  in  St.  Basil's  Kite)  the  celebrant 
comes  to  the  words  of  Institution.  He  lifts  up  his 
voice  and  singa:  "  Take  and  eat:  this  is  nnr  Bodv  that 
is  broken  for  you  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins'  ;  and 
throu^  the  Ikonostasis  the  choir  answers  "Amen". 
Then:  "Drink  ye  all  of  this,  this  is  my  Blood  of  the 
New  Testament  that  is  shed  for  you  and  for  many  for 
the  foraiveness  of  sins."  R.  Amen — as  before.  The 
Orthoi£>x,  as  is  known,  do  not  believe  that  these  words 
oonsecrate,  ao  the^  ^  straight  on  to  the  Anamne^, 
and  a  special  rubric  m  their  Euchologion  (ed.  Venice, 
1898,  p.  63)  warns  them  not  to  make  any  reverence 
here»  The  Uniats,  on  the  other  hand,  make  a  pro- 
found reverence  after  each  form.  The  Anamnesis 
(our  "  Unde  et  memores  ")  again  is  longer  in  the  Basil- 
ian  Liturgy.  The  Epiklesis  follows.  The  deacon  in- 
vites the  cdebrant  in  each  case:  "Bless,  sir,  the  holy 
bread  [or  wine]."  The  two  forms  (of  Basil  and  Chrys- 
ofltom)  may  stand  as  specimens  of  the  principle  of  ab- 
breyiatk>a  that  distii^guishfis  the  later  lite.    In  St. 


oomiTAimirovLi 


318 


Basil's  Liturgy  it  is:  "We  pray  and  beseech  thee,  O 
Holy  of  Holy  ones,  that  according  to  the  mercy  of  thy 
favour  th]^  Holy  Spirit  come  down  on  us  and  on  these 
present  ^ts  to  bless  them,  sanctify  them  and  to 

make "  (Chrysostom :  "  Send  down  thy  Holy  Spirit 

on  us  and  on  these  present  gifts ").    Then,  after  an 

irrelevant  interpolation,  with  two  verses  from  Ps.  I 
about  the  celebrant's  own  soul,  he  continues  (Basil): 
''  this  bread  the  precious  Body  itself  of  our  Lord  and 
God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ"  (Chrys,:  "and  make 
this  bread  the  precious  Body  of  thy  Christ  ")•  Beacon : 
"  Amen.  Bless.  Sir,  the  noly  chalice."  Celebrant 
(Basil) :  "  But  this  chalice  the  l^recious  Blood  itself  of 
our  God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ"  (Chrys.:  "And 
what  it  is  in  this  Chalice  the  precious  Blood  of  Thy 
Christ").  Deacon:  "Amen.  Bless,  Sir.  both."  Cele- 
brant (Basil):  "That  was  shed  for  the  life  and  salvar 
tion  of  the  world"  (Chrys..  "Clianging  it  by  thy  Holy 
Spirit").  Deacon:  "Amen.  Amen.  Amen."  Both 
then  msJce  a  deep  prostration,  and  the  deacon  waves 
the  ripidion  (fan)  over  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  This 
ceremony,  now  interpreted  mystically  as  a  symbol  of 
adoringangels,  was  certainly  once  a  practical  precau- 
tion. They  have  no  pall  over  the  chalice  and  there  is 
a  dajieer  of  flies.  The  waving  of  the  ripidion  occurs 
seven!  times  during  the  Liturgy. 

In  the  Byzantine  Rite,  as  in  all  the  Antiochene  fam- 
fly  of  liturgies,  the  Intercession  follows  at  this  point. 
First  comes  a  memory  of  saints ;  the  deacon  then  reads 
the  Diptychs  of  the  Dead^  and  the  celebrant  says  a 
prayer  into  which  he  may  mtroduce  the  names  of  any 
of  tne  faithful  departed  for  whom  he  wishes  to  pray. 
iS^yers  for  the  living  follow  (in  Russia  for  the  second 
time  occur  the  names  of  "Our'Grthodox  and  Christ- 
lovins  Lord  Nicholas,  Czar  and  Autocrat  of  all  the 
Russias"  and  of  all  his  "right-believing  and  CSod- 
fearinc"  family),  with  the  names  of  the  patriarch  (or 
Synom  and  metropolitan,  and  the  ending:  "and  all 
[masc.j  and  all  [fern.]"  xal  irdrrofv  xal  watrQv,  The 
deacon  then  reaas  the  Diptychs  of  the  Living;  more 
prayers  for  them  follow.  Here  ends  the  Anaphora, 
file  celebrant  blesses  the  people:  "The  mercy  of  am 
neat  (}od  and  Saviour  Jesus  dirist  be  with  all  of  you." 
Choir:  "And  with  thy  spirit."  And  the  deacon  goes 
out  to  his  place  before  the  ikonostasis  and  reads  a  lit- 
any, praying  for  various  spiritual  and  temporal  fa- 
vours, to  each  clause  of  which  the  choir  answers: 
"Kyne  eleison".  and  at  the  last  clause — "Having 
prayed  in  the  union  of  faith  and  in  the  communion  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  let  us  commend  ourselves  and  one 
another  and  our  whole  life  to  Christy  our  God."  To 
Thee,  O  Lord  (Sot,  Ktfpte). — ^Meanwhile  the  celebrant 
says  a  long  prayer  silently.  The  people  sing  the  Lord^s 
Prayer,  and  the  celebrant  adds  the  clause:  For  Thine 
is  the  Kingdom"  etc.  The  Inclination  follows.  The 
deacon  says,  "Bow  your  heads  to  the  Lord"  (our 
"Humiliate  capita  vestra  Domino");  they  answer, 
"  To  Thee,  O  Lord",  and  the  celebrant  says  the  Prayer 
of  Inclination  (diflferent  in  the  two  Litureies).  The 
preparation  for  Communion  begins  here.  The  deacon 
winds  his  orarion  (stole)  around  his  body,  the  curtain 
of  the  royal  doors  (they  have  besides  the  doors  a  cur- 
tain that  is  continually  drawn  backward  and  forward 
during  the  Liturgy)  is  drawn  back,  and  the  celebrant 
elevates  the  Holy  Eucharist  saying,  "  Holy  thinss  for 
the  holy",  to  which  the  answer  is:  "One  only  is  holy, 
one  only  is  Lord.  Jesus  Christ  in  the  glory  of  God  the 
Father.  Amen."  Tlie  Communion  hymn  (imwvwtKAp) 
of  the  day  is  sung,  and  the  Communion  begins.  Whfle 
the  clergy  Communicate  in  the  Sanctuary  a  sermon  is 
sometimes  preached.  The  celebrant  breaks  the  Holy 
Bread  into  four  parts,  as  it  is  marked,  and  arranges 
them  on  the  diskos  thus: — 
I  2 
K  I  K  A 

X  2 
He  puts  the  fraction  marked  12  into  the  chalice,  and 


the  deacon  again  pours  into  it  a  little  warm  water  (the 
use  of  warm  water  is  a  very  old  peculiarity  of  thb  rite). 
The  part  marked  X2  is  divided  into  as  many  parts  as 
there  are  priests  and  deacons  to  Communicate.  Mean- 
while, prajrers  are  said;  those  about  to  Conmiuiucale 
ask  pardon  of  their  offences  against  each  other.  The 
celebrant  says,  "B^old  I  draw  near  to  our  imznortal 
King"  etc.,  and  receives  Holy  Communion  in  the  fonn 
of  bread,  sayuig:  The  precious  and  all-hcrfy  Body  of 
Our  Lord  and  ^viour  Jesus  Chnst  is  gtven  to  me  N. 
priest  [or  bishopi  for  the  forgiveness  of  my  sins  and  for 
life  everlasting."  Then  he  says,  "  Deacon,  approach ' '. 
and  gives  him  Communion  with  the  same  form  (To 
thee  N.  deacon  etc.).  Hie  celebrant  then  drinks  of 
the  chalice  with  a  corresponding  form — The  precious 
and  all-holy  Blood— and  communicatee  the  deacon  bs 
before.  After  O>mmunion  each  says  sQentiy  a  very 
beautifid  prayer — I  believe.  Lord,  and  I  confess  that 
Thou  art  m  very  truth  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living 
God  etc.  (Brightman,  op.  cit.,  994.)  The  rest  of  the 
clergy  are  Communicated  from  the  portion  marked  12, 
that  has  been  put  into  the  chalice  and  is  therefore 
soaked  in  the  consecrated  wine,  with  one  form  (The 

grecious  and  all-holy  Body  and  Blood).  The  cele- 
rant  divides  the  portions  marked  NX  and  KA,  and  the 
deacon  puts  them  into  the  ehaliee  with  a  aponge.  The 
doors  are  opened  and  the  deacon  soya,  "  Draw  near  in 
the  fear  of  God  and  with  faith ".  The  celebrant  comes 
down  to  the  doors  with  the  chalice  and  the  spoon  and 
communicates  the  people  with  the  Holy  Bread  dipped 
in  the  chalice,  and  with  one  form,  as  before.  The  pec 
pie  stand  to  receive  Communion  (the  Bjniantine  Rite 
knows  practically  no  kneeling  at  all).  Finally,  the 
deacon  i)uts  all  the  remaining  pajrtioles  into  the  chalice 
and  carries  it  back  to  the  pro&esis.  Those  other  parti- 
cles (prosphora)  originally  cut  off  from  the  bread  have 
lain  on  the  diskos  (paten)  since  the  proskomide.  It  has 
been  &jpcat  question  whether  they  are  consecrated  or 
not.  "Ae  Orthodox  now  say  that  they  are  not,  and 
the  deacon  puts  them  into  the  chalice  after  the  Com- 
mumon.  It  is  obviously  a  question  of  the  celdi)rant'8 
intention.  The  Uniat  priests  are  told  to  consecrate 
them  too,  and  in  their  Liturgy  the  peo^e  receive 
them  in  Communion  (Fortesoue,  op.  cit.,  417 ;  "  Echos 
d'Orient",  111,71-73). 

Here  begins  the  JDismissaZ.  The  deacon  unwinds 
his  orarion,  goes  back  to  the  choir  before  the  ikonosta- 
sis, and  says  a  short  litany  aoain  with  the  choir.  He 
then  goes  to  the  prothesis  and  consumes  all  that  is  left 
of  the  Holy  Eucharist  with  the  prosphora.  Mean- 
while, some  of  the  bread  originaUy  cut  up  at  the  Pro- 
thesis  has  remained  there  aiU  the  time.  This  is  now 
brought  to  the  celebrant,  blessed  by  him,  and  given  to 
the  people  as  a  sacramental  (the  French  pain  b^nil— 
see  Antidoron).  After  some  more  prayers  the  cele- 
brant and  deacon  go  to  the  diakonikon,  the  doors  are 
shut,  th^  take  off  their  vestments,  and  the  Lituigy  i^ 
over,  ll^e  whole  service  is  very  much  lonoer  than  our 
Mass.  It  lasts  about  two  hours.  It  shoiud  be  noted 
that  all  the  time  that  the  choir  are  singing  or  litanies 
behig  said  the  priest  is  saym^  other  prayers  silently 
(/iv^rcirdt).  The  Bysantine  Rite  has  no  proviflk)n  for 
low  Mass.  As  they  say  the  litursy  only  on  Sundays 
and  feast-days,  they  have  less  needffor  such  a  rite.  In 
oases  of  necessity,  where  there  is  no  deacon,  the  cele- 
brant supplies  his  part  as  best  he  can.  The  Uniats, 
who  have  begun  to  celebrate  every  day,  have  evolved 
a  kind  of  low  Litui^;  and  at  the  Greek  College  at 
Rome  they  have  a  number  of  little  manuscript  books 
containing  an  arrangement  for  celebrating  with  a 
priest  andone  lay  mrvet  only.  But  in  the  Levant,  at 
any  rate,  the  Liturgy  is  always  sung,  and  incense  is  al- 
ways used;  so  that  the  nrinimiim  of  persons  required 
for  the  Liturgy  is  a  oelebfant,  server,  and  one  other 
man  who  forms  the  choir. 

The  Liturgy  of  the  PneancHfied  is  fitted  into  the  gen* 
end  framework  of  St.  Chiysostom's  Rite.    It  is  usu- 


OOHBTAHTfiVOIPLS 


319 


tKMMAVmiOKS 


ftlly  celebrated  on  WcdnesdavH  and  Friday  in  the  first 
six  weeks  of  Lent,  and  on  all  the  days  of  Holy  Week, 
except  Ma\mdy  Thunday  and  Easter  Eve  which  have 
ihe  real  Litiugy  (of  St.  Basil).  On  other  days  in  Lent 
there  is  no  liturgical  service  at  all.  On  the  Sunday  be- 
fore more  loaves  (^pov^paC)  are  used  than  otherwise. 
The  same  rite  of  preparation  is  made  over  all.  After 
the  Elevation  the  celebrant  dips  the  other  prosphoras 
into  the  chatice  with  the  spoon,  and  places  it  in  another 
chalice  in  the  tabernacle  (jipro^hptov)  kept  for  this  puiv 
pose.  The  Liturgy  of  the  Presanctifi^  is  said  stfter 
VcapeTB  (l^vepiiK6f)^  which  forms  its  first  part.  Iliere 
is  of  course  no  further  Proskomide,  but  the  preparatory 
prayeis  are  said  by  celebrant  and  deacon  as  usual. 
The  Great  Litany  is  introduced  into  the  middle  of  Ves- 
pers. The  hymn  ^dt  IXop^r  (see  below)  is  sung  as 
usual,  and  the  lessons  are  read,  llie  prayers  for  cate- 
ehimiens  and  their  dismiBsal  follow.  The  Great  En- 
trance is  made  with  the  already  consecrated  offerings, 
and  a  changed  form  of  the  Cherubic  Hymn  is  sung 
(Maltssew,  "Die  Liturgien",  149).  The  curtain  of  the 
royal  doors  is  half-drawn  across,  the  whole  Anaphora 
is  omitted,  and  they  go  on  at  once  to  the  Short  Litany 
before  the  Lord's  Prayer.  The  Lord's  Prayer,  In- 
clination, and  Elevation  with  the  form:  "Thepresano- 
tified  Holy  Thmgs  to  the  holy"  follow.  Wine  and 
warm  water  are  poured  into  tne  chalice,  but  not,  of 
course,  consecrated.  Communion  is  given  with  one 
form  only.  The  Blessed  Sacrament  already  dipped  in 
consecrated  wine  is  now  dipped  in  unconsecrated  wine. 
The  celebrant  drinks  of  this  wine  after  his  Communion 
without  any  prater.  The  Liturgy  ends  as  usual  (with 
different  forms  m  some  parts),  and  the  deacon  con- 
sumes what  is  left  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  (unless  some 
of  it  IS  again  reserved  for  the  next  Presanctified  Liturgy 
and  the  wine  in  the  Chalice.  This  is  the  merest  out- 
line of  the  rite.  Its  earlier  part  is  inextricably  joined 
to  the  Vespers  (Maltzew,  op.  cit.,  121-168). 

The  Divine  Office  is  very  long  and  complicated. 
When  sung  in  choir  it  lasts  about  eight  hours.  It  is 
said  entire^  only  by  monks.  Secular  priests  say  part 
of  it,  as  tneir  devotion  dictates,  llie  Uniats  fre- 
quently c^ply  to  Rome  to  know  what  to  do,  and  the 
answer  is  always:  Servetur  eoneuetudoj  by  which  is 
meant  that  their  secular  cleii^  should  say  as  much  of 
the  Office  as  is  customary.  It  is  impossible  for  them 
to  say  it  all.  The  Office  is  divided  into  the -hours 
named  above  (imder  Service-hooks)  which  correspond 
to  ours,  with  additional  short  hours  {fu^ktpa)  inter- 
mediate between  Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  None,  and  Ves- 
pers. It  is  made  up  of  psalms,  lessons,  prayers,  and  es- 
pecaally  of  a  great  number  of  hymns  in  rhythmical 
prose.  The  Psalter  is  divided  into  twenty  parts  called 
KaBlff flora,  each  of  which  is  made  up  of  three  sections 
(ffrdattt).  The  whole  Psalter  is  sung  every  week. 
The  most  important  of  the  many  kinds  of  hymns  are 
the  following:  A  canon  (Kawtiw)  is  made  up  of  nine 
odes  corresponding  to  the  nine  canticles  (of  Moses, 
Ex.,  XV,  1-19;  Deut.,  xxxii,  1-43;  of  Azma,  I  Kings,  ii, 
1-10;  Hab.,  iii,  2-19;  Is.,  xxvi,  9-20;  Jonas,  ii,  2-10; 
the  Benedidte,  Magnificat,  and  Benedictus)  sung  at 
Lauds.  Of  these  canticles  the  second  is  sun^  only  in 
Lent;  therefore  most  canons  have  no  second  ode^ 
Each  ode  (i^fi)  is  supposed  to  correspond  more*  or  less 
to  its  canticle.  Thus  the  sixth  ode  will  generally  eon«- 
tain  a  reference  to  Jona's  whale.  Otherwise  the  canon 
is  always  about  the  feast  on  which  it  is  sung,  and  much 
ingenuity  is  expended  in  forcing  some  connexion  be* 
tween  tlie  event  of  the  day  and  the  allusions  in  the  oan^- 
ticles.  The  odes  are  further  divided  into  a  heirmos 
(dpfaSt)  and  troparia  (rpottdpia)  of  any  number, 
fVom  three  to  twenty  or  more.  "Die  heiimos  sets  the 
tune  for  each  ode  (see  FukXtf  Cramt),  and  the  troparia 
follow  it.  The  last  troparion  of  each  ode  alwasfs  xe- 
feiB  to  Our  Lady  and  is  cafled  Bmrhnov.  The  odes 
often  make  an  acrostic  in  their  initial  letters;  some- 
times they  are  alphabetic    In  long  canons  a  poem  is 


intercalated  in  the  middle  during  which  people  may  sit 
(they  stand  for  nearly  the  whSe  Office) ;  it  is  called 
KdBifffjm,  Three  troparia  form  an  oIkoi  (''house",  cL 
Italian  etama).  The  canons  for  the  weekdays  are  in 
the  Oktoechos,  those  for  immovable  feasts  in  the  }i»^ 
naias,  for  movable  ones  in  the  Triodion  and  Pentekoa^ 
tarion  (see  above  under  Service-books),  One  of  the 
most  famous  of  all  is  St  John  DamMcene's  Golden 
Canon  for  Easter  Day  (translated  by  Dr.  J.  M.  Neala  in 
his  **  Hymns  of  the  Eastern  Church",  4th  ed.,  London, 
pp.  30-44).  Other  kinds  of  chant  are  the  kontakion 
Inrrdmop),  a  short  pOem  about  the  feast,  the  stichoa 
i'rrlxot)  a  versicle,  generally  from  a  psalm  (like  our 
antiphons),  which  introduces  a  stioheron  {mxfp6p)t  or 
hynin  sun^  at  Matins  and  Vespers.  An  idiomelon 
{UiSfuiKop)  IS  a  troparion  that  has  its  own  melody,  in- 
stead of  following  a  heirmos  (for  other  kinds  of  chant 
see  Nilles,  ''Kalend.  Man.",  pp.  Ivii-lzix,  and  the  ex- 
ample he  gives  from  the  feast  of  the  Transfiguration, 
6  August).  The  Great  Doxology  {S^^oryltL)  is  our 
"  Gloria  in  ezcelsis ' ',  the  small  one  our  **  Gloria  Patri' '. 
The  Hymnos  Akathistos  (^m^m  dicdA^rot,  standing 
hvmn)  IS  a  complete  Office  in  honour  of  Our  Lady  and 
of  her  Annunciation  (see  Acathistds).  It  has  aJl  the 
Hours  and  is  made  up  of  psalms,  odes,  etc,  like  other 
Offices.  It  is  sung  very  solemnly  on  the  Saturday  be- 
fore the  second  Sunday  before  Easter:  and  they  sing 
parts  of  it  eveij  Friday  evening- and  Saturday  morn- 
ing in  Lent.  It  is  always  sung  standins.  TheHymnoe 
Akathistos  is  printed  at  the  end  of  the  HorolCgion.  P. 
de  Meester,  O.8.B.,  has  edited  it  wUh  an  Italian  trans- 
lation ('AmXovMa  ro0  aica^lrrau  ^funv,—OmdiQ  dell' 
inno  acatjsto,  Rome,  1903).  At  the  end  of  Vespers 
every  day  is  sung  the  famous  ^dr  lXaf6p,  as  the  evening 
light  disappears,  and  the  lamps  are  lit: — 

Hail,  gladdening  Li^t,  of  his  pure  jglory  pcAued 

Who  IB  the  imniortal  Father,  neavenly,.  blee^ 

Holiest  of  Holies,  Jesus  C9irist,  Our  Lord, 

Now  we  are  come  to  the  sun's  hour  of  rest. 

The  lights  of  evening  round  us  shine. 

We  hvmn  the  Father^  Son  and  Holy  Spirit  divine, 

Wortniest  art  Thou  at  all  times  to  be  sung 

With  undefiled  tongue, 

Son  of  our  God,  giver  of  life  alone. 

Therefore  in  ail  the  world,  thy  glories,  Lord, 

they  own. 
— ^Keble's  translation  in  the  ''Hymns,  Ancient  and 
Modem",  No.  18. 

There  are,  lastly,  services  for  the  administration  of 
the  Seven  Great  Mysteries  (the.  Seven  Sacraments) 
that  are  printed  in  the  Eudiologion  alter  the  liturgies 
(ed.  cit.,  pp«  136-288).  BapUem  ia  always  conferred 
by  inunersion  (the  Orthodox  have  grave  doubts  as  to 
the  validity  of  baptism  by  infusion. — See  Fortescue, 
Orth.  E.  Oiun^,  p.  420).  The  child  is  anointed  all 
over  its  body  and  dipped  three  times  with  its  face 
towards  the  east.  The  form  is:  "  The  servant  of  God 
N.  is  baptised  in  the  name  of  the  Father^  Amen,  and  of 
the  Son,  Amen,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Amen."  Covo- 
fimuUion  follows  at  once  and  is  conferred  by  priests 
(the  Holy  See  reoogniaes  this  confirmation  as  valid 
and  neither  rebapttaes  nor  reoonfinns  converts  from 
Orthodoxy).  The  whole  body  is  again  anointed  with 
chrism  (t6  4ywp  fu^pow)  prepared  veiy  elaborately  with 
fif  tv-five  various  substances  by  the  cscumenical  patri- 
arch on  Maundy  Thursday  (Fortesoue,  op.  cit.,  425- 
426).  The  form  is:  '' The  seal  of  the  f^  of  the  Holy 
Ghost''  (Euch.,  136-144).  The  OHhodox  never  re- 
baptize  when  they  are  sure  of  the  validity  of  former 
baptism;  but thev  reeonfirm  continually.  Confirmar 
tion  has  become  the  usual  rite  of  admittance  into  their 
CSiuroh,  even  in  the  case  of  apostates  who  have  already 
been  confizmed  orthodoxly.  The  pious  Orthodox 
layman  Oommunicates  as  a  rule  only  lour  times  a  year, 
at  Christinas,  Easiter,  Whitsunday,  and  the  Falling 
Asleepof the Motherof God  (^5August).    TheBleased 


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320 


ooHanruTXOirs 


Bacrament  is  reserved  for  the  sick  in  the  ifro^Spm^, 
(or  Itpo^vXiKtow)  under  both  kinds  more  or  leas,  that 
is  to  say  it  has  been  dipped  into  the  chalice  and  al- 
lowed to  dry.  It  is  given  to  the  sick  with  a  spoon  and 
wi^  the  usual  form  (see  above  under  Holy  lAturgy). 
They  have  no  tradition  of  reverence  for  the  reserved 
Eucharist.  PenanoB  (Mcrdwca)  is  administered  rare- 
ly, usually  on  the  same  occasions  as  Holy  Oommunion. 
They  have  no  confessionals.  The  ghostly  father  (tiw- 
ftarudt^  sits  before  the  ikonostasis  imder  the  pio* 
ture  of  Our  Lord,  the  penitent  kneels  before  him  (one 
of  the  rare  cases  of  kneeling  is  in  this  rite),  and  several 
prayers  are  said^  to  which  the  choir  answers  ''  K3nrie 
rieison".  The  "choir"  is  always  the  penitent  him- 
self. Then  the  ghostly  father  is  directed  to  say  **  in  a 
cheerful  voice:  Brother,  be  not  ashamed  that  you 
come  before  God  and  before  me,  for  you  do  not  confess 
to  me  but  to  God  who  is  present  here. "  He  asks  the 
penitent  his  sins,  says  that  only  God  can  forgive  him, 
but  that  Christ  gave  this  fiower  to  his  Apostles  sajring: 
"  Whose  sins  ye  shall  for;^ve",  etc.,  ana  absolves  him 
with  a  deprecatory  form  m  a  long  praver  in  which  oc- 
cur the  words:  ''May  this  same  CkKi,  through  me  a 
sinner,  forgive  you  all  now  and  for  ever."  (Euch.^ 
pp.  221-223.)  Holy  Order  (x^tpororia)  is  given  by 
laying  on  the  right  hand  only.  The  form  is  (for  dea- 
cons): ''The  0ace  of  (jod,  that  always  strengthens 
the  weak  and  mis  the  empty,  appoints  the  most  relig- 
ious sub-deacon  N.  to  be  deacon.  Let  us  then  pray 
for  him  that  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost  may  come  to 
him. "  Long  prayers  follow,  with  allusions  to  St.  Ste- 
phen and  the  oiaoonate ;  the  bishop  vests  the  new  dea- 
con, giving  him  an  orarion  and  a  ripidlon.  For  priests 
and  bishops  there  is  the  same  form,  with  the  obvious 
variants,  ''the  most  religious  deacon  N.  to  be  priest", 
or  "  the  most  religious  elect  N.  to  be  Metropolitan  of 
the  holy  Metropolis  N. "  (neariy  all  their  bishops  have 
the  title  MetrofoUUm),  and  the  subjects  receive  their 
vestments  and  mstruments.  Priests  and  bishops  con- 
celebrate  at  once  with  the  ordainer  (Euch.,  160-181). 
Tlie  Orthodox  believe  that  the  moe  of  Holy  orders 
may  perish  throu^  heresy  or  sdiism,  so  they  gener- 
ally reordain  converts  (the  Russian  Church  has  offi- 
cially refused  to  do  this,  Fortescue,  op.  cit.,  423-424). 
Matrimony  (yd/tot)  is  often  called  the  "crowning" 
(ar^^pta/ML)  from  the  practice  of  crowning  the  spouses 
(Euch.,  23S-252).  They  wear  these  crowns  for  a 
week,  and  have  a  special  service  for  taking  them  off 
again  (Euch.,  252).  The  Arunniing  of  the  Sick  (e*x«- 
Xa&y)  is  administered  (^en  possible)  by  seven 
priests.  The  oil  contains  as  a  rule  wine,  in  memory  of 
the  Good  Ssjnaritan.  It  is  blessed  by  a  priest  just  be- 
fore it  is  used.  They  use  a  very  long  form  invoking 
the  all-holy  Theotokos,  the  "moneyless  physicians" 
Sts.  Cosmas  and  Damian,  and  other  samts.  They 
anoint  the  forehead,  chin,  cheeks,  hands,  nostrils,  and 
breast  with  a  brush.  Each  priest  present  does  the 
same  (Euch.,  260-288).  The  service  is,  as  u6ual.  vcoy 
long.  They  anoint  people  ^o  are  only  slishtly  ill, 
(they  very  much  resent  our  name:  Extreme  Unction), 
and  in  Russia  on  Maundy  Thursday  the  Metropolitans 
of  Moscow  and  Novgorod  anoint  everyone  who  pre- 
sents himself,  as  a  preparation  for  Holy  Communicm 
(Echos  d'  Orient,  II,  193-203). 

There  are  many  SderamenUda,  People  are  some- 
times anointed  with  the  oil  taken  from  a  lamp  that 
bums  before  a  holy  icon  (oocasiottally  with  the  form 
for  oonfirmatk>n!  "The  seal  of  the  gtft  of  the  Holy 
Ghost")*  They  have  besides  the  antidoron  another 
kind  of  blessed  bread — ^the  kolyba  (ii6Xi;/8ft)  eaten  in 
honour  of  some  saint  or  in  memory  of  the  dead.  On 
the  Epiphany  ("the  Holy  Lights"—^  *yia  ^^a) 
there  is  a  solemn  blessing  of  the  waters.  They  have  a 
sreat  number  of  exorcisms,  very  stem  laws  of  fasting 
(involving  abstinence  from  many  things  besidee  flesh 
meat),  and  blessings  for  all  manner  of  things.  These 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Buchologlon.    Preaching  was 


till  lately  almost  a  lost  art  in  the  Orthodox  Qiurcb; 
now  a  revival  of  it  has  b^un  (Gelser,  Geistliches  vl 
Weltliches,  etc..  7&-^2).  There  is  a  long  funeral  ser- 
vice (Euch.,  ed.  cit.,  393-470).  For  all  these  rite? 
(exc^  the  Lituigy)  a  pridst  does  not  wear  all  his 
vestments  but  (over  his  cassock)  the  epitrachelion  and 
phainolbn.  The  high  black  hat  without  a  brim 
(caXvA«a^«toy)  worn  by  all  priests  of  this  rite  is  well 
known.  It  is  worn  with  v^tments  as  well  as  in  ordi- 
nary life.  Bishops  and  dignitaries  have  a  black  veil 
over  it.  All  clerks  wear  Ions  hair  and  a  beard.  For  a 
more  detailed  account  of  all  these  rites  see  "Orth. 
Eastern  Church",  pp.  418-428. 

The  Orthodox  S«rvioe-book8  in  Greek  are  pubiiahed  at  their 
official  press  (o  ^otVif)  at  Venice  (various  dates:  the  Budutio' 
gion  quoted  here,  1898)^  the  Uniat  ones  at  Rome  (Propacanda). 
There  is  also  an  Athenian  edition;  and  the  Churches  that  use 
translations  have  published  their  versiona.  Provoet  Axjuaoe 
M  ALTXEw  (of  the  Russian  Embassy  church  at  Beilin)  has  edited 
all  the  books  in  Old  Slavonic  with  a  parallel  Oermaa  traaalation 
and  notes  (Berlin,  1892):  RaNAtTVor.  lAturgiaaum  orieniaiimm 
eotUeiio  (2d  ed.,  2  vola.,  Frankfort,  1847);  Neale.  7%e  Lihirffiet 
of  81,  Mark,  Si.  James,  St.  CUment,  SL  Chrysoatomj^l.  Banl 
(London,  1876.  in  Greek);  another  volume  contains  The  2>wu- 
hatuma  of  the  Primitive  Liturgiet  of  St.  Mark^  etc.;  Roannaoir, 
The  Divine  LUurgiee  of  Our  Father*  among  the  SainU  John 
Chryeoatom.  Basil  the  Great  and  that  of  the  PreaanetifUd  (Greek 
and  Enetiui,  London,  1894):  d>  Meestbr,  La  divine  Ithiryie 
de  S.^  Jean  Chiyaootome  (Greek  and  French.  Pane.  1907); 
'H  #>ta  kflTOvpy^a.  wynd^ovoa  ihir  •ottipawv,  m.  r.  k.  (Athene, 
1894);  (^ARON,  Lee  eainUe  et  divines  Liturgies,  etc.  (Beirut, 
1904);  Storfi%  i>»e  t/riechiechen  Liturtfien,  XLI  of  TBAUiorss, 
BOdioOuk  dor  KirehenvAter  (Kempten,  1877);  KitA  al4ii&roiai 
d^-HahSyveh  (Melchite  Use  in  Arabic.  Beirut,  1899);  Goab, 
EiuJu)looidn,  sive  Rituale  Oraeorum '  fznd  ed.,  Venice,  1720); 
Pbobst,  Litarffie  der  drei  ersten  chrieUiehen  Jahrkttnderte  (T«k- 
bingen.  1870):  Anox..  Litwme  de9  vierten  Jakrhunderta  und 
deren  Reform  (MOnBter,  1893);  iCATTBNBuacB.  Lehrimch  der  ver- 
gieichenden  Konfessionskimde:  Die  orthodoxe  antUalische  Kirche 
(Freiburg  im  Br..  1892):  Nilues,  Kaiendarium  maniMie  ulriiie- 
oye  oodeeia  (2nd  ed.,  bmsbnick,  189&-97):  Fbimcs  Max  or 
Saxont,  Praieeiionee  de  Liturgiia  orierUalibus  (Freiburg  im  Br., 
1908),  I;  Hapqood,  Service-Book  of  the  Holy  Orthodox-Catholic 
Apoetoiie  (Oraoo-Russian)  Church  (Boston  and  New  York, 
1906);  AUATIVB,  De  Ubrio  el  rebno  oecL  Grmeorum  (Gok>gDe, 
1646);  Cluonet.  Dietionnaire  grec-franfais  des  noms  liturgiquea 
en  usage  dona  riglise  greeque  (Paris,  1895);  Archatzxxakz, 
Studea  aur  lea  prineipalea  FHea  airHiennea  dona  Vancienne  Bglise 
d^  Orient  (Geneva,  1904);  de  Mbbster,  Officio  ddV  imw  aeatiiito 
(Greek  and  Itahan,  Rome,  1903);  Gelzbb,  Geiatlichea  uad  Welt- 
lichee  aua  dam  tHrkiaeh-griechiachen  Orient  (Leipzig,  1900);  Gais- 
BEK,  Jje  ayathna  muaieal  de  VE^ise  greeque  (Maiedsous,  11X)1); 
Rebourb,  TraiU  de  paaiima^  Thfone  et  praHque  du  chant  dana 
I'Egliae  greetua  (Paris,  1906);  Fostescue.  The  Orthodox  Baalem 
Church  (London,  1907). 

Adrian  FoRTESons. 
OoDStltatioiiists.    See  Jansbnibto. 

Oo&Btitations,  EocuuiAfirioAJU — ^Tlie  term  amtH^ 
tuJbion  denoteB.  in  general,  the  make-up  of  a  bodjr. 
either  j^hyBical  or  moral  Used  in  reference  to  civil 
or  reUgious  societies,  the  word,  in  the  singular,  si^- 
fies  the  fundamental  law  determining  their  governing 
kgislative,  and  ezecutive  organism;  in  the  plural  it 
denotes  the  enactments,  ordmanoes,  and  laws  issued 
by  the  supreme  authority  to  further  the  object  of  the 
society.  In  legal  lancuage  the  term  amttiJtuiionee 
denotes  only  church  orcunanoes,  civil  ordinances  being 
termed  logest  laws.  The  conttittUiones  ecdenasticm 
have  in  common  with  the  lege*  civiles  the  binding 
power  derived  from  the  authority  of  their  f ramers,  but 
ihe^  differ  from  them  as  the  Church  differs  from  civil 
sooietv,  vis.  in  their  origin,  object,  and  sanction. 
Civil  taws  are  o^tments  of  a  power  directly  human 
and  only  Divine  in  its  first  cause ;  their  primary  object 
is  the  furthttimce  of  temporal  welfare;  and  their  sane- 
tion,  temporal  penalties.  Ecclesiastical  constitutions, 
on  the  other  h^d,  emanate  from  an  authority  directly 
of  Divine  institution;  their  ultimate  object  is  to  pro- 
mote the  salvation  of  souls  in  the  Kingdom  of  God  on 
earth;  thdr  sanction  consists  in  spirittud  penaltiea. 

In  the  total  complex  of  laws  bearing  on  matters 
spiritual,  ecclesiastical  constitutions  stand  midway 
between  the  Divine  and  the  natural  law.  The  Divine 
law  is  contained  in  the  Scriptures  interpreted  by  liv- 
ing, authoritative  tnadltion,  e.  g.  the  Ten  Ck»miBand« 
the  constitutions  of  the  Church,  the  admini^ 


OOKSTITUnOKS 


321 


OONSTITimOllS 


tration  of  the  sacraments.  Natural  law  reata  on  the 
dictates  of  human  reason,  e.  g.  the  law  of  self-preserva- 
tion,  obedience  to  authority.  Divine  worship.  Both 
the  Divine  and  the  natural  laws  are  often  insuffi- 
ciently determined;  the  Church  expounds  them  and 
adapts  them  to  particular  times,  places,  and  persons. 
Chief  anoong  ecclesiastical  constitutions  are  the  ordi- 
nances emanating  from  general  councils  (see  Counciub, 
Gensral,  X,  XI)  and  from  the  Apostolic  See  (see 
CoNsnTonoNS,  Papal);  these  are  the  eofutUutianes 
eecUsuuHca  in  tiie  strictest  sense  of  the  term.  Episco- 
pal constitutions  are  issued  by  bishops  either  singly  or 
assembled  in  svnods,  e.  g.  the  constitutions  of  the  ten 
provincial  ana  three  plenary  councils  of  Baltimore, 
which  have  adapted  the  ancient  constitutions  of  the 
Universal  Church  to  the  peculiar  national  and  politi- 
cal situation  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

J.   WlLHELJf. 

OoiiBtitiltioiis,  Papai.  (Lat.  eantlUuerej  to  estab- 
lish, to  decree),  ordinations  issued  by  the  Roman 
pontiffs  and  binding  those  for  whom  they  are  issued, 
whether  they  be  for  aU  the  faithful  or  for  special 
classes  or  individuals.  From  the  earliest  times,  the 
Christians  of  the  whole  world  have  consulted  the 
popes  on  all  matters  pertaining  to  faith,  morals,  and 
discipline.    The  earliest  instance  is  the  well-known 

S)p^  from  Ck>rinth  to  Pope  Clement  I,  during  the 
etime  of  St.  John  the  Apostle,  in  the  first  century  of 
the  Christian  Era.  From  that  time  on,  requests  for 
decisions  on  various  ecclesiastical  matters  were  ad- 
dressed to  Uie  Holy  See  from  ail  parts  of  the  known 
world,  and  the  answers  that  were  received  were  rever- 
enced as  proceeding  from  the  mouth  of  CSirist's  chief 
Apostle  and  His  vicar  on  earth.  The  fact  that  the 
decrees  of  Church  councils,  whether  general,  provin- 
cial, or  even  diocesan,  were  anciently  as  a  rule  for- 
waided  to  the  pope  for  his  revision  or  confirmation, 
gave  occasion  for  many  papal  constitutions  during  the 
early  ages.  After  the  tune  of  Ck>nstantine  the  Great, 
owin^  to  the  greater  Uberty  allowed  to  the  Cliurch, 
euch  mteroourse  with  the  Apostolic  See  became  more 
frequent  and  more  open.  Bt.  Jerome,  in  the  fourth 
century  (Ep.  cxxiii),  testifies  to  the  number  of  re- 
sponses requested  of  the  sovereign  pontiff  from  both 
the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Churcn  during  the  time 
be  acted  as  secretary  to  Pope  Damasus.  That  these 
papal  responses  soon  began  to  constitute  an  important 
section  of  canon  law,  is  evident  from  statements  in  the 
letters  of  various  Roman  pontiffs.  The  decretalia  and 
ronsHtuia  of  the  Apostolic  See  were  recognized  as 
laws  or  as  interpretations  of  existing  canons  binding 
the  particular  Churches  to  their  observance.  The 
fact  that  oecumenical  councils  required  the  papal  con- 
fvmation  before  their  decrees  were  valid  (a  principle 
expressly  admitted  by  the  early  councils  themselves) 
tended  not  a  little  to  direct  the  attention  of  all  Chris- 
tians to  the  fullness  of  jurisdiction  residing  in  the  suc- 
cessor of  St.  Peter.  Hence  the  professions  of  faith 
sent  to  the  popes  by  newly  elected  oishops  and  by  em- 
perors on  their  succession  to  the  throne. 
Turning  to  the  strictly  canonical  aspect  of  the  case, 
'  the  word  constUtUion  is  derived  from  can  (cum)  and 
ftaiuendoy  and  therefore  means  a  common  statute.  It 
is  consequently  synonomous  in  most  respects  with 
l&w.  In  fact,  a  papal  constitution  is  a  legal  enact- 
ment of  the  ruler  of  the  Church,  just  as  a  ci^  law  is  a 
clecree  emanating  from  a  secular  prince.  Reiffenstuel 
declares  that  the  difference  of  name  between  ecclesi- 
astical and  civil  statutes  is  very  proper,  since  a  secular 
niler  derives  his  authoritv  immediately  from  the  peo-  • 

Ele,  and  hence  it  is  really  the  people  who  make  the 
ws,  while  the  pope  receives  his  power  immediatelv 
from  (5od  and  is  nimself  the  source  whence  all  Church 
'^(^ulations  proceed.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however, 
while  it  is  true  that  ecclesiastical  laws  are  generally 
uenominated  ** constitutions",   yet   they   are  occa- 


sionally  designated  as  'Maws"  in  canonical  jurispru- 
dence (e.  g.  Can.  Leges  Ecclesiie,  3,  Q.  6).  It  must 
not  be  supposed,  however,  that  even  in  ecclesiastical 
usage  the  word  conMiUwn  is  restricted  to  papal  ordi- 
nances; it  is  also  employed  for  conciliar,  syncxlal,  and 
episcopal  mandates,  though  more  rarely  in  later  times 
The  name  canon  is  generally,  though  not  exclusively, 
given  to  conciliar  decrees  (see  Canons,  Ecclxsiasti- 
cal).  Letters  emanating  from  the  pope,  though  all 
designated  constitutions,  receive  more  specific  names 
according  to  their  form  and  their  subject  matter.  As 
to  their  form,  pontifical  constitutions  may  be  eithei 
Bulls  or  Bridfs.  The  former  are  used  for  the  more 
important  and  pennanent  decrees  and  begin:  Pius 
(or  name  of  pope)  EpisoopuSj  Servua  servorum  Dei;  the 
latter  are  heaaed  by  the  name  of  the  ruling  pontiff: 
Pius  PP.  X.  Pope  Leo  XIII  (29  Dec.,  1878)  made 
some  changes  in  the  exterior  form  of  papal  Bulls  (see 
BxTLLS  AMD  Bribfs).  As  to  subjcct-matter,  the  term 
consHtutionf  if  used  in  a  restricted  sense,  denotes 
some  statute  which  the  Vicar  of  Christ  issues  in  sol- 
emn form  either  to  the  whole  Christian  world  or  to 
part  of  it,  with  the  intention  of  permanently  binding 
those  to  whom  it  is  addressed.  When  the  papal  let- 
ters are  addressed  to  the  bishops  of  the  entire  (jhufch, 
they  are  denominated  Encyclicals.  This  is  the  most 
usual  form  employed  by  the  popes  for  treating  o  ues- 
tions  of  doctrine  and  discipline.  When  pontincal  en- 
actments tiUce  the  form  of  responses  they  are  called 
decaretal  epistles.  If  they  be  issued  motu  proprui 
(that  is  without  a  request  having  been  made  to  tho 
Holy  See),  they  are  called  deerda^  though  this  nam<s 
has  also  a  more  seneral  si^ficance  (see  Dbcrees). 
Ordinances  issued  to  individuals  concerning  mattero 
of  minor  or  transient  importance  are  called  Kescriptis 
(see  RESCRIPTS,  Papal). 

Before  issuing  constitutions  the  pope  usually  takeii 
counsel  with  his  advisers.  These  counsellors  have 
varied  in  the  different  stages  of  church  history.  Dur- 
ing the  first  eleven  centuries,  the  Roman  presbyterate 
and  the  suburbicarian  bishops  were  formed  into 
councils  by  the  pope  whenever  he  wished  to  investi- 
gate matters  of  doctrine  or  discipline.  TTie  synodal 
letters,  or  constitutions,  issuing  from  these  assemblies 
owed  their  importance  and  binding  force  to  the  pri- 
matial  jurisdiction  of  the  throne  of  Peter,  for  these 
gatherings  were  not  cecumenical  councils  in  anv  sense 
of  the  word.  History  records  a  long  list  of  these 
Roman  councils  from  the  second  to  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. The  papal  constitutions  issued  at  the  close  of 
their  celebration  were  as  various  as  the  subject-matter 
of  the  councils.  The  paschal  question,  the  baptism  of 
heretics,  the  heresies  of  Sabellius,  Nestorius,  Eu- 
tyches,  and  others,  the  restoration  of  patriarchs  and 
bishops  to  their  sees,  ordinances  conceminj;  the  mo- 
nastic state,  the  election  of  the  pope,  the  right  of  in- 
vestiture— ^sill  found  treatment  and  decision  in  these 
Roman  councils  and  gave  occasion  to  important  pon- 
tifical constitutions.  These  rulings  were  reverenced 
as  law  throughout  the  Universal  Church,  East  and 
West,  and  constitute  an  important  witness  to  the  pri- 
macy of  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  After  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, these  Roman  councils  grew  more  infrequent  and 
finally  ceased  altogether,  liiis  was  owine  to  the  im- 
portance gradually  accruing  to  the  cardinals,  who  suc- 
ceeded the  Roman  presbyterate  as  the  senate  of  the 
pope.  Consistories  of  the  cardinal-bishops,  -priests, 
and  -deacons  were  held  twice  and  then  thrice  a  week  in 
the  Apostolic  Palace;  and  to  these  consistories  the 
pontiff  proposed  the  questions  submitted  to  the  Holy 
See  before  ne  drew  up  his  constitution  deciding  them. 
The  consistory  was  the  ordinary  tribunal  and  audience 
of  the  pope  for  the  transaction  of  all  the  business  of  the 
UniversaS  Church.  (See  Cardinal.)  From  the  six- 
teenth century  to  our  own  time,  a  third  period  in  the 
methods  of  government  and  counsel  ia  to  be  distin- 
guished.   The  rise  of  the  Sacred  Roa^aix  Congregar- 


OOVSTXTUnOVS 


322 


00N8UBSTAKTZATI0X 


^ona,  witli  their  separate  tribunals,  their  consultons, 
and  trained  officials,  has  brought  about  a  change  in 
the  preparation  of  papal  constitutions.  It  is  to  wese 
congregations  that  the  pope  looks  for  aid  in  preparing 
the  subject-matter  of  his  letters  to  the  Chumi.  (See 
Roman  CoNOREOATioNa.) 

The  binding  force  of  pontifical  constitutions,  even 
without  ^e  acceptance  of  the  Church,  is  beyond 
Question.  The  pnmacy  of  jurisdiction  possessed  by 
the  successor  of  Feter  comes  immediately  and  directly 
from  Christ.  That  this  includes  the  power  of  making 
obligatory  laws  is  evident.  Moreover,  that  the  popes 
have  the  intention  of  binding  the  faithful  directly  and 
immediately  is  plain  from  the  mandatory  form  of  their 
constitutions.  Bishops,  therefore,  are  not  at  liberty 
to  accept  or  refuse  papal  enactments  because,  in  theu* 
judgment,  they  are  ill-suited  to  the  times.  Still  less 
can  the  lower  clergy  or  the  civil  power  (see  Exequa- 
tur; Placet)  possess  any  authority  to  declare  pon- 
tifical constitutions  invalid  or  prevent  their  due  pro- 
mulgation. The  Galilean  opinions  to  the  contrary 
are  no  longer  tenable  after  the  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  the  Vatican  (Sess.  IV,  ch.  iii).  If  a  papal  constitu- 
tion, published  in  Rome  for  the  whole  Church,  were 
not  formally  promulgated  in  a  particular  region,  the 
faithful  woula  nevertneless  be  bound  by  it,  if  it  con- 
cerned faith  or  morals.  If  it  referred  to  matters  of 
discipline  only,  its  observance  would  not  be  urgent, 
not  because  of  any  defect  in  its  binding  force,  but 
solely  because  in  such  circumstances  the  pope  is  pre- 
sumed to  have  suspended  the  obligation  for  the  time 
being.  This  leads  to  the  Question  of  the  proper  pro- 
mulgation (q.  V.)  of  papal  laws  (see  Law).  The  com- 
mon teaching  now  is  that  promulgation  in  Rome 
makes  them  obligatory  for  the  whole  world.  The 
method  employed  is  to  afiix  the  decrees  at  the  portals 
of  St.  Peter's,  o  St.  John  Lateran,  of  the  Apostolic 
Chancery  and  in  the  Piazza  de'  Fiori 

Smith.  BUm,  of  Eccl.  Law  (New  York.  1805),  I;  Aichnbr. 
Comp.  Jur.  Eccl.  (Brixen,  1805);  RxiFFSNaruEL,  Jum  Can. 
Univerntm  (Paris,  1864). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Oonstitntions  of  the  Apostles.  See  Apostolic 
Constitutions. 

OonstitationB  of  the  French  Olergy.  See  French 
Revolution. 

OonBubstantiation. — ^This  heretical  doctrine  is  an 
attempt  to  hold  the  Real  Presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Holy  Eucharist  without  admitting  Transubstantia^ 
lion.  According  to  it,  the  substance  of  Christ's 
Body  exists  together  with  the  substance  of  bread,  and 
in  like  manner  the  substance  of  His  Blood  together 
with  the  substance  of  wine.  Hence  the  word  Con- 
substaniiaiton.  How  the  two  substances  can  co- 
exist is  variously  explained.  The  most  subtle  theory 
is  that,  just  as  God  the  Son  took  to  Himself  a  human 
body  without  in  any  way  destroying  its  substance,  so 
does  He  in  the  Blessed  Sacrament  assume  the  nature 
of  bread.  Hence  the  theory  is  also  called  '^Impansr 
tion'',  a  term  founded  on  the  analogy  of  Incarnation. 

The  subject  cannot  be  treated  adequately  except  in 
connexion  with  the  general  doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist  (q^.  v.).  Here  it  will  be  sufficient  to  trace 
briefly  the  historv  of  the  heresy.  In  the  earliest  ages 
of  the  Church  Chnst's  words,  "This  is  my  body", 
were  imderstood  by  the  faithful  in  their  simple,  nat- 
ural sense.  In  the  course  of  time  discussion  arose  as 
to  whether  they  were  to  be  taken  literally  or  figurar 
tively;  and  when  it  was  settled  that  they  were  to  he 
taken  literally  in  the  sense  that  Chnst  is  really 
and  truly  present,  the  question  of  the  manner  of  this 
presence  began  to  be  agitated.  The  controversy 
lasted  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  century,  after 
which  time  the  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation,  which 
teaches  that  Christ  is  present  in  the  Eucharist  by  the 
change  of  the  entire  substance  of  bread  and  wine  into 


His  Body  and  Blood,  was  fully  indicated  as  Catholic 
dogma.  In  its  first  phase  it  turned  on  the  queition. 
whether  the  Body  was  the  historical  body  of  Qiziat^ 
the  very  body  which  was  bom,  crucified,  and  risesu 
This  was  maintained  by  Pasdiasius  Radbert  and 
denied  by  Ratramnus  m  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
century.  What  concerns  us  here  more  closely  is 
the  next  stage  of  the  controversy,  when  Beiren- 
garius  (I(X)a-1088)  denied,  if  not  the  Real  Preaaooe, 
at  least  any  change  of  the  substance  of  the  bread 
and  wine  into  the  substance  of  the  Body  and  Blood. 
He  maintained  that  "the  consecrated  Bread,  retain- 
ing its  substance,  is  the  Body  of  Christ,  that  is,  not 
losing  anything  which  it  was,  but  ftiwiifnipg  some- 
thing  which  it  was  not"  (panis  sacratus  in  aitari, 
salva  suA  substantia,  est  corpus  Christi,  non  amittena 
quod  erat  sed  assumens  quod  non  erat— Cf.  Martdne 
and  Durand,^  "Thesaurus  Novus  Anecd.".  IV, 
col.  105).  It  is  clear  that  he  rejected  Transuostan- 
tiation;  but  what  sort  of  presence  he  admitted  would 
seem  to  have  varied  at  oiiferent  periods  of  his  long 
career.  His  opinions  were  condemned  in  various 
councils  held  at  Rome  (1050,  1059,  1078,  1079),  Ver- 
celli  (1050),  Poitiers  (1074),  though  both  Pope  Alex- 
ander  II  and  St.  Gregory  YII  treated  him  with 
marked  consideration.  His  principal  opponents 
were  Lanfranc,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Quiter- 
bury  (De  Corpore  et  Saneuine  Domini  adveraus  Ber- 
en^rium  Turonensem),  Durandus  of  Troam  (q-  v.), 
Guitmundus  of  Aversa,  and  Hugh  of  lanpres.  Al- 
though it  cannot  be  said  that  Berenganus  found 
many  adherents  during  his  lifetime,  yet  his  here^ 
did  not  die  with  him.  It  was  maintained  by  Wycbf 
(Trialog.,  IV,  6,  10)  and  Luther  (Walch,  XX, 
1228),  and  is  the  view  of  the  High  Church  party 
among  the  Anglicans  at  the  present  time.  Besides 
the  councils  above-mentioned,  it  was  condemned  by 
the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215),  the  Coimcil  of 
Constance  (1418. — "The  substance  of  the  material 
bread  and  in  like  manner  the  substance  of  the  ma- 
terial wine  remain  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  altar' % 
the  first  of  the  condemned  propositions  of  WydiO* 
and  the  Council  of  Trent  (1551). 

Berengarius  and  his  modem  followers  have  sp^ 
pealed  chiefly  to  reason  and  the  FaUiers  in  support 
of  their  opinions.  That  Transubstantiation  is  not 
contrary  to  reason,  and  was  at  least  implicitly  taught 
by  the  Fathers,  is  shown  in  the  article  Transub- 
stantiation. In  the  discussions  of  the  Fathers  about 
the  two  natures  in  the  one  Person  the  analogy  be- 
tween the  Incarnation  and  the  Eucharist  was  fi«- 
quentlv  referred  to,  and  this  led  to  the  expression  of 
views  favouring  Impanation.  But  after  the  definitive 
victory  of  St.  Cyril's  doctrine,  the  anido^  was  seen  to 
be  deceptive.  (See  Batiffol,  Etudes  d^istoire,  etc., 
2nd  series,  p.  319  sqq.)  The  great  Schoolmen  unani- 
mously rejected  Consubstantiation,  but  they  differed 
in  their  reasons  for  domg  so.  Albertus  Magnus,  St. 
Thomas,  and  St.  Bonaventure  maintained  that  the 
words,  "This  is  my  body",  disproved  it;  while  Alex« 
ander  of  Hales,  Scotus,  Durandus,  Occam,  and 
Pierre  d'Ailly  declared  that  it  was  not  inconsistent 
with  Scripture,  and  could  only  be  disproved  by  the 
authority  of  the  Fathers  and  the  t€»Mshing  of  the 
Church  (Tunnel,  Hist,  de  la  th^l.  posit.,  I, 
313  soq.).  This  line  of  argument  has  been  a  stum- 
bling-olock  to  Anglican  writers,  who  have  quoted 
some  of  the  Schoolmen  in  support  of  their  erroneous 
opinions  on  the  Eucharist ;  e.g.  Pusey,  "The  Docteine 
of  the  Real  Presence"  (1855). 

In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned,  see  Harper,  Pme§ 
through  the  Truth  (London,  1866),  I ;  Franxexjn,  De  8S.  EucK. 
(Rome,  1873) ,  thes.  xiv ;  Scrwanb,  DogmengfehieMe  (Freibuxc 
im  Br.,  1862).  Ill;  Verkbt  in  Ihet.  de  UM.  eath,  e.v.  BHvmget 
de  Toure;  Streber  ia  Kirchenlex.  s.  v.  ConaubetanHatio:  Hbd- 
LET,  The  Holy  Euchariet  (1907) ;  Waooett,  The  Holy  £«cAar- 
Ml  (Anfflican,  London,  1906) ;  Gore,  Th^  Body  of  ChriH  (Loa* 
don,  1907). 

T.  B.  SCANNBLL 


OOttSULTOES 


323 


OONTABINI 


Oonsiiltors,  Diockhan,  a  certain  number  of  priests 
in  each  diooeee  of  the  United  States  who  act  as  official 
advisere  of  the  bishop  in  certain  matters  pertaining  to 
the  administration  of  the  diocese.  As  a  body  tney 
take  the  place  of  the  cathedral  chapter  as  establishea 
elsewhere  by  the  general  law  of  tne  Church.  Their 
appointment  was  recommended  (1866)  bv  the  Second 
Plenaiy  Council  of  Baltimore.  The  Third  Plenai^ 
Council  (1884)  decreed  that  the^  should  be  consti- 
tuted a  diocesan  council,  and  denned  their  particular 
rights  and  duties. 

Mannsr  of  AppoDmfSNT. — ^The  diocesan  con- 
suitors,  it  was  decreed  (n.  18),  should  be  six,  qr  at 
least  four,  in  number.  Where  neither  number  is  pos- 
sible, there  should  be  at  least  two.  They  hold  office 
for  three  years;  but  they  may  be  reappointed  or  se- 
lected at  the  expiration  of  each  term.  The  manner 
of  their  election  consists  in  the  appointment  by  the 
bishop  alone  of  half  of  their  number,  and  of  the  other 
half  by  the  bishop  also,  after  having  taken  the  vote  of 
the  clergy.  All  the  clergy  exercising  the  sacred  min- 
istry in  the  diocese  seira,  in  writing,  to  the  bishop 
three  names  for  every  consultor  to  be  elected.  From 
the  names  thus  proposed  the  bishop  selects  those 
whom  he  judges  most  fit  for  the  office.  At  stated 
periods  they  are  convened  and  presided  over  by  the 
bishop,  four  times,  or  at  least  twice,  a  year,  and,  as 
occasion  requires,  monthly.  In  case  of  the  death, 
redgnation,  or  removal  of  a  consultor,  the  bishop  ap- 
points his  successor  with  the  advice  of  the  other  con- 
Btiltors. 

Rights  Ain>  Duties. — ^The  diocesan  council  has 
certain  rights  and  duties  (A)  when  the  see  is  fiUedf  and 
(B)  when  it  is  vacant, — (A)  Wh^  the  see  is  fiiUdy  the 
biihop  Ib  bound  to  ask  the  advice  of  the  diocesan  con- 
suhors:  (1)  For  convoking  and  promulgating  a  dioc- 
esan synod;  (2)  for  dividing  missions  or  parishes; 
(3)  for  giving  over  a  mission  or  parish  to  a  religious 
community;  (4)  for  appointing  deputies  for  the  dio- 
cesan seminary ;  (5)  for  appointmg  anew  diocesan  con- 
sultor and  ssmodal  exammens  to  conduct  the  examina- 
tbn  for  vacant  parishes;  (6)  for  alienating  church 
property,  when  the  sum  exceeds  five  thousand  dollars; 
(7)  for  determining  what  missions  are  to  be  made 
parishes  with  irremovable  rectors  and  appointing 
the  first  irremovable  rectors  in  the  diocese;  (8)  for 
fixing  the  pension  of  an  irremovable  rector  who  has 
resigned  or  who  has  been  removed  for  cause;  (9) 
for  determining,  out  of  synod,  the  salary  of  rectors. 
In  all  these  cases  the  consultors  give  their  opinion 
collectively,  i.  e.  in  a  body,  and  by  secret  bulot  if 
they  deem  proper.  The  bishop,  however,  although 
bound  to  seek  their  advice  in  these  matters,  is  not 
obliged  to  foUow  it. 

(B)  When  the  see  is  vacant:  (1)  the  administrator 
must  follow  the  same  procedure,  L  e.  he  must  ask  the 
opinion  of  the  diocesan  consultors  in  the  above-stated 
cases.  (2)  Theexpiration  of  the  three-year  term  of  the 
(x>nsultorB  within  the  period  of  the  vacancy  does  not 
affect  their  tenure  of  office.  They  remain  in  office 
until  the  accession  of  the  new  bishop  who,  within  six 
months  from  his  consecration,  should  hold  a  new  elec- 
tion of  diocesan  consultors.  (3)  In  the  election  of  a 
new  bishop  the  council  of  1884  conceded  a  voice  to 
the  OQnsuftors,  as  representatives  of  the  clergy  of  the 
diocese.  Together  with  the  irremovable  rectors  they 
meet  within  thirty  davs  after  the  vacancy  occurs 
under  the  presidency  of  the  archbishop  of  the  prov- 
ince, or,  if  ne  be  hindered,  of  a  suffragan  deputed  by 
him.  If  the  vacancy  be  that  of  the  archbishopric  the 
Knior  suffragan  presides,  or  one  deputed  by  him. 
The  voting  is  by  secret  ballot.  Three  candidates  are 
Klected  whose  names  are  sent  to  the  S.  Cong,  de  Pro- 
pAgsndA  Fide,  and  to  the  other  bishops  of  the  prov- 
moe,  who  meet,  within  ten  days,  to  approve  or  aisap- 
prove  of  the  candidates  presented  by  the  consultors 
Sod  irremovable   vectors.    The  bishops  send  their 


own  list  to  Rome.  The  pofie  may  reject  l)oth  lists 
and  appoint  as  bishop  some  one  who  is  on  neither. 
(4)  Wnen  there  ia  a  question  of  selecting  a  coadjutor 
with  the  right  of  succession  the  consultors  with  the 
irremovable  rectors  have  a  voice  just  as  in  the  election 
of  a  new  bishop.  (5)  This  is  also  the  case  where  a 
new  diocese  is  formed  out  of  one  or  more  existing 
dioceses.  In  that  case,  only  the  irremovable  rectors 
within  the  limits  of  the  new  diocese  join  with  the 
consultors  of  the  older  diocese  or  dioceses.  (See 
Baltimore,  Plenary  Councils  of.) 

Second  Plenary  Couned  of  Baltimore  (Baltimore,  1866); 
T*hird  Plenary  CouncU  of  Baltimore  (Baltimore.  1884).  noa.  17- 
22;  Smith,  BUmenta  of  Bcdeeiaatical  Law  (New  York,  1886); 
M&BHAN,  Comp,  Jur.  Canoniei  (Rochester.  Kew  York,  1809); 
NiLLKa,  Comment,  in  Cone  PUn.  Bait.  (Innsbruck.  1888).  III. 

Joseph  F.  Moonet. 
Oonsultors,  Roman.    See  Roman  Conqreoations. 

Oontant  de  la  Molette,  Philippe  do,  theologian 
and  Biblical  scholar,  bom  at  C6te-8aint-Andr6,  in 
Dauphin^,  France,  29  August,  1737;  died  on  the  scaf- 
fold during  The  Terror,  1703.  He  studied  at  the  Sor- 
bonne,  and,  in  1765,  defended  a  thesis  on  Job,  in  six 
languages.  Louis  XV  was  so  well  pleased  that  he 
allowed  him  to  pass  the  examinations  for  the  licenti* 
ate  without  the  required  dela3rB,  a  privilege,  however, 
which  de  la  Molette  did  not  use.  Later  on,  he  be- 
came Vicar<ieneral  of  the  Diocese  of  Vienne,  France. 
As  a  Biblical  author,  he  shows  great  erudition  and  is 
well  versed  in  the  Oriental  languages,  but  he  lacks 
originalitv,  and  his  criticism  is  often  misleading.  His 
worics,  all  published  in  Paris,  are  the  following. 
''Essai  sur  rEcriture  Sainte,  ou  Tableau  hiBtori<iue 
des  avantages  que  Ton  peut  tirer  des  langues  orien- 
tates pour  la  parfaite  intelligence  des  Livres  Saints'' 
(1776);  "Nouvelle  m^thode  pour  entrer  dans  le  vrai 
sens  de  TEcriture  sainte"  ^1777);  "La  Gendse  expU* 
qu^  d'apr^  les  textes  primitifs".  etc.  (1777),  3  vols., 
a  work  intended  especially  as  a  refutation  of  Voltaire; 
"L'Exode  expliqu6",  3  vols.  (1780);  the  thesis  that 
he  had  defended  m  1765  is  printed  in  the  begiiming  of 
this  work;  '^Les  Psaumes  expliqu4s",  etc.,  3  vols. 
(1781);  "Traits  sur  la  po68ie  et  la  musique  des  H^ 
breux"  (1781),  a  continuation  of  the  preceding:  "Le 
Ldvitique  expliqu^",  2  vols.  (1785).  He  had  also 
done  considerable  work  as  a  preparation  for  a  "  Nou- 
velle  Bible  polv^lotte",  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  he 
ever  publistied  it. 

Feller,  Biog.  Univ.,  b.v.;  Manoknot  in  VxaouBOUX,  DicL 
de  la  Bible,  s.v. 

R.  BUTIN. 

Oontarixd,  Gaaparo,  Venetian  statesman  and 
cardinal,  b.  16  October,  1483,  of  an  ancient  and  noble 
family  in  Venice;  d.  at  Bologna,  24  August,  1542. 
He  received  his  elementary  training  in  his  native 
city;  and  afterwards,  from  1501  to  1509,  he  fre- 
quented the  University  of  Padua,  where  he  studied 
Greek,  mathematics,  Aristotelean  philosophy,  and 
theology.  He  was  a  close  student  and  acouired  the 
reputation  of  a  great  philosopher.  After  nis  return 
to  Venice  he  became,  like  all  the  sons  of  patrician 
families,  a  member  of  the  Great  Council,  and  after- 
wards was  named  to  a  commission  which  adminis- 
tered the  debt  of  the  republic.  In  September,  1520, 
he  was  appointed  orator  or  ambsssador  to  the  court 
of  the  Emperor  Charles  V  (151^56),  with  instruc- 
tions to  deiend  the  alliance  of  his  Government  with 
Francis  I  of  France  (1515-47),  and  to  prevent  all 
hostile  measures  of  the  emperor.  In  Worms,  where 
he  arrived  in  April,  1521,  he  heard  much  about 
Luther  and  his  errors;  but,  not  beinp  concerned  with 
the  matter,  he  refrained  from  all  mterference.  and 
never  saw  Luther  nor  spoke  to  him.  From  Worms 
he  went  with  the  imperial  court  to  the  Netherlands, 
thence  to  England,  and  finally  to  Spain.  In  August, 
1525,  he  returned  to  Venice.    A  report  of  hia  ezpe- 


oomtahiki 


324 


OONTEMPLAnOK 


riences  was  presented  to  the  tSenatc  IG  November  fol- 
lowing. During  his  absence  he  was  named  "Savio 
di  terra  ferma",  i.  e.  president  of  a  commission 
charged  with  the  affairs  of  the  Continental  posses- 
sions of  Venice,  and  he  assmned  the  duties  of  this 
office.  In  1527  he  represented  the  Republic  of 
Venice  in  the  Congress  of  Ferrara,  where  the  Duke  of 
Ferrara  joined  the  league,  formed  against  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V,  between  France  ana  several  states 
of  Italy.  In  1528  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the 
court  of  Clement  VII  (1623-34),  with  instructions  to 
retain  the  pope  in  the  above-mentioned  leaeue,  and 
to  defend  the  action  of  the  republic  in  withholding 
from  the  pope  the  cities  of  Kavenna  and  Cervia, 
seized  during  the  late  invasion  of  the  Constable 
Bourbon.  Contarini  failed  in  both  objects.  Venice 
was  forced  not  only  to  surrender  the  aforesaid  cities, 
but  also  to  make  peace  with  the  emperor;  it  was  con- 
cluded through  Contarini  in  January,  1530,  at  Bo- 
logna. On  24  February  following,  Contarini  assisted 
at  the  solenm  coronation  of  Charles  V  in  Bologna, 
and  then  returned  to  Venice,  where  he  presented  the 
usual  report  to  the  Senate  on  9  March.  In  com- 
pensation for  his  services  he  was  appointed  to  several 
nigh  positions  in  the  government  of  the  republic, 
and  ultimately  became  a  member  of  the  Senate. 

Contarini  was  created  cardinal  by  Paul  III  in  1535. 
He  accepted  the  honour  and  went  to  Rome  (Oct., 
1535).  He  used  his  influence  with  the  pope  to  sup- 
press abuses  in  the  papal  government  ana  to  secure 
virtuous  men  for  the  SacrS  College.  Contarini  was 
the  president  of  a  commission  appointed  by  the  pope 
in  1536  to  submit  plans  for  a  reform  of  evils  in  the 
Roman  Curia  or  in  other  parts  of  the  Church.  It  was 
largely  due  to  him  that,  early  in  1537,  the  commission 
could  present  its  programme,  the  ''Consilium  de 
emend^d&  ecclesi^^'.  He  advised  the  pope  not  to 
abuse  the  great  jurisdiction  placed  in  his  hands;  and 
encouraged  his  friends  among  the  bishops  to  take  ap- 
propriate measures  for  discipline  and  good  order  in 
their  dioceses,  setting  an  example  in  his  own  Diocese  of 
Cividale  di  Bellimo,  to  which  he  was  appointed  in 
October,  1536.  St.  Ignatius  acknowledged  that  Con- 
tarini was  largely  responsible  for  the  papal  approba- 
tion of  his  society  (1540).  At  the  desire  of  Charles  V, 
Contarini  was  sent  as  papal  legate  to  Germany  in 
1541,  and  took  part  in  the  conference  held  at  Ratisbon 
between  Cathoucs  and  Protestants  in  hope  of  concili- 
ating the  latter.  As  it  ^raduallv  became  evident  that 
the  aifTerences  in  doctrine  coulu  not  be  bridged  over, 
the  conference  was  broken  off;  Contarini  remitted  the 
final  decision  of  all  articles  of  faith  to  the  pope,  and  re- 
turned to  Rome.  In  January,  1542,  he  was  appointed 
cardinal  legate  at  Bologna,  where,  after  a  few  months, 
death  put  an  end  to  his  career.  His  remains  were  in- 
terred, first  in  the  church  of  San  Pctronio,  then  trans- 
ferred to  the  church  of  the  monastery  of  San  Proculo, 
and  finally,  in  December,  1565,  to  the  family  tomb  in  a 
chapel  of  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  dell'  Orto  in  Venice. 

Contarini 's  principal  works  are  the  following:  (1) 
"Ldbri  duo  de  immortalitate  anims'^;  (2)  "De 
officio  episcopi  libri  duo":  (3)  "De  ma^tratibus 
et  republic^  Venetorum  libri  V";  (4)  "Compendii 
primse  philosophic  libri  VIII";  (5)  **De  potestate 
Pontificis";  (6)  "De  elementis  libri  V";  (7)  "Con- 
futatio  articulorum  seu  quaestionum  Lutheri";  (8) 
"De  libero  arbitrio";  (9)  "Conciliorum  magis  illus- 
trium  eumma";  (10)  "De  Sacramentis  christiame 
Icgis  et  catholicse  ecclesiae  libri  IV";  (11)  "De  justi- 
ficatione";  (12)  "Cathechismus";  (13)  "De  Pi»- 
destinatione";  (14)  "Scholia  in  epistolas  divi  Pauli". 
In  many  of  these  writings  Contanni  touched  upon  the 
questions  raised  by  Luther  and  other  reformers;  in 
stating  the  Cathouc  view,  however,  he  was  not  al- 
ways fortunate.  Thus,  in  describing  the  process  of 
justification,  he  attributes  the  result  lately  to  faith 
—not  to  faith  with  incipient  charity  in  the  Catholic 


sense,  but  to  faitli  in  the  sense  of  confidence.  How* 
ever,  he  departs  again  from  the  Protestant  view  by 
including  in  the  preparatory  stage  a  real  breaking 
away  from  sin  and  turning  to  good,  a  repentance 
and  detestation  of  sin.  Thus  al^,  in  describing  the 
essence  or  the  caiisa  farmalis  of  justification,  he 
requires  not  only  the  supernatural  equality  inbercnt 
in  the  soul,  by  which  man  is  constituted  just,  but, 
in  addition  to  that,  the  outward  imputation  of  tiie 
merits  of  Christ,  believed  to  be  necessaiy  owin^  to 
the  deficiency  of  our  nature.  It  would  be  unjust, 
nevertheless,  to  class  Contarini  among  the  partisans 
of  the  Reformation.  The  above-mentioned  views 
were  taken  only  in  part  from  the  teaching  of  the 
Protestants;  as  yet  the  Church  had  given  no  definite 
decision  on  these  matters.  Moreover,  Contarini 
wished  always  to  remain  a  Catholic;  at  the  Confer- 
ence of  Ratisbon  he  protested  repeatedly,  that  he 
would  sanction  nothing  contrary  to  the  Catholic 
teaching,  and  he  left  the  final  decision  of  all  matters 
of  faith  to  the  pope. 

DiTTRiCH,  Regeken  und  Brief  €  dm  CardinaU  OoBpar^  CmUa- 
rini  (Braunabers,  1881);  iDKM.Okwporo  CarUarini,  eine  Moiuh- 
graphie  (Braunsoerg,  1885) ;  Pabtor  in  KirchenUx,  (Frnburc 
im  Br.,  1884),  b.v,  FraNCIS  J.  SCHAicFER. 

Oontazini,  Giovanni,  Italian  painter  of  the  Vene- 
tian School,  b.  at  Venice  about  1549 ;  d.  in  1605.  Con* 
tarini  was  a  contemporary  of  Jacopo  Palma  called 
Palma  Giovine.  He  was  a  great  student  of  the  works 
of  Tintoretto  and  Titian  and  is  declared  to  have  been 
an  exact  imitator  of  Titian.  According  to  an  old 
story  he  was  so  extremely  accurate  in  his  portraits 
that  on  "sending  home  one  he  had  taken  of  Marco 
Dolce  his  dogs  b^an  to  fawn  upon  it  mistakiiig  it  for 
their  master^\  Contarini's  work  is  extremely  man- 
nered, soft  and  sweet,  but  distinguished  by  beautiful, 
rich  colouring  and  executed  very  much  on  the  tinea  of 
Titian's  painting.  His  finest  picture  is  in  the  Louvre, 
having  been  removed  from  the  ducal  palace  at  Venice, 
and  represents  the  Vimn  and  Child  with  St.  Mark  and 
St.  Sebastian,  and  the  Doge  of  Venice,  Maiino  Grimani, 
kneeling  before  them.  Other  paintings  of  his  are  in 
the  ^[slleries  at  Berlin,  Florence,  Milan,  and  Vienna, 
and  m  many  of  the  churches  at  Venice.  He  painted 
easel-pictures  of  mythological  subjects,  whidh  are 
treated  with  propriety  and  discretion  but  are  pecul- 
iarly lacking  in  force  and  strength;  in  many  of  the 
palaces  in  Venice  he  decorated  ceilings.  Some  years 
of  his  life  were  passed  at  the  court  of  the  Emperor 
Rudolf  II,  with  whom  he  was  a  great  favourite  and  by 
whom  he  was  knighted.  His  work  has  been  de- 
scribed by  one  writer  as  a  "combination  of  sugar, 
cream,  mulberry  juice,  sunbeam  and  velvet",  but  the 
criticism  is  a  little  unjust  and  one  or  two  of  his  works, 
for  example  the  "  Resurrection''  in  the  church  of  San 
Francesco  di  Paolo  at  Venice,  can  claim  to  be  mas- 
terly. This  picture  is  certainly  a  fine  piece  of  colour- 
ing, well  composed  and  well  carried  out. 

The  cshief  aothority  is  Gajujo  Ridolfx,  Vttutian  Artialt 
(Yenioe,  1648) ;  Brinton,  The  Renai»9anc0  in  Italian  Art  (Lon- 
don. 1898) ;  KuQUSR,  The  JUdian  SchooU  of  Pdintino  CLondon. 

1900).  George  Charles  Williamson. 

OontempUtion. — ^The  idea  of  contemplation  is  so 
intimately  connected  with  that  of  mystical  theology 
th&t  the  one  cannot  be  clearly  explained  independenUy 
of  the  other ;  hence  we  shall  here  set  forth  what  mysti- 
cal theology  is. 

Preldiinart  DsFiNrnoNS. — ^Those  supernatural 
acts  or  states  which  no  effort  or  labour  on  our  part  can 
succeed  in  producing,  even  in  the  slidlitest  degree  or 
for  a  single  instant,  are  called  mystical.  The  mAking 
of  an  act  of  contrition  and  the  reciting  of  a  Hail  Mary 
are  supernatural  acts,  but  when  one  wishes  to  produce 
them  grace  is  never  refused ;  hence  they  are  not  mysti- 
cal acts.  But  to  see  one's  guardian  angel,  whirii  does 
not  in  the  least  depend  on  one's  own  efforts,  is  a  mjati- 
cal  Mi.    To  have  very  ardent  sentiments  of  Divine 


OQNTIMFXATIOM 


325 


OOMTSMPLATION 


love  is  not,  in  itself,  proof  that  one  is  in  a  mystical 
state,  because  such  love  can  be  produced,  at  least 
feebly  ajid  for  an  instant,  by  our  own  efforts.  The 
preoedmg  definition  is  equivalent  to  that  given  by  St. 
Teresa  in  the  beginning  of  her  second  letter  to  Father 
Rodriguez  Alvarez.  Mystical  theology  is  the  science 
that  studies  mystical  states;  it  is  above  all  a  science 
based  on  observation.  Mystical  theology  is  fre- 
quently confounded  with  ascetic  theology;  the  latter, 
however^  treats  of  the  virtues.  Ascetical  writers  dis- 
cuss also  the  subject  of  prayer,  but  they  confine  them- 
selves to  prayer  that  is  not  mystical. 

Mystical  states  are  called,  nrst,  supernatural  or  iV 
futed,  by  whidi  we  mean  manifestly  supernatural  or 
infused;  secondly^  extraordinaryf  indicating  that  the 
intellect  operates  m  a  new  way,  one  which  our  efforts 
cannot  bnn^  about;  thirdly,  passive,  to  show  that 
the  soul  receives  something  and  is  conscious  of  reoaiv- 
ing  it.  The  exact  term  would  be  passivo-^ictive,  since 
our  activity  responds  to  this  reception  just  as  it  does 
in  the  exercise  of  our  bodily  senses.  By  way  of  dis- 
tinction ordinary  prayer  is  called  active,  Ine  word 
mystical  has  been  much  abused.  It  has  at  length 
come  to  be  applied  to  all  religious  sentiments  that  are 
scxnewhat  ardent  and,  indeed,  even  to  simple  poetic 
sentiments.  The  foregoing  definition  fldves  the  re- 
stricted and  theologicalsense  of  the  word. 

First  of  all,  a  word  as  to  ordinary  prayer,  which 
comprises  these  four  degrees:    first,  vocal  prayer; 
second,  meditation,  also  called  methodical  prayer,  or 
prayer  of  reflection,  in  which  may  be  included  medita- 
tive reading;  thiro,  affective  prayer;  fourth,  prater 
of  simplicity,  or  of  simple  gaze.    Only  the  last  two  de* 
greea  (also  called  prayens  of  the  heart)  will  be  consid- 
ered, as  thev  border  on  the  mystical  states.    Mental 
prayer  in  wnidi  the  affective  acts  are  numerous,  and 
which  consists  much  more  laigelv  of  them  than  of 
reflections  and  reasoning,  is  ciJled  affective.    Prayer 
of  simplicity  is  mental  prater  in  which,  first,  reason- 
ing is  largely  replaced  by  intuition;  second,  affections 
and  resolutions,  thou^  not  absent,  are  only  slightly 
varied  and  expressed  m  a  few  words.    To  say  that  the 
multiplicity  ot  acts  has  entirely  disappeared  would  be 
a  harmf id  exaggeration,  for  they  are  only  notably  di- 
minished.   In  Doth  of  these  states,  but  especially  in 
the  second,  there  is  one  dominant  thought  or  senti- 
ment whicn  recuiB  constantly  and  easily  (although 
with  little  or  no  development)  amid  many  other 
thoughts,  benefidal  or  otherwise.    This  main  thought 
is  not  continuous  but  keeps  returning  frequently  and 
spontaneously.    A  like  fact  may  be  observed  m  the 
natural  order.    The  mother  who  watches  over  the 
cradle  of  her  child  thinks  lovingly  of  him  and  does  so 
without  reflection  and  amid  interruptions.    These 
prayers  differ  from  meditation  only  as  greater  from 
lesser  and  are  applied  to  the  same  :;ubjects.    Never- 
theless the  prayer  of  simplicity  often  has  a  tendency 
to  simplify  itself,  even  m  respect  to  its  object.    It 
leads  one  to  think  chiefly  of  Grod  and  of  His  presence, 
but  in  a  confused  manner.    This  particular  state, 
which  is  nearer  than  others  to  the  mystical  states,  is 
called  the  prayer  of  amorous  attention  to  God.    Those 
who  bring  the  charge  of  idleness  against  these  different 
states  ^ways  have  an  exonerated  idea  of  them.    The 
prayer  of  simplicity  is  not  to  meditation  what  inac- 
tion is  to  action,  though  it  might  appear  to  be  at  times, 
but  what  uniformity  is  to  variety  and  intuition  to  rear 
Boning. 

A  soul  is  known  to  be  called  to  one  of  these  degrees 
when  it  succeeds  therein,  and  does  so  with  ease,  and 
when  it  derives  profit  from  it.  The  call  of  God  be- 
comes even  clearer  if  this  soul  have  first,  a  persistent 
attraction  for  this  kind  of  pmyer;  second,  a  want  of 
facility  and  distaste  for  meditation.  Three  rules  of 
conduct  for  those  who  show  these  signs  are  admitted 
by  all  authors:  (a)  When,  during  prayer,  one  feels 
*>«jitlier  a  relish  nor  facility  for  certain  acts  one  should 


not  force  oneself  to  produce  them,  but  be  content  with 
affective  prayer  or  the  prayer  of  simplicity  (which,  by 
hypothesis,  can  succeed) ;  to  do  otherwise  would  be  to 
thwart  the  Divine  action,  (b)  If,  on  Uie  contrary, 
during  prayer,  one  feels  a  facility  for  certain  acts,  one 
should  yield  to  this  inclination  instead  of  obstinately 
striving  to  remain  immovable  like  the  Quietists.  In- 
deed, even  the  full  use  of  our  faculties  is  not  superflu- 
ous in  helping  us  to  reach  God  (c)  Outside  of  prayer, 
properly  so  called,  one  should  profit  on  all  occasions 
either  to  get  instruction  or  to  arouse  the  will  and  thus 
make  up  what  prayer  itself  may  lack.  Many  texts 
relative  to  the  prayer  of  simplicity  are  found  in  the 
works  of  St.  Jane  de  Chantal,  who,  together  with  St. 
Francis  of  Sales,  founded  the  Order  of  the  Visitation. 
She  complained  of  the  opposition  that  many  well-dis- 
posed mmds  offered  to  this  kind  of  prayer.  By  an- 
cient writers  the  prayer  of  simplicity  is  called  acquired, 
active,  or  ordinary  contemplation.  St.  Alphonsus 
Liguori.  echoing  his  predecessors,  defines  it  thus:  ''At 
the  end  of  a  certain  time  ordinary  meditation  pro- 
duces what  is  called  acquired  contemplation,  wnich 
consists  in  seeing  at  a  simple  glance  the  truths  which 
could  previously  be  discovered  only  through  pro- 
longed discourse"  (Homo  apostolicus,  Appmlix  I, 
no.  7). 

To  distinguish  it  from  acquired  contemplation 
mystical  union  is  called  intuitive,  passive,  extraordin- 
ary, or  higher  contemplation.  St.  Teresa  designates 
it  simply  as  contemplation,  without  any  qualification. 
Mystical  graces  may  be  divided  into  two  croups,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  object  contempl^tea.  The 
states  of  the  first  group  are  characterised  by  the  fact 
that  it  is  God,  and  Ciod  only,  who  manifests  Himself; 
these  are  called  mystical  union.  In  the  second  group 
the  manifestation  is  of  a  created  object,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, when  one  beholds  the  humanity  of  Ghrist  or  an 
angel  or  a  future  event,  etc.  These  are  visions  (of 
created  things)  and  revelations.  To  these  belong 
miraculous  bodily  phenomena  which  are  sometimes 
observed  in  ecstatics.  .  There  are  four  degrees  or 
stat^  of  mystical  union.  They  are  here  taken  just  as 
St.  Teresa  has  described  them  with  the  greatest  clear- 
ness in  her  "Life"  and  principally  in  ner  "Interior 
Castle":  first,  incomplete  mystical  union,  or  the 
prayer  of  auiet  (from  the  Latm  quies,  quiet;  which 
expresses  tne  impression  experienced  in  this  state); 
second,  the  full,  or  semi-ecstatic,  union,  which  St. 
Teresa  sometimes  calls  the  prayer  of  union  (in  her 
"life"  she  also  makes  use  of  tne  term  erdire  union, 
entera  unidn,  ch.  xvii) ;  third,  ecstatic  union,  or  ec- 
stasy; and  fourth,  tranisforming  or  deifying  union,  or 
spiritual  marriage  (properly)  of  the  soul  with  God. 
"nie  first  three  are  states  of  the  same  grace,  viz.  the 
weak,  medium,  and  the  eneigetic.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  transforming  union  differs  from  these  specific- 
ally and  not  merely  m  intensity. 

The  preceding  ideas  may  be  more  precisely  stated 
by  indicatinjg  the  easily  discernible  lines  of  aemarca- 
tion.  Mystical  union  will  be  called  (a)  spiritual  quiet 
when  the  Divine  action  is  still  too  weak  to  prevent 
distractions:  in  a  word,  when  the  imagination  stiU  re- 
tains a  certain  liberty ;  (b)  full  union  when  its  strength 
is  so  great  that  the  soul  is  fully  occupied  with  the 
Divine  object,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  senses 
continue  to  act  (under  these  conditions,  by  making  a 
greater  or  less  effort,  one  can  cease  from  prayer);  (c) 
ecstasy  when  communications  with  the  external  world 
are  severed  or  nearly  so  (in  this  event  one  can  no 
longer  make  voluntary  movements  nor  emerge  from 
the  state  at  will).  Between  these  well-defined  types 
there  are  imperceptible  transitions  as  between  the 
colours  blue,  green,  and  yellow.  Mystics  use  many 
other  appellations:  silence,  supernatural  sleep,  spir- 
itual inebriation,  etc.  These  are  not  real  degrees,  out 
rather  ways  of  being  in  the  four  preceding  degrees. 
St.  Teresa  sometimes  dosignates  tlie  weak  prayer  of 


OOHTEMPLATIOH 


326 


OOMTSBfPLATIOM 


quiet  SB  sut>ematural  recollection.  As  regards  trans- 
forming union,  or  spiritual  marriage,  it  is  here  suffi- 
cient to  say  that  it  consists  in  the  habitual  conscious- 
ness of  a  mysterious  grace  which  ali  shall  possess  in 
heaven:  the  participation  of  the  Divine  jiature.  The 
soul  is  conscious  of  the  Divine  assistance  in  its  supe- 
rior supernatural  operations,  those  of  the  intellect  and 
the  will.  Spiritual  marriage  differs  from  spiritual 
espousals  inasmuch  as  the  mst  of  these  states  is  per- 
manent and  the  second  only  transitory. 

Characters  op  Mystical  Union. — ^The  different 
states  of  mystical  union  possess  twelve  characters. 
The  first  two  are  the  most  important;  the  first  be- 
cause it  denotes  the  basis  of  this  grace,  the  other  be- 
cause it  represents  its  physiognomy. 

First  character:  the  presence  felt, — (a)  The  real  dif- 
ference between  mystical  union  and  the  recollection  of 
ordinary  prayer  is  that,  in  the  former,  Grod  is  not  sat- 
isfied with  helping  us  to  think  of  Him  and  reminding 
us  of  His  presence;  He  gives  us  an  intellectual  ex- 
perimental knowledge  of  that  presence,  (b)  How- 
ever, in  the  lower  degrees  (spiritual  quiet)  God  does 
this  in  a  rather  obscure  way.  The  more  elevated  the 
order  of  the  union  the  clearer  the  manifestation.  The 
obscurity  just  mentioned  is  a  source  of  interior  suffer- 
ing to  beginners.  During  the  period  of  spiritual  quiet 
they  instinctively  believe  in  the  preceding  doctrine, 
but  afterwards,  because  of  their  preconceived  ideas, 
they  begin  to  reason  and  relapse  into  hesitation  and 
the  fear  of  poing  astray.  The  remedy  lies  in  provid- 
ing them  with  a  learned  director  or  a  book  that  treats 
these  matters  clearly.  By  experimental  knowledge 
is  understood  that  wnich  comes  from  the  object  itself 
and  makes  it  known  not  only  as  possible  but  as  exist- 
ing, and  in  such  and  such  conditions.  This  is  the 
case  with  mystical  union:  God  is  therein  perceived  as 
well  as  conceived.  Hence,  in  mystical  umon,  we  have 
experimental  knowledge  of  God  and  of  His  presence, 
but  it  does  not  at  all  follow  that  this  knowledge  is  of 
the  same  nature  as  the  Beatific  Vision.  The  angels, 
the  souls  of  the  departed,  and  devils  know  one  another 
experimentally  but  in  an  inferior  way  to  that  in  which 
God  will  be  manifested  to  us  in  heaven.  Theologians 
express  this  principle  by  saying  that  it  is  a  knowledge 
by  impressea  or  intelligible  species. 

Second  character:  interior  possession. — (a)  In  states 
inferior  to  ecstasy  one  cannot  say  that  he  sees  God, 
unless  indeed  in  exceptional  cases.  Nor  is  one  in- 
stinctively led  to  use  the  word  see.  (b)  On  the  con- 
trary, what  constitutes  the  common  basis  of  all  the 
degrees  of  mystical  union  is  that  the  spiritual  impres- 
sion by  which  God  manifests  His  presence  makes  that 
presence  felt  in  the  way  of  an  interior  something  with 
which  the  soul  is  penetrated;  it  is  a  sensation  of  ab- 
sorption, of  fusion,  of  immersion,  (c)  For  the  sake  of 
greater  clearness  the  sensation  one  experiences  may  be 
designated  as  interior  touch.  This  very  clear  expres- 
sion of  spiritual  sensation  is  used  by  Scaramelli  (Direo- 
toire  mystique,  Tr.  iii,  no.  26)  and  had  already  been 
resorted  to  by  Father  de  la  Reguera  (Praxis  theologise 
mysticfiB,  vol.  I,  no.  735).  The  following  comparison 
will  aid  us  in  forming  an  exact  idea  of  the  physiogno- 
my of  mystical  union.  We  may  say  that  it  is  in  a 
Precisely  similar  way  that  we  feel  the  presence  of  our 
ody  when  we  remain  perfectly  immobile  and  close 
our  eyes.  If  we  know  that  our  body  is  present,  it  is 
not  because  we  see  it  or  have  been  told  of  the  fact.  It 
is  the  result  of  a  special  sensation  (coensesthesis),  an 
interior  impression,  very  simple  and  yet  impossible  to 
analyse.  Thus  it  is  that  in  mystical  union  we  feel 
God  within  us  and  in  a  very  simple  way.  The  soul 
absorbed  in  mystical  union  that  is  not  too  elevated 
may  be  said  to  resemble  a  man  placed  near  one  of  his 
friends  in  an  impenetrably  dark  place  and  in  utter  si- 
lence. He  neither  sees  nor  hears  his  friend  whose 
hand  he  holds  within  his  own,  but  through  means  of 
touch,  he  fj'rls  liis  nrrscncc.     He  tluis  remains  think- 


ing of  his  friend  and  loving  him,  although  amid  dis- 
tractions. 

The  foregoing  statements  concerning  the  first  two 
characters  always  appear  unquestionably  true  to 
those  who  have  received  mystical  graces,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  they  are  often  a  source  ofamazement  to  the 
profane.  For  those  who  will  admit  them,  at  least 
provisionally,  the  difficulties  of  mystical  union  are 
overcome  and  what  is  to  follow  will  not  be  very  mys- 
terious. The  ten  characters  remaining  are  the  conse- 
quences or  concomitants  of  the  first  two. 

Third  character, — Mystical  union  cannot  be  prrv 
duced  at  will.  It  is  this  character  that  was  uwrfiil 
above  in  defining  all  mystical  states.  It  may  also  i>e 
added  that  these  states  cannot  be  augmented  nor  their 
manner  of  being  changed.  By  remaining  immobile 
and  being  content  with  interior  acts  of  the  will  one 
cannot  cause  these  graces  to  cease.  It  will  be  seen 
farther  on  that  the  only  means  to  this  end  lies  in  re- 
suming bodily  activity. 

Fourth  character. — The  knowledge  of  God  in  mysti- 
cal union  is  obscure  and  confused;  hence  the  expres- 
sion to  enter  into  Divine  obscurity  or  into  Divine 
darkness.  In  ecstasy  one  has  intellectual  visions  of 
the  Divinity,  and  the  loftier  these  become,  the  more 
they  surpass  our  understanding.  Then  is  reached 
blinding  contemplation,  a  mixture  of  light  and  dark- 
ness. The  great  darkness  is  the  name  given  to  the 
contemplation  of  such  Divine  attributes  as  are  never 
shared  by  any  creature,  for  instance,  infinity,  eternity, 
immutability,  etc. 

liijih  character. — Like  all  else  that  borders  on  the 
Divine  nature  this  mode  of  communication  is  only 
half  comprehensible  and  it  is  called  mystical  because 
it  indicates  a  mystery.  This  character  and  the  pre- 
ceding one  are  a  source  of  anxiety  to  beginners,  as  they 
imagine  that  no  state  is  Divine  and  certain  unless  they 
understand  it  perfectly  and  without  anyone's  h^p. 

Sixth  character. — In  mystical  union  the  contempla- 
tion of  God  is  produced  neither  by  reasoning  nor  by 
the  consideration  of  creatures  nor  still  by  interior 
images  of  the  sensible  order.  We  have  seen  that  it 
has  an  altogether  different  cause.  In  the  natural 
state  our  thinking  is  always  accompanied  by  images, 
and  it  is  the  same  in  ordinary  prayer,  because  super- 
natural operations  of  an  ordinaiy  character  resemble 
those  of  nature.  But  in  mystical  contemplation  a 
change  takes  place.  St.  John  of  the  Cross  is  con- 
stantly reverting  to  this  point.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  acts  of  the  imagination  are  not  the  cause  of  con- 
templation:  however,  they  may  at  least  accompany 
it.  Most  irequently  it  is  in  distractions  that  the 
imagination  manifests  itself,  and  8t.  Teresa  declared 
that  for  this  evil  she  found  no  remedy  (Life,  ch.  xvii). 
We  shall  designate  as  constitutive  acts  of  mystical 
union  those  which  necessarily  belong  to  this  state,  such 
as  thinking  of  God,  relishing  Him  and  loving  Him; 
and  by  way  of  distinction  we  shall  denote  as  addi- 
tional acts  such  acts,  other  than  distractions,  as  are 
not  proper  to  mystical  union,  that  is  to  say,  are  neither 
its  cause  nor  its  consequences.  This  term  indicates 
that  an  addition,  whether  voluntary  or  not,  is  made  to 
Divine  action.  Thus,  to  recite  a  Hail  Mary  during 
spiritual  quiet  or  to  give  oneself  up  to  a  consideration 
01  death  would  be  to  perform  additional  acts,  because 
they  are  not  essential  to  the  existence  of  spiritual 
quiet.  These  definitions  will  prove  useful  later  on. 
But  even  now  they  will  permit  us  to  explain  certain 
abbreviations  of  language,  often  indulged  in  by  mys- 
tics, of  which  many  erroneous  interpretations  have 
been  made,  misunderstanding  having  resulted  from 
what  was  left  unexpressed.  Thus  it  has  been  said: 
"Often  in  supernatural  prayer  there  are  no  more 
acts";  or,  "One  must  not  fear  therein  to  suppress  all 
acts";  whereas  what  should  have  been  said  was  this: 
"There  are  no  more  additional  acts*'.  Taken  liter- 
ally, tliose  abridged  phrases  do  not  differ  from  those  of 


OONTEBIPLATZOH 


327 


OOHTSBIPLATIOM 


the  Quietista.  St.  Teresa  was  suddenly  enlightened 
in  her  way  of  perfection  by  reading  in  a  b^k  this 
phrase,  though  it  is  inaccurate:  ''In  spiritual  quiet 
one  can  think  of  nothing"  (Life,  ch.  xxiii).  But 
others  would  not  have  discerned  the  true  value  of  the 
expression.  In  like  manner  it  was  said:  "The  will 
onJv  is  united";  by  which  was  meant  that  the  mind 
adds  no  further  reasoning  and  that  thenceforth  it 
makes  itself  foi^tten  or  else  that  it  retains  the  liberty 
of  producing  additional  acts;  then  it  seems  as  if  it 
were  not  united.  But  in  future  these  expressions 
that  require  long  explanations  will  be  avoided. 

Seventh  charader, — ^There  are  continual  fluctua- 
tions. Mystical  union  does  not  retain  the  same  de- 
gree of  intensity  for  five  minutes,  but  its  average  in- 
tensity may  be  the  same  for  a  notable  length  of  time. 
Eighth  char€uier, — ^Mystical  union  demands  much 
less  labour  than  meditation,  and  the  more  elevated 
the  state  the  less  the  effort  required,  in  ecstasv  there 
being  none  whatever.  St.  Teresa  ccxnpares  the  soul 
that  proeresses  in  these  states  to  a  gardener  who  takes 
less  and  less  troOble  to  water  his  garden  (Life,  ch.  xi). 
In  the  prayer  of  quiet  the  labour  does  not  consist  in 
procuring  the  prayer  itself;  God  alone  can  give  that, 
out  first  in  combating  distractions;  second,  in  occa- 
sionally producing  additional  acts;  third,  if  the  quiet 
be  weak,  in  suppressing  the  ennui  caused  by  incom- 
plete absorption  which  very  often  one  is  disinclined  to 
perfect  by  something  else. 

Ninth  character. — Mystical  union  is  accompanied 
by  sentiments  of  love,  tranquillity,  and  pleasure.  In 
spiritual  auiet  these  sentiments  are  not  always  very 
araent  although  sometimes  the  revense  is  the  case  and 
there  is  spiritual  jubilation  and  inebriation. 

Tenth  character, — ^M^stical  union  is  accompanied, 
and  often  in  a  very  visible  manner,  by  an  impulse 
towards  the  different  virtues.  This  fact  (whicn  St. 
Teresa  constantly  repeats)  is  the  more  sensible  in  pro- 
portion as  the  prayer  is  more  elevated.  In  private, 
far  from  leading  to  pride  these  graces  always  produce 
humility. 

Eleventh  character.-^MyBtical  union  acts  upon  the 
body.  This  fact  is  evident  in  ecstasy  (q.  v.)  and  en- 
ters into  its  definition.  First,  in  this  state  the  senses 
have  little  or  no  action;  second,  the  members  of  the 
body  are  usually  motioxiless;  third,  respiration  almost 
ceases ;  fourth,  vital  heat  seems  to  disappear,  especially 
from  the  extremities.  In  a  word,  all  is  as  if  the  soul 
loses  in  vital  force  and  motor  activity  all  that  it  gains 
on  the  side  of  Divine  union.  The  law  of  continuitv 
shows  us  that  these  phenomena  must  occur,  although 
in  a  lesser  degree,  in  those  states  that  are  inferior  to 
ecstasy.  At  what  moment  do  they  begin?  Often 
during  spiritual  quiet,  and  this  seems  to  be  the  case 
mainfy  with  persons  of  weak  temperament.  Since 
this  spiritual  quiet  is  somewhat  opposed  to  bodily 
movements  the  latter  must  react  reciprocally  in  order 
to  diminish  this  quiet.  Experience  confirms  this  con- 
jecture. If  one  begins  to  walk,  read,  or  look  to  right 
and  left,  one  feels  the  Divine  action  diminishing; 
therefore  to  resume  bodily  activity  is  a  practical 
means  of  ending  the  mystical  union. 

Twelfth  character, — Mystical  union  to  some  extent 
hinders  the  production  of  some  interior  acts  which,  in 
ordmary  prayer,  could  be  produced  at  will.  This  is 
what  is  known  as  the  suspension  of  the  powers  of  the 
soul.  In  ecstasy  this  fact  is  most  evident  and  is  also 
experienced  in  actual  quiet,  one  of  those  states  in- 
ferior to  ecstasy,  being  one  of  the  phenomena  that 
have  most  occupied  mystics  and  been  the  cause  of  the 
greatest  anxietv  to  be^ners.  Those  acts  which  have 
been  termed  additional,  and  which  would  likewise  be 
voluntary,  are  what  are  hampered  by  this  suspension, 
hence  it  is  usually  an  obstacle  to  vocal  prayers  and 
pioas  reflections. 

To  sum  up:  as  a  general  rule,  the  mystical  state  has 
a  tendency  to  exclude  all  that  is  foreign  to  it  and  espe- 


cially whatever  proceeds  from  our  own  assiduity,  our 
own  effort.  Sometimes,  however,  Ciod  makes  excep- 
tions. Ck>noeming  suspension  there  are  three  rules 
of  conduct  identical  with  those  already  given  for  Uie 
prayer  of  simplicity  (see  above).  If  a  director  sus- 
pects that  a  person  has  attained  unto  the  prayer  of 
(]^uiet  he  can  most  frequently  decide  the  case  by  ques- 
tioning him  on  the  twelve  characters  just  enumerated. 

The  Two  Niohtb  of  the  Soul. — ^There  is  an  inter- 
mediate state  not  yet  mentioned,  a  frequent  transition 
between  ordinary  prayer  and  spiritual  auiet.  St. 
John  of  the  Cross,  who  was  the  first  to  describe  it 
clearly,  called  it  the  night  of  sense  or  first  night  of  the 
soul.  If  we  abide  by  appearances,  that  is  ^  say,  by 
what  we  inomediately  observe  in  ourselves,  this  state 
is  a  praver  of  simplicity  but  with  characteristics,  two 
especially,  which  make  it  a  thing  apart.  It  is  bitter, 
and  it  is  almost  solelv  upon  God  that  the  simple  gaze 
is  incessantly  rivetecf.  Five  elements  are  included  in 
this  distressmg  state:  there  is  first,  an  habitual  arid- 
ity; second,  an  undeveloped,  confused  idea  of  Ciod, 
recurring  with  singular  persistency  and  independently 
of  the  will;  third,  the  sad  and  constant  need  of  a 
closer  union  with  God;  fourth,  a  continual  action  of 
God's  grace  to  detach  us  from  all  sensible  things  and 
impart  a  distaste  for  them,  whence  the  name,  ''i^ght  of 
sense''  (the  soul  may  struggle  against  this  action  of 
pace) ;  fifth,  there  is  a  hidden  element  which  consists 
m  this:  God  besins  to  exercise  over  the  soul  the  action 
characteristic  of  the  prayer  of  quiet,  but  He  does  it  so 
gently  that  one  may  be  unconscious  of  it.  Hence  it  is 
spiritual  quiet  in  the  latent,  disguised  state,  and  it  is 
only  by  verifying  the  analogy  of  effects  that  one  comes 
to  know  it.  St.  John  of  the  Cross  speaks  of  the  second 
night  of  the  soul  as  the  night  of  the  mind.  It  is  noth- 
ing more  than  the  union  of  the  mvstical  states  inferior 
to  spiritual  nuurriage  but  r^arded  as  including  the 
element  of  gloom  and  therefore  as  producing  suffering. 

We  can  now  form  a  compact  idea  of  the  develop- 
ment of  mystical  union  in  the  soul.  It  is  a  tree  tne 
seed  of  which  is  first  concealed  in  the  earth  and  the 
roots  that  are  secretly  put  forth  in  darkness  consti- 
tute the  night  of  sense.  From  these  a  frail  stem 
springs  up  into  the  li^t  and  this  is  spiritual  quiet. 
The  tree  grows  and  Incomes  successively  full  union 
and  ecsta^.  Finally,  in  spiritual  marria^  it  attains 
the  end  of  its  development  and  then  especially  it  bears 
tlowers  and  fruit.  This  harmony  existing  between 
the  states  of  mystical  union  is  a  fact  of  noteworthy 
importance. 

HBVBUkTIONB     AND     VlSlONS    (OF     CrEATUBBS). — 

There  are  three  kinds  of  speech:  exterior,  which  is  re- 
ceived by  the  ear,  and  interior,  which  is  subdivided 
into  imaginative  and  intellectual.  The  last  is  a  com- 
munication of  thoughts  without  words. 

There  are  three  similar  kinds  of  visions.  Many  de- 
tails of  these  different  graces  will  be  found  in  the 
works  of  St.  Teresa.  What  are  known  as  private  and 
particular  revelations  are  those  containea  neither  in 
the  Bible  nor  in  the  deposit  of  Apostolic  tradition. 
The  Church  does  not  oblige  us  to  believe  in  them,  but 
it  is  prudent  not  to  reject  them  lightly  when  they  are 
affirmed  by  saints.  Nevertheless  it  is  certain  that 
many  saints  were  deceived  and  that  their  revelations 
contradict  one  another.  What  follows  will  explain 
the  reason  of  this.  Revelations  and  visions  are  sub- 
ject to  many  illusions  which  shall  be  briefly  set  forth. 
First,  like  Jonas  at  Ninive,  the  seer  may  regard  as 
absolute  a  prediction  that  was  only  conditional,  or 
commit  some  other  error  in  interpreting  it.  Second, 
when  the  vision  represents  a  scene  from  the  life  or 
Passion  of  Christ,  historic  accuracy  is  often  only  ap- 
proximate; otherwise  God  would  lower  Himself  to  the 
rank  of  a  professor  of  history  and  archaeology.  He 
wishes  to  sanctify  the  soul,  not  to  satisfy  our  curiosity. 
The  seer,  however,  may  believe  that  the  reproduction 
is  exact ;  hence  the  want  of  agreement  between  revela- 


dONTElffPLATIOK 


328 


CONTmSPLATION 


mons  concerning  the  life  of  Jesus  Christ.  Third,  dur- 
ing the  vision  personal  activity  may  be  so  mingled 
with  the  Divine  action  that  answers  in  the  sense  de- 
sired seem  to  be  received.  In  fact,  during  prayer 
vivid  imaginations  may  go  so  far  as  to  produce  revela- 
tions and  visions  out  of  whole  cloth  without  any  evil 
intent.  Fourth,  sometimes,  in  his  desire  to  explain  it, 
the  seer  afterwards  unconsciously  alters  a  genuine 
revelation.  Fifth^  amanuenses  and  editors  take  de- 
plorable liberties  in  revising,  so  that  the  text  is  not 
always  authentic.  Some  revelations  are  even  abso- 
lutely false  because:  first,  in  describing  their  prayer, 
certain  persons  lie  most  audaciously;  second,  amongst 
those  afflicted  with  neuropathy  there  are  inventors 
who,  in  perfectly  good  faith,  imagine  to  be  real  facts 
things  that  have  never  occurred;  third,  the  devil  may 
to  a  certain  degree,  counterfeit  Divine  visions;  fourth, 
amongst  writers  there  are  genuine  forgers  who»are  re- 
sponsible for  political  prophecies,  hence  the  profusion 
of  absurd  predictions. 

Illusion^  in  the  matter  of  revelations  often  have  a 
serious  consequence,  as  they  usually  instigate  to  ex- 
terior acts,  such  as  teaching  a  doctrine,  propagating  a 
new  devotion,  prophesying,  launching  into  an  enter- 
prise that  entails  expense.  There  would  be  no  evil  to 
fear  if  these  impulses  came  from  God,  but  it  is  entirety 
otherwise  when  they  do  not  come  from  God,  which  is 
much  more  frequently  the  case  and  is  difficult  of  dis- 
cernment. On  the  contrary  there  is  naught  to  fear 
from  mystical  union.  It  impels  solely  towards  Di- 
vine love  and  the  practice  of  solid  virtue.  There  would 
be  equal  security  in  the  impossible  supposition  that 
the  state  of  prayer  was  only  an  imitation  of  mystical 
union,  for  then  the  tendencies  would  be  exactly  the 
same.  This  supposition  is  called  impossible  because 
St.  Teresa  and  St.  John  of  the  Cross  keep  repeating 
that  the  devil  cannot  imitate  nor  even  understand 
mystical  union.  Neither  can  our  mind  and  imagina- 
tion reproduce  the  combination  of  the  twelve  charac- 
ters described  above. 

What  has  been  said  shows  us  the  importance  of  not 
confounding  mystical  union  with  revelations.  Not 
only  are  these  states  of  a  difiPerent  nature  but  they 
must  also  be  differently  estimated.  Because  ignor- 
ant of  this  distinction  many  persons  fall  into  one  of 
these  two  extremes:  first,  if  they  know  the  danger  of 
revelations,  they  extend  their  severe  judgment  to 
mvstical  union  and  thus  turn  certain  souls  from  an  ex- 
cellent path;  second,  if  on  the  contrary,  they  are  rea- 
sonably persuaded  of  the  security  ana  tranquillity  of 
mystical  union,  they  wrongfully  extend  this  favour- 
able judgment  to  revelations  and  drive  certain  souls 
into  a  dangerous  path. 

When  God  so  wills  He  can  impart  to  him  who  re- 
ceives a  revelation  the  full  certainty  that  it  is  real  and 
wholly  Divine.  Otherwise  one  would  not  have  had 
the  right  to  believe  the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Scripture  ordained  that  they  be  distinguished 
from  false  prophets.  For  instance,  the  envoys  of 
God  performed  miracles  or  uttered  prophecies  the 
realization  of  which  was  verified.  In  orcler  to  judge 
private  revelations  in  a  more  or  leas  probable  way, 
two  kinds  of  information  must  be  obtained.  First, 
one  should  ascertain  the  qualities  or  defects,  from  a 
natural,  ascetic,  or  mystical  point  of  view,  of  the  per- 
son having  revdations.  When  the  one  in  question 
has  been  canonized  the  investigation  has  abready  been 
made  by  the  Church.  Second,  one  should  be  ac- 
(^uainted  with  the  qualities  or  detects  of  the  revelation 
it,self  and  with  its  various  circumstances,  favourable 
or  otherwise.  To  judge  of  ecstasies  one  should  be 
actuated  by  the  same  principles,  the  two  chief  points 
to  settle  being:  first,  in  what  the  soul  is  absorbed 
whilst  thus  deprived  of  the  senses,  and  whether  it  is 
captivated  by  knowledge  of  a  higher  order  and  trans- 
jKirt^l  by  an  immense  love;  second,  what  degree 
of  virtue  it  possi'SKtil  befon*  reA<^hing  ihiA  nUte  and 


what  great  progress  it  made  afterwards.  If  the  re- 
sult of  the  investigation  be  favourable  the  probabili- 
ties are  on  the  sioe  of  Divine  ecstasy,  as  neither  tbe 
devil  nor  disease  can  work  the  imagination  up  to  this 
pitch. 

There  are  several  rules  of  conduct  in  oonnexion 
with  revelations  but  we  shall  give  only  the  two  most 
important.    The  first  relates  to  the  director.    If  the 
revelation  or  the  vision  has  for  its  sole  effect  the  aug- 
menting of  the  love  of  the  seer  for  God,  Christ,  or  the 
saints,  nothing  prevents  these  facts  from  being  pro- 
visionally considered  Divine;  but  if,  on  the  contrar>'f 
the  seer  be  impelled  to  certain  undertakinos^r  if  he 
wish  that  his  prediction  should  be  firmly  b^eved,  the 
utmost  distrust  must  be  shown,  but  with  the  greatest 
kindness.    If  the  seer  be  dissatisfied  with  this  prudejit 
attitude  and  insist  upon  being  believed,  he  should  be 
told:  "You  must  admit  that  you  cannot  be  believed 
simply  upon  your  word,  conseauently  give  signs  that 
your  revelations  come  from  Goa  and  from  Him  alone." 
As  a  rule  this  request  remains  unanswered.    Note  the 
prudence  of  the  Church  in  rejsard  to  certain  feasts  or 
devotions  which  she  has  instituted  in  consequence  of 
private  revelations.    The  revelation  was  only  the  oc- 
casion of  the  measure  taken.    The  Church  declares 
that  such  a  devotion  is  reasonable  but  she  does  not 
guarantee  the  revelation  that  suggested  it.    The  sec- 
ond rule  concerns  the  seer.     In  the  beginning,  at 
least,  he  is  gently  to  do  his  utmost  to  repulse  the  rev- 
elations and  to  turn  his  thoughts  away  from  them. 
He  is  to  accept  them  only  after  a  prudent  director  will 
have  decided  that  he  may  place  a  certain  amount  of 
confidence  in  them.     This  doctrine,   which  seems 
severe,  is  nevertheless  taught  forcibly  by  many  saints, 
such  as  St.  Ignatius  (Acta  SS..  31  Jiuy,  Prdliminaires, 
no.  614),  St.  Philip  Neri  (ibid.,  26  May,  2nd  life,  no. 
375),  St.  John  of  the  Cross  (Assent,  Bk.  II,  ch.  xi,  xvi, 
xvii,  and  xxiv),  St.  Teresa,  and  St.  Alphonsus  Ldguori 
(Homo  Apost.,  Appendix  I,  no.  23))  for  the  reason 
that  there  is  danger  of  illusions.    With  even  greats 
reason,  revelations  and  visions  (of  created  objects) 
should  be  neither  desired  nor  requested.   On  the  other 
hand  many  passages  in  St.  Teresa  and  other  m3r8tics 
prove  that  m3^tical  union  may  be  desired  and  asked 
for,  provided  it  be  done  humbly  and  with  resiraiation 
to  God's  will.    The  reason  is  that  this  union  nas  no 
disadvantages   but   presents   great   advantages  for 
sanctification  (see  Theoix>gy,  under  sub-title  Mysti- 
cal: Quietism). 

St.  Teresa  far  excels  all  writers  that  preceded  her 
on  the  subject  of  contemplation.  In  tneir  descrip- 
tions those  prior  to  her  confined  themselves  to  gener- 
alities. Exception  must  be  made  in  favour  of  Blessed 
Angela  de  Foligno,  Ruysbroeck  and  the  Venerable 
Marina  d 'Escobar  as  regards  the  subject  of  ecstasies. 
St.  Teresa  was  likewise  the  first  to  give  a  clear,  accur- 
ate, and  detailed  classification.  Before  her  time 
hanily  anything  was  described  except  ecstasies  and 
revelations.  The  lower  degrees  reouired  more  delicate 
observation  than  had  been  devoted  to  them  before  her 
day.  After  St.  Teresa  the  first  place  for  careful  ob- 
servation of  these  matters  belongs  to  St.  John  of 
the  Cross.  But  his  classifications  are  confused.  St. 
Teresa  and  St.  John  of  the  Cross  are  also  greatly  supe- 
rior to  subsequent  authors  who  have  been  satisfied  to 
repeat  them,  with  comments. 

Dbnib  thb  CARTRunAN,  De  Contemphtione;  Inuu,  De  fonU 
lucie  <t  aimUA  tita  (Nurambecg,  1495);  BixMnrs,  Worke  (In- 
goldstadt.  I03I-1726):  Saint  TERnsA,  Worke  (Salamanca. 
1588):  SuABES.  De  RelaHone  Soeietatie  Jeeu  (Bninela,  1857) 
tr.  hr;  Alvarbs  db  Pas.  De  inalitutUme  mtde  Me  ehtdio  on- 
tionis  (Lyons,  1617.  1619.  1623;  r»«dited  Paris,  ^^"^^zlSt' 
Schramm,  Inatitutionee  theologiccB  myetiea  (Au0ibur|,  1777); 
Skraphxn,  Principea  de  thMogie  mystique  (1873);  Mbynabo, 
Traits  ds  la  vie  inUriewe  (3rd  ed.,  Amai.  1899);  Poulain,  l^ 
myatique  de  Si,  Jean  de  la  Croix  in  Meaeager  du  Cmtr  de  Jtaw 
(1893);  Idem,  Lea  deaiderata  de  la  myatique  in  Lea  Etude*  (20 
March,  1898);  SAnoRBAn,  Lea  deqria  de  la  vie  apiritueUe  (Vic 
and  Amat.  1896-07):  Idem,  La  vie  d'union  A  Dieu  (AmaU 
liMK));   Ipkm,   L'Hat  mn^ique  Uoiat,   1903);  Joi.T,   Ptysholfi/v 


OONTSMFLATIVE 


329 


OOMTSlCPLAnVE 


o^lA«  Sttinis  (ir.  1897);  Ljukunk,  Manuel  de  throtoffv-  myatigHe 
<Pans.  1897):  DtfBLA.NCRY,  Aacetieum  in  Diet,  de  tMol.  cath. 
(1Q03)  ;  Har<:cradx,  Le  merveilleux  divin  et  U  merveiUeux 
dSnumiamu  (Pariei,  1901):  Ribet,  La  mystique  divine  (Paris, 
1895);  Bakes.  Sonata  aaphia,  or  Diredtiona  for  the  Prayer 
of  Contemplation  (Douai^d57);  Hilton,  Scale  of  Perfection 
(printed  by  Wynkin  de  Worde,  1494) ;  Dotle.  Principlea  of 
Reliaioue  lAfe  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1906);  Dkvine,  A  Manual  of 
MysHcal  Theaion  (London.  1903).  ^^q    Poulain. 

Oontemplative  Life,  a  life  ordered  in  view  of  con- 
templation; a  way  of  living  especially  adapted  to  lead 
to  and  facilitate  oontem^ation,  while  it  excludes 
all  other  preoccupations  and  intents.  To  seek  to 
kiiow  and  love  Qod  more  and  more  is  a  dtitv  incum- 
b4»nt  on  every  Christian  and  should  be  his  chief  pursuit, 
and  in  this  wide  sense  the  Qiristian  and  the  contem- 
plative lives  are  synonymous.  This  duty,  however, 
admits  of  various  aegrees  in  its  fulfilment.  Many  give 
to  it  onhr  a  part  of  their  time  and  attention,  either 
from  lacK  of  piety  or  because  of  other  duties;  others 
attempt  to  blend  harmoniously  the  contemplative  life 
with  active  ministry,  i.  e.  the  care  of  souls,  which, 
undertaken  from  a  motive  of  supernatural  charity,  can 
be  made  compatible  with  the  inner  life.  Others  again, 
who  have  the  will  and  the  means,  aim  at  accomplishing 
the  duty  of  contemplation  to  the  utmost  penection, 
and  give  up  all  occupations  inconsistent  is-ith  it^  or 
widen,  on  account  of  man's  limited  abilities,  of  tneir 
nature  would  impede  it.  The  custom  has  prevailed  of 
applying  the  terra  "  contemplative"  only  to  the  life  led 
by  the  latter. 

Contemplation,  the  object  of  contemplative  life,  is 
defined  as  the  complacent,  loving  gaze  of  the  soul  on 
Divine  truth  already  known  and  apprehended  by  the 
intellect  assisted  and  enlightened  by  Divine  grace. 
This  definition  shows  the  two  chief  differences  between 
the  contemplation  of  the  Christian  ascetic  and  the 
merely  scientific  research  of  the  theologian.  The  con- 
templative, in  his  investigation  of  Divine  things,  is 
actuated  by  love  for  those  things,  and  to  increase  this 
love  is  his  ultimate  purpose,  as  well  as  the  firetfruits  of 
his  contemplation;  in  other  words  the  theological  vir- 
tue of  chanty  is  the  mainspring  as  well  as  the  outcome 
of  the  act  of  contemplation.  Again,  the  contempla- 
tive does  not  rely  on  tne  natural  powers  of  his  intellect 
in  his  endeavours  to  gain  cognizance  of  the  truth,  but, 
knowing  that  human  reason  is  limited  and  weak,  espe- 
cially when  inauiring  into  things  supernatural,  he 
seeks  aid  from  aoove  by  prayer,  and  by  the  practice  of 
all  Christian  virtues  strives  to  fit  his  soul  for  the  grace 
he  desires.  The  act  of  contemplation,  imperfect  as  it 
needs  must  be,  is  of  all  human  acts  one  of  the  most 
sublime,  one  of  those  which  render  greatest  honour  to 
G<m1,  bring  the  greatest  good  to  the  soul,  and  enable  it 
roost  efficaciously  to  become  a  means  of  salvation  and 
of  manifold  blessing  to  others.  According  to  St.  Ber- 
nard (De  Consider.,  lib.  I,  c.  vii),  it  is  the  highest  form 
of  human  worship,  as  it  is  essentially  an  act  of  adora- 
tion and  of  utter  self-surrender  of  man's  whole  being. 
The  soul  in  contemplation  is  a  soul  lying  prostrate  be- 
fore God,  convincea  of  and  confessing  its  own  nothing- 
ness and  His  worthiness  to  receive  all  love  and  glory 
and  honour  and  blessings  from  those  He  has  created. 
It  is  a  soul  lost  in  admiration  and  love  of  the  Eternal 
Beauty,  the  sight  of  which  thou^  but  a  feeble  reflec- 
tion, fill  it  with  a  joy  naught  eke  in  the  world  can  give 
—a  joy  which,  far  more  eloquently  than  speech,  testi- 
fies that  the  soul  rates  that  Beauty  above  all  other 
beauties,  and  finds  in  It  the  completion  of  all  its  de- 
sires. It  is  the  Jubilant  worship  of  the  whole  heart, 
mind,  and  soul,  the  worship  "in  spirit  and  in  truth"  of 
the  **tnie  adorers",  such  as  the  Father  seeks  to  adore 
Him  (John,  iv,  23). 

By  contemplative  life,  however,  is  not  meant  a  life 
passed  entirely  in  contemplation.  On  earth  an  act  of 
contemplation  cannot  be  of  long  duration,  except  in 
the  case  of  an  extraordinary  pnvilege  granted  by 
Divine  power.    The  weakness  of  our  brcUly  serses 


and  the  natural  instability  of  our  minds  and  hearts, 
together  with  the  exigencies  of  life,  render  it  impossi- 
ble for  us  to  fix  our  attention  for  long  on  one  object. 
This  is  true  with  re^rd  to  earthly  or  material  things; 
it  is  still  more  true  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  super- 
natural order.  Only  in  Heaven  shall  the  understand- 
ing be  strengthened  so  as  to  waver  no  more,  but  adhere 
unceasingly  to  Him  Who  made  it. 

Hence  it  is  rare  to  find  souls  capable  of  leading  a  life 
of  contemplation  without  occasionally  engaging  their 
mental  or  physical  activity  in  earthy  or  material 
things.  The  combination,  however,  oi  the  two  lives, 
of  which  Catholic  hagiology  affords  such  striking  and 
glorious  examples,  is,  as  a  general  rule  and  for  persons 
of  ordinanr  attainments,  a  matter  of  consideraole  dif- 
ficulty. Exterior  action,  with  the  solicitude  and 
cares  attendant  on  it,  tends  naturally  to  absorb  the 
attention ;  the  soul  is  thereby  hampered  in  its  efforts 
to  ascend  to  the  higher  regions  of  contemplation,  as  its 
energy,  capacity,  and  power  of  application  are  usually 
too  Umitea  to  allow  it  to  carry  on  together  such  differ- 
ent pursuits  with  success.  If  this  is  true  with  regard 
to  tnose  even  who  are  working  for  God  and  are  en- 
gaged in  enterprises  undertaken  for  the  furtherance  of 
His  interests,  it  is  all  the  more  true  of  those  who  are 
toiling  with  no  other  direct  end  than  to  procure  their 
subsistence  and  their  temporal  well-bemg.  This  is 
why  those  who  have  wished  to  ^ve  themselves  up  to 
contemplation  and  reach  an  enunent  degree  of  mysti- 
cal union  with  God  have  habitually  wimdrawn  from 
the  crowd  and  have  abandoned  all  other  pursuits,  to 
lead  a  retired  life  entirely  consecrated  to  the  purpose 
of  contemplation.  It  is  evident  that  such  a  fife  can  be 
led  nowhere  so  safely  and  so  easily  as  in  those  monas- 
tic orders  which  make  it  their  special  object.  The 
rules  of  those  orders  supply  their  members  with  every 
means  necessary  and  useful  for  the  puipose,  and  safe- 
guard them  from  all  exterior  obstacles.  Foremost 
among  these  means  must  be  reckoned  the  vows,  which 
are  barriers  raised  against  the  inroads  of  the  three 

freat  evils  devastating  the  world  (I  John,  ii,  16). 
overty  frees  the  contemplative  from  the  cares  inher- 
ent to  the  possession  and  administration  of  temporal 
goods,  from  the  moral  dangers  that  follow  in  the  wake 
of  wealth,  and  from  that  insatiable  ^reed  for  gain 
which  so  lowers  and  materializes  the  mmd.  Chastity 
frees  him  from  the  bondage  of  married  life  with  its 
solicitude  so  ^'dividing"  to  the  heart  and  mind,  to  use 
the  Apostle's  expression  (I  Cor.,  vii,  33),  and  so  apt  to 
confine  man's  sympathy  and  action  within  a  narrow 
circle.  By  the  same  virtue  also  he  obtains  that  clean- 
ness of  heart  which  enables  him  to  see  God  (Matth.,  v, 
8).  Obedience,  without  which  conununity-life  is  im- 
possible, frees  him  from  the  anxiety  of  having  to  de- 
termine what  course  to  take  amidst  the  ever-shifting 
circumstances  of  life.  The  stability  which  the  vow 
gives  to  the  contemplative's  purpose  by  placing  him  in 
a  fixed  state  with  set  duties  and  obligations  is  also  an 
inestimable  advantage,  as  it  saves  mm  from  natural 
inconstancy,  the  blight  of  so  many  undertakings. 

Silence  is  of  course  the  proper  element  of  the  con- 
templative soul,  since  to  converse  with  God  and  men 
at  the  same  time  is  hardly  possible.  Moreover,  con- 
versing unnecessarily  is  apt  to  give  rise  to  numberless 
thoughts,  fancies,  and  desires  alien  to  the  duties  and 
purpose  of  contemplative  life,  which  assail  the  soul  at 
the  hour  of  prayer  and  distract  it  from  God.  It  is  no 
wonder,  then,  that  monastic  legislators  and  guardians 
of  regular  discipline  should  have  always  laid  such 
stress  on  the  practice  of  silence,  strenuously  enforcing 
its  observance  and  punishing  transgression  with  spe- 
cial severity.  This  silence,  if  not  perpetual,  must  en»- 
brace  at  least  the  greatest  part  of  the  contemplative's 
life.  Solitude  is  tiie  home  of  silence,  and  its  surest 
safeguard.  Moreover,  it  cuts  to  the  root  one  of  the 
strongest  of  man's  selfish  propensities,  the  desire  to 
make  a  figure  before  the  world,  to  win  admiration  and 


OOHTENSON 


330 


OONTnnBROX 


applause,  or  at  least  to  attract  attention,  to  be  thought 
and  spoken  of.  '' Manifest  thyself  to  the  world" 
(John,  vii,  4)  says  the  demon  of  vaingloiv;  but  the 
Spirit  of  God  holds  another  language  (Matt.,  vi). 
Solitude  may  be  twofold:  the  seclusion  of  the  cloister, 
which  implies  restriction  of  intercourse  with  the  outer 
world;  and  the  eremitic  confinement  of  the  cell,  a  prac- 
tice  which  varies  in  different  orders. 

Religious  life,  being  essentially  a  life  of  self-denial 
and  self-sacrifice,  must  provide  an  effectual  antidote 
to  every  form  of  self-seeking,  and  the  rules  of  contem- 
plative orders  especially  are  admirably  framed  so  as 
to  thwart  and  mortify  every  selfish  instinct;  vigils, 
fasts,  austerity  in  food,  clothing,  etc.,  and  often  man- 
ual labour  tame  the  flesh,  and  thus  help  the  soul  to 
keep  in  subjection  its  worst  enemy.  Contemplatives, 
in  short,  forgo  many  transient  pleasures,  many  satis- 
factions sweet  to  nature,  all  that  the  world  holds  most 
dear:  but  they  gain  in  return  a  liberty  for  the  soul 
whicn  enables  it  to  rise  without  hindrance  to  the 
thought  and  love  of  God.  Though  God  Himself  is  the 
chief  object  of  their  study  and  meditation,  He  is  not 
the  only  one.  His  works.  His  dealings  with  men,  all 
that  reveals  Him  in  the  province  of  grace  or  of  nature 
is  lawfully  open  to  the  contmnplative's  investigation. 
The  development  of  the  Divine  plan  in  the  growth  of 
the  Church  and  in  the  history  of  nations,  the  won- 
drous workings  of  grace  and  the  guidance  of  Provi- 
dence in  the  hves  of  individual  souk,  the  marvels  and 
beauty  of  creation,  the  writings  of  the  saints  and 
sages  of  Christendom,  and  above  all,  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures form  an  inexhaustible  store-house,  whence  the 
contemplative  can  draw  food  for  contemplation. 

The  great  function  assumed  by  contemplatives,  as  has 
already  been  said,  is  the  worship  of  God.  When  liv- 
ing in  community,  they  perform  this  sacred  office  in  a 
public,  official  way,  assembling  at  stated  hoxuis  of  the 
day  and  night  to  offer  to  the  Almighty  "the  sacrifice 
of  ]3raise"  (Ps.  xlix,  14,  23;  see  Office.  Divine). 
Their  chief  work  then  is  what  St.  Benedict  (Rule, 
xliii)  calls  emphatically  God's  work  {opus  Det),  i.  e.  the 
solemn  chanting  of  Divine  praise,  in  which  the  tongue 
gives  utterance  to  the  admiration  of  the  intellect  and 
to  the  love  of  the  heart.  And  this  is  done  in  the  name 
of  the  Church  and  of  all  mankind.  Not  only  does  con- 
templation glorify  God,  but  it  is  most  beneficial  to  the 
soul  itself.  Nothing  brings  the  soul  into  such  close 
union  with  God,  and  union  with  God  is  the  source  of  all 
saintliness.  Never  so  well  as  when  contemplating  the 
perfections  of  God  and  the  grandeur  of  His  works 
does  man  see  his  own  imperfections  and  failings,  the 
vileness  of  sin,  the  paltriness  and  futility  of  so  many 
of  his  labours  and  undertakings:  and  thus  nothing  so 
grounds  him  in  humility,  the  prop  and  the  bulwark  of 
every  other  virtue. 

Love  for  God  necessarily  breeds  love  for  our  fellow- 
men,  all  children  of  the  same  Father;  and  the  two 
loves  keep  pace  with  each  other  in  their  growth. 
Hence  it  follows  that  contemplative  life  is  eminently 
conducive  to  increase  of  charity  for  others.  The  heart 
is  enlarged,  affection  is  deepened,  sympathy  becomes 
more  keen,  because  the  mind  is  enhghtened  as  to  the 
worth  of  an  immortal  soul  in  God%  eyes.  And  al- 
though of  the  two  great  commandments  given  by 
Christ  (Matt.,  xxii,  37  sqq.) — ^love  for  God  and  love 
for  our  neighbour — ^the  first  is  exemplified  more 
markedly  in  contemplative  orders,  and  tae  second  in 
active  orders,  contemplatives,  nevertheless,  not  only 
must  and  do  have  in  their  hearts  a  stronp  and  true  love 
for  others,  but  they  realize  that  love  m  their  deeds. 
The  principal  means  contemplatives  have  of  proving 
their  love  for  oUiers  are  prayer  and  penance.  By 
prayer  they  draw  down  from  Heaven  on  strug^ing 
and  suffering  humanity  manifold  graces,  light, 
strength,  courage,  and  comfort,  blessings  for  time  ana 
for  eternity.  By  penance  they  strive  to  atone  for  the 
offences  of  sinful  humanity,  to  appease  God's  wrath 


ami  ward  t)ff  its  dirc^ful  effects,  by  giving  vicarious  sat- 
isfaction to  the  demands  of  His  justice!  Their  lives  of 
perpetual  abnegation  and  privation,  of  hardship  cheer- 
TulW-  endured,  of  self-inflicted  suffering,  joinea  to  the 
suflferings  of  their  Divine  Master  and  Model  help  to 
repair  the  evil  men  do  and  to  obtain  God's  mercy  for 
the  evildoers.  They  plead  and  make  reparation  for 
all  men.  This  twofold  ministry  carried  on  within  the 
narrow  precincts  of  a  monastery  knows  no  other 
limits  to  its  effects  than  the  bounds  of  the  earth  and  the 
needs  of  mankind.  Or  rather  that  ministry  extends 
further  still  its  sphere  of  action,  for  the  dead  as  well  as 
the  living^  benefit  by  it.  (See  Contemplatiow, 
Prayer  of;  Monasticism.) 

St.  Thomas,  Summa  theol,,  II-II,  Q.  cbodx-cLcaai;  Suaxsz. 
TrtuU.  de  Oratume,  lib.  II,  c.  ix  aqq.;  Idem,  Dt  varietaU  reU- 
gionum,  lib.  I,  c.  v,  vi;  Dsmrs  the  Cartrusxan,  De  dmiempia- 
lione:  Im  vie  contemplative:  aon  r^  apcatolique  (Montreuil' 
8ur-Mer.  1898);   Devinb.  Momud  of  MyHioal  Theoloay  (I^on- 

^*^°»  ^«»>-  Edmund  Gtjrdon. 

Oontensozi,  Vincent,  Dominican  theologian  and 
preacher,  b.  at  Altivillaxe  (Gers),  Diocese  ofCk^ndon, 
France,  1641;  d.  Creil-sui^Oisc,  26  Dec.,  1674.  His 
epitaph  in  the  church  of  that  place  described  him  as 
'Un  years  a  youth,  mature  in  wisdom  and  in  virtue 
venerable  " .  Despite  his  short  life,  he  gave  proof  in  his 
writings  of  considerable  learning  and  won  remarkable 
populs^ty  by  his  pulpit  utterances.  He  was  seven- 
teen years  old  when  he  entered  the  Order  of  Preachers. 
After  teaching  philosophy  ?or  a  time  at  Albi,  and 
theology  at  Toulouse,  he  began  a  career  of  preach- 
ing  as  brilliant  as  it  was  brief.  He  was  stricken  in  the 
pmpit  at  Creil,  where  he  was  giving  a  mission.  His 
reputation  as  a  theologian  rests  on  a  work  entitled 
"Theologia  Mentis  et  Cordis ",  published  posthum- 
ously at  Lyons  m  nine  volumes,  1681;  second  edi- 
tion, 1687.  His  life  is  found  in  the  fifth  volume  of 
the  '^  Histoire  des  hommes  illustres  de  Tordre  de  Saint 
Dominique",  by  P^re  Touron.  The  peculiar  merit 
of  his  theology  consists  in  an  attempt  to  get  away 
from  the  prevailing  dry  reasoning  of  Scholasticism 
and,  while  retaining  the  accuracy  and  solidity  of  its 
method,  to  embellish  it  with  illustrations  and  images 
borrowed  from  the  Fathers,  that  appeal  to  the  heart 
as  well  as  the  mind.  This  pious  and  learned  compila- 
tion has  not  yet  lost  its  value  and  utility  for  students 
and  preachers. 

Robe,  New  Gen.  Biogr.  Did.  (London,  1848);  Mobbbi,  Gr. 
Did.  Hist.  (Paris,  1769). 

John  H.  STAFurroN. 

Ctontinence. — Continence  may  be  defined  as  absti- 
nence from  even  the  licit  gratifications  of  marria^. 
It  is  a  form  of  the  virtue  oftemperanoe,  though  Aris- 
totle did  not  accord  it  this  high  character  since  it  in- 
volved a  conflict  with  wrong  desires — ^an  element,  in 
the  mind  of  the  philosopher,  foreign  to  the  content  of  a 
virtue  in  the  strict  sense.  Continence,  it  is  seen,  has  a 
more  restricted  significance  than  chastity,  since  the 
latter  finds  place  in  the  condition  of  marriage.  The 
abstinence  we  are  discussing,  then,  belongs  to  the 
state  of  celibacy,  though  clearly  the  notion  3L  this  lat- 
ter does  not  necessarily  involve  that  of  continence. 

Practice. — In  considering  its  practice  we  regard 
continence  as  a  state  of  life.  Though  among  savages 
and  barbarians  every  one,  as  a  rule,  seeks  to  contract 
an  early  marriage,  yet  even  among  these  peoples  con- 
tinence is  frequently  practised  by  tnose  who  aischarge 
the  public  duties  of  religion,  llius,  according  to  au- 
thonties  cited  by  Westermarck,  the  male  wizards  of 
Patagonia  embraced  a  life  of  continence,  as  did  the 
priests  of  the  Mosquito  Islands  and  of  ancient  Mexico. 
According  to  Chinese  law  such  condition  of  abstinence 
is  made  obligatory  upon  all  priests,  Buddhist  or  Tao- 
ist.  Among  the  Greeks  continence  was  recjuired  of 
several  orders  of  priests  and  priestesses,  as  it  was  of 
the  vestals  among  the  Romans.  The  oontinence  ex- 
tensively observed  amoi^  the  Essenes,  the  M«ani- 


OONTIHOENT 


331 


OOMTIMGSMT 


diuuaiits,  aiid  boiuu  of  Uiu  GiiuMtics,  Ihuu^h  not  cuii- 
fined  to  a  priestly  class,  was  reckoned  the  means  to  a 
greater  sanctification.  Such  widespread  practice 
offers  evidence  of  an  instinctive  feeling  that  the  indul- 
gence of  our  sensual  nature  is  in  a  measure  degrading, 
and  that  it  is  particulariy  incompatible  with  the  perfect 
purity  tiiat  should  characterize  one  consecrated  to  the 
worship  of  the  All  Holv.  That  the  attitude  of  a  num- 
ber of  sects  towards  the  lower  side  of  human  nature 
has  taken  on  a  character  of  unreasonable,  and  even 
absurd,  severity  is  clear.  This  is  observed  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  Manichaeans  and  branches  of  the 
Gnostics  in  the  past,  and  of  the  Shakers  and  other  un- 
important conununities  in  our  time.  The  law  of  the 
Catholic  Church  imposing  a  state  of  continence  upon 
its  ministers  and  upon  its  religious  orders  of  men 
and  women  is  set  forth  in  the  articles  Celibacy  op 
theCubrgt;  Reugious  Orders;  and  VmoiNrrr. 

Two  general  objections  are  frequency  urged  against 
the  state  of  continence.  First,  it  is  said  that  the  con- 
dition of  continence  is  detrimental  to  the  well-being  of 
the  individual.  In  such  a  statement,  it  will  be  fre- 
quently found,  continence  is  understood  as  an  un- 
diasteoelibacy,and  such  singly  ia  notonl;^  a  moral  but 
a  physical  evil  most  pernicious.  Certam  it  is,  how- 
ever, that  theself-sacnfioe  and  control  involved  in  true 
continence  finds  fruitage  in  a  greater  measure  of  moral 
power.  The  words  of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.,  xiz,  12) 
may  be  here  appealed  to.  Moreover,  the  abstinence 
of  which  we  speak  is  a  condition  of  increased  physical 
vigour  and  energy.  Of  this  many  savages  are  not  un* 
mindful;  for  amons  a  number  of  these  continence  is 
imposed  upon  the  braves  during  times  of  war  as  a 
means  of  fostering  and  strengthening  their  daring  and 
coiuage*  A  second  objection  rests  upon  considera- 
tions  of  the  social  good.  It  is  contended  that  a  state 
of  continence  means  failure  to  discharge  the  social 
obligation  of  conserving  the  species.  But  such  an 
obli^ktion  falls,  not  upon  every  member  of  the  com- 
munity, but  upon  society  at  large,  and  is  amply 
discharged  though  there  be  individual  exceptions.  In- 
deed the  non-fulfilment  of  this  duty  is  never  threat- 
ened by  a  too  general  observance  of  sexual  abstinence. 
On  the  contrary  it  is  only  the  unlawful  gratification  of 
carnal  passion  that  can  menace  the  due  growth  of 
population.  But  it  may  be  said  that  the  practice  of 
continence  withdraws  from  the  function  of  reproduc- 
tion the  worthier  members  of  society — those  whose 
possible  offspring  would  be  the  most  desirable  citizens 
of  the  State.  Tnis  contention,  however,  overlooks  the 
social  service  of  the  example  set  by  such  observance — 
a  service  which,  in  view  of  the  dut^  incumbent  upon 
every  individual  of  society  of  observing  absolute  chas- 
titv  for  periods  of  greater  or  less  duration,  is  of  highest 
value. 

St.  Thomas.  Summa  Theol.,  II~II.  Q.  civ,  a.  1.  ad  4:  Q.  dvi, 
a.  1,  ad  4;  AiUffroTLE.  Ttu  Nicomachean  Ethics,  Bk.  VII; 
EaCHBACH.  Quaationet  Phytiolooioo- Morales;  Westermarck, 
The  Hisiory  cf  Human  MarrioM  (London,  1891);  Crawlbt, 
7^  Mystic  Rose  (N«w  York,  1902):  Northcotb,  ChrislianUy 
and  Sex  Problems  (Philadelphia,  1906);  Scorr,  The  Sexual  In- 
sHnd  (New  York,  1899). 

John  Wbbstbr  Mblodt. 

€k>iiting6nt  (Lat.  corUingere,  to  happen). — Aside 
from  its  secondary  and  more  obvious  meaning  (as,  for 
instance,  its  qualification  of  the  predicable  accident, 
oC  a  class  of  modal  propositions,  and  so  on),  the  pri- 
mary and  technically  philosophical  use  of  the  term  is 
for  one  of  the  supreme  divisions  of  being,  that  is,  con- 
tingent being,  as  distinguished  from  necessary  being. 
In  this  connexion  the  meaning  of  the  term  ma.ybe 
considered  objectively,  and  the  genesis  of  the  idea 
subjectively. 

Objectivdy  (ontologically)  the  contingent  may  be 
viewed:  (1)  in  the  purely  ideal  or  possible  order,  and 
it  is  then  the  conceptual  note  or  notes  between  which 
and  existence  in  the  actual  order  there  is  no  contra- 


diction, and  which  curujCHiiiontly  adiniln  of,  though  it 
does  not  demand,  actualisHiioM.  It  is  thus  coexten- 
sive with  possible  being  and  is  called  the  absolutely 
contingent.  (2)  Considered  iii  the  order  of  actual  ex^ 
istence,  the  contingent  is  that  being  whose  essence,  as 
such,  does  not  include  existence  and  which,  therefore, 
does  not,  as  such,  demand  existence  but  is  indifferent 
to  be  or  not  to  be.    This  is  called  relativelv  contin- 

fsnt  and  the  term  is  usually  employed  in  this  sense, 
very  finite  existent  being  is  thus  contingent,  though 
likewise  hypothetically  necessary,  in  that  having  ex- 
istence it  cannot  at  the  same  time  and  under  the  same 
aspect  not  have  it;  inasmuch,  too,  as  it  is  determined 
by  proximately ,  and  hence  relatively,  necessitated  ante- 
cedents. (3)  In  regard  to  its  subject — ^be  this  sub- 
stance or  accident — contingency  may  relate  to  action 
as  well  as  to  existence,  ana  it  then  signifies  that  the 
subiect  (agent)  is  as  yet  undetermined,  either  intrin- 
sioally,  as  in  the  free  agent,  or  extrinaically,  as  are  nec- 
essitated causes.  (4)  Since  the  essence  of  the  contin- 
gent does  not  contain  the  reason  of  its  existence,  that 
reason  must  be  sou^t  in  an  outside  efHcient  cause, 
which  cause,  if  in  turn  contingent,  must  show  reason 
for  its  existence  in  some  other  antecedent  cause,  and 
so  on  until  ultimately  a  being  is  reached  whose  essence 
includes  existence,  a  first  cause  whose  existence  is 
underived,  a  being  which  is  necessary  and  absolute. 

This  argument  from  contingent  to  the  necessary 
being  is  not,  as  Kant  maintained,  the  well-known 
ontoTogical  argument  formulated  by  St.  Anselm  and 
others  to  prove  the  existence  of  God.  The  latter  ami- 
ment  passes  illogically  from  the  ideal  concept  of  tne 
infinite  to  the  objective  actual  existence  of  the  in- 
finite, while  the  argument  from  contingent  (finite)  to 
the  necessary  (infinite)  being,  proceeds  from  the  ob- 
jective actual  contingent  (dependent,  conditioned)  to 
the  existence  of  an  fuiequate  cause  thereof.  The  in- 
ference is  based  on  an  objective  application  of  the 
principle  of  causality  and  involves  no  leap  from  a  sub- 
jective phenomenon  (idea)  to  an  objective  realized 
content.  'Die  ari^ument  supposes,  it  is  true,  the  real 
existence  of  contingent  being  and  that  existence  is 
denied  by  many  thinkers,  notably  by  pantheists, 
materialists,  and  determinists  generally.  Kant  re- 
duces both  contingency  and  necessity  to  mere  mental 
forms  or  categories  under  which  the  mind  views  the 
world  of  phenomena  but  which  it  has  no  means  of 
knowing  to  be  objective.  Necessary  being,  therefore, 
ontologically  and  obiectively  precedes  the  contingent, 
since  the  latter  has  the  sole  ultimate  reason  both  of  its 
intrinsic  consistency  (possibility)  and  of  its  actual  ex- 
isl^nce  in  the  former — actxia  ao9oliUe  prcecedit  voten- 
Ham,  In  the  order,  however,  of  man's  knowledge, 
the  contingent  falls  primarily  under  experience. 

Suhieciiv€ly,-^h\k!&  every  other  concept,  tiiat  of  the 
contingent  is  originally  derived  from  external  and 
internal  experience.  Adverting  to  the  changes  occur- 
ring in  the  world  of  sensuous  phenomena  and  to  the 
interdependencies  thereof,  the  mtellect  easily,  almost 
intuitively,  discerns  that,  while  the  ^ven  events  are 
the  necessitated  consequences  of  sunilarly  necessi- 
tated antecedents,  each  number  of  the  series,  by  the 
very  fact  of  its  being  thus  conditioned,  does  not  con- 
tain within  itself  the  adequate  ground  of  its  existence. 
The  intellect  having  spontaneously  abstracted  this 
note  of  dependence  and  ontologically  reflecting  there- 
on sees  its  application  to  every  finite  subject  not  only 
existent  but  ukewise  possible ;  sees,  at  least  by  an  easy 
process  of  reasoning,  that  no  such  subject  contains 
within  itself  the  reason  why  it  exists,  under  the  pre- 
cise limitations  of  substance  and  accidents  which  it 
actually  possesses.  However,  to  assure  this  concept 
and  to  discern  precisely  and  explicitly  the  contingency 
of  the  finite  and  the  consequent  indifference  of  its 
essence  to  exist  or  not  to  exist,  the  sciences,  physical 
and  biological,  are  called  to  testify ;  and  each  declares 
the  dependence  and  conditionally^  of  its  respective 


CX)KT&AOT 


332 


OONTBAOT 


object-sphere  and  atte«Us  that  all  tilings  ol>servcd  and 
searohea  into  have  a  borrowed  existence.  This  idea 
of  contingency  is  then  further  assured  by  the  witness 
of  consciousness  to  the  conditioned,  and  hence  contin- 
gent, character  of  its  own  states,  a  testimony  which  is 
reconfiimed  by  the  facts  of  birth  and  death. 

Against  this  statement  of  the  genesis  of  the  contin- 
gency-concept it  may  be  objected  that  experience  does 
not  extend  beyond  the  field  of  sensuous  phenomena. 
On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  intellect,  motived  by 
the  principle  of  sufficient  reason,  discerns  the  under- 
lying noumenon,  or  essence  of  things  material,  Kant 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanding,  at  least  sufficiently 
to  pronounce  with  certitude  on  their  essential  condi- 
tionateness  and  contingency.  But  it  is  urged  by  mar 
terialistic  monists  that  the  underlying  substrate  of  the 
sensuous  world  is  one  homogeneous,  eternal,  necessary 
being,  essentially  involving  existence.  To  this  objec- 
tion it  may  be  answered  that  no  fim'te  thing,  much 
less  a  finite  material  being,  can  contain  the  ultimate 
reason  of  its  existence.  Tne  definite  limitations,  spa- 
tial, int^ral,  positional,  etc.,  and  the  inertia  of  the 
hypothetical  primordial  matter  shows  that  it  is  condi- 
tioned by  some  limiting  and  determining  cause,  while 
its  passage  from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogene- 
ous state,  into  which  it  is  supposed  to  have  evolved  in 
the  actual  universe,  equally  demands  an  extraneous 
active  agency.  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that  the 
argument  from  contingent  to  necessary  being  does  not 
explicitly  prove  the  existence  of  God.  A  further 
analysis  of  the  objective  concept  is  necessarily  re- 
quired in  order  to  show  that  the  latter  concept  in- 
cludes that  of  underivedness  {aseitas)  and  that  this  in 
turn  includes  completeness,  absence  of  any  potential- 
ity for  further  perfection  (acttis  pums),  hence  infini- 
tude. The  failure  to  note  this  limitation  of  the 
ai^ument  seems  to  have  led  Kant  to  deny  its  validity. 

Balmes,  FundamerUal  Philosophy  (New  York.  1864);  Dris- 
OOLL,  CArwfuin  PhUoaophu — Ood  (New  York,  1004);  Aveuno, 
The  God  of  Phtloaophy  (St.  Louis  and  London,  1006);  Eibler, 
Wdrterbueh  der  ph%l.  Beffriife  (Berlin,  1004);  Blanc.  Dictum- 
natredephHoaoji^ie  (Pans,  1006);  Ubrabur^,  Inatittdionea  PhU. 
(ValladoUd,  1800). 

F.  P.  SiBOFRIED. 

Oontract  (Lat.  corUractus;  Old  Fr.  contract;  Mod 
Ft.  contrat;  Ital.  contratto). — ^I.  The  Canonical 
AND  Moralist  Doctrine  on  this  subject  is  a  de- 
velopment of  that  contained  in  the  Roman  civil 
law.  In  Roman  law  a  mere  agreement  between 
two  parties  to  give,  do,  or  refrain  from  doing  some- 
thing was  a  nude  pact  (pactum  nudum)  which  gave 
rise  to  no  civil  ooligation,  and  no  action  lay  to 
enforce  it.  It  need^  to  be  clothed  in  some  in- 
vestitive fact  which  the  law  recognized  in  order 
to  give  rise  to  a  civil  obligation  which  should  be 
enforced  at  law.  Not  that  the  nude  pact  was  con- 
sidered to  be  destitute  of  all  binding  force ;  it  gave  rise 
to  a  natural  obligation,  and  it  might  afford  ground  for 
a  legal  exception.  A  man  of  honour  would  keep  his 
engagements  even  if  he  knew  that  the  law  could  not 
be  invoked  to  compel  him  to  do  so.  Moral  theology, 
being  the  science  of  Christian  conduct,  could  not  be 
satisfied  with  the  mere  legal  view  of  the  effect  of  an 
agreement.  If  the  agreement  had  all  other  requisites 
for  a  valid  oontract,  moral  theology  must  necessarily 
consider  it  to  be  binding,  even  though  it  was  a  nude 
pact  and  could  not  be  enforced  in  the  courts  of  law. 
Canon  law  made  this  moral  attitude  its  own.  In  the 
Decretals  of  Gregory  IX  it  is  expressly  laid  down  that 
pacts,  however  nude,  must  be  kept,  and  that  a  strenu- 
ous endeavour  must  be  made  to  put  in  execution  what 
one  has  promised.  It  thus  came  to  pass  that  nude 
pacts  could  be  enforced  in  the  Christian  courts,  and 
the  Church's  legislation  served  eventuallv  to  break 
down  the  rigid  formalism  of  Roman  law,  ana  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  more  equitable  law  of  contract  wnich 
all  Christian  nations  now  possess. 

In  the  canonical  and  moral  doctrine  there  is  hardly 


room  for  the  di.stinctii>n  Wtween  a  nude  pact,  or  mens 
agreement,  and  a  contract.  The  Roman  jurist's  defi- 
mtion  of  the  former  is  frequently  used  by  canonists  to 
define  oontract.  They  say  that  a  contract  is  the  con- 
sent of  two  or  more  persons  to  the  same  proposal; or, 
bringing  out  a  little  more  definitely  the  effect  and 
object  of  a  oontract,  they  define  it  to  be  an  a^r^eement 
by  which  two  or  more  persons  mutually  bind  them- 
selves to  give,  do,  or  abstain  from  something.  From 
the  moralist's  point  of  view,  then,  eveiy  agreement 
seriously  entered  into  by  those  who  are  capable  of 
contracting  with  reference  to  some  lawful  object  is  a 
contract,  whether  such  agreement  can  be  enforced  in 
the  civil  couris  or  not.  The  intention  of  the  parties 
is  looked  at,  and  if  they  seriously  intended  to  bind 
themselves,  there  is  a  contractual  relation  between 
them.  This  doctrine,  however,  fidves  rise  to  a  ques- 
tion of  some  importance.  The  Church  fully  a<nnit8 
and  defends  the  ri^t  of  the  State  to  make  lat¥s  for  the 
temporal  well-being  of  its  citizens.  All  States  require 
certain  formalities  for  the  validity  of  certain  actionsw 
Last  wills  and  testaments  are  a  familiar  example,  and 
although  they  are  not  strictlv  contracts,  yet  tne  prin- 
ciple is  the  same  and  they  wul  serve  for  an  example  of 
wnat  is  meant.  A  deed,  the  only  formal  contract 
of  English  law.  is  another  example.  A  will  destitute  of 
the  reciiusite  formalities  is  nuU  and  void  at  law;  but 
what  is  the  effect  of  such  a  voiding  law  in  the  forum 
of  conscience? '  This  question  has  been  much  debated 
among  moralists.  Scnie  have  maintained  that  such 
a  law  is  binding  in  the  internal  as  well  as  in  the  ex- 
ternal forum,  80  that  a  formal  oontract,  destitute  of  the 
formalities  required  by  law,  is  null  and  void  in  con- 
science as  it  is  in  law.  Otners  adopted  the  contrary 
opinion,  and  held  that  the  want  of  formality  only 
affected  the  external  forum  of  civil  law,  and  left  intact 
the  natural  obligation  arising  from  a  oontract.  The 
common  opinion  takes  a  middle  course.  It  holds 
that  the  want  of  f  ormalitv,  though  it  midces  the  oon- 
tract void  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  renders  it  only  void- 
able in  the  forum  of  conscience;  so  that,  until  one  oi 
the  parties  moves  to  set  the  contract  aside,  it  remains 
valid,  and  anyone  driving  benefit  under  it  may  enjoy 
his  benefit  in  peace.  If,  however,  the  party  interested 
moves  to  set  it  aside,  and  does  so  effectiviuy,  bv  hav- 
ing recourse  to  the  court  of  law  if  necessary,  bom  must 
then  abide  bv  ^e  law  which  makes  the  contract  void 
and  of  no  effect. 

There  are  four  essential  elements  in  a  oontract:  con- 
sent of  the  parties,  contractual  capacity  in  them,  de- 
terminate and  lawful  subject-matter,  and  a  lawful 
consideration.  The  contract  is  formed  by  the  mutual 
consent  of  the  parties,  which  must  be  real,  not  feigned, 
and  manifested  so  that  each  may  know  tnat  the  other 
partv  consents.  There  is  no  difficulty  about  the  out- 
ward manifestation  of  consent  when  the  parties  enter 
into  the  contract  in  each  other's  presence.  But  when 
the  parties  are  not  present  to  each  other,  and  the  con- 
tract is  made  by  letter  or  telegraph,  it  sometimes  be- 
comes a  question  of  importance  as  to  when  and  how 
the  contract  is  effected.  Is  the  contract  entered  into 
when  the  offeree  signifies  his  consent  by  posting  a  let- 
ter of  acceptance  to  the  offeror,  or  is  the  knowledge  of 
his  acceptance  required  to  complete  the  contract? 
All  that  18  required  by  the  nature  of  a  contractus  that 
there  should  be  mutually  manifested  agreement  of 
the  two  wills.  There  will  be  such  agreement  when 
one  of  the  parties  makes  an  offer  to  the  other,  and  this 
one  manifests  his  acceptance  of  the  offer  by  posting  a 
letter  or  by  sending  a  telegram.  There  is  then  con- 
sent of  two  wills  to  the  proposal,  and  so  there  is  a  con- 
tract. Mutual  consent  to  the  same  proposal  may  be 
hindered  by  a  mistake  of  one  of  the  parties,  ouch 
mistakes  are  not  infrequently  caused  by  the  fraud  or 
misrepresentation  of  the  other  party.  If  the  mistake 
is  substantial,  so  that  at  least  one  of  the  parties  thinkB 
that  the  subject-matter  of  the  contract  w  quite  other 


.— H 


OOHTBAOT 


333 


OOimULOT 


than  it  really  is,  there  will  be  no  true  oonaenty  and  no 
contract.  Similarly,  if  there  be  a  mistake  about  the 
nature  of  the  contract  proposed  (as,  if  one  party  in- 
tends to  sell  while  the  otl^  only  means  to  boirow) 
there  is  no  agreement  of  wills.  Mistake  about  the 
mere  quality  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  contract  is 
aocidental,  not  substantial,  and  in  spite  of  it  there 
mav  be  substantial  agreement  between  the  parties. 
If,  however,  such  a  mistake  has  been  caused  by  the 
fraud  or  misrepresentation  of  the  other  party  to  the 
contract,  and  the  party  deceived  would  not  otherwise 
have  entered  into  it,  it  is  only  fair  that  the  deceived 
party  should  be  able  to  protect  himself  from  injury  by 
retinnp  from  the  agreement.  Contracts,  then,  en- 
tered mto  because  of  accidental  mistake  which  was 
induced  by  the  fraud  or  misrepresentation  of  the 
other  party f  will  be  rescindable  at  the  option  of  the 
party  deceived. 

The  consent  of  the  parties  must  be  deliberate  and 
free,  for  a  perfect  anci  grave  obligation  cannot  arise 
from  consent  which  is  not  deliberate  or  free.  Hence 
we  must  see  what  the  influence  of  fear  is  upon  the 
validity  of  a  contract.  If  the  fear  eoes  to  the  length 
of  depriving  one  of  the  parties  of  tne  use  of  reason, 
he  cannot,  while  in  that  state,  give  a  valid  consent, 
and  the  contract  will  be  null  and  void.  Fear,  how> 
ever,  does  not  ordinarily  produce  such  extreme  effects : 
it  leaves  a  man  with  the  natural  use  of  his  reason  and 
capable  of  consenting  or  withholding  his  consent. 
Even  grave  fear,  then,  does  not  of  itsdf  invalidate  a 
contract,  but  if  it  is  unjustly  caused  bj  the  other 
party  to  the  contract  with  a  view  to  forcing  him  who 
IS  under  its  influence  to  consent,  the  injured  party 
may  withdraw  from  the  contract.  Some  contracts, 
sucn  as  marriage,  thus  entered  into  under  the  influ- 
ence of  grave  fear  unjustly  caused  by  the  other  party 
to  the  contract  with  the  mtention  of  compelling  con- 
sent, are  made  invalid  by  canon  law.  Some  authori- 
ties even  hold  that  all  such  contracts  are  invalid  by 
natural  law,  but  the  opinion  is  at  most  only  probable. 
A  person  must  have  the  use  of  reason  in  order  to  give 
valid  consent  to  a  contract,  and  his  contractual  ca- 
pacity must  not  have  been  taken  away  by  law.  Those 
who  have  not  yet  attained  the  use  of  reason,  imbe- 
ciles, and  those  who  are  perfectly  drunk  so  that  they 
do  not  know  what  they  are  doing,  are  incapable  of 
contracting  by  the  law  of  nature.  Minors  are  to  a 
certain  extent  restricted  in  their  contractual  capacity 
by  English  and  American  law.  PracticaUy,  their  con- 
tracts are  voidable  except  those  for  necessaries.  Mar- 
ried women  were  formeriy  incapable  of  entering  into 
a  valid  contract,  but  in  ^aigland  since  1882  their  dis- 
ability has  been  removed,  and  in  most  of  the  States  of 
the  Union  the  same  doctrine  begins  to  prevail.  Ro- 
iigious  persons  are  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  accord- 
ing as  tney  are  imder  solemn  or  simple  vows,  incapable 
of  entering  into  a  binding  contract.  Corporations 
and  companies  are  limited  in  their  contractual  capac- 
ity by  their  nature  or  by  the  articles  of  association. 

The  subjeet-matter  of  a  contract  must  be  deflnite 
and  certain,  it  must  be  possible,  and  it  must  be  honest. 
A  contract  cannot  be  a  bond  of  iniquity,  and  so  an 
agreement  to  conunit  sin  is  null  and  void.  Some 
theologians  maintain  that  when,  in  execution  of 
a  contract,  a  sinful  action  has  been  performed,  a  right  is 
aoquii^  to  receive  the  price  agreed  upon.  The  opin- 
ion seems  at  any  rate  probable.  If  the  contract  is 
not  sinful  in  itself,  but  voided  by  positive  law,  it  will 
be  valid  until  it  is  set  aside  by  the  party  interested, 
as  was  said  above  concerning  informal  contracts. 
When  persons  enter  into  a  contract,  each  party  prom- 
ises to  give,  do,  or  forbear  something  in  favour  of  the 
other.  The  benefit  which  thus  immediately  arises 
frtnn  the  contract,  and  which  is  the  cause  of  it,  is  called 
the  eansideratum  in  English  law.  It  is  a  necessary 
element  in  a  contract,  and  if  it  is  wanting  the  contract 
is  null  on  account  of  the  failure  of  a  necessary  condi- 


tion in  the  agreement.  The  courts  of  civil  law  will  not 
enforce  a  simple  contract  unless  there  be  a  valuable 
consideration  m  it;  mere  motives  of  affection  or  moral 
duty  will  not  suffice.  This  rule,  however,  only  affects 
legal  obligations ;  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  obligations 
in  conscience.  A  valid  contract  imposes  on  ^e  con» 
tracting  parties  an  obligation  of  justice  to  act  con- 
scientiously according  to  the  terms  of  the  agreement. 
They  will  be  bound  to  perform  not  only  what  they 
expressly  agreed  to  do,  but  whatever  the  law,  or 
custom,  or  usage  prescribes  in  the  circumstances. 
The  obligation  arising  from  a  contract  will  cease 
when  the  contract  has  been  executed,  when  a  new 
one  has  been  substituted  for  the  old  one  by  the  free 
consent  of  the  parties,  when  the  parties  mutually  and 
freely  withdraw  from  the  contract.  When  one  of  the 
parties  fails  in  what  he  promised,  the  other  will,  as  a 
rule,  be  free.  A  contract  may  be  concluded  not  ab- 
solutely but  conditionally  on  the  happenine  of  some 
uncertain  and  future  event.  In  this  case  the  condi- 
tional contract  imposes  on  the  parties  the  obligation 
of  waiting  for  the  event,  and  in  case  it  happens  the 
contract  becomes  binding  on  them  without  renewal 
of  consent.  On  the  other  hand,  a  contract  is  some- 
times entered  into  and  begins  to  bind  at  once;  but  the 
parties  agree  that  it  shall  cease  to  bind  on  the  happen-* 
ing  of  a  certain  event.  This  is  called  a  condition  sub- 
sequent, while  the  former  is  a  condition  precedent. 

dnjnM  Juris  eanonid,  ed.  Fbxbdbbro  (Lmniic,  1881); 
Corpus  Juris  civUia  (I«ip«g,  1865).  Among  toe  canonwta 
Reiffenotusju,  Jus  oanonicutn  (Rome.  1831).  and  among  the 
moralist*  Lugo,  De  JuatitiA  et  Jure  (Paris,  1860),  may  be  con- 
sulted. See  also  Pollock  and  Mattland,  History  of  English 
Law  (Cambridge,  Eng.,  1886).  T.  BuLTBB. 

II.  In  Civil  Juribprttoencb,  a  contract  has  been 
defined  to  be  "  the  union  of  several  persons  in  a  co- 
incident expression  of  will  by  which  their  legal  relations 
are  determined"  (Holland,  "Elements  of  Jurispru- 
dence", 10th  ed.,  Oxford  and  New  York,  1906,  209). 
This  **  co-incident  expression  "  consists  of  an  agreement 
and  promise  enforceable  in  law,  and  ''on  the  face  of 
the  matter  capable  of  having  legal  effects",  "an  act 
in  the  law"  "  whereby  two  or  more  persons  cfmable  of 
contracting",  "of  doing  acts  in  the  law",  " declare 
their  consent  as  to  any  act  or  thing  to  be  done  or  for* 
borne  by  some  or  one  of  those  persons  for  the  use  of 
the  others  or  other  of  them"  (Pollock,  "Principles  of 
Contract",  3rd  Amer.  ed..  New  York,  1906,  68,  1,  2, 
3),  the  intention  implied  by  the  consent  being  that 
from  the  agreement  and  promise  shall  arise  "duties 
and  rights  which  can  be  dealt  with  by  a  ooxurt  of  jus- 
tice" Ohid.).  Thus,  whUe  evezy  contract  is  an  a^-ee- 
ment,  not  every  e^reement  is  a  contract.  A  mutual 
consent  of  two  persons  to  walk  out  together,  or  to 
dine  together,  would  be  an  agreement,  and  yet  not 
what  in  jurisprudence  is  known  as  a  contract.  For 
such  consent  contemplates  the  producing  of  no  legal 
right,  or  of  any  duty  which  is  a  legal  obligation.  Sub- 
ject only  to  these  or  similar  explanations  may  be 
properly  adopted  the  time-honoured  definition  of 
contract  as  understood  in  En^ish  law,  a  definition 
commended  by  Chancellor  Kent  ('^Commentaries  on 
American  Law",  II,  449,  note  b)  for  its  "neatness  and 
precision ' ',  namely,  "  an  agreement  of  two  or  more  per- 
sons upon  sufficient  consideration  to  do  or  not  to  do  a 
particular  thing". 

Kinds  of  Contract. — ^The  Roman  civil  law  defined 
contracts  as  real  (re),  verbal  (verbis),  literal  (Utteris), 
or  consensual  (consensu).  A  real  contract  was  one. 
such  as  loan  or  pledge,  which  was  not  perfected  until 
something  had  passed  from  one  of  the  parties  to  the 
other.  A  verbal  contract  (verborum  obligatio),  or 
stipulation,  was  perfected  bjr  a  spoken  formula.  This 
formula  consisted  of  a  question  by  one  of  the  parties 
and  an  exactly  corresponding  answer  by  the  other. 
Thus:  Quingueaureoannhi  dwe  epondeef  Spondeo,  or 
PramittisT  Promttto,  i.  e.  Dost  thou  agree  (or  promise) 


OOHTRAOT 


334 


OOHTRAOT 


to  give  me  five  pieces  of  gold.  I  agree,  or  I  prooike. 
llie  Bimiiarit^  may  be  noted  of  tnis  to  the  modem 
form  for  administering  an  affidavit  or  for  taking  the 
acknowledgment  of  a  written  legal  instrument.  A 
literal  contract  was  perfected  by  a  written  acknow- 
ledgment of  debt  ana  was  used  chiefly  in  the  instance 
of  a  loan  of  money.  Consensual  contracts  were  those 
of  which  sale  would  be  an  example,  which  might  be 
perfected  by  consent,  and  to  whicn  no  particular  form 
was  essential  (Mackenzie,  ^Studies  in  Roman  Law", 
Cdinbuigh  and  London,  1898,  211,  215-256).  In 
ihe  EngGsh  law  the  principal  division  of  contracts  is 
into  those  by  writing  under  seal  (called  specialties), 
and  those  known  as  simple  contracts ;  and  there  are  also 
"contracts  by  matter  of  record*',  such  as  a  recogni- 
zance or  judgment  by  confession,  contracts  in  court, 
which  need  no  further  description.  Simple  contracts 
include  aU  contracts  written,  but  not  under  seal  or  of 
record,  and  all  verbal  contracts. 

A  peiBon  may  contract  in  person  or  by  an  agent. 
"The  tendency  of  modem  times",  remarks  Holland 
(op.  cit.,  118),  "is  towards  the  fullest  recognition  of 
the  principles  proclaimed  in  the  canon  law,  potest  quis 
per  aliitm  quod  potest  facere  per  se  ipeum,  qui  Jacit 
per  alium  est  verinde  ac  si  faciat  per  se  ipsum'\  i.  e. 
one  may  do  through  anotner  whatever  one  is  free 
to  do  by  himself,  or  an  act  done  through  another  is 
equivalent  to  an  act  done  by  oneself. 

Rbquisites  op  CJontract. — ^Accordin^  to  Roman 
law,  such  a  contract  as  that  of  sale  reqmred  a  justa 
causa,  namelv,  a  good  legal  reason  (Leage,  "  Roman 
Private  Law,'*  London,  1906, 131 ;  Poste,  "Gaii  Institu- 
tiones",  4th  ed.,  Oxford,  1904,  138).  According  to 
English  law,  simple  contracts  require  a  valuable  con- 
sideration, in  like  manner  as  bv  Roman  law  there  was 
needed  a  justa  causa.  By  that  law,  informal  con- 
tracts which  had  no  jusia  causa  were  ineffectual 
(Poste,  op.  cit.,  334).  Stipulations  irregular  in  form 
were  termed  nuda  pacta,  i.  e.  mere  agreements,  to 
which  the  ancient  law  (Leage,  op.  cit.,  p.  273,  308) 
attached  no  obligation.  The  translator  of  Pothier 
cites  a  civil-law  authority  to  the  effect  that  the 
Roman  jurisprudence  let  some  engagements  rest 
on  the  mere  mtegrity  of  the  parties  who  contracted 
them,  thinking  it  more  conducive  to  the  cultivation 
of  virtue  to  leave  some  things  to  the  good  faith  and 
probity  of  mankind  than  to  subject  everything  to  the 
compulsory  authority  of  the  law  (Pothier,  "A  Trea- 
tise  on  the  Law  of  Obligations",  tr.  Evans,  Philadel- 
phia, 1826,  Appendix,  11,  17). 

As  the  civil-law  jurist  admitted  the  moral  obliga- 
tion of  good  faith  and  probity,  so  an  eminent  English 
judge  concedes  that "  by  the  law  of  nature ' '  every  man 
ought  to  fulfil  his  engagements.  But  it  is  equally 
tme",  he  continues,  "  that  the  law  of  this  country  sup- 
plies no  means  nor  affords  any  remedy  to  compel  the 
performance  of  any  agreement  made  without  suffi- 
cient consideration.''  ' 'Such  agreement ' ',  he  adds, "  is 
nudum  pactum  ez  quo  rum  oritur  actio'\  a  mere  agree- 
ment giving  rise  to  no  action  at  law,  the  learned  judge 
conceding  tnat  this  understanding  of  the  maxim  may 
(as  it  certainly  does)  differ  from  its  sense  in  the 
Roman  law  (J.  W.  Smith,  "The  Law  of  Contracts", 
7th  Amer.  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1885,  103).  A  moral 
consideration  has  been  said  to  be  "nothing  in  law" 
(Smith,  op.  cit.,  203).  The  moral  obligation  of  a  con- 
tract is  of  "an  imperfect  kind",  to  quote  an  eminent 
American  jurist,  "addressed  to  the  conscience  of  the 
parties  under  the  solemn  admonitions  of  accountabil- 
ity to  the  Supreme  Being"  (Stonr,  "Commentaries  on 
tile  Constitution  of  the  United  States",  5th  ed.,  Bos- 
ton, 1891,  Section  1380),  but  not  to  an  earthly  court  of 
justice.  With  these  doctrines  of  the  Roman  and  of 
the  English  law  we  may  compare  the  Scotch  law,  ac- 
cording to  which  no  consideration  is  essential  to  a 
legal  obligation,  "an  obligation  undertaken  deliber- 
ately though  gratuitously  being  binding".     '*This", 


adds  Mackenzie  (op.  cit.,  233)  "is  in  conformity  with 
the  canon  law  by  which  every  paction  produoeth 
action  ei  omne  verbum  de  ore  fideli  cadit  in  debitum", 
i.  e.  every  word  of  a  faithful  man  is  eauivalent  to  a  debt 

In  the  Roman  law  fulfilment  of  tnel^^  solemnities 
of  the  verbal  contract  was  deemed  to  indicate  such 
"serious  intention  of  contracting  a  valid  and  effectual 
obligation"  (Pothier,  op.  cit..  Appendix  II)  as  to  dis- 
pense with  proof  of  any  justa  caumi  (Poste,  op.  cit^ 
334) .  In  the  English  law  it  is  not  an v  verbal  f  ormalitj', 
but  the  solemmty  of  writing  and  sealing  (PoUuer, 
ibid.)  which  dispenses  with  proof  of  that  valuaUe 
consideration  in  modem  English  law  analogous  to  the 
old  Roman  justa  causa,  and,  as  a  gena«l  proposition, 
essential  to  the  validity  of  simple  contracts,  althou^ 
in  the  exceptional  instance  of  negotiable  paper  always 
presumed,  and  in  favour  of  certain  holders  condu- 
siveljr  (Smith,  op.  cit.,  181).  This  consideration  is 
described  generalljr  as  "the  matter  accepted  or  agreed 
upon  as  the  eauivalent  for  which  me  oromise  is 
made"  (Leage,  "  Principles  of  the  Law  of  (Contracts". 
4th  ed.,  London,  1902,  425).  And  one  promise  would 
be  a  legal  consideration  for  another  (Smith's  "  Lead- 
ing Cases",  9th  Amer.  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1889,  302). 
But  the  English  law  infers  what  a  man  chooses 
to  bargain  for  to  be  of  some  value  to  him,  and 
therefore  does  not  allow  the  adeouacy  of  the  consid- 
eration to  be  inquired  into  (Pollock,  op.  cit.,  193). 
The  consideration  must,  however,  "be  ol  some  value 
in  contemplation  of  law".  A  promise,  for  instance, 
to  abstain  from  doing  what  Uie  promisor  has  no  ri^^t 
to  do,  is  a  promise  of  no  value,  and  therefore  no  con- 
sideration for  a  contract  (Smith,  op.  cit.,  181).  No 
obligation  can  bjr  English  law  result  from  an  agree- 
ment "immoral  in  a  legal  sense".  By  this  is  meant 
"  not  only  that  it  is  moxally  wrong,  but  that  according 
to  the  common  understanding  of  reasonable  men  it 
would  be  a  scandal  for  a  court  of  justice  to  treat  it  as 
lawful  or  indifferent,  though  it  may  not  come  within 
any  positive  prohibition  or  penalty"  (Pollock,  op. 
cit.,  410).  The  civil-law  authority,  rothien  instances 
a  promise  by  an  officer  to  pav  a  soldier  for  fighting  "a 
soldier  of  another  r^^ent ".  If  the  officer  pay,  he 
has  no  legal  claim  for  recovery  of  this  consicferation 
given  and  received  for  a  wrongful  act,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  soldier,  if  he  fight  before  receiving;  the 
agreed  consideration,  acquires  no  lefisl  claim  ror  it 
against  the  officer  (Pothier,  op.  cit.,  23).  No  one  is 
\mder  a  legal  duty  to  fulfil  a  promise  to  do  an  act 
opposed  to  the  policy  of  the  law  (Smith,  op.  cit.,  241, 
243).  But  there  are  not  wanting  instances  of  con- 
tracts opposed  to  the  policy  of  tne  law  which  yet 
conflict  with  no  moral  law  (Smith,  op.  cit.,  213). 

A  contract  induced  by  what  in  law  is  deemed  to  be 
fraud  may  be  rescinded  at  the  election  of  the  party 
defrauded.  But  "general  fraudulent  conduct  ,  or 
"general  dishonesty  of  purpose",  or  mere  "intention 
and  design  to  deceive"  is  not  sufficient  unless 
these  evil  acts  and  qualities  have  been  connected 
with  a  particular  transaction,  were  the  ground 
on  which  it  took  place,  and  gave  rise  to  the  con- 
tract (Smith,  op.  cit.,  248,  editor's  note).  In  the  in- 
stance of  a  sale,  the  seller  was,  by  the  Roman  civil 
law,  held  to  an  implied  warranty  that  the  thing  sold 
was  "free  from  such  defects  as  made  it  unfit  for  the 
use  for  which  it  was  intended"  (Mackenzie,  op.  cit., 
236).  By  the  English  law  there  is,  if  the  thing  be 
sold  for  a  fair  price  and  be  at  the  time  of  sale  in  the 
possession  of  the  seller,  an  implied  warranty  of  title, 
but  of  Quality  there  is  no  imphed  warranty,  except  as 
to  food  sold  for  domestic  use  (Kent,  op.  cit.,  II, 
478) .  "  The  writers  of  the  moral  law, "  observes  CThan- 
cellor  Kent,  "  hold  it  to  be  the  duty  of  the  seller  to  dis- 
close the  defects  which  are  within  his  knoided^^ 
But  the  common  law  is  not  quite  so  strict  If  the  de- 
fects in  the  article  sold  be  open  equally  to  the  observa- 
tion of  both  parties,  the  law  docs  not  require  the 


OOKTRAOT 


335 


OONTRAOT 


vendor  to  aid  and  assist  the  observation  of  the  vendee'' 
(Kent,  op.  cit.,  II,  484). 

Re^)ecting  what  may  be  termed  generally 
"  motives  and  inducements"  (ibid.,  487)  of  a  contract, 
the  same^  authority  cites  Pothier  as  in  accord  with 
the  doctrine  of  En^lsh  law,  **  that  though  misrepre- 
sentation or  fraud  will  invalidate  the  contract  of 
sale,  the  mere  concealment  of  material  knowledge 
which  the  one  narty  has  touching  the  thing  sold 
and  which  the  other  does  not  possess,  may  affect  the 
conscience,  but  will  tiot  destroy  the  contract,  for 
that  would  unduly  restrict  the  freedom  of  commerce; 
and  parties  must  at  their  own  risk  inform  themselves 
of  the  coomiodities  they  deal  in"  (op.  cit.,  491).  In 
a  note,  Cicero  is  referred  to  as  favouring  the  view  that 
conscience  forbids  the  concealment,  the  commentator 
adding,  "It  is  a  little  singular,  however,  that  some  of 
the  best  ethical  writers,  under  the  CJhristian  Dispensa- 
tion should  complain  of  the  moral  lessons  of  Cicero,  as 
being  too  austere  in  their  textiu^,  and  too  sublime  in 
speculation  for  actual  use"  (ibid.,  note  d).  As  fraud, 
so  coercion,  termed  in  English  law  duressj  or  tlie 
threat  of  it,  constitutes  a  valid  defence  to  fulfilment 
of  a  contract  (Smith,  op.  dt.,  230;  Pollock,  op.  cit., 
728  sq.). 

SrATinoRT  Restrictionb. — ^A  certain  French  ordarir 
nance  of  1667  (Pothier,  op.  cit.,  448,  Appendix,  168) 
has  been  thought  to  have,  perhaps,  suggested  the 
English  statute  of  1689,  which  re^^ites  its  purpjose 
to  be  "prevention  of  many  fraudulent  practices 
which  are  commonly  endeavoured  to  be  upheld  by 
perjury  and  subornation  of  perjury".  Accordingly, 
the  statute  requires  that  certain  contracts  be  in  writ- 
ing, and  those  for  sales  of  **  goods,  wares  or  merchan- 
dise of  over  ten  pounds  price"  in  writing,  or  that  there 
be  a  part-delivery  or  part-payment.  This  enactment, 
known  as  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  has,  with  numerous 
variations,  been  embodied  in  statutes  in  the  United 
States  (except  in  Louisiana),  carrying,  to  quote  from 
the  American  commentator,  "its  iimuence  through 
the  whole  body  of  our  civil  jurisprudence"  (Kent, 
op.  cit.,  494,  note  a). 

By  the  early  Roman  law  many  contracts  were 
enforceable  by  legal  action  after  any  lapse  of  time 
however  long.  But,  to  quote  the  Institutes,  "  Bacrse 
constitutiones  ....  actionibus  certos  fines^dede- 
runt"  (the  imperial  constitutions  assigned  fixed  limits 
to  actions),  so  that,  after  certain  prescribed  periods, 
no  legal  remeedy  would  be  provided  to  enforce  the 
obligation  of  contracts  ("The  Institutes  of  Justinian", 
tr.  Sandars,  London,  1898,  Bk.  IV,  tit.  xii;  Bk.  II,  tit. 
vi).  Sflch  positive  restrictions  on  the  legal  remedy 
are  in  English  law  contained  in  enactments  known  as 
Statutes  of  Limitation  (Blackstone,  op.  cit.,  Bk.  Ill, 
307).  -  One  ancient  English  statute  fixed  for  limita- 
tion of  certain  actions  the  time  of  the  coming  of  King 
John  from  Ireland,  another  statute  the  coronation  of 
Henry  III  (Blackstone,  op.  cit.,  Bk.  Ill,  188).  But 
modem  statutes,  as  well  in  England  as  throughout  the 
United  States,  limit  the  remedy  to  certain  periods 
from  the  time  of  entering  into  contracts,  adopting 
the  manner  of  the  Homan  constitutions.  The  legtu 
maxim  Leges  vigilaniibiM  rum  dormientibue  subveniurU 
(the  laws  aid  the  vigilant,  not  the  careless)  is  appli- 
cable to  private  suitors  (Blackstone,  op.  cit.).  But 
nuUutn  iempua  occurrit  regi  (no  time  runs  a^nst 
the  king),  and  therefore,  unless  specially  mentioned, 
the  Government  is  not  included  within  the  restric- 
tions of  a  statute  of  1  imitations.  According  to  ancient 
Enelish  les^  conceptions  these  statutes  ought  not  to 
bind  the  king,  for  the  reason  that  he  *Ms  always 
busied  for  the  public  good,  and  therefore  has  not 
leisure  to  assert  his  right  within  the  times  limited  to 
subjecte"  (ibid.,  Bk.  I,  247). 

iNviOLABiLrTY  OF  CoNTRACT8.-^To  secure  inviola- 
bility of  contracts,  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  (Art.  1,  Sect.  10)  provides  that  no  Stat^  shall 


pass  a  'Maw  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts''. 
By  MiaaHon  is  meant  that  Icsal  obligation  whicn 
exists  ''wherever  the  municipal  law  recognizes  an 
absolute  duty  to  perform  a  contract".  And  the 
word  contract  being  used  in  this  clause  of  the  Oon- 
stitution  without  qualification,  the  protection  of  the 
Constitution  is  not  confined  to  executory  contracts, 
but  embraces  also  executed  contracts  (Stonr,  op.  cit., 
Sect.  1376-1392),  such  as  a  grant  which,  because  it 
amounts  to  an  extinguishment  of  the  right  of  the 
party,  implies  a  contract  not  to  reassert  the  right. 
And  the  Constitution  also  protects  even  state  char- 
ters granted  to  private  persons  for  private  purposes, 
whether  these  be  literary,  charitable,  religious,  or 
commercial  (Kent,  op.  cit.,  1, 413-424;  Story,  op.  cit.. 
Sect.  1376-1392).    See  also  Donation. 

PABaoNs,  Tke  Lata  of  Contrada  (Oth  ed.,  Boston,  1004): 
Wood,  A  TreaUw  on  the  Statule  of  Fraud»  (New  York  and 
Albany,  1884):  Idem,  A  Treatise  on  the  Limitation  of  Actions, 
etc.  (3rd  ed.,  Boston,  1901). 

Charles  W.  Sloane. 

Contract,  Trb  Social. — "Du  Oontrat  Social,  ou 
Principes  du  droit  politique",  is  the  title  of  a  work 
written  by  J.-J.  Rousseau  and  published  in  1762. 
From  the  time  of  his  stay  at  Venice,  about  1741, 
Rousseau  had  in  mind  a  lai^  treatise  dealing  with 
"  Les  institutions  politic^ues ' '.  The  "  Oontrat  Social " 
is  but  a  fragment  of  this  treatise  which,  as  a  whole, 
has  never  l^n  published. 

The  "Gontrat  Social"  is  divided  into  four  books. 
The  first  treate  of  the  formation  of  societies  and  the 
social  contract.  Social  order  is  a  sacred  right  which 
is  at  the  foundation  of  all  other  rights.  It  does  not 
come  from  nature.  The  family  is  the  most  ancient 
and  the  most  natural  of  all  societies;  but  this  associa- 
tion of  parente  and  children,  necessary  as  long  as  these 
cannot  provide  for  themselves,  is  maintained  after- 
wards only  by  convention.  Some  philosophers  have 
said  that  among  men  some  are  bom  for  slavery,  others 
for  domination;  but  they  confound  cause  and  effect; 
if  some  are  slaves  by  nature,  it  is  because  there  have 
been  slaves  against  nature.  Again,  social  order  is  not 
based  on  force,  for  the  strongest  is  not  strong  enough 
to  retain  at  all  times  his  supremacy  unless  he  trans- 
forms force  into  right,  and  obedience  into  duty.  But 
in  that  case  right  would  change  places  with  force.  If 
it  is  necessary  to  obey  because  of  force,  there  is  no 
need  of  obeying  because  of  duty;  and  if  one  is  not 
forced  to  obey  there  is  no  longer  any  obligation. 

All  legitimate  authority  among  men  is  based  on  an 
agreement.  This  argument,  according  to  Grotius, 
has  its  foundation  in  the  right  of  a  people  to  alienate 
its  freedom.  But  to  alienate  is  to  give  or  to  sell.  A 
man  does  not  give  himself;  at  most  he  sells  himself 
for  a  living;  but  for  what  should  a  people  sell  itself. 
To  ^ve  itself  gratuitously  would  be  an  act  of  folly 
and  therefore  null  and  void.  Moreover,  even  if  a 
man  has  the  right  to  give  himself,  he  has  no  right  to 
give  his  children  who  are  bom  men  and  free.  Gro- 
tius, aeain,  in  order  to  legitimize  slavery,  appeals  to 
the  right  of  the  conqueror  to  kill  the  conquered  or  to 
spare  nis  life  at  the  price  of  his  freedom.  But  war 
is  a  relation  between  State  and  State,  and  not  be- 
tween man  and  man.  It  gives  the  right  to  kill 
soldiers  so  long  as  they  are  armed,  but,  once  they 
have  laid  down  their  arms,  there  remain  onlv  men 
and  no  one  has  the  right  to  kill  them;  besides,  no 
one  has  the  right  to  enslave  men.  The  words  slavery 
and  rigfd  are  contradictory. 

The  social  order  originates  in  an  altogether  primi- 
tive  and  unanimous  agreement.  When  men  in  the 
state  of  nature  have  reached  that  stage  where  the 
individual  is  unable  to  cope  with  adverse  foroes,  they 
are  compelled  to  change  their  way  of  living.  Ther 
cannot  create  new  forces,  but  they  can  unite  their 
individual  energies  and  thus  overcome  the  obstacles 
to  life.     Tlie  fundamental  problem  is,  then,  **  to  find  a 


OONTRAOT 


336 


OOimULOT 


fonn  of  aasoeiation  which  defends  and  protects  with 
the  whole  common  energy,  the  person  and  property 
of  each  associate,  and  by  which  each  individual  aaso- 
oiate,  uniting  himself  to  all,  still  obeys  only  himself 
and  remains  as  free  as  before".  The  solution  is  a 
contract  bv  which  each  one  puts  in  common  his  per- 
son and  all  his  forces  under  the  supreme  direction  of 
the  ''general  wiQ".  There  results  a  moral  and  col- 
lective body  formed  of  as  many  members  as  there  are 
persons  in  the  community.  In  this  body  the  condi- 
tion is  equal  for  all,  since  each  gives  himself  wholly; 
the  union  is  perfect,  since  each  gives  himself  unre- 
servedly; and  finally,  each,  giving  nimself  to  all,  gives 
himself  to  nobody.  This  body  is  called  the  "State 
or  Sovereign'';  the  members,  who,  taken  toother, 
form  "the  people"  are  the  "citizens**  as  participating 
in  the  supreme  authority,  and  "subjects"  as  sub- 
jected to  the  laws.  By  this  contract  man  passes  from 
the  natural  to  the  civil  state,  from  instinct  to  morality 
and  justice.  He  loses  his  natural  freedom  and  his 
unlimited  right  to  all  that  he  attempts  or  is  able  to  do, 
but  he  gains  civil  liberty  and  the  ownership  of  all  that 
he  possesses  by  becoming  the  acknowledge  trustee  of 
a  part  of  the  public  property. 

The  second  book  deals  with  sovereignty  and  its 
rights.  Sovereignty,  or  the  general  willj  is  inaliena- 
ble, for  the  will  cannot  be  transmitted;  it  is  indivisi- 
ble, since  it  is  essentially  general;  it  is  infallible  and 
always  right.  It  is  determined  and  limited  in  its 
power  by  the  common  interest;  it  acts  through  laws. 
Law  is  the  decision  of  the  general  will  in  regard  to 
some  object  of  common  interest.  But  though  the 
general  will  is  always  right  and  always  desires  what 
IS  good,  its  judgment  is  not  always  enlightened,  and 
consequent!^  does  not  always  see  wherein  the  com- 
mon good  hes;  hence  the  necessity  of  the  legislator. 
But  the  l^islator  has,  of  himself,  no  authority;  he  is 
only  a  guide.  He  drafts  and  proposes  laws,  but  the 
people  alone  (that  is,  the  sovereign  or  general  will)  has 
authority  to  make  and  impose  them. 

The  third  book  treats  of  government  and  its  exer- 
cise. In  the  State  it  is  not  sufficient  to  make  laws,  it 
is  also  necessary  to  enforce  them.  Although  the 
sovereign  or  general  will  has  the  legislative  power,  it 
cannot  exercise  by  itself  the  executive  power.  It 
needs  a  special  agent,  intermediary  between  the  sub- 
jects and  the  sovereign,  which  applies  the  laws  under 
the  direction  of  the  general  will.  This  is  precisely 
the  part  of  the  Government  which  is  the  minister  of  the 
sovereign  and  not  sovereign  itself.  The  one  or  the 
several  magistrates  who  form  the  Government  are  only 
the  trustee  of  the  executive  powers;  they  are. the 
officere  of  the  sovereign,  and  their  office  is  not  the 
result  of  a  contract,  but  a  charge  laid  upon  them; 
they  receive  from  the  sovereign  the  orders  which  they 
transmit  to  the  people,  and  the  sovereign  can  at  will 
limit,  modify,  or  revoke  this  power. 

The  three  principal  forms  of  government  are: 
democracy,  a  government  by  the  whole,  or  the 
greater  part,  of  the  people;  aristocracy,  government 
by  a  few;  monarchy,  government  by  one.  Democ- 
racy is  in  practice  impossible.  It  demands  conditions 
too  numerous  and  virtues  too  difficult  for  the  whole 
people.  "  If  there  were  a  people  of  gods,  its  govern- 
ment would  be  democratic,  so  perfect  a  government 
is  not  for  men. "  Aristocracy  may  be  natural,  heredi- 
tary, or  elective.  The  first  is  found  only  among  sim- 
ple and  primitive  people;  the  second  is  the  worst  of 
all  eovemmentfi ;  the  third,  where  the  power  is  given 
to  the  wisest,  to  those  who  have  more  time  for  public 
affairs,  is  the  best  and  the  most  natural  of  all  govern- 
ments whenever  it  is  certain  that  those  who  wield  power 
will  use  it  for  the  public  welfare  and  not  for  their  own 
interest.  No  government  is  more  vigorous  than 
monarchy;  but  it  presents  great  dangers;  if  the  end 
is  not  the  public  welfare,  the  whole  energy  of  the 
administration  is  concentrated  for  the  detriment  of 


the  State.  Kings  seek  to  be  absolute,  and  offices  ara 
gjven  to  intriguers.  Theoretically,  a  government 
simple  and  pure  in  form  is  the  best;  practically,  it 
must  be  combined  with,  and  controlled  by,  elements 
borrowed  from  other  forms.  Also,  it  is  to  l>e  remarked 
that  not  every  form  of  government  is  equally  suitablo 
to  every  country;  but  the  government  of  each  oountnr 
must  be  adapted  to  the  character  of  its  people.  **  AU 
things  being  equal,  the  best  form  of  |^vemment  for  a 
country  is  theone  under  which  the  citizens,  without  any 
outside  means,  without  naturalization  or  colonies,  in- 
crease and  multiply."  In  order  to  prevent  any 
usurpation  on  the  psut  of  the -government,  some  fixed 
and  periodical  meetings  of  the  people  must  be  detei^ 
mined  by  law,  during  which  all  executive  power  is 
suspended,  and  all  authority  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
people.  In  these  meetings  tne  people  will  decide  two 
questions:  "Whether  it  pleases  the  sovereign  to  pre- 
serve the  present  form  of  government,  and  whether  it 
pleases  the  people  to  continue  the  administratioD  in 
the. hands  of  those  who  are  actiudly  in  charge." 
Intermediary  between  the  sovereign  authority  and 
the  Government  there  is  sometimes  another  power, 
that  of  the  deputies  or  representatives.  The  general 
will,  however,  cannot  be  represented  any  more  than 
it  can  be  alienated;  the  deputies  are  not  representa- 
tives of  the  people,  but  its  commissioners;  ihey  can- 
not decide  anything  definitively;  hence,  any  Law 
which  is  not  ratified  oy  the  people  is  nulL  The  insti- 
tution of  the  Govermnent,  tner^ore,  is  not  based  on  a 
contract  between  the  people  and  the  magistrates;  it 
is  a  law.  Those  who  hold  power  are  the  officers,  not 
the  masters,  of  the  people;  they  have  not  to  make  a 
contract,  but  to  obey;  by  fulfilling  Uieir  ftmctioiis 
they  simply  discharge  their  duties  as  citizens. 

In  the  fourth  book,  Rousseau  speaks  of  certain 
social  institutions.  The  general  will  is  indestructible ; 
it  expresses  itself  throu^  elections.  As  to  different 
modes  of  elections  and  institutions,  such  as  tribunate, 
dictatorship,  censure,  etc.,  the  history  of  the  ancient 
republics  of  Rome  and  Greece,  of  Sparta  especially, 
can  teach  us  something  about  their  value.  Keli|gion 
is  at  the  veiy  foundation  of  the  State.  At  all  times 
it  has  occupied  a  lais;e  place  in  the  life  of  the  people. 
The  Christianity  of  we  Gospel  is  a  holy  R^igk>n,  but 
b^  teaching  detachment  from  earthly  things  it  con- 
flicts with  the  social  spirit.  It  produces  men  who  fulfil 
their  duties  with  indifference,  and  soldiers  who  know 
how  to  die  rather  than  how  to  win.  It  is  important 
for  the  State  that  each  citizen  should  have  a  reli^n 
that  will  help  him  to  love  his  duty;  but  the  dogmas 
of  this  religion  are  of  no  concern  to  the  State  except 
in  so  far  as  they  are  related  to  morality  or  duti(«i 
towards  others.  There  must  be,  therefore,  in  the 
State  a  religion  of  which  the  sovereign  shall  determine 
the  articles,  not  as  dogmas  of  religion,  but  as  senti- 
ments of  sociability.  Whosoever  does  not  accept 
them  may  be  banished,  not  as  impious,  but  as  unsocia- 
ble; and  whosoever,  after  having  accepted  them,  w\ll 
not  act  according  to  them  shall  be  punished  by  death. 
These  articles  shall  be  few  and  precise;  existence  of 
the  Divinity,  powerful,  intelligent,  gooq,  and  provi- 
dent; future  lue,  happiness  of  the  just;  chastisement 
of  the  wicked;  sanctity  of  the  social  contract  and  the 
laws ;  these  are  the  positive  dogmas.  There  is  also  one 
n^ative  dogma:  Whosoever  shall  say,  "Outside  of 
the  Church  there  is  no  salvation",  ou^^t  to  be  ban- 
ished from  the  State. 

The  influence  of  this  book  was  immense.  Rousseau 
owes  much  indeed  to  Hobbes  and  Locke,  and  to 
Montesquieu's  "Esprit  des  lois",  published  fourteen 
years  before;  but,  oy  the  extreme  prominence  given 
to  the  ideas  of  popular  sovereignty,  of  liberty  and 
equality,  and  especially  by  his  highly  coloured  style, 
his  short  and  concise  formulie,  he  put  within  the 
common  reach  principles  and  concepts  which  had 
hitherto  been  confined  to  scientific  exposition.    Thm 


OOHTBmON 


337 


OONTBinON 


book  gave  expresBion  to  ideas  and  feelings  v^ch,  at 
a  time  of  political  and  social  unrest,  were  growing  in 
the  popular  mind.  It  would.be  interesting  to  deter- 
mine how  far  Rousseau  influenced  the  naming  of 
various  modem  constitutions;  at  an^  rate,  he  fur- 
nished the  French  Revolution  with  its  philosophy, 
and  his  principles  direct  the  actual  political  life  of 
France.  His  book,  sajrs  Mallet  du  Pan,  was  "the 
Koran  of  the  Revolutionists",  and  Garlyle  rightly 
calls  Rousseau  ^Hhe  £vanfielist  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution". The  orators  of  the  Constituante  c|Uoted  its 
sentences  and  formuhe,  and  if  it  may  be  believed  that 
Rousseau  would  have  condemned  the  massacres  and 
violences  of  1793,  the  Jacobins,  nevertheless,  looked 
to  his  principles  for  the  justification  of  their  acts. 

It  is  quite  intelligible  that  the  "Contrat  Social" 
should  have  come  to  be  considered  by  some  as  the 
gospel  of  freedom  and  democracy,  by  others  as  the 
code  of  revolution  and  anarchy,  lliat  it  contains 
serious  contradictions  is  undeniable.  For  instance. 
Rousseau  assigns  as  the  essential  basis  of  the  general 
will  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  people,  yet  he  as- 
sinnes  that  this  eeneral  will  is  expressed  in  the  plural- 
ity of  suffrages;  ne  affirms  that  parents  have  no  risht 
to  eneage  their  children  by  a  contract,  and  yet  chil- 
dren from  their  birth  will  be  subject  to  the  primitive 
contract;  he  affirms  that  a  man  has  no  right  to  alien- 
ate himself,  yet  he  bases  the  social  contract  essentially 
on  the  total  alienation  of  personal  rights  and  person- 
ality in  favour  of  the  community.  If  there  are  some 
true  considerations  and  reflections  in  this  book — as, 
for  instance,  on  slavery  and  the  dignity  of  man,  on  the 
adaptation  of  the  divers  forms  of  government  to  the 
character  of  the  people,  etc. — its  fundamental  princi- 
^es — ^the  orisin  of  society,  absolute  freedom  and 
absolute  equality  of  all — are  false  and  unnatural. 

He  bases  society  on  a  convention,  ignoring  the  fact 
and  truth  so  clearly  shown  both  by  psychology  and  his- 
tory that  man  is  a  being  essentially  social,  and  that, 
as  Bonald  says,  the  ''law  of  sociability  is  as  natural 
to  man  as  the  law  of  gravitation  to  physical  bodies". 
He  aflirms  as  a  first  principle  that  all  men  are  bom 
free.  He  calls  the  natural  state  a  state  of  instinct, 
and  he  defines  natural  freedom  as  the  unlimited  rieht 
of  each  to  do  whatever  he  can.  He  opposes  to  this 
natund  state  and  freedom  the  civil  state  which  he 
caUs  the  state  of  justice  and  morality,  and  civil  lib- 
erty, which  is  freedom  limited  by  the  general  will. 
This  evidently  implies  that  man  is  bom  an  animal 
with  force  as  its  power  and  instinct  as  its  guide,  and 
not  an  intelligent  and  free  being.  Rousseau  forgets 
that,  if  natural  freedom  is  power  to  act,  it  is  at  the 
same  time  an  activity  subjected  to  a  rule  and  disci- 
pline determined  by  tne  very  object  and  conditions  of 
numan  life;  that  if  all  men  are  bom  with  a  right  to 
freedom,  they  are  also  Iwm  with  a  duty  to  direct  this 
freedom;  that,  if  all  are  bom  eoually  free — in  the  fun- 
damental sense  that  all  have  the  same  essential  right 
to  live  a  human  life  and  to  attain  human  perfection — 
stiU,  this  very  right  is  determined  in  its  mode  of  ex- 
ercise for  each  individual  by  special  laws  and  condi- 
tions; in  a  word,  that  the  natural  state  of  man  is  both 
freedom  and  discipline  in  the  individual  as  well  as  in 
the  social  life.  Rousseau's  conception  of  freedom 
leads  him  directly  to  an  individualism  and  a  natural- 
ism which  have  no  limits  save  those  of  brute  force 
itself. 

A^in,  he  declares  that  all  men  are  born  naturally 
equsu.  Now  this  principle  is  true  if  it  is  understood 
in  the  sense  of  a  specific  equalitv,  the  foundation  of 
human  dignity.  Every  man  has  ihe  right,  equal  in  all, 
to  be  treated  as  a  man,  to  be  respected  in  his  pen^nal 
dignity  as  a  man,  to  be  protected  and  helped  by  author- 
ity in  nis  effort  towards  perfection.  But  the  principle 
isfundamentally  false,  if,  as  interpreted  by  Rousseau,  it 
means  individual  equality.  The  son  is  not  individ- 
ually equal  to  his  father,  nor  the  infant  to  the  adult, 
^^        IV  ~M 


nor  the  dull  to  the  intelligent,  nor  the  poor  to  the  rich, 
in  individual  needs,  rights,  or  special  duties.  The 
natural  relations  between  individual  men,  their  re- 
ciprocal duties  and  rights,  involve  both  equality  and 
hierarchy.  The  basis  of  social  relations  is  not  abso* 
lute  individual  indei>endence  and  arbitrary  will,  but 
freedom  exercised  with  respect  for  authority.  By 
his  interpretation  of  this  principle,  Rousseau  leads 
to  a  false  individualism  which  ends  in  anarchy. 

Rousseau  maintains  that  society  arises  through  the 
total  alienation  of  the  personality  and  rights  of  each 
associate;  hence,  for  the  absolute  individualism  of 
nature  he  substitutes  an  absolute  socialism  in  the  civil 
state.  It  is  the  general  will  which  is  the  ultimate 
source  and  supreme  criterion  of  justice,  morality, 
property,  and  religion.  Then  we  have,  in  spite  of  ail 
the  explanations  advanced  by  Rousseau,  the  sup- 
pression of  personality,  the  reign  of  force  and  caprice, 
the  tyranny  of  the  multitude,  the  despotism  of  the 
crowd,  the  destruction  of  true  freedom,  morality,  and 
society.  The  French  Revolution  was  the  realization 
of  these  principles.  Society  has  not  its  foundation  in 
the  free  alienation  of  personality  and  rights,  but  in  the 
natural  imion  of  all  personalities,  or,  rather,  families, 
with  a  view  to  reach  their  perfection.  Society  is 
not  the  source  of  duties  and  rights  of  families  or  indi- 
viduals, but  the  protector  and  helper  of  families  and 
individuals  in  the  fulfilment  of  their  duties  and  rights; 
its  existence  is  commanded,  its  authority  is  limited, 
by  this  very  end.  Society  is  not  formed  from  ele- 
ments all  individually  equal,  but  is  organized  from 
graduated  elements.  These  degrees  of  authority, 
however,  in  the  social  organization  are  not  by  nature 
the  exclusive  possession  of  l^nybody,  but  accessible 
to  the  capacities  and  the  efforts  of  all.  Society  is 
made  up  of  authority  and  subjects;  and  this  authority, 
while  it  may  be  determined  in  its  subject  and  numner 
of  exercise  by  the  people,  has  not  its  foundation  in 
their  will,  but  in  human  nature  itself  as  God  created  it. 
MussKT  Pathay,  aSuvres  de  J.-J.  Rousseau  (Paris,  1823-26 
and  1870);  Lettrea  iniditea  de  Rousseau  h  Marc-Michel  (Pans. 
1858);  BsAUDOiN,  Lavieetles  cnivns  de  J.- J.  Rousseau  (Paris, 
1891);  HoRNUNQ,  Les  idles  politiques  de  Rousseau  (1878); 
LzcHTENBKROER,  Lc  soctolisme  au  XVIII^  si^ds  (1895);  Mob- 
let,  Rousseau  (London,  1896).  II,  iii;  LbmaItbx,  J.-J,  Rous- 
seau (Paris,  1907);  Brbdif,  Du  caraeUre  inteUectud  ei  moral  de 
J.-J.  Rousseau  (Paris,  1906).  Also,  for  bibtiography  of  Rous- 
seau, cf.  GufeRARD,  Im  France  littiraire,  VIII,  192>230.  For 
the  influence  of  the  CorUrat  Social,  see  (Euvres  de  MaximUieH 
Robespierre  (Paris,  1840);  Carltlb,  The  French  Revolution; 
Taine^  Origmes  de  la  France  coniemporaine  (Paris.  1876-90). 
II,  III.  See  also  the  Eneyclieals  of  Leo  XIII:  Diutumum 
JUud  (29  June,  1881).  and  Jmmortale  Dei  (1  Nov.,  1893). 

G.  M.  Sauvaob. 

Oontrition  (Lat.  coniritio — a  breaking  of  some- 
thing hardened). — In  Holy  Writ  nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  exhortations  to  repentance:  "I  desire  not 
the  death  of  the  wicked,  but  tnat  the  wicked  turn  from 
his  way  and  live"  (Ezech.,  xxxiii,  II);  "Except  you 
do  penance  you  shall  all  likewise  perish"  (Luke,  xiii, 
5;  cf.  Matt.,  xii,  41).  At  times  this  repentance  in- 
cludes exterior  acts  of  satisfaction  (Ps.  vi,  7  sqq.);  it 
always  implies  a  recognition  of  wrong  done  to  God,  a 
detestation  of  the  evil  wrought,  and  a  desire  to  turn 
from  evil  and  do  good.  This  is  clearly  expressed  in 
Ps.  1  (5-14):  "For  I  know  my  iniquitv.  ...  To  thee 

only  have  I  sinned,  and  have  done  evil  before  thee 

Turn  away  thy  face  from  my  sins,  and  blot  out  all 
my  iniquities.  Create  a  clean  heart  in  me",  etc. 
More  clearly  does  this  appear  in  the  parable  of  the 
Pharisee  and  the  publican  (Luke,  xviii,  13),  and  more 
clearly  still  in  the  story  of  the  prodigal  (Luke,  xv. 
11-32):  "Father,  I  have  sinned  against  heaven  and 
before  thee:  I  am  not  worthy  to  be  called  thy  son ". 

Natuke  of  Contrition. — This  interior  repentance 
has  been  called  by  theologians  "contrition".  It  is 
defined  explicitly  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIV, 
ch.  iv  de  Contritione) :  "  a  sorrow  of  soul  and  a  hatred 
of  sin  committed,  with  a  firm  purpose  of  not  sinning  in 


CONTRITION 


338 


CONTRITION 


the  future".  The  word  contrition  itself  in  a  moral 
sense  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Scripture  (cf . 
Ps.  1,  19).  Etymologically  it  implies  a  breaking  of 
something  that  has  become  hardened.  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  in  his  Commentary  on  the  Master  of  the  Sen- 
tences thus  explains  its  peculiar  use:  ^' Since  it  is 
requisite  for  the  remission  of  sin  that  a  man  cast  away 
entirely  the  liking  for  sin  which  implies  a  sort  of  con- 
tinuity and  solidity  in  his  mind,  the  act  which  obtains 
forgiveness  is  termed  by  a  figure  of  speech  'contri- 
tion'"   (In  Lib.  Sent.  IV,  dist.  xvii;  cf.  Supplem. 

III,  Q.  i,  a.  1).  This  sorrow  of  soul  is  not  merely 
specidative  sorrow  for  wrong  done,  remorse  of  con- 
science, or  a  resolve  to  amend ;  it  is  a  real  pain  and 
bitterness  of  soul  together  with  a  hatred  and  horror  for 
sin  committed;  and  this  hatred  for  sin  leads  to  the  re- 
solve to  sin  no  more.  The  early  Christian  writers  in 
speaking  of  the  nature  of  contrition  sometimes  insist 
on  the  feeling  of  sorrow,  sometimes  on  the  detestation 
of  the  wrong  committed  (Augustine  in  P.  L.,  XXXVII, 
1901,  1902;  Chrysostom,  P.  G.,  XL VII,  409,  410). 
Augustine  includes  both  when  writing:  "Compunctus 
corae  non  solet  dici  nisi  stimulis  peccatorum  in  dolore 
poenitendi"  (P.  L.,  Vol.  VI  of  Augustine,  col.  1440). 
Nearly  all  the  medieval  theologians  hold  that  contri- 
tion is  based  principally  on  the  detestation  of  sin. 
This  detestation  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  the  hein- 
ousness  of  sin,  and  this  knowledge  begets  sorrow  and 
pain  of  soul.  "  As  sin  is  committed  bv  the  consent,  so 
it.  is  blotted  out  by  the  dissent  of  tne  rational  will; 
hence  contrition  is  essentially  sorrow.  But  it  should 
be  noted  that  sorrow  has  a  twofold  signification — dis- 
sent of  the  will  and  the  consequent  feeling;  the 
former  is  of  the  essence  of  contrition,  the  latter  is  its 
effect"  (Bonaventure,  In  Lib.  Sent.  IV,  dist,  xvi,  Pt. 
I,  art.  1).  [See  also  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Comment, 
in  Lib.  Sent.  IV;  Billuart  (De  Sac.  Pcenit.,  Diss,  iv, 
art.  1)  seems  to  hold  the  opposite  opinion.] 

Necessity  of  Contrition. — Until  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  no  theologian  ever  thought  of  denying  the 
necessity  of  contrition  for  the  forpveness  of  sin.  But 
with  the  coming  of  Luther  and  his  doctrine  of  justifi- 
cation by  faith  alone  the  absolute  necessity  of  contri- 
tion was  excluded  as  bv  a  natural  consec][uence.  Leo 
X  in  the  famous  Bull  "Exsurge"  [Denzinger,  no.  751 
(635)]  condemned  the  following  Lutheran  position: 
**By  no  means  believe  that  you  are  forgiven  on  ac- 
count of  your  contrition,  but  l>ecause  of  Christ's 
words,  'Whatsoever  thou  shalt  loose',  etc.  On  this 
account  I  say,  that  if  you  receive  the  priest's  absolu- 
tion, believe  firmly  that  you  are  absolved,  and  truly 
absolved  you  will  be,  let  the  contrition  be  as  it  may.  ' 
Luther  could  not  deny  that  in  every  true  conversion 
there  was  grief  of  soul,  but  he  asserted  that  this  was 
the  result  of  the  grace  of  God  poured  into  the  soul  at 
the  time  of  justification,  etc.  (For  this  discussion  see 
Vacant,  Diet,  de  th^ol.  cath.,  s.  v.  Contrition.)  Catho- 
lic writers  have  always  taught  the  necessity  of  contri- 
tion for  the  forgiveness  of  sin,  and  they  have  insisted 
that  such  necessity  arises  (a)  from  the  very  nature  of 
repentance  as  well  as  (b)  from  the  {xisitive  command 
of  God.  (a)  They  point  out  that  the  sentence  of 
Christ  in  Luke,  xiii,  5,  is  final:  "Except  you  do  pen- 
ance", etc.,  and  from  the  Fathers  they  cite  passages 
such  as  the  following  from  Cyprian,  *'De  Lapsis",  no. 
32:  ''  Do  penance  in  full,  give  proof  of  the  sorrow  that 
comes  from  a  grieving  and  lamenting  soul  .  .  .  they 
who  do  away  with  repentance  for  sin,  close  the  door  to 
satisfaction. "  The  Scholastic  doctors  laid  down  the 
principle,  "  No  one  can  begin  a  new  life  who  does  not 
repent  him  of  the  old"  (Bonaventure,  In  Lib,  Sent. 

IV,  dist.  xvi,  Pt.  II,  art.  I,  Q.  ii,  also  ex  profe^ao,  ibid., 
Pt.  I,  art.  I,  Q.  iii),  and  when  asked  the  reason  why, 
they  point  out  the  absolute  incongruity  of  turning  to 
God  and  clinging  to  sin,  which  is  hostile  to  God's  law. 
Tlie  Council  of  Trent,  mindful  of  the  tradition  of  the 
ages,  defined  fSess.  XIV.  ch.  iv  de  Contritione)  that 


"contrition  has  always  been  necessary  for  obtaining 
forciveness  of  sin",  (b)  The  positive  command  « 
God  is  abo  clear  in  the  premises.  Hie  Baptist  aouxtd- 
ed  the  note  of  preparation  for  the  coming  of  the  Me9- 
siais:  ''Make  straight  his  paths";  and,  as  a  ooiise- 
quence,  ''they  went  out  to  him  and  were  baptised 
confessing  their  sins  ".  The  first  preaching  of  Jesus  is 
described  in  the  words :  **  Do  penance,  for  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  is  at  hand";  and  the  Apostles,  in  Uieir  firat 
sermons  to  the  people,  warn  them  to  "do  penance  and 
be  baptized  for  the  remission  of  their  sins"  (Acts,  ii, 
38).  The  Fathers  followed  up  with  like  exhortation 
(Clement  in  P.  G.,  I,  341;  Hennas  in  P.  G.,  II,  «M; 
Tertullian  in  P.  L.,  II). 

Perfect  and  Imperfect  Contrition. — Catholic 
teaching  distinguishes  a  twofold  hatred  of  sin:  one, 
perfect  contrition,  springs  from  the  love  of  God  Who 
nas  been  grievously  offended;  the  other,  imperfect 
contrition,  arises  principally  from  some  other  mo- 
tives, such  as  loss  of  heaven,  fear  of  hell,  the  heinou«- 
ness  of  sin,  etc.  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XIV,  ch.  iv  cie 
Contritione).  For  the  doctrine  of  imperfect  contri- 
tion see  Attrition. 

Qualities. — In  accord  with  Catholic  tradition  con- 
trition, whether  it  be  perfect  or  imperfect,  must  be  at 
once  (a)  interior,  (b)  supernatural,  (e)  universal,  and 
(d)  severely. 

(a)  Interior, — Contrition  must  be  real  and  sincere 
sorrow  of  heart,  and  not  merely  an  external  manifes- 
tation of  repentance.  The  Old-Testament  Prophets 
laid  particular  stress  on  the  necessity  of  hearty  repent- 
ance. The  Psalmist  says  that  God  despises  not  the 
"contrite  heart"  (Ps.  1,  19),  and  the  call  to  Israel 
was,  "Be  converted  to  me  with  all  your  heart  .  .  . 
and  rend  your  hearts,  and  not  your  garments"  (Joel, 
ii,  12  sq.).  Holy  Job  did  penance  m  sackcloth  and 
ashes  because  he  reprehended  himself  in  sorrow  of 
soul  (Job,  xlii,  6).  The  contrition  adjudged  neces- 
sary bv  Christ  and  his  Apostles  was  no  mere  formality, 
but  tne  sincere  expression  of  the  sorrowing  soul 
(Luke,  XV,  11-32;  Luke,  xviii,  13);  and  the  grief  of 
the  woman  in  the  house  of  the  Pharisee  merited  for- 
giveness because  "she  loved  much".  The  exhorta- 
tions to  penance  found  everywhere  in  the  Fathers  have 
no  uncertain  sound  (Cypnan,  De  Lapsis,  P.  L.,  I V ; 
Chrysostom,  De  compunctione,  P.  Gi.,  XL VII,  393 
8qq.),andthe  Scholastic  doctors  from  Peter  Lombard 
on  insist  on  the  same  sincerity  in  repentance  (Peter 
Lombard,  Lib.  Sent.  IV,  dist.  xvi,  no.  1). 

(b)  Supernatural, — In  accordance  with  Catholic 
teaching  contrition  ought  to  be  prompted  by  God's 
grace*and  aroused  by  motives  which  spring  from  faith, 
as  opposed  to  merefv  natural  motives,  such  as  loss  of 
honour,  fortune,  and  the  like  (Chemnitz,  Exam.  Con- 
cil.  Trid.,  Pt.  II,  De  Pcenit.).  In  the  Old  Testament  it 
is  God  who  gives  a  "new  heart"  and  who  puts  a  "new 
spirit"  into  the  children  of  Israel  (Ezech.,  xxxvi, 
25-29);  and  for  a  clean  heart  the  Psalmist  prays  in 
the  Miserere  (Ps.  1,  11  sqq.).  St.  Peter  told  those  to 
whom  he  preached  in  the  first  days  after.  Pentecost 
that  God  tne  Father  had  raised  up  Christ  "to  eive  re- 
pentance to  Israel"  (Acts,  v,  30  sq.).  St.  Paul  in  ad- 
vising Timothy  insists  on  dealing  gently  and  kindly 
with  those  who  resist  the  truth,  "  if  peradventure  God 
may  give  them  repentance"  (II  Tim.,  ii,  24-25).  In 
the  days  of  the  Pelagian  heresy  Augustine  insists  on 
the  supematuralness  of  contrition,  when  he  writes* 
"That  we  turn  away  from  God  is  our  doing,  and  this 
is  the  bad  will ;  but  to  turn  back  to  God  we  are  unable 
unless  He  arouse  and  help  us,  and  this  is  the  ^>od 
will."  Some  of  the  Scholastic  doctors,  notably  Sco- 
tus,  Cajetan,  and  after  them  Suares  (De  Pcenit.,  Disp. 
iii,  sect,  vi),  asked  speculatively  whether  man  left  to 
himself  could  elicit  a  true  act  of  contrition,  but  no 
theologian  ever  taught  that  repentance  which  mak€« 
for  forgiveness  of  sin  in  the  present  economy  of  Got* 
could  be  inspired  by  merely  natural  motives.     On  tho 


CONTRITION 


'639 


OONTUTION 


Oontrary,  all  the  doctors  have  insisted  on  the  absolute 
necessity  of  grace  for  contrition  that  disposes  to  for- 
giveness (Bonaventure,  In  Lib.  Sent.  iV,  dist.  xiv, 
Pt.  I,  art.  II,  Q.  iii;  also  dist.  xvii,  Pt.  I,  art.  I,  Q.  iii; 
cf .  St.  HiomaS)  In  Lib.  Sent.  IV).  In  keeping  with 
this  teaching  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  doctors,  the 
Council  of  (Sent  defined:  "If  anyone  say  that  with- 
out the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  without  His 
aid  a  man  can  repent  in  the  way  that  is  necessary  for 
obtaining  the  grace  of  justification,  let  him  be  anath- 
ema.'* 

(c)  Univeracil. — The  Council  of  Trent  defined  that 
real  contrition  includes  "  a  firm  purpose  of  not  sinning 
in  the  future";  consequently  ne  who  repents  must 
resolve  to  avoid  all  sin.  This  doctrine  is  intimately 
bound  up  with  the  Catholic  teaching  concerning  grace 
and  repentance.  There  is  no  forgiveness  without  sor- 
row of  soul,  and  forgiveness  is  always  accompanied  by 
God's  grace;  grace  cannot  coexist  with  sin;  and,  as  a 
consequence,  one  sin  cannot  be  foi^ven  while  another 
remains  for  which  there  is  no  repentance.  This  is  the 
clear  teaching  of  the  Bible.  The>  Prophet  urged  men 
to  turn  to  God  with  their  whole  heart  (Joel,  ii,  12  sq.), 
and  Christ  tells  the  doctor  of  the  law  that  we  must 
love  God  with  our  whole  mind,  our  whole  strength 
(Luke,  X,  27).  Ezechiel  insists  that  a  man  must 
**  turn  from  all  hia  evil  ways"  if  he  wish  to  live.  The 
Scholastics  inquired  rather  subtly  into  this  question 
when  they  asked  whether  or  not  there  must  be  a  spe- 
cial act  ox  contrition  for  evezy  serious  sin,  and  whether, 
in  order  to  be  forgiven,  one  must  remember  at  the 
moment  all  his  grievous  transgressions.  To  both 
questions  they  answered  in  the  native,  judging  that 
an  act  of  sorrow  which  implicitly  mcluded  all  his  sins 
would  be  sufficient. 

(d)  Sovereign. — ^The  Council  of  Trent  insists  that 
true  contrition  includes  the  firm  will  never  to  sin 
again,  so  that  no  matter  what  evil  may  come,  such 
evil  must  be  preferred  to  sin.  This  doctrine  is  surely 
Christ's:  ''What  shall  it  profit  a  man  if  he  eain  the 
whole  world  and  suffer  the  loss  of  his  soul?'''^  Theo- 
logians have  discussed  at  great  length  whether  or  not 
contrition  which  must  be  sovereign  appretiative,  i.  e. 
in  regarding  sin  as  the  greatest  possible  eviL  must  also 
be  sovereign  in  degree  and  in  intensity.  Tne  decision 
has  generuly  been  that  sorrow  need  not  be  sovereign 
"intensively",  for  intensity  makes  no  change  in  the 
substance  of  an  act  (BaUenni,  Opus  Morale:  De  Con- 
tritione;  Bonaventure,  In  Lib.  Sent.  IV,  dist.  xxi, 
Pt.  I,  art  II,  Q.  i). 

CONZMTION   IN   THE   SaCRAMENT   OF   PeNANCE. — 

Contrition  is  not  only  a  moral  virtue,  but  the  Council 
of  Trent  defined  tiiat  it  is  a  ''part",  nay  more,  quasi 
materia,  in  the  Bacrament  of  Penance.  "The  (quasi) 
matter  of  this  sacrament  consists  of  the  acts  of  the 
penitent  himself,  namely,  contrition,  confession,  and 
satisfaction.  These,  inasmuch  as  they  are  by  God's 
Institution  required  in  the  penitent  for  the  integrity  of 
the  sacrament  and  for  the  iidl  and  perfect  remission  of 
sin^  are  for  this  reason  called  P&rts  of  penance. "  In 
consequence  of  this  decree  of  Trent  theologians  teach 
that  sorrow  for  sin  must  be  in  some  sense  sacramental. 
La  Cioiz  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  sorrow  must  be 
aroused  with  a  view  of  going  to  confession,  but  this 
seems  to  be  asking  too  much;  most  theolopans  think 
with  Schider-Heuser  (Theory  and  Practice  of  Con- 
fession, p.  113)  that  it  is  sumcient  if  the  sorrow  co- 
exiit  in  any  way  with  the  confession  and  is  referred 
to  it  Hence  the  precept  of  the  Roman  Ritual, 
"After  the  oonfessor  has  heard  the  confession  he 
ahoidd  try  by  earnest  eidiortation  to  move  the  peni- 
tent to  contrition"  (Schieler-Heuser,  op.  dt.,  p.  Ill 

PKRIBCTT  CONTBmON  WiTHOTJT  THE  SaCEAMBNT.— 

Reganllngthat  contrition  which  has  for  its  motive  the 
love  ofGod,  the  Council  of  Trent  declares;  '*The 
Council  further  teaches  that,  though  contrition  may 


sometunes  be  made  perfect  by  charity  and  may  recon- 
cile men  to  Qod  before  the  actual  reception  of  this  sac- 
rament, still  the  reconciliation  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  contrition  apart  from  the  desire  for  the  sacrament 
which  it  includes."  The  following  proposition  (no. 
32)  taken  from  Baius  was  condemned  by  Gregory 
XIII :  "  That  charity  which  is  the  fullness  of  the  law  lis 
not  always  conjoined  with  forgiveness  of  sins. "  Per- 
fect contrition,  with  the  desire  of  receiving  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Penance,  restores  the  sinner  to  grace  at  once. 
This  is  certainly  the  unanimous  teaching  of  the  Scho- 
lastic doctors  (Peter  Lombard  in  P.  L.,  CXCII,  886; 
St.  Thomas,  In  Lib.  Sent.  IV,  ibid. ;  St.  Bonaventure, 
In  Lib.  Sent.  IV,  ibid.).  This  doctrine  they  derived 
from  Holy  Writ.  Scripture  certainly  ascribes  to 
charity  and  the  love  of  God  the  power  to  take  away 
sin:  "He  that  loveth  me  shall  be  loved  by  My 
Father";  "Many  sins  are  forgiven  her  because  she 
hath  loved  much".  Since  the  act  of  perfect  contri- 
tion implies  necessarily  this  same  love  of  God,  theo- 
logians have  ascribed  to  perfect  contrition  what  Scrip- 
ture teaches  belongs  to  charity.  Nor  is  this  strange, 
for  in  the  Old  Covenant  there  was  some  way  of  recov- 
ering God's  grace  once  man  had  sinned.  God  wills 
not  the  death  of  the  wicked,  but  that  the  wicked  turn 
from  his  way  and  live  (Ezech.,  zzxiii,  11).  This  total 
turning  to  God  corresponds  to  our  idea  of  perfect  con- 
trition ;  and  if  under  the  Old  Law  love  sufficed  for  the 
pardon  of  the  sinner,  surely  the  coming  of  Christ  and 
the  institution  of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  cannot 
be  supposed  to  have  increased  the  difficulty  of  obtain- 
ing forgiveness.  That  the  earlier  Fathers  taught  the 
efficacy  of  sorrow  for  the  remission  of  sins  is  very  dear 
(Qement  in  P.  G.,  I,  341  sqq.;  Hennas  in  P.  G.,  II, 
894  sqq. ;  Chrysostom  in  P.  G.,  XLIX,  285  sqq.),  and 
this  is  particularly  noticeable  in  all  the  commentaries 
on  Luke,  vii,  47.  The  Venerable  Bede  writes  (P.  L., 
XCII,  425):  "What  is  love  but  fire;  what  is  sin  but 
rust?  Hence  it  is  said,  many  sins  are  foi^given  her  be- 
cause she  hath  loved  much,  as  thou^  to  say,  she  hath 
burned  away  entirely  the  rust  of  sin,  because  she  is 
inflamed  with  the  fire  of  love."  Theologians  have 
inquired  with  much  learning  as  to  the  kind  of  love  that 
justifies  without  the  Sacrament  of  Penance.  All  are 
agreed  that  pure,  or  disinterested,  love  {amor  bene- 
voUntioB,  amor  amicUiiB)  suffices;  when  there  is  ques- 
tion of  interested,  or  selfish,  love  (amor  concupiacentia) 
theologians  hold  that  purely  selfish  love  is  not  suffi- 
cient. When  one  furthermore  asks  what  must  be  the 
formal  motive  in  perfect  love,  there  seems  to  be  no 
real  unanimity  among  the  doctors.  Some  say  that 
where  there  is  perfect  love  God  is  loved  for  His  great 
ffoodness  alone;  others,  basing  their  contention  on 
Scripture,  think  that  the  love  of  gratitude  (amor  araiir 
tudtnis)  is  quite  sufficient,  because  Ciod's  benevolence 
and  love  towards  men  are  intimately  united,  nay,  in- 
separable from  His  Divine  perfections  (Hurter^lneoL 
Dog.,  Thesis  cczlv.  Scholion  iii,  no.  3;  Schieler-Heuser, 
op.  dt.,  pp.  77  sq.). 

Obligation  of  ELicrriNG  thb  Act  of  Comtbition. 
— ^In  the  very  nature  of  thincs  the  sinner  must  repent 
before  he  can  be  reconciled  with  God  (Sess.  XIV, 
ch.  iv,  de  Contritione,  FuU  guovie  tempore,  etc.). 
Therefore  he  who  has  fallen  into  grievous  sin  must 
either  make  an  act  of  perfect  contrition  or  supple- 
ment the  imperfect  contrition  by  receiving  the  Sacrar 
ment  of  Penance;  otherwise  reconciliation  with  God 
is  impossible.  Inis  obligation  urges  under  pain  of 
sin  ymen  there  is  danger  of  death.  In  danger  of 
death,  therefore,  if  a  priest  be  not  at  hand  to  adminis- 
ter tlie  sacrament,  the  sinner  must  make  an  effort  to 
elicit  an  act  of  perfect  contrition.  The  obligation  of 
perfect  contrition  is  also  urgent  whensoever  one  has 
to  exercise  some  act  for  which  a  state  of  grace  is  neces- 
sary and  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  is  not  acoessibla 
Theolog^ns  have  questioned  how  long  a  man  may  re- 
main in  the  state  of  sin,  without  making  an  effort  to 


OONTUMAOT 


340 


OOMVJBMT 


elicit  an  act  of  perfect  contrition.  They  seem  a^eed 
that  such  neglect  must  have  extended  over  consider- 
able time,  but  what  constitutes  a  considerable  time 
th^  find  it  hard  to  determine  (Sohieler-Heuser,  op. 
dt.,  ^p.  83  Bcyi,).  Probably  the  rule  of  St.  Alphon- 
sus  Liguori  will  aid  the  solution:  '^The  dut^  of  mak- 
ing an  act  of  contrition  is  uraent  when  one  is  obliged 
to  make  an  act  of  love"  (Saoetti,  Theologia  Mor^: 
de  neoess.  contritionis,  no.  731 ;  Ballerini,  Opus  Mor- 
ale: de  contritione). 

CiiRisrnAN  Pbsch,  Praicclionea  Doamatica  (Freiburg,  1897), 
VII ;  Hunter,  Ou^tn«a  of  Dogmatic  Tht^otw  (New  York,  1896) ; 
St.  Thomab,  In  Sent.  IV,  dist.  xvii,  Q.  ii,  a  1,  sol.  1  j  Suabez, 
De  Pcenitenti&.disp.  iv,  eect.  iiL  a.  2;  Bcllarmxnb,  De  Contro^ 
ver«ii8,  Bk.  II,  De  eacramerUo  potnttentice;  Salmanticbnbbs, 
Cursua  Theologieus:  de  pemilentid  (Paris.  1883),  XX;  Db- 
NiFLB,  Luther  und  Luthertum  in  der  ersten  Brdwicldung  (Mains, 
1906),  I,  229  sqq.,  11,454.  517,  618  sq.:  Collbt  in  Mtone, 
Theologia  Cunua  CompieliiM  (Paris,  1840),  XXII;  Palmibri, 
De  PtenitentiA  (Rom©,  1879 ;  Prato,  1896) ;  Pbtavius.  Dogmata 
TheUogica:  dejxtnitentid  (Paris,  1867). 

Edward  J.  Hanna. 

Oontuxnacy  (in  Canon  Law),  or  contempt  of  coiut, 
is  an  obstinate  disobedience  of  the  lawful  orders  of  a 
court.  Simple  disobedience  does  not  constitute  con> 
tumacv.  Such  crime  springs  only  from  tmequivo- 
cal  and  stubborn  resistance  to  the  reiterated  or  per- 
emptory orders  of  a  legitimate  court,  and  implies 
contempt  or  denial  of  its  authorit^r.  The  general  law 
of  the  (Jhurch  demands  that  the  citation,  or  order  to 
appear,  be  repeated  three  times  (in  the  United  States 
twice)  before  proceedings  declaratory  of  contmnacy 
take  place.  A  peremptory  citation,  stating  that  the 
one  replaces  the  three,  satisfies  the  law.  Contumacy 
may  arise  not  only  from  disobedience  to  the  citation 
proper,  but  also  from  contempt  of  any  order  of  a  law- 
ful court.  Contumacy  is  commonly  divided  into  true 
and  presumptive.  True  contumacy  takes  p\&ce  when 
it  is  certain  that  the  citation  was  served,  and  the  de^ 
fendant  without  just  cause  fails  to  obey  the  terms  of 
such  citation.  R^umptive  contumacy  occurs  when 
there  is  a  strong  presimiption,  thoueh  it  is  not  certain, 
that  the  citation  was  served.  The  law  holds  this  pre- 
8umi>tion  equivalent  to  a  moral  certitude  of  service  of 
citation.  The  defendant  becomes  guilty  of  contu- 
ma<^  if,  when  lawfully  cited,  he  fails  to  appear  before 
the  judge,  or  if  he  secludes  himself,  or  in  any  way  pre- 
vents the  service  of  citation.  The  plaintiff  incurs  the 
guilt  of  contumacy  by  faQure  to  appear  before  the 
coiui;  at  the  specified  time.  And  the  defendant  or 
plaintiff  may  be  proceeded  against  on  the  ohaige  of 
contempt,  if  either  rashly  withdraws  from  the  trial,  or 
disobeys  a  special  precept  of  the  judge,  or  refuses 
to  answer  the  charges  of  the  other  psSty.  A  wit- 
ness becomes  guilty  of  eontumacv  by  disobeying  the 
sunmions  or  by  refusal  to  testify  m  the  cause  at  issue. 

All  causes  excusing  appearance  in  court  exempt 
from  contempt  of  court.  The  following,  among 
others,  produce  such  effects:  (1)  ill-health;  (2)  ab- 
sence on  public  affairs;  (3)  summons  to  a  lugher 
court;  (4)  inclement  weauier;  (5)  unsafety  of  ^aoe 
to  which  cited.  These  and  like  causes,  if  known  to 
the  juctee,  render  null  and  void  any  sentence  pro- 
noimcea  by  him  in  such  circumstances.  But  if  they 
be  unknown  to  the  judge  at  the  time  of  sentence,  the 
condemned,  on  motion,  must  be  reinstated  in  the  posi- 
tion held  by  him  prior  to  the  sentence.  Contumacy 
should  never  be  held  equivalent  to  a  juridical  confes- 
sion of  guilt.  It  cannot  therefore  dispense  with  the 
trial,  but  only  makes  it  lawful  to  proceed  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  party  guilty  of  contumacy  as  though  he 
were  present  (Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  no. 
313).  Contempt  of  court,  being  an  act  of  resistance  to 
legitimate  authority,  is  a  crime,  and  therefore  punish- 
able. The  chief  penalties  are:  (1)  The  trial  proceeds 
in  the  absence  of  the  contumacious  person,  ana  presum- 
ably to  his  detriment ;  (2)  presumption  of  Kuilt,  but  not 
sufficient  for  conviction ;  (3)  a  pecuniary  fine  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  judge;  (4)  suspension;  (S)  exoomrauni« 


cation  may  be  inflicted,  and  if  the  oontunmcious  party 
be  not  absolved  within  one  year  he  may  be  proceeded 
a^inst  as  suspected  of  heresy  (Council  of  Trent,  Seas. 
XXV,  ch.  iii  de  Ref.);  (6)  loss  of  the  ri^t  of  appeal 
from  a  definitive  sentence,  in  all  cases  of  true  con- 
timiacy.  Presumptive  contumacy  does  not  canj  tliis 
penalty.  Before  mflicting  penalties  the  guilt  of  con- 
tumacy must  be  establishea  by  legal  pro^.  The  ac- 
cused must  be  cited  to  answer  tne  charee  of  con- 
tumacy, which  must  be  prosecuted  aocording  to  the 
procedure  established  and  laid  down  in  the  law. 

Santx-Lbitnkb,  P^radeetioneB  Juris  Canoniei  (Nefir  York, 
1905);  Smfth,  Ecdeaiaatical  Trials  (New  York.  1887).  U.  1010- 
1025;  Baart,  Legal  Formulary  (New  York.  1898),  324-330; 
FERaABis.  Promvia  BihHotheca.  a.  v.;  ANDRi-WAOKEB,  DitL 
de  droit  can,  (3rd  ed..  Pans,  1001),  I,  563;  Taunton,  The  Lam 
of  the  Church  (London.  1906).  a.  v. 

James  H.  Driscx>ij:^ 

Oontien,  Adam,  economist  and  ex^ete,  b.  in  1573 
(according  to  Sommervc^l  in  1575),  at  Montjoie  in 
ihe  Duchy  of  Jolich,  which  is  now  part  of  the  Rhine 
Province  of  Prussia;  d.  19  June,  1635,  at  Munich. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Trier  in  1595,  was 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Wursburg 
m  1606,  and  was  transferred  to  the  UruverBi^  c3 
Mainz  in  1610,  where  he  occupied  the  chair  of  Holy 
Scripture  for  more  than  ten  ^r^BLta.  He  had  a  share  in 
the  oi^nization  of  the  UnivecBity  of  Molsheim,  in 
Alsace,  of  which  he  was  chancellor  m  1622-23.  Cont- 
zen  was  a  learned  and  versatile  writer  in  thedogical 
controversy,  in  political  economy,  and  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  Scriptures.  He  defended  the  contro- 
versial works  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine  against  the  at- 
tacks of  Professor  Parens  of  Heidelbere,  and  when  the 
latter  soueht  to  unite  the  Calvinists  and  the  Lutherans 
against  the  Catholics,  Contzen  demonstrated  tlie 
impractical  nature  of  the  project  in  his  work,  '*I)e 
umone  et  synodo  Evangelicorum",  and  showed  the 
only  way  of  restorizjg  peace  to  the  German  nation  in  h  is 
important  work,  ''De  Pace  Germanic  libri  duo,  prior 
de  falsa,  alter  de  ver&"  (Mainz,  1616).  This  work 
was  twice  reprinted  at  Cologne,  in  1642  and  in  1685. 
His  idesB  on  the  restoration  of  peace  were  further  de- 
veloped in  the  works  occasioned  bv  the  centenary  of 
the  Reformation,  one  of  which, '' Jubilum  Jubilorum", 
was  published  (1618)  in  Latin  and  in  German.  His 
most  interesting  work,  which  marios  him  as  a  thinker 
in  advance  of  his  age,  **  Politicorum  lib.  X",  was  pub- 
lished at  Mainz  in  1621  and  1629..  The  book  has  been 
called  an  "  Anti-Macchiavelli"  because  the  author  de- 
scribes the  ruler  of  a  Christian  commonwealth  in  ao» 
cordance  witii  the  principles  of  Revelation.    In  the 

ritions  of  political  and  national  economy  which  he 
usscs  he  advocates  a  reform  of  taxation,  the  free- 
ing of  the  soil  from  excessive  burdens,  state  ownership 
of  certain  industries  for  the  purpose  of  revenue,  indi- 
rect taxation  of  objects  of  luxury,  a  combination  of 
the  protective  system  with  free>trade,  and  state  aid 
for  popular  associations.  The  Elector  Maximilian  of 
Havana  was  so  impressed  by  the  abilitv  shown  in  this 
work  that  he  chose  Contzen  for  his  confessor.  During 
his  residence  in  Munich,  which  began  in  1623,  he  com- 
pleted and  published  his  commentaries  on  the  Four 
Gospels,  ana  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Ro- 
mans, the  Corinthians,  and  the  Galatians.  He  also 
wrote  a  political  novel,  "Methodus  doctrins  civilis, 
seu  Abissini  R^b  Historia",  in  which  he  showed  the 
practical  working  of  his  political  theories. 

Brischar,  p.  Adam  Contzen,  ein  Irtniker  und  NaHmud- 
akanom  dee  17.  Jahrhunderta  (WQrabunt,  1879):  Romhkkvogbl, 
BiblioUilque  de  la  c  de  J.,  II.  s.  v.;  SmBBH  in  KvrhenUx.^ 
8.  V.  B.   GULDNSR. 

Oonvent  (Lat.  conventus)  originally  signified  an  as- 
sembly of  Roman  citizens  in  the  provinces  for  pur- 
poses of  administration  and  justice.  ^  In  the  history 
oi  monasticism  the  word  has  two  distinct  technical 
meanings:    (1)  A  religious  community  of  either  sex 


OOKVENT 


341 


OONYENT 


when  spoken  of  in  its  coi-porat<*  capaxnty.    Tiic  word 
was  first  used  in  this  sense  when  the  eremitical  life 
began  to  be  combined  with  the  cenobitieal.    The  her- 
mits of   an  Eastern  laura^  living  in  separate  cells 
grouped  aromid  that  of  their  conmion  superior,  when 
spoken  of  collectively,  were  called  a  converUus,    In 
Western  monasticism  the  terra  came  into  ^neral  use 
from  the  very  be^ning,  and  the  technical  phrase 
abbtts  et  converUua  si^fiea  to  this  day  the  entire  com- 
munity of  a  monastic  establishment.     (2)  The  build- 
ing in  which  resides  a  community  of  either  sex.    In 
this  sense  the  word  denotes  more  properly  the  home 
of  a  strictly  monastic  order,  and  is  not  correctly  used 
to  designate  the  home  of  what  is  called  a  "congrega- 
tion".    In  addition  to  these  technical  meanings,  the 
word  has  also  a  popular  signification  at  the  present 
^y>  ^y  which  it  is  made  to  mean  in  particiuar  the 
abode  of  female  religious,  just  as  "monastery"  de- 
notes that  of  men,  though  in  reality  the  two  words  are 
interchangeable.    In  the  present  article  the  word  is 
taken  chiefly  in  its  popular  sense.    The  treatment, 
n'oreover,  is  limited  to  those  features  which  are  com- 
mon to  all,  or  nearly  all,  convents,  while  peculiarities 
due  to  the  special  purpose,  rule,  or  occupation  of  each 
ri'ligious  order  are  explained  in  the  pertinent  article. 
Convent  Life. — ^Tne  life  lived  by  the  inmates  of  a 
convent  naturall^r  varies  in  its  details,  acoordins  to 
the  particuhur  object  for  which  it  has  been  founded, 
or  tne  8i>ecial  cireumstances  of  time  and  place  bjr 
which  it  is  affected.    Convents  are  often  roughly  di- 
vided into  two  classes,  strictly  enclosed  and  unen- 
closed, but  with  regard  to  the  convents  existing  at 
the  present  day  this  division,  though  correct  as  far  as 
it  goes,  is  not  a  very  satisfactory  one,  because  both 
classes  are  capable  of  subdivision,  and,  on  account  of 
the  varied  kinds  of  work  undertaken  by  the  nuns, 
these  subdivisions  overlap  one  another.    Thus,  of  the 
strictly  enclosed  communities,  some  are  purely  con- 
t««nplative,  others  mainhr  active  (i.  e.  engaged  in 
eiucational  or  rescue  wonc),  whilte  others  again  com- 
bine the  two.    Similarly,  of  the  unenclosed  orders, 
some  are  parely  active  (i.  e.  undertaking  educational, 
parochial,  hospital,  or  other  work),  and  others  unite 
the  contemplative  with  the  active  life,  without,  how- 
ever, being  strictly  enclosed.    As  a  general  deduction 
it  may  be  stated  meX  the  contemplative  life,  in  which 
women  were  actuated  by  a  desire  to  save  their  own 
souls  and  the  souls  of  others  by  their  lives  of  prayer, 
seclusion,  and  mortifioation,  was  the  idea  of  the  older 
orders,  while  the  distinctive  note  of  the  more  modem 
congr^ations  is  that  of  active  work  amongst  others 
and  the  relief  of  their  bodily  wants. 

With  regard  to  the  educational  work  of  the  con- 
vents, it  may  here  be  stated  that  this  includes  the 
teaching  of  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools, 
aa  well  as  the  training  of  teachers  for  such  schools  and 
higher  education.  The  hospital  and  nursing  work  com- 
prises the  manag^nent  of  nospitals,  both  general  and 
lor  special  classes  of  patients,  as  well  as  the  nursing  of 
both  rich  and  poor  in  their  own  homes.  Rescue  work 
includes  the  conduct  of  penitentiaries,  orphanages, 
and  homes  for  the  aged  poor.  A  few  convents  make 
special  provision  for  the  reception  of  guests,  for  re- 
treats and  other  spiritual  purposes,  and  a  large  propor- 
tion of  them  receive  boarders  at  moderate  charges. 
Some,  mostly  of  enclosed  communities,  have  under- 
taken lie  work  of  Perpetual  Adoration,  while  others 
devote  themselves  to  ecclesiastical  embroidery  and 
the  making  of  chureh  vestments.  This  particular 
kind  of  work  has  always  been  characteristic  of  Eng- 
lish nuns,  whose  embroidery,  known  as  the  opus 
angUcanum,  was  famous  in  medieval  times  (Matthew 
Paris,  Rolls  ed.,  IV,  an.  1246).  The  ordinary  nwitine 
of  hie  in  a  nunnery  has  always  oorrest)onded  approxi- 
mately with  fhat  of  a  monastery.  The  nun's  day  is 
divided  between  t^e  ehoir,  the  workroom,  the  school*- 
room,  the  refectory,  the  recreation-room,  the  cell, 


and,  with  the  active  orders,  the  outside  work,  in  peri- 
odical rotation.  Idleness  or  lack  of  occupation  is 
never  pennitted.  The  earliest  rules  for  nuns,  as  well 
as  the  most  modern,  all  prescribe  labour  of  some  use- 
ful kind.  The  medieval  nuns  could  always  read  and 
write  Latin,  and  they  also  employed  themselves  in 
transcribing  and  illuminating  sacred  books,  and  in 
many  of  the  fine  arts,  the  cultivation  of  which  they 
consecrated  to  the  service  of  God.  The  convents 
thus  were  always  hemes  of  industry,  and  just  as  form- 
erly they  played  no  small  part  in  the  spread  of  civili- 
zation, so  now  they  are  almost  indispensable  hand- 
maids to  the  cause  of  the  Catholic  Chureh. 

Unfounded  Calumnibs. — ^It  is  not  necessary  here 
to  refute  the  many  base  and  vile  charges  that  have 
from  time  to  time  been  brought  against  the  conven- 
tual system ;  a  mere  general  reference  to  them  is  suffi- 
cient, for  the  evidence  of  the  salutary  work  done  by 
convents  and  the  fruits  of  the  lives  of  the  nuns  are  in 
themselves  ample  refutation.  In  the  past  there  have 
been  "anti-convent"  and  ''convent-inspection"  socie- 


cally  in  the  future. "  These  may  and  do  for  a  time 
hamper  the  work  of  the  nuns  and  cause  a  certain 
amount  of  disquietude  in  some  quarters,  but  it  is  a 
si^ificant  fact  tl\at,  whatever  excitement  they  may 
raise  for  the  time  being,  the  a^tation  always  dies 
down  again  as  suddenly  as  it  arises,  and  its  harmful 
effects  never  appear  to  leave  behind  them  any  lastins 
results,  except  perhaps  an  increased  interest  in,  and. 
respect  far,  the  conventual  life  that  has  been  vilified. 

liEOiSLATroN  AS  TO  CONVENTS. — Cauou  law  con- 
tains a  large  and  important  section  relating  to  the 
establishment  and  j^vemment  of  convents.  The 
privileges  of  such  as  are  exempt  from  episcopal  juris- 
diction, the  appointment  of  confessors  for  tne  nuns, 
and  the  duties  of  the  same,  the  regulations  of  the 
Church  concerning  enclosure,  and  the  admission  and 
testing  of  candidates,  the  nature  and  obli^tions  of  the 
vows,  the  limits  of  the  powers  of  superiors,  and  the 
conditions  regarding  the  erection  of  new  convents 
are  among  the  many  points  of  detail  legislated  for. 
One  or  two  noints  may  be  alluded  to  here.  The  law 
of  the  Chureh  requires  that  no  new  convent  be  estab- 
lished^ whether  it  be  one  that  is  exempt  from  episcopal 
jurisdiction  or  not,  without  the  consent  of  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese;  for  what  is  technically  called  "canom- 
cal  erection"  further  formalities,  including  approba- 
tion from  Rome,  have  to  be  complied  with.  All 
confessors  for  nuns  must  be  specisilly  approved  by 
the  bishop,  even  those  of  convents  tnat  are  exempt 
from  his  ordinary  jurisdiction,  and  the  bishop  has  also 
to  provide  that  all  nims  can  have  access  two  or  three 
times  in  the  year  to  an  "extraordinary"  confessor, 
other  than  their  usual  one.  The  bishop  also  is  oblig^ 
periodically  to  visit  and  inspect  all  the  convents  in  nis 
diocese,  excepting  those  that  are  exempt,  at  the  time 
of  which  visitation  every  mm  must  be  free  to  see  him 
privately  in  order  to  make  any  complaints  or  sugges- 
tions that  she  may  wish.  With  regard  to  the  admis- 
sion of  postulants  the  law  provides  for  every  precau- 
tion being  taken,  on  the  one  hand,  to  prevent  coercion 
and,  on  the  other,  to  safeguard  the  community  from 
being  obliged  to  receive  those  about  whose  vocation 
there  may  be  any  doubt.  Physical  fitness  on  the  part 
of  a  candidate  is  in  most  orders  an  indispensable  con- 
dition, though  there  are  some  which  admit  women  of 
delicate  health ;  but,  once  admitted  and  professed,  the 
contract  becomes  reciprocal,  and  while  the  mm  under- 
takes to  keep  her  vows,  the  convent,  on  its  side,  is 
bound  to  provide  her  with  lodging,  food,  and  clothing, 
and  to  maintain  her  in  sickness  or  in  health  (see 
Novitiate;  Vow). 

DowRT. — With  regard  to  the  dowry  required  of  a 
nun,  the  customs  and  rules  of  the  different  orders  vary 


OONVIMTZOLE 


342 


OONVSNT 


much  according  to  circumstances.  Some  convents, 
on  account  of  their  poverty,  are  obliged  to  insist  upon 
it,  and,  generally  speaking,  most  expect  their  members 
to  bring  some  contribution  to  the  general  fund.  A 
convent  that  is  rich  will  often  dispense  with  the  dowr^ 
in  the  case  of  a  highly  promismg  candidate,  but  it 
must  always  depend  upon  particular  circumstances. 
The  minimum  amount  of  the  dowry  required  is  gen- 
erally fixed  by  the  rule  or  constitutions  of  the  convent 
or  order. 

Office. — ^In  most  of  the  older  contemplative  orders 
the  choir  nuns  are  bound  to  recite  the  whole  Divine 
Oflfice  in  choir.  In  only  a  very  few  of  the  Encdish 
convents,  e.  g.  Cistercians,  Dominicans,  and  Poor 
Clares,  do  the  nuns  rise  in  the  night  for  Matins  and 
lAuds;  in  the  others  these  Offices  are  generally  said 
in  the  evening  "  by  anticipation ' '.  In  some  there  are 
other  additional  offices  recited  daily;  thus  the  Cister- 
cians and  Poor  Clares  say  the  Office  of  Our  Lady  and 
that  of  the  Dead  every  day,  and  the  Brigittines  say 
the  latter  thrice  in  the  week,  as  well  as  an  Office  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Almost  all  the  active  orders,  both 
enclosed  and  unenclosed,  use  the  Office  of  Our  Lady, 
but  some,  like  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  are  not  bound  to 
the  recitation  of  any  Office  at  all. 

Lay  Sisters. — In  most  orders  the  nuns  are  divided 
into  choir  sisters  and  lay  sisters.  The  latter  are  usu- 
ally employed  in  the  household  duties  and  other 
manual  work.  They  take  the  usual  vows  and  are  as 
truly  religious  as  the  choir  nuns,  but  they  are  not 
bound  to  the  choir  Office,  though  they  often  attend  the 
choir  at  the  time  of  Office  and  recite  certain  prayers  in 
the  vernacular.  There  is  always  a  distinction  between 
their  habit  and  that  of  the  chour  nuns,  sometimes  very 
slight  and  sometimes  strongly  marked.  In  some 
orders  where  the  choir  sisters  are  enclosed  the  lay 
sisters  are  not;  but  in  others  they  are  as  strictly  en- 
closed as  the  choir  nuns.  Several  orders  have,  by 
their  rule,  no  lay  sisters,  among  them  being  the 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  the 
Sisters  of  Bon  Secours,  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor, 
and  the  Poor  Servants  of  the  Mother  of  God. 

Conventual  Buii^dings. — ^The  internal  arrange- 
ment of  a  properly  constituted  convent  is,  for  the 
most  part,  sinular  to  that  of  a  monastery  for  men 
(see  Ajbbet  and  Monastery),  but  from  poverty  and 
other  obvious  causes,  many  convents  have  had  to  be 
established  in  already-existing  ordinary  dwdling- 
houses,  which  do  not  always  lend  themselves  to  id^ 
adaptation.  (See  Cloibtbsr;  Dower  of  Reugious; 
Nun;  Office;  Schools.) 

HtLTOT,  HiaL  da  orders  rdigietix  (Paris,  1792);  Duqdale, 
Moruuticon  AnMioanum  (London,  1817-30);  Smith  in  Did. 
Christ.  AfUiq.  (London,  ISiBO),  b.  v.  Nun;  Eckenbtein,  Woman 
ttnder  Monaaticism  (CombridjEe,  1896);  Bateman,  Origin  and 
Early  History  of  Double  Monasteries  in  T^nsadioru  of  Royal 
lluttorical  Society  (London,  1899),  XIII;  Graham,  St.  Gilbert 
of  Sempringham  and  the  GiU>ertines  (London,  1901);  Steele, 
The  Convents  of  Great  Britain  (London,  1902);  Oabquet,  Enoh 
lish  Monastic  Life  (London,  1904);  Mabxllon,  Annates  O.  S.  B. 
(Paris,  1703-39);  Dn  Canoe,  Glossarium,  ed.  Henschbl  (Lon- 
don, 1884),  8.  V.  Conventus. 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

Oonventide  Act.    See  Penal  Laws. 

Oonvent  Schools  (Great  Britain). — Convent  ed- 
ucation is  treated  here  not  historically  but  as  it  is  at 
the  present  day,  and,  by  way  of  introduction,  it  may 
be  briefly  stated  that  the  idea  of  including  the  educa- 
tion of  the  young  amongst  the  occupations  of  a  re- 
ligious community  is  practically  as  old  as  that  of  ^e 
religious  life  for  women  itself.  From  the  earliest 
times  it  was  customary  in  Ensland  for  children  to  be 
educated  in  convents,  and  we  uiow  that  the  nuns  who 
went  forth  from  Wimbome  in  the  eighth  century  to 
help  St.  Boniface  in  his  work  of  evangelizing  Saxonjr, 
established  convent  schools  wherever  they  went,  m 
which  a  very  high  standard  of  scholarship  was  at- 
tained. Stray  remarks  in  Chaucer  and  other  medie- 
val writers  likewise  reveal  the  fact  that  the  English 


convent  schools  of  the  Middle  Agi^  compared  favour- 
ably with  schools  for  the  other  sez.  But  all  this  came 
to  an  end  at  the  Reformation,  so  far  as  En^and  vas 
concerned;  and,  save  for  one  notable  ezoeption,  Ekig- 
lish  convent  education  had  puctically  to  start  af^vu 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  exception  referrod  to 
was  the  Bar  Convent  at  York,  belonging  to  the  Ixurti- 
tute  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Maiy,  whose  foundrese^ 
Mary  Ward,  was  the  pioneer  of  idj^ous  oongraEatioiiB 
devoted  to  the  education  of  English  jB^izis.  Ine  Bar 
Convent  was  established  in  1686,  and  m  spite  of  penal 
laws,  Protestant  persecution,  no-popeiy  riots,  and 
even,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  the  imprisonment  of 
the  nuns  for  their  faith,  the  work  of  the  convent  has 
continued  from  that  day  to  this,  and  with  its  hundred 
and  eighty  houses  in  aifferent  parts  of  the  Englishr 
speaking  world,  the  Institute  of  the  B.  V.  M.  has  knis 
held  a  foremost  place  amongst  the  teaching  orders  m 
the  Church. 

The  opening  of  numerous  convents  in  England  dur- 
ing the  latter  naif  of  the  nineteenth  century  has  pro- 
duced correspondingly  numerous  convent  schools,  in 
many  of  which,  be  it  noted,  Protestant  as  well  as 
Catholic  girls  (especially  in  day  and  dementary 
schools)  have  been  and  are  still  being  educated.  The 
foundation  of  training  colleges  for  Catholic  teachers, 
the  demand  for  teachers  with  academic  qualificataons, 
the  move  in  favour  of  Government  inq)ection  with 
the  consequent  oflicial  recognition  of  convent  schools, 
and  the  more  recent  advance  in  the  way  of  hl^ier 
education  for  Catholic  women,  have  all  combinedto 
raise  the  standard  of  convent  education;  and  the  lead- 
ing teaching  orders  have  proved  equal  to  the  demand 
made  upon  their  capabilities  and  enemr.  The  con- 
vents stand  foremost  in  the  work  they  mtve  done  for 
religion  and  education,  and  they  have  turned  out 
hundreds  of  girls,  not  only  educated  in  the  hi^iest 
sense  of  the  word  but  also  truly  religious. 

Although  in  its  widest  sense  the  term  ''Convent 
Schools  "  may  be  taken  to  include  all  those,  of  what- 
ever kind,  in  which  the  work  of  education  is  under- 
taken  by  female  religious — such  as  primary  or  ele- 
mentary schools  (whether  mixed  or  for  gins  only), 
reformatory  and  industrial  schools— it  is  only  pro- 
posed in  this  article  to  deal  with  secondary  schools; 
I.  e.  day  or  boarding  schools  for  the  upper  and  middle 
classes,  training  collies  for  Catholic  scnoolmistresses, 
and  coll^^  for  the  higher  education  of  women,  these 
being  more  closely  connected  with  convent  life  itself. 

Secondary  Education. — Almost  all  convent  sec- 
ondary schools  are  under  Government  inspect'on. 
This  gives  them  the  status  of  being  "reco^iized"  by 
the  Board  of  Education,  regulates  their  course  of 
studies,  and  ensures  unity  of  method  and  efficiency. 
Some  are  also  in  receipt  of  a  State  aid-erant,  which 
places  certain  restrictions  upon  their  metnods  of  man- 
agement. Where  no  grant  is  accepted  the  nuns  arc 
more  independent  as  regards  the  admiBsion  and 
refusal  of  pupils.  The  aim  of  all  relifi;ious  orders 
engaged  in  secondary  education  for  ginis  is,  Whilst 
making  every  effort  to  keep  abreast  of  modem  require- 
ments with  regard  to  scholastic  efficiency,  to  give  also 
the  additiojial  advantage  of  a  thorou^  religious 
training,  so  that  parents  may  have  no  reason  to  fear 
that  by  securing  the  latter  for  their  children  they 
are  sacrificing  the  ereater  temporal  advantages  that 
might  be  obtained  at  a  Protestant  schod.  The 
system  of  Government  inspection  and  recognition 
by  the  Board  of  Education,  with  or  without  the 
State  aid-^rant,  secures  the  necessary  degree  of  effi- 
ciency, whilst  the  general  character  and  reputation  of 
the  various  communities  by  which  the  schools  are 
conducted  sufficiently  guarantees  the  religious  side  of 
their  educational  work.  Government  inspectors  and 
public  examiners  have  frequently  testined  to  the 
excellent  moral  tone  and  atmosphere  of  convent 
schools  and  to  the  cordial  relations  existing  between 


OONVXMT 


343 


OONYJCNT 


toachere  A/i#l  pupils,  no  less  than  to  the  high  teaching 
ability  of  the  nuns  themselves.  The  fact  that  educa- 
tion in  its  truest  sense  means  something  more  than 
mere  book-learning  is  nowhere  more  fully  realized 
than  in  the  convent  school,  and  results  all  tend  to 
prove  that  the  religious  and  moral  training  imparted 
m  such  establishmentfthas  in  no  way  acted  as  a  hin> 
drance  to  the  more  technical  side  of  educational  work. 
It  has  sometimes  been  said  that  the  standard  of 
scholarship  attained  is  not  so  high  in  Catholic  as  in 
non-Catholic  schools  of  the  same  class,  but  however 
true  this  may  have  been  in  the  past,  the  general  levcl- 
Ung  up  that  has  taken  place  during  the  last  ten  or 
twenty  ye&ra  has  rendered  the  reproach  an  idle  one 
now.  The  pubUc  examination  lists  of  recent  years 
afford  ample  proof  that  the  leading  convent  schools 
are  equal  m  emcien<^  to  all  others. 

The  range  of  studies  pursued  in  convent  secondary 
schools  is  a  wide  one.  It  includes  relieious  knowl- 
edge, English  in  all  its  branches,  French,  Latin,  math- 
ematics, science,  drawing,  needlework,  class-singing, 
and  drilling,  while  such  subjects  as  music,  singing, 
dancing,  Greek,  German,  Italian,  elocution,  short- 
hand, book-keeping,  dressmaking,  cooking,  etc.,  are 
generally  taudit  as  optional  extras.  Puoils  are  en- 
tered for  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Local  Elxamina- 
tions,  the  Higher  Locals,  the  Hi&;her  and  Lower 
(''ertificates  of  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Joint  Ex- 
amination Board,  the  Matriculation  Examinations  of 
the  London  and  Liverpool  Universities,  as  well  as  for 
those  of  the  College  of  Preceptors,  the  Incorporated 
Society  of  Musicians,  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
and  tne  South  Kens\nfi;ton  school  of  Art.  School 
buildings  and  accommodations  are  of  the  riiost  up-to- 
date  pattern — one  of  the  necessary  conditions  for 
Government  recognition.  Physical  development  is 
provided  for  by  means  of  hockey,  croquet,  tennis, 
•  cycling,  swimmmg,  and  gymnastics,  according  to  the 
particular  circumstances  of  each  school. 

All  the  leading  educational  commimities  make  a 
special  point  of  having  their  teachers  properly  trained 
and  fully  qualified.  This  again  is  a  sine  qud  non  for 
official  recognition,  and  the  Order  in  Council  of  1902, 
concerning  the  registration  of  secondary  teachers, 
eave  fresh  impetus  to  the  work  of  training  teachers 
for  convent  schools.  The  principal  teachmg  orders 
send  their  subjects  usually  to  one  or  other  of  the  two 
Catholic  trainmg  colleges  for  secondary  teachers  (St. 
Mary's  Hall,  Liverpool,  and  Cavendish  Square,  Lon- 


diploma  for  teachers.  Women's  Honours  in  Modem 
Langua^  (Oxford),  the  Women's  diploma  for  the 
Oxford  B.  A.  degree,  the  LL.A.  diploma  of  St.  An- 
drew's University,  the  Licentiateship  of  the  Collie  of 
Preceptors,  the  Higher  Certificate  of  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  Joint  Board,  the  Higher  Local  Certificate 
of  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  or  a  degree  at  one  of  the 
universities  that  grant  degrees  to  women,  e.  g.  Lon- 
don, Liverpool,  or  Dublin.  Foreign  languages  are  in 
^ost  cases  taught  by  natives,  ana  in  the  teaching  of 
many  of  the  special  subjects  the  religious  are  assisted 
by  extern  professorB  holdiiu;  the  highest  qualifications. 
From  these  few  facts  it  will  be  evident  that  the  con- 
vent schools  of  England  are  adequately  keeping  pace 
with  the  times  and  that  in  point  of  efficiency  they  are 
in  no  way  behind  non-Catholic  schools  of  the  same 
class,  while  the  facilities  that  have  been  recently 
brou^t  into  existence  for  the  advanced  education  of 
CathoUc  women,  religious  as  well  as  secular,  at  the 
Univeraities  of  Oidora  and  Cambridge  point  to  a  still 
higher  degree  of  efficiency  for  the  future. 

There  are  at  the  present  over  two  hundred  Catholic 
secondary  schools  in  England  under  the  care  of  repre- 
sentatives of  about  sixty  different  religious  orclers. 
Chief  among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Englifh 


Institute  of  the  B.  V.  M.,  with  six  such  schools,  the 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus  (eight  schools),  the 
Faithful  Companions  of  Jesus  (fourteen),  the  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame  of  Namur  (eighteen),  the  Keligious  of  St. 
Andrew  (one),  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
(eight),  the  Sisters  of  Jdercy  (eleven),  the  Servites 
(three),  and  the  Ursulines  of  different  congregations 
(twenty-three).  Some  of  the  best  known  and  most 
successful  of  these  schools  are  those  at  York  and 
Cambridge  (Inst,  of  B.  V.  M.);  Mayiield,  St.  Leon- 
ard's, Preston,  Harro^te,  and  Cavendish  Square, 
London  (Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus) ;  Isleworth. 
Liverpool,  Birkenhead,  and  Clarendon  Square,  Lon- 
don (Faithful  Companions) ;  Liverpool  (Mount  Pleas- 
ant), Northampton,  and  Norwicn  (Notre  Dame); 
Streatham  (St.  Andrew's);  Stamford  Hill  (Servites); 
and  St.  Ursula's,  Oxford.  Many  of  these  secondary 
schools  have  attached  to  them  pupil  teachers'  cen- 
tres, where  valuable  preliminary  work  in  the  traininj| 
of  elementary  schoolmistresses  is  done,  and  many  of 
them  Berve  also  as  "practising  schools"  in  whidi  tb>d 
students  of  Catholic  and  other  training  colleges  givi  t 
their  model  lessons  in  the  presence  of  their  instruc^rs 
and  the  Government  inspectors.  Hie  pass  and  hon- 
ours lists  of  the  various  public  examinations  in  recent 
years  show  a  very  high  percentage  of  candidates  from 
the  convent  schools  and  prove  conclusively  that  as  far 
as  results  go  they  are  fully  equal  to  the  best  secondary 
schools  under  non-Catholic  management. 

Training  Colleges. — The  traming  colleges  are  of 
two  kinds — those  for  the  training  of  primary  or  ele- 
mentary schoolmistresses,  and  those  for  teachers  in 
secondary  schoob.  Both  kinds  are  under  the  care  of 
the  religious  orders.  All  the  Catholic  training  col- 
ic^ are  recognized  by  Government,  and  in  those  for 
primary  teachers  the  students  whose  expenses  are 
assistea  by  a  Government  grant  are  known  as  "  King's 
Scholars' ,  their  selection  as  such  being  dependent 
upon  a  competitive  examination  under  Government 
auspices.  Tnere  are  six  recognized  training  colleges 
for  primary  teachers,  Mount  Pleasant,  Liveroool  (un- 
der the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame) ;  St.  Charles  Square, 
London,  and  Newcastle-on-Tyne  (Religious  of  the 
Sacred  Heart);  Southampton  (Nuns  of  La  Sainte 
Union);  Salford  (Faithful  Companions):  and  Hull 
(Sisters  of  Mercy).  In  all  of  these  the  Uovemment 
syllabus  is  followed  and  the  Board  of  Education  certi- 
ficate is  eranted  after  two  years'  successful  teaching 
in  one  soiool,  subsequent  to  the  completion  of  the 
course  at  the  college.  An  important  part  of  the 
training  consists  in  the  "criticism  lessons  ,  which  are 
given  by  the  students  in  some  secondary  school  con- 
nected with  the  training  college  under  the  direction 
of  the  "Mistress  of  Method",  and  which  are  criticized 
then  and  there  by  her  as  well  as  by  the  other  students 
in  turn.  The  best  known  and  largest  of  these  trainixi^ 
colleges,  which  was  also  the  first  to  be  established,  is 
that  of  Mount  Pleasant,  Liverpool,  under  the  Sisters 
of  Notre  Dame  of  Namur.  It  was  opened  in  1856  with 
twenty-one  students  and  now  numbers  one  hundred 
and  sixty  King's  Scholars.  It  has  been  (1905)  officially 
affiliated  to  the  Liverpool  University  and  a  limited 
number  of  its  students  are  allowed  to  follow  the  arts 
or  science  degree  course  of  the  university  after  the  usuaJ 
two  years'  Government  course  has  been  completed. 
The  whole  of  the  preliminary  and  certain  subjects  of 
the  intermediate  course  can  be  done  at  Mount  Pleasant 
under  the  sisters,  which  reduces  the  time  of  residence 
rec|uired  for  obtaining  the  degree.  Although  this  is 
auite  an  innovation,  it  speaks  well  for  the  coUege  that 
nve  out  of  the  first  six  sent  in  obtained  the  B.  A. 
degree  in  the  minimum  period  of  time. 

The  training  colleges  for  secondary  teachers  are  St. 
Mary's  Hall,  Liverpool,  attached  to  Notre  Dame, 
Mount  Pleasant,  ana  established  in  1898;  and  Caven- 
dish Square,  London,  under  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
C\\i\d  Jesus,  opened  in  1895.    Both  of  these  are  reoog- 


CONVENTUALS 


344 


C0NVENTI7ALS 


tised  by  t.hn  Hoard  of  ICdtiuation  as  well  as  by  the 
Teachers  Syndicate  of  the  Cambridge  University;  and 
the  teachers'  diploma  of  that  imiveraityy  necessary 
for  "r^istration",  is  granted  to  successful  students  at 
the  end  of  the  course.  Many  of  the  other  teaching 
orders  send  their  subjects  to  these  colleges,  where 
while  following  the  usual  course  with  other  students, 
special  arrangements  are  made  for  them  to  carry  out 
tne  duties  of  their  religious  life  and  to  follow  their  own 
rule  as  far  as  possible.    The  theoretical  studies  in- 


work,  taken  in  the  secondary  schools  attached  to 
the  two  coU^es,  is  awarded  the  diploma  after  one 
year's  practice  and  a  test  lesson  given  before  a  Gov- 
ernment insp)ector.  The  syllabus  of  the  Cambridge 
Syndicate  is  followed  in  all  subjects  except  philosophy, 
for  which  a  course  of  Catholic  philosophy  is  allowed  to 
be  substituted. 

Hitherto  only  Catholic  students  have  been  admitted 
to  these  colleges,  but  regulations  issued  by  the  Board 
of  Education  (which  came  into  force  September, 
1908)  require  that  no  qualified  student  applying  for 
admission  may  be  rejected,  if  there  is  room,  on  the 
score  of  religion.  The  Catholic  hierarchy  have  pro- 
tested against  this  and  memorialized  the  prime  mmi&- 
ter,  but  the  authorities  adhere  to  their  decision  and 
rule  that  no  training  college  failing  to  comply  with 
these  regulations  will  in  future  be  recognized.  The 
Catholic  training  colleges  had  therefore  to  face  the 
alternative  of  the  introduction  of  non-Catholic  stu- 
dents to  the  exclusion  of  Catholics,  where  numbers 
are  limited,  or  serious  monetary  loss  through  the  with- 
drawal of  the  State-aided  King's  Scholars. 

Higher  Education  for  Women. — ^The  higher  edu- 
cation of  women,  in  connexion  with  convents,  is 
hardly  out  of  the  experimental  stage.  The  university 
class  m  the  Notre  Dame  Training  College  and  its  affik- 
ation  to  the  Liverpool  University  have  alreadv  been 
mentioned.  Up  to  1895  Catholics  were  prohibited 
(by  ecclesiastical  authority)  from  entering  the  older 
residential  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and 
the  removal  in  that  year  of  the  prohibition  favoured 
men  only.  Women  had  to  wait  still  longer;  but  this 
restriction^was  taken  away  in  June  1907^  by  a  decree 
from  Rome,  which  sanctions  under  certam  conditions 
the  opening  of  houses  for  women,  both  secular  and 
religious,  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  to  enable  them 
to  secure  the  advantages  of  a  university  education. 
The  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus  were  the  first  com- 
munity to  avail  themselves  of  this  concession.  They 
have  opened  a  convent  at  Oxford,  recognized  and 
licensed  by  the  University  authorities,  where  twenty 
secular  students  and  an  unlimited  number  of  religious 
may  reside  whilst  following  the  university  course. 
St.  Ursula's  Convent,  also  at  Oxford,  likewise  receives 
ladies  and  religious  desirous  of  reading  for  honours  in 
modem  languages  or  for  the  B.  A.  degree  examina- 
tion, which  they  may  do  either  by  attending  the  uni- 
versity lectures,  or  by  means  of  private  tiution  in  the 
convent  itself.  Women  are  not  eligible  for  degrees, 
either  at  Oxford  or  at  Cambridge,  out  they  are  al- 
lowed to  attend  almost  all  the  university  lectures  and 
to  sit  for  the  degree  examinations,  receiving  if  success- 
ful a  diploma  instead  of  the  degree  itself.  It  is  pro- 
posed to  establish  at  Cambridge  a  college  for  Catholic 
women,  similar  to  those  of  Newnham  and  Girton, 
which  win  probably,  in  accordance  with  the  desires  of 
Propaganda,  be  placed  under  the  charge  of  one  of  the 
principal  teaching  orders.  A  committee  to  carry  out 
the  project  has  the  Archbishop  of  Westminster  at  its 

Secondary  Edtjcation  in  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land.— ^The  convent  schools  of  Ireland  and  Scotland 
compare  favourably  with  those  of  England,  and  their 
general  character,  scope,  and  conditions  being  prac- 


tically similar,  they  need  no  further  description  here. 
There  are'  in  Scotland  about  ten  different  orders  en- 
gaged in  secondary  education,  with  upwards  of  twenty 
schools  under  their  care,  besides  two  training  ooUeges 
— one  at  Glasgow  for  primary  teachers,  under  the 
Sisters  of  Notre  I>ame,  and  the  other  at  Edinbur^ 
for  secondaiy  teachers,  condueted  by  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy.  In  Ireland  the  chief  teaching  orders  are  the 
Institute  of  the  B.  V.  M.  (with  thirteen  convent 
schools),  the  Faithfid  Companions  of  Jesus  (with 
three  schools),  the  Dominicans,  Ursulines,  and  tlieSt. 
Louis  Nuns,  each  with  several  prominent  secondary 
schools.  The  equivalent  in  Ireland  of  recognition 
and  inspection  by  the  Board  of  Education  is  the  "In- 
termediate System",  introduced  in  1878,  which  pro- 
duces practically  the  same  results  and  has  been 
adopted  by  most  of  the  religious  institutes  engaged  in 
secondary  education.  This  system  arranges  examina- 
tions and  awards  medals,  money  prizes,  and  exhibi- 
tions. Catholic  girls  wishing  to  pursue  a  hif^er  course 
after  completing  that  of  the  Intermediate  System, 
have  had  to  take  the  examinations  and  degrees  of  the 
"Royal  University  of  Ireland."  To  meet  the  de- 
mand several  orders  have  colleges  under  their  care  in 
Dublin,  the  most  prominent  and  successful  being 
Loreto  College,  belonging  to  the  Institute  of  the 
B.  V.  M.,  and  the  Dommican  College.  The  Irish  edu- 
cational authorities  do  not  insist  on  the  formal  train- 
ing of  secondary  teachers;  consequently  each  religious 
institute  is  responsible  for  the  trainmg  of  its  own 
members.  The  results,  however,  of  then:  work  prove 
that  this  is  no  less  thorough  and  efficient  than  that 
obtainable,  at  one  of  the  recognized  English  training 
colleges. 

There  is  very  little  published  literature  on  this  mibjeet,  but 
scattered  information  can  be  had  in  Eckbnstsik,  Woman 
under  Moruuticism  (Cambridge,  1896),  for  the  educational  work 
of  medieval  convents,  and  Steele,  The  Contents  of  Great 
Britain  (London,  1902),  for  (larticulars  as  to  the  teaching  orders  . 
of  the  present  day.  Some  information  may  also  be  found  in 
various  articles  in  The  Crucible  (Oxford,  quarterly.  1905-08) 
and  in  the  Catholic  Directory  (London,  1908).  The  foregoanic 
article  has  been  compiled  chiefly  from  unpublished  informatioD 
supplied  by  the  superiors  of  the  principal  teaching  orden  work- 
ing in  England. 

G.  Cyprian  Alston. 

Conventuals,  Order  of  Friars  Minor.— This  is 
one  of  the  three  separate  bodies,  forming  with  the 
Friars  Minor  and  the  Capuchins  what  is  commonly 
called  the  First  Order  of  St.  Francis.  All  three  bodi^ 
to-day  follow  the  rule  of  the  Friars  Minor,  but  whereas 
the  FViars  Minor  and  the  Capuchins'profess  this  rule 
pure  and  simple,  differing  only  accidentally  in  their 
particular  constitutions,  the  Conventuals  observe  it 
with  certain  dispensations  lawfully  accorded. 

There  has  been  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  name  "Conventual".  Innocent  IV  de- 
creed (Bull  "Cum  tamquam  veri",  5  April,  1250) 
that  Franciscan  churches  where  convents  existed 
might  be  called  Conventual  churches,  and  some  have 
maintained  that  the  name  "Conventual"  was  first 

S'ven  to  the  religious  residing  in  such  oonvents. 
thers,  however,  assert  that  the  word  CoftweniualM 
was  used  to  distinguish  the  inmates  of  large  convents 
from  those  who  lived  more  after  the  manner  of  her- 
mits. In  any  event  it  seems  safe  to  assert  that  the 
term  ConverU'udl  was  not  used  to  signify  a  distinct 
section  of  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  in  any  official 
document  prior  to  1431.  Since  that  time,  and  more 
especially  since  1517,  this  term  has  been  emf^oyed 
to  designate  that  branch  of  the  Franciscan  Order 
which  has  accepted  dispensations  from  the  substan- 
tial observance  of  the  rule  in  regard  to  poverty.  It 
may  be  noted,  however,  that  the  name  ''C<mventual" 
has  not  been  restricted  to  the  Franciscan  Order. 
Thus  the  statutes  of  the  Camaldolese  approved  by 
Leo  X  distinguish  between  the  Conventuals  and 
the  Observants  in  that  order,  and  St.  Pius  V  (Bull 
"Superioribus  mensibus",  16  April,  1667)  says:  "That 


OONVENTUALS 


345 


0OHVKHTT7ALS 


which  we  have  decreed  for  the  Conventuals  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Francis  we  decree  likewise  for  the  Con- 
ventuals of  other  orders''. 

Although  all  the  religious  professing  the  rule  of  the 
Friars  Mmor  continued  to -form  one  body  under  the 
same  head  for  over  three  hundred  years  (1209-10  to 
1517),  it  is  well  known  that  even  during  the  lifetime 
of  St.  Francis  a  division  had  shown  iteeu  in  the  ranks 
of  the  friars,  some  favouring  a  relaxation  in  the  rigoiur 
of  the  rule,  especially  as  regards  the  observance  of 
poverty,  and  others  desiring  to  adhere  to  its  literal 
strictness.  The  tendencv  towards  relaxation  became 
more  marked  after  the  oeath  of  the  Seraphic  founder 
(1226),  and  was  encouraged  by  his  successor,  Brother 
Elias.  The  latter,  a  man  of  great  ability,  but  whose 
religious  ideals  differed  vastly  from  those  of  St.  Fran- 
cis, even  oppressed  such  as  opposed  his  views.  The 
long  and  deplorable  controversy  which  followed — a 
controversy  which  called  forth  a  mass  of  remarkable 
writings  and  even  affected  imi)erial  politics — resulted 
m  two  parties  being  formed  within  the  order,  the  ZektrUi, 
who  were  zealous  for  the  strict  observance  of  the  rule 
and  who  were  afterwards  named  Observants,  and  the 
fratres  de  communUaie  who  had  adopted  certain  miti- 
gations and  who  gradually  came  to  be  called  Con- 
ventuals. In  spite  of  the  fact  that  a  cleavage  h ad  been 
graduallv  developing  between  these  two  branches 
from  at  least  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  it 
was  only  in  1415  at  the  Council  of  Constance  that 
the  Church  authoritatively  recognized  this  division 
in  the  order.  Hence  the  Holy  See  decreed  that  all 
the  friars  who  died  before  that  council  may  not  be 
termed  either  Observants  or  Conventuals,  but  simply 
Friars  Minor  (see  Decrees  of  25  Sept.,  1723;  11  Dec., 
1723;  and  26  Feb.,  1737).  Notwithstanding  this 
division  of  the  order  formally  sanctioned  in  1415' by 
the  Council  of  Constance,  both  Observants  and  Con- 
ventuals continued  to  form  one  body  under  the  same 
head  until  1517. 

In  the  latter  year  Leo  X  called  a  ^neral  chapter  of 
the  whole  order  at  Rome,  with  a  view  to  effecting  a 
complete  reunion  between  the  Observants  and  Con- 
ventuals. The  former  acceded  to  the  wish  of  the  sove- 
reign pontiff  but  reojuested  permission  to  observe 
the  rule  without  any  aispensation ;  the  latter  declared 
they  did  not  wish  for  the  union  if  it  entailed  their  re- 
nouncing the  dispensations  the3r  had  received  from  the 
Holy  See.  Leo  X  thereupon  incorporated  with  the 
Observants  (Bull  ^'Ite  et  vos  in  vineam  meam"^  29 
May,  1517)  all  the  Franciscan  friars  who  wished  to  ob- 
serve the  rule  without  dispensation,  abolishing  the 
different  denominations  of  Clareni,  Colletani,  etc. ;  he 
decreed  that  the  members  of  the  preat  family  ihua 
united  riiould  be  called  simply  Fnars  Minor  of  St. 
Francis,  or  Friars  Minor  of  tne  Regular  Observance, 
and  should  have  precedence  over  the  Conventuals: 
he  moreover  conferred  upon  them  the  right  of 
electing  the  minister  general,  who  was  to  bear  the 
title  of  Minister  General  of  the  Whole  Order  of  Friars 
Minor,  and  to  have  the  exclusive  use  of  the  ancient 
seal  of  the  order  as  the  legitimate  successor  of  St. 
Francis.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  continued  to 
live  under  dispensations  were  constituted  a  separate 
body  with  the  name  of  Conventuals  (Bulls  "Omni- 
potens  Deus",  12  June,  1517,  and ''Licet  Alias", 
6  Dec.,  1517)  and  given  the  right  to  elect  a  master 
general  of  their  own,  whose  election,  however,  had  to 
be  confirmed  by  the  Minister  General  of  the  Friars 
Minor.  The  latter  appears  never  to  have  availed 
himself  of  this  right,  and  the  Conventuals  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  entirely  independent  order  from  1517, 
but  it  was  not  until  1580  that  they  obtained  a  special 
cardinal  protector  of  their  own.  Some  years  later 
the  masters  general  of  the  order  b^^n  to  call  them- 
selves "  Ministers  General ' '.  Father  Evangelist  Pelleo, 
elected  fifteenth  master  general  in  1587,  was  the  first 
U)  take  this  title,  whicli  has  been  generally  acconled  to 


his  forty-nine  successors  even  in  Apostolic  letters, 
though  the  ordinance  of  Leo  X  was  never  formally 
revoked.  Under  Sixtus  V  (1587)  the  Conventuals  at- 
tempted to  dispute  the  right  of  the  Minister  General 
of  tne  Friars  Minor  to  the  title  ''Minister  General  of 
the  )Vhole  Order'',  but  were  unsuccessful.  They  re- 
newed their  efforts  under  Clement  VIII  (1593  and 
1602)  but  with  no  greater  suocess.  In  1625  they  again 
reopened  the  question,  which  was  discussed  for  nearly 
six  years.  On  22  March,  1631,  the  right  of  the  Minist^ 
General  of  the  Friars  Minor  to  the  title  in  dispute  was 
solemnly  confirmed  by  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Rules,  and  Benedict  XIII  by  a  Bull  of  21  July,  1728, 
imposed  perpetual  silence  upon  the  contestants. 

In  1565  tne  Conventuals  accepted  the  Tridentine 
indult  allowing  mendicant  orders  to  own  property 
oorporately,  and  their  chapter  held  at  Florence  in 
that  year  drew  up  statutes  containing  several  impor- 
tant reforms  which  Pius  IV  subsequently  approved 
(Bull  ''Sedis  Apostolicse",  17  Sept.,  1565).  Three 
years  later  St.  Pius  V  (Bull  "  Ad  Extirpandos",  8  June, 
1568)  sought  to  enforce  a  stricter  observance  of  the 
vow  of  poverty  and  of  the  community  life  among  the 
(Conventuals,  and  the  superiors  of  the  order  imme- 
diately enacted  statutes  conformable  to  his  desires, 
which  the  pope  approved  (Bull  ''Ula  nos  cura",  23 
July,  1568).  In  1625  new  constitutions  were  adopted 
by  the  Conventuals  which  superseded  all  preceding 
ones.  These  constitutions,  which  were  subsequently 
promulgated  by  Urban  VIII  (Bull  "Militantes  Eccle- 
siffi",  5  May,  1628),  are  known  as  the  "Constitu- 
tiones  Urbanse "  and  are  of  primary  importance, 
since  at  their  profession  the  Conventuals  vow  to 
observe  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis  in  accordance  with 
them,  that  is  to  say,  by  admitting  the  duly  authorized 
dispensations  therein  set  forth  (see  "  Constitutiones 
Urbansa  ordinia  fratrum  Minorum  Sti.  Francisci 
Conventualium,  Assisi,  1803).  It  would  therefore 
be  no  less  false  than  unjust  to  regard  the  Conventuals 
as  less  observant  of  the  obligations  contracted  by 
their  profession  than  the  Friars  Minor  and  Capuchins, 
since  they  are  not  bound  by  all  the  obli^tions  as- 
sumed by  either  of  the  latter.  The  institution  of 
several  communities  and  even  provinces  of  Reformed 
Conventuals,  more  especially  between  1562  and  1668 
(see  ''Constituzioni  generali  de'  frati  riformati  de' 
Minori  Conventuali  da  osservarsi  per  tutta  la  rif orma^ 
fatte  per  ordine  del  Capitulo  generale  de'  Minon 
Conventuali  celebrate  in  Orvieto  Tanno  1611 'Or  af- 
fords interesting  proof  of  the  vitality  of  the  order, 
which  for  the  rest  nas  possessed  many  men  of  eminent 
virtue  and  has  rendered  important  services  to  the 
Church. 

St.  Joseph  of  Cupertino  (d.  1663),  one  of  the 
greatest  samts  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  Bl. 
Bona  venture  of  Potenza  (d.  1711)  were  Doth  Con- 
ventuals, and  the  beatification  of  several  other  mem- 
bers of  the  order  is  now  under  way.  The  Conventuals 
have,  moreover,  given  three  popes  to  the  Church: 
Sixtus  IV  (1471^4),  Sixtus  V  (1585-90),  and  Qement 
XIV  (1769-74),  besides  a  number  of  cardinals  and 
other  distinguished  prelates.  Among  the  eminent 
theologians  and  scholars  the  order  has  produced,  the 
names  of  Mastrius,  Pagi,  Brancati,  Papini,  Sbaralea, 
and  Eubel  are  perhaps  most  familiar.  The  Con- 
ventuals enjoy  the  privilege  of  guarding  the  tomb  of 
St.  Francis  at  Assisi  and  that  of  St.  Anthony  at 
Padua,  and  they  furmsh  the  penitentiaries  to  the 
Vatican  Basilica  and  to  the  sanctuarv  at  Loreto.  At 
Rome  they  possess  the  famous  church  and  convent  of 
the  Twelve  Apostles,  and  it  is  here  that  their  general 
resides.  The  habit  of  the  Conventuals  whicn  was 
formerly  gray  is  now  black — ^whence  they  are  some- 
times called  by  the  people  the  ''Black  Franciscans '', 
in  contrast  to  the  Friars  Minor  and  Capuchins,  whose 
habit  is  brown ;  it  consists  of  a  Ht^rge  tunic  fastened 
an>und  the  waist  with  a  thiii  white  cord  with  three 


OONVEBSANO 


346 


0ONVER8I 


knots;  to  the  lai^  cape,  which  is  round  in  front  and 
pointed  behind,  a  small  hood  is  attached.  Unlike  the 
Friars  Minor  and  the  Capuchins,  the  Conventuals 
wear  birettas  and  shoes. 

In  1517  the  Conventuals  formed  only  about  a  sixth 
part  of  the  order.  After  their  separation  from  the 
fViars  Minor,  the  number  of  Conventuals  diminished 
considerably.  In  Spain  Cardinal  Ximenes  was  instru- 
mental in  depriving  them  of  their  convents,  which 
were  given  to  the  Fnars  Minor.  Clement  VII,  22  June, 
1524,  ordered  the  Provincial  of  the  Friars  Minor  at 
Buiigos  to  bring  back  to  the  Regular  Observance  all  the 
Conventuals  in  the  Kingdom  of  Navarre,  and  St.  Pius 
V,  16  April,  1567,  commanded  all  the  Conventuals  in 
Spain  to  embrace  the  R^ular  Observance.  Like 
measures  were  adopted,  30  October,  1567,  in  regard 
to  Portugal,  where  as  in  Flanders  and  in  Denmark 
all  the  Conventuals  gradually  passed  over  to  the 
Friars  Minor.  In  France  all  their  provinces  save 
three  joined  the  main  branch  of  the  order.  Never- 
theless the  Conventuals  continued  to  prosper  in 
other  coimtries.  In  Italy  and  Germany  they  suffered 
fewer  losses  than  elsewhere.  During  the  seven- 
teenth and  ei^teenth  centuries  they  increased  very 
much,  for  in  1770  they  possessed  some  31  provinces 
with  966  convents.  In  France  alone  they  had  48 
convents  and  numbered  330  religious.  In  1771,  8 
convents  in  France  including,  the  great  convent  in 
Paris,  which  had  since  1517  been  subject  to  the  Min- 
ister General  of  the  Friars  Minor,  passed  over  to  the 
Conventuals,  giving  them  a  total  of  2620  religious  in 
France  alone,  but  twenty  years  later  their  numl^r  there 
had  fallen  to  1544.  Since  the  revolutionary  epoch 
the  order  lost  more  than  1000  houses,  principally  in 
France,  Italy,  Switzeriand,  and  Germany.  At  pres- 
ent (1907)  it  is  divided  into  26  provinces.  Of  these 
12  are  in  Italy,  the  others  being  those  of  Malta;  Gali- 
cia;"  Russia  and  Lithuania;  Strasburg,  comprising 
Bavaria  and  Switzerland;  Li^ge,  comprising  Belgium 
and  Holland;  Austria  and  Styria;  Bohemia,  with 
Moravia  and  Silesia;  Hungary  and  Transylvania; 
Spain*  the  United  States;  Rumania,  with  the  mission 
of  Moldavia;  and  the  Orient,  with  the  mission  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  mission  of  Moldavia,  which  is  one  of 
the  oldest  in  the  Seraphic  Order,  comprises  10  con- 
vents with  parishes,  in  which  there  are  28  missionaries 
governed  by  an  archbishop  belonging  to  the  order. 
There  are  also  10  convents  and  28  missionaries  con- 
nected with  the  mission  at  Constantinople,  where  the 
Apostolic  delegate  is  a  Conventual.  The  order  has 
recently  made  new  foundations  in  England  and  Den- 
mark. According  to  the  latest  available  official  sta- 
tistics (1899),  the  Conventuals  numbered  in  all  some 
1500  religious. 

At  least  two  Conventual  missionaries  were  labour- 
ing in  the  United  States  in  the  early  forties,  but  the 
establishment  of  the  order  there  may  be  said  to  date 
from  1850.  In  1907  there  were  two  flourishing  provinces 
of  the  order  in  the  United  States,  the  provmce  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  which  numbers  thirteen  con- 
vents and  houses,  those  at  Svracuse,  Louisville, 
Trenton,  Camden,  .Hoboken,  Albany,  and  Terre 
Haute  being  the  most  important;  and  the  province 
of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua,  the  members  of  which  are 
Poles,  and  which  has  ten  convents  and  houses  in  the 
Dioceses  of  Baltimore,  Brooklyn,  Buffalo,  Detroit, 
Harrisbm^,  Hartford,  and  Springfield. 

The  Conventuals  were  not  affected  by  the  Apostolic 
Constitution  "Felicitate  quAdam"  of  Leo  XIII  (4 
Oct.,  1897)  by  which  the  different  special  reforms  into 
which  the  Observants  had  become  divided  since  1517 
were  reunited  under  the  name  of  Friars  Minor,  but 
like  the  Capuchins  (who  were  constituted  a  separate 
body  in  1619)  they  still  remain  an  independent  order. 
Leo  XIII,  however,  expressly  confirmed  the  ri^t  of 
prece<lence  accorded  to  the  Friars  Minor  by  I^eo  X. 

WADDlNtt,  Anryihif  Min.  (Rome,  1736),  XVI.  41-60;  Sbara- 


LEA,  BuUanum  Frandaeanum  (Rome,  17fi9),  I,  wkkf-w, 
H^TOT,  Diet.  de8  ordrea  rdigieux  (Paris,  1850)  in  Hxokf, 
Eneycl.,  let  series,  XX,  1104-12:  ToesiNiANBmx.  Hial.  S€rtti^ 
Rdtgionia  libri  Irea  (Venice,  1580),  II,  149;  Dk  Gubkrmatiiu 
Orbit  Seraphicua  (Lyons,  1686),  II,  lib.  IX:  Van  pen  Haytt^  . 
Bravia  Hial.  OnL  Min.  (Rome,  1777),  Tr.  ii;  Pateem,  TaUtt-u 
aunopliQue  de  VhiaL  da  tout  VOrdre  Shnphimia  (Pans,  1S7S), 
ch.  li.  48-51;  Heimbucrer,  Die  Orden  una  Konareoatio9^-m 
(Plsderbora.  1907),  II.  380-87;  Pazx>iib8,  Dei  FmS  Minon  e 
della  loro  dencminaziani  (Palenno,  1897),  1-60;  Db  Kektal, 
S,  Franpoia  d'Aaaiae  el  VOrdre  Siraphunte  (Paris,  1898).  It. 
II,  ch.  ii:  Casmicrael,  T?ie  Fronciacan  FamHiea  in  iriah  BedUia^ 
Record  (March,  1904),  235-254. 

Paschai*  Robinson. 

OonTersano,  Diocese  or  (Cupersanenbis),  suf- 
fragan to  Bari.  Conversano.  situated  in  the  province 
of  Bari,  in  Apulia  (Southern  Italy),  is  the  ancient 
Cupersanum,  a  cit^  of  the  Peucetians.  Its  history  is 
practically  tnat  of  Apulia.  After  the  invasion  of  the 
Normans,  it  was  for  a  while  the  seat  of  a  duch^;  later, 
however,  it  became  a  fief  of  the  dukes  of  Atri.  The 
first  bishop  whose  date  is  certain  was  Hilarius,  present 
at  the  Roman  synod  of  50 1 .  Local  tradition,  however, 
preserves  the  name  of  a  previous  bishop,  Simplicius, 
who  died  in  492.  No  other  names  are  recorded  up  to 
the  episcopate  of  Leo,  mentioned  in  a  document  of 
1088.  Otner  bishops  worthy  of  mention  were;  the 
Cistercian  Stefano  (c.  1266);  Giovanni  de  Gropi 
(c.  1283);  Antonio  Guidotti  (d.  1433);  Paolo  de  Tor- 
coli,  who  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity  in  1482;  Ro- 
molo  de'  Valenti  (d.  1579);  Giuseppe  Palermo  (who 
was  appointed  1658),  Andrea  Brancaccia  (1681). 
The  diocese  has  a  population  of  95,521,  with  7 
parishes,  130  churches  and  chapels,  132  secular  and 
8  regular  priests,  2  religious  houses  of  men  and  8 
of  women. 

Cappellbtti,  Le  chieae  d* Italia  (Venice.  1844),  XXI.  40-45; 
Ann.  Bed.  (Rome.  1907),  423-24;  Morea,  II  Charttdarium 
di  San  Benedetto  di  Converaano  (Monte  Caoiino,  1893),  815- 
1266, 

U.  Benioni. 

OoxxTersi,  lay  brothers  in  a  religious  order.  The 
term  was  originally  applied  to  those  who,  in  adult  life, 
voluntarily  renounced  the  world  and  entered  a  reli- 
gious order  to  do  penance  and  to  lead  a  life  of  greater 
perfection.  The  renouncing  of  the  worid  was  known 
as  the  canversio  a  aceculOf  which  had  as  its  object  a  re- 
form or  change  of  life,  the  ctmversio  moruntj  hence  cart' 
versi  or  the  "converted".  The  conversi  were  ttius 
distinguished  from  the  oblati  or  those  who,  as  children, 
were  presented  or  offered  (oblati)  by  their  parents  to 
the  religious  life  and  were  placed  in  a  monasteiv  to  re- 
ceive proper  religious  instruction  and  to  be  educated 
in  profane  knowledge.  In  the  eleventh  century  8t. 
John  Gualbert,  founder  of  the  Benedictine  conereea- 
tion  known  as  the  Vallisumbrosani,  introduced  &r  Uie 
first  time  a  distinction  between  the  fratres  oonventj  or 
lay  brothers,  and  priests,  or  choir  religious.  For 
among  the  conversi  there  were  not  seldom  those  who 
were  either  entirely  illiterate,  or  who  in  the  world  had 
led  a  life  of  public  scandal,  or  had  been  notorious 
criminals,  and  while  on  the  one  hand  it  was  unjust  that 
such  should  be  debarred  from  the  means  of  doing  pen- 
ance in  the  cloister  and  from  the  other  benefits  of  Uie 
religious  life,  they  were  at  the  same  time  hardly  to  be 
considered  fit  subjects  for  the  reception  of  Sacred 
orders.  They  were  thus  received  into  the  order  for 
the  purpose  of  engaging  in  manual  labour  and  occa* 
sionally  for  directing  the  temporal  affairs  of  the  mon- 
astery. In  modem  canonical  usage  the  term  eonver^ 
8U8  is  synonymous,  or  nearly  so,  with  that  of  lay 
broiher.  What  has  been  said  of  religious  orders  of 
men  can,  in  general,  be  applied  equally  to  those  of 
women,  though  the  distinction  between  convonsae,  or 
lay  sisters,  and  choir  religious  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  introduced  before  the  twelfth  century.  As  a 
rule,  the  conversi  wear  a  habit  different  from  that  of 
the  choir  religious;  but  the  essential  obligations  of  the 
vows  and  of  the  monastic  life  in  general  are  alike  for 
all.     (See  Lav  Brotheu  ami  Oblati.) 


OONVBSSIOH 


347 


OOKYIBSXOK 


Kauucm  in  Kinkenin^  s.  ▼.  For  the  large  share  of  these 
conversi,  or  lay  brothers,  in  the  development  of  medieval 
acrieultiirQ,  monastic  administration,  etc.  see  Hoftmann, 
Da9  KonveneninstUid  d«B  CiaterzieMerordena  (Freiburg, 
SwitMrland.  1905).  ,^    ^ 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Oonversion  (from  the  cla498ical  Latin  amverio, 
depon.  contwrtor,  whence  oanversio,  changCi  etc.),  in 
the  Latin  Vul^te  (Act6,xv,  3),  in  patristic  (St.  Augus- 
tine, Civ.  Dei,  VIII,  xxiv),  and  in  later  ecclesiastical 
Latin,  a  moral  dian^,  a  turning  or  returning  to  God, 
to  the  true  religion,  in  which  sense  it  has  passed  into 
our  modem  languages:  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul,  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  of  St.  Augustine.  In  the  Mid- 
die  Ages  the  word  conversion  was  often  used  in  the 
sense  of  forsaking  the  world  to  enter  the  religious 
state.  Thus  St.  Bernard  speaks  of  his  conversi6n. 
Hie  return  of  the  sinner  to  a  life  of  virtue  is  also  called 
a  conversion.  More  commonly  do  we  speak  of  the 
conversion  of  an  infidel  to  the  true  religion,  and  most 
commonly  of  the  conversion  of  a  schismatic  or  heretic 
to  the  Catholic  Church. 

Every  man  is  bound  by  the  natural  law  to  seek  tlie 
true  religion,  embrace  it  when  found,  and  conform  his 
life  to  its  principles  and  precepts.  And  it  is  a  dogma 
of  the  Church  defined  by  the  Vatican  Council  that  man 
is  able  by  the  natural  light  of  reason  to  arrive  at  the 
certain  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  the  one  tme 
God,  our  Creator  and  Lord.  The  same  council 
teaches  that  faith  is  a  gift  of  God  necessary  for  salva- 
tion, that  it  is  an  act  of  the  intellect  commanded  by 
the  will,  and  that  it  is  a  supernatural  act.  The  act  of 
faith  then  is  an  act  of  the  understanding,  whereby  we 
firmly  hold  as  true  whatever  God  has  revealed,  not 
because  of  its  intrinsic  truth  perceived  by  the  natiutd 
li^t  of  reason,  but  because  uod,  who  can  neither  de- 
ceive nor  be  deceived,  has  revealed  it.  It  is  in  itself 
an  act  of  the  understanding,  but  it  requires  the  influ- 
ence of  the  will  which  moves  the  intellect  to  assent. 
For  many  of  the  truths  of  revelation,  being  mysteries, 
are  to  some  extent  obscure.  Yet,  it  is  not  a  blind  act, 
since  the  fact  that  God  has  spoken  is  not  merely  prob- 
able but  certain.  The  evidences  for  the  fact  of  revela- 
tion are  not,  however,  the  motive  of  faith;  they  are 
the  grounds  which  render  revelation  credible,  that  is 
to  say,  they  make  it  certain  that  God  has  spoken. 
And  since  faith  is  necessary  for  salvation,  that  we 
may  comply  with  the  duty  of  embracing  the  true 
Faith  and  persevering  in  it,  God  by  His  only-be- 
(Eotten  Son  has  instituted  the  Church  and  has  adorned 
It  with  obvious  marks  so  that  it  may  be  known  by  all 
men  as  the  guardian  and  teacher  of  revealed  truth. 
These  marks  (or  notes)  of  credibility  belong  to  the 
Catholic  Church  alone.  Nav,  the  Church  itself  by  its 
admirable  propagation,  sublime  sanctity,  and  inex- 
haustible fecundity,  by  its  Catholic  unity  and  invin- 
cible stability,  is  a  great  and  perpetual  motive  of 
credibiHtv  and  irrefra^ble  testunony  of  its  Divine 
mission  (jsee  Cone.  Vatic,  De  Fide,  cap.  3). 

The  first  step,  therefore,  in  the  normal  ftrocess  of 
oonveision  is  the  investigation  and  examination  of  the 
credentials  of  the  Church,  which  often  is  a  painful  lar- 
bour  lasting  for  years.  The  external  grace  which 
draws  a  man's  attention  to  the  Church  and  causes  him 
to  begin  his  inquiry  is  as  various  and  manifold  as  there 
are  individual  inquirers.  It  mav  even  be  something 
to  one's  temporal  advantage,  which  was  the  case  with 
Henry  IV  of  France.  It  may  be  the  interest  aroused 
in  a  great  historical  personagje,  such  as  Innocent  III, 
in  the  case  of  Friednch  von  Hurter.  Whatever  may 
have  been  the  initial  motive,  if  the  study  be  pursued 
with  an  open  mind,  we  hold  that  it  will  lead  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  true  Church,  i.  e.  to  this  certain  con- 
cluabn:  The  Catholic  Church  is  the  true  Church. 
This  intellectual  conviction,  however,  is  not  yet  the 
act  of  faith.  One  may  hesitate,  or  refuse  to  take  the 
next  step,  which  is  the  "good  will  to  believe"  (piua 


credulUatis  affectus).  And  this  leads  to  the  third  and 
final  act,  the  act  of  faith  itself:  I  believe  what  the 
Church  teaches  because  God  has  revealed  it.  These 
three  acts,  especially  the  last,  are,  in  accordance  with  \ 
Catholic  teacmng,  supernatural  acts.  Then  follows 
baptism  by  which  the  believer  is  formally  received  into 
the  body  of  the  Church.     (See  BAPnsM,  VII,  VIII.) 

Since  the  duty  of  embracing  the  true  religion  is  of 
natural  and  positive  Divine  right,  it  is  evident  that  no 
civil  law  can  forbid  the  fulfilling  of  this  duty,  nor 
should  any  temporal  considerations  be  allowed  to  in- 
terfere wiui  a  duty  on  which  depends  the  soul's  salva- 
tion. And  because  all  are  bound  to  enter  the  Church, 
it  follows  that  the  Church  has  a  right  to  receive  all 
who  apply  for  reception,  of  whatever  age,  sex,  or  con- 
dition they  may  be.  Nay,  in  virtue  of  the  Divine 
command  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature,  the 
Church  is  strictly  boimd  to  receive  them,  and  no 
earthly  authoritv  can  forbid  the  exercise  of  this  duty. 
To  the  Church  alone  it  belongs  to  lay  down  the  condi- 
tions for  reception  and  to  inquire  into  the  interior  dis- 
positions of  nim  who  presents  himself  for  admission 
mto  her  bosom.  The  conditions  are,  knowledge  and 
profession  of  the  Catholic  Faith  and  the  resolve  to  live 
m  accordance  with  it.  The  right  to  admit  converts 
into  the  Cllhurbh  belongs  strictly  speaking  to  the  bish- 
op. Usuallv  all  priests  exercising  the  sacred  ministry 
receive  faculties  for  reconciling  heretics.  When  con- 
ditional baptism  is  administered,  sacramental  confes- 
sion is  also  required  from  the  convert.  It  is  the  law 
dearly  laid  down  in  the  Acts  of  the  Second  Plenary 
Council  of  Baltimore.  The  order  of  proceeding  is  as 
follows:  first,  abjuration  of  heresy  or  profession  of 
faith;  second,  conditional  baptism;  third,  sacra- 
mental confession  and  conditional  absolution.  (Tit. 
V,  Cap.  II,  n.  240.) 

Force,  violence,  or  fraud  may  not  be  employed  to 
bring  about  the  conversion  of  an  imbeliever.  Such 
means  would  be  sinful.  The  natural  law,  the  law  of 
Christ,  the  nature  of  faith,  the  teaching  and  practice 
of  the  Church  forbid  such  means.  Credere  volurUatiM 
est,  to  beUeve  depends  upon  the  free  will,  says  St. 
Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  x,  a.  8),  and  the  minister  of  baptism, 
before  administering  the  sacrament,  is  obliged  to  ask 
the  question,  "Wilt  thou  be  baptized"?  And  only 
after  havine  received  the  answer,  "I  will",  may  he 
proceed  with  the  sacred  rite.  The  Church  abo  forbids 
the  baptism  of  children  of  imbaptized  parents  without 
the  consent  of  the  latter,  unless  the  children  have  been 
cast  away  by  their  parents,  or  are  in  imminent  danger 
of  death.  For  the  Church  has  no  jurisdiction  over  tne 
unbaptized,  nor  does  the  State  possess  the  power  of 
using  temporal  means  in  spiritual  things.  The  punish* 
ments  formerly  decreed  against  apostates  were  not 
intended  to  coerce  men  to  accept  outwardly  what  they 
did  not  believe  in  their  hearts,  but  to  atone  for  a 
crime  (see  the  article  of  St.  Thomas,  loc.  cit.).  The 
medieval  legislation,  both  ecclesiastical  and  secular, 
clearly  distineuished  between  the  punishment  to  be 
inflicted  for  tne  crime  of  apostasy  and  the  means  of 
instruction  to  be  used  in  order  to  bring  about  the 
resipiscence  of  the  apostate.  As  Bishop  von  Ketteler 
says,  "The  punishment  inflicted  by  the  Church  upon 
heretics  in  comparatively  few  cases  was  not  baaed 
upon  the  false  principle  that  conviction  could  be 
forced  upon  the  mind  by  external  means,  but  upon  the 
truth  that  bv  baptism  the  Christian  has  assumed  obli- 
^tions  the  fulfilment  of  which  could  be  insisted  upon. 
This  punishment  was  only  inflicted  in  particular  cases 
and  upon  public  and  formal  heretics.'*  Convert  par- 
ents like  other  Catholics  are  obliged  to  have  their 
children  baptized  and  educated  in  the  Catholic  religion* 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America 
proclaims  complete  separation  of  Church  and  State 
and  guarantees  full  liberty  of  conscience.  In  conse- 
quence the  laws  of  these  States  place  no  hindrance 
whatever  in  the  way  of  conversions.    It  may  also  be 


OOWBRSION 


348 


OQStWOOATKn 


said  that  on  the  whole  the  American  people  are  socl- 
ally  tolerant  towards  converts.  No  wonder  that  in  this 
country  oonveraions  are  comparatively  more  numer- 
ous than  in  any  other.  In  the  British  Empire  too, 
since  the  days  of  Catholic  Emancipation  in  1829,  lib- 
erty of  conscience  prevails  in  theory  as  well  as  in  prac- 
tice, although  there  exists  both  in  England  and  Scot* 
land  an  established  Church.  Catholic  disabilities 
have  been  almost  entirely  removed.  Catholics  are 
onlv  excluded  from  the  throne  and  from  a  few  of  the 
highest  offices  of  the  State.  In  Germany  after  the 
Reformation  the  tyrannical  i>rinciple  cujus  r^io,  il- 
lius  rdtgio  was  proclaimed,  in  virtue  of  which  the 
soverei^  for  the  time  being  could  impose  his  rdigion 
upon  his  subjects.  He  exercised  thepower  both  to 
forbid  conversions  to  the  Catholic  Cnurch,  and  to 
compel  apostasy  from  it.  In  the  present  German  Em-> 
pire,  where  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  population  is  Prot- 
estant, liberty  of  conscience  is  the  law  of  the  land. 
And  although  union  of  Church  and  State  exists,  con- 
veision  does  not  involve  any  disabilities  or  the  loss  of 
any  civil  or  political  rights.  In  some  of  the  States, 
however,  the  ri^ts  guaranteed  by  the  empire  are 
somewhat  restricted  oy  State  laws.  Most  of  the 
States  prescribe  the  age  before  which  conversions  are 
not  lawful,  which  is  either  fourteen  or  si^tteen,  or  even 
eighteen.  In  Saxony,  Brunswidc,  and  Mecklen- 
burg, the  public  exercise  of  the  Catholic  reliraon  is 
subjected  to  vexatious  interference.  In  Kussia 
the  Greek-Orthodox  is  the  State  religion,  other 
denominations  are  only  tolerated.  For  long  con^ 
version  from  the  Orthodox  Church  to  Catholicism 
was  followed  by  ^evous  disabiUties.  By  the  ukase 
of  1905  certain  rights  and  liberties  were  granted  to 
other  denominations.  The  publication  of  the  ukase 
was  immediately  followed  by  the  return  to  the  Catho- 
lic Church  of  many  Uniats  who  had  been  forced  into 
schism  by  persecution.  The  Scandinavian  countries 
were  very  intolerant  till  about  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Denmark  gave  liberty  to  the  Catho- 
lic Church  in  1849,  Sweden  and  Norway  in  1860. 

B.    GULDNER. 

OonverBion  of  St.  Paol*  Fkaot  of.  See  Paul, 
Saint, 

OonrertB.  See  Counter-Reformation;  Oxford 
Movement;  Roman  Empire;  Statistics. 

Oonvocation  of  the  EngliBh  Olergy,  the  technical 
name  given  in  the  Church  of  England  to  whcrt  corre- 
sponds in  some  respects  to  a  provincial  synod, 
tnough  in  other  respects  it  differs  widely  from  it. 
The  two  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  Canterbuiy  and 
York  have  each  their  Convocation,  but  that  of  Can- 
terbury is  the  more  imoortant,  and  is  spoken  of  as 
"Convocation"  par  exceUence,  The  history  of  its  ex- 
ternal constitution  is  continuous  down  to  the  present 
time  and  is  bound  up  with  the  development  of  Eng- 
lish constitutional  nistory;  its  powers  and  inde- 
pendence, however,  were  lost  at  the  Reformation; 
its  organisation,  retained  as  a  mere  form  for  many 
years,  has  been  utilized  of  lato  to  give  expression  to 
the  opinions  entertained  by  the  clergy  as  a  body  upon 
questions  of  the  day.  Thus  it  exercises  influence,  out 
has  no  power.  The  authority  of  the  Crown  asserted 
at  the  Reformation  is  still  supreme  and  intact. 

The  history  of  Convocation  may  be  divided  into 
five  periods:  (1)  Before  1295;  (2)  From  1295  until 
tlie  Reformation;  (3)  The  Reformation  period;  (4) 
llie  post-Reformation  period;  (5)  Modem  times. 

(1)  Before  ifSJ.— Previous  to  1295  the  Church  in 
Ellwand  had  assembled  in  diocesan  and  provincial 
83mods  to  regulate  disciplinary  and  other  matters  inter- 
esting the  body  of  the  clergy.  Moreover  the  archbish* 
ops,  bishops,  abbots,  and  pnors  used  to  take  their  place 
in  the  national  council  on  account  of  the  estates 
they  held  in  chief  (m  cupite)  of  the  (Yown.     But 


the  beneficed  clergy  took  no  part  in  it.  Hie  in- 
creasing frequency  of  royal  appeals  for  money 
grants  and  the  unwillingness  of  the  bishops  to  be  re- 
sponsible for  allowing  them  had  brougjat  Stephen 
Langton,  as  early  as  1225,  to  summon  proctors  of 
cathedral,  collegiate,  and  conventual  churches  to  atr 
tend  his  provincial  synod,  and  gradually  that  re|»e- 
sentative  piindple  became  part  of  the  system  d 
Convocation.  The  failure  ot  the  irregular  attempt 
of  Edward  I  to  convoke  the  clergy  at  rforthampton 
led  him  to  issue  (1288)  a  writ  to  the  archbishop 
with  a  view  to  Convocation  meeting  in  London  in 
that  same  year,  and  at  that  meeting  a  ''benevo- 
lence"  was  duly  voted.  The  form  of  writ  used  in 
1283  is  the  same  in  form  as  that  still  in  usa  and  the 
instructions  issued  on  that  occasion  by  tne  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  John  Peckham,  still  embody 
the  existing  constitution  of  Convocation,  so  that, 
with  the  exception  of  the  disappearance  of  the  mon- 
astic representatives,  the  external  organization  oi 
Convocation  remains  unchanged. 

(2)  After  Jt96, — In  addition  to  the  Baronage  and 
Commons  of  the  realm  we  find,  after  1295,  a  represent- 
ative body  of  the  beneficed  clergy  summoned  to  attend 
personally  in  Pcuiiament,  the  summons  being  conveyed 
by  the  insertion,  in  the  bishop's  writ  of  summons  Ut 
Parliament,  of  tne  prcBmunierUeB  clause.  That  sum- 
mons was  the  beginning  of  a  new  phase  in  the  long 
strug^e  waged  bv  the  Crown  on  tne  subject  of  the 
taxation  of  the  aergy.  It  was  to  facilitate  the  ob- 
taining of  mone^r  grante  that  Edward  I  endeavoure*! 
once  more  to  unite  representatives  of  the  clergy  and 
laity  in  one  deliberative  assembly,  composed  on  the 
basis  of  temporal  property.  To  have  countenanceil 
the  attempt  would  nave  been  to  recognise  the 
Crown's  claim  to  tax  church  property,  and  tli« 
der^  insisted  upon  their  constitutional  ri^t  cf 
making  their  money  grante  in  Convocation.  Tbe 
stnigflpe  between  the  Crown  and  the  deigy  oos- 
tinned  until  1337,  when  the  Crown  gave  way,  though 
retaining  the  proBmunientes  dause  in  the  bishop's 
writ  of  summons.  Authorities  differ  as  to  whether 
the  Parliamentary  proctors  of  the  dergy  sat  in  the 
Lower  House  or  m  the  Upper  House;  most  probably 
th^  sat  and  voted  in  the  liower  House. 

The  question  of  the  exact  relation  of  Convocation 
to  the  newer  Parliamentary  rniresentetives  of  the 
dergy  ia  obscure;  nor  is  the  obscurity  leraened  by 
the  fact  that  the  proctors  of  the  dergy  for  Convoca- 
tion were  frequently  the  same  persons  as  the  proc- 
tors of  the  clergy  for  Parliament.  Two  opinions 
have  found  defenders:  the  first,  that  the  older  ec- 
clesiastical council  fused  with  the  Parliamentary 
representetives  of  the  dergy;  the  other,  that  by  the 
process  of  gradual  decay  of  Parliamentary  repre- 
sentetion  of  the  dergy,  part  of  their  righte  passed  to 
the  ecclesiastical  ooundls,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  his- 
torical connexion  between  the  Convocations  and 
Parliament.  The  latter  view,  ably  advocated  by 
Stubbs,  at  present  holds  the  field. 

The  division  of  Convocation  into  an  Upper  and  a 
Lower  House  came  about  gradually,  and  was  not 
formed,  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  on  the  model  of 
the  tiKO  Houses  of  Parliament.  In  1296  the  mem- 
bers ot  Convocation  resolved  themsdves  for  ddib- 
erative  purposes  into  four  groups:  bishops,  monastic 
representetives,  digniteries,  and  proctors  of  the 
der^.  Eventually  Convocation  came  to  open  with 
a  jomt  session  presided  over  by  the  archbishop,  after 
which  the  bishops  and  abbote  remained  to  deliberate 
as  the  Upper  House,  while  the  rest  withdrew  to 
deliberate  as  the  Lower  House. 

The  objection  of  the  clem  to  sitting  in  Parlia- 
ment lessened  indeed  their  innuence  over  that  body; 
at  the  same  time  they  secured  the  rigjit  of  meeting 
when  Parliament  met,  and  that  right  of  meeting  in- 
volvfd  the  right  of  ptftitioning  and  to  some  extent 


COKWEIL 


349 


OOttWSLL 


of  legislating  for  themsolvca.  That  idea  of  Convo- 
cation as  the  clerical  parliament  had  important  con- 
sequences; the  right  to  tax  chtirch  property  wai^ 
sucoessf  ull  J  maintained ;  but  the  clexpr  could  neither 
elect  nor  be  elected  to  the  House  ofCommons,  and 
to  this  day  a  person  in  Holy  orders  is  ineligible  for 
Parliament.  At  l^e  same  time  the  legislation  of 
Convocation  was  binding  on  the  clei^gy  only  and  not 
upon  the  laity. 

(3)  The  Reformation  Period, — Convocation  lost  its 
independence  and  most  of  its  powers  by  the  Act  of 
Submission  [25  Hen.  VIII  (1633-4),  c.  19],  which  en- 
acts that  Convocation  can  only  meet  by  royal  com- 
mand, and  that  without  royal  leave  and  licence  no 
new  canons,  constitutions,  or  ordinances  may  be 
made.  This  act  was  repealed  in  Queen  Mary's 
rei^,  but  revived  by  1  Elie.  (1558-9),  and  still  re- 
mams  in  full  force.  The  climax  of  Convocation's 
degradation  was  reached  when,  after  the  Act  of  Su- 
premacy (1534),  Thomas  Cromwell,  the  representa- 
tive of  Henry  VIII,  though  a  layman,  asserted  his 
right  to  preside,  a  right  never  subsequently  exercised. 

(4)  Post-Reformation  Period,— Tine  Act  of  Sub- 
mission of  Henry  VIII  was  stringently  interpreted 
by  the  judges  at  a  conunittee  before  the  Lords  in 
Parliament  (in  8  Jac.,  1)  as  forbidding,  even  after 
obtaining  royal  assent,  any  canon  (a)  against  the 
prerogative  of  the  king;  (b)  against  common  law;  (c) 
against  any  statute  law;  or  (d)  against  any  custdm 
of  the  realm.    The  loss  of  legislative  independence 
paved  the  way  for  the  loss  of  taxing  powers,  which 
were  finally  renounced  in  16fi5,  the  ripht  of  voting  at 
Parliamentary  elections  being  obtamed  in  return. 
The  power  or  Convocation  of  dealing  with  cases  of 
heresy  has  been  exercised  but  rarely,  and  then  to  no 
piirpNOse.     It  continued  to  be  convoked  at  the  be- 
ginning of  each  Parliament,  but  its  sittings  were  in- 
terrupted from  1640  to  1660,  to  be  resumed  after  the 
Restoration.    In  1689,  in  view  of  the  opposition  of 
the  clergy  to  the  Toleration  Act  of  William  and 
Mary,  no  summons  was  issued  to  Convocation.    The 
C(»mmons,  however,  protested  against  the  innovar- 
tion,  and  their  petition  had  its  effect;  at  the  same 
time  Archbishop  Tillotson,  and  to  some  extent  his 
successor  Tenison,  met  the  difficulties  of  the  situar- 
tion  by  refusing  to  allow  any  deliberations.    Convo- 
cation was  summoned,   met,   and  was  prorogued. 
Parties  were  formed,  and  claims  were  made,  insist- 
ing upon  the  independence  of  the  Lower  House  on 
the  analogy  of  the  House  of  Commons.    Atterbury 
led  the  malcontents;  Wake,  afterwards  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  Kennet,  Hoadley,  and  Gibson  led  the 
defence.    The  question  was  really  a  political  one. 
Toryism  dominated  the  Lower  iiouse;  Liberalbm, 
alike  in  politics  and  theoloey,  pervaded  the  Upper 
House,    rermission  to  deliberate  led  to  trouble  in 
1701,    and   prorogation   followed.    The    Bangorian 
Controversy  arising  out  of  Hoadly's  sermon  Ted  to 
similar    results    in    1717.    The    opposition    of    the 
Lower  House  was  worn  out  by  repeated  proroga- 
tions immediately  following  the  opening  session,  and 
with  the  exception  of  the  discussions  allowed  in  1741 
and  1742,  Convocation  ceased  to  be  a  deliberative 
body  until  1854. 

^  (6)  Modem  Times.— The  old  organisation  had  sur- 
vived, and  many  earnest  Anglicans  of  the  early  nine- 
teenth century,  anxious  to  revive  the  synodal  life  of 
the  Anglican  Church,  sought  and  obtained  the  re- 
Is  xation  of  the  customary  immediate  prorogation. 
A  brief  sessbn  was  authorised  m  1854.  (The  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  York  in  1859.)  The  action 
of  Convocation  as  a  d^iberative  body  began  in  1861, 
^hcn,  at  its  own  reauest,  the  Crown  licensed  it  to 
amend  the  twenty-nmth  of  the  canons  of  1603  on 
^  subject  of  sponsors,  and  although  no  result  fol- 
lowed, new  canons  were  passed  in  1865,  1887,  and 
igain  in  1892. 


Apart  from  such  g(*nerul  authorizations  the  Cruwn 
also  possesses  the  right  to  submit  definite  business  to 
the  consideration  of  Convocation.  This  is  done  by 
"Special  Letters  of  Business",  a  method  used  in 
1872,  and  again  in  1907,  in  submitting  the  reports  of 
the  ritual  commissioners  to  its  consideration. 

The  House  of  Laymen,  which  first  met  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury  in  1886 
(York,  1892),  is  an  assembly  unknown  to  law.  As 
at  present  constituted  the  two  Convocations  of  Can- 
terbury and  York  are  summoned  by  the  archbishops 
on  the  instruction  of  the  king  when  Pariiament  is 
summoned.    Ektch  possesses  an  Upper  and  a  Lower 


House;  the  Upper  House,  presided  over  by  the  ardi- 
bishops,  consists  of  the  cliocesan  bishops;  the  Lower 
House  is  composed  of  deans,  archdeacons,  a  proctor 
for  each  chapter,  and  proctors  for  the  beneficed 
clergy,  two  from  each  diocese  in  the  province  of 
Canterbury,  two  from  each  archdeaconry  in  the 
province  of  York.  The  Lower  House  elects  a  pro- 
locutor who,  on  being  presented  to  the  archbishop 
and  approved  by  him,  presides  over  the  delibera- 
tions of  the  Lower  House,  and  communicates  the  re- 
sults to  the  Upper  House.  The  stately  ceremonial 
of  Catholic  days  has  been  preserved  for  the  opening 
session  of  Convocation,  to^^iher  with  the  use  of  the 
Latin  tongue. 

QiBsoN,  Synodus  Anglicana  (1702),  ed.  Cabowsix  (London, 
1854);  Wau,  The  AuLhority  <jf  Chrutian  Princes  over  their 
Bcdesiaatical  Synods  (LondoD,  1697):  Kxnkkt.  Ecclesiastical 
Synods  (London,  1701);  Hoadlst,  A  History  of  Bnfflish  CouneOs 
and  Convocation  and  of  the  Clergy  sUtinff  in  Parliament  (LoDdoo, 
1701);  Tjubvor,  The  Convocation  of  the  Tv?o  Provinces  (Londoik 
1852);  Lathbusy,  A  History  of  the  Convocation  of  the  Churoi 
of  Bnoland  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1863);  Jotcs,  Bnylimd'e  Sacred 
aynoaa  (London,  1853);  Linoabd,  History  of  England^  pasaain; 
Stubbs,  The  Constitutional  History  of  England  (London,  1878); 
Idbu,  Select  Charters  (8th  ed.,  London,  1895):  Maxowsb,  The 
Constitutional  History  and  Constitution  of  the  Church  of  EnMond, 
tr.  from  German  (London,  1896);  Prilumobb,  The  Eccieaiae- 
tical  Law  of  the  Church  of  England  (2nd  cd.,  London,  1895) ;  Gbb 
AND  Hardt,  Documenls  Illustrative  of  English  Churt^  History 
(London,  1896);  Hbnbon,  Our  National  Church  (London,  1908). 

Edward  Mters. 

OonweU,  Hbnrt,  second  Bishop  of  Philadelphia, 
U.  8.  A.,  b.  at  Monoymore,  County  Deny,  Ireiaiid, 
in  1745;  d.  at  Philadelphia,  22  April,  1842.  After 
the  death  of  Bishop  Egan,  in  1814,  the  Bishopric  of 
Philadelphia  was  offered  successively  to  the  Rev. 
Ambrose  Marechal  and  to  the  Very  Rev.  Louis  de 
Earth,  the  administrator,  but  both  these  clergymen, 
deterred  by  the  contumacious  attitude  of  the  trustees 
of  St.  Mary's  church,  returned  the  Bulls;  whereupon 
the  Holy  See  appomted  (26  Nov.,  1819)  Heniy  Con- 
well,  parish  pnest  of  Dungannon  and  Vicar-ueneral 
of  Armagh,  Ireland,  who  imprudently  accepted  a  task 
too  heavy  for  his  seventy  four  years.  He  had  made 
his  studies  in  the  Irish  CoUege  at  Paris,  where  his 
family  had  foimded  a  burse.  He  was  universally  be- 
loved by  his  people  and  the  clergy,  and  an  ineffectual 
attempt  was  made  to  retain  him  in  Ireland.  He  was 
consecrated  in  London  by  Bishop  Poynter,  24  Aug., 
1820,  and  arrived  in  Philadelphia,  2  Dec.,  bringing 
with  him  a  young  priest  named  Keenan,  subsequently 
for  many  years  pastor  at  Lancaster.  The  seeds  of 
future  troubles  had  been  sown  during  the  vacancy, 
when  the  administrator,  without  demanding  creden- 
tials, stationed  at  St.  Mary's  the  brilliant  but  dema- 
gogic and  unpriestly  Rev.  William  Hoean,  who  had 
so  mgratiated  himself  with  the  board  of  trustees  that 
when,  on  12  Dec.,  the  bishop  revoked  his  faculties,  a 
schism  ensued  which  lasted  lor  many  years.  For  de- 
tails of  the  quarrel,  the  reader  is  referred  to  J.  Gil- 
maiy  Shea's  "History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the 
United  States"  (see  below).  Bishop  Con  well  con- 
ducted the  controversy  with  dignity,  but  in  the  course 
of  it,  through  desire  of  peace,  conunitted  two  errom  of 
judgment.  The  first  waa  the  recalling  to  the  diocese 
and  appointing  as  vicar-general  of  William  Vinoeni 
Harold,  a  Dominican  whom  his  predeoessor  had  die- 


OONZA 


350 


OOPAOAVANA 


niisMHl.  C'Ouiraiy  to  the  bishop's  expectation,  the 
return  of  Harold  complicated  the  situation.  It  was 
a  more  serious  mistake  that  on  9  Oct.,  1826,  he  capitu- 
lated to  the  trustees,  yielding  to  them  the  ri^ht  of  de- 
termining salaries  and  of  vetoing  his  appomtments. 
Highly  displeased  at  this  surrender  of  episcopal  rights, 
the  Holy  See  appointed  an  administrator  and  sum- 
moned the  bishop^  to  Rome.  His  explanations  were 
pronounced  unsatisfactonr  and  he  was  forbidden  to 
return  to  his  see.  He  did  return  to  Philadelphia  and 
received  permission  to  perform  episcopal  functions, 
without  interfering  in  matters  of  administration.  In 
1830  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick  arrived  as  coadjutor 
and  administrator,  and  Bishop  Conwell  spent  his  re^ 
maining  years  in  seclusion  and  prayer. 

&aKA,  Hiatary  of  the  Catholic  Churdi  in  the  U.S.,  (New  York, 
1890)  III;  FiNom,  BiU,  Cath,  Americana  (New  York.  1872), 
i^vea  an  extensive  list  of  the  literature  of  the  Hogan  Schimn. 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Ooxua,  Abchdiocbsb  of  (Comfsana),  with  the 
perpetual  administration  of  Campagna  {Campanien* 
ns) .  Conza,  a  city  of  the  province  of  Avellino,  South- 
em  Italy,  on  the  River  Ofanto  (the  ancient  Aufidus), 
was  formerly  called  Compsa,  and  belonged  to  the  Hir- 
pim',  allies  of  the  Samnites  during  their  wars  with  the 
Romans.  It  was  captured  in  213  b.  c.  by  Fabius 
Maximus  and  was  made  a  Roman  colony.  Dunne 
the  Second  Punic  War  it  was  betraved  to  Hannibiu 
(214  B.  c.)  and  opened  the  way  to  Capua.  The  city 
was  twice  destroyed  by  earthquakes  (980,  1694),  and 
was  at  one  time  neariy  abandoned.  The  first  known 
Bishop  of  Conza  is  Pelagius,  who  was  present  at  the 
Roman  synod  of  743  held  under  Pope  2achary.  The 
see  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  archbishopnc  under 
Alexander  II  or  Gregory  VII  (i.  e.  between  1061  and 
1085),  having  previously  been  a  suffragan  of  Salerno. 
Among  the  bishops  worthy  of  mention  is  the  Blessed 
Erberto  (1169).  The  bishops  resided  either  in  their 
feudal  stronghold  of  Sfui  Menna,  it  Campagna,  or  at 
Sant'  Angelo  de'  Lombardi,  the  present  episcopal 
residence.  The  Diocese  of  Campagna  was  erected 
by  Clement  VII,  19  June,  1525;  the  see  was  vacant 
from  1793  to  1818,  when  it  was  placed  under  Conza. 
The  dioceses  together  have  a  population  of  123,000, 
with  37  parishes,  230  churches  and  chapels,  232  secu^ 
Iw  and  10  regular  priests,  3  religious  nouses  of  men 
and  5  of  women. 

Cappbllbtti,  Le  chieae  ^Italia  (Venice,  1844),  XX,  531;  Ann, 
eod.  (Rome.  1007),  424-26. 

U.  Benigni. 

Oooktown,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  comprises 
North  Queensland,  Australia,  from  16**  30'  south 
latitude  to  Cape  York,  and  from  the  Pacific  Coast  to 
the  boundary  of  Northern  Territory.  It  was  formed 
out  of  the  Diocese  of  Brisbane,  as  a  pro-vicariate  in 
1876,  was  first  entrusted  to  Italian  priests,  who  sub- 
sequent! v  withdrew,  and,  in  1882,  to  the  Irish  Augus- 
tinians  (Father  John  Hutchinson,  Pro-Vicar).  In 
1887  the  mission  was  created  a  vicariate  apostolic, 
and  Dr.  Hutchinson  was  appointed  its  first  vicar. 
He  died  28  October,  1897,  ana  was  succeeded  by  the 
Right  Rev.  James  D.  Murray,  consecrated  3  Jul^, 
1898.  The  administrative  centre  of  the  vicariate  is 
at  Cairns. 

Statistics  to  dose  of  1907. — Parochial  districts,  7; 
stations,  32;  churches,  18;  regular  priests,  11;  nuns, 
24 ;  boarding  school,  1 ;  primary  schools,  3 ;  children 
attending  Catholic  schools,  470;  Catholic  population, 
about  6000. 

MoRAN.  History  of  the  Catholic  Churdh  in  AuetraUuia  (Syd* 
&ey,  s.  d.):   Aualraliuian  Catholic  Directory  (Sydney,  1908). 

Henrt  W.  Cleart. 

Ck>ombe8.  William  Henrt,  b.  8  May,  1767;  d.  15 
November,  1850.  He  passed  his  eariy  srears  at  Mead> 
gate,  Somersetshire,  Kngland,  the  property  and  for 
many  years  the  residence  of  his  uncle,  Rev.  William 


Coombes  (d.  18  April,  1822),  of  Douai  College,  Grand- 
Vicar  of  the  Western  District.  Young  Coombes  went 
to  Douai  at  the  age  of  twelve,  was  ordained  in  1791, 
and  during  the  French  Revolution  escaped  (October, 
1793)  from  Dourlens  to  England.  He  was  a  doctor 
of  theology  and  co-operated  earnestly  with  Bishop 
Douglass  at  Old  Hall  seminary  as  professor  and  vice- 
president.  From  1810  he  served  the  mission  of  Shep- 
ton  Mallet  till  1849,  when  he  retired  to  Downnde 
monastery,  where  he  died.  He  is  described  as  a  qnrit^ 
ual  and  self-denying  priest,  an  eminent  scholar  and 
theoloflian.  His  chief  works  are:  ''Sacred  Eloquence; 
being  Discourses  from  the  Writings  of  Sts.  Basil  and 
Chiysostom,  with  the  Letters  of  St.  Eucberius  of 
Lyons''  (London,  1798);  ''Escape  from  France;  witJi 
an  account  of  the  English  Poor  (lares  from  Aire,  and 
a  narrative  of  the  sufferinfls  and  death  of  Pius  VI" 
(London,  1799) ;  "  life  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  from 
the  Frendi  of  Marsollier"  (Shepton  Mallet,  1812); 
"^iritual  Entertainments  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales'' 
(Taunton,  1814);  "The  Essence  of  Religious  Con- 
trover^"  (1827);  "Life  of  St.  Jane  FrvDces  de 
Chantal"  (London,  1830).  There  survive  certain 
other  writings  by  Coombes  on  religious  and  political 
themes. 

OuvER,  CoUeeUmea,  272;  Gillow.  SiU,  Diet.  Bng.  Caih., 
I.  558;   Cooper  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  XII,  109. 

Patrick  Rtak. 

Oopacavana  (also  called  Copacabana),  a  village 
of  about  four  hundred  people,  Indians  chiefly,  on  the 
shore  of  Lake  Titicaca,  province  of  Omasuyos,  in 
northern  Bolivia.  It  is  the  location  of  a  famous  sanc- 
tuary dedicated  to  Our  Lady  of  Carmel,  and  of  a 
convent  of  Franciscan  Recollects.  During  the  wars 
of  independence  it  was  despoiled  of  most  of  its  rich 
ornaments  and  ^fts,  and  rutnless  plundering  by  faith- 
less custodians  m  the  course  of  political  disturbaiices 
has  further  contributed  to  impoverish  it.  The  edi- 
fices, originally  very  handsome,  are  in  a  state  of  sad 
neglect.  It  is  a  shrine  for  pilgrims  from  Bolivia  and 
southern  Peru,  and  on  6  August  the  feast  of  its 
patron  saint  is  frequented  by  thousands.  Before 
1534  Copacavana  was  an  outpost  of  Inca  occupation 
and  pernaps  the  only  one  on  Bolivian  soil  of  any 
prominence.  The  Incas  held  it  as  the  key  to  the  very 
ancient  shrine  and  oracle  on  the  Island  of  Titicaca, 
which  they  had  adopted  as  a  place  of  worship,  yield- 
ing to  the  veneration  in  which  it  stood  anK)ng  the 
Aymard  from  time  almost  immemorial.  There  were 
at  Copacavana  minor  shrines,  in  which  the  ceremonial 
of  the  Incas  was  observed  with  that  of  the  original 
inhabitants.  When  the  Spaniards  first  vinteathe 
Islands  of  Titicaca  and  Koati,  in  1534  and  1538,  the 
primitive  cults  were  abandoned  and  the  Dominicans 
made  Copacavana  the  centre  of  their  missions.  Secu- 
lar priests  then  replaced  them  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Viceroy  Francisco  de  Toledo,  and  finally  the  mis- 
sion and  its  annexes  were  entrusted  to  the  Augus- 
tinians  in  1589. 

In  1582  an  Indian  from  Copacavana,  struck  by  the 
sight  of  the  statues  of  the  Blessed  Viigin  which  he 
saw  in  some  of  the  churehes  at  La  Pas,  tried  to  make 
one  himself,  and  after  many  failures,  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing one  of  fair  workmanship  for  an  untrained 
native,  and  it  was  placed  at  C/opacavana  as  the  statue 
of  the  tutelar  protectress  of  the  conununity.  Many 
miracles  have  been  attributed  to  it,  and  its  fame  has 
spread  far  bejrond  the  limits  of  its  surroundings.  It 
is  kept  in  a  special  chapel,  where  the  Indians  are  un- 
tiring in  their  devotions.  The  jewels  with  which  it  is 
adorned  are  perhaps  the  only  ones  in  the  church  that 
have  not  been  replaced  by  modem  imitation&  Dur- 
ing the  uprising  of  the  Indians  in  1781,  while  the 
chimsh  itself  was  desecrated,  the  "Camarin".  as  the 
chapel  is  called,  remained  untoudied  and  exempt 
from  spoliation.  Copacavana  is  the  scene  of  often 
repulsively  boisterous  Indian  celebrations.    On  tha 


OOPS 


2d  of  February  and  6th  ot 
furnLsh  the  pretext  for  Indi 
have  not  yet  b(»n  able  entirely  _ 

ture  of  the  old  Pagan  with  the  ChristiaiTlBTflWh^sting, 
although  a  source  of  mortification  to  the  Bolivian 
clergy,  who  are  as  yet  unable  to  modify  it.  Copaca- 
vana  is  surrounded  by  pre-Columbian  ruins  of  con- 
siderable interest. 

Mention  is  made  of  Copaeavana  iii  the  earlier  documents 
touching  what  is  now  Bolivia,  as,  for  instance,  Doeumentoa 
iniditoa  para  la  Hxaicria  <U  Chile  (1568);  Ramos.  Hiai.  dd 
Santttario  de  Copacavana  (Lima,  1621);  Ouva.  Hiatoria  dd 
Perv.  Etc.  (Lima,  s.  d.,  writteh  o.  1636);  Jaqub  db  jam  Rios 
DB  MANCAifBD,  Voyage  aux  Jndea  crientalea  et  occiderUalee 
(Archivea  dee  Youaoea^  tr.  French,  1606);  Calancha,  Cordnica 
moralizada,  II:  Andres  db  S.  NicolXs,  YmAgen  de  N.  S.  de 
Copacavana  (Madrid,  1663);  Mabacci,  De  ditta  virgine,  Copaca- 
vana^  in  peruana  novi  mundi  Regno  cdeberrima  (Rome,  1656). 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

Oop6  (known  in  Latin  as  pluviale  or  cappa),  a  vest- 
ment which  may  most  conveniently  be  described  as  a 
long  lituiigical  mantle,  open  in  front  and  fastened  at  the 
breast  with  a  band  or  clasp.  As  existing  monuments 
show,  whether  we  look  at  pictoiial  representations  or 
at  the  copes  of  earl^  date  which  still  survive,  there  has 
been  remarkably  little  change  in  the  character  of  the 
vestment  from  the  earliest  ages.  Then  as  now  it  was 
made  of  a  piece  of  silk  or  cloth  of  semicircular  shape, 
and,  as  it  IS  important  to  note,  it  differed  from  the 
earlier  form  of  chasuble  only  in  this,  that  in  the  chasu- 
ble the  straight  edges  were  sewn  together  in  front  while 
in  the  cope  they  were  left  open.  The  most  conspicu- 
ous external  modification  which  the  cope  has  under- 
gone, during  the  past  thousand  years  and  more,  lies  in 
a  certain  divergence  in  the  shape  of  the  hood,  a  feature 
which,  after  all,  is  not  in  anv  way  an  essential  part  of 
the  vestment.  In  some  eany  examples  we  find  only  a 
little  trianjgular  hood,  which  was  no  doubt  intendecf  to 
be  of  practical  utilitv  in  covering  the  head  in  proces- 
sions, etc.  But  witn  the  lapse  3i  time  the  hcHod  has 
developed  into  a  mere  ornamental  appendage,  and  it  is 
now  quite  commonly  represented  by  a  sort  of  shield  of 
rich  embroidexy,  artificially  stiffened  and  sometimes 
adorned  with  a  fringe,  the  whole  being  fastened  by 
buttons  or  by  some  other  device  to  the  back  of  the 
cope  below  the  broad  orphrey  which  usually  forms  an 
upper  border  to  the  whole.  The  fact  that  in  many 
^ny  chasubles,  as  depicted  in  the  drawings  of  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  we  see  clear  traces  of  a 
pnmitive  hood,  thus  bearing  out  the  explicit  state- 
ment upon  the  point  of  Isidore  of  Seville,  stronely  con- 
firms the  view  that  in  their  origin  cope  and  cnasuble 
were  identical,  the  chasuble  being  only  a  cope  with  its 
front  edges  sewn  together. 

History. — The  earliest  mention  of  a  cappa  seems  to 
meet  us  in  Gregory  of  Tours,  and  in  the  *  'Miracula' '  of  St. 
Furseus,  where  it  seems  to  mean  a  cloak  with  a  hood. 
So  from  a  letter  written  in  787  by  Theodemar,  Abbot 
of  Monte  Cassino,  in  answer  to  a  question  of  Charle- 
magne about  the  dress  of  the  monks  (see  Mon.  Germ. 
Hist.:  Epist.  Carol.,  II,  512)  we  learn  that  what  in 
Gaul  was  styled  cucuUa  (cowl)  was  known  to  the  Cas- 
Binese  monks  as  cappa.  Moreover  the  word  occurs 
more  than  once  in  Alcuin's  correspondence,  appar- 
'  ently  as  denoting  a  garment  for  evervday  wear.  When 
Alcuin  twice  observes  about  a  casiua  which  was  sent 
^,  that  he  meant  to  wear  it  always  at  Mass,  we  may 
piobably  infer  that  such  garments  at  this  d&te  were 
not  distinctively  liturgicalowing  to  anything  in  their 
material  or  construction,  but  that  they  were  set  aside 
for  the  use  of  the  altar  at  the  choice  of  the  owner,  who 
"light  equally  well  have  used  them  as  part  of  his  ordi- 
|!&ry  attire.  In  the  case  of  the  chasuble  the  process  of 
liturgical  specialization,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  was  com- 
pleted at  a  comparatively  early  date,  and  before  the 
end  of  the  ninth  century  the  maker  of  a  casuia  prob- 
mv  knew  quite  well  in  most  cases  whether  he  intended 
bis  nandiwork  for  a  Moss  vestment  or  for  an  everyday 


iiL'ut.  But  in  the  case  of  a  cappa,  or  oope, 
nod  of  specialization  seems  to  have  been  de- 
laved  imtil  much  later.  The  two  hundred  cappa  of 
wnich  we  read  in  a  Saint-Riquier  inventory  in  the  year 
801,  a  number  increased  to  377  by  the  year  831, 
were,  we  believe,  mere  cloaks,  for  the  most  part  of 
rude  material  and  destined  for  common  wear.  It  may 
be  that  their  use  in  choir  was  believed  to  add  to  the  de- 
corum and  solemnity  of  the  Divine  Office,  especially  in 
the  winter  season,  lii  83 1  one  of  the  Saint-Riquier  copes 
is  specially  mentioned  as  being  of  chestnut  colour  and 
embroidered  with  gold.  This,  no  doubt,  implies  use 
by  a  dignitary,  but  it  does  not  prove  that  it  was  as  vet 
regarded  as  a  sacred  vestment.  In  fact,  if  we  follow 
the  conclusions  of  Mr.  Edmund  Bishop  (Dublin  Re- 
view, Jan.,  1897),  who  was  the  first  to  sift  the  evidence 
thoroughly,  it  was  not  until  the  twelfth  century  that 
the  cope,  made  of  rich  material,  was  in  general  use  in 
the  ceremonies  of  the  Church,  at  which  time  it  had 
come  to  be  regarded  as  the  special  vestment  of  can- 
tors. Still,  an  ornamental  cope  was  even  then  con- 
sidered a  vestment  that  might  be  used  bv  any  member 
of  the  clergy  from  the  hignest  to  the  lowest,  in  fact 
even  by  one  who  was  only  about  to  be  tonsured. 
Amongst  monks  it  was  the  practice  to  vest  the  whole 
community,  except,  of  course,  the«oelebrant  and  the 
sacred  ministers,  m  copes  at  high  Mass  on  the  greatest 
festivals,  whereas  on  ^asts  of  somewhat  lower jgrade, 
the  community  were  usually  vested  in  albs,  in  this 
movement  the  Netherlands,  France,  and  Germany  had 
taken  the  lead,  as  we  learn  from  extant  inventories. 
For  example,  already  in  870,  in  the  Abbey  of  Saint- 
Trond  we  find  "thirty-three  precious  copes  of  silk" 
as  against  only  twelve  chasubles,  and  it  was  cleariy  the 
Cluny  practice  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century 
to  vest  all  the  monks  in  copes  during  high  Mass  on  the 
great  feasts,  though  in  England  the  regulations  of  St. 
Dunstan  and  St.  i£thelwold  show  no  signs  of  any  such 
observance.  The  custom  spread  to  the  secular  canons 
of  such  cathedrals  as  Rouen,  and  cantors  nearly  every- 
where used  copes  of  silk  as  their  own  peculiar  adorn- 
ment in  the  exercise  of  their  fimctions. 

Meanwhile  the  old  cappa  nigra,  or  cappa  choralis,  a 
choir  cope  of  black  stuff,  open  or  partly  open  in  front, 
and  commonly  provided  with  a  hood,  stul  continued 
in  use.  It  was  worn  at  Divine  Office  by  the  clergy  of 
cathedral  and  collegiate  churches  and  also  by  many 
religious,  as,  for  example,  it  is  retained  by  the  Domin- 
icans during  the  winter  months  down  to  the  present 
day.  (See  Costume,  Clerical.)  No  doubt  the 
''copes''  of  the  friars,  to  which  we  find  so  many  refer- 
ences in  the  Wydiffite  literature  and  in  the  writings  of 
Chaucer  and  Langland,  designate  their  open  mantles, 
which  were,  we  ma^  say,  part  of  their  full  dress,  though 
not  always  black  in  colour.  On  the  other  hand  we 
may  note  that  the  cappa  dausa,  or  close  cope,  was 
simply  a  cope  or  cape  sewn  up  in  front  for  common 
outdoor  use.  "  The  wearing  of  this ' ',  says  Mr.  Bishop, 
(loc  cit.,  p.  24),  **  instead  of  the  'cappa  scissa',  the  same 
cope  not  sewn  up,  is  again  and  again  enjoined  on  the 
clergy  by  synods  and  statutes  during  the  late  Middle 
Ages. '  *  The  cappa  magna,  now  worn  according  to  Ro- 
man usage  by  cardinals,  bishops,  and  certain  specially 
privil^^  prelates  on  occasions  of  ceremony,  is  not 
strictly  a  hturgical  vestment,  but  is  only  a  Verified 
cappa  choralis,  or  choir  cope.  Its  colour  for  cardinals 
is  ordinarily  red,  and  for  bishops  violet.  It  is  ample 
in  volume  and  provided  with  a  lon^  train  and  a  ais- 
proportionately  large  hood,  the  linm^  of  which  last, 
ermine  in  winter  and  silk  in  summer,  is  made  to  show 
like  a  tippet  across  the  breast.  Further  we  must  note 
the  papal  mantum,  which  differs  little  from  an  ordinary 
cope  except  that  it  is  red  in  colour  and  somewhat 
longer.  In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  the 
immaniatio,  or  b^towal  of  the  mantum  on  the  newly 
elected  pope,  was  regarded  as  specially  symbolical  of 
investiture  with  papal  authority.    "Investio  te  de 


350 


OOPAOAVAf^^^S 


COPBKHAOi.. 

papatu  romano  iit  pnpBis  urbi  et  orbi "  w    . . 

used  in  oonfemng  it  (I  invest  thee  with  u^^-j;;;;    V^r  oFthe* WertSm'lS*^^  and  6500  manuacripts. 

papacy,  that  thou  rule  over  the  city  and  the  worla/.  "*^*^SiJili  " *  *v«r^«w*  -*^^8Uie9  of  Europe  in  the  Midd 


the    Coombes  (d.  18  April,  18221  ^  studcnte.     The  library 


Use. — Under  all  these  different  forms  the 
cope  has  not  substantially  changed  its  character  or 
shape.  It  was  a  vestment  for  processions,  and  one 
worn  by  all  ranks  of  the  clergy  when  assisting  at  a 
function,  but  never  employed  oy  the  priest  and  his 
sacred  ministers  in  offering  the  Holy  Sacrifice.  At 
the  present  day  it  is  still,  as  the  '*  CsBremoniale  "  directs, 
worn  by  cantors  on  certain  festal  occasions  in  the  sol* 
emn  Office;  but  it  is  also  the  vestment  assigned  to  the 
celebrant,  whether  priest  or  bishop,  in  almost  all  func« 
tions  in  which  the  cnasuble  is  not  used,  for  example  in 
processions,  in  the  greater  blessings  and  consecrations, 
at  solemn  Vespers  and  Lauds,  in  giving  Benediction 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  at  the  absolutions  and 
burial  of  the  dead,  at  the  Asperges  before  Mass,  etc. 
At  a  pontifical  high  Mass  it  is  worn  by  the  assistant 
priest  who  especially  attends  upon  the  bLahop.  As 
regards  colour  the  cope  follows  that  of  the  day,  and  it 
may  be  made  of  any  rich  or  becoming  material.  Ow- 
ing to  its  ample  dimensions  and  unvarying  shape, 
ancient  copes  are  preserved  to  us  in  proportionately 
ereater  numbers  tnan  other  vestments  and  provide 
tne  finest  specimeas  of  medieval  embroidery  we  pos- 
sess. Among  these  the  Syon  Cope  in  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum,  London,  and  the  Ascoli  Cope  are  re- 
markable as  representing  the  highest  excellence  of 
that  specially  English  thirteenth-century  embroidery 
known  as  the  opus  angltcanunu  We  are  also  indebted 
to  the  use  of  copes  for  some  magnificent  specimens  of 
the  jeweller's  craft.  The  broocn  or  clasp,  meant  to 
fasten  the  cope  in  front,  and  variously  cisdled  morses 
pectoral,  hoUone,  etc.,  was  an  object  often  in  the  high- 
est degree  precious  and  costly.  The  work  which  was 
the  foundation  of  all  the  fortunes  of  Benvenuto  Cel- 
lini was  the  magnificent  morse  which  he  made  for 
Pope  Clement  VIL  (See  Cellini,  Benvenuto.) 
Some  admirable  examples  of  these  clasps  still  survive. 
Besides  the  minor  articles  which  are  devoted  to  this  Bubject 
in  the  ecclesiastical  encyclopedias  and  works  on  archsologv, 
we  may  note  the  exhaustive  work  of  Braun,  Die  liturgisthe 
Oewandung  (Freiburs,  1907),  30&-358,  also  the  very  thorough 
diflouBsion  oi  Edmdnd  Bishop  in  Dublin  Review  (Jan.,  1807), 
17-^:  and  Tralhofer,  Liturgik^  I,  887.  For  some  magnifi- 
cent illustrations  of  copes,  see  especially  de  Fahct,  La 
Broderie,  (Angers,  1890),  and  also  RoHAUiyr  de  Fleurt,  La 
Me$M  (l^aris.  1889).  VIII,  1-17.  ^ 

Herbert  Thurston. 

OopeBhageiiy  Universitt  of. — It  was  founded  by 
a  Bull  which  Sixtus  IV  issued  19  June,  1475,  at  the  re- 
quest of  King  Christian  I.  This  Bull  authorised  the 
primate,  the  Archbishop  of  Lund,  to  establish  a  uni- 
versity in  any  place  selected  by  the  king ;  and  the  latter, 
by  letters  patent  of  4  Oct.,  1478,  laid  the  foundation  at 
Copenhagen.  The  Bishop,  Dean,  and  Provost  of  Ro&- 
kild  and  the  Dean  of  Copenhagen  were  appointed  con- 
servators. The  statutes,  drawn  up  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Lund  and  promulgated  28  Nov.,  1479,  followed 
closely  those  ol  Cologne.  From  Cologne  also  the  new 
imiversity  received  its  first  professors.  The  niost  dis- 
tinguished among  these,  before  the  Reformation,  was 
the  Carmelite,  Povel  Helgesen  (Paul  Helia,  q.  v.)  writer 
of  important  controversial  and  historical  works.  Both 
he  and  Bishop  Lage  Ume,  chancellor  of  the  university, 
vigorously  opposed  the  advances  of  Protestantism  m 
Denmark.  Tne  university  suffered  severely  during 
the  religious  upheaval,  but  was  reorganized  under  King 
Christian  III  by  the  Lutheran  theologian,  Johann  Bu- 
genhagen  (1539),  called  for  that  purpose  from  Witten- 
berg. In  the  conflagration  of  1728  the  university 
buihiings  were  almost  totally  destroyed,  but  were  at 
once  restored  bv  King  Christian VI  (1732).  Notable 
among  the  professors  during  the  modem  period  are 
Holberg,  O^lenschlager,  Rask,  Madviff,  and  Oersted. 
The  university  comprises  at  present  the  faculties  of 
theology,  law,  medicine,  philosophy,  and  sciences,  with 


'J^^M^ib?:*^!*  291;  .Matcbn,  Kiobenhqvfu   Unvvenitiar 


iddU  Agem 
vo;,^-7'^^3S^^^'V-^x.  zvi;  matzbn,  Aiot»ermavfu  UnvvenilOr 
ReUhtatorie  (Ck>penhagen,  1879);  Rordau,  Kiohenhavna  Uni- 
versUeta  historie  fra  15S7  tU  IGfl  (Oopenhagen.  1808-74). 

E.  A.  Pace. 


Oopernicns,  Nicolaus,  latinized  form  of  NicLAfi 
KoppERNiGK,  the  name  of  the  founder  of  the  helio- 
centric planetary  theory;  b.  at  Thorn,  19  Feb.,  1473, 
d.  at  Frauenburg,  24  May,  1543,  both  places  being  in 
what  is  now  Prussian  territory.  Whether  the  fam- 
ily came  originally  from  Silesia  or  from  Poland,  cer- 
tain it  is  that  his  father  Niclas.  a  merchant,  emigrated 
from  Krakow  to  Thorn,  ancl  married  the  sister  of 
Lucas  Watzelrode,  later  iSince-Bishop  of  Ermland.  Of 
the  four  children 
the  oldest  and 
younffest,  Andreas 
and  Nicolaus, 
adopted  the  cler- 
ical career,  while 
the  older  girl  be- 
came a  Cistercian 
nun  and  Abbess  of 
Culm,  and  the 
younger  married. 
The  whole  family 
belonged  to  the 
Third  Order  of  St. 
Dominic.  Nic- 
olaus was  hardly 
ten  years  old  when 
his  uither  died.  His 
uncle,  Lucas,  how- 
ever, took  charge 
of  the  children  and 
gavetheboysauni*  ^ 

vereity  traming.  Nicolaus  Coperkicus 

Nicolaus  Nicolai  de  Thonmia  was  matriculated  in 
Krakow  in  1491,  where  he  studied  classics,  mathe- 
matics, drawings,  and  perspective.  Professor  Blar, 
who  represented  astronomy,  belonged  to  the  school  of 
Ptolemy.  The  bishop,  himself  a  former  student  of 
Bologna,  sent  the  boys  to  Italy.  In  1497  Nicolaus 
was  enrolled  in  the  University  of  Bologna  as  of  Ger- 
man nationality  and  a  student  in  canon  law.  He 
also  studied  Greek  and  became  a  disciple  of  Novara, 
then  professor  of  astronomy.  To  obtain  for  his 
nephews  the  necessary  support,  the  bishop  procured 
their  election  as  canons  by  the  chapter  of  Frauenburg 
(1497-1498).  In  the  spring  of  1500  the  brothers  went 
from  Bologna  to  Rome  for  the  jubilee.  Acconiing  to 
George  Joachim,  sumamed  "Rheticus"  (because  a 
native  of  Feldkirch,  in  ancient  RhsBtia)  and  his  friend 
Achilles  Gasser,  Copernicus  gave  astronomicaJ  lec- 
tures in  the  Eternal  Citv,  and  it  was  there  that  he 
awoke  to  his  vocation  of  founding  a  new  astronomy. 
The  brothers  obtained  from  the  chapter  of  Frauen- 
burg a  two  years'  leave  of  absence  to  continue  their 
studies.  From  1501  to  1503  Nicolaus  was  in  Padua 
and  Ferrara  studying  medicine  and  jurisprudence. 
In  Ferrara  he  took  his  degree  of  Doctor  of  Canon  Law ; 
but  no  document  is  found  of  his  graduating  in  medi- 
cine. His  proficiency  in  that  profession  was,  how- 
ever, later  evinced  by  his  renown  as  a  physician  at  the 
episcopal  court  of  Heilsberg,  where  his  uncle  resided. 
After  his  university  studies  Copernicus  practised  medi- 
cine for  six  years  (1506-1512)  at  Heilsberg,  being 
sought  by  bishops  and  princes,  but  especially  by  the 
poor,  whom  he  served  gratis.  There  is  no  document  to 
show  that  Copernicus  ever  received  higher  orders.  His 
medical  practice,  which  was  only  pnvate,  would  not 
speak  against  him  being  a  priest;  and  the  fact  that  in 
1537  King  Sigismund  of  Poland  put  his  name  on  the 
list  of  four  candidates  for  the  vacant  episcopal  seat  ot 


■Mi^H    K     f  ■     1, 


-CiT' 


','    .  "^  -  ■   jiifit.p^in 


•*,#'i  t»>.  .     ' 


-n 


*    »•?  *  . 


:^^ 


COPERNICUS.  "DE  ORBIUM  CCELESTIUM  REVOLUTIONIBUS" 

FACSIMILE  OF   PAGE  OF  THE    MS.,   LIBRARY  OF  THE  COUNTS   NOSTITZ.    PRAGUR 


oopiiuaoos 


^3 


oops&incus 


Ermland,  makes  it  probable  that,  at  least  fn  later  life, 
he  had  entered  the  priesthood.  After  the  death  of 
his  undle,  in  1512,  Copernicus  went  to  Frauenburg  for 
the  election  of  the  new  bishop,  and  reqiained  there  until 
1516,  when  he  was  nominated  administrator  of  the 
diocesan  castle  of  Allenstein.  His  term  of  four  vears 
being  over,  he  returned  to  the  chapter  in  Frauenburg. 
Three  years  later  the  bishop  died,  and  Copernicus  be^ 
came  administrator  of  the  diocese.  Whue  the  qniet 
life  at  Heilsberg  had  left  him  enoneh  leisure  to Jpub- 
lish  a  Latin  translation  of  the  Greek  letters  of  llieo- 
phyiactus  (1509).  his  public  offices  gradually  drew 
nim  into  the  study  of  finance.  In  1522  he  wrote  a 
memorandum  on  monetary  reforms,  which  five  years 
later  grew  into  a  Latin  treatise.  It  wfB.sohi^ly 
thought  of  that  the  Kin^of  Poland  substantially  ac> 
ceptra  it  (1528),  and  Copermeus  was  nominated 
deputy  counsellor  on  the  financial  regulations  of 
Prussia  (1522-29).  ^    . 

These  various  offices,  however,  could  not  distract 
Hie  genius  of  Copernicus  from  the  main  thought  of  his 
life.    The  towers  of  Heilsberg,  of  Allenstein,  and  of 
Frauenburg  became  so  many  observatories,  and  his 
great  work  "On  the . Revolutions  of  the  Celestial 
Bodies"  bears  testimony  to  his  unremitting  observa- 
tions of  sun,  moon,  and  planets.    Hi^  reputation  was 
such  that  as  early  as  1514  the  Lateran  Coiincil,  con- 
voked by  Iieo  X,  asked  through  Bishop  Paul  of  Fos- 
sumbrone.  for  his  opinion  on  the  reform  of  the  eccle- 
siastical calendar.     His  answer  was,  that  tne  length 
of  the  year  and  of  the  months  and  the  motigns  of  the 
sun  and  moon  were  not  yet  sufficiently  known  to  at- 
tempt a  reform.    The  incident,  however,  spurred  him 
on  as  he  himself  writes  to  Paul  III,  to  make  more 
accurate  observations;    and  these  actually  served, 
seventy  years  later,  as  a  ba^is  for  the  workmg  out  of 
the  Gregorian  calendar.    Twenty-five  years  jBter  his 
university  career,  he  had  finished  his  jgreat  work,  at 
least  in  nis  own  mind,  but  hesitated  a  long  time, 
wliether  to.pniblish  it  or  to  imitate  the  Pythagoreans, 
who  transmitted  the  mysteries  of  their  philosophy 
only  orally  to  their  own  disciples  for  fear  of  exposing 
them  to  tne  coittempt  of  the  multitude.    His  menos 
who  had  become  interested  in  the  new  theory  pre- 
vailed on  him  to  write  at  least  an  abstract  for  them, 
manuscript  copies  of  which  have  been  discovered  in 
Vienna  (1873)  and  Stockholm  (1878).    In  this  comr 
mentary  Copernicus  stated  his  theory  in  the  form  of 
seven  aooms,  reserving  the  mathematical  part  for  the 
principal  work.    This  was  in  1531,  or  twelve  years 
before  his  death.    From  this  on  the  doctrine  of  the 
heliocentric  system  began  to  spread.    In,  1533  Albert 
Widmanstadt  lectured  before  Pope  Clement  VII  on 
the  Coperpican  solar  system.    His  reward  consisted 
in  a  Greek  codex  which  is  preserved  in  the  State  li- 
brary of  Munich.     Three  veais  later  Copernicus  was 
urged  by  Cardinal  Schdnoeig,  then  Archbishop  of 
Capua,  in  a  letter,  dated  at  Rome,  1  November,  1536, 
to  publish  his  disooveiy,  or  at  least  to  have  a  copy 
made  ait  the  cardinal's  expense.    But  all  the  urging 
of  friends  was  in  vain,  until  a  younger  man  was 
providentially  sent  to  his  side. 

It  was  George  Joachim  Rheticus  who  quitted  his 
chair  of  mathemattics  in  Wittenberg  in  order  to  spend 
two  years  at  the  feet  of  the  new  master  (1539^)* 
Hanily  ten  weeks  after  his  arrival  in  Frauenburg  he 
sent  a  ^ First  Narration"  of  the  new  solar  system  to 
his  Boientifio  friend  Sch6ner  in  Nuremberg,  in  the 
fo^  of  a  letter  of  sixty-sue  pages,  which  wasapomafter 
printed  in  Danzig  (1540)  and  Basle  (1541).  Khctieus 
next  obtained  for  publication  the  manuscript*  of  a 
preliminary  chapter  of  the  great  work  on  plane  and 
spherical  trigonometry.  FiniUly  Copernicus,  feeling 
the  weight  of  his  sixty^ht  yaars,  yielded,  as  he 
"vmtes  to  Paul  III,  to  the  entreatiesi  of  Cardinal 
^6nberg,  of  Bishop  Oiese  of  Culm,  and  of  other 
leaned  men  to  sorrender  his  maoiBoripts  lor  pubUear 
IV— 23 


tlon.  Bishop  Giese  charged  Kheticus,  as  the  ablest 
disciple  of  the  great  master,  with  the  task  of  editing 
the  work.  The  intention  of  the  latter  was  to  take  the 
manuscript  to  Wittenbei^  and  have  it  published  at 
the  university:  but  owing  to  the  hostility  prevailing 
there  against  tne  Copemican  mtem,  c^ly  the  chapter 
on  trigonometry  was  printed  (1542).  The  two  copies 
of  the  *' First  Narration"  and  of  the  treatise  on  trig- 
onometry, which  Rheticus  presented  to  his  friend 
Dr.  -GasseTi  then  piuetising  medicine  in  Feldkhch, 
may  be  seen  in  the  Vatican  Library  (Palat.  IV,  585). 
Rheticus  then  turned  to  SchOner  in  Nuremberg,  who, 
together  ^tb  Gsiander,  accepted  the  charge  and  en- 
gaged the  printin^house  of  Petrerius  in  the  same  city. 
hi  the  meanwhile  Rheticus  tried  to  resume  his  chau- 
iii  Wittenberg,  but .  on  account  of  his  Copemican 
views  had  to  reaiffn  (1542)  and  turned  to  Leipsig 
(1543).  He  was  tnus  prevented  from  giving  his  per- 
sonal attention  to  the  ^tion,  nor  was  the  author  him- 
self able  io  snpeiintend  it.  Copernicus  became  par- 
iif  aed  on  the  li^t  side  and  weakened  in  memory  and 
imnd  roBoxy  days'  before  his  death.  The  first  copy  of 
Ifae  "Six^Bookir  on  the  Revolutions  o(  the  Celestial 
Orbits"  was  handed  to  him  the  very  day  he  died. 
Fortunately  for  him,  he  could  not  see  what  Osiander 
had  done^  This  reformer,  knowing  the  attitude  of 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  against  the  heliocentric  os- 
tein; intioduoed  the  word  ^Hypothesis"  on  the  title 
page,  and  without  adding  his  own  name,  replaced  the 
pr^ace  of  Copernicus  by  another  strongly  contrasting 
in  spirit  with  that  of  Copernicus.  The  preface  of  Osi- 
ander warns  the  reader  not  to  expect  anything  certain 
from  astronomv,  nor  to  accept  its  hypothesis  as  true, 
ne  stuUior  ab  hoc  diacipHnd  dMcedat,  quam  accesserit. 
The  dedication  to  Pope  Paul  III  was,  however,  re- 
tained, and  the  text  of  the  work  remained  intact,  as 
iras  ascertained  later  when  access  was  had  to  the 
origiiial  manuscript,  now  in  the  family  library  of  the 
Counts  Nostitdi  in  Prague. 

Opposition  was  first  raised  against  the  (3opernican 
system  by  Protestant  theologians  for  Biblical  reasons, 
and  strange  to  say  it  has  continued,  at  least  sporadic- 
ally, to  our  own  days.  A  list  of  many  of  their  pamph- 
lets is  enumerated  by  Beckmaim.  On  the  Catholic 
side  opposition  only  commenced  seventy-three  years 
Utter,  when  it  was  eeeasioned  by  Galileo.  On  5  March, 
1616,  the  work  of  Copernicus  was  forbidden  by  the 
Gongregation of  the  Index  ''until  corrected",  and  in 
16^  these  oorrections  were  indicated.  Nine  sen- 
teiuses,  by  which  the  hehocentric  system  was  repre> 
sented  as  eertain,  had  to  be  either  omitted  or  chaiiged. 
Hiis  done,  the  reading  of  the  book  was  allowed.  In 
1758  the  book  of  Copenucus  disappeared  from  the 
revised  Index  of  Benedict  XIV.  New  editions  were 
isnied  in  Basle  (1566)  by  Rheticus;  in  Amsterdam 
(1617)  bvMuller  of  Gk^tingen;  in  Warsaw  (1854)  an 
^tion  de  liace  with  Polish  translation  and  the  real 
preface  of  Copernicus;  and  the  latest  (5th)  in  Thorn 
(ld73>  l^  the  Copernicus  Society,  on  the  four  hun- 
dredth annhrersaiy  of  the  author's  birthdav,  with  all 
the  corrections  of  the  text,  made  by  Copernicus, 
given  as  foot-notes.  A  monument  by  Thorwaldsen 
was  erected  to  Copernicus  in  Warsaw  (1830),  and 
another  by  Tieck  at  Thorn  (1853).  Rheticus,  Qa- 
vius^  and  others  called  Copemieus  the  second  Ptolemy, 
a&d  his  book  the  second  ''Almagest".  His  genius 
appears  in.  the  fact  that  he  grasped  the  truth  centuries 
before  it  could  be  proved.  If  he  had  precursors,  the^ 
are  to  be  compared  to  those  of  Columbus.  What  is 
most  significant  in  the  character  of  Ck>pemicus  is  this, 
that  wmle  he  did  not  shrink  from  demolishing  a  scien- 
tific •system  consecrated  by  a  thousand  years'  univer- 
sal aeceptance,  he  set  his  face  against  the  reformers 
oi  religion,  fbr  supplementary  information  see  the 
artide  Qauleo, 

Bkckmann,  a  series  of  articles  on  Gbpernicus  in  ZtiUthrift  /• 


aoPFti 


354 


OOQUJOff 


Nicolaua  Copernicua  und  Martin  Luther  (1868),  ibid..  IV; 
Idem,  SpieUegium  Copemieanum  (Braunsberg,  1873);  Bebti. 
Copemico,  etc.  (Rome.  1876);  Cubtzs,  /nednto  Copemieana 
(Leipaig,  1876);  Pbowb.  Nicotatu  Copernicua  (Berim,  1883); 
MOlleb,  Nicolaua  Copemieua  in  Stinunen  cnia  Maria-Loach 
(Freiburs  im  Br.,  1898) ,  supplement  72 ;  Hold  en,  N.  Cqpemieus 
in  Popular  Science  Monthly  (New  York,  June,  1004);  Oostard. 
HiaUiry  of  Astronomy  (London.  1767);  Narribn,  Uiatorieal 
Account,  etc.  (London^  1833)  HoraMAN,  Uiat.  of  Aatronamy 
in  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge  ( — 1834). 

J.  G.  Hagen. 

Oopp Je,FRAN^iB  Edouard  Joachim,  poet,  dram- 
atigt  and  novelist,  b.  at  Paris,  26  January,  1842;  d.  23 
May,  1908.  His  father,  a  clerk  in  the  war  depart- 
ment, eave  him  the  example  of  a  true  Christian  life. 
He  studied  for  a  few  years  at  the  LyoSe  Saint-Louis, 
but  his  family  being  in  strai^tened  circnmstanoes,  he 
left  the  school  before  graduating  to  aid  in  their  sup- 
port.   He  completed  his  education  by  private  study, 

spending  lonj; 
hours  in  the  Li- 
brary 8te-Qene- 
vidve,  after  a  hard 
day's  work.  In 
1863,  he  joined  tJie 
group  of  poets 
later  celebrated 
under  the  name  of 
the  ''Parnas- 
siens'',  and  three 
years  later  pub- 
lished his  first  col- 
lection of  verses, 
"Le  Reliquaire", 
soon  followed  by 
''Intimity".  His 
first  play"  Le  Pas- 
sant", was  pro- 
duced in  1869. 
Througfi  the  in- 
fluence of  Prin- 
■r<.  ^      .  ccooc  Mathilde.  he 

sistant-librarian  at  the  senate,  a  sinecure  wnich  allowed 
him  to  devote  himself  to  literature.  From  1871  to  1385 
he  was  librarian  at  the  Commie  Francaise.  In  1876  he 
received  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  was 
elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1884,  succeeding  Lap- 
rade,  anotherpoet  whose  talent  did  no  little  honour  to 
the  Catholic  Faith .  The  works  of  Coppte  come  under 
four  classes :  narrative  poems,  dramas,  novels  and  short 
stories.  The  narrative  poems,  including  ''Le  Reli- 
quaire"  (1866),  "Inthnit^s"  (1868),  "Les  Humbles'' 
(1872),  ''Contes  en  Vers"  (1880),  and  ''Les  Pb^mes 
Modemes"  (1867-1869),  present  picturesque  studies 
of  contemporary  life,  the  sentimental  realism  of  which 
is  entirely  free  from  coarseness  or  triviality.  He 
wrote  a  great  number  of  plays  in  verse,  chief  among 
which  are:  "Le  Passant"  (1869),  "Le  Luthier  de 
Cr^mone"  (1876),  "Severe  Torelli^'  (1883),  which  is 
regarded  as  his  dramatic  masterpiece, "  Les  Jacobites" 
(1886),  "Pour  La  Couronne"  (1896),  "Fais  ce  que 
Dois"  (1871),  and  "  Le  Pater",  a  play  deaUng  with  an 
episode  of  the  Conmiune;  long  forbidden  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, it  obtained  a  peat  success  in  1890.  His 
drama  is  remarkable  for  its  lofty  and  generous  ideals, 
while  its  technique  shows  a  constant  effort  to  combine 
the  theory  of  romanticism  with  the  demands  of  mod- 
em theories.  His  works  in  prose  comprise  several 
novels-  "Henriette"(1889);  "  Une  klylle  pendant  le 
siftge"  (1874);  "Les  vrais riches"  (1898);  "Rivales" 
(1893);  "le  Coupable"  (1897),  and  many  short  stories 
" Contes  en  prose"  (1882) :  "  Vlngt  oontes  nouveaux" 
(1883);  "Contes  rapides'^  (1889).  The  short  stories 
are  the  most  popular  part  of  his  works.  Simplicity, 
truth  and  vividness  in  the  portrayal  of  familiar  scenes, 
constitute  the  charm  that  nas  so  endeared  the  author 
to  readers  the  world  over.  In  "La  Bonne  Souf- 
fiance",  written  in  1898,  after  a  serious  illness  that 


brought  him  back  to  the  religbus  faith  of  his  diild- 
hood,  there  are  elements  of  jy^reat  strength  and  sweet- 
ness. The  last  years  of  his  life  were  saddeqed  by 
cruel  sufferings  endured  with  patience.  He  was  a 
modest  man  and  led  a  quiet  simple  life.  He  was 
always  ready  to  help  those  who  stn^gs^  throu^  life 
in  obscurity.  He  ^ve  to  the  French  Academy,  in 
1907,  a  sum  yielding  $200  annually  to  be  used  as  a 
prize  for  young  poets. 

Standard  editions:  Edition  dgSviriantu  (P$Lna,  IS70-19^  IB 
voU;  Oeuvrea  compiHea  (Paris,  1887-1906),  16  vol.;  hmcawm, 
F.  Coppie,  rhomma,  la  via  at  Vmuvra  (Fkria,  1889);  ob  Jum»- 
viLLB,  Hiatoira  de  la  Umaua  etdela  littinUure  franQoiaaa  d^Ja. 
1899),  VIII;  Gaubeot.F.  CoppSe  (Paria,  1906). 

Louis  N.  Deuimarre. 

Ck>ptie  Ohurch.    See  Egypt. 

Ck>ptic  Versionfl  of  the  Bible.  See  Versionb  or 
THE  Bible. 

Ck>pt08»  a  titular  see  of  Tipper  Egypt.  It  was  the 
chief  town  of  the  Nomos  of  Harawt  (Two  Hawks),  and 
was  once  politically  important,  but  under  the  eleventh 
dynasty  it  was  overshadowed  by  Thebes.  Its  princi- 
pal god  was  Manou,  with  an  Isis  and  an  Horns  infant; 
the  remains  of  their  temple  were  explored  by  Flinders 
Petrie  in  1894.  Coptoe  was  at  the  starting-point  of 
the  two  great  routes  leading  to  the  coast  cl  the  Red 
Sea,  the  oile  towards  the  port  T&^u  (Myoehormos), 
the  other  more  southerly,  towards  the  port  of  Sha- 
shirit  (Berenice).  Under  the  Pharaohs  the  whole 
trade  of  southern  Egypt  with  the  Red  Sea  passed  over 
these  two  roads;  under  the  Ptolemies,  ana  in  Roman 
and  Byzantine  times,  merchants  followed  the  same 
roads  for  purposes  of  barter  with  the  coasts  of  Zanzi- 
bar, Southern  Arabia,  India,  and  the  Far  East. 
Coptos  was  most  prosperous  under  the  Antonines;  it 
was  captured  in  292  by  Diocletian  after  a  long  raege, 
butsoon  recovered  its  former  standing.  In  the  siirth 
century  it  was  called  Justinianopolis.  The  see  was 
suffragan  of  Ptolemais  in  Thebais  Secunda.  Five 
bishops  are  known  (Lequien,  II,  607):  Theodorus,  a 
partisan  of  Meletius;  Pncebanmion  in  431;  Sabinus 
m  461 ;  Vincent,  author  of  the  "Canonical  Solutions", 
preserved  in  an  Arabic  translation  and  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  Copts;  Moyses,  who  wrote  the  pane- 
gync  of  Vincent.  Under  the  caliphs  and  ihe  sultans 
Koptos  remained  one  of  the  chief  ci tide  of  Said.  In 
11  To  its  Christian  inhabitants  raised  the  standard  of 
revolt  against  the  Mussulmans,  but  werfe  pronoptly 
suppressed  by  El  Adel,  brother  of  Saleh  ed-Din  (Sahi- 
din),  who  haneed  nearly  3000  on  the  trees  around  the 
cit^r.  In  the  thirteenth  century  there  were  stlU  in  ^is 
region  numerous  monasteries.  Ooptoe  was  ruined  in 
the  sixteenth  century  by  the  Turidsh  conquest.  It  is 
to-day  a  village  called  Kebt,  or  Keft,  with  about  2600 
inhabitants,  subject  to  the  mudirieh  of  Keneh;  it  is 
situated  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  between  Den- 
derah  (Tynteris)  and  Kamak  (Thebes),  about  620 
miles  from  Cairo. 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Oaogr-  (London,  1878).  I.  666. 

S.  VailhIu 

Ooquart,  Claude-Godefroi,  missionary  and  anx^ 
chaplain,  b.  in  Pays  de  Caux,  France,  20  February, 
1706;  d.  at  Chiooutimi,  Canada,  4  July,  1765.  He 
began  his  novitiate  in  the  Jesuit  GoU^e  at  Paris,  20 
May,  1726,  studied  at  the  College  of  Louis  le  Grand 
and  at  La  Fldche,  and  was  professor  at  Arras  and 
Hesdin.  In  1740  he  set  out  for  Canada  and,  in  the 
foUowingyear,  journeyed  with  Verendiye  to  Fort  La 
Reine.  He  probably  returned  with  Verendiye  when 
that  explorer  was  compelled  to  resign  his  position  as 
commandant  in  the  North-West.  From  1746  to  1767 
Father  Coquart  laboured  on  the  Saguenay  mission 
and  later  at  Quebec.  After  the  conquest  of  Canada 
he  attempted  to  settle  a  few  Jesuits  in  Acadia^but  the 
RngMsh  authorities  forced  them  to  leave.  He  then 
resumed  bis  laboun  io  the  Saguenay  region,  where  he 


(XIE40B8IUM 


355 


closed  hk  miaBionary-  career.  He  has  left  an  Abnaki 
gcammar  and  dictionary.  In  the  Jeeuit  Relations 
(Thwaites  ed.,  LXIX)  is  a  memoir  written  by  him 
for  the  Intendant  of  Canada,  in  irhich  he  describes 
theso-caUed  ''Kinp^'s  Poets"  of  Eastern  Canada,  with 
practical  observations  and  suggestions  that  make  it 
a  valuable  document  for  economic  study. 

BocBXHOMTKix,  L«t  Jiau^M  §i  la  NauvtUe-l^nmee  au  X  VJJJ^ 
fiMs^  (Pans,  1906),  laii:  Tbwaitm  ^d^Jeiuit  Rdatioiu  (Cleve- 
land. ISW^igOl),  LXIX.  289.  290;  Aluno,  BiUiogra^y  of 
theAlofrtiquiimLanQuaqMCNwilt^  Boia,  NoHee 

•ur  Rh.  Clmid$OodfrouiCotuart  (copy  in  Ubmry  ol  WU.  Uiet. 
Society):  Sadubb»  An  U%9torie  SpU  in  the  Cath^ic  World 
(1893),  LIX.  309  sq.;  Prud'homii b,  Revue  Canadienne  (1897), 
81-02;  Bbown,  Tw>  Uiuumarv  Prieeta  at  Madeinae;  Idew, 
St.  Atme^e  Parieh  RegUur  «U  MiMlitmaekinae  (C^caco,  1889). 

Edwabd  p.  Spillans. 

Ooraeeaiuin,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor.  Accord- 
ing to  Ptolemy  ry,  5,  3),  this  town  was  not  in  Cilicia 
Tracheia,  but  m  Roman  Pamphylia.  It  had  belong 
to  Isauria  according  to  the  pre-Koman  ethnic  system, 
azMi  from  a.  d.  74  was  probably  included  in  Ljcia- 
Pamphylia.  Its  port  was  the  chief  centre  oc  the 
famous  Cillcian  pirates:  there  Diodorus  Tryphon  was 
killed  by  Antioohus  VII,  and  the  pirates  utterly  do- 
stroyed  by  Pompey,  who  levelled  their  fortress. 
Coraoesium  became  a  suffra^jan  of  Side,  metropolis 
of  Pamphylia  Prima.  Leqmen  (1, 1007)  mentions 
only  four  bishops,  the  first  having  been  present  at 
the  Council  of  Constantiaople  (381),  the  last  at  the 
Council  of  ConstantiiK>ple  in  681 ;  but  the  see  is  still 
mentioned  in  the  "Notitie  episeopatuum"  as  late  as 
the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  oentury.  Coracesium  is  now 
a  liUle  town  with  about  2000  inhabitants  (500 
Greeks),  the  chief  centre  of  a  com  in  the  vilayet  of 
Konia.  Its  Turkish  name  is  Alaya.  The  Armenians 
have  completely  disappeared,  though  the  town  was  a 
very  important  one  in  the  time  of  the  Rupesis.  There 
arc  curious  ruins;  walls,  ancient  tombs,  and  other  re* 
mains  of  antiquity,  and  mai^  romantic  stories  are 
associated  with  it. 

Bbavvort,  Caramania  (London,  1847);  Cvimn,  Turquie 
cTAne,  I,  867-870;  Aushan,  Sieeouan  (Venice.  1899).  368  sq., 
with  lutkstratioiie. 

S.  PirntiniB. 

Oorbavia,  I>iocsaE  of.    See  Szent. 

Oorbeieiiiia  Oodez.    See  MSS.  of  thb  Biblb. 

Oorbetty  James.    See  Sale,  Diocese  of. 

Oorbi^  (CoRBT  or  Corbinqton),  Ambrose,  b.  near 
Durham,  7  Dec.,  1604;  d.  at  Rome,  11  April,  1649. 
He  was  the  fourth  son  of  (jierard  Corbie  and  his  wife 
Isabella  Richardson,  exiles  for  the  Faith.  Of  their 
childrefn,  Ambrose,  Ralph,  and  Robert,  having  be- 
come Jesuits  (Richard  died  as  a  student  at  St.-d&ers, 
and  the  two  surviving  dau^ters,  Mary  and  Catherine^ 
became  Benedictine  nuns  at  Brussels),  the  parents  by 
mutual  agreement  entered  religion.  The  father  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  as  a  lay  brother  in  1628,  and  having 
reconofled  his  father  Ralph  (aged  1(N))  to  the  Church, 
died  at  Watten,  17  Sept.,  1637.  The  mother,  in  1633, 
was  professed  as  a  Benedictine  at  Ghent  and  died  a 
centenarian,  25  Dec.,  1652.  Ambrose  at  the  age  of 
twelve  entered  St.-Omers,  jeoing  thence  (1622)  to  the 
English  College,  Rome.  He  entered* this  Society  of 
Jesus  at  Watten  in  1627,  and  in  1641  was  professed. 
Having  taudit  wiUi  success  for  some  years  at  St^ 
Omers,  and  T>een  minister  at  Ghent  in  1645,  he  was 
appouited  confessor  at  the  English  College,  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  his  forty-fifth  year.  His  works  are: 
(1)  "Certamen  Triplex"  etc.,  the  history  of  the  mar- 
t3atlom  of  three  English  Jesuit  priests:  Thomas  Hol- 
land, his  own  brother  Ralph  Corbie  (see  below),  and 
Hefnry  Iforse  (Antwerp^  1645,  12mo),  with  three  en- 
mved  portraits;  reprmted  (Munich,  1646,  12mo): 
English  trstaslation  by  E.  T.  Scaigill  under  the  title  ot 
•The  Threefold  Conflict",  etc.;  ed.  W.  T.  Tumbull 
(LottdoB,  1858;  8vo).    (2)  An  account  of  his  family; 


English  version  in  Foley,  "Records",  IH,  64.     (3) 

"Vita  e  morte  del  Fratello  Tomaso  Stitintono  [i.  e. 

Stillmgton  alias  Oglethorpe]  no vitio  Ii^lese  della  (^m- 

pagnia  di  Gesu  morto  in  Messina,  15  ^pt.,  1617": 

(MS. at Ston^hurst  College;  see  ''Hist.  MSB. Cwnm.^ 

3rd  Report,  338,  tr.  ancfed.  Foley,  "Records",  III, 

15  sqq. 

B??'%"T2?^>,-^?'*?'*^^»^  ife  te  c.  «fe  J.,  II.  1410;  OiLLOw, 
BM.  Diet.  Bno.  Caih.,  1, 563. 

Ralph  (called  at  times  Corbinoton),  Venbrablb, 
brother  of  the  above,  martyr-priest,  b.  25  March,  1598, 
near  Dublin;  d.  7  September,  1644.  Fr<Mn  the  age  of 
five,  he  spent  his  childhood  in  the  north  of  England, 
then  going  over  seas  he  studied  atSaint-Cmer,  Seville, 
and  VaUa^olid,  where  he  was  ordained.  Havii^  be- 
come a  Jesuit  about  1626,  he  came  to  England  in  1631 
and  laboured  in  Durham.  He  was  seized  by  the  Far- 
liamentcuians  at  Hamsterley^  8  July,  1644,  wheo 
clothed  in  his  Mass  vestments,  conveyed  to  Loodoni 
uid  committed  to  Newgate  (22  July),  with  his  friend 
John  Duckett,  a  secular  priest.  At  their  trial  (Old 
Bailey,  4  September)  they  both  achnitted  tiieir  priest* 
hood,  were  condemned  to  death,  and  executed  at  Ty" 
bum,  7  September.  Stomrhurst  has  a  relic  of  Father 
Corbie;  for  the  Duke  of  Cxueldres'  attestation  ifk  1650 
of  other  relics,  see  Foley's  '' Records S.  J.'V  1, 564;  the 
"Certamen"  portrait  is  r^roduced  in  *'lieooida"« 
VII  (I),  168;  for  his  letters,  see  vol  III,  69  sqq.,  of 
the  same  work.  The  Cbrbie  oliaBi  according  to  Foley 
[(».  cit.,  VII  (II),  808]  was  Carlington  or  Carlton. 

Tannbb,  SocieUu  Jeeu  militant,  122:  Chaixoner,  Mienon- 
ary  PrUsU  (1742),  IL  278;  Dodd,  Church  SZtory,  III,  111; 
OuvBR,  CoUedanea  S.  J.,  674;  FoLirr,  Records  S.  J.,  HI. 
6fr-08,  151  sqq.;  VI.  29ft;  VII  (I).  167;  Xlnxaw.  ML  DidH 
Eng.  Cath,,  I,  564;  Coopsa  in  JXcL  Nat,  Bufg.,  XI^.  209;  C«r- 
tamen  Triplex  (Antwerp,  1645). 

Patrick  Rik's. 

CkMrMe  (also  CJorbby),  Monabtbry  of,  a  Benedfo* 
tine  abbey  in  Picardy,  in  the  Diocese  of  Amiens, 
dedicated  to  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul.  It  was  foundod 
in  667  by  Saint 
Bathilde,  widow  of 
ClovisII,andboth 
she  and  her  son 
Clotaire  III  en- 
dowed it  richly 
with  lands  and 
privileges.  The 
latter  were  subse- 
quently confirmed 
by  Popes  Benedict 
III  and  Nicholas 
I.  Thefirst  monks 
came  from  Lux- 
euil,  Theodefrid 
being  the  first 
abbot.  Under  St. 
Adelhard,  the 
ninth  abbot,  the 
monastic  school  of 
Corbie  attained 
great  celebrity  and 
about    the    same     ~  I    ~  ' 

time  it  sent  forth       <?Hmica  of  St.  SrispMNa.  Ck)RBijB 

a  colony  to  found  the  abbey  of  Corvey  in  Saxony*  In 
11^  a  fire  destroved  the  monastic  buildings  but  they 
were  rebuilt  on  a  larger  scale.  Commendatory  sbbots 
were  introduced  in  1550,  amongst  those  that  held  the 
benefice  being  Cardinal  Mazarin.  The  somewhat 
droopmg  fortunes  of  the  abbey  were  revived  in  1618, 
when  it  was  one  of  the  first  to  be  incorporated  into 
the  new  Congregation  of  Saint-Maur.  At  its  sup- 
pression in  1790  the  buildinoB  were  partly  demolished, 
but  the  (^urch  remains  to  this  day,  with  its  imposing 
portal  and  western  towers.  One  of  the  most  famous 
scholars  produced  by  Corbie  was  Pasdiasius  Badbert 
(d.  865),  the  first  to  write  a  comprehensive  treatise  <m 


OOBBnrXAH 


356 


OOBMEAH 


the  Blessed  Sacnunent.  In  the  coutroverHy  to  which 
this  work  gave  rise,  his  chief  opponent  was  Ratraiu- 
nus,  one  othis  owii  monks,  whose  views,  however,  are 
at  variance  with  Catholic  teaching;  both  treatises  are 
printed  in  Migne.  P.  L.,  CXX-CXXL  The  library  of 
Dorbie,  rich  ana  extensive,  was  removed  to  Saint- 
Gennain-des-Prte  in  1624. 

Mabxllon.  Ij%9€»  of  St.  BatkOde  and  Bl,  Theodtlrid  in  Ada 
SandoTum  0,  S.  B,  9ctc  II,  (Venice,  1733);  SAiNTB-MASisa, 
QiMia  ChriaHana  (Paris.  1728),  X,  1263;  BfioNx,  Did.  de» 
aVbay€»  (Paris.  1850):  Sbxtbus  in  Kxrdienlex,  III,  1088-«); 
GBnTAUVB,  Tapp-^fMioqr.  (Paris,  1894-99).  703-^.  good  bib- 
Uosraphy.  A  view  of  the  abbey,  as  it  was  bef oxe  suppreBrian« 
is  siven  in  Deiaooubt  and  Djblulb,  Monattiam  OoUioBmvm 
(Paris,  1871).  U.  pi.  76. 

G.  Cyprian  Alstton. 

CkyrbiaUii,  Saimt,  Bishop  of  Freising,  in  Bavaria, 
b.  about  680  at  Chatres  near  Melun,  Trance;  d.  8 
September,  730.  His  feast  is  celebrated  8  September, 
translation,  20  November;  emblem,  a  bear.  Nothing 
\b  known  of  his  youth.  His  father,  Waldekiso,  died 
before  the  birth  of  Corbinian.  After  the  death  of  his 
mother,  Corbiniana,  he  lived  as  a  hermit  at  the  church 
of  Saint-Germain  at  Chatres.  With  some  of  his 
disciples  he  went  to  Rome  in  716  (709).  Here  he  was 
consecrated  bishop,  given  the  pallium,  and  sent  to 
pfeadi,  which  he  aid  with  great  success  in  the  vicinity 
of  his  former  home.  In  723  (716)  he  again  visited 
RiMne,  with  the  intention  of  resigning.  The  pope 
would  not  listen  to  his  request.  On  his  return  trip 
Cort>inian  came  to  Mais  in  l^rol,  where  he  was  induced 
by  messengers  of  Duke  Gnmoald  to  go  to  Bavaria, 
and  settle  at  Freising.  The  dates  of  the  Roman  jour- 
beys  are  somewhat  confused,  but  the  people  of  Freis- 
ing seem  to  consider  724  as  the  date  of  Corbinian'b 
amval,  for  in  1724  was  celebrated  the  tenth,  and  in 
1S24  the  eleventh  centenaiy  of  the  existence  of  the 
diocese.  On  account  of  the  incestuous  marriage  of 
Grimoald,  his  apparent  repentance,  and  subsequent 
relapse,  Corbinian  left  Freising,  but  returned  in  729 
(72»),  on  the  invitation  of  Hucbert,  Grimoald's  suo- 
oessor,  and  continued  his  apostolic  labours.  His  bo(^ 
waa  buried  at  Freising,  then  transferred  to  Mais,  and 
in  769  brou^t  back  to  Freising  by  Bishop  Aribo,  who 
also  wrote  his  life.  St.  Ck>rbinian  waa  a  man  of  zeal, 
and  of  steong  feeling,  not  to  say  temper,  and  exercised 
great  influence  over  all  with  whom  he  came  in  con- 
tact. 

Manh.  PbfMt  cflke  BaHy  MiddU  Agta  (London,  1902).  Vol.  I, 
Ft.  II.  p.  152  iq.;  Hops,  Convenion  of  the  Teutonic  Raeeq,  II, 
4a'  Ada  33.»  Smtember.  III.  261 :  Mbichblbbcx,  Hidoria  Frit- 
ingmtnM  I,Dt.  II.  3  sqq.;  Hauck,  KirdimgmdiiehUDtutaefiUmdt 
(1887),  1. 345:  Wattbnbach.  DmUadU.  OnchidUatvulUn,  1, 90; 
FAwnmomMt  Bmtr.  tur  Omeh.  de»  Brtb,  Mdtieh^n  und  Freuing 
(1901),  VII.  ^  „ 

Francis  MxasRiCAir. 

Oorcona,  Jamks  Andrbw,  theologian,  editor,  and 
Orientalist,  b.  at  Charieston,  South  Carolina,  tl.  S. 
A.,  aO  March,  1820;  d.  at  Fhihidelphia,  16  July.  1889. 
In  his  fourteenth  year  he  was  sent  to  the  College  of 
Propaganda,  Rome,  where  he  made  a  brilliant  course 
and  was  ordained  priest  21  December,  1842.  He  was 
the  first  native  of  the  Carolinas  who  received  priestly 
orders.  He  remamed  a  year  longer  in  Rome  to  com- 
plete his  studies  and  was  made  doctor  in  sacred  theol- 
ogy. He  read  with  ease  the  literatures  and  dialects 
or  Western  and  Northern  Ehirope,  spoke  Latin  as 
fluently  as  his  native  tongue,  axid  acquired  that 
thorouf^  mastery  of  the  idiom  which  distinguishes 
the  text  of  the  Second  Henary  Council  of  Balti- 
more. In  addition,  he  was  a  profound  Semitic 
schdar,  with  a  special  predilection  for  Syriao.  On 
the  death  of  Bishop  En^and  in  1842  he  was  recalled 
to  Charieston,  where  he  tau^t  in  the  seminal^,  doing 
parochial  work  in  the  meantime,  and  in  conjunction 
with  Dr.  Lynch  edited  the  ''United  States  Catholic 
Misoenany'S  the  first  distinctively  Catholic  literary 
perkMiSeal  published  in  the  United  States.  His  pon- 
tioB  as  a  GathoUo  editor  naturally  involved  him  in 


many  controversies,  one  being  on  the  life  and  taacb- 
ings  of  Martin  Luther,  for  which  Dr.  Corcoran  pio- 
cured  from  Eurooe  an  abundance  of  Luikerana.  He 
had  made  great  neadway  with  the  prepsratkm  of  a 
life  of  Luther,  when  in  1861  his  manuscript  and  li- 
brary were  destroyed  b^  Qx»»  During  the  Civfl  War 
his  sympathies  were  with  .the  South,  and  the  end  oC 
the  stnigide  found  him  rector  of  a  pariah  at  Wifaning- 
ton,  Nonn  Carolina,  where  he  proved  his  fidelity  to 
pastoral  dut^  durinjE  an  epidemic  of  cholera  wnidi 
decimated  his  little  nock.  He  was  made  secretary  to 
the  Baltimore  Provincial  Councils  of  1855  and  lo58: 
also  secretary  in  chief  at  the  Second  Plenary  Council 
of  1866.  He  waa  one  of  the  editors  of  the  complete 
works  of  Bishop  England.  In  1868  he  was  cmMen 
by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the  American  hierarchy 
as  their  theologian  tm  the  commisBictn  prepamtory  to 
the  Vatican  Counofl.  He  was  assigned  to  the  doc- 
trinal commission  presided  over  h^  Cardinal  Bfllio. 
During  the  debates  on  papal  infallibility,  a  doctrine 
which  he  firmly  held,  ne  drew  up  for  Archbishop 
Spalding  the  famous  "Spalding  Formula",  destined 
as  an  olive-branch,  in  which  the  doctrine  is  rather 
implied  than  flatly  stated.  But  those  were  no  days 
for  compromises.  While  at  the  council,  Bishop  Wood 
of  Philadelphia;  his  school*fellow  at  the  Propagsuida, 
perfected  arrangements  by  which  Dr.  Corooraa  took 
a  theological  dmir  in  the  n^wly-opened  seminary  at 
Overbrook,  near  Philadelphia.  Tnis  position  he  re- 
tained until  death,  declining,  on  the  plea  of  advancing 
years,  a  call  to  the  Catholic  Universi^  at  Washington. 
In  1876  the  "American  Oatholk  Qmuteri^  Review" 
was  foimded,  and  Dr.  Corcoran  was  made  chief  edi- 
tor. His  able  articles  and  book  notices  were  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  its  success.  (For  a  li^  of  his  contribu- 
tions see  General  Index  of  Uie  Review.  Phfladelphia, 
1900,  p.  15.)  In  1883,  whan  the  aichbishops  of  the 
United  States  were  invited  to  Rome*  to  prepare  for 
the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimora,  they  took 
Dr.  Corcoran  witn  them  as  secretoiy,  and,  at  their 
request,  he  was  permitted  to  be  present  and  take 
notes  at  the  sessions  held  with  the  three  canjinals 
appointed  by  Pope  Leo  XIII  as  a  special  commission. 
Ttie  following  year  he  was  made  a  dopiestic  prelate 
and  assisted  as  secretary  at  the  FTenary  CounciL 
That  Monsignor  Corcoran. did  not  bequeath  to  pos- 
terity works  of  any  ^[reat  size  is  explained  by  the 


circumstances  of  his  life.  He  was  too  busy  a  man 
to  devote  himsdf  to  literary  pursuits.  A  peat  part 
of  his  time  was  occupied  witn  his  immense  corree- 

Sondi^nce.  He  may  be  said  to  have  been  weudited 
own  with  "the  solicitude  of  all  the  Churches  ,  for 
such  was  the  confidence  which  the  bishops  and  clergy 
reposed  in  his  judgment,  that  they  sou^t  his  counsel 
on  all  difllcult  points  of  theology  and  canon  law. 
He  was  apparently  wioonaoious  of  his.  great  gifts, 
claiming  no  supenoritv,  and  was  exiremeljr  affable. 
His  love  for  the  Quucn,  and  his  loyal  adhesion  to  all 
her  doctrines,  were  patent  in  all  he  said  or  Wrote. 

Kbans,  In  Memofiam:  Mar.  Corcoran  in.  Am,  Catk.  Quart, 
Rw.  (Philadelphia,  1889),  738. 

Jam£8  F.  LotroRLnr. 

Ckircoraa,  Michabl,  soldier,  b.  at  Carrowkeel, 
County  Sligo/ Ireland,  21  September,  1827:  d.  at 
Fairfax  Court  House,  Viigini%  U.  a  A.,  22  i)eoem« 
ber,  1863.  His  father  was  an  anny  pensioner,  and 
he  himself  joined  the  Royal  Irish  Constabulary 
when  nineteen  years  of  age.  He  resigBcd  after  three 
3rearB'  service  and  emigrated  to  New  York  in  August, 
1849.  Here  he  soon  beeame  a  leader  among  his 
fellow-countrymen.  He  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the 
Sixty-Ninth  Regiment  of  the  State  Militia,  a  oom- 
mand  composed  of  Catholics  of  Irish  birth  or  dssoent, 
and  rose  from  mnk  to  rank  until  he  was  elected 
cokmel,  25  August,  1859,  The  next  year  the  Prince 
of  Wales  (afterwards  King  Edwaid  YU  of  Bngjand) 
visited  New  York,  and  in  the  milttaiy  parade  givoi 


3S7 


QQBD 


in  hishonoar  CSolonel  Goioonui  rafiuedto  oidertlie 
fiizty^Nliiih  Rflppment  to  jciiu  For  this  aei  of 
militaiy  disobocfieiioe  he  was  placed  under  amsi 
by  the  State  autluxities  and  oraend  before  a  court 
martiaL  The  tiial  created  much  excitement  all  over 
the  ooontxy,  his  Irish  countiymen  enthueiaatically 
amiaudiiiffhiB  oottne,  and  the  caee  was  pending  when 
the  Clril  War  broke  out.  The  proceeding  were 
hnmediateljr  quashed,  and  the  wcty^Ninth,  with 
oveiflowing  ranks,  was  one  of  the  fiist  regiznents  to 
march,  with  Corooian  at  its  head,  23  April,  1861, 
to  the  defence  of  the  Union.  It  participated  with 
speciiil  calfamtry  in  the  first  Battle  of^  Bull  Run,  21 
July,  1S61,  in  which  action  Colonel  *^Corooran  was 
wounded  imd  taken  prisoner.  He  was  kept  in  the 
Ck>nfederate  prisons  for  thirteen  months  and  then  ex- 
changed in  August^  1862.    His  retuin  to  the  North 


brought  him  a  series  of  popular  ovations  and  testi- 
monials. He  i^as  commissioned  a  brigadier-general, 
at  once  raised  a  brigade  of  four  regiments,  which  was 
called  the  Irish  Legion,  and,  taking  command  of  it, 
rejoined  the  army  in  Virginia  in  November,  1862. 
During  the  following  year  the  Legion  participated 
in  several  minor  engaflements,  and  while  in  camp  at 
Fairfax  Court  Heuse,  Virginia^  General  Corcoran  was 
thrown  from  lus  horse  and  died  the  same  day  from 
the  effects  of  the  accident. 

CoifTMOHAic,  The  Irith  Brigade  and  It»  Campaigne  (Boston* 
I860);  Cbxmmxns,  Irieh  American  ffiatotieal  MieceOany  (New 
York.  1906);  Tha  Jriah  Ameriam  (New  York).  The  POoi  (Bos- 
ton); ooDtempoxmzyfiles;  QiTiftNA«H,  Memoin  ef  Oen.  Thomae 
FnmeiB  Meagher  (Worepster,  IB02). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Oordt  CoNVBATBUNiTiES  OF  THE,  pious  associations 
of  the  faithful,  the  members  of  which  wear  a  cord  or 
cincture  in  honour  of  a  saint,  to  keep  in  mind  some 
special  grace  or  favour  which  they  nope  to  obtain 
tnrou^  his  intercession.  Among  Oriental  peoples, 
and  especially  among  the  Jews,  whose  priests  and 
prophets  wore  a  cincture,  the  wearing  of  a  belt  or 
girdle  dates  back  to  very  ancient  times.  Christ  him- 
self commanded  his  Apostles  to  have  their  loins 
girded.  In  the  eariv  Church  viigins  wore  a  cincture 
as  a  sign  and  emblem  of  purity,  and  hepce  it  has 
alwi^  Dcen  considered  a  symbol  of  chastity  as  well 
as  of  mortification  and  humility.  The  wearing  of  a 
cord  or  cincture  in  honour  of  a  saint  is  of  v^  ancient 
orifiih,  and  we  find  the  first  mention  of  it  in  the  life 
of  St.  Monica.  In  the  Middle  Ages  cinctures  were 
also  worn  by  the  faithful  in  honour  of  saints,  though 
no  ooidfratemities  were  formally  established,  and  the 
wearing  of  a  cincture  in  honour  of  St.  Michael  was 
general  throughout  France.  Later  on,  ecclesiastical 
authority  set  apart  iqpecia]  formula  for  the  blessins 
of  cinctures  in  nonour  of  the  Most  Precious  Blooo, 
Our  Lady,  St.  Francis  of  Paul,  and  St.  Philomena. 
There  are  in  the  Churdi  three  archconfratemities 
and  one  confraternity  the  members  of  which  wear 
a  cord  or  cincture. 

(1)  The  ArchconfraUrnUy  of  Our  Lady  of  Conaola- 
fum,  or  of  the  Btack  Leathern  BhU  of  Si,  Monica,  St 
AugutHnet  and  St.  N'icholas  of  Tolentino. — According 
to  an  old  tradition,  St.  Monica  in  a  vision  f'eceived  a 
black  leathern  belt  from  the  Blessed  Vitgin,  who  as- 
sured the  hdir  widow  that  she  would  take  under  her 
rial  protection  all  those  who  wore  it  in  her  honour. 
Monica  related  this  vision  to  St.  Ambrose  and 
St.  Simplicianus;  both  saints  put  on  a  leathern  belt, 
and  St.  Ambrose  is  said  to  have  girded  St.  Augustine 
with  it  at  his  baptism.  Later  on  it  was  adopted  by 
the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine  as  a  distinctive  part  of 
their  habit.  When,  after  the  canonisation  of  St. 
Nicholas  of  Tolentino,  it  came  into  general  use 
among  the  faithful,  Bugene  IV  m  1439  erected  the 
Confraternity  of  the  CSncture  of  St.  Monica,  St. 
Augustine,  and  St.  Nicholas  of  Tolentino,  in  the 
church  of  St.  James  at  Bologna.    In  1590  Thaddeus 


of  Perugia^  General  of  the  Augustinians,  united  this 
oonf ratermty  and  that  of  Our  Lady  of  Consolation 
(founded  in  1318  or,  according  to  others,  in  1495) 
into  one  confraternity,  which  union  was  confirmed 
bv  Gregory  XIII  in  his  Bull  "Ad  ea"  (15  July,  1575). 
The  same  pope  raised  this  confraternity  to  the  rank 
of  an  archoonfratemitT  and  enriched  it  with  many 
Indulgences.  He  furlher  ordained  that  all  oonfra- 
ternitieB  61  the  black  leathern  belt  should  be  aggre- 
gated to  the  archconf ratemity  at  Bologna,  in  order 
to  share  its  privileges  and  Indulgences.  The  princi^ 
pal  f esst  of  this  confraternity  is  the  Sunday  within 
the  octave  of  the  feast  of  St.  Augustine  (28  August). 
The  members  are  obliged  to  wear  a  black  leathern 
belt,  to  recite  daily  thirteen  Paters  and  Aves  and 
the  Salve  Eegina,  and  to  fast  on  the  vigil  of  the 
feast  of  St.  Au^tine.  For  the  erection  g«  and  re- 
oeption  into  this  ardioonfratemitv  special  faculties 
must  be  had  from  the  general  of  the  Augustinians. 

(2)  Archeonfratemihf  of  the  Card  of  St.  Francie. — 
After  his  conversion  St.  Francis  girded  himself  with 
a  rough  cord 'in  memory  of  the  cords  with  which 
Christ  had  been  bound  during  His  Passion,  and  a 
white  girdle  with  three  knots  came  subsequently  to 
form  pi&rt  of  the  Franciscan  habit.  According  to 
Wadding,  St.  Dominic  received  the  cord  from  St. 
Francis  and  alwa^  wore  it  under  his  habit  out  of 
devotion  to  the  saint,  his  example  being  followed  by 
many  of  the  faithful.  In  his  Bull  **  Ex  supemiB  dis- 
positionis"  (19  November,  1585),  Sixtus  V  erected 
the  Archcontratemity  of  the  Cord  of  St.  Francis  in 
the  basilica  of  the  Sacro  ConvMito  at  Assisi,  enrich- 
ing it  with  many  Indulgences,  and  conferred  upon 
the  minister  general  of  the  Conventuals  the  power  of 
erecting  conmitemities  of  the  Cord  of  St.  Francis  in 
the  churches  of  his  own  order  and  of  a^r^ating 
them  to  the  arohconfratemity  at  Assisi. 


pope,  in  his  Bull  "Divinie  caritatis"  (29  August, 
1587),  granted  new  Indulgences  to  the  archconfra- 
temity  and  empowered  the  minister  general  of  the 
Friars  Minor  to  erect  confraternities  of  the  Cord  of 
St.  Francis  in  the  diurches  of  his  own  order  in  those 
places  where  there  are  no  Ccyiventuals.  Paul  V,  in 
hisBull  ''Cumcertas"  (2  March,  1607),  and  ''Nuper 
archiconfratemitati"  (11  March,  1607),  revoked  all 
spiritual  favours  hitherto  conceded  to  the  archcon- 
fratemity  and  enriched  it  with  new  and  more  ample 
Indulgences.  Both  these  Bulls  were  confirmed  oy 
the  Brief  of  Clement  X,  ''Dudum  felicis"  (13  July, 
1673).  Finally,  Benedict  XIII  in  his  Constitution 
''Sacrosancti  apostolatus"  (30  September,  1724).  con- 
ceded to  the  minister  general  of  the  Conventuals  au- 
thority to  erect  confraternities  of  the  Cord  of  St. 
Francis  in  churches  not  belonging  to  his  own  order 
in  those  places  where  there,  are  no  Franciscans. 
New  privil^^  and  Indulgences  were  conceded  to  the 
arehconf  ratemitv  by  two  decrees  of  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation of  Indulgences  dated  22  March,  1879,  and 
26  May,  1883.  Besides  the  ordinary  requirements 
necessary  for  the  gaining  of  all  plenary  and  partial 
Indulgences,  the  wearing  of  the  cord  and  enrohnent 
in  the  records  of  the  archconfratemity  are  the  only 
conditions  imposed  on  the  members. 

(3)  ArchconfraUrnUy  of  the  Cord  of  St,  Joeeph. — 
The  miraculous  cure  of  an  Augustinian  nun  at  Ant- 
werp in  1657  from  a  grievous  illness,  throu^  ike 
wearing  of  a  cord  in  honour  of  St.  Joseph  gave  rise 
to  the  pious  practice  of  wearing  it  to  obtain  the 
grace  of  purity  throu^  his  intercession.  The  devo- 
tion soon  spread  over  many  countries  of  Europe, 
and  in  the  last  century  was  revived  at  Rome  in  the 
church  of  San  Rocco  and  in  that  of  San  Nicol6  at 
Verona.  Pius  IX,  in  a  rescript  dated  19  Septem- 
ber, 1859,  approved  a  special  formula  for  the  bles»* 
ing  of  the  Cord  of  St.  Joseph,  and  in  his  Brief  ''Ex- 
positum  nobis  nuper"  (14  March,  1862)  enriched  the 
confraternity  witn  many  indulgences.    In  1860 1 


0(»DAEA 


358 


ersl  new  Indulgences  were  granted  to  the  oonfra- 
temity  erected  in  the  church  of  San  Nicold  at  Verona 
and  by  the  Brief  **  Univeisi  Dominici  gregiB"i  23  Sep- 
tember, 1862,  the  Confratemitv  of  the  Cord  of  St. 
Joeeph  was  raised  to  an  arcnoonfratemity.  The 
membera  are  obliged  to  wear  a  oord  having  seven 
knots,  and  are  exhorted  to  recite  dailjr  seven  Glorias 
in  honour  of  St.  Joseph.  Confraternities  of  the  Cord 
of  St.  Joseph  must  be  aggr^;ated  to  the  archoonfra- 
terhity  in  the  church  of  San  Roeoo  at  Rome  in  order 
to  enjoy  its  spiritual  favours  and  Induleences. 

(4)  Ctmfratemity  of  the  Card  of  St.  Thomas.— It  is 
related  in  the  life  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  that,  as  a 
reward  for  his  overcoming  a  temptation  against 
purity,  he  was  girded  with  a  cord  by  angels,  and  that 
m  consequence  he  was  never  again  tempted  asainst 
this  virtue.  Hiis  cord  is  still  preserved  in  the  dhurch 
at  Chieri  near  Turin.  Soon  after  the  saint's  death 
many  of  the  faithful  began  to  wear  a  oord  in  honour 
of  St.  Thomas,  to  obtain  the  grace  of  purity  throup;h 
his  intercession.  In  the  seventeenth  century  socie- 
ties were  formed  at  different  universities,  the  student 
members  of  which  wore  a  oord  in  honour  of  St. 
Thomas,  hoping  through  his  intercession  to  be  pro- 
tected from  the  dangers  to  which  youth  is  generally 
exposed.  The  first  Confraternity  of  the  Cord  of  St. 
Thomas  was  erected  at  the  University  of  Louvain  by 
the  Belgian  Dominican  Francis  Deuwerdersy  and  num- 
bered among  its  members  all  the  professors  and 
students  of  the  faculty  of  theologr  and  many  of  the 
faithful.  Thence  it  spread  to  Maastricht,  Vienna, 
and  man^r  other  cities  of  Europe.  Innocent  X  sanc- 
tioned this  new  confraternity  by  a  Brief  dated  22 
March,  1662.  The  members  are  required  to  have 
their  names  enrolled,  to  wear  a  cord  with  fifteen  knots, 
and  to  recite  daily  fifteen  Ave  Marias  in  honour  of  St. 
lliomaB.  For  the  erection  of  and  reception  into  this 
confraternity  special  faculties  must  be  had  from  the 
superior  general  of  the  Dominicans.  Its  Indulgences 
and  privfli^es  are  contained  in  the  great  Bull  of  Bene- 
dict XIII,  ^Pretiosus"  (26  April,  1727,  §  9)  and  in  the 
decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Indulgences  (8 
May,  1844).    (See  ARCHCoNFRATBiiNrrY.) 

MoccHBGXANi,  CoUecHo  IndulaerUiaruin  (Quaracchi*  1897), 
1018^24,  102e-35:  BEHiHOEa.  Die  AbUiUB  (11th  ed.,  Padei^ 
bom.  1805),  722<i3,  712-14;  Scbneidbb,  BucripUi  AuUientica 
S.  Cong.  Indulg.  (Ratisbon,  1885),  505  sqq.,  432-35;  Idkm. 
Decrtia  AiUhentiea  S.  Cong.  Indulg.  ab  a,  1609-1882  (Ratisbon. 
1883);  Idsm,  Die  AblOsse,  iht  Wesen  vnd  Gebroiach  (8th  ed*. 
Pad«rboro,  i884),  479-481.  540.  579.  705,  730:  LdCHEBKR, 
VxAUt&ndiger  Jnbeariff  der  Gnaden  una  Abld^se  der  Brxbruder" 
9(hatt  Maria  torn  Troste  (10th  ed.,  Ratisbon,  1890);  Prbndbr- 
OA8V,  The  Cord  of  St.  Fronds  (12th  ed.,  Dublin,  1886);  Gau- 


1879);  La  mUice  angUiquty  ea  nature,  tea  oonatiU^  ^pTatig^ee, 
prices  (Parian  18^);  Scupou.  II  gigtio  deUa  puriUi  (3d  ed.. 
Rome,  1878);  -Esser,  Der  fU.  Thomas  eUs  Patron  der  Unsehtdd 
in  der  ihm  oisiaeihien  Onrtelbruderoehaft  (Ratisbon,  1883);  Bnt- 
stehung  una  Zvnek  dor  Ertbrudarsehaft  vom  OUrtel  des  hi.  Joseph 
(Innabraok,  1875);  S.  Josephs  OUrieL  (3d  ed.,  Vienna,  1881). 

Fbrdinand  Heckmann. 

Ookrdara,  Qiulio  Cesare,  historian  and  UtUrateur, 
b.  at  Alessandria  in  Piedmont,  Italy,  14  Dec.,  1704; 
died  there  6  March,  1785.  The  scion  of  an  illustrious 
and  ancient  family  that  came  orisinally  from  Nice, 
voungCordara  studied  at  Rome  under  the  Jesuits,  and 
oecame  a  Jesuit  himself  at  the  age  of  f oiuteen.  Sul>- 
sequently  he  taught  in  various  colleges  of  the  order, 
soon  acquiring  a  great  reputation  not  only  for  a 
knowledge  of  general  literature,  but  especially  for 
proficiency  in  poetry,  rhetoric,  and  history.  A  bril- 
liant discourse  on  Pope  Qregorjr  XIII,  the  founder  of 
the  Roman  College,  and  a  satire  on  the  Cabalists  of 
the  day,  won  for  him  admission  into  the  Academy  of 
tiie  Arcadians.  Several  poetical  works  oC  his  ap- 
peared'under  the  pen  name  of  Pameno  Cassio.  lie 
was  in  high  favour  with  the  exiled  Stuarts,  then  resid- 
ing in  Rome,  on  account  of  an  allegorical  drama,  **  La 


Morte  di  Nice",  wliidi  he  composed  in  booour  of  Hie 
titular  Kin^  James  UI,  and  a  nistQiy  in  lAtin  of  the 
expedition  .mto  Scotland  of  Chailes  Edward  Stnaii, 
prmoeof  Wales,  whidi  some  olhia  admiien  kx>k  upon 
as  his  most  finished  produotion.  His  satirBs  on  '^The 
literary  Spirit  of  the  Tknes",  published  in  1737,  are 
of  a  hi^  order  of  merit.  £i  them  he  pillorifis  a  dass 
of  oontemporaiy  writers  who  arrogatea  to  themselves 
the  literary  oensoiship  of  their  dav,  oondemnad  the 
clasBification  of  the  scienoes  and  tae  methods  c£  in- 
struction in  vogue,  and  even  the  accepted  prindples  of 
taste.  A  seventh  and  revised  edition  was  oroumt  out 
at  Augsburg  in  1764.  But  the  work  by  whicn  he  is 
peihape  best  known  is  the  '^  History  of  ih»  Socieiv  of 
Jesus  ^',  Sixth  Part,  in  two  volumes,  the  first  puUimd 
in  Rome  in  1750,  the  second  posthumously,  by  Fathef 
Ra^;azzini  in  1859,  over  a  century  later.  Tins  worie 
was  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  the  Society  by 
Orlandini,  Saochini,  and  Juvency  and  embraced  the 
period  of  Mutaus  Vitelleschi,  1616-1533.  It  is  in 
Latin  and  remarkable  for  the  elegance,  purity,  and 
dignity  of  its  style.  He  is  also  the  autiior  of  a  hirtoty 
of  the  German  College  in  Rome,  wiiich  contains  a  Ust 
of  its  distinguished  Aumni  (Rome,  1770).  When  the 
Society  of  Jesus  was  suppressed,  Gordara,  who  had 
been  a  member  for  more  than  half  a  century,  with- 
drew^ from  Rome  to  Turin  and  later  to  Alessandria, 
where  the  King  of  Sardinia  had  allowed  some  members 
of  the  Socie^  to  live  unmolested.  Notwithstanding 
his  advanced  i^ge  and  his  new  mode  of  life,  Cordara 
continued  his  literary  labours  and  published  mudi  in 
prose  and  verse.  Sommervogel  enumerates  more 
than  sixty  works,  large  and  small,  of  which  he  is  the 
author.  The  citisens  of  his  native  town  erected  a 
ttiarble  statue  to  his  memory,  in  the  church  of  the 
Bamabites  where  he  was  interred. 

SoMMBRYoaBL,  BikH.  delae.de  J.,  11. 1411-^1432:  ob  Bacxbs. 
I.  S60-74;  III,  2007-8;  Michaud,  Biog.  Univ.  (Puis,  nooTelle 
Id.,  s.  d.),  IX,  90:  HuRTBB,  Nomendator  (Inn«braok,  1895).  V, 
376;  Caraton,  Bibliographie  Bistorimte  de  la  c  de  J.  (Pluia, 
1864),  249.  ^  ^    ^ 

Edward  P.  Bptllanm. 

OordeUen.    See  RBcoLLBcrek 

Oordell,  Charles,  English  missbnaiy  priest,  b,  5 
October,  1720;  d.  at  Newcastle-on-iyne,  26  Januaiy, 
1^1.  He  was  the  son  of  Charles  Cordell  and  Hannah 
Dardl,  of  the  well-known  family  of  Scotney  Castle 
and  CalehiU,  Kent,  and  was  educated  first  at  "Dame 
Alice's  School";  Femyhalgh,  afterwards  at  Douai, 
where,  in  1739,  he  b%an  nis  course  of  philosophy. 
Having  been  ordained  priest,  he  left  the  oolle^se  10 
June,  1743,  for  England^here  he  served  the  mxasion 
at  Arundel  (174^55),  Rounday,  in  Yorkshire,  the 
Isle  of  Man,  and  finally  Newcastle-on-Tyne  (1765-91). 
In  1778  the  presiden(nr  of  the  Engli.sh  ooUege  at  Saint- 
Omer  was  offered  to  nim,  but  he  would  not  accept  it. 
He  was  a  scholarly,  book-loving  maiu  of  some  note  as 
a  preacher.  In  politics  he  remained  a  stanch  Jaco- 
bite. He  published  many  translations  and  one  orig- 
inal pampnlet,  ''A  Letter  to  the  Author  of  a  Bode 
called  'A  Canidid  and  Impartial  Sketch  of  the  Life 
and  Government  of  Pope  Clement  XTV'"  (1785). 
The  translations  include  ''The  Divine  Office  tor  the 
Use  of  the  Laity"  (4  vols.,  Sheffield,  1763;  2d  ed., 
2  vbls.,  Newcastle,  1780):  Bemer's  "Deism  Self-re- 
futed'' (1775);  CaraccioU's  ''Ijfe  of  Pope  Clement 
XIV"  (1776);  Letters  of  Pope  Clement  XIV  (2  vols., 
1777);  Fronsletin's  "Travels  of  Reason"  (1781): 
Fleury's  "Manners  of  the  Christians"  (1786)  and 
"Manners  of  the  Israelites"  (1786);  " Larger  Histor- 
ical Catechism"  (1786);  and  "Short  Historical  Cate- 
chism" (1786). 

Eiax.  Biographies  (BaHv  Nineleefith  Cent.)  Oxniioii,  1908); 
Catholic MireeUany  {lS6).yh387i Notes andOueriesM  Mri«, 
X.  330.  383:  GiLLow.  BiU.  Did.  Eng.  Cath.  (London.  18S6).  1, 
606;  CooPBR  In  Ditt.  ffat.  Biog.  (London,  laS?).  XU.  213. 

Edwin  Burton. 


OCttDXSR 


350 


OORDOVA 


Oordiar  (Gobdkriub),  Bajjihaaab,  exQgete  and  ed- 
itor of  patriBtic  woiks,  b.  at  Antwerp,  7  June^  1592; 
d.  at  Rome,  34  June,  1650.  He  enterod  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  1612,  and  alter  teaching  Greek,  moral 
theology,  and  Sacred  Seripture,  devoted  himself  to 
translating  and  editing  BiSS.  of  Greek  oatenta  and 
other  woncB  of  the  Greek  Fathen,  for  which  he 
searched  the  libraries  of  Europe.  He  published 
the  following:  (1)  ''Catena  sezaginta  quinque 
Patrum  grsBcorum  in  S.  Lucam"  'Antwerp,  1628): 
(2)  ^Catena  Patrum  graecorum  m  S.  Joannem'* 
(Ajitwerp,  1690);  (3)  '^Joannis  l^hiloponi  in  cap. 
I  Geneseos  .  .  .  libri  septem"  (Antwerp,  1690k 
(4)  ''S.  Cypm  f^logis  morales''  (Vienna,  1630);  (5) 
''Opera  ».  Dionysu  Areopagitffi  cum  S.  Maximi 
Bcholiis"  (Antwerp,  1634);  (6)  ''Expodtio  Patrum 
sriBcorum  in  Psalmos"  (Antwerp,  1643-46);  (7) 
^Symbolie  in  Matthseum''  (2  vols.,  of  which,  howoter, 
only  the  second  is  by  him;  Toulouse,  1646-47);  (8) 
''S.  Dorothei  archimandritse  institutiones  ascetics" 
(Antwerp,  1646);  (9)  ''S.  P.  N.  Cyrilli  archiepiscopi 
Alezandrmi  honulise  XIX  in  Jeremiam"  (Antweip. 
1648) — ^in  this  case,  as  in  a  few  others,  his  critical 
acumen  was  at  fault;  these  homilies  are  Origen's.  He 
is  also  the  author  of  a  commentarv  on  the  Book  of  Job, 
'^  Job  lUustratus''  (Antwerp,  1646;  reprinted  in 
Migne's  "Cuisus  S.  Scripture^  XIII  and  XIV,  and  in 
Campon's  edition  of  Gomelius  a  Lapide). 

SoMMKRYooBZi,  B%l>l%olh»  d«  la  c  de  J.t  II.  1438,  8.  v.; 
HmTBR,  JVommcIotor.  F,  Bbxthtbl. 

Oordova,  Diocbsb  or  (Gordubsnsis),  in  Spain, 
fonneriy  suffragan  of  Toledo,  since  1851  of  Seville. 
It  includes  the  province  of  the  same  name,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  parishes  that  pertain  to  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Seville,  while  in  retiun  Cordova  takes  in 
a  portion  of  the  civil  province  of  Badsjoa.  The 
(jospel,  it  is  bdieved,  was  preached  there  in  the 
Apostolic  period,  it  being  veiy  probable  that  the 
Apostles  St.  James  the  Greater  and  St.  Paul,  while 
preaching  in  various  cities  of  Spain  may  have  sent 
thither  some  of  their  disciples;  Gordova  (CoUmia 
Pairicia)  was  then  the  chief  city  of  Betica,  and  the 
centre  of  Andahmian  life.  The  name  of  the  apos- 
tolic founder  of  the  See  of  Cordova  is  imknown,  as 
the  oldest  extant  documents  do  not  antedate  the 
third  oentiuy.  The  conditions  of  the  Christian  re* 
lizion  in  this  early  period  were  quite  similar  to  those 
wnich  obtained  elsewhere  in  the  Roman  Empire — 
penecution,  suspicion,  denunciation,  enforced  profes- 
sion of  idolatiy,  etc.  Many  illustrious  martyrs, 
Faustus^  Januanus,  and  others,  suffered  at  Cordova; 
Uieir  rehos  were  afterwards  eagerly  sought  by  the  other 
ehurdies  of  Spain,  and  even  in  Gaul  and  elsewhere. 
The  earliest  known  bishop  (thou^  not  the  founder 
of  the  see)  is  Sevenis,  about  270 ;  he  was  followed  by 
Gratus  and  Berosus.  In  294  the  famous  Hosius  be- 
came Bishop  of  Cordova  and  inamortalised  it  by  his 
resistance  to  Arianism.  Fifteen  bishops  governed 
the  see  from  the  death  of  Hosius  in  357  to  w3,  from 
which  period  to  839  no  bishops  are  known.  All  ec- 
clesiastical records,  doubUess,  perished  in  the  course 
of  the  Arab  domination  that  began  in  711.  Diuing 
this  time^  the  faithful  could,  it  is  true,  worship  f reebri 
and  zetamed  their  churches  and  property  on  condi- 
tion €i  paying  a  tribute  for  eveiy  parish,  cathedral, 
and  monastery;  frequently  sucn  tribute  was  in- 
creased at  the  will  of  the  conqueror,  and  often  tiie 
living  had  to  pay  for  the  dead.  Many  of  the  faithful 
then  fled  to  Northern  Spain;  others  took  refuge  in 
the  monasteries  of  the  Sierras,  and  thus  the  number 
of  CSiristians  shrank  eventually  to  small  proportions. 

In  786  the  Arab  Caliph,  Alxi-er-Rahman  I,  b^B;an 
the  construction  of  the  ^^eat  mosque  of  Cordova,  now 
the  cathedral,  and  compelled  mapy  Christians  to  tdce 
part  in  the  preparation  of  the  site  and  foundations. 
Thougji  they  suffered  many  vexations,  the  Christians 
continued  to  enjoy  freedom  of  worship,  and  this  tol- 


erant attitude  of  the  ameers  seduced  not  a  few  Chris- 
tians from  tiieir  original  allegiance.  Both  Christians 
and  Arabs  co-operated  at  this  time  to  make  Cordova 
a  flourishing  dty,  the  elegant  refinement  of  which  was 
unequalled  in  Europe.  Under  Abd-er-Kahman  II 
there  came  a  change  m  the  attitude  of  the  Arab  rulers, 
and  a  fierce  persecution  ensued,  during  which  many 
Christians  were  accused  of  abusing  the  memory  of 
Mohammed,  of  entering  mosques,  and  of  conspiracy 
af^ainst  the  Government.  I^uaoen  fanaticism  ran 
hj^.  Among  the  martyrs  of  this  period  are  Per- 
feetus.  Flora,  Maria,  numerous  nuns  of  the  monas- 
tery of  Tabana  in  the  Sierras,  also  Aurelius,  Sabiniana, 
Abundius,  Amator,  and  oth^s;  the  names  of  more 
than  thirty  are  known.  The  most  famous  of  these 
^martvrs  is  St.  Eulogius,  priest  and  abbot,  who  was  in 
858  <»osen  Archbishop  of  Toledo.  For  his  encourage- 
ment of  the  confessors  by  his  writings,  '^Memoriale 
sanctorum",  ''Apolpgeticus  sanctorum  martyrum", 
''Documentum  martyrii",  "Epistolie",  he  was  event- 
ually put  to  death  in  859.  His  life  was  written  (P.  L., 
CX  V,  706-32)  by  Paulus  Alvarus,  a  Scriptural  scholar 
and  theolop;ian,  who  was  not  a  martyr,  Baudissin  not- 
withstanding (Eulogius  und  Alvarus,  Leipzig,  1872). 
With  sli^t  mterruptions  this  persecution  continued 
under  succeeding  bishops,  Saul  (850)  and  Valentius 
(862);  it  co-operated  with  the  Anthropomorphite 
heresy  of  Hoetogesis  and  other  causes  to  bring  about 
a  gap  oi  a  century  and  a  half  in  the  list  of  the  bishops 
of  Cbrdova.  In  962  Abd-er-Rahman  III  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Al-Hakim.  Owing  to  the  peace 
which  the  Christians  of  Cordova  then  enjoyed,  soms 
knowledge  of  their  condition  has  been  preserved, 
among  ouier  things  the  name  of  their  bishop,  Joaxmes, 
also  the  fact  that,  at  that  period,  the  citizens  of  Cor- 
dova, Arabs,  Christians,  and  Jews,  enjoyed  so  high  a 
degree  of  literary  culture  that  the  city  was  known  as 
the  New  Athens.  From  all  quarters  came  students 
eager  to  drink  at  its  founts  of  knowledge.  Among 
the  men  afterwsunds  famous  who  studied  at  Cordova 
were  the  sdiolarly  monk  Gerbert,  destined  to  sit  on 
the  Chair  of  Peter  as  Svlvester  II  (999-1003),  the 
Jewish  rabbis  Moses  and  Maimonides,  and  the  famous 
Soanish-Arabian  commentator  on  Anstotle,  Averroes 
(Bourret,  De  ScholA  Cordubse  christian^  sub  Omiadi- 
tarum  imperio,  Paris,  1853).  On  account  of  the 
wretched  administration  of  the  successors  of  Abd-ei^ 
Rahman  III,  the  invasion  of  the  Almohad^  (1097), 
and  the  continuous  peninsular  warfare  between  Mos- 
lem and  Cliristian,  little  is  known  of  the  episcopal 
succession  in  Cordova  from  the  time  of  Bishop  Joan- 
nes (988)  to  the  reconquest  of  the  city  by  the  Chris- 
tians under  St.  Ferdinand  III  (1236).  The  lone  period 
(524  years)  of  humiliation  of  the  Church  of  (>>rdova 
npw  came  to  an  end,  and  a  new  epoch  of  prosperity 
and  Christian  religious  service  began  which  was  in- 
augurated by  the  piety  and  generosity  of  the  saintly 
conmdstadoT  (Haines,  Christianity  and  Islam  in 
Spun,  London,  1889,  756-1031).  Reference  has  al- 
ready been  made  to  the  conversion  of  the  mosque 
into  a  cathedral;  several  parishes  were  also  estab- 
lished, and  spacious  convents  were  built  for  various 
religious  oroers,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Merceda- 
rians.  A  cathedral  chapter  was  established,  some  of 
the  earlier  Christian  churches  were  restored,  and  some 
mosques  were  converted  into  churches.  Tne  diocese, 
that  in  the  earlier  Hispano-Roman  period  had  been 
very  large,  began  to  expand  again  and  had  added  to 
it  many  cities  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Seville,  which 
was  yet  in  the  power  of  the  Moors.  Ihe  newly  ao* 
quired  territory  was  soon  occupied  by  Christian 
knights  and  Christian  families,  owing  to  the  privi- 

Xand  franchises  granted  by  St.  Ferdinand  to  sudi 
lists.  Bishop  Lope  de  Fitero,  who  was  conse* 
crated  about  1237,  began  a  new  episcopal  series  which 
has  remained  unbroken,  the  lishop  consecrated  in 
1898  being  his  seventy-third  successor. 


HORt 


361 


OOBEA 


Oove,  Bfttiiaii,  and  Abiron   (mp,  pi,  tn*3K>; 
leaders  of  a  revolt  against  Moaes  and  Aaron  {Num., 
xvi).     Core  was  the  son  of  Isaar,  of  the  Caathite 
family   of  Ddvites;  Dat^an  and   Abiron  were  the 
sons  of  Eliab,  the  son  of  Phallu,  of  the  tribe  of 
Ruben.     A  fbur^  leader  is  mentioiied^  Hon,  the  sbn- 
of  Pheleth,  likewise  a  Rubenite;  but  as  the  name 
does  not  aSgam  appear,  a  eorruption  of  the  text  is 
rightly  suspected.    Core  was  the  head  of  the  re- 
bellion,  whence  it  is  called  the  sedition  of  Ck>re 
(Num.,  xvi,  40;  xxri,  0;  xxvii,  3;  Jude,  11),  and  the 
reb^s  are  stvled  the  congre^tion  of  Gore  (Num., 
xvi,  40;  EceluB.,  xiv,  22).    The  rebel  faction  con- 
sisted of  three  parties  with  different  motires  and  dif* 
ferent  aims.    Many  oi  the  people  were  not  ret  recon- 
ciled to  the  exclusive  priesthcx>d  instituted  at  Sinai) 
and  desired  the  restomtion  of  the  old  order,  in  which 
the  priestlv  functions  were  exercised  by  the  oldest 
member  of  each  family.    The  non-Aaronic  Levites 
bore  it  ill  that  the  prerogatives  of  the  priesthood' 
shoidd  be  confined  to  the  family  of  Aaron,  while 
they  occupied  the  portion  of  mere  servants,  and 
they  demanded  that  they  also  be  admitted  to  exer- 
cise priestlv  functions.    Lastly  the  Rubenites  were 
aggrieved  because  their  tribe  was  deorived  of  the 
leadership,  which  naturally  should  belong  to  it  as 
being  descended  from  the  oldest  ^son  of  Jacob.    But 
all  were  animated  by  jealousy  of  the  power  of  the 
house  of  Anunun,  in  which  the  civil  and  religious  au- 
thority was  concentrated,  and  all  aimed  at  its  over- 
throw.    Ttie  two  first  parties,  however,  desired  the 
removal  of  Moses  from  power,  only  in  sd  far  as  he 
was  an  obstacle  to  the  realization  of  their  claims, 
whereas  with  the  Rubenites  this  removal  was  the 
main  object.    In  the  account  of  the  revolt  neither' 
time  nor  place  is  mentioned.    But  it  must  have  oc- 
curred shortly  after  leaving  Sinai,  when  the  Aaronic 
priesthood  was  still  a  recent  institution.    -It  prob- 
ably took  place  at  Cades,  after  the  attempt  to  pene* 
trate  into  the  Promised  Land  had  ended  disastrously 
near  Horma  (Num.,  xi%  40  sqq.),  and  the  people  had 
begun  to  realize  that  there  was  no  escape  from  the 
sentence  condemning  them  to  wander  forty  years  in 
the   desert.    The  taimting  words  of  Dathan  and> 
Abiron  (Num.,  xvi,  13.  14)  point  to  such  a  situation. 
Core  and  two  hundrea  and  Mty  leading  men  of  dif- 
ferent tribes  (cf .  Num.,  xxvii,  3) — Dathan  and  Abiron 
for  some  unknown  reason  were  not  with  them — ^went 
to  Mosto  and  demanded  the  abolition  of  the  exclu- 
sive priesthood.     ** Enough  for  you",  they  said:  "aU 
the  congregation  consisteth  of  holy  ones,  and  the 
Lord  is  with  them:  why  lift  vou  up  yourselves  above 
the  people  of  the  Loiti?"    Moses  directed  them  to 
brmg  their  censers  (fire*pans)  on  the  morrow  to  offer' 
incense  with  Aaron  before  the  Lord;  the  Lord  would 
choose  between  them.     When  the  next  day  Core  and 
his  two  hundred  and  fifty  companions  ofTsred  in- 
cense before  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  they  were 
destroyed  by  fiie  from  the  Lord.    In  the  meanwhile 
Moses  went  to  the  dwellings  of  Dathan  and  Abiron,, 
who  had  refused  to  obev  his  summons  to  appear  be- 
fore him,  and  warned  the  people. to  depart  from  the 
tents  of  Core,  Dathan,  ana  Abtron,  lest  the^r  Bhould 
share  the  dreadf  ulpimishment  about  to  be  inflicted 
on  the  two  last.    Hardly  had  he  done  q>eaking  when 
the  earth  broke  asunder  and  swallowed  up  Dathan 
and  Abiron  and  their  households  and  all  the  men 
that  appeitained  to  Core.    The  sons  of  Core -did  not 
perish,  however  (Num.,  xxvi,  10,  11),  and  later  we 
find  their  descendants  among  the  singers  (I  Par.,  vi, 
37;  11  Par.,  xx,   19;  Pss.  xli,  xliii,  xlviii,  Ixxxiii, 
Ixxxiv,  Ixxxvi,  Ixxxvii),  or  among  the  door-keepers 
^  the  temj^  (I  Par.,  be,  19;  xxvi,  1,  19).    Moses 
ORlered  the  censers  of  Core  and  his  companions  to  be 
beaten  mto  plates  and  fastened  to  the  altar  as  a* 
^VBming  to  those  who  would  usurp  the  priesthood. 
llie  critical  school  sees  in  t^e  Atoiy  of  this  rebeUion* 


a  clumsy  combination  of  three  distinct  narratives; 
one  relating  a  revolt  under  Dathan  and  Abiron 
against  t^  civil  authority  of  Moses;  another  con- 
taining an  account  of  a  rising  of  representatives  of 
the  people  under  Core,  who  is  not  a  Levite,  apainst 
the  eccfesiastical  authority  of  the  tribe  of  Levi;  and 
a  third,  whidi  is  merely  a  retouched  version  of  the 
seoond,  telling  of  the  struggle  of  the  non-Aaronic 
Levites  under  Cc«e,  who  is  now  a  Levite.  against  the 
exclusive  (Mriesthood  vested  in  the  family  of  Aaron. 
But  it  may  be  asked  what  possible  object  a  redactor 
could  have  had  in  combining  the  narrative  of  a  re- 
l^llion  against  civQ  authority  with  another  having 
for  its  moml  to  warn  against  usurpation  of  the  priest- 
hood. The  story  presents  nothing  improbable.  We 
need  not  search  oeepl^  into  history  to  find  similar 
examples  Of 'parties  with  different,  or  even  conflict- 
ing interests,  umting  for  a  common  end.  It  may,  it 
is  tine,  be  resolved  into  two  fairly  complete  narra- 
tives. But  many  an  historical  account  can  thus  be 
divided  by  using  the  arbitrary  methods  here  applied, 
pidsing  out  sentences  or  parts  of  fif  ntences  here  and 
there  and  iejecting  as  later  additions  whatever  mili- 
tates against  division.  The  literary  alignment  is  too 
weak  and  too  tmcertain  to  base  a  theory  upon  it. 

HOMMBLAUBB,  Cowtm,  ui  Nwn.  (Parii,  1899),  129  sq.; 
'BAuaixkIHct.<UlaBib„  II,  909.  For  the  critical  view:  Sblbik. 
in  Hastings,  Did.  cf  the  Bib.,  lit,  11  sq.;  Gray,  Comm. 
Num.  <Ncw  York,  1903),  186  sq.;  DinvaR,  Lit.  Old  Ttat.  (6th 
ed.,  N«w  Yoric»  1897).  63  sq. 

F.  Bechtbl. 

Odrea,  Vicarutb  Apostolic  of,  coextensive  with 
the  Empire  of  Corea;  it  was  created  a  distinct 
vicariate  Apostolic,  9  September,  1831.  But  for 
nearly  half  a  century  before  that  time  Oorea  had  many 
fervent  Catholics.  In  a  manner  perhaps  unique 
in  the  annals  of  the  Church,  the  Faith  was  introduced 
there  i^nthout  preaching  and  before  any  missionaries 
had  penetmtea  the  countrv.  The  educated  people, 
more  eager  for  new  knowledge  the  more  their  country 
was  jealously  dosed,  procured  through  the  annual 
embassy  to  Pekine  all  tne  books  possible  upon  science, 
literature,  etc.  Some  Christian  books  fell  into  their 
hands,  and,  the  grace  of  God  aiding,  they  recognized 
the  truth.  One  of  them,  Ni-seung-houn,  undertook 
in  1 784  the  journey  to  Fekine  and  was  baptized  there, 
under  the  name  of  Peter.  Upon  his  return  he  bap- 
tized his  companions,  who,  like  himself,  were  men  of 
learning  and  high  position.  That  their  faith  was 
firm,  events  proved.  In  1791  Paul  Youn  and  Jac- 
ques Kouen  sealed  their  belief  with  their  blood  for 
having  refused  to  dSer  sacrifice^  upon  the  occasion  of 
the  death  of  their  relatives.  Connected  by  reason  of 
ite  origin  with  the  Church  of  Peking,  Corea  was  de- 
pendent upon  that  vicariate  until  1831.  About  the 
year  1794,  a  Chinese  priest.  Father  Jacques  Tjyou, 
was  sent  to  Corea.  Upon  his  arrival  he  found  about 
4000  faithful.  After  seven  years  of  a  heroic  and 
fruitful  ministry  he  was  arrested  and  put  to  death, 
31  May,  1801.  Before  and  after  him  numerous  Chris- 
tians suffered  martyrdom  with  admirable  fortitude. 
Among  them  particular  mention  is  due  to  the  married 
couple,  Jean  Ryou  and  Luthgarde  Ni.  Shaken  and 
decimated  by  the  tempest,  and  deprived  of  its  priests, 
the  Christian  religion  was  preserved  by  the  zeal  of  the 
fervent  people,  voluntary  catechists,  who  rallied  the 
dispersea,  and  made  unheard-of  efforts  to  obtain 
pastcmi  from  the  Bie^op  of  Pekine  or  the  sovereign 
pontiff.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  vicariate  Apos- 
tolic was  established,  and  confided  to  the  Society  of 
Foreien  Missions  of  Paris.  The  first  vicar  Apostolic 
named,  Mgr.  Bniguidre,  came  from  the  mission  of 
Siam.  He  started  upon  his  journey  in  1832,  suffered 
incredible  hardships  in  passing  through  China  and 
Mongolia,  and  died  in  Tatary,  just  as  he  was  com- 
pleting arrahgements  to  enter  the  country  of  his 
mission.    His  companion,  Father  Maubant,  succeeded 


OOETU 


362 


OOBW 


in  crossing  the  northeni  frontier  bv  wav  of  £ui-tjyoU| 
and  in  January,  1836,  entered  the  closed  country. 
The  following  vear  Father  Chastan  joined  him  there, 
and,  a  little  later,  the  new  vicar  Apostolic,  Mgr. 
Inobert.  Under  their  ministration  Chnstianity  soon 
flourished.  All  this  went  on  with  the  greatest  se- 
crecy; the  least  indiscretion  would  have  caused  all 
to  be  lost.  The  edicts  proscribing  Qiristianity  re- 
mained as  rigorous  as  ever,  and  all,  both  pastors  and 
flock,  lived  as  upon  the  eve  of  battle,  preparing  them- 
selves for  martyrdoOL 

The  persecution  broke  out  in  1839,  manv  Christians 
were  arrested,  tortured,  and  put  to  death;  the  mia- 
sionaries  were  hunted  without  mercy.  Mgr.  Imbert 
was  the  first  to  be  taken,  and,  thinking  that  the  cap- 
ture of  his  two  companions  would  cause  the  persecu^ 
tion  to  cease,  he  directed  them  to  deliver  themselves 
up;  they  responded  heroically  to  the  call,  and  all 
three  were  beheaded,  21  September,  1839.  It  was  not 
until  1845  that  a  new  bishop,  M^.  Ferr^ol,  succeeded 
in  entering  Corea;  he  broujnxt  with  him  a  young  mia- 
sionary  and  also  the  first  Corean  priest,  Andr^  Kim, 
who  had  made  his  studies  at  Macao,  and  who  was 
taken  and  executed  the  following  year.  His  cause, 
and  those  of  the  Venerable  Mgrs.  Imbert,  Maubant, 
and  Chastan,  and  of  the  principal  Corean  martyrs, 
ei^ty-two  in  all,  were  introducea  in  the  Roman  Court 
by  a  decree  of  24  September,  1857.  The  country  re- 
mained more  firmly  closed  than  ever,  the  Christian 
religion  more  severely  proscribed,  and  the  entrance  of 
apostolic  workers  more  perilous  and  difficult.  Ad- 
mission to  Corea  was  most  often  accomplished  by 
way  of  the  sea,  a  Chinese  barque  bringing  the  mission- 
aries with  great  secrecy  to  the  coast  of  Corea,  where  a 
Corean  ship,  under  cover  of  the  darkness,  would  ^ 
to  meet  them.  Father  Maistre  spent  ten  years  m 
vain  attempts  and  useless  expeditions  before  he  was 
able  to  set  foot  in  Corea.  Notwithstanding  these 
difficulties,  and  numerous  local  persecutions,  during 
twenty  years  the  mission  prospered.  In  1866  it 
counted  upwards  of  25,000  faithful,  two  bishops,  and 
ten  missionaries.  A  terrible  persecution  then  broke 
out,  the  two  bishops  and  seven  missionaries  were 
taken  and  executed:  Mgr.  Bemeux,  vicar  Apostolic, 
with  Fathers  BeauMeu,  Doric,  and  de  Breteni^res 
(8  March);  Father  Pourthid,  pro-vicar,  and  Father 
Petitnicolas  (10  March);  and  Mgr.  Daveiuv,  the  coad- 
jutor, with  Fathers  Aumattre  and  Huin  (30  March^. 
Numbers  of  the  laity  also  suffered  martyrdom,  while 
others  perished  of  distress  and  hunger  in  the  mountains. 
The  process,  or  formal  declaration,  of  the  martyrdom  of 
the  two  bishops,  of  the  seven  missionaries,  and  of 
twenty  of  the  princip'kl  Christians,  waa  sent  in  1901 
to  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Ritea.  The  three  sur- 
viving missionaries,  unable  to  maintain  themselvea 
in  the  country,  were  obliged  to  return  to  China. 
This  persecution,  which  occurred  during  the  second 
year  of  the  reign  of  the  emperor  who  abdicated  in 
1907,  waa  not  precisely  his  fault.  Durins  hia  minor- 
ity the  power  was  exercised  by  his  father,  known 
imder  the  name  of  Tai-ouen-koun,  prince-regent.  Of  , 
a  suspicious  and  violent  character,  tne  re^nt  believed 
that  the  extermination  of  the  CathoUcs  in  Corea  waa 
the  best  policy  to  follow.  Later  he  recogniaed  his 
mistake  and  repented  of  it. 

A  French  attempt,  known  as  the  Kang-hoa  exi>e- 
dition,  made  to  avenge  the  murder  of  the  French  mia- 
sionanes,  was  not  prosecuted  with  sufficient  viginir, 
and  merely  served  to  revive  the  persecution  which 
lasted  as  long  aa  the  regent  remained  in  power.  In 
1876,  after  an  interval  of  ten  yeaia,  the  new  vicar  Apos- 
tolic, M0.  Bidel,  succeeded  in  aending  two  miaooxi- 
aries  to  Corea;  he  himself  entered  the  following  year 
mith  two  others.  But  after  some  months  of  sojourn 
in  Seoul  his  retreat  became  known  and  he  was 
thrown  into  prison.  Upon  the  demand  of  thq  French 
minister  to  Peking,  the  Corean  Government  consented 


to  send  him  back  to  China;  in  1879,  Fatber  Degoefele. 
arrested  in  turn,  waa  also  sent  back  after  aevenl 
.months  of  captivity.  The  bloody  era  was  dosed; 
nevertheless  tne^missionaxies  were  obliged  to  con- 
tinue their  life  of  seclusion.  liberty  came  to  them 
ovXv  with  the  treaty  of  commerce,  concluded  with  the 
different  Powers  towards  the  year  1884.  TJwm  their 
return  in  1876  they  found  but  10,000  Uuisftiaos; 
since  then  this  number  has  grown  from  year  to  year. 
The  Catholic  Coieans  numbered  in  1885, 14,039;  1890, 
17,577;  1895,  25,998;  1900,  42,441;  1905,  58.503: 
and  in  1907,  03,340.  From  1S76  dates  the  qmad 
of  the  ordinary  mission-labours  which  the  perseoQ- 
tion  had  not  permitted  to  develop. 

In  1888  the  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of  Chartres  wen 
called  to  take  charge  of  the  orphanages.  In  each 
district  some  chapels  have  been  built,  with  resideooes 
for  the  missionaries.  In  1892  a  seminar^r  was  built 
sX  Byox^-eaun  near  Seoul.  The  quaai-cathedrai 
church  of  Seoul  was  solemnly  consecrated  29  May, 
1898.  The  parish  schools  have  been  opened  anew, 
or  organized  upon  a  better  footing.  It  baa  even  been 
possible  to  open  in  the  great  centres  a  few  schools  for 
girls,  a  thing  which  Corean  usage  would  never  before 
have  ^rmitted.  In  1875  the  missionaries  published 
a  dictionary  and  a  grammar  in  French  and  Corean. 
The  movable  type  then  cast  has  served  as  a  standard 
for  all  that  is  used  to-day.  The  mission  possesses  a 
printing-house  {6t  the  puolication  <^  Corean  Catholic 
books,  and  of  a  weekly  Corean  CathoHc  newspaper, 
founded  in  1906,  which  counts  more  than  4000  sub- 
scribers. As  a  striking  event  of  this  period  may  be 
noted  the  conversion  to  Cathohcism  of  the  princess, 
the  mother  of  the  eioperor  and  the  true  wife  of  the 
terrible  regent.  Christian  in  her  heart  even  before 
the  persecution  of  1866,  she  was  baptised  and  con- 
firmed 11  October,  1896,  but  in  great  secrecy  and 
unknown  even  to  those  about  her.  The  following 
year  she  received,  under  the  same  conditions,  the 
Sacraments  of  Penance  and  of  Holy  Eucharist,  and 
died  piously  8  January,  1898.  The  Vicars  Apostolic 
of  Corea  have  been:  Barth^toy  Bnigui^re  (1831-^5); 
Laurent-Marie-Joseph  Imbert  (1837-39);  Jean-Josef^ 
Ferrtol  (1843-53);  Simton-FianocHs  Bemeux  (1854- 
66);  Marie-Antoine  Nicolas  Daveluy  (1857-66);  F^liz 
Chiir  Ridel  (1870-84);  Jean-Mane-Gustave  Blanc 
(1884r^);  Gustave-Charles-Bfarie  Mutel  (1890--). 

The  fdlowing  statistics  show  the  state  of  the 
missions  in  190/:  1  bi^op;  46  French  missionaries; 
10  Corean  priests;  11  French  sisters;  41  Corean  sis- 
ters; 72  schools  for  boys,  with  1,014  pupils;  5schods 
for  girls,  with  191  pupils;  2  orphanages,  with  28  boys 
and  261  girls;  379  orphans  placed  in  fanulitt;  2 
phannacies;  1  seminary,  with  22  preparatory  stu- 
dents and  9  theological  students;  48  churches  or 
chapels;  48  districts;  931  Christian  parishes;  63,340 
baptised  Christians;  5,503  catechumens  under  in- 
struction.    (See  map  of  China.)    . 

IXiLurr,  HiH.  d9  VBglue  de  C«r6e  (FMrii,  1874):  Pechon. 
Vie  de  Mar,  Bemeux  (Le  Mans.  186S):  Salmon,  Vm  de  Mffr- 
Davduy  (Pliris,  1883);    D*Ht7LBT.   Vie  de  Just  de  Bretenih-ea 


(Puis,  1895);  Baudst,  Vie  de  Henri  DorieJlWl] 

Bernard  Louie  Beaiulim 

A.  Petitnieotae  (1891):  «w»««.«x, 

1893);  PiACSNTmi,  Mgr,  Ridd  (L; 


Bernard  Leuie  BetnUieu  (Bordoaux,  1894);  Dt 
A.PetUnieotaa  (1891)l  Ramatst,  ViedeM.L._ 


fi    DSTDOU, 

^     ^ViedeM. 

ifutn  (Trft"JTT^. 

. ,_/ona,  1890);  Ridbl*  Maoap^ 

Heiii;  Annaie  of  tKe  PtopaooUonofthe  Faith  (annu*!) ;  Pioi^r, 
Lu  mieeione  ctUholituee  fnm^ieee,  Ilh 

Q,  MUTXU 


Oozf u,  AAoaDXocB8B  or. — (]orfu  is  one  of  t^  loniaa 
Islands,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Adriatic,  opposite  the 
Albanian  eoaat,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  nai^ 
row  channel.  Its  modem  name  is  an  Italian  coirup- 
tion  for  Ko^^oi  (pronounced  Cor/O,  the  Eysaatine 
Greek  name  for  tne  chief  town  of  the  island.  Tike 
ancient  name  for  both  island  and  citjr  was  C^rcyra 
or  Corofra.  This  has  been  identified  with  the  Hmnr 
eric  Selena,  where  reioied  Aloinous,  kine  <^  the 
FhAaoiansi  the  host  of   VlysseSi  and 


363 


OOKDITH 


iMmt.  Jn  735  b.  o.  the  aabuid  reoeivied  Corinthian 
colonists  led  by  Chersicrates.  Its  nary  and  trade 
inereasBd  to  such  an  extent  that  as  early  as  664 
B.  c.  it  could  wage  war  upon  Corinth.  During 
the  Pdoponnesian  War,  when  allied  with  the  Athe- 
niano,  Corfu  fitted  out  120  ahipa  and  overcame  its 
suaoain.  But  internal  strife  soca  caused  the  de- 
cay of  its  powerj  while  the  people  sided  with  the 
Athenians,  the  anstocnu^  were  helped  by  the  Corin- 
thians. From  the  rule  of  the  Macedonians  Corfu 
passed  to  that  of  the  Romans.  Under  the  Byaantines 
it  became  practically  the  capital  of  the  Ionian  lalanda 
and  of  the  neighbouring  cities  in  Epirus  (Preveaa, 
Buthrotum,  etc.),  and  si{p»alised  itself  by  courage- 
ous conflicts  with  Dalmatians,  Bulgars,  and  Saracens, 
About  the  end  of  the  twdfth  centuiy  it  formed  a 
duchy  under  the  despots  of  Epirus.  Charles  of  AnjoU| 
King  of  Naples,  conquered  it  in  1274.  It  recovered 
its  indepenoience  by  expelling  the  Neu^olitan  garrison 
and  took  refuse  in  the  jnotectorate  of  Venice.  After 
the  Ci4>ture  oTConstantincnle,  Mohammed  II  sent  an 
army  which  laid  unsuooesstul  siege  to  Corfu  to  punish 
it  for  having  helped  Buthrotum.  Solyman  II  was 
equally  unsucoesaiul.  thou§^  he  took  away  16,000 
pnsoners.  In  1716  Ahmed  III  was  also  driven  back, 
the  inhabitants  being  helped  b^  the  Saxon  general 
Matthias  Schulenburg  and  inspired  by  a  monk  who 
led  the  way  bearing  an  uplifted  cross.  For  a  brief 
while,  together  with  Venice  (1791),  Corfu  came  under 
French  rule,  and  was  then  successively  conquered  by 
the  Turks  and  the  Russians  (1799).  The  Seven 
Ldaads  were  united  in  a  republic  under  a  Turkidi  and 
Russian  protectorate.  The  Treat>r  of  Tilsit  gave  them 
a^ain  to  the  French  in  1807,  but  in  1809  the  islands. 
with  the  exception  oC  Corfu,  fdl  into  the  power  oi 
England.  In  ISIS  the  United  States  of  the  Ionian 
IslaiKla  were  put  under  the  protectorate  of  Great 
Britain,  with  Corfu  as  capital  and  residence  of  the 
governor.  On  8  March,  1864,  the  islands  were  an- 
nexed to  Greece,  and  since  this  time  Corfu  (Gr.  Ker* 
kyra),  with  Faxos,  Santa  Maura  (Leukas),  and 
Ithaca,  etc.  have  formed  a  nomarohy  or  province  of 
the  kingdom. 

The  Island  has  a  mild,  salubrious  dimate.  It  is 
hiQv,  with  rather  barren  valWs,  and  produces  com 
ana  oil.  Brimstone  and  marble  are  among  its  ex- 
ports. The  whole  population  is  about  70,000.  Ital- 
ian is  still  much  usedi  together  with  Greek,  chiefly 
among  Uie  Catholic  population.  Tlie  city  of  Corfu 
is  situated  on  the  eastern  coast  and  boasts  of  a  broad 
and  good  port.  It  exhibits  ruins  of  a  temple  of 
Poseidon,  a  cenotai^  of  Menecrates,  and  a  statue  of 
SchuIenbuiK.  In  1861  the  late  Empress  Elisabeth 
of  Austria  ouilt  there,  in  the  purest  Ureek  style,  her 
magnificent  palace,  the  Achiileion,  named  after  a 
oolosBal  statue  of  Achilles  on  one  of  the  terraces  of 
the  park;  this  palace  has  be«i  bought  by  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  The  population  of  the  city  is  about 
17,000;  ^000  Jews,  4000  CathoUcs,  the  rest  orthodox 
Greeks. 

According  to  legend  the  Church  of  Corfu  was 
founded  bv  St.  Jason,  a  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  but 
the  first  Known  bishop  is  Apoliodorus,  present  at 
Nic»a  in  325.  It  was  at  first  a  suffraean  of  Nioo- 
polis  in  CIpirus  Vetus,  but  in  the  Middle  Ages  was 
made  a  metropolis.  Since  1900  it  has  again  become 
asimple  bishopric.  (See  "  Echos  d'Orient",  III,  285 
sqq.)  Among  its  distinguished  prelates  were  St. 
Arsenius,  a  tenth-centuiy  author  .of  homilies,  and 
Georgius  Baxdanes,  in  the  thirteenth  oentuiv.  a  fieiy 
adversaiy  ci  the  Latins.  (See  Lequien,  II,  145.) 
The  island  honours  as  its  patron  the  celebrated  St. 
SpyridoD,  whose  relics  lie  in  the  Greek  cathedral* 
Smee  the  thirteenth  century  Corfu  has  also  been  a 
Catholic  arohiepisoopal  see.  Hie  archdioGeee  includes 
I^oos^  Antipaxos,  other  islets^  and  several  localities 
in  E^piiusy  between  Parga  and  Sasino;  the  Catholics, 


however,  have  almost  completely  dBappeand  i ^_ 

in  Corfu.  There  is  but  one  paruh,  with  six  dmre^Bs 
or  chapels,  and  some  ten  priests.  The  Sisters  of  Our 
Lady  of  Compassion  conduct  a  school  and  an  orphan- 
age. (For  the  episcopal  list  see  Lequien,  III,  877, 
completed  by  Gams,  399»  and  Eubel,  I,  217,  II,  1620 
Amons  the  archbishops,  the  famous  Benedictine  Car- 
dinal, Angelo  Maria  C^iirini,  who  died  in  Italy  in  I75O9 
deserves  mention. 

Mabuoea.,  Hiataria  di  Cor/ii  (Venice,  .1672);  Quibini.  iVi- 
mordia  Corcyra  (Lecce.  1725;  Briscia,  1738);  Moustoxtdks, 
VUuHrazwni  Cordrwi  (Milan,  1811);  DeOe  coat  Careirtai- (Oorfu. 
1848);  RmiANN.  Corto^*  (Paria,  ,1679);  Lampbob.  K«|mm«Ui* 
AviK^ora  (Athena,  1882);  Hidbouxnos,  Svvovt4«i|  irropi*  njc 
KcMcvpof  (Corfu,  1895);  Jkrvib,  Hiatory  of  Corfu  (London, 
1862);  GLAPARfeDB,  Corfou  et  Ua  Corfiotea  (Paris,  1900). 

S.  P^iDta* 

Ck>ria  (Cauria),  Dioobsb  or  (CAURHiNsn),  in 
Spain,  suffragan  of  Toledo;  it  includes  nearly  the  en- 
tu«  province  of  Cdoeres,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
parishes  that  belong  to  the  Diocese  of  Salamanca. 
The  first  mention  of  a  Diocese  of  Coria  is  in  589  when 
its  bishop,  Jaointus,  subscribed  the  acts  of  the  Third 
Council  of  Toledo.  Under  VisigoUuc  rule  Coria  was  a 
suffragan  of  M^da.  Durine  tne  Arab  conquest  the 
episcopal  list  was  continued  By  means  of  titular  bish- 
ops; one  of  tYtetti,  Jacobus,  appears  among  the  pre- 
lates who  assisted  at  the  consecration  of  the  church  of 
Compostela  in -876.  After  the  reconquest  of  the  city 
(1142)  Alfonso  VII  turned  the  mosque  into  a  cathe- 
dral, and  had  it  reconsecrated  in  honour  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  all  the  saints.  The  first  bishop  of  the  new 
series  was  Ifligo  Navarr6n.  The  statistics  for  1906 
were:  Catholics,  171,041;  priests,  250;  parities,  124; 
churches,  159;  chapels,  186. 

Fl6bbz.  EspalUt  Soffr,  (Madrid,  1769),  XIV,  62-61;  DXvixa 
in  Teatn  da  laa  JgUaioM  de  Bapatia  (Madrid.  1647).  U.  438-76. 

Eduardo  de  Bxngjosa. 

Ooiiath  (CoRiNTHUs) ,  a  titular  arohiepisoopal  see  of 
Greece.  The  origin  of  Corinth  belongs  to  prehistoric 
kgend.  About  1 100  a.  c.  this  city,  delivered  from  die 
Aigives  bv  the  Dorian  invasion,  became  the  centre  of 
the  Heracieid  rule  in  Peloponnesus ;  at  this  time  it  wa^pd 
successful  wars  against  neighbouring  citi^,  including 
Athens.  A  little  later,  under  the  tyranny  of  the 
Bacchiadee  (750-657  b.  c),  it  founded  many  colonies, 
anK>ng  them  Corcyra  and  Syracuse.  About  657  b.  c. 
a  revolution  substituted  for  tyranny  a  government 
based  on  popular  election ;  from  that  tune  Corinth  took 
no  great  part  in  Greek  history,  except  as  the  scene  of 
the  Isthmian  games  and  by  the  transit  duty  it  im- 
posed on  all  goods  passing  by  its  citadel.  Its  name  is 
scarcely  mentionea  during  the  Medic  wars,  and  after 
b€ginmng  the  Peloponnesian  war  (432-404)  it  handed 
the  direction  of  it  over  to  Sparta  and  later  on  abaiv- 
doned  its  ally.  The  foreign  policy  of  this  submissive 
vassal  of  Philip  (later  the  feaeral.  centre,  but  not  the 
inspirer,  of  the  Aoh»an  league)  wsa  never  positive  and 
domestic;  its  true  glory  was  its  luxury,  riches,  and 
artistic  culture.  It  gave  its  name  to  the  third  and 
most  ornamental  of  the  orders  of  Greek  architecture. 
Corinth  was  captured  and  plundered  by  Mummhis 
(146  B.  c.)f  restored  and  embellished  again  by  Cesar 
and  Hadrian,  and  ravaged  In  turn  by  the  Hemli,  Visi- 
goths, and  Slavs.  In  1205  it  was  captured  by  the 
Stench,  who  gave  it  up  to  the  Venetians,  by  whom  it 
was  held,  excepting  brief  intervals,  until  1715.  The 
Turks  left  it  in  1821.  and  in  1858,  after  a  severe  earth- 
quake, it  was  transferred  to  the  western  shore  of  the 
gulf.  The  new  town,  in  the  provinces. of  Argolis  and 
Corinthia,  has  about  4500  inhabitants,  and  exports 
dried  currants,  oil,  com,  and  silk.  The  ancient  site 
is  now  occupied  by  a  wretched  village,  Palso-Corin* 
thoe,  or  Old  Corinth,  with  five  churches,  probably 
built  where  temples  had  formerly  stood.  Near  by  are 
the  lofty  Acropolis  (Acro-Corinthus)  and  ruins  of  a 
temple  and  amphitheatre.   The  ship  canal  between  the 


OOBIRTHIANS 


364 


ooRnrnaAHs 


bay  of  Coriiitii  and  the  gulf  of  i£gina,  about  four  iiiileB 
in  length,  was  opened  8  November,  1893;  it  had  been 
be^n  hv  Nero,  and  is  in  great  part  cut  through  the 

St.  Paul  preached  successfully  at  Corinth,  where  he 
lived  in  the  house  of  Aquila  and  Priscilla  (Acts,  xviii, 
1),  wbme  SilaB  and  Timothy  soon  joined  him.  After 
hiB  departure  he  was  replaced  by  Apollo,  who  had 
been  sent  from  Ephesus  by  Priscilla.  The  Apostle 
visited  Corinth  at  least  once  more.  He  wrote  to  the 
Corinthians  in  57  from  Ephesus,  and  then  from  Mace- 
donia in  the  same  year,  or  in  58.  The  famous  letter 
of  St.  Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthian  church 
(about  96)  exhibits  the  earliest  evidence  concerning 
the  ecclesiastical  primacy  of  the  Roman  Church.  Be- 
sides St.  Apollo,  Lequien  (II,  155)  mentions  forty- 
three  bishops:  amon/r  them,  St.  Sosthenes  (?),  the 
disciple  of  St.  Paul.  St.  Dionysius;  Paul,  brother  of 
St  Peter,  Bishop  of  Argos  in  the  tenth  century;  St. 
Athanaaius,  in  the  same  century;  George,  or  Gregory, 
a  oonunentator  of  liturgical  hvmns.  Corinth  was  the 
metropolis  of  all  Hellas.  After  the  Byzantine  eno- 
peroro  had  violently  withdrawn  Illyricum  from  papal 
direction,  Corinth  appears  as  a  metropolis  with  seven 
suffragan  sees;  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury there  were  only  two  united  in  one  title.  Since 
1890  Corinth,  for  the  Greeks,  has  been  a  simple 
bishopric,  but  the  first  in  rank,  Athens  being  the 
sole  archbishopric  of  the  Kingdom  of  Greece.  Le- 
quien (III,  883)  mentions  twenty  Latin  prelates  from 
1210  to  1700,  the  later  ones  being  only  titular.  But 
Eubel  (I,  218;  II,  152)  mentions  twenty-two  arch- 
bishops for  the  period  from  1212  to  1476. 

Lbbab  and  Fougast,  Jfueripiioiu  du  PRopatmkte;  BauUa, 
UaH  one  ovoni  PhidU;  Fwamorr  and  Chxpibs,  Hiai.  ds  Fart 
dana  VaMiquiU;  Spon,  Voyage  d^IUdie,  de  DalnuUU,  de 
Qrhee  d.  du  Levant  (Anwterdam.  1679).  II.  223  aq.;  Smith, 
Dtdionary  cf  Ortek  and  Roman  Oeography  (London,  1878).  I, 

S.  PtotiDis. 

Ck>rint]iia]Ui,  Epibtlbs  to  the. — ^Introductory. 
—8L  Paul  Founds  the  Churdi  at  Conn/A.— St.  Paul's 
firet  visit  to  Europe  is  graphically  described  by 
St.  Luke  (Acts,  xvi-xviii).  When  he  reached  Troas. 
at  the  north-west  comer  of  Asia  Minor,  on  his  second 
great  missionaiy  journey  in  company  with  Timothy 
and  Silvanus,  or  Silas  (who  was  a  '^ prophet"  and 
had  the  confidence  of  The  Twelve),  he  met  St.  Luke, 
probably  for  the  first  time.  At  Troas  he  had  a 
vision  of  "a  man  of  Macedonia  standing  and  baseech^ 
ing  him,  and  saying:  Pass  over  in  to  Macedonia  and 
hdp  us.''  In  response  to  this  appeal  he  proceeded 
to  Philippi  in  ICaoedonia,  where  he  made  many  con- 
verts, but  was  cruelly  beaten  with  rods  aocormng  to 
the  Roman  custom.  After  comforting  the  brethren 
he  travelled  southward  to  Thessalonica,  where  some  of 
the  Jews  "  believed,  and  of  those  that  served  Qod,  and 
of  theGlentiles  a  great  multitude,  and  of  noble  women 
not  a  few.  But  the  Jews,  moved  with  envy,  and  taking 
unto  them  some  wicked  men  of  the  vulgar  sort,  set  the 
city  in  an  uproar.  .  .  .  And  they  stirred  up  the  people 
and  the  rulers  of  the  city  hearijig  these  tnincs.  But 
the  brethren  immediately  sent  away  Paul  andSilas  by 
ni^t  to  Bensa.  Who,  when  they  were  come  thither, 
went  into  the  Bynag(»;ue  of  the  Jews,  and  many  of 
them  believed,  and  of  honourable  women  that  were 
Gentiles  and  of  men  not  a  few."  But  unbelieving 
Jews  from  Thessalonica  came  to  Beroea  "stirring  up 
and  troubling  the  multitude".  "  And  inunediately  the 
brethren  aetii  away  Paul  to  go  to  the  sea ;  but  SUas  and 
Timothy  remained  there.  And  they  that  conducted 
Paul  brouglit  him  as  far  as  Athens" — ^then  reduced  to 
the  position  of  an  old  university  town.  At  Athens  he 
preached  his  famous  philosophical  discourse  in  the 
Areopagus.  Only  a  few  were  converted,  amongst 
these  Iwing  St.  I>ion3nBius  the  Areopacite.  Some  of 
his  fHvolofiiB  hearers  mocked  him.    Others  said  that 


that  was  cnon^for  the  present;  they  would  listen  to 
more  another  time. 

He  appears  to  have  been  very  disappointed  witik 
Athens.  He  did  not  visit  it  again,  and  it  is  never 
mentioned  in  his  letters.  The  disappointed  and  soli- 
tary Apostle  left  Athens  and  travelled  westwards,  a 
distance  of  foHy-five  miles,  to  Corinth,  the  then  capi- 
tal of  Greece.  The  feaif al  icooiging  at  Philippi  oonift- 
ing  not  very  long  after  he  had  men  atoned  and  left 
for  dead  at  Lystra,  together  with  all  hisiU-treatmcDt 
by  the  Jews,  as  described  in  II  Cor.,  must  have  greatly 
weakened  him.  As  we  are  not  to  suppose  tGat  he, 
any  more  than  his  Master,  was  miraculously  saved 
from  pain  and  its  effects,  it  was  with  physical  pain, 
nervousness,  and  misgiving  that  the  lonelv  Apostle 
entered  this  great  pagan  ci^,  that  had  a  bad  name  for 
profligacy  throughout  the  Roman  world.  To  act  the 
Corinthian  was  s3monymous  with  leading  a  loose  life. 
Corinth,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Rmnana, 
was  re-established  as  a  colony  by  Julius  Csesar,  46 
B.  c,  and  made  the  capital  of  ihe  Roman  lYoviiioe  of 
Achaia  by  Augustus.  It  was  buflt  on  the  southem 
extremity  of  tiie  isthmns  connecting  the  mainland 
with  the  Morea,  and  was  on  the  great  line  of  traffic 
between  East  and  West.  Its  two  magnificent  har- 
bours, one  at  each  side  of  the  isthmus,  were  crowded 
with  shipping  and  were  the  scenes  of  constant  bustle 
and  activity.  CorinUi  was  filled  with  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, Syrians,  Egyptians,  and  Jews,  many  of  the  last 
having  latelv  eome  trom  Rome  on  account  of  their  ex* 
pulsion  by  (Claudius ;  and  its  streets  were  thronged  by 
tens  of  thousands  of  slaves.  Crowds,  too,  came  from 
all  parts  every  four  years  to  be  present  at  the  Isthmian 
games.  On  the  summit  of  the  hill  to  the  south  of 
the  city  was  the  infamous  temple  of  Venus,  with  its 
thousand  female  devotees  dedicated  to  a  life  of  shame. 

It  was  to  this  centre  of  traffic,  excStement,  wealth, 
and  vice  'that  St.  Paul  came,  probably  about  the  end 
of  A.  D.  51 ;  and  here  he  spent  upwards  of  eis^teen 
months  of  his  Apostolic  career.  He  took  up  his  resi- 
dence with  two  Christian  Jews,  Aquila  and  hia  wife 
Priscilla  (refugees  from  Rome),  because  they  ^'rore  of 
the  same  trade  as  himself.  Like  all  Jews  he  had 
learnt  a  trade  in  his  youth,  and  in  their  house  he  sup- 
ported hunself  by  working  at  this  trade,  vis.,  that  of 
tentmaker,  as  he  had  determined  not  to  receive  any 
support  from  the  money-loving  Corinthians.  He  be- 
am bv  preaching  in  the  synagogue  every  8^>bath: 
^and  ne  pemuaoed  the  Jews  and  the  Greeks".  Of 
this  period  he  says  that  he  was  with  them  ''in  weak- 
ness, and  fear,  and  much  trembling".  The  ill-usage 
he  had  received  was  still  fresh  in  his  memory,  as, 
writing  a  month  or  two  later  to  the  Thessalonians,  he 
recalls  how  he  had  been  ''shamefuUv  treated  at 
I%ilippi".  But  when  he  was  joined  by  Silas  and 
Timotny,  who  broug^  hf m  pecuniary  aid  from  Mace- 
donia, he  became  more  bold  and  confident,  and  ^was 
earnest  in  testifying  to  the  Jews  that  Jesus  is  the 
Christ.  But  they  gakiskying  and  blaspheming,  he 
shook  his  garments  and  said  to  them:  Your  blood  be 
upon  your  own  header;  I  am  clean:  from  henceforth  I 
will  go  unto  the  Gentiles.'^  He  then  b^an  to  preach 
in  the  house  of  Titus  Justus,  adjoining  the  s^^agogue. 
Oispus,  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  and  his  family^ 
and  several  of  the  Corinthians  were  converted  and  bap- 
tijsed.  Among^  these  were  Caius,  Stephanas,  and  his 
household,  and  the  house  of  Fortunatus  and  A^aicUB, 
"the  firstfruits  of  Achaia"  (I  Cor.,  i,  14, 16;  rvi,  15). 
The  growing  opposition  of  the  Jews,  however,  and  the 
wicked  state  of  the  city  had  a  depressing  influence 
upon  him ;  but  ''the  Lord  said  to  Paul  in  the  night,  by 
a  vision:  Do  not  fear,  but  speak;  and  hoki  not  thy 
peace,  because  I  am  with  thee;  and  no  manahall  set 
upon  thee  to  hurt  thee ;  for  I  have  much  people  in  this 
city.  AndhestayedthereayearandBlxi!nonths,teach- 
faig among  them  the  word  of  Qod"  (Acts,  rriii,  9-11), 
Many  were  converted;  some  of  them  noble,  wealthy,. 


ODBnmiiAiiB 


365 


and  learned,  but  the  great  majority  neither  learned, 
nor  powerful,  nor  noble  (I  Cor.,  i,  26).  During  this 
long  period  the  Faith  waa  planted  not  onlv  in  Corinth 
but  in  other  portions  of  Acnaia,  especially  in  Cenchree, 
the  eastern  port.  At  length  the  unbelieying  Jews, 
seeing  the  ever-increasing  crowd  of  Christians  fre- 
quenting the  house  of  Titus  Justus,  next  door  to  their 
cfjmagogue,  became  fUrious,  and  rose  up  with  one  ao- 
cord  and  dracged  St.  Paul  before  the  newly-appointed 
Proeonsul  orAchaia,  Gallio,  the  brother  ot  Seneca 
(a.  d.  54).  Gallio,  peroeivinff  that  it  was  a  question  of 
refigion,  refused  to  listen  to  tnem.  The  crowd,  seeing 
this  and  supposing  that  it  was  a  dispute  between 
Greeks  and  Jews,  fell  upon  the  ring-leader  of  the  lat- 
ter (Sosthenes,  who  succeeded  Crispus  as  ruler  of  the 
synagc^e)  and  gave  him  a  sound  beating  in  the  very 
Bi^t  ofthe Jud^ent  seat;  but  Gallio  pretended  not 
to  notice.  His  treatment  must  have  cowed  the  Jews, 
and  St.  Paul  ''stayed  yet  many  dajrs".  Comely  is  of 
opinion  that  at  this  time  he  made  his  journey  as  far  as 
ID3rricum,  and  that  his  first  visit  to  them  ''in  sorrow" 
was  when  he  retiu*ned.  Others,  with  greater  proba- 
bility, place  it  later.  St.  Paul,  at  last  taking  leave  of 
the  brethren,  travelled  as  far  as  Ephesus  with  Priscilla 
and  AquQa.  Leaving  them  there  he  went  on  to  Jeru- 
salem and  came  back  bv  Antioch,  Galatia,  and  Phry- 
pia,  where  he  confinned  aH  the  disciples.  After  hav- 
ing thus  traversed  the  ''upper  coasts"  he  returned  to 
Ephesus,  which  he  made  his  head-quarters  for  neariy 
three  vears.  It  was  towards  the  end  of  that  period 
that  tne  First  Epistle  was  written. 

AftihenHcthfof  the  Fptsfles.-^Little  need  be  said  on 
this  point.  The  historical  and  internal  evidence  that 
they  were  written  by  St.  Paul  is  so  overwhelmingly 
strong  that  their  auth^ticity  has  been  frankly  ad- 
mitted by  every  distlnguiBhed  writer  of  the  most  ad- 
vanced critical  schools.  They  were  contained  in  the 
first  oollectioUs  of  St.  Paul's  Elpiatles,  and  were  quoted 
as  Scripture  by  early  Christian  writers.  They  were 
refenea  to  as  authorities  by  the  eariy  heretics  and 
translated  into  max^  languages  in  the  middle  of  the 
second  century.  Ine  umque  personality  of  St.  Paul 
is  impressed  upon  their  evexj  page.  Baur,  the  ration- 
alistic founder  of  the  TUbin^n  Sdxool.  and  his  fol- 
lowers, held  the  two  t6  the  Corinthians,  CSalatians,  and 
Romans  to  be  unassailable.  One  or  two  hyi)ercriticai 
writers,  of  little  weight,  brought  some  futile  objec- 
tions against  them;  but  these  were  scarcely  meant  to 
be  taken  seriously;  they  were  refuted  and  brushed 
aside  by  such  an  vi&ra  writer  as  Kuenen.  Schmiedel,  one 
of  the  most  advanced  modem  critics,  says  (Hand- 
Kommentar,  Leipzig,  1893,  p.  51)  that  unless  better 
atiguments  can  be  adduced  against  them  the  two 
Epistles  must  be  acknowledged  to  be  eenuine  writings 
of  St.  Paul.  Tlie  Second  Epistle  was  known  from  the 
very  earliest  times.  There  is  a  trace  of  it  in  that 
poHion  of  "l^e  Ascension  of  Isaiah"  which  dates 
back  to  the  first  century  (Knowling,  "The  Testi- 
mony of  St.  Paul  to  Christ",  p.  58-  Charles,  "The 
Ascension  of  Isaiah  ",  pp.  34, 150).  It  was  known  to 
St.  Polycarp,  to  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  Diognetus, 
to  Athenagoras,  Theophilus,  the  heretics  Basilides 
and  Marcion*  In  the  second  half  of  the  second  cen- 
tury it  was  so  widely  used  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
give  quotations. 

TaB  First  Epistle.—TT^  TFntfen.— During  the 
years  that  St.  Paul  was  at  Epnesus  he  must  have  fre- 
quently heard  from  Corinth,  as  it  was  distant  only  250 
miles,  and  people  were  constantly  passing  to  and  fro. 
A  ship  sailing  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour  would 
cover  the  distance  in  three  days,  though  on  one  un- 
propitious  occasion  it  took  Cicero  over  a  fortnight 
(Ep.  vi,  8, 9).  By  degrees  the  news  reached  Ephesus 
that  some  of  the  Corinthians  were  drifting  back  into 
then*  former  vices.  Alford  arid  others  infer  from  the 
words  of  II  Cor.,  xii,  20,  21;  xiii,  1,  ^'Behold  this  is 
the  Qiird  time  that  I  come  to  you",  that  he  made  a  fly- 


ing visit  to  dieck  these  abuses.  Othen  suppose  that 
this  comina  meant  by  letter.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is 
generaUy  neld  that  he  wrote  thi^n  a  brief  note  (now 
lost)  telling  them  ''not  to  associate  with  fornicators'^ 
asking  them  to  make  collections  for  the  poor  brethren 
at  Jerusalem,  and  giving  them  an  account  of  his  inten- 
tion of  visiting  them  bef(»«  going  on  to  Bfacedonia, 
and  of  retumme  to  them  a«;ain  from  that  place. 
News  which  he  neard  later  irom  the  household  of 
Chloe  and  others  made  him  change  this  plan,  and  for 
this  he  was  accused  by  his  enonies  of  want  of  steadi- 
ness of  purpose  (II  Cor.,  i,  17).  Tlie  accounts  whidh  he 
received  caused  him  gre^at  anxiety.  Abuses,  bicker- , 
ingB,  and  party  strife  had  grown  up  amongat  them. 
The  party  cries  were:  ''I  am  of  Pam;  I  am  of  Apollo 
[Apoiloe];  I  am  of  Cephas;  I  am  of  Christ."  These 
parties,  m  all  likelihood,  originated  as  follows:  Dmrhig 
St.  Paul's  circular  tour  from  Ephesus  to  Jerusalem, 
Antioch,  Galatia,  Phrygia,  and  back  to  Ephesus,  ''a 
certain  Jew,  named  ApoUo,  bom  at  Alexanoiia,  an  elo- 
quent man,  came  to  Ephesus,  one  mi^ty  in  the 
scriptures,  and  being  fervent  in  spirit,  spoke,  and 
taught  diligently  the  tninos  that  are  of  Jesus,  knowing 
only  the  baptism  of  John."  Priscilbi  and  Aquila 
fully  instructed  him  in  the  Christian  Faith.  In  accord*- 
ance  with  his  desire  he  received  letters  of  recommen- 
dation to  the  disciples  at  Corinth.  "  Who,  when  he  waa 
come,  helped  them  veiy  much  who  had  believed.  For 
with  much  vigour  he  convinced  the  Jews  openly,  shew- 
ing by  the  scriptures  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ^'  (Acts, 
xviii,  27, 28).  tie  remained  at  Corinth  about  two  years, 
but,  being  unwilling  to  be  made  the  centre  of  strife,  he 
joined  St.  Paul  at  J^p^esus.  From  Uie  inspired  words 
of  St.  Luke,  no  mean  judge,  we  may  take  it  that  in 
learning  and  eloquence  Apollo  was  on  a  par  with  the 
greatest  of  his  contemporaries,  and  that  in  intellectual 
powers  he  was  not  inferior  to  Jews  like  Joeephus  and 
Philo.  He  is  likely  to  have  known  the  latter,  who 
was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Jewish  community  in 
his  native  city  of  Alexandria,  and  had  died  only  foup- 
teen  years  l)efore;  and  his  deep  interest  in  Holy 
Scripture  would  certainly  have  led  him  to  study  the 
worKB  of  Philo.    llie  eloouence  of  ApoUo,  and  his 

S)werful  applications  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the 
essias,  captivated  the  intellectual  Greeks,  especially 
the  more  educated.  Thati  they  thou^t,  was  true 
wisdom.  They  besan  to  make  invidious  comparisQns 
between  him  and  S%,  Paul,  who  on  account  ot  his  ex- 
perience at  Athens,  had  purposely  confined  himself  to 
what  we  should  call  solid  catechetical  instruction. 
The  Greeks  dearly  loved  to  belong  to  some  particular 
school  of  philosophy;  so  the  admirers  of  Apollo  laid 
claim  to  a  deeper  perception  of  wisdom  ana  boasted 
that  they  belonged  to  the  Christian  school  of  the  great 
Alexandrian  preacher.  The  majority,  on  the  other 
hand,  prided  themselves  on  their  intimate  connexion 
with  their  Apostle.  It  was  not  seal  for  the  honour  of 
their  teachers  that  really  prompted  either  of  these 
parties,  but  a  spirit  of  pride  which  made  them  seek  to 
put  themselves  above  their  fellows,  and  prevented 
them  from  hiunbly  thanking  God  for  the  grace  of  being 
Christians.  About  this  time  there  came  from  the 
East  some  who  had  possibly  heard  St.  Peter  preach. 
These  regarded  the  others  as  their  spiritual  inferiors; 
they  themselves  belonged  to  Cephas,  the  Prince  of  the 
Apostles.  Commentators  are  of  opinion  that  this 
party  spirit  did  not  ^  so  deep  as  to  oonstitute  formal 
schism  or  heresy.  They  all  met  together  for  prayer 
and  the  celebration  of  the  Sacred  Mysteries ;  but  there 
were  hot  disputes  and  many  broiches  of  fraternal 
charity.  The  Fathers  mention  only  three  parties; 
but  the  text  obviously  implies  that  there  was  another 
party  the  members  of  wiuch  said,  ''I  am  of  Christ", 
lliis  view  is  now  held  by  several  Catholics,  and  by 
many  non-CathoHcs.  what  was  the  nature  of  this 
party  it  is  difficult  to  deteraiine.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  a  few  of  those  who  were  specially  endowed 


tKttmHUHB 


366 


with  spiritual  g^te,  or  charismata,  boasted  that  they 
were  above  the  otheni,  as  they  were  in  direct  oommu- 
joioation  with  Christ.  Aixotner  explanation  is  that 
thejr  had  seen  Cbriat  in  the  flesh,  or  that  they  claimed 
^to  follow  His  example  in  their  reverence  for  tne  Law  of 
Moses.  At  any  rate,  the  statement,  "  I  am  of  Christ'', 
seemed  to  make  Christ  a  mareparty  name,  and  to  im- 
ply that  the  others  were  not  Gnristians  in  the  genuine 
and  perfect  sense  of  the  word. 

St.  Paul,  hearing  of  this  state  of  things,  sent  Tim- 
othy together  with  Erastus  (probably  the  "treasurer 
of  the  city"  of  Corinth — Rom.,  xvi,  23)  round  by 
Macedonia,  to  put  things  in  order.  Soon  after  they 
left,  Stephanas  and  other  delegates  came  with  a  letter 
from  the  Corinthians.  This  letter  contained  some 
self-glorification  and  requested  the  Apostle  to  give  a 
solution  to  several  serious  difficulties  which  they  pro- 
posed to  him;  but  it  made  no  mention  of  their  short- 
comings. By  this  time  he  had  become  fully  aware  of 
the  grave  state  of  afifaire  amongst  them.  Besides 
party  strife,  some  made  light  of  sins  of  impurity.  One 
man  had  gone  to  the  extent  of  marrying  his  step- 
mother, his  father  being  still  alive,  a  crime  unheard  of 
amongst  the  pagans.  So  far  were  they  from  showing 
horror  that  they  treated  him  in  a  friendly  manner  ana 
allowed  him  to  be  present  at  their  meetings.  As  mat- 
ten  wera  too  pressing  to  wait  for  the  arrival  of  Tim- 
othy, St.  Paul  at  once  wrote  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Gormthiajis  and  sent  it  by  Titus,  about  Easter  a.  d.  57. 

Importance  of  the  First  Epistle. — ^This  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  greatest  of  the  writings  of  St.  Paul  by 
reason  of  the  magnificence  and  beauty  of  its  style  and 
the  variety  and  importance  of  ite  contents.  So 
splen(Hd  is  its  style  that  it  has  given  rise  to  the  con- 
jecture that  St.  Paul  took  lessons  in  oratory  at  Ephe- 
sus;  but  this  is  hig^hly  improbable.  St.  Paul's  was 
not  the  type  of  eloquence  to  be  moulded  by  mechani- 
oal  rules ;  nis  was  the  kind  of  genius  that  produces  lit- 
erataue  on  which  rules  of  rhetoric  are  based.  If  the 
Corinthians  were  impressed  by  the  eloauence  of 
Apollo,  they  could  not  help  feeling,  when  tney  heard 
and  read  this  Epistle,  that  nere  was  an  author  capable 
of  bearing  comparison  not  only  with  Apc^lp,  but  with 
the  best  Uiat  they  oould  boast  in  Greek  literature,  of 
whidi  they  were  so  justly  proud.  Scholars  of  all 
tt^ools  are  loud  in  its  praise.  The  striking  similes, 
figures  of  speech,  and  telling  sentences  of  the  Epistle 
have  paasea  into  the  literatures  of  the  world.  Plum- 
mer,  in  Smith's  "Diet,  of  the  Bible",  says  that  chap- 
ters xiii  and  xv  are  among  the  most  sublime  passages, 
not  only  in  the  Bible,  but  in  all  literature. 

But  this  Epistle  is  great  not  only  for  its  style  but 
also  for  tiie  variety  and  importance  of  its  doctrinal 
teaching.  In  no  other  Epistle  does  St.  Paul  treat  of 
BO  many  different  subjects;  and  the  doctrines  which 
are  touched  upon  (in  many  cases  only  incidentally) 
are  important  as  showing  what  he  and  Silvanua,  a  dis- 
ciple and  trusted  delegate  of  the  older  Apostles,  taudbt 
the  early  Christians.  In  some  of  his  letters  he  had  to 
defend  his  Apostolate  and  the  freedom  of  Christians 
from  the  Law  d  Moses  against  heretical  teachers;  but 
he  never  had  to  defend  nimself  against  his  bitterest 
enemies,  the  judaisers,  for  his  teaching  on  Christ  and 
the  principal  points  of  doctrine  contained  in  these  two 
Epistles,  the  obvious  reason  being  that  his  teaching 
miist  have  been  in  perfect  harmony  with  that  of  The 
Twelve.  He  distinctly  states  in  ch.  jcv,  11,  "For 
whether  I,  or  thqr  [The  Twelve  Apostles],  so  we  preach, 
and  so  you  have  believed."  ' 

Dwisuma  of  the  First  Epistle, — ^Instead  of  giving 
a  formal  summary  of  the  contents  of  the  Epistle,  it 
may  be  more  useful  to  give  the  teaching  of  the  Apos- 
tle, in  his  own  words,  classified  under  various  heads, 
following,  in  general,  the  order  of  the  Creed.  With 
regard  to  arrangement,  it  may  be  stated,  in  passing, 
that  the  Epistle  is  divided  mto  two  parts.  In  the  first 
six  chapters  be  rebtikes  than  for  their  fauha  and  ooi^ 


(1)  He  shows  the  absurdity  of  their 
bickerings; 


rects  abuses: 

divisions  and  bickerings;  (2)  deals  with  tlie  scandal- 
ous case  of  incest;  (3)  their  Lawsuits  before  pi^guM; 
and  (4)  the  want  of  sufficient  horror  of  impurity  in 
some  of  them.  In  the  second  part  (the  remaining  ten 
chapters)  he  solves  tiie  difficulties  which  they  pro- 
posed to  him  and  lays  down  various  r^;ulations  for 
their  conduct.  He  deals  with  questions  rdating  to 
(1)  marriage,  (2)  virginity,  (3)  tiie  use  of  things  olfered 
to  idols,  (4)  proper  decorum  in  church  and  the  cele- 
bration of  liie  Eucharist,  (5)  spiritual  sifts,  or  Charis- 
mata, (6)  the  Resurreoti<Hi,  (7)  the  collectioos  for  the 
poor  of  Jerusalem. 

Its  Teaching.--Ood  ths  Father  (passim),  ''Yet 
there  is  but  one  God,  the  Father,  of  whom  are  all. 
things,  and  we  unto  him;  and  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
by  whom  are  all  things  and  we  by  him*'  (viii,  6). 
Compare  II  Cor.,  xiii,  13:  ''The  grace  of  our  Loixi 
Jesus  Christ,  and  the  charity  of  God,  and  the  commu- 
nication of  the  Holy  Ghost  be  with  you  all. "  (Beoj^, 
quoted  by  Bernard,  calls  this  an  earegium  testimomum 
to  the  Blessed  Tnmty,y^esus  ChrisL  (1)  "Grace  to 
you  and  peace  from  God  our  Father,  and  from  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ*'  (i,  3).  "  You  are  called  unto  the 
fellowship  of  his  Son.  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord"  (i,  9). 
"Christ  the  power  ot  God  and  the  wisdom  of  Giod" 
(i,  24).  "  We  speak  the  wisdom  of  God  in  a  mystery, 
a » wisdom  which  is  hidden,  which  God  ordained  before 
the  world,  unto  our  glory,  which  none  of  the  princes  of 
this  world  knew;  for  if  they  had  known  it,  they  would 
never  have  crucified  the  Lord  of  glory"  (ii,  7,  8). 
"  But  you  are  washed,  but  you  are  sanctified,  but  you 
are  justified  in  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and 
the  Spirit  of  our  God"  (vi,  11 — see  also  i,  2,  4,  7, 
9,  13;  iu,  5,  11;  vi,  \l;  xii,  4-6).  (2)  "The  word  of 
the  cross  to  thesn  that  ar^  saved  is  the  power  of  God  " 
(i,  18).  "  We  preach  Chnst  crucified,  unto  them  that 
are  called  Christ  the  power  of  God  and  the  wisdom  of 
God"  (i,  23, 24).  "But  of  him  are  you  in  Christ  Jesus, 
who  of  God  is  made  imto  us  wisdom^  and  justice,  and 
sanctification   and   redemption"    Q,    30).    "For    I 

i'udged  myself  not  to  know  any  tiling  among  you,  but 
fesus  Chnst,  and  him  crucified"  (ii,  3).  "For  Christ 
our  pasch  is  sacrificed"  (v,  7).  "For  you  are 
bougnt  with  a  great  price"  fvi,  20 — cf.  i,  13,  17;  vii, 
23;  viii.  11,  120  (3)  The.  following  passage  prob- 
ably contains  fragments  of  an  early  creed:  "  Tne  ^ispel 
which  I  preached  to  you,  which  also  you  have  re- 
ceived. .  .  .  For  I  delivered  unto  you  first  of  all, 
whidi  I  also  received:  how  that  Christ  died  for  our 
sinsj  according  to  the  scriptures:  and  thai  he  was 
buried,  and  thai  he  rose  again  the  third  day,  according  to 
the  scriptures:  and  that  he  was  seen  by  Cephas;  and 
after  that  by  the  eleven.  Then  was  he  seen  by  more 
than  five  hundred  brethren  at  once:  of  whom  many 
remain  until  this  present,  and  some  are  fallen  asleep. 
After  that,  he  was  seen  by  James,  then  by  all  the 
apostles.  And  last  of  all,  he  was  seen  also  by  me,  as 
by  one  bom  out  of  due  time"  (xv,  1-8).  "Have  not 
I  seen  Christ  Jesus  our  Lord?"  (ix,  1).  "And  if 
C^irist  be  not  risen  again,  then  is  <Dur  preaching  vain, 
and  your  faith  is  also  vain"  (xv,  14).  "But  now 
C!hrist  is  risen  from  the  dead,  the  fixstfruits  of  them 
that  sleep"  (xv,  20— cf.  vi,  14).  (4)  "Waiting  for 
the  coming  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ"  (i,  7).  "That 
the  spirit  may  be  saved  in  the  day  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
CHirist"  (v^  5).  ''He  that  judgeth  me  is  the  Lord. 
Therefore  judge  not  before  the  time;  until  the  Lord 
come,  who  bom  will  bring  to  lidit  the  hidden  things  of 
darkness,  and  will  make  manifest  the  counsels  of  the 
hearts;  and  then  shall  every  man  have  praise  from 
God"  (iv,  4,  5).— The  Holy  Ghost.  "Now  there  are 
diversities  of  graces,  but  the  same  Spirit;  and  there 
are  divensities  of  ministries,  but  the  same  Lord;  and 
tiiere  are  diversities  of  operations,  but  the  same  God" 
(xii,  4-6).  "But  to  us  God  hath  revealed  them,  by 
his  Spirit.    The  Spirit  searcheth  all  thingSy  yea,  the 


OOBXMTHUJIS 


367 


COBIMTHIAirS 


deep  things  of  God.  .  .  .  the  thingB.that  are  of  God 
no  man  knoweth,  but  the  Spirit  of  God"  (ii,  10, 11 — 
cf.  d,  12-14,  16).  ''Know  you  not,  that  you  are  the 
temple  of  God,  and  that  the  Spirit  of  God  dwelleth  in 
your'  (iii,  16).  ''But  you  are  washed,  but  you  are 
sanetified  ...  in  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesua  Christ, 
and  the  Spirit  of  our  God"  (vi,  11).  ''Or  know  you 
not,  that  your  members  are  the  temple  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  who  is  in  you,  whom  you  have  from  God;  and 
you  are  not  your  own?  .  .  .  Glorify  and  bear  God  in 
your  body"  (vi,  19,  20).  "But  aU  these  things  one 
and  the  same  Spirit  worketh,  dividing  to  every  one 
according  as  he  will"  (xii,  11).  "For  in  one  Spirit 
were  we  all  baptised  unto  one  body"  (xii,  13).  "Yet 
by  the  Spirit  he  speaketh  mysteries"  (xiv,  2). — The 
aoty  CatKoUe  Church.  "The  head  of  every  man 
is  Ouiat"  (xi,  Z).—UnUy.  "Is  Christ  divided?" 
(i,  13).  "Now  I  beseech  you,  brethren,  by  the  name 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  uiat  you  all  speak  the  same 
thing,  and  that  there  be  no  schisms  amonf;  you;  but 
that  you  be  perfect  in  the  same  mind,  and  m  the  same 
judgment"  (i,  10).  He  devotes  four  chapters  to  the 
reprehension  of  their  divisions,  which  did  not  really 
amount  to  anything  constituting  formal  schism  or 
heresy.  They  met  in  common  for  prayer  and  the  partici- 
pation of  the  Blessed  Eucharist.  "  Know  you  not  that 
Sou  [the  Christian  body]  are  the  temple  of  God  .  .  . 
ut  ii  any  man  violate  the  temple  of  God  fby  pulling  it 
to  pieces],  him  shall  God  destroy.  For  the  temple  of 
God  is  holy,  which  you  are ' '  (iii,  16, 17) .  "  For  as  the 
body  is  one,  and  hath  many  members,  and  all  the 
membeiB  of  the  body,  whereas  they  are  many,  yet  are 
one  body,  so  also  is  Christ.  For  in  one  Spirit  were  we 
all  baptised  into  one  body,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles, 
whether  bond  or  free  "  (xii.  12, 13).  [Here  follows  the 
allegory  of  the  bodv  and  its  members,  xii,  14-25.1 
**Now  you  are  the  body  of  Christ,  and  members  of 
member"  (xii,  27).  "And  God  hath  set  some  in  the 
church;  first  apostles,  secondly  prophets  .  .  .  Are 
all  apostles?"  (xu,  28-31).  "For  God  is  not  the  God 
of  dissension,  but  of  peace:  as  also  I  teach  in  all  the 
Churches  of  the  saints"  (xiv,  33).  "I  have  sent  you 
Timothy,  who  is  my  dearest  son  lEuid  faithful  in  the 
Xx>rd,  who  will  put  you  in  mind  of  my  ways,  which  are 
in  Christ  Jesus:  as  I  teach  everywhere  in  every 
church"  (iv,  17).  "But  if  any  man  seem  to  be  con- 
tentious, we  have  no  such  custom,  nor  the  church  of 
God"  (xi,  16).  "The  gospel  which  I  preached  to  you 
and  wherein  you  stand;  by  which  also  you  are 
1  saved,  if  you  hold  fast  after  the  manner  I 
led  unto  you,  unless  you  have  believed  in  vain" 
,xv,  1-2).  "For  whether  I,  or  they  [The  Twelve 
Apostles],  so  we  preach,  and  so  you  have  believed" 
(xv,  11).  "The  churches  of  Asia  salute  you" 
(xvi,  19).— OW  Testament  Types.  "Now  all  these 
things  happened  to  them  in  figure:  and  they  are 
written  for  our  correction"  (x,  11). — AvinorUy. 
"  What  will  you?  shall  I  come  to  you  with  a  rod ;  or  m 
charity,  and  in  the  spirit  of  meekness?"  (iv,  21). 
"Now  concerning  the  collections.  .  .  .  as  I  have  given 
order  to  the  churches  of  Galatia,  so  do  ye  sJso"  (xvi, 
1). — Power  of  excommunication.  "I  ind^od,  absent 
in  body,  but  present  in  spirit,  have  alr^uiy  jud^,  as 
though  I  were  present,  him  that  hath  so  done.  In  the 
name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  you  being  gathered  to- 

S ether,  and  my  spirit,  with  the  power  of  our  Lord 
esus  Christ,  to  deliver  such  a  one  to  Satan  for  the 
destruction  of  the  flesh,  that  the  spirit  miw  be  saved  " 
(v,  3-6). — Jews  and  pagans  exempt  from  Churches  jtir- 
isdiction.  "  For  what  have  I  to  do  to  judge  them  that 
are  without  .  ,  .  For  them  that  are  without,  God  will 
judge"  (V,  12,  l3).Sanctitu.  "For  the  temple  of 
God;  is  holy,  which  you  are'*  (iii,  17).  "Know  you 
not  that  your  bodies  are  the  members  of  Christ" 
(vi,  15).  ^*  Your  members  are  the  temple  of  the  Hohr 
Ghost  .  .  .  Glorify  and  bear  God  in  your  body" 
(vi,  19,  20— cf.  vi,  11,  etc.).— Gracs.    "God  \a  faith- 


Z 


f ul,  who  will  not  8u£fer  you  to  be  tempted  above  that 
which  you  are  able,  but  will  make  also  with  tempta- 
ti(m  issue,  that  you  may  be  able  to  bear  it"  (x,  13). 
"Grace  be  to  you  •  •  .  "  (i.  3).  "But  by  the  grace 
of  God,  I  am  what  I  am:  and  his  grace  in  me  hath  not 
been  void,  but  I  have  laboured  more  abundantly  than 
all  they:  yet  not  I,  but  the  grace  of  God  with  me" 
(xv,  10). — Virtuous  life  necessary  for  salvation, 
"ELnow  you  not  that  the  unjust  shall  not  possess  the 
kinfldom  of  Ckxi?  Do  not  err:  neither  fornicators,  nor 
idolatera,  nor  adulterers,  nor  the  effeminate  .  .  .  nor 
thieves,  nor  oovetous,  nor  drunkards,  .  .  .  shall  pos- 
sess the  kingdom  of  Ckxi"  (vi,  9,  10).  This^  like  a 
dominant  note,  rings  clear  throu^  all  the  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul  as  in  the  teaching  of  his  Divine  Msster.  "  But 
I  chastise  my  bodv,  and  orins  it  into  subjection:  lest 
perhaps  when  I  have  preached  to  others,  I  myself 
should  become  a  castaway"  (ix,  27).  "  Wherefore  he 
that  thinketh  himself  to  stand,  let  him  take  heed  lest 
he  fall "  (x,  12).  "  Therefore,  my  beloved  brethren,  be 
ye  steadfast  and  unmoveable ;  always  abounding  in  the 
work  of  the  Lord,  knowing  that  your  labour  is  not  in 
vain  in  the  Lord  "  (xv,  68).  "  Watch  ye,  stand  fast  in 
the  faith,  do  manfully,  and  be  strengthened  "  (xvi,  13). 
"Do  all  to  the  rfoiy  of  God"  (x,  31).  "Be  without 
offence  to  the  Jews,  and  to  the  Gentiles,  and  to  the 
chuiY^  of  God  "  (x,  32).  "  Be  ye  followers  of  me  as  I 
am  of  Christ"  (xi,  1). — Resurrection  of  the  body  and 
life  everlasting.  "For  God  hath  raised  up  the  Lord, 
and  he  will  raise  us  up  also  by  his  power"  (vi,  14). 
"And  as  in  Adam  all  die,  so  also  in  Christ  all  shall  be 
made  alite. "  "For  star  differeth  from  star  in  gloiy. 
So  also  is  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  It  is  sown  m 
corruption,  it  shall  rise  in  incomiption.  It  is  sown  in 
dishonour,  it  shall  rise  in  ^ory. "  "  Behold,  I  tell  you 
a  mystery.  We  shall  all  indeed  rise  again."  "In  a 
moment,  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eve,  at  the  last  trum- 
pet: for  the  trumpet  shSU  sound,  and  the  dead  shall 
rise  again  incorruptible."  (See  all  of  eh.  xv.)  "We 
see  now  throu^  a  glass  in  a  dark  manner  *  but  then 
face  to  face.  Now  1  know  in  part;  but  then  I  shall 
know  even  as  I  am  known"  (xiii,  12). — Baptism, 
"  Were  you  baptised  in  the  name  of  Paul?"  (i,  13).  "  I 
bapti»9d  also  the  household  of  Stephanus"  (i»  16). 
"For  in  one  Spirit  were  we  all  baptized  into  one  body  " 
(xii,  13).  "But  you  are  washed  [i.'w^KiaOcMBt]^  but  you 
are  sanctified,  but  you  are  justified  in  the  name  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  Spirit  of  our  God"  (vi,  11). 
— Eucharist.  "Tne  chalice  of  benediction,  whic^  we 
bless,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the  blood  of  Christ? 
And  the  bread,  which  we  break,  is  it  not  the  partakine 
of  the  body  of  the  Lord?  .  .  .  But  the  things  which 
the  heathens  sacrifice,  they  sacrifice  to  devils.  .  • .  You 
cannot  drink  the  chalice  of  the  Lord  and  the  chalice  of 
devils"  (x,  lfi-21).  "For  I  have  received  of  the  Lord 
that  which  also  I  delivered  unto  you,  that  the  Lord 
Jesus,  the  same  night  in  which  he  was  betrayed,  took 
bread,  and  giving  thanks,  said:  Take  ye,  and  eat: 
this  is  my  body  ...  In  like  manner  also  the  chalice, 
etc.  .  .  .  Therefore  whosoever  shall  eat  this  bread,  or 
dxink  the  chalice  of  the  Lord  unworthily,  shall  be 
nulty  of  the  body  and  of  the  blood  of  the  Lord.  .  .  . 
For  ne  that  eateth  and  drinketh  unworthily,  eateth 
and  drinketh  judgment  to  himself,  not  discerning  the 
body  of  the  Lord"  (xi,  23-29).  On  the  words  of  con- 
secration see  the  two  able  articles  by  Dr.  A.  R.  Eaear 
in  "The  Expositor",  March  and  April,  1908.— Afar- 
riage.  Its  use.  Marriage  good,  but  celibacy  better. 
— ^The  marriage  of  divorrod  persons  forbidden. — 
Second  marriage  allowed  to  Christians;  but  single 
state  preferable  for  those  who  have  the  gift  from  God. 
(vii,  1^.)  Pauline  Dispeiusation:  a  Christian  is  not 
bound  to  remain  single  u  his  pagan  partner  is  unwill- 
ing to  Kve  with  him  (vii,  12-15). — Virginity,  It  is  not 
wrong  to  many;  but  preferable  to  remain  sinp;le — 
fit  Paul's  example—"  He  that  giveth  his  virgin  in 
marriage  doth  well;  and  he  that  giveth  her  not  doth 


OORtNTfilMVS 


368 


dbBIHTBIAlIni 


better."  (vii,  25-40.) — Principles  of  moral  theology. 
In  ch.  vii  and  following  chapters  St.  Paul  solves  sev- 
eral difficult  cases  of  conscience,  some  of  them  of  a 
very  delicate  nature,  falling  under  what  we  should 
now  call  the  tractatus  de  sexto  (sc.  prceeepto  decalogi). 
He  would,  doubtless,  have  preferred  to  be  free  from 
the  necessity  of  having  to  enter  into  such  disagreeable 
subjects;  but  as  the  welfare  of  souls  required  it,  he 
felt  it  incumbent  upon  him,  as  part  of  ms  Apostolic 
office,  to  deal  witi^  the  matter.  It  is  in  the  same 
spirit  that  pastors  of  souls  have  acted  ever  since.  If 
so  many  difficulties  arose  in  a  few  years  in  one  town,  it 
was  inevitable  that  numerous  complicated  cases 
should  occur  in  the  course  of  centuries  amongist  peo- 
ples belonging  to  every  decree  of  barbarism  and  civil- 
ization; and  to  tiiese  questions  the  Church  was  rightly 
expected  to  give  a  helpful  answer;  hence  the  growth 
of  moral  theolo^. 

The  Second  Epistle  was  written  a  few  months 
after  the  First,  in  which  St.  Paul  had  stated  that  he 
intended  to  go  round  by  Macedonia.  He  set  out  on 
this  journey  sooner  than  he  had  anticipated,  on  ac- 
count of  the  disturbance  at  Ephesus  caused  by  Deme- 
trius and  the  votaries  of  Diana  of  the  Ephesians.  He ' 
travelled  northwards  as  far  as  Troas,  and  after  waiting 
some  time  for  Titus,  whom  he  expected  to  meet  on  hfi 
way  back  from  Corinth,  whither  he  had  carried  the 
First  Epistle,  he  set  sail  for  Macedonia  and  went  on  to 
Philippi.  Here  he  met  Titus  and  Timothy.  The 
news  tnat  Titus  brought  him  from  Corinth  was  for  the 
most  part  of  a  cheering  character.  The  grq^t  major- 
ity were  loyal  to  their  Apostle.  They  were  sorry  for 
their  faults:  they  had  obeyed  his  injunctions  regard- 
ing the  public  sinner,  and  flie  man  himself  had  deeply 
repented.  We  hear  no  more  of  the  parties  of  Paul, 
Apollo,  and  Cephas,  though  the  letter  appears  to  coh- 
tam  one  reference  to  the  fourth  party.  His  friends, 
who  had  expected  a  visit  from  himself,  were  deeply 
grieved  at  his  not  coming  as  he  had  promised ;  a  lew 
who  were  his  enemies,  probably  judaizers,  sought  to 
take  advantage  of  this  to  undermine  his  authonty  by 
discovering  in  this  a  clear  proof  of  fickleness  of  mind 
and  instability  of  purpose;  they  said  that  his  unwill- 
ingness to  receive  support  betrayed  want  of  affection; 
that  he  used  threatenmg  language  when  at  a  safe  dis- 
tance, but  was  in  fact  a  coward  who  was  mild  and  con- 
ciliating when  present;  that  they  were  foolish  to  let 
themselves  be  led  by  one  who  made  the  rather  enor- 
mous pretension  to  tie  an  Apostle  of  Christ,  when  he  was 
nothing  of  the  kind,  and  was  in  reality,  both  naturally 
and  supematurally,  inferior  to  men  tney  could  name. 
This  news  filled  the  soul  of  St.  Paul  with  the  deepest 
emotion.  He  purposely  delayed  in  Macedonia,  and 
sent  them  this  Epistle  to  prepare  them  better  for  his 
coming  and  to  counteract  the  evil  influence  of  his  op- 
ponents. It  was  sent  by  Titus  and  two  others,  one  of 
whom,  it  is  almost  certain,  was  St.  Luke.  The  cir- 
cumstances under  which  the  Epistle  was  written  can 
be  best  gathered  from  the  text  itself.  We  can  easily 
imagine  the  effect  produced  when  it  was  read  for  the 
first  time  to  the  assembled  Christians  at  Corinth,  by 
Titus,  or  in  the  sonorous  tones  of  the  Evangelist  St. 
Luke.  The  news  that  their  great  Apostle  had  sent 
them  another  letter  rapidly  spread  through  the  dty; 
the  previous  one  had  been  sucn  a  masterly  production 
that  all  were  eager  to  listen  to  this.  The  great  bulk  of 
the  expectant  congregation  were  his  enthusiastic  ad- 
mirers, but  a  few  came  to  criticize,  especially  one  man, 
a  Jew,  who  had  recently  arrived  with  lettere  of  rec6m- 
mendation,  and  was  endeavouring  to  supplant  St. 
Paul.  He  said  he  was  an  Apostle  (not  one  of  The 
Twelve,  but  of  the  kind  mentioned  in  the  Didache). 
He  was  a  man  of  dignified  presence,  as  he  spoke  sli^t- 
ingly  of  St.  Paul's  insignificant  appearance.  He  was 
6kuled  in  philosophy  and  polished  in  speech,  and  he 
insinuated  that  St.  Paul  was  wanting  in  both.  He 
Imew  nttle  or  nothbg  of  St.  Plaul  except  by  hearsayv 


as  he  accused  him  of  want  of  determination,  of  cow- 
ardice, and  unworthy  motives,  things  bdied  by  every 
fact  of  St.  Paul's  history,  llie  latter  miciit  t^ii^ 
others  by  letters,  btit  he  would  not  frighten  ninL  This 
man  comes  to  ihe  assembly  expectins  to  be  attacked 
and  prepared  to  attack  in  turn.  As  t£e  letter  is  being 
read,  ever  and  anon  small  dark  clouds  appear  on  the 
horizon;  but  when,  in  the  second  part,  the  Epistle  baa 
quieted  down  into  a  calm  exiiortation  to  almsgiving, 
this  man  is  congratulating  himself  on  his  easy  e9ci^>e, 
and  is  already,  picking  holes  in  what  he  has  heara. 
Then,  suddemy,  as  upon  the  anny  of  Sisara,  the 
storm  breaks  upon  him;  lig^tninss  strike,  thunder 
upbraids.  He  is  beaten  down  by  the  deluge,  and  his 
influence  is  swept  out  of  existence  by  the  irresistible 
torrent.  At  any  rate,  he  is  never  h^ard  of  again. 
These  two  Epistles  as  effectively  destroyed  St.  Paul's 
opponents  at  Corinth,  as  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
annihilated  the  judaizers  in  Asia  Minor. 

StyU. — ^This  Epistle,  thou^  not  written  with  the 
same  degree  of  care  and  polish  as  the  First,  is  more 
varied  and  spontaneous  in  style.  Erasmus  says  that 
it  would  take  all  the  ingenuity  of  a  skilled  rhetorician 
to  explain  the  multitude  of  its  strophes  and  fi^^ures. 
It  was  written  with  great  emotion  and  intenaity  of 
feeling,  and  some  of  its  sudden  outbursts  reach  the 
highest  levels  of  eloquence.  It  gives  a  deeper  insight 
than  any  other  of  his  writings  into  the  character  and 
personal  history  of  St.  Paul.  With  Comely,  we  may 
call  it  his  *'  Apologia  pro  VitA  Sud",  a  fact  which  makes 
it  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  writings  of  the 
New  Testament.  Erasmus  described  it  as  follows: 
"Now  it  bubbles  up  as  a  limpid  fountain;  soon  it 
rushes  down  as  4  roaring  torrent  carrying  all  before  it; 
then  it  flows  peacefully  'and  gently  along.  Now  it 
widens  out  as  into  a  broad  and  tran()uil  lake.  Yonder 
it  jgets  lost  to  view,  and  suddenly  reappears  in  quite  a 
different  direction,  when  it  is  seen  meandering  and 
winding  along,  now  deflecting  to  the  right,  now  to  the 
left;  then  making  a  wider  loop  and  occasionally 
doubling  back  upon  itself." 

Divisions  of  the  Epistle. — It  consists  of  three  parts. 
In  the  first  of  these  {chapters  i  to  vii,  incl),  after  (1) 
introduction,  (2)  the  Apostle  shows  that  his  change  of 
plan  is  not  due  to  lightness  of  purpose  but  for  the  good 
of  the  people,  and  nis  teaching  not  mutable;  (3)  he 
did  not  wisn  to  come  again  in  sorrow.  The  repentant 
sinner,  the  cause  of  his  sorrow,  to  be  now  reconciled. 
(4)  His  great  affection  for  them.  (5)  He  does  not  re- 
quire, like  others,  letters  of  recommendation.  They, 
as  Christians,  are  his  commendatory  letters.  (6)  He 
writes  with  authority,  not  on  account  of  arrogance, 
but  because  of  the  greatness  of  the  ministry  with 
which  he  was  entrusted,  as  compared  with  the  minis- 
try of  Moses.  Those  who  refuse  to  listen  have  the 
veil  over  their  hearts,  like  the  carnal  Jews.  (7)  Ho 
endeavours  to  please  Christ  Who  showed  His  love  by 
dying  for  all,  and  will  reward  His  servants.  (8)  Mov- 
ingexhortation. 

The  second  part  (chapters  viii  and  ix)  relates  to  the 
collections  for  the  poor  Christians  at  Jerusalem.  (1) 
He  praises  the  Macedonians  for  their  ready  generosity  in 
givmg  out  of  their  poverty.  He  exhorts  the  Corinthians 
to  follow  their  example  in  imitatipn  of  Christ  Who, 
beirvg  rich,  became  poor  for  our  sakes.  (2)  He  sends 
Titus  and  two  others  to  make  the  collections  and  to 
remove  all  grounds  of  calumny  that  he  was  enriching 
himself.  (3)  He  has  boasted  of  them  in  Macedonia 
that  they  began  before  others.  (4J  A  man  shall  reap 
in  proportion  as  he  sows.  God  loves  the  cheerfid 
giver  and  is  able  to  repay.  Giving  not  only  relieves 
the  poor  brethren  but  causes  thanksgiving  to  God 
and  prayers  for  benefactors. 

The  tliM  part  (last  four  chapters)  is  directed  against 
the  pseudo- Apostles.  (1)  He  is  bold  towards  some 
who  think  he  acts  from  woridly  motives.  He  has 
powered  arms  from  God  for  humbling  such  and  pan- 


OORHnnBIANS 


CX)ItDRm4N8 


Ishiiig  their  disofoedienco.  Some  say  he  tenifieft  by 
iettcn  which  ''are  wd^ty  and  stioog;  but  iiis  bodily 
presence  is  weak,  andms  speech  contemptible".  Lrt 
such  a  one  understand  that  such  as  he  is  m  his  Epistle, 
80  will  he  be  when  presrat.  (2)  He  will  not  pretend,  as 
they  do,  to  be  greater  than  he  is,  nor  will  he  exalt  him- 
self by  other  men's  labours.  (3)  He  asks  pardon  for 
talking  like  a  worldly-minded  man.  It  is  to  counteract 
the  influence  df  the  pseudo-Apostles.  He  jealously 
guards  the  Corinthians  lest  they  be  deceived  as  Eve 
was  by  the  serpent.  (4)  If  the  new-comers  brought 
them  anythii]^  better  in  the  way  of  rdigion,  he  ocmld 
-  understand  their  submission  to  their  dictatonhip. 
(5)  He  is  not  inferior  to  those  superlative  Apostles. 
If  his  speech  is  mde,  his  knowled|;e  is  not.  He  hum- 
bled himself  amon^  ^^%  ^^  ^^  ^^^  exact  support 
in  order  to  gain  them.  Tne  false  Apostles  profess  a 
like  disinterestedness;  but  they  are  deceitful  work- 
men transforming  themselves  into  Apostles  of  Jesus 
Christ.  And  no  wonder:  for  Satan  transformed  him- 
self into  an  ansel  of  light,  and  they  imitate  their  mas- 
ter. Th^  nu3ce  f  abe  insinuations  against  the  Apos- 
tle. (6)  He,  too,  will  glory  a  little  (speaking  like  a 
foolish  worldly  person,  in  order  to  confound  them). 
The^  boast  of  natural  advantages.  He  is  not  inferior 
to  them  in  any;  but  he  far  surpasses  them  in  his  suf- 
feringB  for  the  propagation  of  the  Oespel,  in  his  super- 
natural gifts,  ana  in  the  miraculous  proofs  of  his 
Aposileship  at  Oorinrth,  ''in  all  patience,  in  signs,  and 
wondeiB,  and  mighty  deeds".  Ilie  Corinthians  have 
all  that  other  Churches  bad  except  the  burden  of  his 
support.  He  asks  them  to  pardon  him  that  injury. 
Neither  he  nor  Titus  nor  any  oliier  of  his  friends  over- 
reached them.  He  writes  thus  lest  he  should  come 
again  in  sorrow.    He  threat^is  the  unrepentant. 

Unih^  of  the  Second  EpisUe.-^WhiiBi  the  Pauline 
authonuiip  is  universally  acknowledged,  the  same 
eannot  be  said  for  its  unity.  Some  critics  hold  that  it 
consists  of  two  Epistles,  or  portions  of  Epistles,  by 
»St.  Paul;  that  the  first  nine  chapters  b^ong  to  one 
Epistle,  and  the  last  four  to  another.  As  these  two 
sections  are  held  to  have  been  written  by  St.  Paul, 
there  appears  to  be  nothing  in  this  view  that  can  be 
said  to  be  in  opposition  to  the  Catholic  doctrine  of 
inspiration.  But  the  hypothesis  is  very  far  from 
being  proved.  Nay  more,  on  account  of  the  argu- 
ments that  can  be  alleged  against  it,  it  can  scarcely  be 
regarded  as  probable.  The  principal  objection  a^&st 
the  imity  of  the  Epistle  is  the  difference  of  tone  m  the 
two  sections.  This  is  well  stated  and  answered  l^tbe 
Catholic  scholar  Hug  ("Introduction",  tr.  by  Wait, 
London,  1827,  p.  392):  "It  is  moreover  objected  how 
difTerent  is  ^e  tone  of  the  first  part,  mild,  amiable, 
affectionate,  whereas  the  third  part  is  severe,  vehe- 
ment, and  irrespectively  castigatory.  But  who  on 
this  account  would  divide  Demosthenes'  oration  De 
Ccrand  into  two  parts,  because  in  the  more  general 
defence  placidity  and  circumspection  predcniinate 
while  on  the  ot^er  hand,  in  abashing  and  chastizing 
the  accuser,  in  the  paralld  between  him  and  iEschines, 
words  of  bitter  irony  gush  out  impetuously  and  fall 
like  rain  in  a  storm.''  Tim  argument  is  referred  to 
with  approval  by  Meyer,  Comely,  flnd  Jacquier. 
Others  nave  explained  the  difference  of  tone  by  sup- 
posing that  when  the  first  nine  chapters  were  finished 
fresh  news  of  a  disagreeable  kind  arrived  from  Cor- 
inth, and  that  this  leid  St.  Paul  to  add  the  last  four 
chapters.  In  the  same  way  the  parenthetical  section 
(vi,  14,  vii,  2),  which  seems  to  have  been  inserted  as  an 
afterthou^t,  can  be  explained.  It  was  added,  ac- 
cording to  Bernard,  to  prevent  a  misconception  of 
the  expression  used  in  vi,  11,  13,  "our  heart  is  en- 
larged ...  be  you  ako  enlarged",  which  in  the  O.  T. 
had  the  bad  meaning  of  being  too  free  with  infidels. 
Bt.  Paul's  manner  of  writing  has  also  to  be  taken  into 
account.  In  this,  as  in  his  other  Epistles,  he  speaks 
as  a  preacher  who  now  addresses  one  portion  of  his 
IV.— 24 


eongregation,  now  another,  as  if  they  were  the  only 
persons  present,  and  that  without  £Bar  ci  being  mia* 
imderstood*  Dr.  Bemaid  thinks  that  the  difference 
of  tone  can  be  sufficiently  accounted  for  on  the  eup- 
posttkin  that  the  letter  was  written  at  different  mt- 
tingB,  and  that  the  writer  was  in  a  different  mood  ow- 
ing to  ill-health  or  other  drcumstanoes.  Ihe  other 
obiections  brou^t  against  the  unity  of  the  Epistle  are 
ably  refuted  by  the  same  author,  whose  argument  may 
be  briefly  summarized  as  fdllows:  The  last  section,  it 
is  said,  begins  veiy  abruptly,  and  is  loosely  cozmeeted 
with  the  previous  on^  by  tibe  particle  B4,  But  there 
are  several  other  inatanoes  in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
where  transition  is  made  in  pirecisdy  the  same  way. 
In  the  last  part,  it  is  objected,  people  in  open  rebellion 
are  denounoed,  wheireas  that  is  not  the  case  in  the  firart 
p»ortion.  Still,  there  is  clear  reference  in  the  first  sec- 
tion to  persons  who  accused  him  of  behig  fickle,  arro- 
gant, brave  at  a  distance,  etc*  One  of  the  strongest 
aiguinenta  agamst  thet  integrity  is  that  there  are  sev- 
eru  verses  in  thefisst  nine  ooapteis  which  seem  to 
presuppose  an  ecpial  number  o£  passages  in  the  second, 
and  me  eontentaion  is  that  the  last  section  is  a  portion 
of  an  eariier  Epistle.  But  on  closer  examination  of 
each  passage  this  connexion  is  seen  to  be  only  appar- 
ent. On  the  otiter  hand,  there  are  at  least  as  maoiy 
passages  in  the  last  part  which  clearly  and  unmistak- 
a^y  look  back  to  and  presuppose  verses  in  the  first. 
It  is  remarkable,  moreover,  tnot  the  cocdy  extant  fratf- 
mentaof  the  supposed  two  Epfistles  should  fit  so  weU. 
It  has  also  been  uige^  that  Uie  First  Epistle  is  not 
''painful"  enough  to  account  for  statements  in  the 
Second.  But  a  close  etamination  of  i,  11, 14;  ii,  6; 
iii,  1,  2,  3,  4, 18;  iv,  8,  9,  IQ,  18,  19;  v,  ete.,  of  the 
First  Epistle,  will  show  that  this' objeotioffi  isquite  un- 
founded. The  linguistic  unity  between  the  two  por- 
tions of  the  Epistle  is  very  great ;  and  many  examples 
can  be  given  to  show  that  t&  two  sections  were  always 
integral  portuMos  of  one  whole.  The  evidence  afforded 
by  early  manuscripts,  translations,  and  quotations 
points  strongly  in  the  same  direction. 

Organizatiow  of  Tite  Church  at  Corinth  as  Ex- 
HiBrrED  IN  THE  Two  EpisTLEB. — ^Thcreis  nothing  in 
either  Epistle  which  enables  us  to  sav  what  was  the 

grecise  nature  of  the  organization  of  the  Church  at 
brinth.  In  I  Cor.,  xU,  28,  we  read:  "And  God  in- 
deed hath  set  some  in  the  church ;  first  apostles,,  sec- 
ondly prophets,  thirdly  doctore;  iifter  that  [the  gift  of] 
miracles;  then  the  graces  [charismata]  of  hc^ingfs, 
hdpB,  governments  [or  wise  counsels],  kinds  of  tongues, 
interpretations  of  8pee<ihes:  Are  all  apostles?  »  . .  Are 
all  workers  of  miracles  T  Have  all  tpe  grace  of  heal- 
ing?" From  the  whole  context  it  is  clear  that  this 
passageis  nothing  else  than  an  enumeration  of  extraor- 
dinary gifts,  and  that  it  has  no  bearing  whatsoever 
on  chumi  government.  The  word  apoelJk  iB:prob^bly 
used  here  in  its  broad- sense,  not  as  mea*ning  we  Apos- 
tles of  Jesus  Christ)  but  the  apostles  of  the  Church.  '  If 
it  is  meant  to  include  the  former,  then  the  reference  is 
not  to  their  ruling  power,  but  to  their  supernatural 
«ft8,  upon  which  the  who^  argument  turns.  St. 
jPaul  thanked  God  that  hei  spoke  with  all  their  tongues. 
Bartiabas  is  called  an  apostle  (Acts,  xiv,  4v  13).  In 
II  Cor.,  viii,  23,  St.  Paul  calls  his  messengers  "  the  apos- 
tles of  the  churches".  (Compare  Rom.,  xvi,  7 ;  Apoc, 
ii,  2.)  The  Didache,  or  ''Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles'^  whidi  is  probably  awork  of  the  first  cen- 
tury, has  the  statement  that  if  an  apostle  remains  till 
the  third  dav  claiming  support,  he  is  to  be  regarded  as 
a  false  prophet.  It  also  says  that  every  true  teacher 
and  true  prophet  is  worthy  of  his  support;  and  it 
gives  one  of  the  rules  for  detecting  a  false  prophet. 
^Prophets  and  doctors"  are  referred  to  in  Acts,  ziii, 
1.  It  is  extremely  probable  that  St.  Paul  had  organ- 
ised the  Church  at  Corinth  during  his  long  stay  there 
as  carefully  as  he  had  previously  -  done  in  Galatia . 
(''and  when  they  had  ordained  to  them  priests  in 


ooiamuB 


370 


evenr  church" — ^Acts,  ziv,  22)  and  in  Ephesus 
V*  wherein  the  Holy  Ghost  hath  placed  you  bimops'' 
— Acta^  zx,  7,  28).  We  have  these  statements  on  the 
authority  of  the  author  of  the  Acts,  now  admitted, 
even  by  Hamack,  to  be  St.  Luke,  the  companion  of 
the  Apostle.  St.  Paul  had  spent  six  or  eig^t  times  as 
long  at  Corinth  as  he  had  at  Philippi,  yet  we  find  him 
writing  to  the  latterplaoe:  ''Paul  and  Timo^  .  .  . 
to  all  the  saints  in  Uirist  Jesus,  who  are  at  Philippi, 
with  the  bishops  and  deacons"  (Phil.,  i,  1 — cf.  I 
Thess.,  V,  12).  Tlie  principal  office  of  the  biidiops  and 
deacons  was,  accordmg  to  the  Didache,  to  consecrate 
the  Blessed  Eucharist.  It  is  only  by  accident,  as  it 
were,  on  accoimt  of  abuses,  that  St.  Paul  speaks,  in 
the  First  Epistle,  of  the  form  of  consecration  used  at 
Corinth,  and  which  is  substantiallv  the  same  as  that 
given  in  the  Gospels.  Had  the  abuses  not  arisen,  it 
seems  dear  that  he  would  not  have  referred  to  the 
Eucharist.  He  says  nothing  of  it  in  the  Second  Epis- 
tle. In  that  case  there  would  not  be  wanting  those 
who  would  have  loudly  asserted  that  the  Corinthians 
''knew  nothing  of  it",  and,  by  implication,  that  the 
Apostle's  mindhad  not  yet  developed  to  that  extent. 
But  as  he  speiJcs  so  clearly  we  may  take  it  as  certain, 
too,  that  the  ministers  of  we  ESucharist  were  the  same 
as  in  other  places.  There  is  no  evidence  that  it  was 
ever  consecrated  without  a  biriiop  or  priest.  These, 
with  the  deacons,  were  the  regular  mmisters  in  each 
place,  under  the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  Apos- 
tles of  Jesus  Christ.  From  al(  this  we  may  conclude 
that  the  Chureh  in  Achaia  was  as  regularly  oiganized 
as  the  earlier  Churches  of  Galatia,  Ephesus,  and  the 
neighbouring  Province  of  Macedonia,  or  as  in  t^e 
Chureh  of  (Sete  (Tit,  i,  6).  There  were  '^bishops" 
(which  word  certainly  meant  priests  and  perhaps  also 
our  modem  bishops)  and  deacons.  Later  on,  Tim- 
othy, and  Titus,  and  others  were  appointed  over  these 
''bishops'',  priests,  and  deacons,  ana  were  monarchical 
bishops  in  tne  modem  sense  of  the  word.  Other  such 
bishops  succeeded  the  Apostles.    (See  Bishop.) 

The  usual  IrUroduclion$t  mioh  aa  Gornklt.  jAcquiBft.  Salmon, 
Bblsbr,  Zarn;  Bebnakd,  Second  Corintkiana  in  Expontor'a 
Greek  Teatament  (London,  1903):  Findlat,  Firat  BpiatU  to  the 
Corinthiana  in  Bxp.  Gr.  Tea.  (London,  1900);  Rickabt,  Ro- 
moM^  CoHnthiana,  OalaUana  (London,  1898);  Kbnnctt.  Sec- 
ond and  Third  Corinthiana  jhondon,  1900):  Alford.  The  Greek 
Teal.  (London.  1855).  II;  Robkrtson  in  HAanNoa.  Did.  of  the 
BibU;  lives  of  St.  Paul  by  Farrar,  0>ntbearb  and  now- 
BON,  Lewin,  Fouard;  M6Eytllt,  An  Expoeiiion  ^  tiha  EpiaAm 
of  St.  Pend  (3rd  ed.,  Dublin,  1875);  0>bnbly,  Cammentariua 
(Paris,  1890).  See  also  the  commentaries  of  Estiub.  Bibpino. 
Maxbr,  Loch,  Rbxbchl,  Dracr,  ^teenkibtb.  The  critical 
oommentary  of  ScmciBDEL,  Die  Briefe  an  die  Korinther  in 
Hand  Kommentar  (Leipsig»  1893);  LioirmoT.  Biblical  Eaaaye, 
Nota  on  Bpiatlea  of  St.  Paul  (notes  on  seven  chapters  of  First 
Cor. — London.  1895);  Robertson,  Corinthiana  m  The  Inter- 
national CriHoal  Commentary  (Cambridffe,  1906). 

C.  Ahbbnb. 

Oorioli8»  QASPARD-GnsTAVB  T>B,  French  mathema- 
tician, b.  at  Paris,  in  1792;  d.  in  the  same  dty,  1843. 
He  entered  the  Eoole  Polytechnique  in  1808,  and  later  . 
continued  his  studies  at  the  Eoole  dee  Fonts  et  Ghaus- 
s^  Though  determined  to  become  an  engineer,  he 
did  not  enter  upon  the  practice  of  his  profession,  but 
became  insteaa,  in  the  year  1816,  a  tutor  in  mathe- 
matical analysis  and  meohanios  at  the  Ecole  Ptty- 
teohnicjue.  In  1838  he  succeeded  Dulong  as  director 
of  studies  in  the  same  school.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Acaddmie  des  Sciences  in  1836.  CorioUs  was 
a  man  of  much  abilit^r,  but  his  deHoate  health  pre- 
vented him  from  doing  justice  to  his  powers.  He  was 
a  successful  educator  and  together  with  Gen.  Fonoe- 
let  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  reform  in  the  methods 
of  teaching  mechanics.  While  enga^  in  teaching, 
he  at  the  same  time  carried  on  his  researches  in 
theoretical  and  applied  mechanics.  •  The  theorem 
enunciated  by  him  r^arding  relative  motions  has 
found  numerous  applications,  particularly  in  the  case 
of  motions  taking  place  <m  the  surface  of  the  earth: 
as,  for  example,  the  deviation  towards  the  east  of 


falling  bodies,  the  apparent  i'otaUon  of  the  plane  of 
^vibration  of  a  peodulum,  etc.  Coriolis  was  the  author 
of  "Calcul  de  Teffet  des  machines''  (1829),  which  wis 
reprinted  in  1844  with  the  title  ''Traits  de  la  m^cam- 
que  des  corps  solides",  and  of  "Throne  math^- 
matiaue  du  leu  de  billard"  (1835).  He  also  fiub- 
lishea  a  number  of  articles,  notably  in  the  "  Diction- 
naire  de  Tindustrie  ". 

HkBn,  Hiai,  dm  acieneea  math,  el  phtf.  (Fitfis.  1888),  ZU. 
190. 

Henrt  M.  Bbock. 

Oork  (Cobcagia),  Diocxsb  of  (CoBCAOiBifBiB),  in 
Ireland,  suffragan  of  Cashel.  St.  Finbarr  was  the 
founder  and  firat  bishop  of  this  see.  He  was  bom 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  at  RathcuUeen, 
six  miles  north  of  Bandon,  and  educated  in  Leinster. 
Having  scent  some  time  on  "a  green  island"  in 
Gougane  Barra,  he  founded  a  monastery  and  a  school 
at  Lough  EHrc,  the  name  given  to  the  mushy  expan- 
sion of  the  river  Lee,  on  which  the  oit^  is  built,  and 
from  which  both  city  and  diocese  derive  the  name 
Cork  (eoratffhy  '^ marsh")-  This  monastery  seems  to 
have  been  erected  on  the  elevated  plateau  to  the 
south  of  the  city,  now  known  as  the  llock,  close  by 
the  pakce  of  the  Protestant  bishop.  Soon  many 
students  flocked  thither  from  various  parts.  Tb^ 
and  those  interested  in  them  rapidly  took  possession 
of  the  large  island  in  the  marsh  beneath,  iMiilt  on  it. 
and  so  gave' birth  to  a  city  which  now  numbers  over 
70,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  residence  of  the  saint's 
episcopal  successor. 

The  limits  of  the  territory  over  which  St.  Finbarr 
ruled  cannot  be  accurately  defined  to-day.  A  fact, 
however,  not  generalhr  recognised  by  historians  en- 
ables us  to  conclude  tnat  the  boundaries  were  suffi- 
ciently clear  even  in  the  most  ancient  times.  Finbarr 's 
father  was  chief  metal-worker  to  Tighemeach,  chief 
of  Ui  Eachach  Mumhan.  As  the  saint  advanced  in 
years  he  was  venerated  as  a  patron  by  the  entire 
sept,  and  so  obtained  spiritual  jurisdiction  over  their 
wide  territories.  The  eastern  and  western  limite  were 
respectively  Cork  and  Missen  Head,  and  there  are 
argumente  to  show  that  the  northern  and  southern 
were  the  Avonmore  (Blackwater)  and  the  ocean.  In 
the  Synod  of  Rathbreasail  (U 10)  these  are  also  named 
as  the  limits  of  the  Diocese  of  Cork,  whence  it  would 
appear  that  the  sept  lands  and  the  diocese  were  coter- 
minous, as  was  the  case  with  St.  Faughnan's  Diocese 
of  Ross,  which  coincides  with  the  lands  of  the  O'Dris- 
colis;  and  that  of  St.  Munohin,  Limerick,  with  those 
of  Ui  Ftghente,  in  later  times  O'Donovans.  At  some 
period  alter  the  twelfth  century  part  of  the  territory 
between  the  Lee  and  Blackwater  to  the  north  was 
detached  in  favour  of  the  neighbouring  Diocese  of 
Cloyne;  the  land  of  the  O'Driscolls  had  been  already 
erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Ross;  and  to-day  Cork  is 
approximately  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  d^  and 
suburbs,  and  the  River  Lee  as  far  as  Ctougane  Barra, 
on  the  east  by  Cork  Harbour,  on  the  south  by  the 
Diocese  of  Ross  and  the  ocean,  and  on  the  west  by 
Bantry  Bay. 

The  church  and  monastery  founded  by  St.  Finbarr 
were  naturally  the  centre  of  the  diocese  till  the  six- 
teenth century.  For  many  years  the  successor  to  the 
first  abbot  was  also  bishoo  of  the  diocese.  Other 
churches  and  monasteries,  nowever,  grew  up  in  the 
city  itself  and  in  the  territories  over  which  he  ruled. 
In  a  document  dated  1199,  in  which  Innocent  III  con- 
firms to  the  Bishop  of  Cork  his  various  privfleges, 
mention  is  made  of  eight  churches  in  the  city,  the 
first  being  Sancta  Maria  in  Monte,  doubtless  St. 
Mary's,  Shandon,  close  by  which  stands  the  Catholio 
cathedral  of  to-day.  Two  centuries  later  (1309),  in 
the  will  of  John  de  Wychedon,  we  find  the  names  of 
no  fewer  than  fifteen  ehurdies,  all  in  the  city,  four  of 
them  bearing  names  such  as  *' Lepers  of  Dilbv'\ 
'' Lepers  of  Gienamore";  but  a  hundred  years  axtei 


371 


00B& 


tibis  (1402),  in  a  charter  of  Edward  IV,  we  find  only 
eleven  churohes  mentioned.  Of  the  churches  in  coun- 
try districta  during  this  long  period  we  have  no 
definite  account.  The  Cannelitee  were  introduced 
into  Kinsale  in  1334  by  Bobert  Bahrain;  much  earlier, 
in  the  seventh  century,  we  find  mention  of  Saint 
Gobban,  abbot  of  a  monastery  of  regular  canons  in 
the  same  town.  In  Bantry  Dermot  CrSullivan  Beare 
built  a  convent  for  Fiandscans  about  1463,  and 
McCarthy  Lauder  had  done  likewise  at  Bal  vmacadane 
on  the  Mndon  Road  in  1460.  Tracton  Abbey,  two 
miles  west  from  Carrigaline,  was  begun  in  1224,  and 
-  the  great  monasterv  of  Kilcrea,  five  miles  west  of 
Ck>rk,  was  founded  bv  MacCarthv  Mor  in  1466,  who 
is  interred  in  the  miadle  of  the  choir. 

At  the  Reformation,  when  Bishop  Bennett  was  de- 
prived of  the  temporalities  of  the  see  (1535),  such  of 
the  churches  as  remained  passed  into  Protestant 
hands.  Among  others  the  old  church  of  St.  Finbarr, 
called  Gill  Abbey,  after  a  famous  bishop  of  the 
twelfth  century  (1152-72),  seems  to  have  remained 
in  some  form  till  1725.  At  that  date  it  was  removed 
to  make  room  for  a  more  modem  building,  which  in 
turn  has  been  succeeded  by  the  present  Protestant 
cathedral.  After  the  Sequestration  the  Catholics  had 
perforce  to  rest  contented  with  very  himible  "  Massr 
houses  ",  as  contemporary  acooimts  describe  them.  In 
the  reports  given  by  government  officials  in  1731  we 
find  many  of  them  put  down  as  huts;  and  the  addi- 
tion ''built  since  Georse  the  1st"  applied  to  the 
names-  of  many  more.  The  existing  churches  of  the 
diocese  have  been  erected  in  recent  years  on,  or  near, 
the  sites  of  these  last  monuments  of  persecution.  In 
the  five  parishes  into  which  the  citv  is  divided  there 
are  thirteen  public  churches,  besides  private  orato- 
ries and  chapels  attached  to  institutions.  In  each  of 
the  thirty  parishes  in  country  districts  there  are  one, 
two,  or  three  churdhes,  according  to  the  population, 
all  of  recent  erection,  and  built  in  a  manner  that  befits 
the  great  mvsteries  thev  enclose.  Of  the  citv.  par- 
ishes two — ^that  called  the  North,  or  St.  Mary  s,  and 
that  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul — are  held  by  the  bishop. 
In  the  former  stands  the  pro-cathedral,  beguil  by  Dr. 
Moylan  in  1729,  a  red  sanastonc  structure,  overlooked 
by  a  magnificent  tower  of  the  same  material,  due  to 
the  energy  of  a  well-known  Cork  priest. 

The  lists  of  successors  to  St.  Finbarr  in  the  bishop- 
ric vary  considerably  with  the  different  authorities. 
The  present  (1908)  occupant  of  the  see  is  described  as 
the  §9th,  or  the  105th,  from  the  first  bishop.  The 
latter  number  seems  to  be  the  more  correct,  though 
somewhat  too  large.  Two  have  been  raised  to  the 
altars  of  the  Church — St.  Nessan  and  Blessed  Thad- 
deus  McCarthy.  The  veneration  of  the  former  dates 
from  ancient  tunes,  that  of  the  latter  from  1492,  when 
he  died  a  pilgrim  at  Ivrea  in  Piedmont,  Italy.  First 
appointed  Bishop  of  Ross,  and  expelled  therefrom  on 
a  raise  charge,  he  was  nominated  to  the  imited  Dio- 
ceses of  Cork  and  Cloyne.  Unable  to  occupy  the  see 
owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  Geraldines,  etc.,  he 
journeyed  to  Rome,  won  his  cause,  but  died  amid 
wonderful  evidences  of  sanctity  on  the  i^tum  journey. 
The  decree  of  his  beatification  was  published  in  1895. 
Giolla  Aedh  O'Muighin  (11 52-72)  was  a  famous  bishop. 
He  practically  refounded  the  old  monastery  of  St. 
Finbarr;  like  his  great  predecessor  he  belonged  to  a 
Connacht  clan.  The  Four  Masters  speak  of  him  as 
"the  tower  of  the  virginity  and  wisdom  of  the  time''. 

Three  centuries  after  his  death  (1430),  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  Bishop  of  Cloyne,  the  two  Dioceses  of 
Cork  and  Cloyne  were  united,  and  remained  thus  for 
three  hundred  years  (1747).  During  the  seventeenth 
oentury  the  united  bishoprics  were  more  than  onse 
governed  by  vicars  apostolic.  This  occurred  in  1614- 
22,  and  a^^ain  in  1666-76.  During  the  same  period 
Catholic  citizens  of  Cork  were  more  than  once  expelled 
tor  their  religion;  frequently  the  Catholics  of  the 


province  were  forbidden  to  live  in  walled  towns  or 
fortified  places  (1644, 56,  72).  In  1693,  on  the  repre- 
sentation of  King  James,  the  administration  of  Ross 
was  given  to  the  reigning  Bishop  Sleyne.  It  se^ns 
to  have  remained  in  uie  hands  of  his  successors  until 
1747,  when  it  passed  into  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
newly  enfranchised  Bishopric  of  St.  Cohnan. 

The  Diocese  of  Cork  Dossessed  a  chapter,  with 
twelve  prebendaries  ana  the  usual  dignitaries. 
Though  re-established  by  Dr.  Delaney  in  1858-59,  it 
dates  from  the  twelfth  century;  naturally  it  ceased 
to  exist  during  the  years  of  persecution.  The  relig- 
ious orders  and  congregations  in  the  diocese  are  ei^t 
in  number:  Augustimans  (second  foundation,  Ked 
Abbev,  in  fifteenth  century)  ;  Dominicans  (&«t 
foundation  Abbey  of  the  Island,  1229) ;  Friars  Minor 
(first  foundation  near  Wise's  HUl,  1214);  Carmelites 
(Kinsale);  Franciscan  Capuchins;  Vincentians;  Fath- 
ers of  Charity;  Society  of  African  Missions,  the  last 
four  being  quite  modern  foundations.  There  are  in 
addition  two  teaching  orders  of  men,  the  Christian  and 
Presentation  Brothers,  besides  1 1  communities  of  nuns ; 
the  latter  are :  Presentation  (4  houses),  Ursullnes  (2 
houses),  Sisters  of  Mercy  (4  houses),  Sisters  of  Chari^ 
(4  houses).  Good  Shepherd  (1  house),  French  Sisters  of 
Charity  (2  houses),  Sisters  of  Marie  RSparatrice  (1 
house),  Bon  Secours  (1  house).  Sisters  of  the  Poor  (1 
house),  Sisters  of  the  Assumption  (1  house),  the  last 
nursing  the  poor  in  their  own  homes. 

At  tne  census  of  1891  the  Catholic  population  of 
the  diocese  numbered  178,461.  They  are  attended 
by  one  bishop  and  114  priests,  who  administer  35 
parishes,  of  which  5  are  in  the  city.  Kilcrea  Abbey 
and  Gougane  Barra  are  the  best  preserved  among  the 
early  monuments  of  the  diocese.  A  ^eat  part  of  the 
former  still  stands.  The  latter  is  an  islana  on  which 
are  the  ruins  of  a  square  court,  with  walls  fourteen 
feet  thick,  in  which  are  ei^t  cells  or  cloisters  rudely 
arched  over.  Each  of  the  cells  is  ten  feet  deep  by 
seven  broad,  and  the  court  fifty  feet  sauare.  It  was 
here  that  St.  Finbarr  prepared  himself  oy  prayer  and 
seclusion  in  the  lonely  shadows  of  the  mountains  that 
surround  the  lake  for  the  great  work  of  founding  a 
city  and  a  diocese. 

Braot,  Epiaeopal  Sitcoeaaion  in  England^  Ireland,  and  Scot* 
land  (Rome,  1876),  II,  78-98;  Arehaolooical  Journal  (Cork), 
paasim;  Smzth.  Cork  (1750,  new  ed.  1815),  with  Note$  by 
Cbokea  and  Caulrku)  (Cork.  1893);  Tuokkt,  Cork  Remem- 
Itrancea  (Cork,  1837):  Lynch,  CanUn-enaia  Everaua  (1662), 
paasini;  O'Donovan  (ed.).  AnnaU  of  the  Four  MaaterSt  paBsim; 
CuBACK.  Hittory  of  the  City  and  County  (DubUn,  1876);  Gib- 
son, Htat,  of  the  County  and  City  of  Cork  (London,  1861). 

P.  Sexton. 

Gorki  School  of. — ^The  monastic  School  of  Cork 
had  a  wide  reputation,  especially  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  centuries.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Irish 
corcagh,  which  means  a  marsh,  for  in  ancient  times  the 
floods  of  the  River  Lee  covered  the  low  ground  on 
which  most  of  the  present  city  of  Cork  was  afterwards 
built.  The  founder  of  the  School  and  Diocese  of  Cork 
was  Barra  or  Bairre  (Barry),  more  conunonly  called 
Finbarr  the  Fair-haired.  His  family  belonged  to  the 
Hy  Brinin  Ratha,  a  tribe  that  dwelt  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  Lough  Corrib,  in  the  County  Galway;  but 
his  father,  a  skilful  cerdf  or  certified  worker  in  brass, 
was  forced  to  migrate  to  Hy  Liathain,  in  the  west  of 
the  Coimty  Cork,  where  the  saint  was  bom  idix>ut  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century.  His  chief  teacher  was  a 
certain  MacCuirp,  or  Curporius,  who  himself,  it  is 
said,  had  been  a  student  under  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
in  Rome.  To  perfect  himself  in  the  science  of  the 
saints,  Barra  retired  to  a  hermitage  in  a  small  island 
of  the  lonely  lake  which  still  bears  iiis  name^  Gougane 
Barra.  Callanan's  splendid  poem  in  praise  of  the 
romantic  beauty  of  this  lake  has  made  its  name 
familiar  to  all  Irbhmen.  From  Gougane  Barra,  it 
would  appear,  Barra  returned  to  his  native  territory, 
where  he  founded  some  dozen  churches  before  he 


CORKER 


372 


OORKIR 


finally  established  himself  near  the  marsh  of  Lough 
Eire  (Eirce),  which  appears  to  have  been  the  original 
name  of  the  place.  There  he  founded  a  monastic 
school  about  620,  which  in  a  short  time  attracted  a 
multitude  of  students  and  produced  many  great 
scholars.  The  Irish  "  Life 
of  Finbarr"  gives  the 
names  of  a  dozen  of  these 
holy  and  learned  men,  who 
in  turn  became  founders 
of  churches  and  schools 
in  the  South  of  Ireland. 
The  most  distinguished  of 
them  was  St.  Colman  Mac 
Ua  Cluasaigh,  Ferlegind  or 
professor  in  the  School  of 
Cork  about  the  year  664. 
At  that  time  all  Ireland 
was  devastated  by  a  terri- 
ble yellow  plague  which 
carried  off  two-thirds  of 
the  population.  There 
was  a  prevalent  idea  that 
the  pestilence  could  not, 
or  at  least  did  not,  extend 
beyond  nine  waves  from 
the  shore.   So  Colman  and 


St.  Mary's  Cathicdkal,  Cork 


his  pupils  wisely  resolved  to  migrate  from  their  monas- 
tery in  the  marshes  of  Cork  to  one  of  the  islands  in  the 
hign  sea.  Bein^  a  poet  and  a  holjr  man  he  composed  a 
poem,  mostly  m  Irish,  committing  himself  and  his 
pupils  to  the  protection  of  God  and  His  saints,  espe- 
cially the  patron  saints  of  Erin.  As  they  sought  their 
island  refuge  the  students  chanted  the  poem  verse  by 
verse,  each  one  reciting  his  own  stanza  until  it  was 
finished,  and  then  they  began  again.     Fortunately 


lines  themselves  do.  The  School  of  Cork  conifnued 
to  flourish  for  many  centuries,  even  after  the  Dana 
had  established  themselves  there;  in  874  we  find 
recorded  the  death  of  a  ^Scribe  of  Cork",  and  in  891 
we  are  told  of  the  death  of  a  certain  son  of  Connudh, 
"  a  scribe,  wise  man,  bkfaop 
and  abbot  of  Cork".  In 
1134  the  ancient  iDOQae> 
tery  and  School  of  Cork, 
which  had  fallen  into  de- 
cay, were  ref ounded  bv  the 
oel^irated  Cormac  Mao- 
Carthy,  King  of  Monster. 
(See  FiNBARR,  Saint.) 

Todd.  Book  at  Hymn*  (Dub- 
lin. 1800),  11;  HKA1.T,  htlMtt* 
Ancient  SchooU  <md  SdMon 
(Dublin,  1890);  Latin  lAvet  of 
at.  Fmbarr,  ed.  Caultxeui 
(London.  1864);  OUanum. 
Uvea  of  the  irieh  SamU,  25 
Sept.;  Forbes  in  Diet,  of  Cfkrist. 
BwQ.,  I,  266  sq.;  LAiaoAM. 
Ecd.  Hiat.  of  Ireland  (Dublin, 
1820).  II,  314  aoQ. 

John  Hjbalt. 

Ctorker,  BIaurus,  an 
English  Benedictine,  b.  in 
1636  in  Yorkshire;  d.  22  December,  1716,  at  Padding- 
ton  near  London.  His  baptismal  name,  James,  he  ex- 
changed for  Maurus  when  he  entered  the  order.  On 
2S  April,  1666,  he  took  vows  at  the  Enatish  Benedic- 
tine Abbev  of  Lamspringe  near  Hildeaneim,  in  Ger- 
many, and  returned  to  England  as  miasionuy  in  1666. 
Being  accused  by  Titus  Gates  of  implication  in  **  the 
Popish  Plot"  he  was  imprisoned  in  Newgate,  but  was 
acquitted  of  treason  by  a  London  jury,  18  Jidy,  1679. 


QUKKNBTOWN    HaRBOUR,    CoRK 


most  of  this  poem  still  survives,  and  is  printed  in  the 
"Leabhar  Imum*'  or  "Book  of  Hymns"  (edited  by 
J.  H.  Todd,  Dublin,  1856-69).  The  language  is  of 
the  most  archaic  type  of  Gaelic,  and  is  interspersed 
here  and  there  with  phrases  mostly  taken  from  Scrip- 
ture, but  made  "to  rhyme  with  each  other  as  the  Gaelic 


Hereupon  he  was  arraigned  for  being  a  priest  and  sen- 
tenced to  death,  17  January,  1680.  Through  influ- 
ential friends  he  was  granted  a  reprieve  and  detained 
in  Newgate.  WTiile  thus  confined  he  is  said  to  have 
reconciled  more  than  a  thousand  Protestants  to  the 
Faith.     One  of  his  fellow-prisonera  at  Newgate 


OOBKAO 


373 


OORNKELXiX 


the  saintly  Olhrer  Plnnket;  Archbishop  of  Armagh, 
with  whom  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship,  and 
whom  he  prepared  for  his  martyrdom,  whicn  took 
place,  15  June,  1681.  Some  very  interesting  oorre- 
spondenee  which  was  carried  on  in  prison  between 
tneoe  two  confessors  of  the  Faith  was  published  in  the 
'^ Irish  fioelesiastieal  Record"  (Sept.,  1883).  On  the 
accession  of  James  II  in  1685,  Father  Corker  was  re- 
leased and  kept  at  the  court  as  resident  ambassador 
ctf  Prinoe-Bishop  Ferdinand  oi  Bavaria,  the  Eleetor  of 
Gologiie.  In  1687  he  erected  the  little  convent  of  St. 
John  at  Clerkenwell,  where  religious  services  were  held 
for  tlM  public,  but  which  was  destroyed  by  a  mob,  11 
November,  1688,  during  the  revolt  against  King 
James.  Father  Corker  himself  was  obliged  to  seek 
refu^  on  tiie  continent.  In  1691  he  was  made  Abbot 
of  Cismar  near  LObeck  and,  two  years  later,  of  Lam- 
springe,  where  he  had  made  his  religious  profession. 
In  1696  he  resigned  as  abbot  and  returned  to  England 
to  continue  his  missionary  labours."  He  in  the  author 
of  various  pamphlets  provinjg  the  innocence  of  those 
condemned  for  implication  in  the  fictitious  *' Popish 
Plot." 

Gnxow,  BtM.  Diet,  of  Enq,  Cath.  s.  v.;  Weldow,  Chnm- 
ideoftKe  Bnalitk  Benediclme  Monks  (London.  1881),  219.  etc.; 
Craixonkb,  Memoira  cf  Minumaru  Prints  (Derby.  1S43),  II; 
MoRAN,  in  trish  Bed.  Record^  IV,  613  sq.;  Taunton,  The  Eng- 
lUh  Blade  Monks  of  St.  Benedict  (London.  1808).  II.  passim; 
Spiixmann,  Die  Bhttxeugen  aua  den  Toatn  der  Titus  Oates 
Venthwdrung  (Fraibursim  Br.,  1901),  135  sq. 

Michael  Ott. 

OonnAC  MmcOuilenan  (836-908),  an  Irish  bishop 
and  King  of  Cashel,  was  of  the  race  of  Eoghanact,  of 
Southern  Ireland,  and  in  his  early  years  received  a 
good  education  in  one  of  the  Irish  schools.  He  was 
ordained  priest,  and  afterwards  appointed  Bishop  of 
Cashel.  in  the  year  900  he  became,  on  account  or  his 
descent,  King  of  Cashel,  and  thus  were  combined  in 
his  person  the  two  offices  of  spiritual  and  temporal 
ruler  of  Leth  Moga,  as  the  southern  portion  of  Ireland 
was  called.  The  ardrt  (high  king),  Flann,' assisted  by 
the  King  of  Leinster,  led  his  forces  into  the  Southern 
Province  (906),  and  was  met  by  the  Munstermen  un- 
der Cormac  at  Moylena  (Tullamore).  The  ardri  stif- 
fered  a  signal  defeat.  Later  on,  however  (908) 
Flann.  assisted  by  Ceorbhall,  King  of  Leinster,  and 
Cathai,  King  of  Connaught,  returned  to  the  attack, 
apparently  because  Cormac,  instigated  by  Flaherty, 
Abbot  of  inniscathay,  had  claimed  tribute  from  Lein- 
ster, and  had  even  signified  his  intentioh^sf  assuming 
the  position  of  ardru  The  battle  was  fought  at  the 
present  Ballymoon;  the  Munstermen  suffered  a  com- 

flete  defeat  and  Cormac  was  killed  in  the  battle.  An 
rish  Glossary  caUed  "Sanas  Chorraaic",  containing 
etymologies  and  explanations  of  over  1400  Irish  words 
has  come  down  to  us.  Though,  etymologically,  the 
work  is  of  little  value,  yet  on  account  of  the  light  it 
throws  upon  many  ancient  Irish  customs  and  institu- 
tions it  is  of  neat  importance  to  the  historian.  The 
'^ Glossary  of  Cormac"  is  said  to  be  onlv  a  part  of  the 
"Ssdtair  Chaisil",  also  attributed  to  Cormac.  This 
work,  if  it  ever  existed,  has  disappeared,  or,  as  W. 
Stokes  thinks,  it  is  more  likely  that  at  best  the 
"Saltair  Chaisil"  was  only  a  collection  of  transcripts 
of  manuscripts  from  the  hands  of  different  writers. 
TTie  above-mentioned  "Sanas  Chormaic",  or  "Cor- 
mac's  Glossary '',  was  translated  and  annotated  by  John 
O'Donovan  and  edited  by  W.  Stokes  (Calcutta,  1868). 
See  Stokes,  "Three  Irish  Glossaries"  (London,  1862). 
O'DowovAK.  The  Annals  of  IreUnui  (DubUn).  I.  II;  O'Currt, 
Mmusaipi  MateriaU  of  Irish  History  (Dubllh.  1873);  O'Dono- 
van «d..  Book9  of  Riokts  in  PubHooHons  of  Celtic  Society;  W^B, 
Compendium  of  Irish  Biography  (Dublin,  1878);  D'Al.ton,  His- 
tory of  hdand  (DubUorTm).  I. 

Jameb  MaoCaffrey. 

Oomaro,  Elbna  Lucrezia  Pisoopia,  a  learned 
Italian  woman  of  noble  descent,  b.  at  Venice,  6  Jime, 
1646;  d.  at  Padua,  26  Julv,  1684.     Her  father,  Gio 


vanni  Battista  Oomaro,  was  Procurator  of  St.  MarkV 
At  the  age  of  seven  she  began  the  study  of  Latin  and 
Greek  imder  distinguished  instructors,  and  soon  be- 
oame  proficient  in  these  languages.  She  also  mas- 
tered Hebrew,  Spanish,  French,  and  Arabic,  earning 
the  title  of  **  Oraculum  Septilingue ' '.  Her  later  studies 
included  mathematics,  philosophy,  and  theology.  In 
1666  she  took  the  habit  of  a  Benedictine  Oblate  with- 
out, how^ever,  becoming  a  nun.  In  compliance  with 
her  father's  wishes  she  entered  the  University  of 
Padua  and  after  a  brilliant  course  of  study  received 
the  doctorate  in  philosophy.  The  degree  was  con- 
ferred  25  June,  1678,  in  the  cathedral  of  Padua  in 
presence  of  many  persons  eminent  for  learning  and 
rank.  Elena  was  a  member  of  various  academies  and 
was  esteemed  throughout  Europe  for  hef  attainments 
and  virtues.  The  last  seven  years  of  her  life  were  de- 
voted to  study  and  charity.  She  was  buried  in  the 
,  church  of  Santa  Giustina  at  Padua  and  her  statue 
was  placed  in  the  university.  Her  writings,  pub- 
lishea  at  Parma  in  1688,  include  academic  discourses, 
translations,  and  devotional  treatises.  In  1685  the 
University  of  Padua  caused  a  medal  to  be  struck  in 
her  honour.  In  1896  Abbess  Mathilda  Pynsent  of 
the  English  Benedictine  Nuns  in  Rome  had  Elena's 
tomb  opened,  the  remains  placed  in  a  new  casket,  and 
a  suitable  tablet  inscribed  to  her  memory. 

BioKraphim  (in  Italian)  by  Dkxa  (Venioe,  14186);  Luna 
(Yeniee.  1689);  Baccuni  (Pamui,  1688);  more  recently,  Da 
Santi  (Home,  188Q);  Abbesb  Pynbcnt,  L*/e  of  Helen  Lucretia 
Comoro  (Rome,  1896).  For  an  account  of  tne  bibliography  aee 
CiviUd,  CattoUea  (Rome,  180S-189O).  17th  aeriee,  v^.  IV,  V: 
Bailet,  a  Daughter  of  tks  Doges  in  Amer.  Cath.  Quart.  Review 
(Philadelphia.  1896),  XXlTSS. 

E.  A  Pace. 

Oorneille,  Jkan-Baptiste,  French  painter,  etcher, 
and  engraver,  b.  at  Paris  between  1646  and  1649; 
d.  there,  12  April,  1696.  He  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Michel  Comeille  of  Orleans,  and  brother  of  the 
younger  Michel.  He  is  known  as  "the  younger 
Com^e".  His  devoted  father  was  his  teacher 
and  painstakingly  prepared  the  youth  for  his  future 
successes  as  an  histoncal  painter.  In  1664  he  won 
the  second  prize  and  in  1668  the  first  prise  of  the 
academy.  He  then  went  to  study  in  Rome  and, 
on  his  return  in  167»5  was  received  into  the  Rojral 
Academy,  painting  for  his  reception-picture  the 
"Punismnent  of  Bi}siris  by  Hercules",  now  one  of 
the  notable  canvases  in  the  Louvre.  He  painted 
in  some  of  the  Paris  churches  and  in  1679  nnished 
his  "Deliverance  of  St.  Peter  from  Prison"  for  the 
Cathedral  of  Notre-Dame.  With  Jacques  Vouet 
he  was  employed  on  the  decorations  of  the  Tuileries. 
In  1692  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  academy. 

His  style,  like  nis  brother's,  was  that  of  the  school 
of  the  Desiderosi,  but  Jean  was  somewhat  inferior 
to  the  younger  Michel  in  composition  and  drawing. 
Many  of  the  paihtings  of  this  excellent  artist  were 
engraved  by  contemporaries,  a  few  by  the  great 
Mariette,  and  Jean  nimself  engraved  and  etched 
plates  after  his  own  designs  and  finished  pictures, 
and  after  the  Carracci.  His  work  with  acid  and 
the  burin  was  spirited  and  exhibited  his  thorough 
mastery  of  technic.  He  commenced  and  finished 
his  plates  after  the  manner  of  Agostino  Carracci. 
His  most  important  plates  were:  "Bust  of  Michel- 
angelo", "St.  Bernard",  "Mercury  in  the  Air",  and 
"St.  John  in  the  Wilderness"  (after  Annibale  Car- 
racci). 

For  bibUography,  see  artida  ComnaiXB,  Michel  <tbe 
Younger). 

Leigh  Hunt. 

OomeiU^,  Michel,  a  French  pamter,  etdier  and 
engraver,  b.  in  Paris  in  1642;  d.  at  the  Gobelins 
manufactory  at  Paris,  16  August,  1708.  He  was  thr 
son  of  an  artist,  Michel  Comeille  of  Orl^ns,  and  on 
this  account  is  sometimes  called  the  "younger  Mi- 
chel",    lie  is  also  and  more  commonly  known  as 


OOBNEILLI 


374 


OOBHKLLB 


the  "elder  Comeille"  (ComeiUe  VAini),  to  distin- 
guish him  from  a  younger  brother,  Jean-BaptLste 
Comeille,  also  a  painter.  His  father  was  tAxe  first 
and  the  most  indefatigable  of  his  teachers;  his  other 
masters  were  Mignard  and  the  celebrated  Lebrim. 
Devoting  himself  wholly  to  historical  painting,  Mi- 
chel won  the  Academy  Prize  and  went  to  Rome  on 
the  king's  pension;  but  feeling  his  genius  hampered 
by  the  restrictions  of  the  prize,  he  gave  up  the 
money  so  l^t  he  might  study  the  antique  in  his  own 
way.  Coming  under  the  then  powerful  influence  of 
the  Eclectics,  ne  studied  with  the  Carracci  and  mod- 
elled his  style  on  theirs.  In  1663  he  returned  to 
Paris  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy, his  picture  on  entering  being  "  Our  Lord's  Ap- 
pearance to  0t.  Peter  after  His  Resurrection".  In 
1673  he  became  an  adjunct,  and,  in  1690,  a  full,  pro- 
fessor in  the  Academy. 

Comeille  painted  for  the  king  at  Versailles,  Meudon, , 
and  Fontainebleau,  and  decorated  in  fresco  many  of  * 
the  great  Paris  churches,  notably  Notre-Dame,  the 
church  of  the  Capuchins,  and  the  chapel  of  Saint- 
Gr^ire  in  the  Invalides. ,  His  style,  reminiscent  of 
the  old  masters,  is  the  conventional  style  of  the  Ec- 
lectics; his  drawing  is  remarkably  careful  and  exact, 
the  expression  on  the  faces  of  his  religious  subjects 
is  digxufied  and  noble,  the  management  of  chiar- 
oscuro excellent,  and  the  composition  harmonious,  but 
sufsgestive  of  the  Venetian  School.  From  his  insuf- 
ficient knowledge  of  the  composition  of  pigments,  the 
colour  in  many  of  his  pictures  has  sunered  such  a 
change  that  it  is  to-day  disagreeable;  but  the  artist 
possessed  a  good  colour-sense,  and  contemporary 
records  go  to  prove  that  his  colour  was  refined  and 
pleasing.  He  etched  and  engraved  over  a  hundred 
plates  m  a  bold  and  free  style,  for  he  was  a  master 
of  the  line;  but  he  subsequently  spoiled  the  effect  bv 
too  much  and  too  precise  work  with  the  graver.  A 
dishonest  dealer  put  Raphael's  name  on  some  of 
Michel  Comeille's  plates,  and  for  a  long  time  no  one 
disputed  their  attribution  to  the  sreat  master.  For 
many  years  Comeille  resided  at  tne  Gobelins  manu- 
factorv,  and  was  sometimes  called  "Comeille  des 
Gobelins".  Among  his  paintings  are  a  "Repose  in 
Egypt",  now  m  the  Louvre,  and  a  "Baptism  of  Con- 
stantine",  in  the  museum  at  Bordeaux.  Among  his 
more  important  etched  and  e^raved  works  are: 
"The  Nativity";  "Flight  into  l^^t";  "Abraham 
joumeving  with  Ix>t"  (wrongly  ascribed  to  Raphael), 
and  "Jacob  wrestling  with  the  Angel",  a  plate  after 
Aimibale  Carracci. 

Mimoirea  inidiU  8ur  la  vie  el  lea  ouvraoea  de  VAcadimie 
rqvale  de  ptinlwe  (Paris,  1884);  AUffemeinea  KitneUerlexikon 
(Berlin,  1570):  Durrisn,  La  peinture  d.  Vexpoeition  de  primi' 
Hfe  franoaia  (Puis.  1904). 

Leigh  Hunt. 

Oomeilley  Michel,  the  elder  Michel,  a  French 
painter,  etcher,  and  engraver,  b.  in  Orleans  about 
1601 ;  a.  at  Paris,  1664.  He  was  one  of  mamr  who 
studied  with  that  celebrated  master,  Simon  Vouet, 
wlio  exerted  a  despotic  influence  over  the  French 
School,  and  impressed  his  artistic  personality  so 
strongly  on  all  his  pupils.  Michel  devoted  himself 
to  historical  paintings,  and  was  one  of  the  twelve 
original  meml^n  of  the  Royal  Academy  at  ite  founda- 
tion in  1648.  He  became  ite  rector  in  1656.  He  was 
an  excellent  colourist — ^in  this  more  Venetian  tlian 
French — and  his  earlv  style  resembled  that  of  Simon 
Vouet;  later  his  worK  had  all  the  merits  and  all  the 
faults  of  the  post-Raphaelite,  or  decadent,  "sweet", 
school  of  Itauan  art,  showing  the  far-reaching  in- 
fluence of  the  Carracci.  He  was  lon^  employed  in 
the  deooratioii  of  churdies  in  Paris,  his  masterpiece 
being  the  celebrated  "St.  Paul  and  St.  Barnabas  at 
I^tra",  pfdnted  for  the  Cathedral  of  Notre-Dame. 
flfis  etehed  and  engraved  woric  differed  very  little 
from  that  of  the  Carracci  and  of  his  two  sons.    It  waa 


chiefly  reproductive.  Notable  examples  are  iha 
"Munier  of  the  Innocente",  after  Raphael,  and  the 
"Virgin  Suckling  the  Infant  Jesus",  after  Lodovico 
CarraccL 

Mbtul  Geaehidtte  der  frantOaiaekenr  MaUrm  (Leipu  1M7>: 
see,  dso,  bibliocmphy  under  Oobnklub,  Mksuuj  (the  YouncBr). 

Leigh  Hunt. 

Oomeille,  Piebre,  a  French  diBmattsI,  b.  at 
Rouen,  6  June,  1606;  d.  at  Pans,  1  October,  1684. 
His  father,  Pierre  ComeiUe,  was  avocat  du  roi  and 
maitre  dea  eaux  et  furHa  in  the  Vicomt^  of  Rouen. 
His  mother,  Marthe  Lepesant,  belonged  to  ao  old 
family  of  Normandy.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit 
college  in  Rouen,  studied  law  at  Caen,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Bar  in  1624.  Four  years  later  he  was 
granted  the  office  of  Advocate  to  the  Adnuralty. 
Although  the  duties  of  his  charge  allowed  him  leisure 
enough  to  follow 
liis  poetical  voca- 
tion, ne  soon  quitted 
the  Bar  and  went 
to  Paris,  in  1629. 
The  first  comedv 
he  produced,  "Me- 
lite^'  (1629),  met 
with  so  great  a  suc- 
cess that  he  resolved 
to  write  for  the 
stage.  Other  plays 
followed  rapidly: 
"Clitandre"(1632), 
"La  Veuve",  "La 
galerie  du  palais' 
(1633),  "La  sui- 
vante",  "La  place 
rovale"  (1634), 
"M6dde"      (1635),  Pibrbb  Cobnkillb 

"L'iUusion  oomique"  (1636).  Cardinal  Riclielieu, 
who  took  a  great  interest  in  dramatic  matters  and 
was  even  the  writer  of  several  plays,  realized  that 
the  young  author  had  some  talent  and  enrolled  him, 
in  1633,  among  "the  five  authors",  whose  functions 
consisted  in  revising  and  polishing  the  plays  written 
by  the  great  politician.*  Comeille  was  too  indepen- 
dent a  genius  to  get  along  easily  with  the  autocratic 
plavwnght;  he  was  dismissed,  in  1635,  because  he 
had  no  esprU  de  suUe^  and  returned  to  Rouen. 

The  year  1636  saw  the  production  of  "Le  Cid", 
which  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  epoch  in  the 
French  drama.  Ite  remarkable  success  aroused 
Richelieu's  anger  and  jealousy  to  such  a  deeree  that 
the  French  Academy,  which  was  so  much  indebted  to 
the  great  cardinal,  was  obliged  to  criticize  the  play  in 
a  public  pamphlet,  known  as  "Les  sentimente  de 
r Academic  sur  le  Cid",  written,  under  command,  bv 
Chapelain.  The  public,  however,  admired  "Le  Cid 
none  the  less,  and,  as  Boileau  said,  "all  Paris  saw 
Rodrigue  with  the  same  eyes  as  Chim^ne".  After  a 
silence  of  four  years  Comeille  brought  out  "Horace" 
and  "anna"  (1640).  The  poet  was  then  in  full  pos- 
session of  his  talent  and  from  this  time  to  the  year 
1651  produced  a  series  of  plays,  most  of  which  are 
masterpieces:  "Polyeucte  ,  a  Christian  tragedy, 
perhaps  the  most  perfect  of  Comeille's  plays:  "Pom- 
p4e";  "Le  Menteur"  (1643),  a  comedy;  ''^Th^odoie, 
vierge  et  martyre"t  a  very  poor  drama  which  failed; 
"La  suite  du  menteur"  (1645);  "Rodogune"  (1646); 
"H^raclius**  (1647);  "AndromMe"  (1650);  "Don 
Sanche  d'Aiagon"  (1650);  "Nicom^e'^  (1651).  Cor- 
neille  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1647.  After 
"Pertharite"  (1653),  which  was  a  decided  failure,  he 
resolved  to  quit  the  stage,  and  in  his  retreat  at  lUnien 
bc«^  to  translate  the  "Imitation  of  Christ"  at  the 
Boficitation  of  Queen  Anne  of  Austria.  A  few  yvars 
later,  jrielding  to  Fouquet's  entreaties,  he  began  again 
to  write  plays:  "(Edipe"  (1659),  "Sertoriua"  (1662), 


375 


dOSMKJUft 


'"Sopfaonisbe"  (ld63),  "Othon''  (1064),  ''Ag^ilaa" 
(1M6),  "Attila"  (1667),  "Tite  et  B^rtnioe"  (1670), 
"Pulch^rie"  (1672),  "Surtna"  (1674),  which,  in 
spite  of  a  few  sparks  of  genius,  show  too  well  the  de- 
dine  of  %  onee  powerfal  playwnidit.  Besides  his 
plays  Ooraeille  wrote  in  prose  "Disoours  sur  Tart 
dnunatique  et  examens"  (1660),  and  contribiited 
several  poems  to  the  ''Griiirlande  de  Julie". 

CoxneiUe  was  a  true  Chnstian.  For  yean  he 
served  as  churchwarden  of  the  church  of  Sainl-Sau* 
veur  in  Rouen,  and  dischaiged  his  duties  most  relig- 
iously. Towaids  the  end  of  his  life  he  sold  the 
iiouse  in  which  he  was  bom  to  give  a  dowry  to  his 
daughter,  who  entered  the  Order  of  Saint  I>ominic. 
In  all  his  dramas  he  constantly  pursued  a  lofty  ideal, 
showing  men  ''as  they  should  be",^and  reprasentinjS 
cbaractets  whose  heroism,  sense  of  *dutjr,  and  readi- 
ness to  self-sacrifice  contain  lessons  of  highest  mofa^ 
ity.  The  standard  text  of  Ck>mei]le'8  woiks  is  the 
edition  of  Marty-Laveaux  (2  vob.,  Paris,  1862-68). 

PxooT.  La  h&dxoaraphie  comAunne  (PbriB,  1876);  Tambb- 
RKAU,  HiaUrire  dtla  vit  0t  de9  ouvraget  de  Piem  ComeUU 
(Paris,  1856);  Sainte-Bbuvs.  PortrmU  litUmirea  (1829),  I; 
NiSARD,  Hittmn  d»  la  litUraiure  franpaiw  (1844),  11;  GuizoT, 


CometUe  €t  9on  temm  (18&2);  Godetbot,  Lanaue  compaH  dt 
la  loMifue  de  CametUe  (Puis,  1802);  Faoubt,  Le  dix-ieptihwiB 
aikde  (1880):  BHUNmtRa  in  La  gnmdi  encye.,  s.  v.:  Idem, 


Iiet  ^poquM  du  thtAtrt  franeaia;  Petit  de  Jullevixj:jb.  HitUrin 
de  la  laniue  el  de  la  littifuture  frxmcaiae  (ParU,  18»7).  IV, 
863-045. 

Louis  N.  Delamarre. 

Oomelisi,  Jacob,  also  called  Jacob  van  Amster- 
dam or  van  Oostsann,  and  at  times  confounded  with 
a  Walter  van  Assen,  a  Dutch  painter  of  the  first  third 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Nothing  certain  is  known 
reeEirdin^  the  life  of  Comelisz  nor  of  his  relations  to 
other  artists.  He  was  one  of  the  last  painters  of  the 
Netherlands  who  showed  no  traces  of  Italian  influ- 
ence; however,  his  pupil,  Jan  van  Scorel,  is  regarded 
as  the  first  ''Romanist' .  In  composition  Comeliss 
was  natiural  and  expressed  agreeable  feeling  in  the 
manner  of  the  old  Flemish  school;  his  colours  are 
rich  and  warm;  his  backgrounds  display  an  attractive 
landscape.  But  besides  mistakes  in  drawing,  an  u^y 
realism  often  detracts  from  his  work.  Pictures  are 
extant  which  it  is  certain  he  painted  in  the  years 
1506h-30.  A  small  yet  attractive  altar-piece  in  Berlin 
represents  in  the  foreground  the  Madonna  and  Child 
with  angels  playing  musical  instruments,  while  the 
background  shows  a  landscape;  on  the  winss  are 
depicted  St.  Augustine,  St.  Barbara,  and  the  donor; 
the>outer  sides  of  the  wings  show  St.  Anne  and  St. 
Elizabeth.  An  altar-piece  in  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna, 
representing  St.  Jerome,  is  full  of  force,  variety, 
and  relidous  feeling.  St.  Jerome  is  drawing  a  thorn 
out  of  the  foot  of  a  lion;  the  landscape  in  me  back- 
groimd  shows  scenes  from  the  life  of  the  saint;  on  the 
outside  of  the  doors  is  the  Mass  of  St.  Gre^rv.  One 
of  the  most  important  works  of  Comelisz  is  the  "Tri- 
umph of  Religion",  or  the  "Adoration  of  the  Trinity*', 
at  Uassel.  At  Antwerp  there  is  an  altar-piece  of  the 
Virgin  with  angels;  another,  representing  the  Cruci- 
fixion, is  at  Cologne.  A  "Nativity"  at  Naples  anc| 
an  "Adoration  of  the  Magi"  at  Verona  are  qarefully 
executed  paintings.  Both  Berlin  and  the  archiepisco- 
pal  museum  at  Antwerppossess  canvases  representing 
the  Adoration  of  the  B/C&gi;  a  painting  of  the  same 
subject  is  in  private  possession  at  The  Hague.  The 
figure  of  Christ  and  the  drapery  of  Mary  Magdalen  are 
not  pleasing  in  a  picture  at  Cassel  of  the  Risen  Christ, 
painted  by  Comeiisz  in  his  earliest  period.  Another 
canvas  of  a  later  date  shows  Saul  and  the  Witch  of 
Endor. 

WaAoen,  Handbudi  der  deuUeheti  und  niedeHAndUehen  Ma- 
lendMlen  (Stottgart.  1862),  I;  Scmniyp,  Ktmetekrontkj  XVi 
Bode.  Repertarium,  IV;  Scbeibubb,  GemtUe  4m  /ofcpb  Car- 
nelise  van  Ameterdam  in  Jahrhuefi  der  preu$ei»ehen  Ktmttmmn^ 
lunaen  (1882):  Frante.  Oeedtiehte  der  ehrieaiehen  Malerei 
(Fraiborg  im  Br..  1894).  II. 

Q.  QtETMAHN. 


Oomelias  (Kopr^Hkm),  a  centurion  of  the  Italic 
cohort,  whose  oonveraion  at  Ciesarea  with  his  house* 
hold  is  related  in  Acts,  z.  The  Roman  name  Cornelius 
would  indicate  that  he  was  either  a  member  of  the 
distinguished  gena  Conwlia,  or  a  descendant  of  one  of 
its  freedmen — most  likely  the  latter.  The  cohort  in 
which  he  was  oenturion  was  probably  the  Cahofn  II 
HaUea  eiviuai  Romanonun,  which  a  recentl]^  discovered 
inscriptionpioves  to  have  been  stationed  in  Syria  be- 
fore A.  D.  66.  The  desonption  of  Cornelius  as  "a  re- 
ligious man,  and  fearing  dod  . .  . .,  giving  much  alma 
to  the  people"  [i.  e.  the  Jews  (cf.  x,  22)],  shows  that 
he  was  one  of  those  gentiles  commonly,  though  incor- 
rectly, called  proselj^  of  the  gate,  who  worshipped 
the  one  true  God  and  observed  some  of  the  prescrip- 
tions of  the  Mosaic  Law,  but  who  were  not  affiliated 
to  the  Jewish  communitv  by  circumcision.  He  was 
certainly  not  a  full  proselyte  (Acts,  x,  28,  34  sq.,  45; 
xi,  3).  The  bi^itism  of  Cornelius  is  an  important 
event  in  the  historv  of  the  Eariy  Church.  Tl^  gates 
of  the  Church,  witoin  which  thus  far  only  those  who 
were  drcumciaed  and  observed  the  Law  of  Moses  had 
been  admitted,  were  now  thrown  open  to  the  undr- 
cumdsed  Oentilea  without  the  obligation  of  submit- 
ting to  the  Jewish  ceremonial  laws.  The  innovation 
was  disapproved  bv  the  Jewish  Christians  at  Jeru- 
salem (Acts,  xi,  2, 3) ;  but  when  Peter  had  related  his 
own  and  Comeltua's  vision  and  how  the  Holy  Ghost 
had  come  down  upon  the  new  converts,  opposition 
ceased  (Acts,  xi,  4~I8)  except  on  the  part  of  a  few 
extremists.  The  matter  was  finally  settled  at  the 
Council  of  Jerusalem  (Aets,  xv).  According  to  one 
tradition  Cornelius  became  Bishop  of  Cnsarea;  accord- 
ing to  another.  Bishop  of  Scepsis  in  Mytria. 

Raimat.  Comdim  mndthe  Italic  CahaH  in  Bxvoeitor  (1806). 
104  80.;  Acta  SS.,  Feb..  IJgTO  •q.;  BABOMnjs,  awwfet  ad  an. 
41,  n:  4  P.  a,  I.  1049;  fc5crv7l287;   P.  L-  XXni,  266. 

F.   BSCHTBL. 

OornaUnSt  Pofb,  Bfartyr  (251  to  253).  We  may 
accept  the  statement  ot  the  Liberian  catak)gue 
that  he  reisoed  two  years,  three  months,  and  ten 
days,  for  lipsius,  Lighuoot,  and  Hamack  have  shown 
that  thk  list  is  a  first-rate  authoritv  for  this  date. 
His  predecessor,  Fabian,  was  put  to  death  by  Decius, 
20  Januaxy,  250.  About  the  beginmng  of  Maroh^  251 
the  perseoutioii  slackened,  owing  to  the  absence  of 
the  emperor,  against  whom  two  rivals  had  arisen. 
It  was  possible  to  assemble  sixteen  bishops  at  Rome, 
and  Cornelius  was  elected,  thouffh  agamst  his  will 
(Cyprian,  Ep.  Iv,  24),  '*  by  the  judgment  of  God  and 
of  (Christ,  by  the  testimony  of  almost  all  the  clergy, 
by  the  vote  of  the  people  then  present,  by  the  consent 
of  aged  priests  and  d  good  men,  at  a  time  when  no  one 
had  men  made  before  him,  when  the  place  of  Eabian, 
that  iB  the  place  of  Peter,  and  the  step  of  the  sacer- 
dotal chair  were  vacant".  ''What  fortitude  in  his 
acceptance  of  the  episcopate,  what  strength  of  mind, 
what  firmness  of  faith,  tnat  he  took  his  seat  intrepici 
in  the  saceidotal  chair,  at  a  time  when  the  tyrant  in 
his  hatred  of  bishops  was  making  unspeakable  threats, 
when  he  heard  with  far  more  patience  that  a  rival 
pi^ce  was  arising  against  him,  than  that  a  bishop  of 
God  was  appointed  at  Rome"  (ibid.,  0).  Is  he  not, 
asks  St.  Cyiman,  to  be  numbered  among  the  glorious 
confessors  and  martjrrs  who  sat  so  long  awaiting  the 
sword  or  the  cross  or  the  stake  and  eveiy  other  tor* 
ture? 

A  few  weeks  later  the  Roman  priest  Novatian 
made  himself  anti-pope,  and  the  whole  Christian 
world  was  convulsed  by  the  schism  at  Rome.  But  the 
adhesion  of  St«  Cyprian  secured  to  Cornelius  the  hun* 
dred  bishops  of  Amca^  and  the  influenee  of  St.  Dionv- 
siuB  the  Great,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  brought  the 
East  within  a  few  months  to  a  right  decision.  In 
Italy  itaelf  the  pope  got  together  a  qmod  of  sixty 
NoYATiANiaic.)    Fabius,  Bishop  of 


bishopa. 
Anti<m, 


(See 


to  have  warned.    Three  ktten  to 


OOBinBLnTS 


376 


ooBnBLnis 


him  from  Ck>melni8  were  known  to  EuscbiuSf  who 
gives  extracts  from  one  of  them  (Hist.  Bed.,  VI,- 
xiiii),  in  which  the  pope  details  the  faults  in  Nova^- 
tian's  election  and  conduct  with  considerable  Intter* 
ness.  We  inddentally  learn  that  in  the  Roman 
Chmvh  there  were  forty-six  priests,  seven  deacons, 
seven  subdeacons,  forty-two  acolytes,  fifty-two  os- 
tiarii,  and  over  one  thousand  five  hundred  widows 
and  persons  in  distress.  From  this  Burnet  estimated 
the  number  of  Christians  in  Rome  at  fiftr  thousand, 
so  also  Gibbon;  but  Benson  and  Harnack  think  this 
figure  possibly  too  large.  Pope  Fabian  had  made 
seven  regions;  it  appears  that  each  had  one  deacon, 
one  subdeacon  ana  six  acolytes.  Of  the  letters  of 
Comelius  to  Cyprian  two  have  come  down  to  us, 
together  with  nine  from  Cyprian  to  the  pope.  Mgr. 
Mercati  has  shown  that  in  the  true  text  the  letters 
of  Cornelius  are  in  the  colloquial  "vulgar  Latin"  of 
the  day,  and  not  in  the  more  classical  style  affected 
by  the  ex-orator  Cyprian  and  the  learned  philosopher 
Novatian.  Comelius  sanctioned  the  milder  measures 
proposed  by  St.  Cyprian  and  accepted  by  his  Car- 
thaginian council  of  251  for  the' restoration  to  com- 
munion, after  varying  terms  of  penanoe;  of  those 
who  had  fallen  during  the  Deeian  persecution  (see 
Cyprian). 

At  the  beginning  of  353  a  new  persecution  sud-> 
denly  broke  out.  Cornelius  was  exiled  *  to  Centum- 
celliB  (Civita  Vecchia).  There  were  no  defections; 
among  the  Roman  Christians,  all  were  eonfessofs. 
The  pope  ''led  his  brethren  in  confession",  writes- 
Cyprian  (£p.  Ix,  ad  Com.),  with  a  manifest  reference 
to  the  confession  of  St,  Peter.  **  With  one  heart  and 
one  voice  the  whole  Roman  Church  confessed.  Tl^n. 
was  seen,  dearest  Brother,  that  faith  which  the  blessed 
Apostle  praised  in  you  (Rom.,  i,  8);  even  then  he 
foresaw  m  spirit  your  glorious  fortitude  and  firm 
strength.''  in  June  Comelius  died  a  martyr,  as  St. 
Cyprian  repeatedly  calls  him.  The  Libenan  eata- 
lojipae  has  ibi  cum  ghrid  dormicionem  aocepUy  and 
this  may  mean  that  he  died  of  the  rigours  of  his 
banishment,  though  later  accounts  say  that  he  was 
beheaded.  St.  Jerome  says  that  Comelius  and  Cyp- 
rian suffered  on  the  same  day  in  differmt  years,  and 
his  careless  statement  has  been  generally  loUowed. 
The  feast  of  St.  Cyprian  was  in  fact  kept  at  Rome 
at  the  tomb  of  Comelius,  for  the  fourth  oentuiy 
"  Depositio  Martirum  *'  has  "  XVIII  kl  octob  C^rpriani 
Africs  Romse  oelebratin-  in  CalHsti".  St.  Cornelius 
was  not  buried  in  the  chapel  of  the  popes,  but  in  an 
adjoining  catacomb,  perhaps  that  of  a  branch  of  the 
noble  Comelii.  His  inscription  is  in  Latin:  cornb- 
uvs*  MAHTTR'^  wheress  those  of  Fabian  and  Lucius 
are  in  Greek  (Northcote  and  Brownlow,  "Romii 
sotteranea*',  I,  vi).  His  feast  is  k^t  with  that  of 
St.  Cyprian  on  14  September,  possibly  the  day  of  his 
translation  from  Centumeells  to  the  catacombs. 

The  two  lAtin  letUn  wili  be  found  in  all  editioqs  of  CrPBi^iN. 
A  better  text  is  in  Mebcatx,  D'alcuni  nuovi  Butidi  per  la  eritica 
del  ttsto  d*  S.  Cipriano  (Rome.  ISOO).  They  witi  be  found  with 
the  fra^enta  in  Cotjvtant,  Epp.  Rom.  Pontt.  aad  in  Rooth, 
RdtQuxas  SacrcB,  There  is  a  spurious  latter  to  St.  Cyprian  in 
the  appendix  to  his  works,  another  to  Lupicinua  of  Vienne.  and 
two  more  were  for^  bv  Pseudo-Isidore.  All'  these  will  be 
found  in  the  collections  of  counoils  and  in  Mionb.  The  neeudo- 
Oyprianic  Ad  Nv9otianian  is  attributed  to  Cornelius  by  Nklks, 
Die  Chronol.  der  Correaponderu  Cyprians  (Thorn,  1902);  but  it 
is  by  an  unknown  contemporary.  On  Cornelius  see  Tillevont. 
Ill;  Ada  SS.  14  Sept.;  'Ben son,  Cyprian  (London;  1897).  The 
Aet9  of  St.  Comelius  are  valueless.  j^^j^  CHAPMAN. 

Ctomeliiuit  Pstkr,  later  when  ennobled,  von  Cor« 
NBLius,  b.  at  DOBseldorf,  23  September,  1783;  d.  at 
Berlin,  6  Mansh,  1867.  In  1811.  he  went  to  Borne, 
where  he  stayed  until  1819.  Returning  hoHie  he  be* 
came  director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  DOssel- 
dk>rf ;  while  at  DOsseLdorf  he  also  executed  works  on 
a  large  scale  for  the  Crown-Prince  of  Bavaria,  liter 
Louis  I.  In  1826  0)melius  was  appointed  dmetor 
of  the  Academy  ait  Mnnich,  and  for  a  long  time 


Louis  I  of  Bavaria  was  his  liberal  patron.  After  fif- 
teen years,  however,  misunderstandings  and  the 
envy  of  detractors  obliged  Comelius  to  accept  the 
position  offered  him  by  Frederick  IV  of  Prussia  as 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Berlin, 
which  office  he  retained  until  his  death.  Comelitts 
early  developed  poetic-  imagination,  great  energv, 
courage  for  targe  undertakings,  and  technical  alall. 
He  fdit  himself  called  to  accomplish  great  tasks,  and 
soon  occupied  himself  with  a  large  theme,  the  illus- 
tration ot  Goethe's  "Faust".  The  publication  of 
the  first  six  sheets  fumUied  Comelius  with  the 
means  for  his  first  visit  to  Rome.  Here  he  joaied 
the  Italian  colony 
of  German  artists, 
thescMsalled^Nas: 
arene  painters"', 
and  was  powers 
fuHy  stimulated 
boui  by  working 
with  them  and  by 
their  enthusiasm 
for  a  new  school 
of  German-Chris- 
tian art.  This  in- 
tercourse, how- 
ever, entailed  no 
loss  of  his  inde- 
pendence and  na- 
tive force.  He 
drew  the  remain- 
ing six  pictures 
for"Faust^',  illus-  ^^ 

trated  the  "Romeo  ^^™  ^'^'^  Cornmuub 

and  Juliet"  of  Shakespeare,  whose  works  just  at  this 
period  were  becoming  better  known  in  Germany, 
and  filled  by  the  rising  national  spirit  of  his  country 
made  drawings  for  the  old  German  epic,  the  "Niebef- 
ungenlied''. 

While  at  Rome  his  longing  to  express  great  con- 
ceptions in  fresco-painting  on  a  latge  scale  had  its 
first  opportunity  of  fulfilment.  The  Prussian  am- 
bassador, Bartholdy,  gave  a  commission  to  the  Ger- 
man painters  for  the  decoration  of  his  house  on 
Monte  Pincio  with  frescoes  from  the  Old-Testament 
story  of  Joseph;  through  Bartholdy's  influence  the 
same  painters  received  an  order  from  theltfarchese 
Massimi  to  paint  frescoes  from  the  works  of  Ariosto, 
Tasso,  and  Dante  in  his  villa  near  the  Lateran. 
Some  of  these  frescoes  have  a  deservedly  high  repu- 
tation, as:  "Joseph  before  Pharao",  "Joseph  and  his 
Brethren",  "Dante  before  Peter,  James,  and  John", 
as  well  as  other  groups  in  the  cartoons  for  scenes  in 
Paradise.  Three  of  the  Dante  cartoons  were  com- 
pleted, but  one  of  them  has  since  vanished.  The 
superiority  of  Comelius  to  the  entire  circle  of  his 
artist-friends,  Overbeck  included,  became  so  clear  to 
men  like  Niebuhr  and  Prince  Louis  of  Bavaria  that 
the  two  positions  above-mentioned,  at  Dusseldorf 
and  Munich,  were  offered  him.  No  longer  hampered 
by  material  ca)*es  or  artistic  limitations,  Comelius 
had  now  full  opportunity  and  a  fine  field  for  the 
carrying  out  of  nis  ideals.  A  commanding  place  in 
the  artistic  world  of  his  own  country  was  a  long 
time  assured  him,  and  the  attainment  of  his  hopes 
for  the  development  of  art  on  a  heroic  scale  in  Ger- 
many seemed  near.  The  first  ten  years  of  his  life  in 
DQsseldprf  and  Munich  as  a  professor  and  working 
artist  formed  a  period  of  great  renown  and  success. 

As  dijiector  Comelius  took  up  with  vigour  the  re- 
organization of  the  art  academies  of  Munich  and 
DOsseldorf,  but  his  influence  in  the  latter  city  was 
not  permanent.  After  he  had  made  Munich  his  per-- 
manent  residence  and  most  of  his  friends  had  fol- 
lowed him  there,  the  academy  sit  Dtksseldorf,  tmder 
the  direction  of  Schadow,  pursued  other  aims,  one  of 
the- main  differences  being  that  the  scheme  of  de- 


OOBHSLIUS 


377 


ooBmaiTO 


veloping  oainting  in  fresco  on  a  heroic  scale  wa^ 
abandoned.  At  the  same  time  Cornelius  did  not 
find  at  Munich  all  the  assistants  he  had  wished; 
above  all  Overbeck  had  not  followed  him.  Besides 
this  the  pupib  did  not  meet  the  great  problems  of 
painting  in  fresco  with  skill  equal  to  his;  he  was  also 
not  able  to  obtain  in  every  case  <H>nlpetent  teachers 
for  the  theoretical  instruction  in  the  subsidiary 
sciences  which  at  that  time  he  held  to  be  absolutely 
essential.  Moreover,  the  favour  of  the  king  was  too 
extreme  to  be  permanent,  nor  could  it  fail  to  arouse 
envy.  After  1820  Cornelius  and  his  pupils  decorated 
^^ro  halls  and  an  entrance  chamber  oi  the  Crtyptothek 
at  Munich,  a  buildii^  intended  for  the  exhibition  of 
ancient  sculpture.  The  subjects  were,  for  the'  two 
halls,  the  gods  and  heroes  of  classic  antiquity  and, 
for  t^e  entrance  chamber,  the  history  of  primitive 
man,  the  compositions  being  based  on  Greek  my- 
thology. The  selection  gave  the  artist  the  oppor* 
tunity  of  presenting  beautiful  forms,  strong  action, 


The  Poub  Kniobtb  of  thb  ApocAiiTPss — Fsrca  von 

COBNRUUS 

and  lofty  ideals ;  at  the  same  time  he  could  make  use 
of  symbolical  allusions  as  they  are  conceived  by 
Dante. 

Cornelius  has  been  called  a  poet  and  thinker;  the 
loftiness  and  unity  of  conception  displayed  by  these 
frescoes  justify  the  assertion.  The  mastery  of  the 
difficult  proportion  of  space  shown  is  astonishing; 
the  surfaces  seem  to  have  been  planned  for  the  fres- 
coes and  not  the  frescoes  for  the  spaces.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  inequality  of  execution  especially  in 
regard  to  colour  is  very  striking.  Cornelius  allowed 
great  liberty  to  his  unequally  gifted  pupils;  still 
much  of  the  work,  especially  what  he  painted  him-> 
self,  is  excellently  earned  out,  as:  *'The  Fall  of  Th>y", 
"  The  Judges  of  the  Lower  World'',  "Eros  with  an 
Ecigle",  and '  'Eros  with  Cerberus".  It  must  be  acknowK 
edged  that  Cornelius  was  not  strong  in  colour,  althou^ 
his  frescoes  from  the  life  of  Joseph  in  the  Villa  Bar- 
l^oldy  are  in  all  particulars  satisfactory.  King 
Louis  I  aUowed  him  to  make  only  the  drawings  for 
the  loggias  of  the  Pinakothek;  the  execution  m  the 
work  was  entrusted  to  Clemens  Zinunermann.'  In 
these  designs  Cornelius  gave  in  an  unconstrained 
manner,  yet  one  full  of  thought  and  imagination, 
the  history  of  German  and  Italian  paintmg.    He 


hoped  to  have  an  opportunity  in  the  new  church, 
the  "Ludwigskirche  ',  to  create  a  Christian  epic 
which  should  be  a  Divine  Comedy  in  colour,  but  to 
his  bitter  disappointment  he  was  only  commissioned 
to  decorate  the  choir  and  transept.  The  subject 
chosen  for  delineation  was  the  Christian  conception 
of  the  Creation,  Redemption,  and  the  Last  ju4g<- 
meat;  the  gigantic  fresco  of  the  Judgment,  contain- 
ing  2500  square  feet,  was  painted  by  Cornelius  him- 
seB  (1836-39).  Parts  of  the  fresco  show  great  merit 
in  composition  and  drawing;  a  reverent  composure 


lind  the  avoidance  of  repellent  nudity  distinguish  the 
painting  from  Michelan^lo's '  ^'JtK^ment''  on  the 
altar  wall  of  the  Sistine  Chapel.  The  colour  scheme, 
it  must  be  acknowledged,  is  somewhat  lacking  in 
harmony,  and  the  light  m  the  church  is  unfavomwle. 
King  Louis  saw  the  fresco  under  peculiarly  unfor* 
tunate  circilmstances,  and  Cornelius  fell  into  dis- 
grace. 

In  1841  he  went  to  Befriin  where  the  art-loving 
Frederick  William  IV  became  his  unwavering  patron. 
While  at  Berlin  he  drew  for  the  royal  mausoleum 
planned  by  the  king  the  celebrated  cartoons:  ''Christ 
CSonquering  Sin'',  mtended  for  the  east  wall  of  a 
cloister  des^ned  in  connexion  with  a  new  cathedral  f 
"Christ  Conquering  Deatii'',  f6r  the  west  wall  of  the 
ok>ister;  ''Christ  in  His  Church''  for  the  south  wall> 
and  "Christ  at  the  End  ol  the  World",  taken  from 
the  imagery  of  the  Apocidypse,  fof  the  north  wall. 
In  harmony  with  tiie  echeme  dl  the  cartoons  is  the 
painting  for  the  apse  of  the  intended  cathedral, 
^Mknkmd  Awaiting  the  Day  of  Judgment",  com- 
pleted bv  Cornelius  in  1856.  During  his  residenoe  at 
Berlin  Cornelius  produced  his  most  mature  work  as 
a  drauehtsman;  his  designs  were  at  all  times  so  com- 
plete that  they  were  not  certain  to  gain  by  execu- 
tion in  colour.  The  cartoons  for  the  royal  mauso- 
leum, of  which  the  one  for  the  north  wall  was  on  the 
scale  of  the  intended  frescb,  met  fairly  undiapttted 
approval.  His  work  as  head  of  the  German  School 
at  Rome  and  as  leader  in  Germany  of  aspiring 
artists  gives  ComeHus  the  position  of  a  pioneer  of  the 
nineteenth  century  in  asBertin^  hig^  ideals  and  in 
developing  technk  on  the  heroic  atoile, 

H.  Obbim*  Pfeue  B^saia  (Berlm,  1865);  Yok  WotiooBif. 
Peler  von  Comdiu»  (Beadin,  1867);  Rxzoai^.  Camdiua,  der 
Meister  der  deuUehen  MoUrei  (Hanover,  1870);  FGbbtbr, 
Peltr  iHmConuliu8,  ein  CMenkbuch  (Bertin,  1874);  CARiuibRa 
in  Nmer  PlfOarek  (UipiAg,  1880);  Egkbrt.  PMer  Comdim 
(Bieleleld,  1906),  gives  qd  p.  131  a  complete  bibliography. 

G.  GlETMANN. 

Ooni«liiui  Oomelii  a  Laplde  ifjOfBosmuA  Corns- 
LI88SN  VAN  OC2N  8^^sen),  Flemish  Jesuit  and  exegiBte, 
b.  at  Bochoh,  in  Flemish  Limbuig,  18  December, 
1567;  d.  at  Rome,  12  March,  1637.  He  studied  hu- 
manities and  phUoBophy  at  the  Jesuit  colleges  of 
Maastricht  and  Cologne,  theolbgy  fiiBt,  for  half  a  year, 
at  the  University  of  Douai,  and  afterwards  for  four 
years  at  Louvain;  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  11 
June,  1592,  and,  after  two  vears^  novitiate  and  another 
year  of  theology,  was  ordained  priest  24  December, 
1505.  After  teaofainff  philosophy  lor  half  a  year^  he  was 
made  professor  ol  H<dy  Scrmture  at  Louvain  m  1596 
and  next  year  of  Hebrew  also.  Twenty  years  later, 
in  1616,  he  was  ealled  to  Rome  in  the  same  capacity, 
where,  on  Uie  3rd  of  November,  he  assumed  the  office 
which  he  filled  with  such  renown  for  many  years  after. 
The  latt^  yeare  of  his  life,  however,  he  seems  to  have 
devoted  exclusively  to  finishing  and  correcting  his 
celebrated  commentaries.  He  was  a  sincerely  pious 
and  sealouB  priest  and  an  exemplary  religious.  Dur- 
ing his  professorship  at  Louvain  he  liked  to  spend  his 
hoiidajrs  preaching  and  administering  the  sacraments, 
especially  at  the  pilgrimage  of  Scherpenheuvel  (Mon- 
taigu).  With  moving  simplicity  and  truth  he  por- 
trayed himself  in  an  emotional  prayer  to  the  Prophets 
at  the  end  of  his  commentary  on  Daniel:  ^'For 
nearly  thirty  yean  I  suffer  with  and .  for  ^wi  ^dth 
gladness  the  continual  martyrdom  of  reli^us  Ufe. 
the  martyrdom  t>f  illness,  the  martyrdom  of  study  ana 
writing;  obtain  for  me  ako^  I  beseech  you,  to  crown 
all,  the  fourth  martvidom,  of  blood.  For  you  I  have 
spent  my  vital  and  animal  spirits;  I  will  spend  my 
blood  too."  With  his  brethren  in  religion  at  Rome 
he  enioyed  so  high  a  refutation  for  a^mctitv  that, 
when  he  died,  they  gave  him  a  sepacate  burial  plaeei 
in  Older  to  be  the  more  certain  of  finding  hia  boDee 
when  eventually,  as  they  hoped,  he  should  receive  tha 
honour  of  beatification. 


oounLT 


378 


€X>BMSI.T 


Gometius  a  Lapide  wrote  ample  oommentaries  on.  all 
the  books  of  the  Catholic  Canoa  of  Seriptuie,  with  the 
exception  onlv  of  Job  and  the  Psalms.  Even  before 
leavmg  Flanaers,  he  edited  the  ''Commentarius  in 
omnes  divi  Pauli  epistolas"  (1614)  and  "in  Penia- 
iHuehum"  (1616),  both  at  Antwerp.  The  commen- 
taries <»i  the  Greater  and  Lesser  prophets,  on  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  Canonical  Emstles  and  the 
Apocalypse,  JSoclesiasticus  and  the  Proverbs,  fol- 
lowed later  on*  The  rest  were  edited  only  after  his 
death;  but  all  of  them  have  been  several  times  re- 
edited,  both  separately;  and  collectively.  Of  the 
(}ommentary  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  he  himself 
was  permitted  to  see  at  least  eleven  editions.  The 
complete  series,  with  Job  and  the  Psalms  added  by 
other  hands,  appeared  at  Antwerp,  1681,  1714;  at 
Venice,  1717, 1740,  1798;  at  Cologne,  1732;  at  Turin, 
1838;  at  Lyons,  183^-42,  1865  and  1866;  at  Malta, 
1843-46;  at  Naples,  1854;  at  Lyons  and  Paris,  1855 
and  1856;  at  Milan,  1857;  at  Paris,  1859-63.  The 
last-mentioned  edition  has  been  enriched  byCramt)on 
and  P6ronne  with  many  annotations  from  more  recent 
interpreters.  All  these  oommentaries  are  on  a  very 
large  scale.  They  explain  not  only  the  literal,  but  also 
the  allegorical,  tropological,  and  anagogical  sense  of  the 
sacred  text,  and  f urmsh  a  large  number  of  quotations 
from  the  Fathers  and  the  later  interpi^rs  of  Holy 
Writ  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Like  most  of  his  pre- 
decessors and  contemporaries,  a  Lapide  intends  to 
serve  not  only  the  historical  and  scientific  study  of 
the  Bible,  but,  even  more,  the  purposes  of  pious  medi- 
tation, and  especially  of  pulpit  exposition.  An  ex- 
tract from  the  commentary  on  the  Acts  appeared 
in  1737  at  Tvmau,  under  the  title:  ''Effigies  Bancti 
Pauli,  sive  idea  vits  apostolioB''.  A  large  work  in 
4  vols.,  "Les  tr^Bors  de  Cornelius  a  Lapide:  ex- 
traits  de  ses  commentaires  de  T^riture  sainte  k 
Tusage  des  ^r^cateurs,  des  communaut6»  et  des 
famiUes  chr^tiennes  ",  bv  the  Abb6  Barbier.  was  pub- 
lished at  Le  Mans  and  Paris,  1856,  re-edited  at  Paris, 
1859,  1872,  1876,  1885,  1896:  and  an  Italian  transla- 
tion of  the  same,  by  F.  M.  Faber,  appeared  at  Parma, 
1869-70,  in  10  vols.,  16  mo. 

These  numerous  editions  show  how  hidily  these 
works  are  estimated  bv  Catholics.  But  Protestant 
voices  have  joined  in  the  appreciation.  Q.  H.  Goe- 
tzius  (Leipzig,  1699)  wrote  an  academical  disserta- 
tion, ^'Exereitatio  theologica  de  Comelii  a  Lapide 
Conunentariia  in  Sacram  Scripturam'',  in  which  he 
praises  the  Jesuit  author  as  the  most  important  of 
Catholic  Scriptural  writers.  An  English  translation 
of  the  complete  commentaries  was  undertak^i  by  the 
Rev.  Thomas  W.  Mossman,  an  Andean  clergyman, 
under  the  title,.  ''The  great  Commentary  of  Cornelius 

a  Lapide"  (London,  1876 ).    A  manuscript  in  the 

Vatican  Library  contains  an  Arabic  translation  of  the 
Commentary  on  the  Apocalypse,  by  Yusuf  ibn  Girgis 
(beginning  of  the  eighteenth  oentunr).  The  same 
Maronite  writer  is  said  to  have  translated  the  Com- 
mentary on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul. 

Tbkwboorbn,  CovTMfiiM  a  Lanide  in  CaUecli4m  efe  prMa  h%»' 
toriquea  (BniMeb,  1857).  010-14.  630-45;  Db  Backkb  and 
BoMiiEHVociEL.  Btbl.  de  la  c  de  J.  (BniMeh  and  Paris,  1803), 
IV.  161 1-26,  IX  (1900),  673. 

John  P.  van  Kastbrbn. 

OoriMly,  Karl  Josef  Rudolf,  German  Biblical 
scholar  and  Jesuit,  b.  19  April,  18d0,  at  Breyell  in 
Qermany ;  d.  at  Treves,  3  March,  1906.  On  the  com- 
pletion of  his  classical  studies  he  matriculated  at 
MQnster  in  Westphalia  to  study  philology  and  theol- 
ogy. In  1852  he  joined  the  Society  ot  Jesus,  Re- 
ooginizinB  his  abilities,  his  superiors  determined  to  give 
him  the  best  possible  training  both  practical  and  theo^ 
retioal.  Consequentih^,  his  novitiate  finished,  he  took 
a  two  yean'  course  of  Scholastic  philosophy  at  Padex^ 
bom  and  Bonn  and  another  year  of  sacred  and  profane 
oraioiy.    Then  he  was  sent  to  Feldklrch  to  teach 


Latin,  Greek,  and  German,  and  to  preside  at  the  cSbio- 
tations  of  the  students  of  philosc^hy  from  185?  to 
1859.  After  this  practical  experience  he  returned  to 
Paderbom  to  go  through  the  necessary  course  of  dog- 
matic and  moral  theology  previous  to  his  ordinayon 
in  1860.  The  next  years  he  devoted  to  specHal  study 
of  the  Scriptural  sciences  and  langua^  in  Germany, 
at  Ghasir  near  Beirut,  in  £k^pt,  and  m  Paris,  and  l^ 
dint  of  hard  labour  acquired  an  extensive  knowledge 
of  Syriao,  Arabic,  Samaritan,  and  Aramaic  After 
five  yeara  thus  spent  in  special  work,  he  waa  recalled 
to  Mari^Laach,  the  theologate  of  the  Society,  to 
review  his  varied  acquirements  in  the  lifl;ht  of  dog- 
matic theology  and  to  prepare  his  theses  for  the  final 
examination  and  the  dejgree  of  Doctor  in  the  Societjr. 
After  the  customary  thurd  year  of  probation  spent  m 
study  and  practice  of  the  exercises  and  the  Institute 
of  St.  Ignatius,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Scrip- 
ture and  Oriental  languaoes  at  Maria-Laach. 

When  the  Jesuits  founded  the  periodical  ^Stimmen 
aus  Maria-Laach",  Father  Comely  became  at  first  a 
regular  contributor  and  then  its  editor  from  1872  to 
1879.  His  style  is  remarkable  for  deameas  and 
Vigour  and  compares  favourably  with  the  great  Ger- 
man classics*  The  ring  of  indignation  and  irony  in 
his  articles  a^^ainst  the  Old  Catholics,  on  the  Protes- 
tant Association,  and  on  poUtical  hypocrisy  finds  its 
explanation  in  ^e  unwarranted  attacks  and  in  the 
relentless  persecution  of  the  Church  and  of  the  order 
to  which  he  belonged.  The  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
from  Germany  in  1872  intermpted  his  career  as  a  pro- 
fessor and  rendered  the  task  of  the  editor  extremelv 
difficult.  With  three  or  four  of  his  brethren  he  took 
up  his  residence  at  Tervueren  near  Brussels,  and 
thoueh  many  of  his  collaborators  and  the  ridi  library 
of  Maria-Laach  were  scattered  about  in  different 
places,  he  succeeded  not  only  in  maintaining  the  peri" 
odioal  on  its  former  level  but  also  in  strengthening  and 
widening  its  influence  on  Catholic  Germany.  Most  of 
the  men  who  from  that  time  on  contributed  to  the 
"Stimmen"  were  won  and  trained  bv  the  magnetic 
personality  of  Comely,  who  frequently  inspired  and 
always  carefully  revised  their  papers,  thus  securing 
uniformity  of  tone  and  tendency.  An  important 
stage  in  the  development  of  the  "Stimmen''  was 
majrked  by  the  appearance  of  the  first  supplements 
(Erg&nzungshefte),  in  1876.  This  new  departure  was 
occasioned  by  the  numerous  philosophic  writings  of 
Father  Tilmann  Pesch.  They  could  not  all  be  pub- 
lished in  the  "Stimmen"  without  altering  the  general 
character  of  the  periodical  and  sacrificing  the  interest 
of  some  classes  of  readers.  They  might,  of  course, 
have  been  separately  published  in  book  form.  But 
Goraelv  was  of  opinion  that  a  series  of  supplements  to 
a  widely  read  review  would  reach  larger  numbers  and 
would  m  a  manner  offset  the  numerous  non^Catholic 
publications  of  a  similar  character.  The  supplements 
embody  the  most  varied  scholarship:  theology,  i^ilo- 
sophy,  literature,  and  science. 

To  quicken  the  interest  of  his  countrymen  in  the 
missionarv  workof  the  Church,  Father  Comely  founded 
in  1873  'Die  katholischen  Missionen".  Intended 
for  German  readers  this  magasine  was  above  all  to 
describe  the  labours  and  successes  of  the  German  mis- 
sionarv and  to  give  the  history,  the  geogra^y,  and 
the  etonog^aphio  features  of  the  German  missions  in 
foreign  countries.  In  the  beginning  Comely  took  ihe 
lion's  share  of  the  work  upon  himself.  Soon,  how- 
ever, the  labour  was  thus  divided:  Comely  wrote  the 
reports  on  Europe  and  Australia;  Baun^artner  re- 
ported on  Asia;  Kreiten  on  Africa;  and  von  Hum- 
melauer  on  America.  In  1879  Comely  was  appointed 
^fessor  of  exegesis  at  the  Gregorian  University  in 
Rome.  Here  he  planned  and  wrote  the  first  volumes 
of  the  ''Cuisus  ScriptursB  SacrsB",  a  complete  Biblical 
encyclopedia,  the  largest  publication  ot  its  kind  in 
modem  Catholic  literature.    To  cariy  out  a  plan  so 


379 


OOBONADO 


"vast  required  ihe  combined  eflforU  of  many  scholan. 
Comely  hiniBelf  undertook  to  write  the  general  and 
speotaT  intioducttonB  and  the  oommentarieB  on  the 
£piatles  of  St.  PauL  Even  this  task  he  could  not 
oDmp]ete»  although  he  discontinued  lecturing  in  1880 
to  devote  all  his  energies  to  the  greatest  work  of  his 
laborious  life.    Among  his  writinoB  are:  ^'Introductio 

SenendiB in U.  T.  libros saeros"  (Paris,  1893):  ''Intro- 
actio  specialis  in  historicos  V.  T.  libros^  (Paris, 
1897) ;  **  Introductio  specialis  in  didacticos  et  propheti- 
cos  V.  T.  Mbroe"  (Pans,  1897);  "Introductio  specialis 
in  singuloe  N.  T.  libros^'  (Paris,  1897);  ''Historicie  et 
eritic»  Introductionis  in  U.  T.  libros  Oompendium" 
(Paris,  1900);  "Synopses  onmium  librorum  sacro- 
rum"  (Paris,  1899):  ''Psahnonim  synopses"  (Paris, 
1899);  "Analyses  hbrorum  sacrorum  N.  T."  (Paris, 
1888);  "Oommentarius  in  priorem  ep.  ad  Oorinthios" 
(Paris,  1890);  "Oommentarius  in  epistolas  ad  (}or. 
alteram  et  ad  Galatas''  (Paris^  1892);  "Commenta- 
rius  in  ep.  ad  Romanos"  (Pans,  1896);  "Leben  des 
sel.  Petrus  Faber"  (Freibuig,  1900);  "Leben  des  sel. 
Spinola''  (Mainz,  1808). 

Bauiioabtnbb,  Stimmen  oum  Marim-Laach,  LXXIV«  IV,  367. 
Peter  ScHWEirzER. 

Ooznet,  Nicolas,  a  French  theologian,  b.  at 
Amiens,  1572;  d.  at  Paris,  1663.  He  studied  at  the 
Jesuit  college  of  his  native  place,  took  the  doctorate 
of  theology  at  the  University  of  Paris,  1626,  and  soon 
became  president  of  the  College  de  Navarre  and 
syndic  of  the  Sorbonne  or  faculty  of  theology.  In 
this  latter  capacity  he  reported  to  the  assembly  of  the 
Sorbonne,  1619,  seven  propositions,  two  taken  from 
Amauld*s  "Fr^uente  Commiuiion"  and  five  from 
the  ''Augustiaus"  of  Jansenius.  In  spite  of  strong 
opposition  created  by  members  of  the  faculty  who, 
with  Saint-Amour,  appealed  to  Parliament  and  by 
Jansenists  like  De  Bourseis  In  "  Propositiones  de 
gratiA  in  Sorbonn®  facultate  prope  oiem  examin- 
andse,  propositcB  Cal.  Junii  1649",  and  Amauld  in 
"Considerations  sur  I'entreprise  faite  par  M.  Comet, 
syndic  de  la  faculty,  en  Tassemblde  de  Juillet  1649", 
he  succeeded  in  having  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergy  of 
1650  denounce  the  five  propositions  of  the  "  Augus- 
tinus"  to  Pope  Innocent  X,  who  condemned  them, 
31  May,  1653  (Denzinger,  Enchiridion,  nos.  1092  (966) 
sqq.).  Maligned  by  Jansenist  writers  like  Hermant, 
Comet  was  neld  in  high  esteem  by  Richelieu  and 
Mazarin.  His  eulogy  was  pronounced  by  no  less  a 
personage  than  Bossuet  himself  (Craison  fundbre  de 
Messire  Nicolas  Comet).  He  left  no  writings,  bbt  is 
said  to  have  collaborated  with  Richelieu  on  the 
"M^thodes  de  controverse". 

Rapin,  Mhnoira  (Ftiris.  1865);  SAXMTB-BEtJVi:,  Pori- 
Raycd  (Paiu»  1871);  Rohbbacrsb,  Uiatoin  univerteUe  (Plaris, 
ilSs).  XI.  9. 150.  J.  F.  Soulier. 

Oometo-Tarquinia,  Diocese  of.    See  Civftavec- 

CHIA  AND  CORKETO. 

Oomie^y  the  uppermost  division  of  the  entabla* 
ture,  the  Tepresentative  of  the  roof,  of  an  order,  con- 
sisting of  projecting  mouldings  and  blocks,  usually 
divisible  into  bed-^moulding,  corona,  and  ^tter.  In 
classic  architecture  each  of  the  orders  has  its  peculiar 
cornice.  Any  moulded  projection  which  crowns  or 
finishes  the  part  to  which  it  is  afl^ed,  as  the  coping 
of  a  facade,  the  moulding  that  runs  round  an  apart- 
ment under  the  ceiHng,  or  surmounts  a  door,  window, 
etc. 

Andumon  anp  Spikbs,  Ardi.  of  Oreece  and  Rome  (London, 
1908);  RoaKNGABTCN.  Architectural  Styles  (New  York,  igOl); 
Rkbkb.  Ancient  Art  (New  York.  London,  1904) ;  Sturoxb,  Dirt, 
of  Ardi.  and  BuUding  (New  York.  1904) ;  Parkbb,  Glouary  of 
Ardl.  (London,  1845);  Qwii;r.  Encu,  of  Arch.  (New  York. 
Bombay,  1903).  THOMAS  H.  PoOLB. 

OMnilkai,  Abbbt  of,  fotmded  by  Albero,  Bishop  of 
Id^,  in  1124,  three  years  after  St.  Norfoert  had 
formed  the  Premonstratensian  Order.    The  abbey 


was  intended  for  Canons  Regular  of  Pr&nontr6  who 
had  been  sent  from  the  Abbey  of  Floreffe  near  Namur; 
it  stood  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Meuse  on  an  elevation 
called  Mont  Comillon  which  overlooked  the  city  of 
Lidge.  In  the  early  years  of  the  order  all  Norbertine 
abbeys  were  double  abbeys,  that  is  to  say,  the  canons 
lived  on  one  side  of  the  church  and  the  Norbertine 
nuns,  who  had  charge  of  the  hospital  for  women, 
dwelt  on  the  other  side.  Where  an  abbey  stood  on  an 
elevation,  as  was  the  case  at  Ck>millon,  both  the  nun- 
neiy  and  the  hospital  were  erected  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill.  St.  Juliana  of  Comillon  (b.  1193;  d.  1258), 
whose  name  is  connected  with  the  institution  of  the 
feast  of  Corpus  Christi,  was  a  nun  of  this  convent. 
The  first  abbot  of  Comillon  was  Blessed  Lucas,  one  of 
St.  Norbert's  disciples,  a  learned  and  holv  religious,, 
some  of  whose  wntinm  have  been  published  in  the 
^'Bibliotheca  Magna  Patrum",  and  also  by  Migne. 
The  Bishop  of  Li^,  wishing  to  build  a  fortress  on  the 
heights  of  Comillon,  gave  in  1288,  in  exchange  to  the 
Norbertine  canons,  another  place  in  his  episcopal  city 
where  the  abbe^,  now  called  Beaurepart  (Bellus  Redi> 
tus).  stood  imtd  it  was  suppressed  by  the  French  Re- 
public in  1706.  All  the  religious  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Republic:  some  were  exiled 
and  one  was  put  to  death.  The  abbey  was  declared 
to  be  of  pubuc  utility,  consequentlv  it  was  not  sold; 
for  a  tune  it  served  as  an  arsenal  and  for  other  govern- 
ment purposes,  but  by  decree  of  11  June,  1809,  Napo- 
leon gave  the  abbey  to  the  Bishop  of  Li^ge,  as  the 
bishop's  residence  and  diocesan  seminary.  Where 
the  Abbey  of  Mont  Cornillon  originallv  stood  the 
Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  have  erected  a  home  for  old 
people,  and  dose  to  the  home,  but  below,  at  the  foot  of 
the  nill,  the  former  convent  is  now  inhabited  by  Car- 
melite nuns.  Part  of  the  church  of  the  nuns  has  re- 
mained as  it  was  when  St.  Juliana  of  Comillon  prayed 
in  it  and  was  favoured  with  visions  which  led  to  the 
institution  of  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi. 

Hugo,  Atmal.  Prcsm,  (Nantes,  1734-36);  Dabib,  ffwtotVe  de 
Liige  (Liese.  1868-85). 

F.  M.  Geudens. 

Ctomoldi,  Giovanni  Maria,  professor,  author,  and 
preacher,  bom  at  Venice,  29  Sept.,  1822;  d.  at  Rome, 
18  Jan.,  1892.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1840  and  tau^t  philosophy  at  Bressanone  and  Padua 
for  many  years.  From  1880  \mtil  his  death  he  be- 
longed to  the  editorial  staff  of  the  "Civiltk  Cattolica", 
at  Some  and  often  preached  at  the  church  of  the  Gesi^. 
He  was  an  ardent  disciple  of  St.  Thomas  and  wrote 
many  works  in  explanation  of  his  doctrine  and  in  refu- 
tation of  Rosmimanism.  His  "Lezioni  di  Filosofia" 
(Rome,  1872)  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Cardinal 
Agostini  under  the  title  "  Institutiones  Philosophicse 
ad  mentem  divi  Thomse  Aquinatis".  In  addition  to 
his  purely  philosophical  writings  he  published  a  com- 
mentary on  the  "Divina  Commedia'*  of  Dante,  illus- 
trated from  philosophy  and  theology.  He  founded 
academies  in  honour  of  St.  Thomas  at  Bologna  and  at 
Rome  and  established  two  periodicals,  "  La  Sciensa 
Italiana"  and  the  journal  of  the  "Accademia  di  S. 
Tommaso  ".  He  was  a  man  of  great  amiability,  seal- 
ous  and  fervent  in  religious  life. 

Civilih  Cattolica,  1802. 1,  348^352.  givee  &  full  list  of  his  writ- 
inss;   HuBTSR,  NomeneUUor, 

JOBN  (yORBBTF. 

OomonailleSi  Diocese  of*    See  Quimpbb, 

Ooro.    See  Caracas. 

OoronadOy  Francisco  Vasquez  de,  explorer,  b.  at 
Salamanca,  Spain.  15(X);'  d.  in  Mexico,  1553.  He 
went  to  Mexico  before  1538,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  a  favourite  of  the  viceroy  Don  Antonio  de  Men- 
dosa,  who  appointed  him  Governor  of  New  Galicia  in 
1538.    In  the  year  following,  on  the  strength  of  the 


OOROITATIOK 


380 


OOBOVATlOir 


Btatements  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca  and  other  vague  re- 
porta,  the  viceroy  sent  Father  Marcos  of  Nizza  with 
the  negro  or  Moor  E^t^vanico  to  reconnoitre  towards 
the  north.  The  friar  coming  back  with  the  news  that 
sedentaiy  Indians  had  been  met  beyond  what  are  now 
the  limits  of  Mexico,  an  expedition  was  determined 
upon  and  Coronado  was  made  commander. 

One  of  the  chief  objects  of  this  expedition  seems  to 
have  been  to  free  Mexico  from  an  idle  and  unruly  ele- 
ment. Hence  exaggerated  accounts  of  the  northern 
re^ons,  of  the  culture  of  their  inhabitants,  and  of  their 
mmeral  resources,  were  purposely  spread  abroad. 
Whether  or  not  Coronado  knew  of  this  object  is  not 
stated.  The  expedition  collected  at  Compostella  on 
the  Pacific  coast;  and  consisted  of  about  300  Spaniards 
and  1000  Indians,  with  1000  horses  and  six  swivel 
guns  (pedereroa).  There  were  also  a  number  of  sheep 
and  some  cattle,  and  everything  indicated  that  the 
intention  was  not  only  to  explore  but  to  colonize.  In 
the  course  of  two  years  Coronado  visited  almost  every 
New  Mexican  puMo  then  inhabited.  The  first  of  the 
pueblo  groups  touched  was  what  is  now  called  Zufii, 
which  lutd  become  known  to  the  Spaniards  throueh 
Father  Marcos  pf  Kizza  the  year  previous  under  the 
name  of  "Cibola".  The  first  engagement  took  place 
about  7  July,  at  the  village  of  Hauicu  of  the  ZxiSi 
group.  Coronado  was  wounded,  but  the  puMo  taken. 
After  that,  only  one  other  conflict  with  Pueblo  Indians 
occurred,  viz.,  near  Bernalillo,  in  New  Mexico,  on  the 
Rio  Grande,  in  March,  1541.  The  conduct  of  Coro- 
nado towards  the  Indians  during  the  whole  campaign 
was  humane  and  he  secured  their  respect  and  sym- 
pathy. New  Mexico  and  Arizona  (which  he  explored 
as  far  as  the  Colorad9  Hiver)  disappointed  the  expec- 
tations of  the  Spaniards.  The  wealth  in  metals  sup- 
posed to  exist  there  was  not  found,  the  inhabited 
regions  were  partly  barren,  and  the  population  less 
numerous  than  it  had  been  represented.  While  Coro- 
nado was  establishing  himself  at  Zufii,  another  expe- 
dition, by  sea,  under  the  command  of  Hernando  de 
Alar^on,  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  and  ex- 
plored the  course  of  the  river  for  about  two  hundred 
miles  inland,  but  found  it  impossible  to  communicate 
with  Coronado,  and  returned  to  the  Mexican  coast. 

While  at  the  puMo  of  Pecos,  south-east  of  the  pres- 
ent city  of  Santa  F6,  the  Spanicu-ds  had  been  told 
lowing  stories  of  metallic  ricnes  among  a  tribe  called 
iuivira,  said  to  dwell  beyond  the  great  eastern  plains, 
hese  tales  were  reported  by  an  Indian  from  the 
plains,  a  captive  among  the  recos  tribe.  Coronado 
set  out  for  Quivira  on  23  April,  1541,  with  part  of  his 
forces,  and  wandered  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Arkan- 
sas, then  northward  as  far  as  southern  Nebraska,  find- 
ing none  but  nomadic  Indians,  except  at  the  farthest 
pomt  reached  by  him,  where  the  Quivira  Indians  lived 
m  more  stable  settlements  of  houses,  round  in  shape 
and  built  of  wood,  with  roofs  of  grass.  They  culti- 
vated com,  and  the  only  trace  of  metal  was  a  piece  of 
native  copper  wliich  tney  had  obtained  from  afar. 
After  an  aibsence  of  six  months  Coronado  returned 
to  New  Mexico  on  the  Rio  Grande,  and  while  there 
suffered  a  fsJl  from  his  horse,  which  Injured  his 
head  seriously.  Henceforward  he  lost  energy.  His 
people  also  were  discouraged  and,  while  some  were  in 
favour  of  remaining  in  New  Mexico,  the  majority 
clamoured  to  return  to  New  Spain.  In  April,  1542, 
the  homeward  march  was  resumed.  There  remained 
in  the  country  only  Fray  Juan  de  Padilla,  a  lay 
brother,  Fray  Luis,  and  a  Portuguese  soldier,  Do- 
campo.  Coronado  reported  to  the  Viceroy  Mendoza, 
who  was  highly  incensed  at  the  failure  of  his  phm  to 
rid  New  Spain  of  undesirable  elements.  Although 
Coronado  was  not  punished  for  what  was  looked  upon 
as  disobedience  to  orders,  he  fell  into  a  mild  dis- 
grace and  diod  in  comparative  obscurity,  leading 
a  widow  and  right  rhildren.  The  reports  oft  his 
exixniition  arc  of  the  greaWst  importance  for  the  geog- 


raphy, and  more  particularly  ethiM>graphv,  of  the 
south-western  part  of  North  America.  They  were 
not  so  well  appreciated  at  the  time  as  they  are  now, 
when  the  ' '  March ' '  of  Coronado  is  looked  upon  as  one 
of  the  most  important  explorations  in  America  during 
the  sixteenth  century. 

For  doouznentary  material  Ma  Winamp  in  FowUmA  Ai^ 
nuai  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Burmts,  of  BUmoloey  (Wadhinctan. 
1906),  with  Sp.  texta  and  tr.;  Idem,  The  Journey  of  Caromado 
in  The  TraUmaken  (New  York.  1904):  CkncAmA,  Hiet«ria  gm- 
end  de  laa  Indiaa  (Medina  del  Gampo.  1553):  Otibdo.  Hietoria 
general  y  natttnU  (Madrid,  1850);  UKUttRA,  HieUma  omeraL 
(Madrid,  1601);  Mota  Padilla,  Hittdria  de  la  Nueva  Galicia 
(Mexico,  1870,  though  written  in  1742):  Davxb,  Cbro«iodo'« 
March;  Bandblibr,  Introdudion  to  Sludtea  Atumoihm  Saden 
Uury  Indiana  of  New  Mexico;  Idbm,  Report  on  Uu  ttume  «f  Ike 
Pueblo  of  Pecoa  (Boaton.  1883);  Idbm.  Final  Report  (BosCon. 
1888  and  1890);   Idem,  Documentary  Hietery  of  ZuHi. 

An.  F.  BANnEURB. 

Coronation. — The  subject  will  be  treated  under 
the  following  headings:  (I)  The  Emperors  at  Con- 
stantinople: (II)  Visigothic  and  Celtic  Elements;  (III) 
The  English  Coronation  Orders;  (IV)  Tbe  Western 
Empire  and  the  Roman  Pontifical;  (V)  Other  Cere- 
monials. 

I.  The  Emperors  at  Constantinople. — "A  cor- 
onation rite",  \i  has  been  well  said,  "is  ideally  the 
process  of  the  creation  of  the  monarch,  even  though 
m  course  of  time,  throu^^  a  change  in  the  theory  of 
succession,  it  may  come  to  be  ratner  the  ratification 
of  an  accomplished  fact  than  the  means  of  its  aooom- 
plishment"  (Bri^tman,  Byzantine  Coronations,  359). 
In  the  light  of  this  very  true  remark  it  will  be  needful 
to  trace  the  coronation  ceremonies  back  to  a  time  ear- 
lier than  the  introduction  of  any  ecclesiastical  ritual 
Down  to  the  reign  of  Constantine  it  may  be  said  that 
coronation,  properly  speaking,  there  was  none,  for  it 
was  he  who  first  broumt  the  remX  diadem  into  |>romi- 
nence.  Yet  certain  features  about  the  accession  of 
the  emperors  in  this  earl^  period  deserve  attention. 
In  the  first  place,  theoretically  at  least,  the  emperor 
was  elected.  Normallv,  the  senate  voted  and  the  peo- 
ple, or  more  commonly  the  army,  acclaimed  and  in 
that  way  ratified  the  choice.  No  doubt  this  procedure 
was  often  anticipated  and  the  result  was  assured  be- 
fore any  forms  were  gone  throu^.  But  the  forms 
were  not  dispensed  with,  and  even  when  the  senate  or 
the  anny  hid  exercised  an  infiuence  which  was  deci- 
sive, the  people  met  and  acclaimed  in  more  or  less 
formal  comitia.  In  spite,  however,  of  Uie  principle  of 
election,  the  em{>eror  was  often  able  to  exercise  a  pre- 
dominant voice  in  the  election  of  his  successor  or  his 
colleague,  as  he  could  also  create  his  wife  "  Aupusta". 
At  this  period  the  more  distinctive  imperial  insignia 
were  "tne  purple'',  that  is  the  pdludam«fi<um  (or 
chlamys)  of  the  general  in  the  field,  emblematic  of  the 
supreme  military*  authority,  for  the  emperor  was  sole 
imperator;  and  secondly,  the  laurel  wreath.  Hie 
more  or  less  violent  clothing  of  the  new  emperor  in  the 
paltidamentwn  often  constituted  a  sort  of  investiture. 
On  his  part  the  promise  of  a  largess  to  tiie  soldioBv  and 
sometimes  to  the  people,  became  the  equivalent  of  a 
formal  acceptance  of  the  election. 

A  new  order  of  things  was  brought  about  bv  Con- 
stantine's  assumption  of  the  diac&m  (see  Bickel,  in 
Byzantinische  Zeitschrift,  VII,  5ia-534).  (Constan- 
tine wore  it  habitually  during  life  (caput  exomans  per- 
pehvo  (fiadematey  says  Aurehus  Victor,  Ep.  Ix),  and 
after  death  it  adorned  his  corpse.  In  this  waj  the 
diadem  became  the  primary  s^bol  of  sovereignty, 
but  without  at  first  any  prescription  of  forms  accord- 
ing to  which  it  should  oe  conferred.  When  Julian 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  troops  in  360,  they 
hoisted  him  standing  upon  a  shield,  a  ceremony  they 
seemed  to  have  leamea  from  the  Carman  recruits  in 
their  ranks,  and  then  a  standard-bearer  took  off  the 
torque,  or  gold  necklace,  which  he  wore  and  set  ft  upon 
Julian  'ft  head.  No  other  crowning  seems  to  have  taken 
place,  but  soon  after  we  find  the  emperor  at  Vieuie 


CORONATION 


381 


oosoNAnoir 


wearing  a  gorgeous  diadem  set  with  jewels.  In  the  case 
of  Vsdentinian  (364)  and  his  son  Gratian  (367)  we  have 
equally  tnention  of  a  crown  assumed  amid  profuse 
acclamations  of  the  assembled  army.  In  each  case, 
also,  the  newly-elected  sovereign  made  a  speech  and 

gromised  a  largess  to  the  troops,  which  Julian  fixed  at 
ve  gold  pieces  and  a  pound  of  silver  to  each  man. 
Informal  as  the  proceemngs  in  all  these  oases  seem  to 
have  been,  most  of  Uie  elements  so  far  mentioned  took 
a  permanent  place  in  the  coronation  ceremonial  which 
WBfl  ultimately  evolved.  Bven  the  Teutonic 
prtit '__<■•■  <n  hoi?ting  upon  u  IsnrkU^r  ^ ->■*■' 
Tacitus,  Ann.,  XV,  29)  though  mn?ly 
m€*Tttioned  explicitly »  was  probohly 
main  tain  e<l  for  a  consideriiblo 
tiinf%  for  it  certamly  wa^ 
observed  in  the  eWtion  of 
AnaMtusiuB  (491)  and 
Justin  M  (565),  AtKJ 
the  miniatOTP  of 
the  plecrtion  of 
David  in  a 
tenth-centuty 
psalter  at 
Pari.%  in 
which  he 
isrf^pre* 


the  selection  of  the  patriarch  mav  possibly  have  been 
due  simply  to  the  desire  to  pfeclude  jealousy  and  to 
avoid  giving  ofience  to  more  powerful  claimants  of  the 
honour.  But  already  in  473 ,  when  Leo  1 1  was  crowned 
in  the  lifetime  of  his  grandfather,  we  find  the  Patriarch 
Acacius  not  only  figuring  in  the  ceremony  but  reciting 
a  prayer  before  the  imposition  of  the  diadem.  If  it 
was  Leo's  grandfather  and  not  Aoadus  who  actually 
imposed  it,  that  is  only  on  account  of  the  accepted 
rule,  that  the  reigning  emperor  in  his  lifetime  is  alone 
the  fount  of  honour  whenever  he  chooses  to 
jKirtioii  of  liLs  iiiithority  W 
ooliea^ue  or  oonBort.  Following  close 
u^xm  the  finst  mter  vent  ion  of  the 
patriarch,  the  ecclesiitfltical 
element  in  the  coronation 
ceremfmifll  rapidly  de- 
velops. At  the  elec- 
tion of  Anas  tail  us 
(491)  the  patri- 
arch is  pre*K?nt 
at  the  ȣ^nn- 
bly  of  the 
senate  and 
noiabl6f» 
when 
I  Uey 


CoKONATXO.N  OF  Charl.i:maqn£  BY  Lso  III     (Rathaus,  Aachen) 


sented  standing  upon  a  buckler  supported  by  young 
men  while  another  sets  a  diadem  on  his  head,  im- 
plies that  this  ceremony  was  generally  familiar  at  a 
later  date.  The  diadem,  though  the  military  torque 
after  the  analogy  of  Julian's  election  was  often  re- 
tained as  well,  was  and  continued  to  be  the  symbol  of 
supreme  power,  and  along  with  it,  from  the  time  of 
Constantme  onward,  went  the  ceremony  of  "adora- 
tion" of  the  monarch  by  prostration. 

The  next  epoch-making  change  seems  to  have  been 
the  introduction  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  to 
set  the  diadem  upon  the  head  of  the  elected  sovereign, 
llie  date  at  which  this  first  took  place  is  disputed, 
for  we  cannot  altogether  ignore  the  alleged  dream  of 
Theodosius  I  who  saw  himself  crowned  by  a  bishop 
(Theodoret,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  vi),  but  Sickel  (loc.  cit., 
p.  517;  cf.  Gibbon,  ch.  xxxvi)  holds  that  the  Pa- 
triarch AnatoUus  in  450  crowned  Marcian  and  by 
that  aet  ori^nated  a  ceremony  which  became  of  the 
ereatest  possible  signiiicahce  in  the  later  conception  of 
Sineship.  At  first  there  seems  to  have  been  no  idea  of 
tending  any  rel^ous  character  to  this  investiture;  a,nd 


make  their  formal  choice,  and  the  book  of  the  Holy 
Gospels  is  expos^  in  their  midst  (Const.  Porph.. 
De  Cser.,  I,  92).  The  coronation  does  not  take 
place  in  a  sacred  building,  but  an  oath  is  taken  by 
the  emperor  to  govern  justly  and  another  writtevi 
oath  is  exacted  of  him  by  the  patriarch  that  he 
will  keep  the  Faith  entire  and  introduce  no  novelty 
into  the  Church.  Then  after  the  emperor  had 
donned  a  portion  of  the  regalia,  the  patriarch  made  a 

f)rayer,  and  the  **  Kyrie  eleison"  (possibly  an  ektene  or 
itany)  being  said,  put  upon  his  soverdgn  the  imperial 
chlamvs  and  the  jewelled  crown.  The  acclamations 
also  which  accompany  and  follow  the  emperor's  speech 
with  its  promises  of  the  usual  largess,  are  pronouncedly 
religious  in  character;  for  example  ''God  will  pre- 
serve a  Christian  Emperor!  Tnese  are  oonmion 
prayers!  These  are  the  pravers  of  the  world!  Lord 
nelp  the  pious!  Holy  Lord  uplift  Thy  World!  .  .  . 
God  be  with  you! ' '  Moreover  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
ceremony  the  emperor  went  str»g^t  to  St.  Sophia, 
putting  off  his  crown  and  offering  it  at  the  altar. 
The  first  emperor  to  be  erownc»  in  ehurdi  was  Pho- 


OOROKATIOir 


382 


OOBONATI0M 


cas  in  602,  and  althou^  our  reoordsof  procedure  are 
Bomewhat  defective,  no  doubt  can  be  lelt  that  from 
this  time  forth  the  whole  ceremonial  assumed  a  formal 
and  ielifi;ious  character.  The  rite  is  contained  in  the 
"EuchoTogium",  the  earliest  extant  manuscript,  dat- 
ing from  about  795«  There  is  a  partial  clothing  with 
the  insignia  in  the  metatorium  before  the  ceremony 
begins,  but  the  ritual  centres  in  the  conferrinjg  of  the 
chlamys  and  crown.  Before  each  of  these  is  imposed 
the  patriarch  reads  in  silence  an  impressive  prayer 
closely  analogous  in  spirit  to  what  we  find  in  the  West- 
em  orders  at  a  later  date.  For  example  the  prayer 
over  the  dilamys  bM:ins  thus:  "  O  Lord,  our  God,  the 
Kine  of  kines  and  Lord  of  lords^  who  through  Sam- 
uel vne  prophet  didst  diooee  David  Thy  servant  to  be 
king  over  Thy  people  Israel;  do  Thou  now  also  hear 
the  supplication  of  us  imworthv  and  behold  from 
Thy  dwelling  place  Thy  faithful  servant  N.  whom 
Thou  hast  b^n  pleased  to  set  as  kin^  over  Thy  holy 
nation,  which  Thou  didst  pimdiase  with  the  precious 
blood  of  Thine  only-batten  Son:  vouchsafe  to 
anoint  him  with  the  oil  of  badness,  endue  him  with 
power  from  on  high,  put  upon  his  head  a  crown 
of  pure  gold,  grant  him  long  life,"  etc.  After  the 
crowning  the  people  cry  out,  ^'Holy,  holy,  holy"  and 
''Glory  to  Ciod  in  the  nighest  and  on  earth  peace", 
three  times.  Then  Holy  Communion  is  given  to  the 
emperor  from  the  reserved  Sacrament,  or  perhaps  even 
the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified  is  celebrated.  After 
which  all  the  standards  and  halberds  are  dipped  and 
raised  again,  and  the  senators  and  clergy  prostrate  in 
adoration. 

One  cannot  help  suspecting  that  the  choice  of  this 
particular  moment,  when  the  emperor  has  just  re- 
ceived the  Sacred  Host,  for  the  act  of  adoration  may 
have  been  motived  by  some  foresight  of  possible  con- 
scientious objections  about  performing  such  adoration 
merely  to  the  emperor's  person.  The  rite  of  prostrar 
tion,  uiough  introduced  by  Constantine,  was  probably 
not  unaffected  by  lingering  memories  of  the  pa^n 
apotheosis  of  the  Ciesars.  Finally,  after  the  adoration 
came  the  laudes  (see  Acclamations)  or  qcto  as  they 
were  called  in  the  East  (drroXoYetr  was  the  technical 
word).  The  cantors  cried  "Glory  be  to  God  in  the 
hi^est.  .  .  •  This  is  the  ereat  day  of  the  Lord.  This 
is  the  day  of  the  life  of  tne  Romans",  and  so  on  for 
many  verses,  the  people  repeating  each  once  or  thrice. 
After  which  "Many,  many,  many".  ^.  "Many  years, 
for  many  years". "  Long  years  to  you,  N.  and  N.,  auto- 
crats of  the  Romans".  %  "Many  years  to  you"  and 
so  forth  with  much  repetition.  Finally,  the  emperor 
leaves  the  church  wearing  his  crown  and  goins  to  the 
metatorium  seats  himself  upon  his  throne  wnUe  the 
dignitaries  (^i^ni/MTa)  come  and  do  homage  by  kissing 
his  knees.  Although  the  prayer  over  the  chlamys  begs 
God  to  "  anoint  him  with  the  oil  of  g^ness '  *  the  early 
eudiologia  contain  no  mention  of  any  rite  of  unction, 
and  it  seems  tolerably  certain  that  this  was  not  intro- 
duced in  the  East  until  the  twelfth  century  (Bright- 
man,  loc.  cit.,  383^386).  Even  when  adopted,  the 
unction  was  confined  to  making  the  sign  of  the  cross 
with  chrimi  upon  the  monarch'snead.  The  introduc- 
tion of  this  new  feature  seems  to  have  been  accom- 
Sanied  with  other  dhanges  which  are  found  m  the  later 
lyzantine  coronations.  The  investiture  with  the  pur- 
ple chlamys  altogether  disappears,  but  two  distinct 
prayers  or  blessings  are  retained,  between  which  are 
inserted  both  ihe  unction  and  the  crowning.  Finally, 
w8  may  notioe  that  the  emperor  is  to  scmie  extent 
treated  as  an  ecclesiastic,  for  he  wears  a  mandyas,  or 
cope,  and  dischsjrses  the  functions  of  a  depuiatus, 
whkh  is,  or  was,  the  Greek  equivalent  of  one  of  our 
minor  ordera. 

n.  VisxQOTHio  AMD  Csi/no  Elbmbntb. — ^Turning 
now  to  the  inaugumtion  rite  of  early  kingships  in  the 
West  the  first  traces  of  a  coronation  order  seem  to  be 
Ibood  in  Spain  and  in  Great  Britain.    Some  of  the 


Spanish  councils  speak  copiously,  thoudU  vaguely,  of 
the  election  of  lungs  (Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXXI V,  3S5. 39C 
426), and  while  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century 
there  is  no  mention  of  unction  but  only  of  a  profession 
of  faith  and  promise  of  just  government  on  the  part  of 
the  king  with  a  oorresponcung  oath  of  fealty  on  the 
part  of  his  subjects,  towards  the  dose  of  the  same  cen- 
tury we  have  the  clearest  evidence  that  the  Viaiflothic 
kinffs  on  their  accession  were  solemnly  anointed  by  the 
Bi^op  of  Toledo.  When  in  672  the  oil  waa  poured 
upon  the  heeul  of  the  kneeling  King  Wamba  a  oloud  of 
vapour  arose  (evaporaHo  qiuBdam  fumo  stmilis  in 
modum  colummB,  Julian,  Hifftoria,  c  iv;  Migne,  P.  L., 
XCVI,  766)  whidi  was  regarded  by  those  present  as  a 
supernatural  pcnrtent.  For  the  rest  we  know  litUe  of 
this  early  Spanish  coronation  rite  beyond  the  fact  that 
it  was  a  religious  ceremony  and  that  the  king  under- 
took certain  obligations  towards  his  people.  It  is 
chiefly  interesting  as  supj^ying  the  earliest  known  ex- 
amples of  the  imction.  wheuer  this  ceremony  was 
instituted  by  the  Spanish  bishops  in  imitation  of  what 
thev  read  in  the  Old  Testament  concerning  the  unction 
of  Saul,  David,  and  Solomon  (I  Kings,  x  and  xvi;  III 
Kings,  i)  or  whether  they  themselves  derived  it  from 
some  eariy  Christian  tradition  it  seems  impossible  now 
to  decide. 

In  view  of  what  has  been  written  of  late  about  the 
close  liturgical  relations  between  Spain  and  England, 
via  Gelticji.  e.  probably  Irish,  channels  (see  Bishop  in 
Joum.  of  Theol.  Stud.,  VlII,  278),  it  is  natural  to  pass 
from  Spain  to  the  eaniest  coronations  in  the  British 
Isles.  The  statement  of  Gildas  (c.  530?)  cannot  be  ig- 
nored, when,  speaking  of  the  desolation  and  corruption 
of  manners  in  Britain,  he  says:  "  un^bantur  reges  non 
per  Deum,  sed  qui  ceteris  cruddiores  exstarent,  et 
paulo  post  ab  imctoribus  non  pro  veri  examinatione 
trucidabantur,  aliis  electis  trucioribus"  (De  £Ixcidio, 
ch .  xxi ;  Mommsen,  37) .  Again ,  in  his  commentary  on 
the  First  Book  of  Kings  (x,  1)  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
certainly  seems  to  speak  as  if  the  rite  oT  the  unction  of 
kines  was  practised  in  his  time  (Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXDC, 
278) .  "  Ungatur  caput  reeis ' ',  he  says,  "  quia  spirituali 
gratid  mens  est  replenda  aoctoris ' '.  It  may  oonoeiva- 
bly  be  that  these  passages  are  only  metaphorical,  but 
they  at  least  show  a  familiarity  with  the  oonoeption 
which  might  at  any  moment  find  expression  in  actual 
practice.  At  the  same  time  no  recoitl  exists  of  the  use 
of  unction  in  the  eariiest  Scottish  coronations.  Gath- 
ering up  scattered  traditions,  the  Marquess  of  Bute 
gives  the  following  ceremonial  as  representing  in  all 
probability  the  rite  of  "ordination"  of  a  Geltic  king, 
say  the  Lord  of  the  Isles,  in  the  seventh  and  eigh£ 
centuries.  There  was  a  gathering  of  the  principal 
people  of  the  nation  including,  if  possible,  seven 
priests.  The  new  ruler  was  elected  xmless  a  tanist 
(a  lieutenant  with  right  of  succession)  had  been  elected 
already.  The  king  was  clad  in  white  and  Mass  was 
celebrated  down  to  the  Gospel.  After  the  Go^)el  the 
king  was  made  to  set  his  right  foot  in  the  foot-print  of 
Fergus  Mor-  Mac  Erca,  the  impression  of  which  was 
cut  m  stone;  there  he  took  an  oath  to  pr^rve  idl  the 
ancient  customs  of  the  country  and  to  leave  the  suc- 
cession to  the  tanist.  His  father's  sword  or  some 
other  sword  was  then  placed  in  one  of  his  hands  and  a 
white  rod  in  the  other,  with  suitable  exhortations. 
After  this  a  bard  or  herald  rehearsed  his  genealogy. 
Re-entering  the  chureh  seven  prayers  were  recited 
over  him  by,  if  possible,  as  many  priests,  one  at  least  of 
these  prayers  being  called  the  Benediction,  during 
which  he  who  offered  it  laid  his  hand  upon  the  king's 
head.  The  Mass  was  then  finished  and  the  king  prob- 
ably Communicated.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  whole 
he  gave  a  feast  and  distributed  a  largess  (Bute, 
Scottish  O>ronations,  34) .  It  will  be  notic^  that  here, 
as  in  theearlier  Spanish  ritual,  there  is  no  mention  of  a 
orown  or  diadem,  and  though  the  uncticm  which  is  so 
prominent  a  feature  in  the  Spanish  ceremony  is  ap- 


00£OKATIOn 


383 


ooBOirATmi 


parentiy  lacking,  still  our  inf  ormatioa  is  too  f  ragmen- 
tanr  to  enable  us  to  apeak  with  oonfidenee.  more  espe- 
cially in  view  of  the  eaaual  utterance  of  Qildas. 

in.  Thb  English  Coronation  Ordsrs. — ^But  of 
all  detailed  ceremonials  for  the  investiture  of  a  mon- 
arch tiie  earltost  which  has  been  preserved  to  us  in  a 
complete  form  is  one  of  Enalish  origin.  It  is  known 
as  w  Egbertine  Order,  because  the  beBt4mown 
manuscript  in  which  it  is  contained  is  an  Anglo-Saxon 
codex  whM^  professes  to  be  a  copy  of  the  Pontfficai  of 
Arohbiahop  Egbert  of  York  (7d2-766).  We  cannot  in 
such  a  ease  be  sedue  against  the  poesibilit;^  of  sidt>se- 
qiient  interpolations^  for  the  ^bert  Pon-Ufical.  now 
at  Paris  (MS.  Latin  10,575),  is  only  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, but  the  character  of  the  ooronatioci  order  itself  is 
quite  consistent  with  an  eariy  date.  Moreover  the 
same  ritual  occurs  in  other  eariy  manuscripts,  and  frag- 
ments of  it  are  found  embedded  in  Continental  orders, 
sudi  as  that  for  the  coronation  of  Queen  Judith  (866). 
Neariiy  everything  in  this  Egbertine  Order  is  of  in- 
terest and  we  may  analyse  it  rather  dosely.  At  the 
head  we  find  the  title:  Missa  pro  rt^&jus  in  die  bens- 
dietiome  efus  (sic)*  Being,  as  the  title  says,  a  Mass,  it  be- 
gins with  a  "pTopet "  Introit,  collect,  lesson  from  Leviti- 
cus (xxvi,6-4),  Ciradual,  and  Gospel  (Matt.,  xxii,  ISso.). 
Then  oecurs  the  rubric:  ''the  bieBsing  upon  a  newly- 
elected  l^ng"f  upon  which  follow  three  prajf^eniof  mod- 
erate lengw  beginning  respectively:  ''Te  invocamus, 
Domine  sanete  ,  etc.;  "Deus  qui  p<9ul{8  tuis'\  etc.; 
and  ''In  dii^us  ejus  priatur  omnibus  flequitas' ,  etc 
The  second  df  these  prayers,  which  st9l  remains  prac- 
tically unchanged  in  the  coronation  order  used  at  the 
accession  of  Kmg  Edward  VII|  may  be  quoted  here  as 
a  specimen:— 

"O  God,  who  providest  for  Thy  people  by  Thy 
power  and  rulest  over  them  in  love;  grant  unto  this 
Thy  servant  Edward  our  King,  the  spirit  of  wisdom 
and  Kovenmient,  that  bein^  devoted  unto  Thee  with 
all  his  heart,  he  may  so  wisely  govern  this  kingdom, 
that  in  his  tune  Thy  Church  toad  people  may  continue 
in  safety  and  prosperity,  and  that,  peraevering  in 
good  works  unto  the  aid,  he  may  through  Thy  meroy 
oome  to  TUne  everlasthig  Kingdom;  through  Jesus 
Christ  Thy  Son  our  Lord.    Amen.^ 

It  is  worth  noting  that  we  have  no  reason  to  believe 
that  this  prayer  or  oUien  occurring  in  the  EJfliwrtine 
Order  is  neoessarav  of  English  origin.  On  tne  con- 
trary it  flooms  to  have  been  adapted  out  of  one  for 
the  pope  ooeurring  in  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary 
which  begins:  Detis  mi  populis  hits  indulgenHd  eon* 
euUe,  and  an  intermediate  form  was  used  at  the  coro- 
nation of  Charies  the  Bald  as  King  of  Lotharingia  in 
860.  After  the  three  prayers  we  meet  the  rubric: 
"Here  he  shall  pour  oil  upon  his  head  from  a  horn, 
with  the  antiphon:  Unxerunt  Sahmonem,  etc.,  and  the 
Psahn  Domine  in  virtute  tud,  etc.  (Ps.  xx).  Let  one  of 
the  bieihops  say  the  prayer  while  the  others  anoint  him.'' 
The  prayer  referred  to  is  the  Deue  eleeiorum  fortC- 
tudo,  some  phrases  of  which  stUl  remain  in  the  prayer 
now  said  immediately  before  the  unction.  The  same 
Deue  eled&rum  fortUudo  is  found  in  the  coronation 
order  of  Queen  Judith,  who  was  anointed  queen  bj^ 
Hincmar,  Bidiop  of  Reims,  in  860.  It  oontains  al- 
lusions to  the  olive-branch  brought  by  the  dove  to  the 
ark  and  to  the  anointing  of  Aaron  and  of  the  kiugi  of 
Ipael  and  thus  shows  itself  to  have  been  originally  de- 
swied  for  some  such  purpose  as  a  prayer  of  unction. 
Ihen  follows  another  rubric:  ''Here  all  the  bishc^ 
with  ihe  mamates  \frincipibwi\  put  the  sceptra  into 
his  hand. "  Some  at  the  texts,  however,  omit  this  last 
rubric  and  write  simply  Benedictio;  and  to  say  the 
truth  the  diort  sentences  whidi  follow  are  very  much 
of  the  nature  of  acdamafeions  of  benediction,  such  as 
we  have  alnady  quoted  from  some  of  the  Byaantine 
orders,  thoiuh  thev  are  a  little  longer  in  fofm  and 
could  certaiiuy  not  have  been  repeated  in  Latin  by  the 
A^jb-fiazon  populaee  or  even  the  magnates.    The 


people's  riiaro  tai  this  function  is  probably  indicated  by 
the  simple  ^  Amen"  which  fofiows  each  chiuse.  There 
are  sixteen  of  these  brief  elauses  and  then  the  rubric 
announces:  **  Hero  a  staff  is  put  into  his  hand  ",  where- 
upon another  prayer  of  mooerate  length  is  said  which 
is  followed  by  a  praver  of  blessing,  vague  and  some- 
what extravagant  in  language,  preceded  by  the  rubric: 
**  Hero  let  aU  the  bishops  tali»  the  helmet  and  set  it 
upon  his  head."  The  simultaneous  crowning  by  sev- 
eral hands  is  rather  a  noteworthy  featuro  in  the  cere- 
mony and  it  is  curious  that  aithot^rii  in  the  later  "  Liber 
Regalis"  and  other  orders  the  archbishop  is  named  as 
alone  imposing  the  crown,  the  flluminations  in  medie- 
val chronicles  and  romances  almost  invariably  repre- 
sent the  crown  as  being  put  on  by  at  least  two  biriiops 
standing  on  either  side.  After  this  praver  follows 
what  is  perhaps  the  lAost  interesting  rubric  of  the 
whole  order,  though  unfortunately  even  with  the  aid 
of  our  three  different  manuscripts  we  cannot  restcH^ 
the  text  of  the  latter  part  with  anv  great  defiree  of  con- 
fidence. "And  all  tbe  people  rtiful  say  toiee  times 
with  the  bishops  and  pnests:  'May  King  N.  live  for 
ever.  Amen,  Amen,  Amen.'  Then  shful  the  whole 
people  oome  to  kiss  the  prince;  and  he  shall  be 
stren^hened  on  his  throne  by  this  R.  e.  the  following 
blessins. "  Accordingly  before  the  Mass  is  suffered  to 
proceed  another  solemn  prayer  is  said.  Dene  perpe- 
iuiiatie  auctor,  which  in  the  Egbert  Pontifical  is 
emphasized  by  a  preceding  rubric:  "  Let  them  say  the 
seventh  prayer  over  the  King."  Now  the  prayer  in 
question  is  really  the  eighth,  and  undoubtedly  this  fact 
coupled  with  traces  of  marginal  numbering  which 
reveal  themselves  in  the  Egbert  Pontifical  lends 
probability  to  Lord  Bute^i  theory  that  this  series  of 
pra^rs  betrays  Oeltic  influences  and  was  originally 
destined  for  the  seven  priests  whose  presence  was  sup- 
posed in  the  Celtic  ritual.  The  eighth  prayer,  as  he 
thinks  that  of  the  unction,  is  shown  on  this  hypothe- 
sis to  be  an  interpolation  of  somewhat  later  date. 
After  this  last  pniyer,  Deue  perpetuitaiie  auctor,  the 
Mass  is  resumed.  The  Mass  prayers  are  Roman  and 
the  same  Mass  prayers  are  attached  to  the  very  early 
coronation  order  which  Mgr.  Magistretti  has  printed 
from  an  Ambrosian  pontifi^  at  the  ninth  century  and 
which  he  pronounces  to  be  also  indisputably  Roman. 
It  seems  probable  enou^  that  we  are  nere  again  in  the 
presenoeof  the  samesortof  compromise  between  Celtic 
and  Roman  elements  which  we  find  in  the  Stowe  Mis- 
sal (see  Oftimc  Rrrs).  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
Mass  we  find  the  following  rubric— it  may  perhaps  be 
an  interpolation  of  later  date  than  the  rest  dl  tiie  order 
— and  we  may  here  see  the  King^  first  proclamation 
to  his  people:— 

"It  IS  rightful  condRict  in  a  king  newly  ordained  to 
make  these  three  behests  hjreBcepkq  to  his  people. 

"First,  that  the  Churdh  of  God  and  ab  (Aristlan 
folk  should  keep  tru^  peace  at  an  tunes.  Amen. 

"The  second  IS  that  ne  should  forbid  all  robbeiy  and 
all  unrighteous  things  to  all  orders.    Amen. 

"The  third  is  that  he  should  enjoin  in  aU  dooms  jus- 
tice and  mercy,  that  the  gracious  and  merciful  God,  of 
His  everlasting  mefcy,  may  show  pardon  to  us  all. 
Amen." 

It  is  probable  that  in  this  tripledivisionof  the  primi- 
tive oath  we  have  the  explanation  of  a  f eatiue  which 
still  survives  in  the  Enclish  coronation  service.  Be- 
fi»e  the  king  three  naJced  swords  are  carried,  two 
pointed  and  one  without  a  point,  which  is  hence  known 
as  cwiana,  the  sword  cut  short.  The  first  two 
swords  were  known  to  medieval  writers  as  the  sword  of 
the  clergy  and  the  sword  of  justice.  They  represent 
the  king's  two  promises,  to  defend  the  Church  (not,  as 
certain  Anglican  writers  have  unwarranta^y  sup- 
posed, to  coerce  and  punish  the  Oiun^)  and  to  punish 
evildoenk  The  third,  without  a  pohit,  most  aptly 
symbolises  the  mercy  with  which,  as  the  oovereign 
himself  is  tau^t  to  liope  for  nie«^,  aU  hii  justioe  i^  to 


ctmovATum 


384 


OQBOVATXOV 


be  tempered.  We  have  evidence  ihsk%  these  ihiee 
ftwords  were  known  in  Kngiwh  ceremoniBl  aa  eaarlv  as 
Richard  I  (1189),  while  the  form  of  oath  just  cited,  re- 
mained in  use  until  a  centuiy  later.  Upon  this  oath 
somethine  mora  will  need  to  be  said. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  we  find  that  a 
new  coronation  order  waa  in  use  in  England.  It  inoor- 
porated  most  of  the  E^bertine  Order  but  it  added 
much  new  matter.  Various  considerations  show  that 
it  was  an  attempt  to  imitate  the  imperial  coronation  of 
theCarlovingian  monarchs  on  the  Continenti  and  our 
knowledge  of  the  imperial  state  assumed  by  King 
Eadgar  strongly  suggests  that  it  is  to  be  assigned  to  the 
date  of  his  dderredcoronation  (973).  Another  modi- 
fication took  place  shortly  after  the  Conquest  and  is 
probably  to  be  traced  to  Norman  influences  which 
m^e  themselves  felt  in  Church  and  State.  But  the 
most  important  English  order  is  that  introduced  at  the 
coronation  of  Edward  II,  in  1307,  and  known  as  that 
of  the ''  Liber  Regalis '  \  It  lasted  practically  unaltered 
through  the  Eeformation  period'and  though  translated 
into  Englishupon  the  accession  of  James  I  it  waa  not  sub- 
stantia^y  modified  until  the  coronation  of  his  grand- 
son James  II,  and  it  may  be  said  even  at  the  present 
day.  to  form  the  substance  of  the  ritual  by  wmch  the 
monarchs  of  Great  Britain  are  C3x>wned.  While  it  coor 
tained  many  prayers  in  conunon  with  those  used  in  the 
imperial  coronation  of  the  Western  Empire  and  those 
of  the  existing  "  Pontificale  Bomanum  "  it  also  pre- 
served many  distinctive  features.  A  short  synopsis 
of  it  will  be  serviceable. 

After  the  sovereign  had  been  solemnly  .brought  to 
Westminster  Abbey  church  and  had  made  an  offering 
at  the  altar,  he  was  conducted  to  a  raised  platform 
erect^  for  the  purpose  and  there  he  was  presented  4k> 
the  people,  who,  on  a  short  address  from  one  of  the 
bishops,  signified  by  acclamations  their  assent  to 
the  coronation.  Then  the  king  was  interrogated  bv  the 
archbishop  as  to  his  willin^ess  to  observe  the  laws, 
customs,  and  liberties  grantca  by  St.  Edward  the  Confe»- 
sor,  and  he  was  required  to  promise  peace  to  the  Church 
and  justice  to  his  people,  all  which  ne  confirmed  by  an 
oath  taken  upon  the  altar.  Next  thev  nroceeded  to 
the  unction,  w\dch.  was  introduced  by  the  Veni  Creator 
and  the  litanies,  during  which  the  king  remained  pros- 
trate on  his  face.  Por  the  unction  ,the  kin^  was  seated 
and  his  hand,  breast,  shoulder-blades,  and  joints  of  the 
arms  were  all  anointed  with  the  oil  of  catediumens,  an 
anthem  and  several  long  prayers,  being  recited  the 
while.  Finally  his  head  was  anointed,  first  with  the 
oU  of  catephumens  and  afterwards,  with  chnsm.  The 
next  stase  in  the  ceremony  was  the  dressing  and  inves- 
titure cfthe  monarch.  A  tunic  (colobium  nndonia) 
was  put  upon  him  with  sandals  upon  hk  feet  and  spurs. 
Then  he  was  girded  with  a  swqrd.and  received  the 
armiOcef  a  sort  of  stole  put  about  the  neck  and  tied  to 
his^  arms  at  the  elbows.  These  were  followed  by  the 
pcdlium,  or  cloak,  formerly  the  equivalent  of  the  chia- 
mys,  or  purple  paludamenhim,  and  fastened  bv  a  elasp 
over  the  ri^t  shoulder,  but  now  represented  in  Eng- 
Uftb  coronations  by  a  sort  of  mantle  like  a  oope.  Th^ 
the  crown  was  blessed  bv  a  spe&ai  prayer,  x>eu«  huh 
rum  corona  fidelium,  and  imposed  by  the  archbishop 
with  two  other  prayers.  lliis  wa».  followed  by  the 
blessing  and  conferring  of  the  ring  and  finally  the  Bcefh 
tre  and  rod  were  presented,  also  with  prs^fens.  A  fur- 
ther long  blessing  was  pronounced  when  the  king  was 
conducted  to  the  throne  there  to  rsceive  the  homage  of 
the  peers.  Then  if  there  was  no  queen  consort  to  be 
crowned,  Mass  began  imiaediatelyi  aMass  with'  'proper'' 

Srayers  and  preface  and  a  special  benediction  siven  by 
le  archbishop  before  the  Agnus  Dei.  After  theCredo 
the  king  again  went  to  the  altar  and  offered  bread  and 
wine  and  a.  mtfk  of  goki.  The  Jciss  of  peace  was 
brought  to  the  king  at  bis  thiene  but  he  went  humbly 
to  the  altar  to  Commuaieatei  after  which  be  received  a 
Oi:aught  of  wixielrom  St.  Edward^,  stone  chalice.  .AA 


the  end  the  king  was  conducted  to  the  shrine  of  St 
Edward  where  he  made  an  offering  of  his  crown. 

As  already  remarked,  the  service  for  the  coronation 
of  the  King  of  England  even  in  modem  times  remains 
eubstantia&y  the  same,  though  English  has  been  sub- 
stituted lor  Latin  and  though  many  transpositioDS  and 
modifications  have  been  introduced  in  the  prayers  and 
ceremonies,  all  distinctively  EcMnan  exprassions  being 
studiously  suppressed.  Ine  Mass  ot  comae  giv«B 
place  to  the  communion  service  of  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  but  the  sovereign  still  offers  bread  and 
wine  as  well  as  <gold,  and  <iown  to  the  ooxonation  of 
Queen  Victoria  even  the  '' proper"  preface  was  re- 
tained* Indeed  its  omission  and  other  (Hniasions  and 
ohan^  introduced  for  ihe  fiat  time  in  the  coronation 
of  King  Edward  VII  were  prompted  onhr  by  the  de- 
sire to  abbreviate  a  very  long  service.  Toe  most  seri- 
ous alteration  in  the  medieval  fonn  ia  of  course  in  the 
oath.  Since  the  time  of  William  III  the  king  has 
sworn  to  maintain  '^the  Protestant  tleformed  Kdjgion 
established  by  Law  "—-a  phiaae  which  has  always  been 
a  thorn  in  the  side  of  those  advanced  Ritualists  who 
contend  that  the  Church  of  England  has  never  been 
Protestant.  Moreover  since  the  interrogative  form  is 
used,  this  description  is  uttered  by  the  Arcdibiahop  of 
Canterbury  before  the  Lords  and.  Commons  and  the 
representatives  of  the  whole  English  CSiurch.  On  the 
otner  hand  one  dause  in  the  interrogation  stiU  stands 
as  it  did. .  The  king  is  asked,  "  Will  you  to  your  power 
cause  Law  and  Justice  in  mercy  to  be  executed  in  all 
your  judgments ?  "  To  which  he  relies,  "  I  will" — a 
promise  which  differs  but  sii^tly  from  the  under- 
taking made  in  the  oldest  E^>ertine  Order.  After 
the  archbishop's  questions  have  all  been  answered  the 
king  advances  to  the  "Altar",  as  it  is  still  called^  and 
takes  ^lis  solemn  oath  upon  the  Bible  lying  there: 
"The  things  which  I  have  here  before  promised  I  will 
perform  and  keep,  so  help  me  QocL"  The  coronation 
oath,  it  shoidd  be  noticed,  must  be  carefully  distin- 
guished from  "  the  Protestant  Dedaration",  which  ihe 
sovereign  by  a  still  unrepealed  clause  of  the  BiU  of 
Rights  (1689)  is  required  to  make  on  the  first  day  of 
his  first  Parliament.  In  this  declaration  Transubstan- 
tiation  and  other  Catholic  doctrines  are  repudiated  and 
the  Mass  declared  idolatrous.  When,  as  sometimes 
has  happened,  the  coronation  ceremony  precedes  the 
first  meeting  of  Parliament,  the  dedaration  against 
Transubstantiation  has  to  be  made  in  the  course  of  the 
ooronaUoQ  ceremony.  The  only  new  element  intro- 
duced into  the  English  rite  since  the  Reformation  is 
the  presenting  of  the  Bible  to  the  sovereign.  This 
like  the  Protestant  Declaration  dates  from  the  coro- 
nation of  William  and  Mary. 

IV.  Thb  Westsrm  EMPras  and  t^s  Roman  Pon* 
TiFiCAL. — ^There  is  so  much  general  similarity  be- 
tween the  En^h  coronation  order  in  its  perrected 
fonn  and  that  used  for  the  coronationof  the  Emperor 
and  the  King  of  the  Romans  that  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  Ueat  this  section  in  ^reat  detaiL  The  fact 
undoubtedly  is,  though  Anglican  litnigiBts  ignore  it 
as  far  as  possible,  that  at  each  of  the  eariy  modifica- 
tions of  the  English  ritual,  more  eiqaedally  that  under 
King  Eadgar.  the  imperial  ooremonial  was  freely  imi- 
tated (see  Thurston,  Coronation  Ceremonial,  18-23 
sqq.).  But  owing  to  the  acddental  preservation  ol 
so  many  En^sh  documents  there  is  no  ooionataoii 
ceremonial  in  the  world  the  histoiy  of  irhkh  is  so  weQ 
knotm  to  us  as  that  of  England  and  we  have  oonse- 

2uently  given  it  the  preference  in  order  of  treatments 
Lpart  from  Spanish  examples,  the  earliest  definite 
instance  of  unction  of  a  Chnstian  sovereign  seems  to 
be  that  of  Pepin,  who  was  first  erowned  by  St.  Bocu- 
face,  the  papal  legate  at  Soissons  in  752,  and  again, 
together  wiln  his  sons  Charles  and  Carioman  and  his 
wife  Bertha,'  by  Pope  Stephen  at  S^Denis,  Sunday, 
28  July,  754.  Charlemame  Mbb  solemnly  crowned  at 
St.  Peter's. in  Borne  by  Pope  Leo  III,  qa  OhristmBa 


COBOVATlOir 


385 


OOBOVAnOM 


Day,  800.  The  statement  of  a  Greek  chronicler  that 
he  waa  anointed  from  head  to  foot  is  probably  a  mere 
blunder  or  groes  eza^^ration.  Despite  the  efforts  of 
Dr.  Diemand  (Das  Oraremoniell  der  KaiserkrOnungen) 
to  classify  the  various  Ordtnes  for  the  coronation  of 
the  emperor  and  to  trace  the  stages  of  their  develop- 
ment, the  subject  remains  intricate  and  obscure.  We 
may  be  content  to  note  rafHdly  the  elements  of  its 
somplete  form. 

The  cer»nony  was  assumed  to  take  place  at  Rome, 
as  by  right  it  mould,  and  the  first  incident  was  the 
solemn  entry  of  the  emperor  into  Rome,  whidi  should 
if  possible  take  place  on  a  Sunday  or  festival.  He 
was  met  in  state  outside  the  walls  and  escorted  to 
St.  Peter's.  Next  came  the  reception  b^r  the  pope, 
who  sat  enthroned  and  surrounded  by  his  cardinals 
at  the  head  of  the  steps  before  St^  Peter's,  and 
there  the  -emperor,  after  kissing  the  pope's  foot, 
took  the  coronation  oath  (Diemand,  108-123),  which 
in  its  earliest  form  ran  as  follows:  '^In  the  name  of 
Christ  I,  N.,  the  Emperor,  promise,  undertake  and 
protest  in  the  presence  of  God  and  Blessed  Peter  the 
Apostle,  that  I  will  be  the  protector  and  defender  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Church  in  all  ways  that  I  can  be  of 
help  [in  amnibtis  utilitai(bu8\  so  far  as  I  shall  be  sup- 
ported by  the  Divine  aid,  according  to  my  knowledge 
and  abflity."  This  undertaking,  which  at  first  was 
clearly  not  an  oath  in  form,  was  afterwards  strength- 
ened by  a  number  of  added  clauses,  for  instance  by  the 
words,  *  I  swear  upon  these  Holy  Gospels  ",  or  agam  by 
an  explicit  promise  of  fealty  to  the  reigning  pope  by 
name  and  to  his  successors.  There  was  here  also  per- 
haps a  prayer  of  blessing  spoken  as  the  emperor  was 
esoortea  into  the  church.  At  one  time  this  waa  fol- 
lowed by  a  sort  of  examination  into  the  fitness  ol  the 
candidate  (scmKftMfm),  but  this  disappeared  in  the 
later  Ordines.  He  was  then  received  and  in  a 
sense  enrolled  among  the  canons  of  St.  Peter's  and 
prepared  for  the  anointing.  The  unction  was  intoo- 
duced  by  the  litany  and  performed  by  the  Bishop 
of  Ostia,  who  only  anointed  the  ri^t  arm  and  the 
back  between  the  shoulders  with  the  oil  of  catechu- 
mens. Two  prayera  follow,  both  of  which  have 
found  their  way  into  the  English  ord^,  though  one 
of  them  occurs  in  a  oontra^ed  form  and  is  used 
only  for  conferring  the  rine.  All  this  took  place 
before  the  beghming  of  Mass,  but  in  the  later  forms  of 
the  imperiid  <nrh  toe  next  item  of  the  coronation 
service,  the  b^towal  of  the  insignia  and  notably  oi  the 
crown,  took  place  after  the  Gradual,  being  thus  in- 
serted in  the  Mass  itself.  The  order  in  which  the 
^osignia  were  delivered  varied  much,  and  in  the  later 
forms  a  mitre  was  given  to  the  emi>eror  before  the 
crown,  and  the  sceptre  was  accompanied  with  an  orb. 
This  last  had  no  place  in  the  medieval  English  cere- 
mony. After  the  giving  of  the  insignia  the  Landes, 
or  acclamations,  were  sung  and  then  the  Gospel  was 
chanted  and  the  Mass  resumed  its  course.  The  whole 
ceremony  concluded  with  a  solemn  procession  to  the 
Lateran  and  a  state  banquet. 

The  form  used  in  Germany  for  the  coronation 
of  the  King  of  the  Romans  retains  much  Sn  com- 
mon with  the  imperial  order,  but  it  bears  a  still 
closer  resemblance  to  what  is  known  as  the  ''second" 
English  ritual,  viz.:  that  used  for  the  Anglo-Saxon 
King  Eadgar.  The  fact,  as  Dr.  Diemand  points  out, 
seems  to  have  been  that  the  Eebertine  Order 
was  reinforced  by  imperisd  elements  oorrowed  from 
abroad,  and  thus  acquired  a  certain  reputation  as 
the  most  elaborate  form  for  the  crowning  of  a  king. 
Hence  it  came  to  be  largely  copied  on  the  Continent 
and  in  that  way  we  find  unmistakable  traces  of  prayers 
originally  written  for  Anglo-Saxon  kings  travelling 
into  Central  Europe  and  even  as  far  south  as  Milan. 
'Hie  ordo  inscribea ''De  Benedietione  et  Ooronatione 
Regis",  which  is  still  extant  in  the  '^  Pontificals 
Bomanum",  beam  much  resemblance  to  the  forma 
IV.— 25 


1'ust  described  used  for  the  coronation  of  the  emperor. 
**or  example  the  mrulinium  occurs  in  this  form: 
The  king  is  presoited  to  the  consecrating  arehbishop 
by  two  bishops,  who  petition  that  he  may  be  erownea, 
and  who,  when  themselves  interrogated  as  to  his  fit- 
nem,  reply  that  they  know  him  to  be  a  worthy  and 
proper  person.  The  oath  follows,  also  the  litany  with 
prostration,  and  then  the  anointing  on  the  arm  and  be- 
tween the  shoulders.  Then,  after  Mass  has  been  bo- 
|;un  and  broueht  as  far  as  the  Gradual,  the  king  kneel- 
mg  at  the  altar-steps  receives  successively  swoixl, 
crown,  and  sceptre,  each  accompanied  with  appro* 
priate  prayers.  Finally  the  king  is  solemnly  en- 
throned, the  Te  Deum  sung,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
Mass  follows.  A  similar,  but  generally  somewhat 
shorter,  rite  is  observed  in  the  coronation  of  a  queen 
consort.  The  prayers  often  differ  from  those  used  for 
the  king  and  tne  insignia  are  naturally  fewer. 

V.  Other  Csremoniaub. — In  earlier  ages  almost 
every  country  imder  monarchical  government  had  a 
coronation  ceremony  of  its  own  and  this  was  nearly 
always  distinguished  by  some  peculuur  features.  For 
examole  in  Aragon  the  king  was  expected  to  pass  the 
preceoing  night  in  the  chureh  with  a  purpose  which 
was  evidentiy  analogous  to  that  of  the  knight's  vi^ 
spent  in  the  watching  of  his  arms.  In  Scotland  agam 
tne  light  of  regal  unction  and  coronation  was  accorded 
(1329)  in  a  Bull  of  Pope  John  XXII  (the  crown  having 
previously  been  regarded  rather  as  a  civil  ornament) 
m  which  the  privik»e  was  burdened  with  the  condition 
that  the  king  should  take  an  oath  that  he  would  do  his 
utmost  to  extirpate  f  rexn  his  dominions  all  whom  the 
Chureh  should  denounce  as  heretics.  As  a  remote 
consequence  of  this  James  VI,  the  infant  son  of 
Queen  Mary,  or  rather  Morton,  the  Regent,  in  his 
name,  took  an  oath  '^to  root  out  all  heresy  and  ene- 
mies to  the  true  worship  of  God  that  shall  be  convicted 
by  the  true  kiric  of  Crod  of  the  aforesaid  crimes";  the 
principal  amonff  these  crimes  being  the  ''ydolatre  of 
the  odious  and  blasphemous  mass".  At  present, 
however,  the  investiture  of  sovereigns  with  the  in- 
signia of  their  office  by  a  religious  ceremony  is  by  no 
means  universal,  and  it  is  curious  that  in  Spain,  a  most 
Catiiolic  country  in  fuU  diplomatic  relations  with  the 
Holy  See,  no  such  religious  ceremony  is  now  in  use.  Of 
European  countries  we  may  note  that  the  rite  followed 
in  France  in  the  fourteenth  and  subseouent  centuries 
was  almost  identical  in  substance  with  tnat  of  the  Eng- 
lish **  Liber  Regalis  "  (see  the  careful  comparison  in  De- 
wick's  "  The  Order  of  Coronation  of  Charles  V",  pp.  xvi 
sq<i.).  The  most  important  differences  were  first  the 
privil^e  of  the  French  kin^  a  privilege  not  shared  by 
nis  consort,  of  Conmiunicating  under  CK)th  species,  and 
secondly  the  use  of  the  oil  from  the  Sainte  Ampoule, 
an  oil  which  according  to  universal  belief  had  been 
miraculously  brouglht  from  heaven  by  an  angel,  or  a 
dovC)  for  the  baptism  of  Clovis.  This  oil  down  to  the 
Revolution  was  kept  in  the  Abbey  of  Reims.  The 
abbot  brought  the  Sainte  Ampoule  to  the  corona- 
tion and  by  means  of  a  golden  needle  a  drop  of  its 
contents  was  extracted  and  mixed  with  chrism.  With 
this  mixture  the  king  was  anointed  first  on  the  head, 
then  on  the  breast,  sm  finally  on  the  back  and  on  the 
joints  of  the  arms.  It  seems  clear  that  this  privilege 
of  the  French  king  provoked  imitation  in  England, 
and  a  letter  of  Pope  John  XXII  has  recently  been 
brou^t  to  light  returning  a  guarded  answer  to  an 
application  of  Edward  II  who  wished  to  be  anointed 
with  certain  oil  said  to  have  been  revealed  by  Our 
Blessed  Lady  to  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury. 

It  would  take  us  too  far  to  enter  into  any  details  as  to 
ibe  ceremonial  formerly  observed  in  the  coronation  of 
the  Kings  of  Hungary,  Bdhemia,  and  Poland,  but  a  word 
may  be  added  about  one  of  the  most  splendid  of  the 
coronation  orders  still  maintained,  namely  that  of  the 
czar,  which  always  takes  place  at  Moscow.  The  ser* 
vice  begins  after  the  Proscomedy,  or  Offertory,  bfa 


OOlBOinBL 


386 


OOBPOBAL 


solemn  procession  in  which  the  emperor  enters  the 
church  and  is  conducted  to  his  throne.  The  lifting 
u(K)n  a  shield  which  was  long  retained  in  the  ola 
Greek  ritual  of  Constantinople  is  not  now  used  at 
Moscow.  After  the  emperor  has  recited  the  Nicene 
Creed  as  a  profession  of  faith,  and  after  an  invocation 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  litany,  the  emperor  assumes 
the  puiple  chlamys  and  then  the  crown  is  presented 
to  him.  He  takes  it  and  puts  it  on  his  head  himself, 
while  the  metropolitan  says,  ''In  the  name  of  the 
Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Amen", 
and  then  the  metropolitan  makes  the  following  short 
address:  ''Most  God-fearing,  absolute  and  mighty 
Lord,  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  this  visible  and 
tangible  adornment  of  thy  head  is  an  eloquent  symbol 
that  thou  as  the  head  of  the  whole  Russian  people  art 
invisibly  crowned  by  the  King  of  kings,  Chnst,  with  a 
most  ample  blessing,  seeing  that  He  bestows  upon  thee 
entire  authority  over  His  people."  This  is  followed 
by  the  delivery  of  the  sceptre  and  orb,  each  with  ad- 
dresses. Then  the  queen  is  crowned,  the  emperor  for 
a  moment  putting  his  own  crown  on  the  head  of  the 
empress  before  he  invests  her  with  that  which  prop- 
erly belongs  to  her.  This  is  followed  by  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  emperor's  style  and  by  a  gen^^  act  of 
homace.  The  Liturgy  is  then  celebrated,  and  after 
the  Gonmiunion  hymn  (jcoiywMffiv)  the  ro^al  gates 
of  the  sanctuary  are  opened,  the  emperor  is  mvitod  to 
approach,  and  there,  near  the  entrance,  standing  on 
the  dolii  of  gold,  the  emperor  and  empress  are  anoint- 
ed. In  the  case  of  the  emperor  the  forehead,  eyes, 
nostrils,  mouth,  ears,  breast,  and  the  hands  on  both 
sides,  are  all  touched  with  oil  but  in  the  case  of  the 
empress  the  unction  is  confined  to  the  forehead  only. 
Then  the  emperorpasses  within  the  royal  ^tes  and 
receives  both  the  Eucharistic  species  as  a  pnest  does, 
separatelv.  The  empress,  however,  remains  outside, 
and  receives  only,  as  the  Greek  laity  usually  do,  by 
intinction. 

0«aend.— Thalhofkr  in  Kirchetdex.,  «.  t.  KrGnung;  Vbn- 
ABLE8  in  Did.  Christ.  Ant.,  s.  vv.  Coronation  and  Crovm.  Mar- 
TfcNE,  De  Antiquia  Bcdetice  Ritibu»  (Venice,  1783),  II.  201-241 ; 
Catalani,  CinremoniaU  Rotnanum  (Rome,  1750),  I,  86-146; 
PontificaU  Rotnanum  (Rome.  1736),  I,  360^17.  .    , 

Particular  Rites. — Byzantine.— ^iCKJih,  Das  byzanttniache 
KrOnvngsrecht  bis  turn  lO.  Jahrhundert  In  Bytantxniseks  ^pit- 
schrifi  (Leipsig,  1898).  VII:  Bbightman,  Byzanime  Imperial 
Coronatione  in  Joum.  of  Thecl.  Studies  (1901),  II,  369-392. 
Spanish. — FArotin,  MonuTnenla  Ecdesia  Litwrgioa  (Paris, 
1904),  IV,  498-505.  Cettic;— Bute.  Scottish  CoronaHona  (Lon- 
don, 1902);  Ckx>PBR,  FourSooUiah  Coronations  (Aberdeen.  1902, 
Eccies.  Society);  Kinloch,  Scottish  Coronations  in  The  Dublin 
Review  (1902).  English. — ^M askell.  Monumenla  Ritualia  Be- 
dcsice  AnifiieancB  (Oxford,  1882),  II;  WoRDBWORrn,  The  Manner 
of  Coronaiion  of  King  Charles  i  (London,  1892).  The  vaat  num- 
ber of  pubUcaUons  produced  on  the  coronation  of  Edward  VII 
cannot  be  mentioned  here,  but  among  the  more  important  are 
Wicrram-Leoo.  English  Coronation  Records  (London,  1901); 
WoRDBWORTR.  Three  Enolisk  Coronotion  Orders  (Loodon,  1901); 
Macleanb,  The  Great  Sdemniiv  (London,  1902);  Thurston,  The 
Coronation  Ceremonial  (London.  1902).  and  in  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury (March.  1902),  and  in  The  Month  (June,  July,  1902);  Wii^ 
30N,  The  English  Coronation  Orders  m  Jour,  of  TheoL  Studies 
(July,  1901).  Imperial  Coronations. — Dieiiand,  Dos  Cere- 
moniell  der  Kaiserkr&nungen  (Munich,  1894);  Wattz,  Die  For- 
meln  der  deuisdten  K6nigs-und  der  r&misehen  KaiserkrOnung 
(GOttingen,  1871);  Scrwarzbr,  Die  Ordines  der  F—' — * 


MisoiUaneous. — Dbwick,  The  Order  of  Coronation  of  Charles  . 
"    ■  Maltzew,  Bitt-:^ParOo' und 


(Henry  Bradahaw  Society,  1899), 
Weihe^ottesdienste  (Beriin,  1897), 
Knmungen   in    Oberitalisn   (Strasburs, 
PontiHoale  Andirosianum  (Milan.  1807). 

Herbert  Thurston. 


1-61;  Haasb,  Die  KOntga- 
1901);   MAOiflTRBrri. 


chaplain  and  preacher  to  his  court.  He  came  to 
Rome  by  order  of  his  sui^eriors,  and  there  took  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity.  Goronel  tav^t  theol- 
ogy for  many  years  in  the  Eternal  City  with  eredit 
to  himself  and  honour  to  his  order.  At  this  time  the 
controversy  about  the  efficacy  of  Divine  grace  and 
free  will  between  the  Jesuits  and  Dominicans  was  at 
its  height.  The  reioiing  pontiff,  Clement  VII I ,  estab- 
lished the  famous  Congregatio  de  Auxiliis  to  decide 
the  points  at  issue,  and  Coronel  was  appointed  by  the 
pope  to  the  onerous  and  invidious  position  of  secre- 
tary. He  was  continued  in  this  office  by  Pope  Clem- 
ent's successor,  Paul  V.  As  a  reward  for  his  services 
to  the  congregation,  he  was  offered  a  bidiopric.  This 
he  declined,  saving  that  at  his  age — ^he  was  then  sixty 
— ^honours  and  responsibilities  were  rather  to  be  laid 
down  than  assumed.  He  attended  the  genenJ  cha|>- 
ter  of  his  order,  held  at  Rome  in  1620,  as  definitor  of 
the  Sardinian  province.  Coronel 's  principal  worics 
are:  ''Libri  decem  de  verU  ChrisU  EcclesiA"  (Rome, 
1504);  ''Libri  sex  de  optimo  reipublice  statu" 
(Rome,  1597);  ''De  traditionibus  i^x)stolicis"  (Rome. 
1597).  A  history  of  the  Coneregatio  de  AuxMiis,  n 
manuscript,  is  preserved  in  the  Angelica  Library  in 
Rome. 

Elssiub,  Encomiasticon  Augustinianum  (Bnieeels,  1054>: 
OasiNGER,  Bibliotheea  Augustiniana  (In^oldstadt,  1768>; 
Lantbrx, /\>«<rpma  soBcula  sex  rdigionis  AuguMnianm  (Rome, 
1860);  Babbosa  and  Narducci,  CataJogus  manuaaripiorum 
BibliotheoaB  Angelica  (Rome,  1893);  Baboon,  Af<m<u(ict  AugHa- 
tiniani  Crusenti  continuaHo  (VallaaoUd,  1903). 

J.  A.  Knowleb. 

Ooronel,  Juan,  b.  1569,  in  Spain;  d.  1651,  at 
M^da,  Mexico.  He  made  his  academic  studies  at 
the  Universitv  of  Alcald  de  Henares,  and  joined  tfao 
Franciscans  of  the  province  of  Castile.  He  was  sent  to 
Yucatan,  Mexico,  in  1590,  and  there  so  familiarised 
himself  with  the  Maya  language  that  he  was  able  to 
teach  it,  the  historian  Cogolluao  being  one  <A  his  pu- 
pils. Ck)golludo  says  he  wrote  a  Ma^a  grammar 
(Arte)  that  was  printed  in  Mexico,  of  which,  however, 
nothing  else  is  known.  A  catechism  in  Mava:  "  Doc- 
trina  cristiana  en  lengua  l^ya",  was  published  at 
Mexico  in  1620,  and  in  the  same  year  there  i^peared  in 
print,  also  at  Mexico,  ''Discursos  predicables  y  trata- 
dos  espirituales  en  lengua  Maya".  Both  are  ezoeed- 
in^y  rare.  Father  Coronel  was  one  of  the  foremost 
teachers  of  the  Indians  of  Yucatan  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  was  a  strict  Observant  for  sixty-seven 
years,  always  travelling  barefooted.  His  neat  aus- 
terity impeded  his  election  to  the  office  of  Inovindal 
of  the  Franciscan  Order  in  Yucatan. 

CocioiiLt7DO,  Historia  de  Yucatan  (Madrid,  1688;  Mdrida. 
1842);  BsBiSTAiN,  Biblioteca  hispano-amerieana  (Mezioo,  1816; 
Amecameca,    1883);  Squibb,   Monograph,  ete.   (New   York, 


1861) ;  he  merely  copies  Bbbistain. 


Ad.  F.  Bandsusr. 


Oor^Xdl  (from  Lat.  corjma,  body),  a  square 
white  linen  cloth,  now  usually  somewhat  smaller  than 
the  breadth  of  an  altar,  upon  which  the  Sacred  Host 
and  chalice  are  placed  during  the  celebration  of  Mass. 
^thoujdi  formal  evidence  is  wanting,  it  may  fairly  be 
assumed  that  something  in  the  nature  of  a  corpora^ 
has  been  in  use  since  the  earliest  days  of  Christianity. 
Naturally  it  is  difficult  in  the  early  stages  to  distin- 
guish the  corporal  from  the  altar-cloth,  and  apassage 
of  St.  Optatus  (c.  375),  which  asks,  "What  Christian 
is  unaware  that  in  cdebrating  the  Sacred  Mysteries 
the  wood  [of  the  altar]  is  covered  with  a  linen  cloth?" 
(ipso  ligna  UrUeamine  cooveriri^  Optatus,  VT,  ed. 
Ziwsa,  p.  145),  leaves  us  in  doubt  which  he  is  referring 


Ooronely  Gregorio  Nui^BZ^  a  distinguished  theolo- 
gian, writer,  and  preacher,  b.  in  Portugal,  about  1548; 
d.  about  1620.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  Order 
of  St.  Augustine  in  one  of  its  many  houses  in  his  native 
land,  m  manifested,  during  the  course  of  his  stud- 
ies, great  powers  of  research  and  a  ready  grasp  of  the  lur  bue  dw»m;uu»i<*  ui  \»im  ^luvi  x  uiiviu«»t»  ,  ^tc 
most  abstruse  proUems  of  philosophv  and  theology.  rPope  Sylvester]  decreed  that  the  Sacrifice  should  not 
Soon  after  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  he  became  be  celebrated  upon  a  silken  or  dyed  cloth,  but  only 
famous  as  a  profound  theologian  and  master  of  sacred  on  linen,  sprung  from  the  earth,  as  the  Body  of  oiu* 
eloquence.  When  his  fame  was  at  its  zenith,  he  left  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  buried  in  a  clean  linen  shrouu  *' 
Portugal  and  was  appointe<i  by  the  Duke  ot  Savoy    (Mommsen.  p.  51).  cannot  be  rdied  upon.    StilL  the 


to.    This  is  probablv  the  earliest  direct  testimony; 
for  the  statement  of  the  "Liber  Pontificalia",  "He 


OOBMRAIt 


387 


OeBPOB41!fOV 


Ideas  ezpfressed  in  this  passage  are  found  in  an  aiithen* 
tie  letter  ol  St.  Isidore  of  rausium  (£p.  i,  123)  and 
again  in  the  *' Expodtio  "  of  St.  Qennaniis  of  Paris  in  the 
sixth  century  (P.  L.,  LXXII,  93).  Indeed  they  lasted 
thioiigh  the  Middle  Ages,  as  the  verses  attributed  to 
Hildebert  (P.  L.,  CLXXI,  1194)  sufficiently  show>— 
Ara  cnicis,  tumulique  calix,  lapidisque  patena^ 
SindonJs  offioium  Candida  byssus  habet. 
It  is  quite  orobable  that  in  the  early  centuries  only 
one  linen  cloui  was  used  which  served  both  for  altar- 
cloth  and  corporal,  this  beina  c^  large  sise  and  doubled 
back  to  cover  the  chalice.  Mueh  ooubt  must  be  felt 
as  to  the  oiiginal  use  of  certain  cloths  of  figured  linen 
in  the  treasury  of  Monaa  which  Barbier  de  Montault 
BOiuAt  to  identify  as  ccnrporals.  The  corporal  was  de- 
apribed  as  jnUa  corf)oraUMf  or  vdamsn  dominica  menMB, 
or  aperianum  dominici  corporis,  etc.;  and  it  seems 
genmdly  to  have  been  of  linen,  thousdi  we  hear  of 
altar-cloths  of  silk  (Greg,  of  Tours,  ''Hist.  Franc.", 
VII,  22;  X,  16),  or  of  purple  (Paulus  Silentiarius, 
**  Descr.  S.  Sophue",  p.  758;  a  coloured  miniature  in 
the  tenth-century  BeiMdictional  of  St.  i£thelwold  also 
seems  to  show  a  purple  altaiHsovering),  or  of  doth-of- 
gold  (Ghrysoetom  in  Matt.,  Hom.  1).  In  some  of 
these  cases  it  seems  difficult  to  decide  whether  aitar^ 
doth  or  corporal  is  meant.  However,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  a  clear  distinction  had  established  itself  in 
Cariovingiaa  times  or  even  earlier.  Thus,  in  the 
tenth  oentuiy,  Regino  of  PrOm  (De  Disc.  Eod.,  cap. 
cxviii)  Quotes  a  council  of  Reims  as  having  decreed 
"that  tne  corporal  [corporale]  upon  which  the  Holy 
Saorifioe  was  offered  must  be  of  the  finest  and  purest 
linen  without  admixture  of  any  other  fibre,  because 
Our  Saviour's  Body  was  wrapped  not  in  silk,  but  in 
clean  linen *\  He  adds  that  the  corporal  was  never  to 
remain  on  the  altar,  but  was  to  be  put  in  liie  Missal 
[Sacramentonan  Ubro]  or  shut  up  with  the  chalice  and 
paten  in  some  dean  receptade.  And  when  it  was. 
wBt^aed,  it  was  to  be  washed  first  of  all  bjr  a  priest, 
deacon,  or  subdeacon  in  the  church  itsdf,  in  a  place 
or  a  vessd  specially  reserved  for  this,  because  it  had 
been  impreg^ted  with  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Our 
Lord.  Afterwards  it  mijght  be  sent  to  the  laundry 
and  treated  like  other  linen.  The  suggestion  as  to 
keeping  the  corporal  between  the  leaves  of  the  Missal 
is  interesting  beisause  it  shows  that  it  cannot,  even  in 
the  tenth  centuiy,  have  always  been  of  that  extrava- 
^nt  sise  whieh  might  be  inf enred  from  the  description 
in  the'^Seoond  Roman  Ordo" (cap.  ix),where  the  deacon 
and  an  assistant  deacon  are  represented  as  foldjns  it 
up  between  them.  Still  it  was  big  enough  at  this 
period  to  allow  of  its  being  bent  back  to  cover  the 
(Malice,  and  thus  serve  the  purpose  of  our  present  pall. 
This  is  done  by  the  Carthusians  to  this  day,  who  use 
no  pall  and  have  no  proper  devation  of  the  chalice. 
As  regards  the  sise  of  the  corporal,  some  change  may 
have  taken  place  when  it  ceased  to  be  usual  for  the 

Eple  to  bnng  loaves  to  the  altar,  for  there  was  no 
zer  need  of  a  laige  doth  to  fold  back  over  them 
[cover  them.  Anjrway,  it  is  in  the  deventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  that  the  practice  of  doubling  the 
corporal  over  the  chalice  gave  place  to  a  new  plan  of 
using  a  second  (folded)  corporal  to  cover  the  mouth 
of  the  ehalice  when  required.  The  question  is  debated 
in  some  detail  in  one  of  the  letters  of  St.  Anselm,  who 
quite  approves  of  the  arrangement  (P.  L^  CLVIII, 
5oO);  luiid  a  hundred  years  later  we  find  Pope  Inno- 
cent  III  stating,  ''there  are  two  kinds  of  palls  or  cor- 
porals, as  they  are  called  [duplex  est  paUa  gum  dicUur 
corporale]  one  which  the  deacon  spreads  out  upon  the 
altar,  the  other  which  he  places  folded  upon  the 
mouth  of  the  chalice"  (De  Saorif .  Missse,  II,  56).  The 
essential  unity  of  the  pall  and  the  corporal  is  further 
shown  by  Ihe  fact  that  the  special  blessing  which  both 
palls  and  corporals  must  always  receive  before  use 
deaisnates  the  two  as  'Minteamen  ad  tegendimk  invol- 
^vodumque  CorpuB  et  Sanguinem  D.  N.  J.  C",  L  e. 


to  .cover  and  enfold  the  Body  a$ui  Blood  of  Ohrist. 
This  special  blessing  for  corporals  and  palls  is  alluded 
to  even  in  the  Odtio  lituigical  documents  of  the  sev- 
enth century,  and  the  actual  fcnrm  now  prescribed  by 
the  modem  Roman  Pontifical  is  found  almost  in  tne 
same  words  in  the  Spanish  **  liber  Ordinum ' '  of  about 
1^  same  early  date. 

According  to  existing  liturgical  rules,  the  corporal 
must  not  be  oniamented  with  embroidenr,  and  must 
be  made  entirely  of  pure  white  linen,  tnough  there 
seem  to  have  been  many  medieval  exceptions  to  this 
law.  It  is  not  to  be  left  to  lie  open  upon  the  altar, 
but  when  not  in  use  is  to  be  folded  and  put  away  in 
a  burse,  or  "  corporas-case",  as  it  was  conmionly 
called  in  pre-Reformation  England.  Upon  these 
burses  much  ornamentation  is  lavished,  and  this  has 
been  the  case  since  medieval  times,  as  many  existing 
examples  survive  to  show.  The  corporal  is  now  usu- 
ally folded  twice  in  length  and  twice  in  •  breadth,  so 
that  when  folded  it  still  forms  a  small  square.  At  an 
eariier  period,  when  it  was  larger  and  was  used  to  ^ 
cover  the  chalice  as  well,  it  was  commonly  folded  four 
times  in  length  and  thrice  in  breadth.  This  practice 
is  still  followed  by  some  of  the  older  religious  carders. 
The  corporal  and  pall  have  to  pass  through  a  triple 
washing  at  the  hands  of  a  priest,  or  at  least  a  sub- 
deacon,  before  they  may  be  sent  to  a  laundry.  Also, 
when  they  are  in  use  they  may^  not  be  handled  by  any 
but  the  clergy,  or  sacristans  to  whom  special  permis- 
sion is  given. 

Strbbsh  in  KirekmUxikon,  III,  1105-1107:  TsAUiorKR, 
lAturgik,  I.  777-781;  Van  deb  Stappen,  Sacra  Liturgia  (Mech- 
lir..  1902),  III.  102-110;  Gihr,  The  Mais.  tr.  (Freiburg,  IWW). 
201-264;  Barbibr  ds  Montault,  Le  Mofnlier  BcdMaaHqtu; 
RoaAUU*  DB  Fleuby.  Z^  ATmm  (FkurU,  1888),  VI,  107-204; 
Diet.  Christ.  Antiq.,  b.  v.  Corporal:  Atchley  in  St.  Pavd'§ 
Bedes.  Soe.  Transactions  (1000),  IV.  155-100;  Babbxer  de 
MoNTAiriA'  in  BuUetin  Monumental  (1882),  588-680. 

HiaiBSRT  IVlURSTOII. 

Corporal  Works  of  Mercy.    See  Mercy. 

Oorporation  (Lat.  corpus,  a  body),  an  association 
recognized  by  civil  law  and  regarded  in  all  ordinary 
transactions  as  an  individual.  It  is  an  artificial  per* 
son.  Chief  Justice  Marshall  of  the  Supreme  Gourt  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  in  the  course  of  a  formal 
judicial  utterancei  thus  defined  the  term  corporation: 
**  A  corporation  is  an  artificial  being,  invisible,  intan- 
gible, and  existing  only  in  contemplation  of  law.  Be- 
mg  the  mere  creature  of  law,  it  possesses  only  those 
properties  which  the  charter  of  its  creation  oonf era 
upon  it,  either  expressly  or  as  incidental  to  its  vezv 
existence.  These  are  such  as  are  supposed  best  cal- 
culated to  effect  the  object  for  which  it  was  created. 
Among  the  most  impoitant  are  immortality,  and,  if 
the  expression  may  oe  allowed^  individuality;  prop- 
erties by  which  a  perpetual  succession  of  many  per^ 
sons  are  considered  as  the  same,  and  may  act  as  a  sin^ 
individual.  They  enable  a  corporation  to  manage  its 
own  afTairs,  and  to  hold  property  without  the  peiplex- 
ing  intricacies,  the  hazardous  and  endless  necessity 
of  perpetual  conveyances  for  the  purpose  of  transmit- 
ting it  from  hand  to  hand.  It  is  chiefly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  clothing  bodies  of  men,  in  succession,  with 
qualities  and  capacities,  that  corporations  were  in- 
vented, and  are  in  use.  By  these  means,  a  pemtual 
succession  of  individuals  are  capable  of  acting  for  the 
— :>motion  of  the  particular  object,  like  one  immortal 


Chancellor  Kent  of  New  York,  one  of  the  most 
famous  jurists  of  modem  times,  defines  a  corporation  as 
''a  franchise  possessed  by  one  or  more  individuals, 
who  subsist,  as  a  body  politic,  under  a  special  denom- 
ination, and  are  vested,  by  the  policy  of  the  law,  with 
t^e  capacity  of  perpetual  succession,  and  of  ac^n^  in 
several  respects,  however  numerous  the  associations 
may  be,  as  a  single  individual.  The  object  ol 
t^e  institution  is  to  enable  the  membos  to  aot 
by  one  united   will,   and  to   continue   their  joint 


OOBPOEilTIOir 


388 


OOBFORATIOV 


powers  and  property  in  tiie  some  body,  uiidwiurlicd 
by  the  change  of  members,  and  without  the  nec- 
essity of  perpetual  conveyances,  as  the  rights  of 
■tembers  pass  from  one  individual  to  another.  All 
^e  individuals  composing  a  corporation  and  their 
soeoessors,  are  considered  in  law  as  out  one  person,  cap- 
able, under  an  artificial  form,  of  taking  and  conveying 
property,  contracting  debts  and  duties,  and  of  enjoy- 
mg  a  variety  d  civil  and  political  rights.  One  of  the 
peculiar  properties  of  a  corporation  is  the  power  of 
peipetual  succession;  for,  in  ju^;ment  of  law,  it  is 
capable  of  indefinite  duration.  The  rights  and  priv- 
ileges of  the  corporation  do  not  determine,  or  vary 
upon  the  death  or  change  of  any  of  the  individual 
members.  They  continue  as  long  as  the  corporation 
endures." 

Ancxbnt  Corporations. — Among  the  ancient 
GreeJcs  a  kind  of  association  call^  iraipla  corre- 
sponded in  its  characteristics  very  closely  with  the 
modem  corporation.  Solon  is  said  to  have  encour- 
y  BfSdd,  the  formation  of  such  bodies,  and  in  his  legisla- 
tion permitted  them  to  be  instituted  freely  and  to  en- 
mge  in  any  transactions  not  contrary  to  law.  The 
Roman  prototype  of  the  corporation  as  it  came  into 
existence  under  the  common  law  of  England,  and  from 
EInpland  was  transplanted  into  America,  was  the  col' 
legium.  This  kind  of  association,  called  also  corpus, 
was  required  to  consist  of  at  least  three  persons  (Dig-i 
'  L,  tit.  xvi).  and  persona  who  had  regulariy  and  legafiy 
constituted  a  collegium  were  said  corpus  habere  (to 
have  a  body),  i.  e.  to  have  been,  as  we  say,  duly  incor- 
porated. The  persons  who  formed  a  collegium  were 
called  eoUeacB  or  aodales.  The  word  eottegium  derived 
from  con,  ^*with",  and  lego,  "to  select",  had  the  lit- 
eral meaning  of  an  aggregation  of  persons  united  in 
any  office  or  for  any  common  purpose.  In  the  later 
days  of  the  Roman  Republic  corjnraiion  was  used  in 
documents  relating  to  public  law  in  the  same  sense  as 
collegium.  The  word  societas  seems  to  have  been 
used  as  a  term  corresponding  to  our  word  partnership. 
A  collegium  possessed  the  legal  right  of  holding  prop- 
erty in  common.  Its  members  had  a  common  treas- 
ury and  could  sue  and  be  sued  by  their  syndicus  or 
aetor.  According  to  the  Roman  law,  that  which  was 
due  to  the  collegium  was  not  due  to  individuals  com- 
posing it;  that  which  was  an  indebtedness  of  the  col- 
iMum  was  not  the  debt  of  individuals.  The  property 
oi  the  collegium  was  liable  to  be  seized  and  sold  for  its 
debts.  The  term  universUeta  is  used  by  the  Roman 
law  writers  in  the  same  sense  as  oolle^um.  The  ap> 
plication  of  universitas  to  an  academic  or  literary  in- 
stitution is  first  found  in  a  Decretal  of  one  of  the  popes 
establishing  a  medieval  university  for  the  teachms  of 
rdligion,  literature,  science,  and  the  arts.  A  colle- 
gium or  universitas  was,  imder  the  Roman  law,  man- 
agsd  by  its  officers  and  agents  under  regulations  es- 
tablished by  the  corporate  body  itself,  and  these 
regulations  mi^t  be  such  as  were  agreed  upon  by  the 
members,  subject  onlv  to  the  limitation  that  they 
were  not  contrary  to  the  public  law. 

A  lawfully  constituted  coU^um  was  termed 
kffiUmum.  Associations  attempting  to  act  as  a  col- 
iMum,  when  not  duly  authorised,  were  called  collegia 
imeUa.  It  seems  that  no  particular  Roman  law  de- 
fined the  mode  in  which  collegia  were  regulariy  to  be 
formed.  They  appear  to  have  been  formed  by  the 
voluntary  association  of  individuals  according  to  some 
general  leg^  authority.  Some  of  these  ancient 
Roman  corporations  resembled  the  guilds  of  medieval 
times,  such  as  the  collegia  labrorum,  collegia  pielorum, 
etc.;  others  were  of  a  religious  nature  sucn  as  the 
collegia  ponHficum,  augurum.  According  to  Ulpian  a 
universitaB,  though  reduced  to  a  single  member,  was 
still  considered  a  universitas ;  for  the  remaining  mem- 
ber thereof  possessed  all  the  rights  and  privileji^  of 
the  universitas,  and  used  the  name  by  which  it  was 
originaUy  known.    When  a  new  member  was  taken 


into  a  collegium,  he  woh  said  co-^plari,  and  the  mem 
b^rs  of  an  association  into  which  he  was  introduiaed 
were  said,  with  respect  to  him,  recipere  in  eolUgium, 
The  chief  public  corporation  of  ancient  Rome  was  the 
municipium,  Municipia  possessed  all  of  the  diarao- 
teristic  powers  of  ordinary  corporations  together  with 
the  rig^t  of  local  government.  It  is  stated  by 
Plu^tarch  that  corporations  were  introduced  into  the 
Roman  ssrstem  of  legislation  b^  Numa.  That  sover- 
eign, upon  his  accession  to  toe  throne,  noted  that 
great  public  disorder  existed  in  the  mty  oi  Rome  by 
reason  of  the  contentions  between  the  rival  factions 
of  Sabines  and  Romans;  and  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
tecting the  State  against  tumult,  divided  each  of  these 
factions  into  many  smaller  ones  by  creating  eoUcgia 
for  each  of  the  professions  and  for  eadi  of  the  manual 
occupations. 

Classification. — Under  the  English  law  ootpora- 
tions  are  distinguished  in  the  first  place  as  Mng 
either  agmgate  or  sole^  A  oorroration  segregate 
consists  o!  several  penorui  unitea  in  a  socKty  and 
mamtained  by  a  perpetual  succession  of  members. 
A  corporation  sole  consists  of  one  person  only,  and 
the  successors  of  that  person  in  some  particular  sta- 
tion or  office.  The  King  of  Kngiand  is  a  corporation 
sole;  so  is  a  bishop;  and  in  the  Church  of  Rngjand 
eve^  parson  and  vicar  is,  in  view  of  the  law,  a  corpo- 
ration sole.  The  laws  of  the  United  States  have 
rarely  recognised  any  sole  corporatbn,'but  **  the  Cath- 
olic Bishop  of  Chicago",  now  Archbishop,  was^  many 
years  ago,  created  a  oorpCMration  sole  by  a  special  act 
of  the  legislature  of  the  State  of  Illinois.  In  Mary- 
land the  Archbishop  of  Baltimoie  holds  all  Churdb 
property  as  a  corporation  sole.  Similariy  in  the  sev- 
eral Cathcrfic  dioceses  of  California^  the.  bishop  or 
archbishop  is  a  corporation  sole,  and  sinoe  1897  sadb 
is  the  case  in  Massachusetts  for  the  Ardidiooese  of 
Boston  (H.  J.  Desmond,  The  Church  and  the  Iaw, 
Chicago,  1898,  72,  73).  Under  certain  eireumstanees 
the  Third  Plenary  Coundl  of  Baltimore  (Acta  et 
Decreta,  no.  267)  urged  each  bishop  and  archbishop 
of  the  United  States  to  have  himself  constituted  a 
corporation  sole  (see  PnoPBinT^  Ecx^ubsiasticajl.). 

A  further  division  of  corporations,  either  sole  or 
aggregate,  recognized  by  the  law  of  EngjUuMl,  is  that 
oiecclesiasticaT  corporations  and  lay  coiporationa. 
Ecclesiastical  corporaticms  are  those  whose  membra 
are  peraons  devoted  to  spiritual  affairs,  such  as  bidi- 
ops,  archdeacons,  parsons,  and  vicaxa.  Prior  to  the 
rei^i  of  Edward  VI,  deans  and  chapters,  priors  and 
convents,  abbots  and  monks  wcare  ecdesiastical  cor- 
porations aggregate.  Lay  corporations  are  of  two 
kinds,  civil  and  eleemosynary.  Civil  are  such  as 
exist  for  the  safeeuardins  and  administration  of 
temporal  affairs.  As  Blaekstone  says,  the  king  is 
made  a  corporation  to  pi^vent  in  gjoaenX  the  possi- 
bility of  an  interregnum  and  to  preserve  the  poeses- 
sions  of  the  Crown  entire;  for  immediately  lomn  the 
demise  of  one  king  his  successor  is  considered  in  law 
as  having  full  possession  of  the  regal  dignity  and 
privileges.  Examples  of  other  lay  eorporatk>ns  are 
those  which  are  created  to  govern  towns  or  districts 
such  as  the  corporation  known  as  the  City  of  London; 
others  have  been  created  for  the  oonduct  of  manufac- 
turing and  commercial  enterprises,  for  the  diffusion 
of  learning,  and  for  scientific  research.  The  Univer- 
sities of  (Jbcf ord  and  Cambridge  are  examines  of  cor- 
porations created  for  the  advancement  of  learning. 
Eleemosynary  corporatbns  are  defined  by  Blaekstone 
to  be  such  as  are  constituted  for  the  perpetual  distri- 
bution of  free  alms  or  bounty  of  the  founder  thereof 
to  such  prsons  as  such  founder  mav  have  designated. 
Of  this  kind  are  all  hospitals  for  the  maintenance  of 
tiie  poor,  sick,  and  impotent. 

Crbatton. — Under  the  common  law  of  En^and 
corporations  depended  for  their  existence  upon  a 
charter  (Lat.  chafla,  a  paper)  granted  by  the  Idnfr 


CORPORATION 


389 


OORPORilTION 


Cbrporations  which  had  existed  so  long  a  time  that 
"the  memory  of  man  ran  not  to  the  contrary"  were 
said  to  exist  by  prescription*  but  that  considerate 
doctrine  was  baBea  upon  the  theory  that  the  corpora- 
tion had  at  one  time  received  a  charter,  whicn,  in 
oouise  of  time  and  by  reason  of  the  vicissitudes  of 
human  affairs,  had  been  lost.  When  the  religious 
revoltition  of  the  sixteenth  century  occurred,  most  of 
the  religipus  houses  of  £ngjand  were  corporations  b^ 
prescription,  because  they  were  so  ancient  that  their 
')rigiiial  charters,  if  there  were  any,  had  disappeared. 
rhe  r^ts  of  a  corporation  by  prescription,  however, 
are  quite  as  valid  at  common  law  as  are  the  rights  of 
those  which  can  eidiibit  a  charter.  Instances  of 
corporations  interesting  to  American  people  are  those 
created  by  letters  patent  from  the  King  of  Endand  to 
the  London  Company,  under  which  the  original  settle- 
ments of  the  New  £m^and  coast  were  made;  and  the 
charter  to  the  Viigima  Company,  under  which  the 
shores  of  Virania  Were  first  colonized  bv  Englishmen. 

Namb. — ^Imder  the  Roman  law  as  well  as  under  the 
English  common  law  a  corporation  must,  necessarily, 
have  a  name,  and  by  that  name  alone  it  must  appear 
in  court  and  must  conduct  all  of  its  transactions. 
Such  a  name  is  said  by  Blackstone  to  be  for  a  corpora- 
tion, '*  the  very  being  of  its  constitution ' '.  The  name 
of  incorporation  is  said  by  Sir  Edward  Coke  to  be  its 
proper  namcf  or  name  of  baptism. 

fiCCLKsiAOTicAL  CoitPORATiONS,  as  such,  are  not 
recognized  by  the  laws  of  the  United  States  or  o(  the 
several  States  constituting  the  Union.  Under  the 
American  system  of  law,  corporations  are  either  public 
or  private,  public  corporations  being  those  that  are 
erected  for  the  purposes  of  local  government,  such  as 
municipal  corporations  for  the  government  of  cities. 
The  term  private  corporations  includes  all  others, 
religious,  literary,  charitable,  manufacturing,  insitf- 
ance,  banking,  and  railroad  corporations.  In  the 
various  States  of  the  Union  corporations  were  formerly 
created  by  charter  granted  by  the  ledslature.  In  the 
greater  number  of  the  States  at  tne  present  time 
private  corporations  are  created  by  the  voluntary  act 
of  individuals  who  associate  theniselves  together  and 
make  a  public  declaration  of  their  intention  to  become 
a  body  corporate  and  take  such  action  in  conformity 
with  general  rules  laid  down  by  legislation.  Charters 
of  incorporation  granted  by  the  legislatures  of  the 
States  to  private  corporations  are  considered  as  exe- 
cuted contracts  within  the  protection  of  Article  1, 
Section  10,  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
by  which  it  is  declared  that  "no  State  shall  pass  any 
law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts  *  \  This  was 
decidea  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in 
the  case  entitled  ''The  Trustees  of  Dartmouth  College 
vs.  Woodward"  (Wheaton's  Reports,  Vol.  4,  p.  518). 
In  many  States  the  right  to  amend,  modify,  or  repeal 
a  charter  was  usually  reserved  in  the  charter  itself. 
Such  a  provision  is  now  incorporated  into  the  consti- 
tutions of  mamr  of  the  States. 

Power  of  Corporations. — ^The  principal  charac- 
teristic of  a  corporation  at  common  law  was  that  it 
was  vested  with  the  privilege  of  perpetuity,  that  is, 
it  was  said  to  have  perpetual  succession.  At  the 
present  time  in  the  ^;reater  number  of  American  States 
the  general  l^islation  providing  for  the  creation  of 
corporations  expressly  designates  a  fixed  term  during 
which  a  corporation  may  exist.  The  second  of  the 
original  powers  of  corporations  which  is  still  main- 
tained, is  to  sue  or  to  be. sued,  implead,  or  to  be 
impleaded,  grant  or  receive,  by  its  corporate  name 
and  to  do  alTother  acts  as  natural  persons  may.  The 
third  privflege  was  to  purchase  lands  and  to  hold  them 
for  the  benefit  of  the  methbers  of  the  corporation  and 
their  successors.  This  ri^t  was  laroely  modified  by 
the  statutes  of  mortmain  (q.  v.)  in  England  and  has 
been  strictly  regulated  and  greatly  limited  by  Ameri- 
can l^islation.    The  fourth  original  power  possessed 


by  corporations  was  that  of  having  a  common  seal. 
As  was  said  by  the  ancient  law  writers  of  En^and,  a 
corporation,  being  an  invisible  body,  cannot  manifest 
its  intentions  by  any  personal  act  or  by  speech,  and 
therefore  can  act  and  speak  only  b^  its  common  seal. 
In  modem  times  many  corporations  are  exprc^slv 
authorized  by  legidation  to  act  without  usin^  a  aeai, 
and  the  decisions  of  the  courts  have  ^neral^  hdd. 
at  least  in  modem  times,  that  a  corporation  was  bound 
by  implication  in  many  cases  where  its  acts  had  not 
been  attested  by  the  corporate  seal.-  The  fifth  privi- 
lege of  a  corporation,  which  has  existed  from  time 
immemorial  and  still  exists,  is  that  of  making  by-laws 
or  providing  statutes  for  the  reguTation  of  its  own 
affairs;  and  these  are  binding  upon  the  corporation 
and  its  members  unless  oontrarv  to  the  law  of  the 
land.  Hiis  right  was  allowed  oy  the  Law  of  the 
Twelve  Tables  at  Rome. 

Privileges  and  Disabilities. — A  corporation 
must  always  appear  by  attorney  or  agent  (the  actor 
or  syndicus  of  tne  Roman  law)  for  it  cannot  appear 
in  person;  being,  as  Sir  Edward  Coke  says,  invisible 
ana  existing  only  in  contemplation  of  the  law.  Under 
the  strict  construction  of  its  l^al  quality  the  courts 
of  England  originally  held  that  a  coiporation  could 
not  be  held  liable  for  any  action  based  upon  tortious 
conduct;  that  is,  a  corporation  could  not  be  held 
liable  for  personal  injuries  inflicted  by  the  wrongful 
act  or  culpable  n^lect  of  its  agents.  It  is  now  held 
however,  both  in  England  and  America,  that  a  cor- 
poration is  liable  in  damages  for  any  wrong  com- 
mitted by  its  servants  or  agents  when  acting  within 
the  scope  of  the  duties  whicn  properly  devolve  upon 
them.  The  doctrine  designated  oy  the  term  tutra 
vires  is  that  which  governs  the  courts  in  limiting  the 
liability  of  a  corporation  to  acts  which  are  expressly 
authorized  by  its  charter,  or  acts  which  are  defined 
by  its  ori^al  articles  of  institution  to  be  within  the 
scope  of  its  corporate  operations.  This  doctrine  is 
sound  because  it  would  be  contrary  to  public  policy 
to  hold  that  a  corporation  had  the  ri^t  to  do  anv 
act  or  to  undertake  any  course  of  transactions  which 
was  not  within  the  scope  of  the  powers  which  it  orig- 
inallv  declared  itself  as  possessing.  However,  the 
apphcation  of  this  doctrine  is  so  restricted  by  the 
courts  as  not  to  allow  corporate  ofl^cers  to  use  the 
doctrine  as  a  cloak  for  deeds  not  equitable  in  their 
nature.  It  is  construed  strictly  by  the  courts  as  a 
shield  and  is  not  allowed  to  operate  as  a  sword. 

Visitation. — ^The  necessity  of  supervision  over 
corporate  acts  being  generally  acknowledged,  it  was 
held  at  common  law  that  every  corporation  had, 
necessarily,  a  visitor.  As  Blackstone  well  says, 
"Corporations,  being  composed  of  individuals,  subject 
to  human  frailties,  are  liable  as  well  as  private  persons, 
to  deviate  from  the  end  of  their  institution.  And  for 
that  reason  the  law  has  provided  proper  persons  to 
visit,  inquire  into  and  correct  all  irregularities  that 
arise  in  such  corporations,  either  sole  or  aggregate, 
and  whether  ecclesiastical,  civil  or  eleemos^aiy". 
Prior  to  the  religious  revolution  of  the  sixteenth 
oentuiy  the  pope  was  the  visitor  of  the  archbishops 
and  metropoUtans.  In  respect  to  all  lay  corpora- 
tions, the  founder,  his  heirs,  or  assigns  are  the  visitors 
under  the  Enelish  sjrstem.  In  the  various  States  of 
the  American  Union  visitors  of  corporations  are  prac- 
tically unknown;  the  supervision  of  private  corpora- 
tions being  vested  in  courts  of  equitv.  In  England 
the  king  is  considered  as  the  visitor  for  all  civil  cor- 
porations, and  this  jurisdiction  is  exerdsed  through 
the  Court  of  King's  Bench. 

Dissolution. — Any  member  of  a  corporation  may 
be  disfranchised,  that  la,  he  may  lose  his  membership 
in  the  corporation  by  acting  m  such  manner  as  to 
forfeit  his  rights  under  a  provision  of  the  by-laws*  or 
he  may  resign  from  the  corporation  by  his  own  volun- 
tary act.    A  resignation  by  parole,  if  entered  upon 


CORBORATZON 


390 


00&FU8 


bhe  FBOords  and  accepted  by  the  corporation,  is  suffi- 
cient. Tlie  corporation  itself  may  be  dissolved  and 
vnsuch  case,  at  common  law,  debts  due  from  a 
corporation  were  wholly  extinguished  ipso  facto  by 
B\im  dissolution;  and  in  thb  respect  the  common  law 
concurred  with  the  maxim  of  the  civil  law  which 
declared  that  the  members  of  a  corporation  in  respect 
to  its  property  ri^ts  and  credits  nad  no  individual 
rights  therein:  "siquiduniversitatidebetur;  singulis 
non  debetur;  nee,  auod  debet  universitas,  sii^guli 
debent"  (Pandects,  III,  4,  7). 

The  method  of  dissolution  under  the  common  law 
was  (1)  by  an  act  of  Parliament;  (2)  in  the  case  of  a 
corporation  a^Kregate,  by  the  death  of  all  its  members; 

(3)  by  surrender  of  its  franchise  into  the  hands  of  the 
king  through  voluntaiy  action  of  the  corporation; 

(4)  by  the  forfeiture  of  its  corporate  rights  through 
negligence  or  through  non-user  or  abuse  of  its  fran- 
chise. The  franchises,  as  the  English  law  termed  the 
privileges  which  corporations  enjoyed,  were  con- 
sidered a  trust  lodged  in  the  corporation  for  the  gen- 
eral benefit  of  society,  and  to  allow  such  privileges  to 
be  abused  or  to  discontinue  the  exercise  of  such  fran- 
chise was  held  to  be  a  fault  punishable  according  to 
its  degree  and,  in  extreme  eases,  punishable  by  extinc- 
tion of  corporate  existence.  The  regular  course 
adopted  for  the  punishment  of  corporations  or  their 
dissolution  is  to  proceed  by  what  is  termed  a  writ  of 
quo  wqxrarUo,  which  means  that  a  representative  of 
the^  State  presents  to  some  competent  tribunal  a 
petition  reciting  abuses,  wrongs,  or  culpable  non- 
action of  a  corporate  boajr,  prays  for  its  dissolution, 
and  deihands  that  a  writ  issue  from  the  court  requir- 
ing the  corporation  to  show  "by  what  warrant"  it 
presmnes  to  exist  and  to  act  as  a  corporation.  Upon 
a  proper  showing  by  petition,  the  court  issues  its  writ 
quo  vxjrrarUo;  Chat  is,  the  court  issues  a  document 
requiring  the  corporation  to  present  to  such  court 
the  facts  which  the  corporation  deems  sufficient  to 
warrant  its  continued  existence.  Upon  a  trial  of  the 
issues  involved,  if  it  be  found  that  tne  corporation  is 
amenable  to  public  discipline,  it  may  be  amerced  or 
its  extinction  may  be  decreed.  Proceedings  by  quo 
warranto  stIU  have  a  place  in  the  law  of  England  and 
also  in  the  laws  of  the  various  American  States, 
althoiigh  such  proceedings  have  been  greatly  modi- 
fied by  statute.  Students  of  history  will  recall  the 
great  public  agitation  caused  during  the  reign  of 
King  Charles  11  by  the  institution  of  proceedings  in 
QUO  warranto  against  the  city  of  London,  Judgment, 
however,  was  rendered  by  a  competent  tribunal 
against  the  city  of  London,  and  it  is  probable  that, 
according  to  a  strict  construction  of  the  law,  the 
proceedings  were  justified.  After  the  English  revolu- 
tion which  seated  William  and  Mary  upon,  the  throne, 
the  judgment  against  the  city  of  London  was  reversed 
by  an  Act  of  Parliament.  In  all  civilized  countries 
bodies  politic,  similar  in  nature  and  quality  to  Eng- 
lish and  American  corporations,  exist.  As  these  have 
manv  special  characteristics  imparted  to  them  by  the 
legislation  of  the  various  countries  in  which  they  exist, 
no  attempt  to  describe  them  is  made  in  this  article. 

Baldwin,  Modem  Political  Institutions  (Boaton,  1898),  141 
sqq.:  BLACSffroms,  Commentaries  upon  the  Ltnos  of  England, 
ea.  SHABswooD  (Philadelphm,  1876),  I,  xviii;  KsifT,  Commm- 
tariet  upon  American  Law  (Boston,  1884),  I,  525,  and  note,  II, 
288  sq.;  MoMMSEN,  History  of  Rome  (New  York,  1896),  11,  65, 
V,  374;  Maokknzik,  Roman  Law  (London,  1898),  160-163; 
SoHM,  Institutes  of  Roman  Law  (Oxford,  1892),  106;  Dedsion 
of  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  Dartmouth  College  v.  Woodxpard  in 
IV  WheatofCs  Reports  (New  York,  1819),  518,  636;  Minor, 
Institutes  (Chariottesville,  Vimnia,  1882),  I,  541;  Eluoft. 
Corporations  (IndianapoUiu  Indiana,  1900),  i;  Smitb,  DiU*  of 
Greek  and  Roman  ArUui,  (London,  1875). 

.   John  W.  Wilus. 

.  Oorporation  A«t  of  1661. — ^The  Corporation  Act 
of  1^1  bekines  to  the  generial  categoty  of  test  acta, 
designed  for  tne.  express  purjjose  of  restrict  ing  public 
offices*  to  members  of  the  Church  of  England.  Tliough 


commonly  spoken  of  as  one  of  the  "  Penal  Lavs  **,  and 
enmnerated  by  Butler  in  his  "Historical  Account  of 
the  Laws  against  the  Roman  Catholics  of  FmglanH '% 
it  was  not  directly  aimed  against  them,  but  against 
the  Presbyterians.  It  was  passed  in  December,  1661 , 
the  year  after  the  Restoration,  technically  13 
Charles  II.  Parliament  was  at  that  time  entirely 
reactionary.  The  Cavaliens  were  in  power,  and  they 
aimed  at  nothing  short  of  restoring  England  to  its 
state  before  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth.  It  re- 
quired all  the  prudence  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  the 
ciiancellor,  to  restrain  them.  The  Corporation  Act 
represents  the  limit  to  wliich  he  was  prepued  to  go  in 
endeavouring  to  restrict  the  power  of  tne  Presbyter- 
ians. They  were  influentially  represented  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  cities  and  boroughs  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  this  act  was  designed  to  dispossess  them.  It 
provided  tliat  no  person  could  be  legaUy  elected  to 
any  office  relating  to  the  government  of  a  city  or  cor- 
poration, unless  lie  had  within  the  previous  twelvq 
months  received  the  sacrament  of  ''the  Lord's  Sup- 

gM"  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church  of  England, 
e  was  also  commanded  to  take  the  Oaths  of  XUegi- 
ance  and  Supremacy,  to  swear  belief  in  the  Doctrine 
of  Passive  Obedience,  and  to  renounce  the  Coveiiant. 
In  default  of  these  requisites  the  election  was  to  be 
void.  A  somewhat  similar  act  passed  twelve  veai? 
later,  known  as  the  Test  Act,  prescribed  for  all  offi- 
cers, dvil  and  miUtaiy,  further  stringent  conditions, 
including  a.  declaration  against  Transubd;antiation. 
ThdSe  two  acts  operated  very  prejudicially  on  Catho- 
lics, forming  an  important  part  of  the  {;en€aial  Penal 
Code  which  kept  them  out  of  publio  life.  In  later 
times  the  number,  even  of  non-Catholics,  who  quali- 
fied for  civil  and  military  posts  in  accordance  with 
their  provisions  was  vexy  small,  and  an  "Act  of  In- 
demmty  "  used  to  be  passed  annually,  to  relieve  those 
who  had  not  done  so  from  the  penalties  incurred. 
There  was  no  expression  in  this  act  limiting  its  opera- 
tion to  the  case  of  Protestants;  yet  on  the  only  oc- 
casion when  a  Catholic  ventured  to  asJc  for  a  share  in 
the  Indemnity,  it  was  refused  on  the  ground  of  the 
act  not  being  applicable  to  him. ,  (Butler,  op.  cit., 
19.)  The  Corporation  Act  remained  nominally  in 
force  throughout  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was 
eventually  repealed  in  1828,  the  year  before  Catholic 
Emancipation.  ^eenabo  Wabd. 

Oorpofl  Ohriflti  (Body  of  Christ),  Fbast  of,  is 
celebrated  in  the  Latin  Church  on  the  Thuxwlay  after 
Trinity  Sunday  to  solemnly  commemorate  the  institu- 
tion of  the  Holy  Eucharist.  Of  Maundy  Thursday, 
which  commemorates  this  great  event,  mention  is 
made  as  Natalie  CaLicia  (Birth  of  Uie  Chalice)  in  the 
Calendar  of  Polemius  (448)  for  the  24th  of  March, 
the  25th  of  March  being  in  some  places  considered 
as  the  da;^  of  the  death  of  Christ.  This  day,  how- 
ever, was  in'  Holy  Week,  a  season  of  sadness,  during 
which  the  minds  of  the  faithful  are  enaected  to  be  oc- 
cupied with  thoughts  of  the  Lord's  Passion.  More- 
over, so  many  other  functions  took  place  on  this  dav 
that  the  principal  event  was  almost  lost  sight  of. 
This  is  mentioned  as  the  chief  reason  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  new  feast,  in  the  Bull  "Transiturus". 

The  instrument  in  the  hand  of  Divine  Providence 
was  St.  Juliana  of  Mont  Comillon,  in  Belgium.  She 
was  bom  in  1193  at  Retinnes  near  Li^ge.  Orphaned 
at  an  early  age,  she  was  educated  b]r  the  Augustinian 
nups  of  Mont  Cornillon.  Here  she  in  time  made  her 
religious  profp^ion  and  later  became  superioress. 
Intrigues  of  various  kinds  several  times  c&ove  her 
from  her  convent.  She  died  5  April,  1258,  at  the 
House  of  the  Cistercian  nuns  at  Fosses,  au4  was 
buried  at  Villiers. 

Juliana,  from  her  early  youth,  had  a  great  venera- 
tipn  for  the  Bleased  Sacrament,  and  alwajrs  longed 
for  a  special  feast  in  its  honour.    This  desire  is  said 


OOBPUS 


391 


OOBPUS 


to  have  been  increased  by  a  vision  qf  the  Church 
under  the  appearance  of  the  full  moon  having  one 
dark  spot,  which  signified  the  absence  of  such  a 
solemnity.  She  made  known  her  ideas  to  Robert  de 
Thcwete,  then  Bishop  of  Lidge,  to  the  learned  Domini- 
can Hu^,  later  cardinal  legate  in  the  Netheiiands, 
and  to  Jacques  Pantalfon,  at  that  time  Archdeacon  of 
Li^ge,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Verdun,  Patriarch  of  Jem* 
ndem,  and  finally  Pope  Urban  IV.  Bishop  Robert 
was  favourably  impressed,  and,  since  bishops  as  yet 
had  the  rig^t  of  ordering  feasts  for  their  dioceses, 
he  caUed  a  synod  in  1246  and  ordered  the  celebra* 
tion  to  be  held  in  the  following  year,  also,  tiat  a 
monk  named  John  should  write  ttie  Office  for  the  oc- 
casion. The  decree  is  preserved  in  Binterim  (Denk* 
wurdigkeiten,  V,  1,  276),  together  with  parts  of  tiie 
Office. 

Bishop  Robert  did  not  live  to  see  the  execution  of 
his  order,  for  he  died  16  October,  1246;  but  the  feast 
was  celebrated  for  the  first  time  by  the  cancms  of  St. 
Martin  at  Li^e.  Jacques  Pantalten  became  pope  29 
August,  1261.  The  recluse  Eve,  with  whom  Juliana 
had  spent  some  time,  and  who  was  also  a  fervent 
adorer  of  the  Holy  Eucharist,  now  urged  Henry  of 
Guelders,  Bidiop  of  li&ge,  to  request  the  pope  to  ex* 
tend  the  celebration  to  the  entire  worid.  Urban  IV. 
always  an  admirer  of  the  feast,  published  the  Bull 
'"Transiturus"  (8  September,  1264),  in  which,  after 
havingextolled  the  love  of  Om*  Saviour  as  expressed 
in  thenoly  Eucharist,  he  ordered  the  annual  celebra- 
tion of  Ck>rpus  Christ!  on  the  Thursday  next  after 
Trinity  Sunday,  at  the  same  time  granting  many 
Indulgences  to  the  faithful  for  the  attendance  at  Mass 
and  at  the  Office.  This  Office,  composed  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  pope  by  the  Angelic  Doctor  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  Roman 
Breviary  and  has  been  admired  even  by  Protestants. 
The  death  of  Pope  Urban  IV  (2  October,  1264), 
diortlv  after  the  publication  of  the  decree,  somewhat 
impeded  Ihe  spread  of  the  f  estivi4'  Clement  V  again 
took  the  matter  in  hand  and,  at  the  General  Ooimcil 
of  Vienne  (1811),  once  more  ordered  the  adoption  of 
the  feast.  He  publidied  a  new  decree  which  em- 
bodied that  of  Urban  IV.  John  XXII,  successor  a[ 
Clement  V.  urged  its  observance.  Neither  decree 
speaks  of  the  theophoric  processbn  as  a  feative  of 
tne  celebration.  This  procession,  already  held  in 
some  places,  was  endowed  with  Indulgences  by  Popes 
Martin  V  and  Eugene  IV.  The  feast  had  been  ac- 
cepted in  1906  at  Q>logne;  Worms  adopted  it  in  1315: 
Strasburg  in  1316.  In  England  it  was  introduced 
from  Belgium  between  1320  and  1325.  In  the  United 
States  and  some  other  countries  the  solemnity  is  held 
on  the  Sunday  after  Trinity. 

In  the  Greek  Church  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  is 
known  in  the  calendars  of  the  Syrians,  Armenians, 
Copts,  Melchites,  and  the  Ruthenians  of  Gaiicia, 
CaUibria,  and  Sicily. 

GuiKAiraBB,  The  XjUwgkai  Ywr  (tr.  Woroester.  s.  d.) ;  But- 
LBX.  FmaUmtdFaaU:  Kxllnbb,  Ileortoloffie  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburc. 
1906):  Der  KathUik  (Aug.,  1898),  151;  BXumxr,  Geach,  dn 
Brwnen  (Fkviburs,  1895). 

Francis  Mershm an. 


Oorirai  Juris  Oanonid. — I.  DEnNrrioN.— The 
term  corpus  here  denotes  a  collection  oi  documents; 
corpus  jtaris,  a  collection  of  laws,  efipeoially  if  they  are 
plfliced  in  systematic  order.  It  may  apuiy  <dso  an 
official  and  complete  collection  of  a  legislation  made 
by  the  l^islative  poorer,  comprising  all  the  laws 
which  are  m  force  in  a  countrv  or  society.  The  term, 
althou^  it  never  received  legal  sanction  in  either 
Roman  or  canon  law,  beine  merdy  the  phraseology 
of  the  learned,  is  used  in  the  above  sense  when  the 
'*  Corpus  Juris  Civilis''  of  the  Roman  Christian  em- 
perors is  meant.  The  expression  corpus  juris  may 
also  mean,  not  the  collection  of  laws  itself,  but  the 
legislation  of  a  aociety  considered  as  a  whole.    Hence 


Benedict  XIV  eodld  liriitly  say  that  the  collection  of 
his  Bulls  formed  part  of  the  corpus  juris  (Jam  fere  sex- 
tUB,  1746).  We  cannot  better  explain  the  significa- 
tion of  the  term  corpus  juris  canontci  than  by  snowing 
the  successive  meanings  which  were  assigned  to  it  in 
the  past  and  whieh  it  usually  bears  at  the  present  day. 
Unoer  the  name  of  ''corpus  canonum"  were  desig- 
nated the  collection  of  Dionysius  Exiguus  and  the 
"Collectio  Anselmo  dedicata"  (see  oelow).  The 
"Decree"  of  Gratian  is  already  called  "Corpus  Juris 
Canontci"  bv  a  glossator  of  the  twelfth  century,  and 
Innoeent  IV  calls  by  this  name  the  "Decretals"  of 
Gregory  IX  (Ad  expediendos,  9  Sept.,  1253).  Since 
the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  Corpus 
Juris  Canomd  in  contradistinction  to  Corpus  Juris 
CiviJtis,  or  Roman  law,  generally  denoted  the  following 
collections:  (1)  the  "Decretals"  of  Gregonr  IX;  (2) 
those  of  Boniface  VIII  (Sixth  Book  of  the  Decretals); 
(3)  those  of  dement  V  (Clementinse),  i.  e.  the  collec- 
tions which  at  that  time,  with  the  "Decree"  of  Gra- 
tian, were  tau^t  and  explained  at  the  universities. 
At  the  present  day,  under  the  above  title  are  com- 
monly imderstood  these  three  collections  with  the 
addition  of  the  "Decree"  of  Gratian,  the  "Extravar 
gantea"  of  Jcdm  XXII,  and  the  " Extra vagantes  Com- 
munes". 

Thus  understood,  the  term  dates  back  to  the  six- 
teenth century  and  was  officially  sanctioned  by  Gre^ 
ory  XIII  (Cum  pro  munere,  1  July,  1680).  The  earli- 
est editions  of  these  texts  printed  under  the  now  usual 
title  of  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici",  date  from  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century  (Frankfort.  8vo,  1686;  Paris, 
fol.,  1587),  In  the  strict  sense  of  the  word  the  Church 
does  not  possess  a  corpus  juris  dausunif  i.  e.  a  colleo> 
tion  of  laws  to  which  new  ones  cannot  be  added.  Ihe 
Council  of  Basle  (Sees.  XXIil,  ch.  vi)  and  the  decree  of 
the  Congregation  "Super  statu  regularium"  (25  Jan., 
1848)  do  not  speak  of  a  corpus  dausum;  the  first  refers 
to  reservQiiawAus  in  corpore  juris  expresse  chusis^  that 
is,  reservations  of  ecclesiastical  benefices  contained  in 
the  "Corpus  Juris",  especially  in  the  " Liber  Sextus" 
of  Boniface  VIII,  to  the  exclusion  of  those  held  in  the 
"Extravagpntes"  described  below,  and  at  tiiat  time 
not  compnsed  in  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici";  the 
second  iqieaks  of  cuilibet  privikgioy  licet  in  corpore 
juris  dauso  et  c(mfinnato,  i.  e.  or  privileges  not  onlv 
granted  by  the  Holy  See,  but  also  mserted  in  the  offi- 
cial collections  of  canon  law. 

II.  Principal  Canonical  Collections. — ^We  shall 
briefly  sketch  the  historv  of  the  eariiest  collections  of 
canons,  and  shall  add  a  brief  description  of  the  "  Cor- 
pus Juris  Canonici"  as  it  is  now  understood.  The  his- 
tory of  canon  law  is  generally  divided  into  three 
pNenods.  The  first  extends  to  the  "Decree"  of  Gra- 
tian, i.  e.  to  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  (jus 
antiquum);  ibe  second  reaches  to  the  CouncU  of 
Trent  {jus  novum);  the  third  includes  the  latest  en- 
actments since  the  Council  of  Trent  inclusively  (jus 
n&mssvmum), 

(1)  Jus  antiquum, — The  most  ancient  collections  of 
canonical  legislation  are  certain  very  eariy  pseudo- 
Apostolic  documents:  for  instance,  the  Ai^x^  ^' 
SMtica  dwoerHKup  or  "Teachins  of  the  Twelve  Apos- 
tles", which  dates  from  the  end  of  the  first  or  the  be- 
flinning  of  the  second  oenturv;  the  Apostolic  Church 
Ordinance;  the  " Didascalia^',  or  "Teaching  of  the 
Apostles"  (third  century);  the  Apostolic  Canons  (see 
Canons,  Apostolic);  and  Apostolic  Constitutions. 
These  collections  have  never  nad  any  official  vahie, 
no  more  than  any  other' collection  of  this  first  period. 
It  was  in  the  East,  after  the  Edictof  Milan  (313),  that 
arose  the  first  systematic  collections.  We  cannot  so 
designate  the  chronok>gical  collections  of  the  canons 
of  the  councils  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  (314- 
451) ;  the  oldest  systematic  collection,  made  by  an  un- 
known author  in  535,  has  not  come  down,  llie  most 
important  collections  of  this  epoch  are  the  SuraYofV^ 


0OBPU8 


392 


OOBFUS 


Kapitwp,  or  the  collection  of  John  the  Scholastic  (Jo- 
annes Scholasticus),  compiled  at  Antioch  about  550, 
and  the  Nomocanonfi,  or  compilations  of  civil  laws 
affecting  religious  matters  (p^/iot)  and  ecclesiastical 
laws  (Katubp),  One  such  mixed  collection  is  dated  in 
the  sixth  century  and  has  been  enoneously  attri- 
buted to  John  the  Scholastic;  another  of  the  seventh 
century  was  rewritten  and  much  enlarged  bv  the 
schismatical  patriarch  PhotiuB  (883).  In  the  West- 
em  Church  three  collections  of  canons  have  exercised 
an  influence  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  country  in 
which  they  were  composed;  they  are  the  "CoUeciio 
Dionysiana",  the  lengthy  Irish  collection  (Hibemen- 
sis),  and  the  ''Decretals"  of  Pseudo-Isidore.  The 
"Dionysiana",  also  called  ''Corpus  canommi",  "Cor- 
pus codicis  canonum",  was  the  work  of  Dionysius 
Exiguus  who  died  between  the  years  540  and  555;  it 
contains  his  Latin  translation  of  the  canons  of  the 
councils  of  the  Eastern  Church  and  a  collection  of  (38) 
papal  letters  (Epistolss  decretales)  dating  from  the 
reign  of  Pope  Siricius  (384-398)  to  that  of  Anastasius 
II  (d.  498).  The  authority  of  this  Italian  collection, 
at  once  quite  considerable  at  Ri^me  and  in  Italy,  was 
greatly  increased  after  Adrian  I  had  sent  to 
Charlema^oe  (774)  a  modified  and  enla^rged  copy  of 
the  collection,  thenceforth  known  as  the  "  CoUectio 
Dionysio-Haoriana'',  and  the  Synod  of  Aachm  (802) 
accepted  it  as  the  "Codex  Canonum''  of  the  immense 
Empire  of  the  Franks. 

Tne  lengthy  Irish  collection  of  canons^  comniled  in 
the  ei^th  century,  influenced  both  Qaul  ana  Italv. 
The  latter  country  possessed,  moreover,  two  fifths- 
century  Latin  translations  of  the  Greek  synods  (the 
collection  erroneously  called  "Isidoriana"  or  "His- 
pana",  and  the  "CoUectio  Prisca") ;  also  an  important 
collection  of  pontifical  and  imp^ial  documents  (the 
"Avellana",  compiled  in  the  pontificate  of  Gregory 
the  Great,  590-604).  Africa  possessed  a  collection  of 
105,  or  more  exactly  94,  canons,  compiled  about  419; 
also  the  "Breviatio  Canonum",  or  digest  of  the 
canons  of  the  councils  by  Fulgentius  Ferrandus  (d. 
c.  546),  and  the  "Concordia  Canonum"  of  Cresoonius, 
an  adaptation  of  the  "  Dionysiana''  (about  690).  In 
Gaul  are  found,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  eentuiy, 
the  "Statuta  EcclesiA  antiqua^',  erroneouslv  attrib- 
uted to  Africa,  and,  amons  many  other  coUections, 
the  "Quesnelliana"  (end  of  the  Mth  or  b^inning  of 
the  sixth  centmy)  and  the  "Dacheriana"  (about 
800),  both  so  called  from  the  names  of  their  editors, 
Pasrhase  Quesnel  and  d'Ach^ry.  Spain  possessed  the 
"Capitula  Martini",  compiled  about  572  bv  Martin, 
Bishop  of  Braga,  and  a  "Codex  canonum'^or  "CoL- 
lectio  Hispana*'  dating  from  about  633,  attributed 
in  the  ninth  century  to  St.  Isidore  of  Seville.  In 
the  ninth  century  arose  several  apocryphal  collections, 
viz.  those  of  Benedictus  Levita,  of  Isidorus  Merca- 
tor  (also  Peccator  or  Mercatus),  and  the  "Capitula 
An^iramni".  An  examination  of  the  controversies 
which  these  three  collections  give  rise  to  will  be  found 
elsewhere  (see  Faube  Dbcretaub).  The  Pseudo- 
Isidorian  collection,  the  authenticity  of  which  was 
for  a  long  time  admitted,  has  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  ecclesiastical  discipline,  without  however 
modifying  it  in  its  essential  principles.  Among  the 
numerous  collections  of  a  later  date,  we  may  mention 
the  "CoUectio  Anselmo  dedicata",  c<Mnpilea  in  Italy 
at  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  the  "Libellus  de 
ecclesiasticis  disciplinis"  of  Regino  of  Priim  (d.  915); 
the  "Collectarium  canonum''  of  Burchard  of  Worms 
(d.  1025);  the  collection  of  the  younger  St.  Anselm  of 
Lucca,  compiled  towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  cent- 
ury; the  "CoUectio  trium  partium'',  the  "Decretum" 
and  the  "Panormia"  of  Yves  of  Charties  (d.  1115  or 
1117);  the  "Liber  de  miserioordid  et  justitiA"  of 
Algerus  of  Li^,  who  died  in  1132 — all  collections 
which  Gratian  made  use  of  in  the  compilation  of  his 
**  Decretum  * '.   The  aforesaid  collections  and  others  are 


described  moi^p  fuUy  in  the  article  Canons*  Couao* 
noNa  OF  Ancdbnt. 

(2)  Jua  Twvum  and  Corpus  ivris  eammiei, — It  wu 
about  1150  that  the  CamaMolese  monk,  Gratian. 
professor  of  theol^^  at  the  Univeraity  of  Bologna, 
to  obviate  the  difl^ulties  which  beset  the  study  of 
practical,  external  theology  (tkeoloffia  practica  ex- 
terna), i.  e.  canon  law,  composed  the  woric  entitled  by 
himself  "Concordia  discordantium  canonum",  but 
caUed  by  others  "Nova  collectio",  "Decr«ta".  "Co^ 

Eus  juris  caoonici",  also  "Decretum  Gratiani",  the 
ktter  being  now  the  commonly  accepted  name.  In 
spite*  of  its  great  reputation  the  "Decretum"  hss 
never  been  recognised  by  the  Church  as  an  oflScial 
coUection.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts  (minideruty 
negotia,  BocramerUa).  The  first  part  is  divided  iuto 
101  distinctions  (distinctiones),  the  first  20  of  which 
form  an  introduction  to  the  general  principles  of 
canon  law  (tracUUvji  decreUdium);  the  remainder  con- 
stitutes a  iractatuB  ordinandorum,  relative  to  ecclesias- 
tical persons  and  functions.  The  second  part  contains 
36  causes  (oausce),  divided  into  questions  (qtuuHona), 
aaid  treat  of  ecclesiastical  administration  and  mar- 
riage; the  third  Question  of  the  33rd  causa  treats  of 
the  Sacrament  of  Penance  and  is  divided  into  7  distinc- 
tions. The  third  psjt,  entitled  "De  consecratione", 
treats  of  the  sacramoitB  and  other  eaored  tixings  and 
contains  5  distinctions.  Each  distinction  or  question 
contains  dicta  Qratiani,  ^or  maxima  of  Ghratian,  and 
oanones.  Gratian  himself  raises  questions  and  brings 
forward  difficulties,  which  he  answers  by  quoting 
auctoritaUSy  i.  e.  canons  of  councils,  decretals  of  the 
popes,  texts  of  the  Scripture  or  of  the  Fathen.  These 
are  the  caiumes;  the  entire  remaining  portion,  even 
the  summaries  of  the  canons  and  the  <^ronolo^cal 
indications,  are  called  the  maximfl  or  dida  Gro/uim. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  many  audoritaies  have  been 
inserted  in  the  "Decretum'^  by  authors  of  a  Uter 
date.  These  are  the  Palece,  so  called  from  Paucsr 
palea,  the  name  of  the  principal  oonunentator  on  the 
"Decretum".  The  Ronuin  revisers  of  the  sixteenth 
eentuiy  (1566-82)  corrected  the  text  of  the  "  Decree" 
and  added  many  critical  notes  designated  by  the 
words  Correelares  Romani, 

The  "Decretum"  is  quoted  by  indicating  the  num- 
ber of  the  canon  and  that  of  the  distinction  or  of  the 
cause  and  the  question.  To  differentiate  the  distinc- 
tions of  the  first  part  from  those  of  the  third  question 
of  the  33rd  cause  of  the  second  part  and  those  of  the 
third  part,  the  words  de  Pom,,  i.  e.  de  PemUerUidj  and 
de  Cone.y  L  e,  de  Conaecratione  are  added  to  the  latter. 
For  instance,  "c  1.  d.  XI"  indicates  the  first  part  of 
the  "Decree",  distinction  XI,  canon  1;  "c  l.»  de 
Poen.,  d.  VI"  refers  to  the  second  part,  33rd  cause, 
Question  3,  distinction  VI,  canon  1;  "c.  8,  de  Cons., 
a.  II"  refers  to  the  third  part,  distinction  II,  canon  8; 
"c.  8,  C.  XII,  q.  3"  refers  to  the  second  part,  cause 
XII,  question  3,  canon  8.  Sometimes,  especially  in 
the  case  of  well-known  and  much-quoted  canons,  the 
fiist  words  are  also  indicated,  e.  g.,  c.  Si  quis  auadenie 
diaJbolo,  C.  XVII,  q.  4,  i.  e.  the  29th  canon  of  the 
second  part,  cause  XVII,  question  4.  Occasionally 
the  first  words  alone  are  quoted.  In  both  esses,  to 
find  the  canon  it  is  necessary  to  conauU  the  alpha- 
betical tabl^  (printed  in  all  editions  of  Gratian)  thai 
contain  the  first  words  of  every  canon.  ^^ 

The  general  laws  of  a  later  date  than  the  "  Decree' 
of  Gratian  have  been  called  "  Extra vagantes",  i.  & 
laws  not  contained  in  Gratian's  "Decree"  {Vagai\U» 
extra  Decretum).  These  were  soon  brought  together 
in  new  collections,  five  of  which  (Quinque  oompi^ 
tiones  antiquse)  possessed  a  special  authority.  Two 
of  them,  namely  the  third  and  the  fifth,  are  &e  most 
ancient  official  oompilations  of  the  Roman  Church 
(see  Drcretalb,  Papal).  Among  other  oompilations 
at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  the  following  deserve  speciisLl  atteo- 


ooBPim 


393 


0OBF17S 


tk>nt    "Appendix  eoncilii  Lateranensis  III";  the  col- 
lections known  as  *'Bambergensis"  (Bambeiv),  **Lip- 
siexisia''  (Leipaig),  "Oasselana'^  (Cassel),  ''Halensis" 
(Halle),  and  "^Lucensid"  (Lucca),  so  named  from  the 
libraries  in  which  the  manuscripts  of  these  coUeotions 
-were  found;  ihe  collection  of  ime  Italian  Benedictine 
Rainerus  Pomposianus,  that  of  the  English  canonist 
Oilbert  (CoDe^io  Oflberti)|  that  of  his  countryman 
Alamu^  professor  at  Bologna  (CoUectio  Alani),  and 
that  of  tne  Spaniard  Bermuxl  of  Compostella.    But 
BOOH  the  new  era  of  official  collections  began  t6  dawn. 
In  1230  Gregoiy  IX  ordered  St.  Raymund  of  Penna- 
fort  to  make  a  new  collection,  which  is  called  the 
"E^eoretals  of  Gregory  IX''  (Decretales  Qregorii  IX). 
To  this  collection  he  gave  force  of  law  by  the  Bull 
''Rex  paeificus",  5  Sept,  1234.    This  collection  is 
alao  known  to  canonists  as  the  "Liber  extra'',  i.  e. 
ezfro  Decretum  Gratiani,    Boniface  VIII  publiined  a 
similar  code  3  March,  1298,  called  the  ''Sixth  Book 
of  the  Decretals''  (Liber  Sextus).    John  XXII  added 
to  it  the  laat  official  collection  of  canon  law,  the  "  Liber 
septunos  Decsetaiium",  better  known  under  the  title 
of  '^Constitutiones  dementis  V",  or  simply  ''Clem- 
entia»"   (Quoniam    nulla,  25  Oct.,   1317).     Later 
on  the  canonists  added  to  the  manuscripts  of  the 
T^eeietals"  the  most  important  constitutions  of 
Bueoeeding   popes.    These   were  iMon   known   and 
quoted  as  ''fixtravagantes",  i.  e.  twenty  constitu- 
tions of  John  XXII  himself,  and  those  of  other  popes 
to  1484.    In  the  Paris  edition  of  the  canonical  oolleo- 
tions  (1499-1505)  Jean  C!happuis  drew  tiiem  up  in  the 
form  since  then  univeisally  accepted,  and  kept  for  the 
first  the  name  ^Extravagantes  Joannis  XaII",  and 
called  the  otheijs,  "Extravagantes  communes '',  i.  e. 
commonly   met    with   in   the  manuscripts   of   the 
**  Decretals '  *  (see  Dbcbbtals,  Papal). 

llie  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici"  was  now^  indeed, 
complete,  but  it  contained  collections  of  widely  dif- 
ferent juridical  valua  Oonsidened  as  eoUsotions,  the 
'^Deeree''  of  Gratian,  the  '' Extrwagantes  Joannis 
XXII",  and  the  "Extravagantes  communes"  have 
not,  and  never  had,  a  legal  value,  but  the  docimients 
which  tiiiey  contain  may  possess  and,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  often  do  possess,- very  great  authority.  More- 
over, custom  has  even  given  to  several  apocryphal 
canons  of  the  ''Decree"  of  Gratian  the  force  of  law. 
The  other  collections  are  official,  and  consist  of  legis- 
lative dedskms  still  binding,  unless  abrogated  by 
subsequmt  le^slation*  The  collections  of  Greoonr 
IX  (Libri  quinque  Deoretalium)  and  of  Boniface  Vlfl 
(Liber  fiextus)  are  moreover  exclusive.  The  former, 
indeed,  abrogated  all  the  laws  contained  in  the  afore^ 
said  compiu^iona  subsequent  to  the  ''Decree"  of 
(xratian.  Several  authors,  however,  have  maintained, 
but  wrongly,  that  it  abrogated  also  all  the  ancirait  kiws 
which  had  not  been  incorporated  in  Gratian.  The 
second  abrogated  all  the  laws  passed  at  a  later  date 
thui  the  " Decretals"  of  Gregory  IX  and  not  included 
in  itself.  Each  of  these  three  collections  is  considered 
as  one  coUeoticm  (ooUeotio  una),  L  e.  one  of  which  sfl 
the  decisions  have  the  same  value,  even  if  they  appear 
to. contain  antinomies.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however, 
that,  in  cases  of  contradiction,  the  decisions  of  the 
oollections  of  later  date  invalidate  those  found  in  a 
ooUectkm  of  an  earlier  date. 

The  ''Decretals"  of  Gregory  IX,  those  of  Boniface 
VIII,  and  the  "Qementines"  are  divided  uniformly 
into  five  books  (liber),  the  books  into  titles  {tUuhu}, 
the  titles  into  olwpters  (caput),  and  treat  successively 
oi  jurisdiction  (judex),  procedure  (judicium),  thie 
clergy  (derus),  marriage  (connubium),  and  ddin- 
quencies  (crimen).  The  rubrics,  i.  e.  the  summaries 
of  tile  various  titles^  have  the  force  of  law,  if  they  con- 
tain a  complete  meanins;  on  the  other  hand,  the.sum* 
maries  of  the^  chapters  nave  not  this  juridical  value. 
It  is  customacy  to  quote  these  collections  by  indicat* 
ing  the  number  of  the  chapter,  the  title  of  the  collec- 


tion, the  heading  of  the  title,  the  ninnlwr  of  the  book 
and  the  title.  The  "  Decretals"  of  Gregory  IX  are  in- 
dicated by  the  letter  "X",  i.  e.  extra  Decretum  OraH- 
ani\  the  "Shcth  Book"  or  "Decretals"  of  Boniface 
VIII by  ''in  VP",i.e."hi  Sexto";  the " Qementines" 
by  "  in  Clem. ",  i.  e.  "  in  C3ementinis  * '.  For  instance : 
"c.  2.  X,  De  paetis,  I,  85",  refers  to  the  second  chap- 
ter of  the  "  Deoretids"  of  Gregory  IX,  first  book,  title 
35;  "c.  2,  in  VP,  Dehiereticis,  V,  2",  refers  to  the 
second  chapter  of  the  "Decretals"  of  Boniface  VIII, 
fifth  book,  title  2;  "  c.  2,  m  Gem.,  De  testibus,  II,  8", 
refers  to  the  second  chapter  of  the  "Gementines", 
second  book,  title  8.  If  tnere  is  only  one  chapter  in  a 
title,  or  if  the  last  chapter  is  Quoted,  these  passages 
are  indicated  by  "c.  umc",  ana  "c.  ult.",  i.  e.  "caput 
unicum ' '  and  "  caput  uliimum ' '.  Sometimes  also  the 
indication  of  the  number  of  the  chapters  is  replaced  by 
the  first  words  of  the  chapter,  as  for  instance:  c. 
Odoardus.  In  such  cases*  the  number  of  the  chapter 
ma^  be  found  in  the  index*tables  printed  in  all  the 
editions.  The  "  Extravagantes  Communes"  are  di- 
vided and  quoted  in  the  same  manner  as  tiie  "  Decre- 
tals", and  the  collection  is  indicated  by  the  abbrevia- 
tion: "Extrav.  Commim."  For  instance:  "c.  1  (or 
unicum,  or  AmbitioseeO,  Extrav.  Commun.,  De  rebus 
EcciesisB  non  alienandis.  III,  4",  refers  to  the  &r8t 
chapter  (the  only  chapter)  in  book  III,  title  4  of  the 
"  Extra vatenteS  Communes".  This  collection  omits 
the  usual  "  liber  IV"  which  treats  of  marriage.  The 
"  Extravagantes  of  John  XXII "  are  divided  only  into 
titles  and  chapters.  They  are  indicated  b^  the  ab- 
breviation, "Extrav.  Joan.  XXII".  For  instance: 
"  c.  2,  Extrav.  Joan.  XXII,  De  v«*borumsignificatione 
XIV"  refers  to  the  second  chapter  of  the  fourteenth 
title  of  this  collection. 

Prindpfd  ediHcne. — Very  soon  after  ihe  invention 
of  printing  editions  of  the  "Corpus  Juris",  with  or 
witnout  the  gloss  (comments  of  canonists)  were  pub- 
lished. We  nave  already  mentioned  the  importance 
of  the  Paris  edition  (1499-1505)  for  the  two  collec- 
tions of  "  Extravagantes".  lliis  edition  includes  the 
gloss.  The  last  edition  with  the  gloss  is  that  of  Lyons 
(1671).  Thpugh  the  Council  of  Trent  did  not  order  a 
revision  of  the  text  of  the  canonical  collections,  St. 
Pius  V  appointed  (1566)  a  commission  to  prepsire  a 
new  edition  of  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici".  This 
commission  devoted  itself  especially  to  the  correction 
of  the  text  of  the  "  Decree  "  of  Gratian  and  of  its  gloss. 
Gregory  XIII  ("Cum  pro  munere",  1  July,  1580; 
"Emendationem",  2  June»  1582)  decreed  tiiat  no  change 
was  to  be  made  in  the  revised  text.  This  edition  of 
ihe  "Corpus"  appeared  at  Rome  in  1582,  in  csdihus 
papuU  Rimani,  and  serves  as  exemplar  for  all  subse* 
quent  editions.  The  best-known,  previous  to  the 
nineteenth  century,  are  those  of  the  brothers  IHthou 
(Paris,  1687),  Freiesleben  (Prague,  1728),  and  the 
Protestant  canonist  B5hiner  (Halle-Magdeburg, 
1747).  It  is.  to  be  noted  that  the  text  of  t£e  latter 
edition  differs  fh>m  that  of  the  Roman  edition  of  1582, 
and  does  not  therefore  possess  practical  utQity.  Hie 
edition  of  Richter  (Leipsi^  1833-39)  avoids  this  defect 
and  is  valuable  for  its  critical  notes.  The  edition  of 
Fl-iedbei^  (Leipsig,  187^-81)  does  not  reproduce  the 
text  of  the  Roman  edition  for  the  "  Decree"  of  Gratian, 
but  gives  the  Roman  text  of  the  other  collections.  It 
is  tm  best  and  most  critical  edition. 

(3)  Jus  nomsaimum»^--A£ier  the  0>uncil  of  Trent, 
an  attempt  to  secure  a  new  official  collection  of  church 
laws  was  made  about  1580,  when  Gregory  XIII 
charf^  three  cardinals  with  the  task.  The  work 
oontmued  during  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V,  was  ac- 
complished under  Clement  VIII,  and  was  printed 
(Rome,  15d8)  as:  "Sanotissimi  Domini  nostri  Cle- 
mentis  papse  VIII  Decretales",  sometimes  also  ''Sep- 
timus uber  Decretalium".  This  collection,  never 
approved  either  by  Clement  VIII  or  by  Paul  V,  was 
recently  edited  (Freiburg,  1870)  by  Sentis.    In  1557 


00BE4D0 


394 


OOBBMTeBXlS 


an  Italian  canonist,  Paul  Lancelottus,  attempted  un- 
successfully to  secure  from  Paul  IV,  for  the  four  books 
of  his  "  Institutiones  juris  canonici"  (Rome,  1663),  an 
autliority  equal  to  that  which  its  model,  the  "  Institu* 
tiones"  of  Emperor  Justinian,  once  enjoyed  in 
the  Roman  fknpire.  A  private  individual,  Pierre 
Mathieu  of  Lyons,  also  wrote  a  "  Liber  septimus  De- 
cretalium",  inserted  in  the  appendix  to  the  Frankfort 
(1590)  edition  of  the  "  Oorpus  Juris  Canonici".  This 
work  was  put  on  the  Index.  The  sources  of  modem 
canon  law  must  be  looked  for  in  the  disciplinary 
canons  of  the  tk)uncil  of  Trent  (see  Trent,  Council 
of),  in  the  collections  of  papal  Bulls  (see  Bullarium), 
of  general  and  local  ooimcils,  and  in  the  collections  of 
the  decisions  and  answers  of  the  Roman  Congrega- 
tions (see  CoNGRBQATioNS,  Roman).  However,  toe 
ancient  "CJorpus  Juris  Canonici"  forms  yet  the  basis 
of  the  actual  canonical  legislation.  The  present  posir 
tion  is  not  without  grave  inconveniences.  At  the  Vat- 
ican Council  sevenu  bishops  asked  for  a  new  codifica^ 
tion  of  the  canon  law,  and  since  then  several  canonists 
have  attempted  to  compile  treatises  in  the  form  of  a 
full  code  of  canonical  legislation,  e.  g.  de  Luise  (1873), 
Pillet  (1890),  Pezsani  (1894),  Deahayes  (1894),  Col- 
iomiati  (1898-1901).  FinaUy  Puis  X  determined  to 
imdertake  this  work  by  his  decree  ''Arduum  sane 
munus  *'  (19  March,  1904),  and  named  a  commission  of 
cardinals  to  compile  a  new  ''Corpus  Juris  Canonici" 
on  the  model  of  the  codes  of  civil  law.  (See  Law.) 
Laubin,  hUroduetio  in  eorpua  juris  oanonid  (FreibunL  1889); 
Schneider.  Die  Lehre  von  den  Kirchenrechtmellen  (Zad  ed., 
Ratisbon,  1802);  Taboxf,  Hiatoire  dea  sources  du  droit  eanonique 
CParifl,  1887);  Oallandi,  De  vetustis  eanonum  coUseUombuB 
dissertationum  suUogs  (M«nts,  1790);  Vobllos  anp  JuflfTEixus, 
Bibliotheoa  juris  eanonici  veteris  (Paris,  1661);  Maausn. 
Oeschiehte  der  Quellen  und  der  Literahir  des  kanonis&un  RecfUs 
im  Abendlande  bis  sum  Ausgano  des  MiUdaUsrs  (Qim.  1870); 
ScHXTiyrB,  Oesckiohle  der  Quilien  und  Litsratur  des  eanonisehen 
Rechts  von  OraHan  bisaufdie  Oeaenwart  (Stuttflart,  1876-1880): 
Smith,  BlemerUs  of  Bedesiastical  Law  (New  York,  1881).  I,  62 
aqq.;  Scrbreb,  tiandbuch  des  Kirehenreehis  (Grai,  1880),  I, 
178  sq.;  Wkrnz,  Jus  DecreUUium  (Rome,  1898).  I,  272.  ieq.; 
SaqmOller.  Lehfbuch  des  katholisdien  KinhenretMs  (Freiburg, 
1900-1904).  104  sqq.;  Taunton,  7A0  Law  of  the  Church  (Lon- 
don. 1906),  258,  274,  336,  364,  365,  etc. 

A.  Van  Hova. 

OorradOi  Rudolfo.    See  Ghirlandajo. 

Oorreotion,  Fratbenal,  is  here  taken  to  mean  the 
admonishing  of  one's  nei^bour  by  a  private  individual 
with  the  purpose  of  reforming  him  or,  if  possible,  prfr- 
venting  his  sinful  indulgence.  This  is  clearly  distin- 
guishable from  an  official  disciplining,  whose  mouth- 
piece is  a  j  udge  or  other  like  superior,  wooee  object  is  the 
punislmient  of  one  found  to  be  guilty,  and  whose  mo- 
tive is  not  so  directly  the  individual  advantage  of  the 
offender  as  the  furuieranoe  of  the  common  good. 
That  there  is,  upon  occasion  and  with  due  regard  to 
circumstances,  an  obligation  to  administer  fraternal 
correction  there  can  be  no  doubt.  This  is  a  conclu- 
sion not  only  deducible  from  the  natural  law  binding 
us  to  love  and  to  assist  one  another,  but  also  explicitly 
contained  in  positive  precept  such  as  the  inculcation 
of  Christ:  ''If  thy  brother  shall  offend  against  thee, 
go,  and  rebuke  him  between  thee  and  him  alone.  If 
he  shall  hear  thee,  thou  shait  gain  thy  brother"  (Matt.. 
xviii,  15).  Given  a  sufficiently  grave  condition  of 
spiritual  distress  calling  for  succour  in  this  way,  this 
commandment  may  exact  fulfilment  under  pain  of 
mortal  sin.  This  is  reckoned  to  be  so  only  when  (1) 
the  delinquency  to  be  corrected  or  prevented  is  a 
grievous  one;  (2)  there  is  no  good  reason  to  believe 
that  the  sinner  will  adequately  provide  for  himself; 
(3)  there  is  a  well-founded  expectation  that  the  ad- 
monition will  be  heeded;  (4)  mere  is  no  one  else  just 
as  well  fitted  for  this  work  of  Christian  charity  and 
likely  to  undertake  it ;  (5)  there  is  no  special  trouble 
or  disadvantage  accruing  to  the  reformer  as  a  result 
of  his  zeal .  Practically,  however,  individuals  without 
any  official  capacity  are  seldom  imp(»ichable  as  having 
seriously  transgressed  the  law  in  this  matter  because 


it  is  but  rarely  one  finds  the  coalition  of  i 
just  eniunerated. 

Of  course  the  reproof  is  ta  be  administered  pri- 
vately, i.  e.  directly  to  the  delinquent  and  not  in  the 
presence  of  oUiers.  This  is  plamly  the  method  ap- 
pointed by  Christ  in  the  words  just  cited  and  onlv  as 
a  reme<^  for  obduracy  is  any  other  oontemplatea  by 
Him.  Still  there  are  occasions  upon  which  one  might 
lawfully  proceed  in  a  differmt  way.  For  instance 
(a)  when  the  offence  is  a  public  one;  (b)  when  it 
makes  for  the  prejudice  of  a  third  party  or  perbape 
even  the  entire  community;  (o)  when  it  can  only  be 
condignlv  dealt  with  by  uie  authority  of  a  superior 
paternally  exercised;  (d)  when  a  public  rebuke  ia 
neoBssary  to  preclude  scandal:  witness  the  with- 
standing of  Peter  by  Paul  mentioned  in  the  Epiakle 
to  the  Galatians  (ii,  11-14);  (e)  when  the  offender 
has  already  in  advance  relinquished  whatever  right 
he  possessed  to  have  his  ^ood  name  safeguarded,  aa 
is  the  custom  in  some  religious  bodies.  The  obliga- 
tion of  fraternal  eonectioB,  so  far  as  private  persons 
go,  does  not  obtain,  generallv  speaking,  for  the  caae 
of  one  idio  violates  a  law  through  invincible  igno- 
rance. The  obvious  reason  is  that  there  is  then  no 
formal  sin.  Superiors  to  be  sure  can  daim  no  such 
immunity  for  it  is  their  duty  to  instruct  tiieir  suboidi- 
nates.  Every  one,  however,  whether  having  an  offi- 
cial competency  or  not,  is  bound  to  give  the  admoni- 
tion when  the  sin,  committed  though  it  be  from 
ignorance,  is  hurtful  to  the  offender  or  a  third  party 
or  is  the  occasion  of  scandal. 

Noi4>iN,  Summa  Thsologia  Moraiis  (Inoabniek,  1906); 
LEHMKUBii.  Theologia  Moraiis  (Freibuis,  1887);  JoasFH 
RiCKABT,  Aquinas  Bthicus  (London.  1806). 

Joseph  F.  Dblant. 
OoTTtcJioikf  HouBEB  ow  Spibitual.    See  Rbtbkat, 

HOUBBB  OF  COBRBCnOKAL. 

Oonrectories  are  the  text-forms  of  the  lAttn  Val- 
late resulting  from  the  critical  «nendatlons  as  pno- 
tised  during  the  course  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
Owing  to  the  carelessness  of  transcribes,  the  oonjee- 
tural  ooirections  of  critics,  the  insertion  of  glosses  and 
paraphrases,  and  especially  to  the  preference  for  read- 
mgs  found  in  the  earlier  lifttin  versions,  the  text  of  St. 
Jerome  was  corrupted  at  an  eariy  date.  About  550 
Cassiodorus  made  an  attempt  at  restoring  the  purity 
of  the  Latin  text.  Chariemagne  entrusted  the  same 
labour  to  Alcuin,  whopresented  his  royal  patron  with 
a  corrected  copy  in  801.  Similar  atteaq>ts  were  re- 
peated by  Theodulphus  Bishop  of  Orieans  [787(?>- 
821],  Lanfranc,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1070- 
1089),  Stephen  Harding,  Abbot  of  Ctteaux  (1109- 
1134),  and  Deacon  Nicolaus  Maniaooria  (about  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century).  At  this  period 
the  need  of  a  revised  Latin  text  of  the  Vulgate  beeame 
more  imperative  than  ever.  When,  towuds  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century,  the  schools  of  Paris  were  or- 
ganised into  the  university  and  its  various  faculties 
adopted  the  same  reference  texts,  the  faculty  of  theo- 
logy, too,  adhered  to  a  uniform  text  of  the  Latin 
Bible.  It  cannot  be  ascertained  at  present  wh^her 
this  adoption  was  owing  to  the  chance  prevalenoe  of  a 
certain  manuscript  or  to  the  critical  work  of  theolo- 
aans,  whether  it  was  the  effect  at  an  official  ^oioe  of 
the  university  or  of  a  prevailing  custom;  at  any  rate, 
the  almost  general  acioption  (»  this  text  threw  into 
oblivion  a  great  number  of  genuine  readin^i  which  had 
been  current  in  the  preceding  centuries,  and  perpetu- 
ated a  text,  uniform,  indeed,  but  very  oorrupt.  This 
is  the  so-called  "Biblia  Parisiensis",  or  Paris  Bible; 
no  copy  is  known  to  exist  in  our  days.  The  thirteenth 
century  reacted  against  this  evil  by  a  series  of  corree- 
tories.  Father  Demfle  enumerates  as  manv  as  Uiir- 
teen  groups,  but  it  is  more  convenknt  to  reduce  them 
to  three  classes:  the  Dominican,  the  Fraodsean^  and 
the  allied  oorrectories. 


OCttSBOOIO 


H95 


OOBRICkiir 


Domimcan  Corrtdones. — The  general  chapter  of 
the  DomimcaiiB  hehl  in  1236  oonnects  a  oorreoted 
text  of  ^e  Laiin  Bible  with  the  members  of  the  prov- 
ince of  France:  it  ordained  that  all  Bibles  should  be 
conf  onned  to  this.    Little  more  is  known  of  this  work ; 
but  the  f (lowing  correctories  are  more  noted:    (1) 
The  ''BibUa  Senonensis'',  or  Hie  Bible  of  Sens,  is  not 
the  Paris  Bible  a»  approved  of  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Sens,  nor  is  it  a  particular  text  adopted  by  the  ecclesi- 
asticnd  authority  of  that  city,  but  it  is  a  correction  of 
the  Paris  Bible  prepared  by  the  Dominican  Fathers 
residing  there.    Whatever  be  the  value  of  this  correc- 
tory,  it  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the  Domini- 
can Order,  as  may  be  inferred  from  an  ordination  of 
the  genenu  chapter  held  in  PariSi  1256.    Quotations 
from  it  found  in  the  "Correctorium  Sorbonicum"  re- 
semble the  readings  of  the  Latin  manuscript  No.  17  in 
the  National  Libraiy,  Paris.    The  fathers  of  Sens 
failed  to  produce  a  satisfactory  text  because  they  were 
too  sparmg  in  their  emendation  of  the  Paris  Bible. 
(2)  Hugues  of  Saint-Oher  tried  to  restore  the  primitive 
text  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  which  in  his  day  was  prac- 
tically identical  with  the  Paris  Bible,  by  removing  its 
piosses  and  all  foreign  accretions.    But  instead  of  hav- 
ing recourse  to  the  manuscripts  of  St.  Jerome's  text  he 
compared  the  Paris  Bible  with  the  original  Hebrew 
and  Greek  readings,  thus  furnishing  a  new  version 
rather  than  a  correctoiy.    Roger  Bacon  calls  his 
work  *'the  wont  corruption,  the  destruction  of  the 
text  of  God''.     Eight  manuscripts  of  Hugues'  correc- 
tory  are  still  extant.     (3)  Theobald  is  the  name  of  the 
Dominican  Father  who  is  usuallv  connected  with  the 
next  correction  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  text,  which  ap- 
peared about  1248.    The  text  of  this  too  resembles 
that  of  the  Latin  manuscript  No.  17  in  the  National 
Library,  Paris,  and  is  thus  related  to  the  "Correo- 
torium  Senonense".     It  may  be  identical  with  the 
''Correctio  Parisiensis  secunda",  quoted  in  the  "Cor- 
rectorium    Sorbonicum".     (4)    Another    correctory 
was  prepared  about  1256  in  the  Dominican  convent  of 
Saint-Jacques,  Paris.    The  manuscript  thus  corrected 
contains  a  text  as  bad  as,  if  not  worse  than  the  Bible 
of  Paris,  the  readings  of  which  were  carried  into  the 
new  correctory.     Trie  principles  of  Hugues  of  Saint- 
Cher  were  followed  by  tne  correctors,  who  marked  in 
red  the  words  to  be  omitted,  and  added  marginal  notes 
to  explain  changes  and  suggest  variants.    They  are 
more  copious  in  the  Old  Testament  than  in  the  New. 
The  autograph  is  preserved  in  the  National  Library, 
Paris,  mS.  lat.  16,719-16,722. 

Francimxm  Correctories. — ^The  great  Franciscan 
writer,  Roger  Bacon,  was  the  first  to  formulate  the 
true  principles  which  ou^t  to  gniide  the  correction  of 
the  Latin  Vulgate;  his  religious  orethren  endeavoured 
to  apply  them,  though  not  always  successfully.  (1) 
Tlie  'H)omctorittm  ^rbonicum'^  probably  the  work 
of  William  of  Brittany,  derives  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  iht  thirteenth-centuiy  manuscript  in  wiiich  the 
emendations  were  made  belonged  to  the  Library  of 
the  Sorbonne,  though  at  present  it  is  kept  in  the  Na- 
tional Library,  Paris,  MB.  lat  15554,  fol.  147-253. 
The  marginal  and  interiinear  glosses  are  derived  from 
the  Paris  Bible  and  the  correctory  of  the  Dominican 
Father  Theobald;  the  make-up  of  the  work  imitates 
the  Dominican  correctories.  (2)  The  ''Correctorium 
Vaticanum"  owes  its  name  to  the  circumstance  that 
its  fint  known  manuscript  was  the  Cod.  Vaticanus 
lat.  d466^  though  at  present  eight  other  copies  are 
known,  belonging' to  the  thirteenth  or  the  be^nning  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  Its  author  is  William  de 
Mara,  of  Oxford,  a  disoiple  of  Roger  Bacon,  whose 
principles  and  methods  he  follows.  Thou^  ac- 
quainted witii  several  Latin  and  Hebrew  manuscripts, 
the  Tafgum,  the  commentaries  of  Rashi,  and  the  orie^ 
inal  texts,  he  relied  more  on  the  authority  of  the  early 
manuscripts  of  St.  Jerome's  text.  There  are  some 
faults  in  the  correctory,  resulting  mainly  from  the 


author's  limited  knowledge  of  Greek.  (3)  Gerard  de 
Huy  was  a  faithful  follower  of  Roger  Bacon's  princi- 
ples:  the  old  Latin  manuscripts  and  the  readings  of 
the  Fathers  are  his  firet  authority,  and  only  when  they 
disagree  does  he  have  recourse  to  the  original  texts. 
Unfortunately  he  knew  no  Latin  manuscripts  older 
than  those  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  containing 
a  text  of  Alcuin's  recension.  But  Gerard  knew  the 
history  of  the  versions  and  the  origin  of  the  textual 
corruptions  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  He  corrected 
the  Paris  Bible  and  gave  an  account  of  his  emenda- 
tions in  his  marginal  notes.  (4)  Two  more  Francift-- 
can  correctories  must  be  noted:  MS.  61  (Toulouse),  of . 
the  fifteenth  century,  reproduces  the  correctory  of 
Gerard  de  Buxo,  of  Avignon,  a  work  rather  exegetioal 
than  critical  in  character;  MS.  28  (Einsieddn),  oLthe 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  oontama  the 
work  of  John  of  Cologne. 

Allied  Correctories, — Mangenot  mentions  six  other 
groups  of  correctories  which  have  not  been  fully  in- 
vesti^ted  as  yet.  Two  of  them  are  allied  to  the 
Dominican  correctory  of  the  convent  of  Saint- Jacques ; 
one  is  represented  by  the  MS.  lat^  15,554,  foL  1-146, 
National  Library,  Paris;  the  other  by  Cod.  Laurent., 
Hut.,  XXV,  sin.,  cod.  4,  fol.  101-^107  (Florence),  and  by 
MS.  131,  fol.  1,  Arsenal,  Paris.  Two  other  groups  are 
allied  to  the  Franciscan  correctories ;  one,  represented 
by  Cod.  141,  lat.  class.  I,  fol.  121-390,  Maroiana  (Ven- 
ice), depends  on  William  de  Mara  and  Gerard  de  Huy; 
the  other,  found  in  MS.  82,  Boiges.  (Rome),  depends 
on  Gerard  de  Huy.  Finally  two  very  brief  lOorreo* 
tories  are  to  be  found  in  M8. 492,  Antoniana,  Padua* 
and  in  MS.  Cent.  I,  47,  fol.  127,  NOrenbeijg. 

Mangenot  in  Vio..  Did.  de  la  BibU,  s.  v.  Corredoint:  Dsmx* 
1T.K,  IHe  Handachriften  der  Bxbel-Correctorien  de9  13.  JahrHun- 
derta  in  Archiv  fUr  Literatur  ttnd  Kirchengesckiddt  det  M'UUiair 
Un  (Fieiburs,  1888),  IV,  268>^11»  471-eol;  Samusl  BbbokiI. 
Hietoirt  de  la  Vulgate  vendatU  lee  ftremitn  ei^cUe  d%  «i0|/«a  ^ 
(Paria^  1803);  Idem,  Quam  notitiam  lingua  hehraioa  Habuerwt 
Christiani  rMdii  tevi  temvoribue  in  Ooflia  (Paris,  1893);  Vd/tfKB." 
LBIN,  Von  CorreoUyriia  bibHcia  in  lAterariichee  Mueanttn  (Alt^ 
dorf,  1778),  1,1;  11.177;  III  344;  VtittcKhU^iim,  Diea^rUuiani 
academiche  (Kome.  1864);  Kaulen,  Geachichte  der  Vvigata 
(Miiin»,  1868),  244-278;  GRBooirr,  Prolegomerui  (Lefpsig, 
1904).  ill,  973. 

A.  J.  Maaa. 
Ck>rreggio.    See  Allsqui,  Antonio. 

Oorrirai,  Michael  Auovbtine,  third  Arohbiflliep 
of  New  York,  b.  13  August,  1839,  at  Newark,  New  Jei^ 
sey ;  d.  at  New  York,  5  Mfiiy,  1902.  His  pafenta  were 
natives  of  Ireland.  After  graduating  at  Mt.  St.  Mary's 
College,  Emmittsburg,  Md..  in  18^,  he  entered  the 
Collie  of  the  Propaganda  at  R(Mne,  and  was  one  of 
the  twelve  students  with  whom  the  North  Amerioan 
College  was  opened  there,  8  December,  18^,  He> 
was  ordained  priest  at  Rome,  19  September,  1868,  and 
received  there  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  in 
1864.  Returning  to  his  native  diocese  in  September, 
1864,  he  was  successively  professor  of  dogmatic  theol- 
ogy and  of  Scripture,  vice-president  and  president  of 
Seton  Hall  College  axid  Seminary,  and  vicar^general  of 
the  diocese  until  1873,  when  on  4  Mi^  he  was  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  Newark.  His  admmistration,  dur- 
ing the  seven  years  of  its  continuanoe,  was  character- 
ized by  unceasing  and  successful  eflforts  to  bring  the 
regulation  of  the  spiritual  and  temporal  affairs  ol  the 
diocese  into  strict  accordance  with  the  prescriptions 
and  recommendations  of  the  plenary  councils  of  the 
Church  in  the  United  States  that  had  been  held  pre- 
viot2s  to  his  acoessjion  to  the  episcopacy. 

The  declining  health  of  Cardinal  McCloskey,  Arch- 
bishop of  New  York  requiring  the  appointment  of  a 
ooadjutor,  the  young  Bishop  of  Newark  was  named, 
1  October,  1880,  titular  Archbishop  of  Petra,  with  the 
right  of  succession  for  New  York,  and  on  the  death  of 
Cardinal  McCloskev  in  October,  1885,  he  assumed 
charge.  Having  taken  an  active  part  in  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1884) 
as  the  representative  of  the  cardinal,  his  first  impor- 


COBBIGAH 


396 


aOBSIQ4 


taut  act  as  archbishop  was  to  convoke  a  synod  of  the 
diocese,  in  Novonber,  1886,  to  cany  into  effect  the  de- 
crees of  the  council.  The  considerable  changes  made 
by  the  council  in  the  status  oi  the  clex^y  and  its  pro- 
visions for  the  administration  of  the  dioceses  of  the 
United  States,  as  to  their  subordinate  officials,  were 
adopted.  A  new  theological  semimuy,  to  replace  that 
of  St  Joseph's,  Trov,  was  built  at  Dunwoodie  and 
opened  September,  1896.  Tlie  unfinished  towers  of 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  were  completed.  Tlie  Orphan 
Asylums  on  Fifth  and  Madison  Avenues  were  trans- 
ferred to  a  new  suburban  location  at  Kingsbridge* 
The  construction  of  the  Lady  Chi^l  of  the  cathedral, 
through  funds  donated  by  a  generous  Catholic  family, 
wBsb^un. 

During  the  municipal  election  of  1886  Archbishop 
Corrisan  deemed  it  nis  duty  to  disapprove  of  the 
socialistic  character  of  the  writings  and  addresses  of 
one  of  the  candidates  for  the  mayoralty.  This  brought 
about  the  most  disturbing  incident,  perhaps,  of  the 
archbishop's  administration,  the  difference  between 
himself  and  a  prominent  member  of  his  clergy,  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Edward  McQlynn,  rector  of  St.  Stephen's 
Church,  New  York  city,  occasioned  by  the  latter's 
advoca^  of  opinions  which  the  archbishop  believed 
were  not  in  accord  with  Catholic  teaching  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  rights  of  propertv.  The  controversy  b^^ 
m  1886  with  the  clergyman's  appearance  on  the  public 
platform,  in  behalf  oFone  of  the  candidates  for  mayor, 
who  stood  for  certain  novel  econoitiic  theories,  and  led 
to  the  privation  of  his  pastoral  office.  Not  complying 
afterwards  with  the  order  of  the  pope,  Leo  XIII,  to 
proceed  to  Rome,  he  incurred  the  sentence  of  excom- 
munication. 

There  resulted  some  commotion  in  ecclesiastical  and 
other  circles,  accentuated  later  (1892)  by  a  new  phase 
whidi  the  Catholic  School  ^juestion  assumed  in  its  re« 
lation  to  the  State.  A  period  of  much  public  discus- 
sion and  excitement  followed  which,  however,  b^an 
to  subside  rapidly  when  Dr.  McGlynn  was  relieved  of 
the  censure  oy  the  Apostolic  Delegate,  then  Arch- 
bishop SatoUi,  and  obeyed  the  summons  of  the  Holy 
Father.  In  1894  Archbishop  Corrigan  appointed  Dr. 
McGlynn  pastor  of  St.  Maj^'s  Church,  Newburgh, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1901. 

On  May  4th,  1898,  Archbishop  Corri^n  celebrated 
the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  his  episcopal  conse- 
cration. Laymen,  priests,  and  manv  prominent  non- 
CathdicB  assembled  to  testify  to  nis  virtues  as  an 
ecclesiastic  and  as  a  citizen.  He  made  his  last  visit  ad 
liminaAj)08tolorumiiil900,  Two  years  afterwards,  re- 
turning from  a  confirmation  visit  to  the  Bahamas,  he 
contraicted  a  cold,  which,  aggravated  by  an  accident, 
caused  his  death  on  May  5th  of  the  same  year.  The 
manifestation  of  sentiments  of  respect  and  fdffection 
on  that  event  was  not  only  local  but  national.  From 
the  beginning  of  his  episcopate  in  New  York  he  was 
obliged  to  face  the  problem  of  the  great  influx  of  for- 
eign,  especially  Italian,  immi^ation  and  its  religious 
reouirements.  He  had  to  guide  and  direct  the  chai^ 
itable  and  educational  interests  of  his  diocese  which 
rapidly  and  widely  expanded  during  his  administra- 
tion. During  the  seventeen  years  of  his  rule  he  was 
instrumental  in  the  increase  of  the  churches,  chapeb. 
and  stations  of  the  archdiocese  by  one  hundred  ana 
eighty-eight,  of  the  deiigy  by  two  hundred  and  eighty- 
four,  of  schools  by  seventy-five.  His  scholarahip  was 
deep  and  wide,  extending  to  every  branch  of  ecclesias- 
tical learning:  his  piety  marked  But  unobtrusive;  his 
methods  gentle  but  firm.  His  devotien,  his  zeal,  and 
his  unceasing  labours  in  behalf  of  religion  make  him  a 
conspicuous  figure  in  the  history  of  the  American 
Churai  of  the  nineteentli  century.  The  only  literary 
production  that  his  busy  life  as  a  priest  and  bishop 
permitted  him  to  publish  was  a  '^Register  of  the 
Clergy  laboring  in  the  Archdiocese  of  New  York  from 
early  missions  to  1885",  which  he  compiled  for  the 


''  Historical  Records  and  Studies"  of  the  United  States 
Catholic  History  Society  (Jan.,  1889,  sq<|.). 

Catbbdbal  LIBR4BT  AflSOCiA.Tioif.  Memorial  of  MoM  Rtm 
Arehln$hop  Corrwan,  Third  Arehb%9hop  of  Ntw  York  (New  York. 
1902);  Flynn,  The  Cath.  Ch.  in  New  Jeney  (UorriAtown,  lOOt); 
Smith,  Tht  Cath.  Ch.  m  New  Y&rk  (New  York.  1006);  Rscas. 
Bu>o.  Cud.  of  ih«  Cath.  Hierarehu  of  U,  S.  (MUwankM,  1896); 
Fabxay,  The  Hittary  of  SL  Pabriek*e  Cathednl  (New  York, 
1908). 

JOSEFH  F.  MOONKT. 

OoRJgan,  Sir  Dominic,  physician,  b.  18Q2,  in 
Dublin.  Ireland;  d.  there,  1880:  distinguished  for  lus 
original  observations  in  heart  disease,  a  speaal  type 
of  pulse  beins  named  after  him.  The  son  of  a  poor 
shopkeeper,  his  early  education  was  obtained  at 
Maynooth,  which  then  had  a  department  for  secular 
students  apart  from  the  ecclesiastical  seminary.  He 
was  attracted  to  the  study  of  medicine  by  the  plmi- 
cian  in  attendance.  After  several  yem  of  mecfical 
stud^  in  Dublin  he  followed  the  prevailing  custom  of 
the  tune  and  went  to  Edinburgh  where  ne  received 
his  degree  as  M.  D.  in  1825.  After  his  return  to 
Dublin  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  Jervis 
Street  Ho^ital,  whidi  had  but  six  medical  beds. 
During  the  next  four  vears  he  studied  certain  forma 
of  heart  disease  to  such  good  purpose  that  he  recast 
the  teaching  of  diseases  of  the  aortic  valves.  His 
article  on  "  Permanent  Patency  of  the  Aortic  Valves" 
appeared  in  the  Edinburgh  "Medical  and  Surgical 
Journal"  for  April,  1832.  He  was  eminently  suc- 
cessful as  a  teacher  of  medicine.  In  1842  the  Lon- 
don Coll^  of  Surgeons  conferred  on  him  its  diploma. 
In  1849  he  received  from  the  University  of  Dublin 
the  honorary  degree  of  M.  D.  He  was  known  as  a 
very  hard-working  .physician,  and  his  self-sacrificing 
devotion  during  the  famine  fever  years  made  hhn 
famous.  His  'Uicctures  on  Fevers^  (Dublin,  ia5d) 
are  a  valuable  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  this 
subject.  He  was  created  a  baronet  partly  as  a  re- 
ward for  his  services  as  Commissioner  of  Education 
for  man^  years.  He  was  a  member  of  Pariiament 
in  the  Liberal  interest  for  five  years  after  1869.  He 
was  defeated  for  re-election  in  1874  oy  the  liquor  in- 
terest which  he  had  antagonized  bv  supportmg  the 
Simda]^  Closing  Bill.  He  was  President  of  the  BoybI 
Zooloeical  Society  of  Dublin,  of  the  Dublin  Patho- 
logical Society,  of  the  Dublin  Pharmaceutical  So- 
ciety, and  was  five  times  elected  President  of  tiie 
College  of  Physicians  in  Dublin,  an  unprecedented 
honour.  His  work  on  heart  disease  stamps  him  as  a 
great  original  investigator  in  medicine.  Trousseau, 
the  French  clinician,  proposed  that  aortic  heart  dis- 
ease should  be  called  Corrigan's  disease. 

Sketches  in  Brit.  Med.  Journal  and  The  Lancet  (1880);  Walsb. 
Makers  of  Modem  Medicine  (New  York.  1907). 

JAMES  J.  Walsh. 

Oorsica,  the  third  island  of  the  Mediterranean  in 
point  of  size,  only  Sicfly  and  Sardinia  behog  of 
greater  extent.  The  distance  from  the  French  seaport 
Antibes,  on  the  Riviera,  to  Calvi,  the  port  of  Cbrsica 
nearest  to  France,  is  one  hundred  and  eleven  milea. 
There  is  a  brisk  commerce  between  Ledlioni,  In  Italv, 
and  Bastia,  in  Corsica,  the  voyage  being  made  m 
five  hours.  The  island  is  mountainous  and  w^U 
watered,  a  large  part  beins  covered  with  forests  and 
almost  impenetrable  thickets  called  mo^uit.  The 
climate  is  mild  on  the  coast,  but  cold  in  the  devated 
r^ions.  The  area  of  Corsica  is  3367  square  mfles, 
the  population  3(X),000.  Both  the  natives  of  the  in- 
terior and  those  of  the  coast,  whose  anfiestots  were 
Italians,  are  neariy  all  Catholics. 

The  island  was  earlv  visited  by  the  Fhoeniottiis 
and  Phocians  who  established  oolonies  thae.  For  a 
time  it  belonged  to  Carthage,  but  was  takm  by  the 
Remans,  who  retained  possession  from  260  B.  c.  to 
the  end  ef  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  Era. 
But  they  never  subdued  the  mountain  tribes  of  the 
interior,  and  even  in  the  time  of  Gregoiy  I  (590^604) 


ooBms 


897 


OOBTiS 


tbiae  were  many  heathens  in  Corsica,  which  long  re- 
tained its  earhr  reputation  as  a  wild  and  unhospitable 
island.  On  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  (476) 
GoraiGa  was  taksm.  by  the  VandiUs,  but  was  recovered 
by  Belisarius,  only  to  be  captured  by  the  Qoths 
under  Totila.    Eventually,  however,  it  became  sub- 

Sct  to  the  exarchs  of  Ravenna,  and  remained  a 
3rsantine  poesession  until  the  ei^th  century.  At 
the  end  of  the  sixth  and  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
oentoiy  the  Roman  Church  owned  large  landed  es- 
tates in  Corsica.  By  the  Donation  of  Pepin  the  Short 
(754-55)  the  island  came  under  the  civil  sovereignty 
of  the  popes  (liber  Pcmtif.,  ed.  Duchesne,  I,  498;  II, 
104,  note  35).  From  the  eidith  to  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury it  was  frequently  plunaered  by  Saracen  pirates. 
Pisa  then  set  up  a  claim  of  overlordship  which  was 
soon  disputed  by  Cienoa.  In  1300  the  latter  made 
good  its  claim  to  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  influence 
hitherto  exercised  by  Pisa,  and  desoite  numerous 
revolutions  fSampiero,  1567;  Baron  Neuhof,  1729' 
Paoii,  1755)  held  at  least  a  nominal  authority  until 
1768.  In  that  year  Genoa  ceded  Corsica  to  France, 
since  which  time  the  island  has  remained  a  French 
province.  Ajaccio,  its  chief  town,  is  historically 
tamous  as  the  birthplace  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  Cnristianity  was  intro- 
duced into  Corsica  in  Apostolic  times.  Ughelli,  in  his 
"  Italia  Sacra",  says  of  Mariana,  one  of  the  oldest  set- 
tlements: "It  received  the  Catholic  Faith,  and  has 
had  its  own  pastors,  ever  since  the  times  of  the  Apos- 
tles";  but  this  would  be  difficult  to  establish.  An- 
other tradition  which  finds  favour  with  historians  is, 
that  Christianity  was  spread  in  the  island  by  con- 
fessors of  the  Faith  exiled  thither  (Heraenrdther,  I,  in 
French  tr.,  Paris,  1901,  p:  297).  The  BoUandists  s^ 
the  country  was  entirely  Christian  in  a.  d.  439.    It 

fkve  saints  and  martyrs  to  the  Church;  Mgr.  de  la 
oata,  in  his  "Recherches"  (a 


phy  infra), 
cites  iSbe  names  of  three  Corsican  Friars  Minor  of  the 
Observance^  Bemarduio  Alberti,  Franceschino  Muo- 
diieli,  Teonlo  DesM;norio,  whose  virtues  had  been 
authoritatively  declared  heroic,  and  also  claims  as 
Gorsicans  St.  Lauiina,  virgin  and  martyr,  whose  fes- 
tival was  celebrated  as  a  fint-class  feast  in  the  ancient 
Dioceae  of  Aleria,  St.  Parthoeus,  martyr,  St.  Vinde- 
miaUs  and  St.  Florentius.  It  is  said,  also,  that  St. 
JuUa  was  a  Corsican. 

We  have  seen  that  before  and  after  600  Corsica 
was  in  dose  dependence  on  the  Apostolic  See,  and 
always  remained  so,  (see  Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese 
d'ltalia,  XVI,  307  sqq.).  In  1077  Gregory  VII 
named  as  his  vicariua  for  Corsica  the  Bishop  of  Pisa. 
In  1092  Pope  Uri)an  II  made  its  bishops  suffragans 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Pisa.  In  1133  Innocent  II, 
having  granted  the  pallium  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Genoa,  gave  him  for  suffragans  the  Corsican  Bishops 
of  Mariana,  Nebbio,  and  Accia,  the  Archbishop  of 
Pisa  retaining  as  suffragans  the  sees  of  Ajaccio,  Aleria, 
and  Sagona.  The  Bishoprics  of  Mariana  and  Accia 
were  united,  30  January,  1563*  About  1580  the 
Blessed  Alexander  Sauli  (q.  v.),  known  as  the 
"Apostle  of  Corsica"  awoke  the  islanders  to  a  more 
earnest  rdigious  life  and  founded  a  seminary  on  the 
model  of  those  decreed  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  At 
the  time  of  the  French  Revolution  there  were  five 
dioceses  in  Corsica:  Mariana  and  Accia,  Nebbio, 
Aleria,  Sagona,  and  Ajaccio.    A  decree  of  12  July, 

1790,  of  the  National  Assembly  at  Paris,  whose  mem- 
bers had  voted  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Cleigy, 
reduced  these  five  bishoprics  to  one,  giving  to  Bastia 
the  pastoral  care  of  the  whole  island.    On  8  May, 

1791,  the  election  of  the  Constitutional  bishop  took 
place.  The  choice  of  the  electois  fell  upon  the  canon 
Ignatitis  Francis  Guasco,  Vicar-General  of  Mariana, 
and  Provost  of  the  Cathedral.  He,  however,  made  a 
public  and  solemn  recantation  22  December,  1794. 
the  Concordat  of  1801,  between  the  Holy  See  and  the 


French  Republic,  which  officially  restored  Catholic 
worship  in  France,  made  of  Coraica  a  sii^e  diocese 
with  Ajaccio  as  its  episcopal  city.  (See  G^ncordat 
OF  1801 ;  Ajaccio.)  St.  EAiphrasius,  bishop  and  mar- 
tp,  is  the  patron  of  the  diocese.  Sts.  JuJia  and 
Devota  were  declared  patronesses  of  the  island  by 
decree  of  the  8.  C.  of  Kites,  5  August,  1809,  and  14 
March,  1820.  The  "Directorium  Cleri"  of  the  dio- 
cese for  1907  states  that  there  are  in  Corsica  one 
bishop  and  five  hundred  and  ninety-seven  priests, 
professors,  directora,  and  chaplains.  There  are  one 
vicar-general,  eipht  titular  canons,  twenty-nine  hon- 
orary canons,  nve  archpriests,  thirteen  parishes  of 
the  first  class,  forty-eight  of  the  second  class,  and 
three  hundred  and  thirty-three  chapels.  Parochial 
coimcils,  composed  of  members  of  the  laity,  assist  the 
parish  priests,  since  the  suppression  of  the  former 
boards  of  trustees  by  the  separation  of  Churdi  and 
State.  In  Ajaccio  there  was,  until  recently,  a  dioc- 
esan seminaxy,  but  the  students  were  din>ersed  on 
account  of  the  non-acceptance  by  Pope  Pius  X  of 
the  so-caUed  "Law  of  Separation".  At  the  time 
it  ceased  to  exist,  it  had  thirty-eight  students  and 
ten  candidates  for  the  priesthood.  Eveiy  newly 
ordained  priest  is  required  to  present  himself  yeariy 
for  five  consecutive  years  for  examination  in  ecclesi- 
astical sciences  before  a  special  committee.  The 
degrees  in  theology  may  dispense  from  several  or  all 
of  these  examinations,  but  a  young  priest  is  never 
admitted  to  the  parish  ministry  without  having 
passed  an  examination  of  this  kind.  In  Corsica 
there  are  numerous  charitable  and  pious  brother- 
hoods, founded  in  the  days  of  Italian  rule.  Several 
of  these  associations  assemble  in  their  own  chapels. 
Tlie  churches  are  usually  of  the  Italian  style  of 
architecture  and  sometimes  richly  adorned.  The 
Society  for  the  Propa^tion  of  the  Faith  is  directed 
by  a  diocesan  committee  instituted  13  Fel>ruary, 
1859.  The  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society  has  two 
conferences.  An  Association  for  free  Catholic  schools 
is  supported  by  the  subscriptions  of  the  faithful,  idio 
also  provide  for  the  needs  of  Catholic  worship. 
Before  the  suppression  of  the  religious  orders  there 
were  in  Corsica  one  house  of  the  Jesuits,  six  Francis- 
cans, one  Dominican,  and  five  Capuchin  monasteries, 
and  one  house  of  the  Oblates  of  Mary.  These,  as  well 
as  tiie  schools  of  the  Christian  Brothera  and  all  convent 
schools,  have  been  closed  by  the  Government.  Th^e 
are  still  six  convents  of  nuns.  In  consequence  of  the 
new  laws  of  France,  the  Catholic  Church  in  Corsica,  a 
poor  country,  is  confronted  with  a  crisis:  the  people, 
nabituated  to  look  to  the  State  for  the  support  of 
public  worship,  must  now  adopt  new  methods  and 
make  many  sacrifices  for  the  maintenance  of  religion. 
PlETBo  Felcb  (or  Petrus  Cybnoeub),  ChrofUde  to  tht  Year 
IIM  in  MuKATORi,  Italioarum  Rerum  Seriptons^  by  della 
Groma,  Ckccaldx,  and  Montegoianx,  ChnmieUa,  continued 
to  1590  by  FxuppiNi,  and  tr.  into  French  by  Lbttbbon  (Bm- 
tia);  Gaudin,  FoyKuw  en  Cone  (latter  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century);  Renucci,  Storia  di  Ccnioa  (Bastia.  1834);  Robxqubt. 
Reeherchee  .  .  .  «ur  2a  Cone  (PariB,  1835);  Fbxbss.  HiaUnn  dee 
Conee  (Bastia,  1852);  GBSOosovroa,  HiaUrire  dee  Conee,  a 
French  tr.  of  the  German  work  (Stutt«art  and  TCkfaiii«en,  1854). 
by  Luccxana;  Gxamabcbi.  Vita  ppliUea  di  Pcu^uale  Paoli 
(Bastia,  1858);  Galeth,  Hiatoire  Muatrie  de  la  Cone  (Paris, 
1863);  BonaoK,  En  Corae;  Comapondonee  de  1887  (Palis); 
d'OrnanOj  La  Cone  milUain  (Paris);  Bulietin  de  la  SoeiiU  dta 
Sciencea  kiatoriquea  et  naturellea  de  la  Cone  (periodical,  Bastia; 
a  magasine  of  valuable  documents  for  Corsican  history}:  de 
i«A  FoATA,  Racherdtea  et  notea  divenea  aur  VhiaUtin  da  Veffltae  de 
Corae  (Bastia,  1895);  Ortolan,  IHjOomata  et  SoUkU;  Mar. 
CaaanelH  d^hiria,  EvSque  d" Ajaccio  (Paris,  19(X));  Cobtona. 
Hiat.  de  la  Corae  (Paris,  1006) ;  Poli.  La  Corae  dona  Vanti^iti 
et  dona  le  hout  moyen  Age  (Pans,  1907). 

AlBXANDRS  GUAflCO. 

Oortas,  DoNoso.    See  Donoso  Cortes. 

Oortes,  Hernando,  conqueror  of  Mexico,  b.  at 
Medellin  in  Spain  c.  1485;  d.  at  Gastiileja  de  la  Cuesta 
near  Seville,  2  December,  1547.  He  was  married 
first  to  CatfUina  Xuarez,  from  which  marriage  thcro 


0OR7BS 


398 


00&Ti8 


was  no  issue,  and,  after  her  death,  to  I>ofia  Juana  de 
Zufiiga,  niece  of  the  Duke  of  Bejar.  From  this  union 
there  sprang  four  children,  one  son  (Martin)  and 
three  daughters.  His  parents  were  Martin  Cortes 
de  Monro V  and  Catalina  Pizarro  Altamirano,  both  of 
honourable  extraction,  belonging  to  the  middle  class 
of  nobility,  but  not  wealthy.  They  sent  their  son  to 
school  at  Salamanca  when  he  was  fourteen  vears  of 
age,  but  study  was  irksome  to  him,  his  restless  and 
ambitious  temper  chafed  under  restraint,  and  he 
returned  home  much  to  the  displeasure  of  his  parents. 
As  he  was  the  only  son,  they  looked  upon  him  as  tlieir 
hope  and  future  support,  and  had  wished  that  he 
would  adopt  the  protes-  __^ 
sion  of  the  law.  Dissatis-  ^ — 
fied  at  home  Cort^  turned 
his  eyes  to  the  newly  dis- 
covered Western  world, 
and,  after  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  embark 
for  the  West  Indies  with 
Ovando,  succeeded  in 
reachioyg  Espaflola  in  a 
craft  commanded  by  one 
Quintero,  who  signalized 
himself  during  the  voy- 
a^  by  trying  to  deceive 
his  superiors  and  reacli 
the  New  World  before 
them  in  order  to  secure 
personal  advantages.  It 
may  be  that  the  example 
of  Quintero  was  a  school 
for  Cort^  in  his  subse- 

Suent  career.  The  life 
ort^  led  in  the  Antilles 
was  that  of  the  military 
man  of  his  time,  with  in- 
tervals of  rest  on  such 
estates  as  he  gradually 
acquired.  He  was  a  fa- 
vourite of  both  Ovando 
and  Velasquez,  but  he 
quarrelled  with  the  latter, 
aeceived  him  and  made 
him  a  mortal  enemy.  The 
consequences  were  very 
serious,  for  Velazquez  was 
Governor  of  Cuba  and  a 
man  of  influence  at  court.  ■ 
The  conduct  of  Cort^ 
during  his  stay  in  the 
AntiUes  (1504-1519)  re- 
vealed, besides  military 
aptitude  (which  he  had 


manned  With  well-anned  men,  and  horses  and  artilleiy 
were  embarked.  At  the  last  moment  Velaaques, 
whose  suspicions  were  aroused  by  the  actions  of 
Cort^,  instigated  by  his  surroundings,  attempted  to 
prevent  the  departure.  It  was  too  late;  CSortw,  after 
the  example  set  by  Quintero,  slipped  away  from  the 
Cuban  coast  and  thus  began  the  conquest  of  Mexico. 
His  life  from  the  time  he  sailed  on  nis  momentous 
undertaking  in  1619  is  so  intimately  linked  with  tlie 
history  of  Mexico,  that  the  reader  may  be  referred 
for  additional  details  to  the  articles  Mexico,  Aztsgs, 
and  Pedro  de  Alvarado. 

As  a  soldier  Cort^  put  to  use  in  Mexico  the  Indian 
mode  of  warfare  lie  had 
observed  in  the  Antilles, 
and  it  enabled  him  to 
achieve  an  unbroken  soo- 
oess  in  the  open  field. 
Indian  defensive  tactics 
from  buildinxB  and  walls 
were  new  to  him,  but  he 
quickly  saw  both  their 
strong  and  their  weak 
points,  and  his  reduction 
of  the  island  settlement 
of  Tenochtitlan  was  no 
small  feat.  He  recognized 
at  an  early  date  the  Indian 
method  of  proceeding  by 
decoy  and  ambush,  and 
this  led  to  his  success 
against  the  tribe  of  Tlax* 
oals.  He  was  very  quick 
in  detecting  devices  and 
stratagems,  even  in  time 
of  apparent  peace,  and  in 
adopting  and  executing 
measiues  to  defeat  them. 
One  of  the  most  rranark- 
able  instances  is  what  has 
been  called  the  "  massacre 
of  Cholula".  WhenCort^ 
was  at  the  laige  Indian 
settlement  of  Tlaxcals 
and  had  perfected  an  alli- 
ance with  that  people, 
some  Indians  from  the 
neighbouring  tribe  of 
Cholula  urged  him  to  visit 
their  home.  He  was 
warned  not  to  go,  since 
the  visitors  did  not  ex- 
press the  wish  of  their 
kindred,  who  were  bit- 
terly opposed  to  dealing 


small  opportunity  of  dis-  (Painting  in  the  Hospital  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  Mexico)  witfi    tte    Span  iards" 


playing),  shrewdness,  dar- 

mg  (in  his  dealings  with  Velazquez),  and  no  excess 

of  scruples  in  morals. 

In  1517  Cordova  reached  the  coast  of  Yucatan, 
while  commanding  a  modest  expedition  despatched 
by  Velazquez.  He  was  mortally  wounded  and  only 
a  remnant  of  his  crew  reached  Cuba  again,  bring- 
ing back  news  of  the  superior  culture  of  the  people 
they    had    met.^    Another    expedition    was    deter- 


Though  unacquainted 
with  the  character  of  the  natives,  he  marched  to 
Cholula,  but  noticed  that  a  trap  was  being  set  for 
him.  He  prevented  the  outbreiJc  by  an  attack  on 
the  Indians,  and  after  a  short  strug^e  forced  them 
into  submission. 

The  most  daring  of  his  exploits,  and  one  that  may 
be  qualified  as  absolutely  reckless  although  success- 
ful, was  his  mareh  on  Narvaez  who.  with  a  much 


mined  upon,  and  was  earned  out  the  year  followmg    superior  force  of  Spaniards,  had  landed  on  the  gulf 
under  the^  leadership  of  Grijalva.    It  touched  the    coast  with  orders  from  Velaioues,  not  onfy  to  supers 

sede  Cort^,  but  to  capture  nim  and  bnng  him  to 


coast  of  Mexico,  and  brought  home  metallic  objects 
and  evidences  of  superior  culture.  Ere  Grijalva  had 
come  back,  Velazquez  determined  to  send  a  third 
and  more  numerous  squadron  to  the  Mexican  coast. 
Cortes,  then  one  of  Vdazouez's  favourites,  was 
named  as  the  commander,  a  choice  which  created  no 
little  envy.  Cort^  entered  into  the  enterprise  with 
zeal  and  enei^,  sacrificing  with  too  mucn  ostenta- 
tion a  considerable  part  of  his  fortune  to  equip  the 
expedition.    Eleven  vessels  were  brought  together, 


trial  in  Cuba  for  disobedience  and  treason  towards 
the  governor.  Leaving  only  one  hundred  and  forty 
men  under  Alvarado  to  hold  an  Indian  settlement  of 
twenty  thousand  souls,  he  set  out  ac^inst  Narvaes, 
who  had  nine  hundred  soldiers,  while  Cortes,  rein- 
forced as  he  approached  the  coast,  mustered  about 
two  himdred  and  sixty.  With  these  he  surprised  hii 
antagonist  and  took  him  prisoner.  The  move  was  a 
desperate  one,  as  the  sequel  proved.    But  the  epsciet 


CX)RTfal 


399 


ooRTia 


of  his  success  lay  in  his  marvellously  quick  move- 
m^its,  for  which  Narvaez  was  not  prepared,  as  well 
as  in  his  rapid  return  to  the  plateau,  by  which  he  sur- 
prised the  Indians  who  held  Alvarado  and  his  people 
at  their  mercy.  The  desperate  defence  of  the  Span- 
iards in  the  absence  of  Uort^  would  have  been  un- 
availing had  the  latter  not  moved  ^ith  such  celerity. 
In  (x>ntrast  with  that  lightning-like  quickness,  but 
equally  well  adapted  to  the  necessities  of  the  case, 
was  the  methodical  investment  and  capture  of  the 
lake  settlement,  showing  the  fertility  of  the  con- 
G^ueror's  mind  in  suiting  nis  tactics  to  altered  condi- 
tions. 

To  these  military  accomplishments  Cort^  joined 
an  unusual  perspicacity  in  penetrating  the  general 
situation  in  aboriginal  Mexico.    He  saw,  soon  after 
landing  at  Vera  Cruz,  the  looseness  of  the  bonds  b^ 
which  the  Indian  tribes  were  coxmected,  and  yet  his 
keen  perception  remained  at  fault  in  tliat  he  did  not  ap- 
preciate (nor  could  he,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  times, 
understand)  Indian  tribal  organization.    The  sway 
the  tribes  of  the  table-land  and  interior  lake-basin 
held  over  many  of  their  neighbours  appeared  to  him 
(judging  from  European  and  Asiatic  models)  as  an 
evidence  of  a  consolidated  empire;  the  ofRces  of 
superior  rank  held  by  chiefs,  as  parts  of  an  organized 
hierarchy  or  feudal  lordships;  and  the  heaa  war- 
chief  a  hereditary  autocrat.    Of  the  nature  of  tribal 
society  he  had  not,  and  could  not  have,  any  idea. 
While,  therefore,   his   attempts   at   winning  tribes 
leagued  with  the  Mexican  confederacv  over  to  the 
Spanish  cause  were  usually  successful,  he  was  less 
fortunate  in  his  relations  wnth  the  Mexicans  them- 
selves.   His  seizure  of  the  person  of  Montezuma,  the 
head  war-chief  of  the  confederates,  did  not  have  the 
expected  result.    Led  by  the   belief^  that  Monte- 
zuma was  a  supreme  ruler,  hence  the  pivot  of  a  state, 
Cort^   confidently  hoped  to  control  the  Mexican 
tribe  and  its  confederates  through  his  captive.    The 
seizure  itself  appears  as  an  act  of  singular  daring,  and 
Cort^  and  his  men  were  astonished  at  the  ease  with 
which  it  was  executed,  and  the  lack  of  opposition  on 
the  part  of  the  Indians;  but  they  did  not  know  that 
their  prisoner  was  of  so  little  importance.    He  was 
an  elected  officer,  who  could  be  replaced  without 
trouble,  and  the  tribal  council,  supported  by  the 
medicine  men  and  gtiided  by  their  oracular  uttei^ 
ances,  were  the  real  heads  of  the  confederacy.    The 
general  outbreak  against  the  Spaniards  began  after 
Montezuma's  successor  had  been  installed;  until  then 
hostile  numifestations  were  limited  to  blockading 
Alvarado. 

For  the  sake  of  policy,  Cortfe  was,  in  general,  far 
from  cruel  towards  the  Indians.  He  allowed  Cuauh- 
temotzin  to  be  tortured  in  order  to  force  him  to 
reveal  the  whereabouts  of  his  supposed  hidden  treas- 
ures. Such  acts  ^ere  not  uncommon  at  that  period, 
and  every  nation  was  at  times  guilty  of  them.  This 
cruelty  was,  however,  useless,  because  the  greater 
part  of  the  Mexican  treasures  had  already  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  Spaniards.  The  execution  of 
Cuauhtemotzin  on  the  journey  to  Honduras  was 
another  instance  of  the  misconception  by  Cort^  of 
Indian  conditions.  It  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  the 
Mexican  chieftain  was  party  to  a  nlan  to  exterminate 
the  Spaniards  while  they  were  noundering  through 
the  forests  and  swamps,  but  even  if  this  were  so,  his 
execution  was  not  necessary.  By  restraint  the 
same  object  might  have  been  achieved.  But  Cort^ 
had  an  exaggerated  conception  of  the  power  and 
influence  of  tXiauhtemotzin's  office,  as  he  had  in  the 
case  of  Montezuma.  To  the  Indians  as  a  mass  he 
was  kind.  He  recognized  that  their  preservation 
would  insure  eventual  prosperity  for  the  Spaniards, 
provided  the  Indians  gradually  accepted  European 
ideas.  Therefore  he  regarded  the  Church  as  the 
main  instrument  for  the  education  of  the  Indian. 


But  he  was  far  from  sharing  in  the  dreams  of  Las 
Casas.  His  relations  with  the  clergy  were  very 
cordial,  he  did  all  he  could  to  introduce  missionaries, 
and  even  Las  Casas  mentions  him  favourably.-  It 
has  been  intimated  that  the  kind  treatment  of  the 
Mexican  natives  by  Cort^  was  part  of  a  deeply-laid 
plan  to  use  his  conquest  of  Mexico  for  selnsh  and 
treasonable  purposes,  for  Cort^  was  not  always  the 
faithful  subject.  This  leads  us  to  consider  his  rela- 
tions to  the  Crown  of  Spain  and  a  few  points  of  his 
private  character. 

The  impression  has  prevailed  that  Cort^  was 
treated  by  the  Spanish  Government  with'  base  in- 
gratitude. It  is  true  that  a  few  years  after  1621 
an  unfavourable  change  took  place  in  his  relations 
with  the  EmperOT  Charles  V  and  his  government. 
The  change  never  led  to  an  absolute  break,  but  it 
caused  a  gradual  curtailing  of  his  power  which 
Cort^  felt  very  keenly.  While  lavishly  contribut- 
ing his  own  means  at  the  outset,  Cortege  made  his 
conquest  avowedly  as  a  Spanish  subject,  for  and 
in  behalf  of  Spain  and  its  monarch.  Mexico  be- 
came a  Spanish  colony  through  his  instrumentality, 
but  it  was  the  duty  of  the  Spanish  Government 
to  care  for  it.  Cort^  personally  was  not  un- 
generously rewarded,  but  he  speedily  complained  of 
insufficient  compensation  to  himself  and  his  com- 
rades. Thinking  himself  beyond  reach  of  restraint, 
he  disobeyed  many  of  the  orders  of  the  Crown,  and, 
what  was  more  imprudent,  said  so  in  a  letter  to  the 
emperor,  dated  15  October,  1524  (Ycazbalceta, 
''Documentoe  para  la  Historia  de  Mexico",  Mexico, 
1858,  I).  In  this  letter  Cortes,  besides  recalling  in 
a  rather  abrupt  manner  that  the  conauest  Of  Mexico 
was  due  to  him  alone,  deliberately  acknowledges  his 
disobedience  in  terms  which  could  not  fail  to  create 
a  most  unfavourable  impression.  Soon  after  the 
capture  of  the  Indian  settlement  the  Crown,  as  was 
its  prerogative,  in  1522  sent  to  Mexico  officers  to 
investigate  the  condition  of  affairs,  and  to  report  on 
the  conduct  of  Cort^.  To  this  he  could  not  object, 
as  it  was  an  established  custom.  The  commissioner, 
Tapia,  charged  with  the  investigation,  was  so  ham- 
pered, however,  by  the  officers  of  Cortifc  that  he  did 
not  even  reach  the  valley  of  Mexico,  but  returned 
without  carrying  out  his  orders.  Cort^  himself, 
while  keeping  at  a  distance,  treated  him  with  the 
utmost  courtesy,  but  rendered  all  action  on  his  part 
impossible.  A  second  commissioner,  Luis  Ponce  de 
Le6n,  was  sent  in  1526  with  discretionary  and  very 
dangerous  powers.  He  died  at  Mexico  soon  after 
his  arrival,  in  a  manner  that  leaves  little  doubt  of 
foul  play,  although  Prescott  discredits  it.  But  I¥es- 
cott  naa  not  then  the  documentary  material  since 
unearthed.  A  number  of  minor  charges  were  brought 
against  the  conqueror,  and  they  appear  to  have  been 
substantiated.  They  could  not  fail  to  create  grave 
suspicion,  because  they  presented  the  picture  of  a 
conspiracy,  the  object  of  which  was  to  make  Cort^ 
the  mdependent  ruler  of  Mexico.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances the  least  that  could  be  expected  was  the 
elimination  of  Cort^  from  the  government  of  the  new 
province.  The  situation  was  a  very  critical  one  for 
the  Crown.  Cort^  held  the  country  and  its  resources, 
and  controlled  a  body  of  officers  and  men  who4iad,  in 
1520,  expressed  to  the  emperor  in  writing  their  ad- 
miration for  their  captain,  and  dwelt  in  the  strongest 
terms  on  the  obligations  under  which  his  achieve- 
ments had  placed  the  mother  country.  It  is  true, 
in  case  of  a  clash,  Spain  might  have  counted  upon  the 
support  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Antilles,  but  the 
military  reputation  of  Cort^  had  become  so  great 
that  the  selection  of  a  leader  against  him  would 
have  been  very  embarrassing.  Hence  a  conflict  had 
to  be  avoided  as  long  as  possible.  Cort^'  positicm 
was  gradually  undermined,  titles  and  honours  were 
conferred   upon   him,  but   not   the  administrative 


OORTME 


400 


(XATWE 


authority  he  coveted.  At  the  same  time  his  attention 
was  insensibly  directed  to  explorations  outside  of 
America,  to  the  much-desired  Moluccas  or  Spice 
Islands. 

At  a  time  when  there  was  almost  a  certainty,  in 
court  circles  in  Spain,  of  an  intended  rebellion  by 
Cort^,  a  charge  was  brought  against  him  that  cast  a 
fat^  bUght  upon  his  character  and  plans.  He  was 
accused  of  the  murder  of  his  first  wife.  Pieecott 
makes  lij^ht  of  the  accusation,  but  his  opinion  has 
little  weight  because,  as  above  stated,  evidence  has 
since  been  discovered  which  was  beyond  his  reach. 
This  evidence  leaves  no  doubt  that  Catalina  Xuarez 
was  strangled  by  her  husband.  The  proceedings  of 
the  investigation  were  kept  secret.  No  report, 
either  exonerating  or  condemning  Cort^,  was  pub- 
lished. Uad  the  Government  declared  him  innocent, 
it  would  have  greatly  increased  his  popularity;  had  it 
declared  him  a  criminal,  a  crisis  would  have  been 
precipitated  by  the  accused  and  his  part^.  Silence 
was  the  only  safe  policy.  But  tliat  silence  is  a 
strong  indication  that  grave  danger  was  appre- 
hended from  his  influence.  It  is  curious  that,  after 
the  conquest  of  the  Mexicans  had  been  consummated, 
but  more  particularly  after  the  sinister  deeds  above 
mentioned,  success  seems  to  have  abandoned  his 
banner.  Excluded  from  the  government  of  Mexico, 
his  eyes  were  turned  to  further  exnloration.  Don 
Antonio  de  Mendoza,  first  viceroy  of  New  Spain,  was 
looked  upon  by  Cort^  as  his  enemy,  but  the  accusa- 
tion that  he  opposed  and  hampered  Cort^  in  nearly 
evervoneofliis  new  enterprises  is  not  justified.  It  was 
the  latter  who,  at  once,  opened  a  violent  campai^ 
against  everybody  who  approached  what  he  consid- 
ered his  new  domain.  He  found  grave  faults  with 
every  measure,  and  resorted  to  statements  that  were 
utterly  baseless.  Thus  his  attack  upon  Father 
Marcos  of  Nizza,  charging  him  with  having  attributed 
to  himself  the  discovery  of  New  Mexico  while  in 
reality  he,  Cort^,  had  been  the  discoverer,  is  so 
groundless  that  it  appears  almost  ridiculous.  Every 
expedition  set  on  foot  bv  Cort^  in  the  Pacific  either 
failed  abeolutelv  or  proauced  meagre,  unsatisfactory 
results.  Soured  by  these  failures  which  stood  in 
flagrant  contrast  to  the  brilliant  success  of  his  early 
efforts^  Cortes  became  a  chronic  complainant.  He 
saw  his  influence  gone,  his  prestige  waning.  The 
Government  could  not  forget  the  proofs  of  unrelia- 
bility which  the  conqueror  of  Mexico  had  given 
when  he  thought  himself  master  of  the  situation. 
The  emperor  finally  permitted  him  to  join  the  great 
expedition  apainst  Algiers  in  1541.  It  may  be  that 
had  the  advice  of  Cort^  been 'followed  that  under- 
tiJdng  would  have  had  a  less  disastrous  end;  but  he 
was  not  even  consulted.  The  enterprise  failed,  and 
the  conqueror  of  Mexico  did  not  long  survive  the 
failure. 

Cort^  was  a  good  writer.  His  letters  to  the  em- 
peror, on  the  conquest,  deserve  to  be  classed  among 
the  best  Spanish  documents  of  the  period.  They 
are,  of  course,  coloured  so  as  to  place  his  own  achieve- 
ments in  relief,  but,  withal,  he  keeps  within  bounds 
and  does  not  exaggerate,  except  in  matters  of  Indian 
civilisation  and  the  numbers  of  population  as  implied 
by  the  size  of  the  settlements.  Even  there  he  uses 
comparatives  only,  jud^g  from  outward  appear- 
ances and  from  impressions.  His  first  letter  is  lost, 
and  the  one  from  the  munioipaUtv  of  Vera  Cruz  has  to 
take  its  place.  It  was  published  for  the  first  time  in 
volume  IV  of  ''Documentos  para  la  Historia  de 
Espafia",  and  subsequently  reprinted.  The  ''Se- 
gunda  Carta  de  Relacion'',  bearing  the  date  of  30 
Oct.,  1520,  appeared  in  print  at  SevUle  in  1522.  The 
''Carta  teroera",  15  May,  1522,  appeared  at  Seville 
in  1523.  The  fourth,  20  October,  1524,  was  printed 
at  Toledo  in  1525.  The  fifth,  on  the  Honduras  ex- 
pedition, is  contained  in  volume  IV  of  the  "Docu« 


mentos  para  la  Hist,  de  Espafia".  The  important 
letter  mentioned  in  the  text  has  been  published  under 
the  heading  of  "Carta  in^to  de  Cort^"  by  Ycas- 
balceta.  A  great  number  of  minor  documents,  either 
by  Cort^  or  others,'  for  or  acainst  him,  are  dispersed 
through  the  voluminous  eolation  above  cited  and 
through  the  ''Colecci6n  de  Dooumentos  de  Indias", 
as  well  as  in  the  "Documentos  para  la  Historia 
de  M^ico"  of  Ycasbalceta.  Of  his  letters  on  the 
conquest  there  are  a  number  of  reprints  and  transla- 
tions into  various  languages. 

See  articles  on  Aztegb  and  Mexico  for  the  bulk  of  litaoitare 
on  the  conquest  of  Mexico  and  the  part  played  by  Cortda  in  it. 
Peter  Marttr  and  especially  Ovieoo  were  contempoiarieB; 
their  statementa  therafore  deserve  particular  aftteation. 
although  absolute  impartiality  and  miability  cannoi  be 
expected.  On  the  sinister  occurrences  of  the  death  of  Poooe 
de  Le6n  and  of  Catalina  Xuares  the  Documenioe  de  India* 
contain  the  authentic  investications.  The  early  life  of  GorUs 
is  described  at  ieni^h  in  a  f racment  from  the  sixteenth  oootury. 
De  Rebus  Oestia  rerdinand  Cortesii^  author  unlmown*  pub- 
lished by  YcACBALCETA  iQ  his  Documenioe,  I,  first  aeries. 
Bbbnal  DiAS  DEX«  CAflTiLLo  gives  maoy  yery  valuable  date  on 
Gort^,  but  he  must  be  classed  amonc  writen  on  the  oo&quest. 

An.  F.  Bandelx£r. 

Oortase,  Giovanni  Andrea  (his  name  in  the 
Benedictine  Order  was  Gregono),  cardinal  and 
monastic  reformer,  b.  1483  at  Modena;  d.  21  Sept, 
1548.  After  receiving  a  training  in  the  Humanities 
at  Modena  imder  the  learned  Cistercian  Yarino  of 
Piacenza,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  juris- 
prudence for  five  years,  first  at  Bologna,  then  at 
Padua,  and  was  graduated  as  doctor  oTlaws  at  the 
early  age  of  seventeen.  His  thorough  knowtedge  of 
the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  induced  Caroinal 
Giovanni  de'  Medici,  the  future  Pope  Leo  X,  to  take 
him  into  his  service  and  afterwards  appoint  him  legal 
auditor  in  the  Curia.  Desirous  of  leading  a  more 
quiet  life,  Cortese  resigned  this  office  and  in  1507 
entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Folirone  near 
Mantua,  one  of  the  most  flourishing  abbeys  of  the 
recently  founded  Cassinese  Coimegation.  When 
Cardinal  Giovanni  de'  Medici  h^ira  that  his  fonner 
auditor  had  become  a  monk,  he  addressed  a  letter  to 
him  expressing  his  surprise  and  displeasure  at  the  step 
which  Cortese  had  taken  and  urging  him  to  l^tve  tfaie 
monastery  and  resume  his  former  occupation  in  Borne. 
In  his  answer  to  the  cardinal's  letter  Cortese  points 
out  the  great  dangers  which  beset  his  soul  when  he 
was  still  engaged  in  worldlv  pursuits,  and  c^^eaks  of  the 
interior  happiness  which  he  experienced  while  chant- 
ing the  Divine  praises  and  applying  himself  to  the 
stud^  of  Holy  Smpture.  When  m  1 513  Giovanni  de ' 
Medici  ascended  the  papal  throne  as  Leo  X.  Cortese 
sent  him  a  letter  of  con^atulation  in  which,  however, 
he  did  not  omit  to  remind  the  new  pontiff  of  his  duty 
to  begin  at  last  that  general  reform  of  which  the 
Church  stood  in  extreme  need.  Like  many  other 
saintly  and  learned  men  of  the  time,  Cortese  was 
deeply  grieved  at  the  indifference  manifested  by 
many  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  towards  a  wholesome 
internal  reform  of  the  Church.  It  is  due  to  his 
untiring  zeal  that  the  Benedictine  reform,  which  had 
recently  been  inaugurated  in  Italy  by  the  C^issineae 
Congregation,  was  carried  through,  and  that,  with  the 
return  of  monastic  discipline,  the  Benedictine  monas- 
teries of  Italy  again  became  seata  of  that  learning  for 
which  they  had  heen  so  famous  in  the  past 

In  1516  Augustin  de  Grimaldi,  Bisnop  of  Graose 
and  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Ldrins,  united  his 
monastery  with  the  Cassinese  Congregation,  and, 
upon  the  bishop's  request,  Cortese  and  a  few  others 
were  sent  thither  to  assist  in  introducing  the  Cassinese 
reform.  Here  Cortese  devoted  himself  to  litenuy 
puxsuits,  and  in  order  to  promote  the  study  of  the 
Humanities  he  founded  an  academy  where  he  and 
other  learned  members  of  the  monastery  educated  the 
French  youth,  thus  becoming  instrumental  in  trans- 
planting to  French  soil  the  literary  Humanistic  move* 


OOBTQMA 


401 


ocuvnm4 


jient.  The  moral  and  literary  reform  of  h6njm  was 
assured  when  in  1524  Coctese  was  elected  its  abbot. 
His  health,  however,  was  greatly  impaired  during;  his 
sojourn  at  L^rins,  so  that  in  1527  he  considered 
a  change  of  climate  indispensable  and  asked  ^e 
superior  of  the  congregation  for  permission  to  return 
to  Italy.  As  a  result,  ne  was  appointed  Abbot  of  St. 
Peter's  at  Modena;  a  year  later,  Abbot  of  St  Peter's  at 
Peru^;  and  in  15i37  Abbot  of  the  famous  San  Giorgio 
Maggiore  at  Venice.  Cortese  was  now  considered  one 
of  the  most  learned  men  in  Italy  and  had  regular 
correspondence  with  the  greatest  scholars  in  Europe. 
He  counted  among  his  friends  Gasparo  Contarini, 
Reginald  Pole,  Jacopo  Sadoleto,  Pietro  Bembo,  Gian 
Matteo  Giberti,  and  many  other  Humanists  and 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries.  The  garden  of  San  Giorgio 
was  the  place  where  those  pious  and  learned  discus- 
sions were  held  to  which  the  Florentine  scholar  Bruo- 
ciolo  refers  in  his  dialogues  on  moral  philosophy.  In 
1536  Pope  Paul  III  made  him  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee of  nine  ecclesiastics  who  were  to  draw  up  a 
statement  of  those  ecclesiastical  abuses  which  caHed 
most  loudly  for  reform.  Soon  after,  he  was  appointed 
Apostolic  visitor  for  the  whole  of  Italy  and,  some- 
what later,  was  sent  to  Gennany  to  take  part  in  the 
theological  disputation  at  Worms  in  1540,  but  became 
sick  on  the  journey  and  was  obliged  to  remain  in 
Italy.  Meanwhile  (1538)  he  had  become  Abbot  of 
San  Benedetto  in  Polirone,  then  the  most  important 
monastery  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation.  A  few 
times,  moreover,  he  was  chosen  visitor  general  of  his 
congregation.  Fiuallv,  2  June,  1542,  Pope  Paul  III 
createa  him  cardinal-priest  and  appointed  him  a 
member  of  the  conunittee  of  cardinals  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  same  year  he  became  Bishop  of  Urbino.  During 
the  five  years  of  his  cardinalate  he  was  an  esteemed 
friend  and  adviser  of  Paul  III,  and  used  all  his 
influence  to  bring  about  that  reform  of  the  Church  for 
which  the  better  sort  of  ecclesiastics  had  been  clam* 
ouring  many  years. 

Cortese  was  one  of  the  best-known  writers  of  his 
times.  He  was  master  of  such  a  finished  style  that 
the  classically  trained  Cardinal  Bembo  and  others  did 
not  hesitate  to  class  him  among  the  most  elegant 
Latin  writers  of  this  Humanistic  period.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  epistles,  poenis,  a  treatise  proving  that 
St.  Peter  was  in  Rome,  a  Latin  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  from  the  Greek  texts,  a  historical  work  on 
the  destruction  of  Genoa,  etc.  All.  his  extant  works 
were  collected  and  edited  with  a  biography  of  the 
author  by  the  Benedictine  Bishop  Gradenigo  of 
Ceneda  in  two  volumes  (Padua,  1774). 

F^iANDi,  Elogio  atorico  del  CardincUe  Greoorio  CorUae  (Pavia, 
1788);  Ansab,  Vie  de  Gr6goire  CorUa,  Wn.,  iv^oue  d*Urbin  et 
cardinal  (Paris,  1786);  DiTTRiCHin /iCtrcAenfor..-%ie<3BLBAt7BiK, 
Hiai,  Lit.  0. 8.  B.,  IH.  339-344;  Ciacjoniub-Oldoinos,  Vila  H 
rea  geatw  Pontificum  Rom.  et  S.  R.  E.  Cardinalium  (Rome,  1677), 
III.  683  sqq.;  Horteb,  Nomendator  (Freiburg,  1899),  IV, 
1278  sq. 

Michael  Ott. 

Ooxtona,  Diocese  of  (Cortonensis),  immediately 
subject  to  the  Holy  See.  Cortona  is  a  small  citjr  in 
the  province  of  Arezzo,  Tuscany,  Central  Italy,  situ- 
ated on  a  commanding  hill,  and  overlooking  the  Lake 
of  Perugia.  Its  cyclopean  walls,  still  in  great  part 
preserved,  are  said  to  be  3000  vears  old.  It  is  cer- 
tainly very  ancient,  was  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of 
Etruria,  and  in  its  neighbouiiiood  many  ruins  and 
Etruscan  tombs  are  still  to  be  found.  Oortona  took 
part  in  all  the  wars  against  Rome,  until  310  B.C.,  when 
Fabius  Rullianus  ddeated  the  Etruscans  and  took 
Perugia  which,  thereupon,  with  other  cities,  made 
peace  with  Rome.  Later  it  was  destroyed  by  the 
Lombards  but  was  soon  rebuilt.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  it  was  governed  by  the  Casali,  and  became 
afterwards  part  of  the  great  Duchy  of  Tuscany. 
Many  famous  men  were  oom  or  lived  in  Cortona: 
IV.— 26 


Brother  Elias  (Elia  Coppi),  the  famous  compankili  of 
St.  Francis  of  Assist,  fuud  later  Vicar-^eneial  of  the 
Franciscan  Order;  Cardinals  Egidio  B<mi  and  Silvio 
Passerini;  the  painter  Luoa  Signorelli;  the  architect 
and  painter  Pietro  Berrettini  (Pietro  da  Cortona). 
One  of  the  ^ories  of  the  city  is  St.  Margaret  of  Cor- 
tona (1248-97).  She  was  bom  at  Laviano  (Alviano) 
in  the  Diocese  of  Chiusi,  and  formed  an  evil  relation 
with  a  nobleman 
of  the  vicinity.  On 
discovering  his 
body  after  he  had 
met  a  violent 
death,  she  repent- 
ed suddenly,  and 
after  a  pubuc  pen- 
ance, retired  to 
Cortona,  where 
she  took  the  habit 
of  a  Tertiary  of 
St.  Francis  and 
devoted  her  life  to 
works  of  penance 
and  charity.  There 
still  exist  at  Cor- 
tona religious 
works  due  to  her 
zeaX.  Leo  X  per^ 
mitted  her  vener- 
ation at  Cortona, 
and  Urban  VIII 
extended  the  priv- 
ilege to  the  Franciscan  Order.  Benedict  XIII  canonized 
her  in  1728.  Her  body  rests  in  a  beautiful  sarcophagus 
in  the  church  dedicated  to  her  at  Cortona.  It  is  not 
known  whether  Cortona  was  an  episcopal  see  previous 
to  its  destruction  by  the  Lombards.  From  that  time 
until  1326  it  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Arezao.  In 
that  year,  at  the  request  of  Guglielmo  C'asali,  John 
XXII  raised  Cortona  to  episcopal  rank,  as  a  reward 
for  the  fidelity  of  its  Guelph  populace,  Arezzo  remain- 
ing Ghibelline.  The  first  bishop  was  Rainerio  Ubcr- 
tini.  Other  bishops  were  Luca  Grazio,  who  was  a  dis- 
tinguiahed  member  of  the  Council  of  Florence  (1438) ; 
Matteo  Concini  (1560)  and  Gerolamo  Gaddi  (1662) 
were  present  at  the  Council  of  Trent.    The  cathedral 


pALAZeo    PrBTOMO,  C50RT0NA,    XVI 

Cbntpubt 


Cathedral,  Cobtona  (Designed  by  Antonio  (U  Sang»UoT) 

and  the  other  churches  of  Cortona  possess  numennis 
works  of  art,  especially  paintings  of  tne  school  of  lAica 
Signorelli  and  of  Fra  Angelico.  The  diocese  has  &d 
parishes,  60  churches  and  oratories,  86  secular  and  36 
regular  priests,  30,200  inhabitants,  6  religious  houses 
of  men,  and  6  of  women. 

CAFPBLLfrrn,  Le  chieae  d: Italia  (Venice,  1844),  XVIII,  267- 
07;  Ghkvaukb,  R6p,  hiaL:  Topo-bibl.,  e.  v.;  Ann.  ted,  (Rome. 
1907),  427-29. 

U.  Benigni. 


00BVS7 


402 


CX>SA 


Oonr«7,  Abbbt  of  (also  called  New  Corbib),  a 
Benedictine  monastery  in  the  Diocese  of  Paderborn, 
in  Westphalia,  founded  c.  820  from  Gorfoie  in  Picardy, 
by  the  Emperor  Louis  the  Pious  and  St.  Adelhard, 
Abbot  of  the  older  Corbie,  from  which  the  new  founda- 
tion derived  its  name.  Corvey  soon  became  famous, 
%nd  its  abbots  ranked  as  princes  of  the  empire.  In 
its  school  were  cultivated  all  the  arts  and  sciences, 
and  it  produced  many  celebrated  scholars.  To  it 
the  world  is  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  the  first 
five  books  of  tLe  "Annals"  of  Tacittis.  From  its 
cloisters  went  forth  a  stream  of  missionaries  who  evan- 
gelized Northern  Eiu*ope,  chief  amongst  them  being 
St.  Ansgar^  the  Apostle  of  Scandinavia.  Here,  too, 
Widukind  is  believed  to  have  written  his  history  of 
the  Saxons  (see  Saxons),  and  the  "  Annales  Corbe- 
jenses",  which  issued  from  the  same  scriptorium, 
figure  largely  in  the  "  Monumenta  Germani® "  col- 
lected bv  Pertz.  (These  "  Annates "  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  forged  **  Chronicon  Corbejense'' 
which  appeared  in  the  nineteenth  century.)  The 
school  of  (5orvej  declined  after  the  fifteenth  century, 
but  the  abbey  itself  continued  until  1803,  when  it  was 
secularized  and  ziven  to  the  family  of  Oranje-Nassau. 
The  famous  abbey  library  has  long  since  been  dis- 
persed. 


WiOAND,  Die  corvev*8di£n  GeaehiehtaquMen  (Leipiig,  1S41); 
iiBOELBAUEB,  Hist,  Lit.  O.S.B.  (Augsburg.  1754);  Pum. 
Mon.  Germ,  Hist.:  Seriptorta  (Hanover,  1839),  III;  Mione,  Diet. 


de»  Abbayas  (Pkria,  1856);  Enck,  Kirehefdex.,  Ill,  1143-51; 
Cbetaueb,  Tapo-Uhl.  (PAiis.  1894-M) ;  Janben.  Wibald  wm 
StaUo  und  Corveif  (Berbn.  1854) 

G.  Cyprian  Autton. 

OoryciiBi  a  titular  see  of  Cilicia  Trachiea  in  Asia 
Minor.  It  was  the  port  of  Seleucia,  where,  in  191 
B.  c,  the  fleet  of  Antiochus  the  Great  was  defeated 
by  the  Romans.  In  the  Roman  times  it  preserved 
its  ancient*  laws;  the  emperors  usually  kept  a  fleet 
there  to  watch  over  the  pirates.  Justinian  restored 
the  public  baths  and  a  hospital.  Alexius  Comnenus 
re-equipped  the  fortress,  which  had  been  dismantled. 
Soon  alter  Corvcus  was  conquered  by  the  Armenians, 
who  held  it  till  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
when  it  was  occupied  temporarily  by  the  Turks,  and 
for  a  time  played  an  important  part.  Peter  I,  King 
of  Cyprus,  captured  it  in  1361.  From  1448  or  1454 
it  belonged  alternately  to  the  Karamanlis,  the  Egyp- 
tians, the  Karamanlis  a  second  time,  and  finally  to 
the  Osmanlis.  The  ruins  of  the  citv  are  at  Ghorghos, 
twenty-eight  miles  north-east  of  Selefke  (Seleucia),  in 
the  vilayet  of  Adana.  Among  them  are  a  triumphal 
arch,  a  beautiful  Christian  tomb,  sarcophagi,  etc. 
The  two  medieval  castles,  one  on  the  shore,  the  other 
in  an  islet,  connected  by  a  ruined  pier,  are  partially 
preserved;  the  former  was  reputed  impregnable. 
Three  churches  are  also  found,  one  decorated  with 
frescoes.  About  two  miles  from  the  cape  is  the  fa- 
mous Corycian  cavern,  886  feet  long,  65  wide,  from 
08  to  228  high.  Near  this  castle  are  many  other 
smaller  but  curious  grottoes,  a  temple  of  Zeus,  and  a 
little  church  with  Byzantine  paintinjn,  converted  into 
a  mosque.  About  ten  miles  north  of  Ghorghos  exists 
another  large  grotto  with  thirteen  curious  bas-reliefs 
hewn  in  the  rock.  The  city  figures  in  the  "Synec- 
demus"  of  Hierocles,  and  about  840  in  Parthev's 
"Notitia  Prima'';  it  was  suffragan  of  Tarsus.  Le- 
quien  (II,  879)  mentions  five  Greek  bishops  from  381 
to  680;  another  is  known  from  an  inscription  (Wad- 
dinston,  Inscriptions  . . .  d'Asie  mineure,  341).  Gne 
Latin  Bishop,  Gerardus,  was  present  at  a  council  of 
Antioch  about  1 136 ;  four  are  known  in  the  fourteenth 
century  (Lequien,  III,  1197;  Eubel,  I,  218). 

CuiNVT,  Turquie  d^Aaia,  II.  73;  Aushan,  SiBWuan  (Venloa» 
1899),  393-409.  S.  Vailh6. 

Oorydmlliifl,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor.  Korydal- 
low.  later  al»o  Korydalla,  was  a  city  in  Lycia.  In 
Roman   times   it   struck   coins.     It   figures   in   the 


"Notitise  episcopatuum''  as  late  as  the  twelfth  or 
thirteenth  century  as  a  suffragan  of  Myra.  Lequien 
(I,  979)  mentions  only  four  bishop:  Akxanc^r, 
spoken  of  in  St.  Badl's  letter  ccxvui,  Palladius  in 
451  and  458,  Leo  in  787,  and  Eustratius  in  879.  Cory- 
dallus  has  not  as  yet  been  identified.  There  was  a 
see  of  the  same  name  in  Pamphylia,  suffragan  to 
Perge  (see  Lequien,  I,  1031).  S.  PferaiDEs. 

Odsai  Juan  de  la,  navigator  and  cartographer,  ac- 
cording to  tradition  b.  in  1460  at  Sta.  Maria  del 
Puerto  (Santona),  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  Spain,  and 
hence  called  Juan  Biscatno,  d.  on  the  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Uraba,  28  February,  1510.  He  passed  his 
life  from  earliest  childhood  on  the  ocean.  From  the 
waters  of  his  native  country,  which  he  knew  thor- 
oughly, he  soon  ventured  onto  the  coast  of  Western 
Africa,  which  was  at  that  time  the  goal  of  so  many 
Spanish  expeditions.  When  Columbus  in  1492  made 
preparations  for  his  voyage  to  the  west,  Juan  de  la 
Coea  had  attained  such  reputation,  that  the  ^reat  dis- 
coverer engaged  him,  together  with  his  ship  Santa 
Maria,  and  in  spite  of  a  passing  estrangement  between 
them,  he  secured  de  la  Cosa's  services  as  cartographer 
for  his  second  expedition  in  1493-1496.  In  1499  Juan 
de  la  Cosa  joinecl  as  first  pilot  the  expedition  of  AJonso 
de  Ojeda  and  Vespucci,  and  was  with  them  amongst 
the  first  to  set  foot  on  the  South  American  Continent 
on  the  Gulf  of  Paria.  At  the  same  time  the  coast 
from  Essequibo  to  the  Cape  Vela  was  explored. 
Immediately  after  his  return  he  designed  his  chart  of 
the  whole  world,  which  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
for  the  history  of  the  discovery  of  America.  Later  in 
the  same  year,  or  early  in  1501,  he  continued  his  dis- 
coveries along  the  South  American  coast  to  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama,  and  returned  in  1502  to  Haiti.  When 
the  Spanish  court  found  soon  afterwards  that  the  Por- 
tuguese had  made  several  incursions  into  the  newly 
discovered  country,  Queen  Isabella  sent  Juan  de  la 
Coea  at  the  head  of  a  delegation  to  Portugal,  to  remon- 
strate. He  was  nominated  alguazil  major,  and  in 
1504-05  was  commander  of  an  expedition  to  the  Pearl 
Islands  and  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  to  found  settlements 
there.  At  the  same  time  he  visited  Jamaica  and 
Haiti.  Another  voyage  undertaken  1507-08  with 
Martfn  de  los  Reyes  and  Juan  C^rrca  as  pilots  had  the 
same  object  in  view.  In  1509  for  the  seventh  and  last 
time  Juan  de  la  Cosa  started  for  the  New  World.  He 
carried  two  hundred  colonists  on  three  ships  and  on 
reaching  Haiti  he  placed  himself  under  the  command 
of  Ojeda,  who  added  another  ship  with  one  hundred 
settlers  to  the  expedition.  After  having  decided  an 
old  frontier-dispute  between  Ojeda  and  Nicuesa, 
they  went  with  Pizarro  into  Ojeda's  territory  and 
landed  at  Cartagena  asainst  the  warnings  of  Cosa,  who 
proposed  to  disembark  on  the  more  peaceful  coast  of 
the  Gulf  of  Uraba.  They  were  attacked  by  the  na- 
tives and  de  la  Cosa  was  killed. 

Juan  de  la  Cosa  made  several  charts  of  which  one, 
the  famous  chart  of  the  world  is  still  preserved.  It  is 
the  oldest  representation  of  the  New  World.  Of 
special  interest  is  the  outline  of  Cuba,  which  Columbus 
never  believed  to  be  an  island.  Walkenaer  and  Alex- 
ander von  Humboldt  were  the  first  to  point  out  the 
great  importance  of  this  chart.  It  is  now  in  the 
Museo  Naval  in  Madrid.  Reproductions  of  it  are 
given  by  Humboldt  in  his  "Atlas  gtogmphioue  et  phy- 
sique"; by  Joraard  in  his  "Collection  des  Monu- 
ments", tab.  XVI;  by  Winsor,  in  his  "History  of 
America",  III  (London,  1888),  and  by  Kretschmer", 
"Die  Entdeckung  Americas"  (Beriin,  1892),  Atlas, 
table  VII.  A  facsimile  was  published  in  Madrid, 
1892. 

Db  Leoutkta,  Jt«in  de  la  Cona  (Madrid,  1877);  Vabcano,  Kh' 
mayo  bioffrdfico  del  eHebre  navi{fante  Juan  de  la  Coea,  Obra  im-^ 
preea  en eepafiol,  f rands i ingleapara acompaikar  at  Afopo  Mvndi 


de  Juan  de  la  Coea  (Madrid, 


Ottc)  Hartio- 


NORTH 


FIN  HALF  OF  THE  FIRflT  MAP  OF  THE  NSW  DISCOVERIES,  DRAWN  ON 
OX-HIDE  IN  COLOURS  BT  THE  PILOT  JUAN  DE  LA  COSA,  A.  D.  1500,  NOW  PRE- 
SERVED IN  THE  NAVAL  MUSEUM,  MADRID.  SIZE  18  X  22  INCHES.  THIS  CELE- 
BRATED MAP  WAS  DISCOVERED  BT  BARON  ALEXANDER  VON  HUMBOLDT  WHILE 
AT  WORK  IN  THE  LIBRARY  OF  BARON  WALKENAER.  IN  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE 
WEST  SIDE  OF  THE  MAP  IS  A  VIGNETTE  REPRESENTING  SAINT  CHRISTOPHER 
(the  CHRIST-BEARER)  CARRYING  UPON  HIS  SHOULDERS  THE  INFANT  CHRIST, 
SUPPOSED  TO   BE  AN   ALLUSION  70  roLUMBUS. 


OOftUIUL 


403 


008MAS 


OoaenUf  Archdiocese  of  (Cusemtina),  immedi* 
ately  subject  to  the  Holy  See.    Cosenza  is  a  city  in 
the  province  of  Calabria,  Southern  Italy,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Crati  and  the  Buaento.    It  was  known 
to  the  ancienta  as  Conaentiaf  and  was  the  capital  of 
Bruttium.    It  was  conquered  (338  b.  c.)  by  Alexan- 
der of  £pirus,  uncle  of  Alexander  the  Great.    Later 
it  adhered  to  King  Pyrrhusi  when  he  invaded  Italy. 
Between  278-176  b.  c.  both  Lucania  and  Bruttium 
acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  Rome.    Alaric  be- 
sieged the  citv  (a.  d.  410),  but  died  there  the  same 
year  and  was  buried  in  the  bed  of  the  Busento  at  its 
confluence  with  the  Crati.    In  902  Cosenza  was  pil- 
laged by  the  Saracens,  who  were  later  expelled  by  the 
Normans  but  regained  possession  of  the  city  in  1004. 
In   1130  Cosenxa  became   the  capital  of  Calabria 
CSteriore,  now  Coeensa,  and  thenceforth  shared  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples.    Among  its 
famous  citizens  may  be  mentioned  the  savant  Qian 
Vinoenzo  Gravina,  co-founder  with  Queen  Christina 
of  Sweden  of  the  Roman  Academy  of  the .  Arcadia  in 
1656  (see  Academies,  Roman).    The  city  suffered 
much  from  eartiiquakes,  especisdly  in  1184,  1658,  and 
1783.     The  Gospel  was  first  preached  in  Cosenza  by 
missionaries  from  Reggio;  its  earliest  known  bishop 
is  Palumbus,  a  correspondent  (599)  of  St.  Gr^ry 
the  Great.    Cosenza  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  an 
archbishopric  about  1050.    Among  the  best  known 
Archbishops   of   Cosenza   have   been:    Ruffo,   who 
perished  in  the  earthquake  of  1184;  the  Cistercian 
Martino  (1285),  a  prohfic  but  uncritical  writer;  Pirro 
Caracciolo  (1452),  the  friend  of  St.  Francis  of  Paula; 
Bartolommeo  Fleury,  who  died  at  Rome  (1495)  in 
Castle  Sant'  Angelo,  where  he  had  been  imprisoned 
for  forgery  of  jpontifical  documents;   Taddeo,  later 
Cardinal,  Gaddi  (1535),  who  obtained  from  Paul  IV 
the  privilege  by  which   the    cathedral    canons  of 
Cosenza  wear  the  choir  habit  of  the  Vatican  basilica; 
and  Giuseppe    Maria   Sanfelice   (1650),   frecyuently 
charged  by  the  Holy  See  with  diplomatic  missions. 
The  diocese  has  a  population  of  159,500,  with  109 
parishes,  264  churches  and  chapels,  200  secular  and 
16  regular  priests,  2  religious  houses  of  men  and  5  of 
women. 

Cappbllbtti,  L€  Chieae  ^lUdia  (Venice.  1844).  XXI,  285; 
Spibxti,  Memarie  degli  BcriUori  Costntini  (Naples,  1750);  Ann. 
eeoi.  (Rome,  1007).  420. 

U.  Bbnigni. 

Ctosgrove,  Hbnrt,  second  Bishop  of  Davenport, 
Iowa»  U.  8.  A.,  b.  19  December,  1834,  at  Williams- 
port,  Pennsylvania;  d.  at  Davenport,  23  December, 
1906.  He  was  the  first  native  oi  the  United  States 
appointed  to  a  see  west  of  the  Mississippi.  In  1845 
he  emigrated  to  Iowa  with  his  parents  irom  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  was  ordained  priest  27  Aueust,  1857,  and 
became  pastor  of  St.  Marguerite's  church,  Daven- 
port, in  1861.  After  the  death  of  Bishop  McMullen 
of  Davenport  he  was  administrator  of  the  see,  for 
which  he  was  consecrated  20  July,  1884. 
,  Rbubb,  BiM.  EneifC.  of  the  Cath,  Hierarchy  of  U.  S,  (Milwau- 
kee. 1888);   The  Meuenger  (New  York.  Jan..  1007). 

Thomas  F.  Mbehak. 

Cosin  (the  name  is  also  written  Cosyn),  Edmund, 
Vioe-Chancellor  of  Cambridge  University,  England. 
The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  uncertain.  He 
was  bom  in  Bedfordshire  and  entered  King's  Hall, 
Cambridge,  as  a  Bible  clerk,  receiving  the  degrees  of 
B.A.  early  in  1535,  M.A.  in  1541,  and  B.D.  in  1547. 
He  held  the  living  of  Grendon,  Northamptonshire, 
which  was  in  the  gift  of  King's  Hall,  from  21  Septem- 
ber, 1538,  to  November,  1541,  and,  successively,  fel- 
lowships of  King's  Hall,  St.  Catharine's  Hall,  and  of 
Trinity  CoU^e.  Early  in  Queen  Mary's  reign  he  was 
elected  Master  of  St.  Catharine's,  which  brought  him 
as  gifts  from  the  Crown  the  Norfolk  rectories  of  St. 
Edmund,  North  Lynn  (1533),  Fakenham  (1556),  and 


the  Norfolk  vicaia^  of  CaJstor  Holy  Trinity,  and  of 
Oxbuigh  (1554).  He  was  presented  to  the  rectory 
of  Thorpland  by  Trioity  Colt^  in  the  f oUowh:^  year. 
He  was  also  chaplain  to  Bisnop  Bonner  of  London 
and  assistant  to  Michael  Dunnine,  the  C!hancellor  of 
the  Diocese  of  Norwich.  In  1558  ne  was  elected  Vioe- 
Chancellor  of  Cambridge  but  being  a  CathoUc  he  re- 
fused  to  conform  to  the  Elizabeuian  heresies,  and 
hence  in  1560  was  forced  to  resign  all  his  preferments 
and  went  in  1564  to  live  in  retirement  in  Caius  College, 
Cambridge.  Four  years  later,  summoned  to  answer 
before  the  Lords  of  the  Council  to  a  chai^  of  non- 
conformity, he  went  into  exile  rather  than  foreswear 
his  faith.  He  was  living  on  the  Continent  in  1576 
but  no  further  definite  records  of  his  career  are  avail* 
able. 

Lbb  in  Diet,  Nai,  Biog.,  XII,  a.  v.;  Sibtpb,  MmnoriaU,  III,  i. 


80;  Blomeiibld, 


Thomas  F.  Meehan. 


Oonnas  (called  Hagiopolites  or  Cosmas  of  Jeru- 
salem), a  hymn- writer  of  the  Greek  Church  in  the 
eighth  centurj-,  was  the  foster-brother  of  St.  John  of 
Damascus.  The  teacher  of  the  two  boys  was  an  el- 
derly Silician,  also  named  Cosmas,  who  had  been  freed 
from  sla venr  by  St.  John's  father.  St.  John  and  Cos- 
mas went  from  Damascus  to  Jerusalem,  where  both 
became  monks  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Sabas  near  that 
city.  Cosmas,  however,  left  the  monasterv  in  743, 
when  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Maiuma,  tne  port  of 
ancient  Gaza  on  the  southern  coast  of  Fhopnicia.  The 
Greek  Church  observes  his  feast  on  14  October.  As  a 
learned  prose-author  Cosmas  wrote  comments  on  the 
poems  of  Gregory  of  Nasiansus;  as  a  poet  he  is  re- 
garded by  the  Greek  Church  with  great  admiration. 
It  considers  Cosmas  and  St.  John  of  Damascus  the 
best  representatives  of  the  later  Greek  classical  h3rm- 
nology,  the  most  characteristic  examples  of  whidi  are 
the  artistic  liturgical  chants  known  as  ''Canons". 
The  hymns  of  Cosmas  were  OBiginally  intended  to  add 
to  the  interest  of  the  services  at  Jerusalem,  but 
through  the  influence  of  Constantinople  their  use  be- 
came imiversal  in  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church.  It  is 
not  certain,  however,  that  all  the  hymns  ascribed  to 
Cosmas  in  the  Greek  liturgical  books  were  really  his 
compositions,  especially  as  his  teacher  of  the  same 
name  was  also  a  nymn- writer.  Collections  of  hymns, 
varying  in  number,  are  attributed  to  Cosmas,  and 
may  be  found  in  Migne,  P.  G.,  XCVIII,  459-524,  and 
in  Christ-Paranikas,  ''Anthologia  gneca  carminum 
christianorum"  (Leipzig,  1871),  161-204.  For  the 
above-mentioned  notes  or  scholia  on  the  poems  of 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus  see  Mai,  ''Spicilegium  Roma- 
num",  II,  Pt.  II,  1-376,  and  Migne,  P.  G.,  XXXVIII, 
339-^79. 

Kbvmbacher,  Geaeh,  der  byztmiiniaehen  LUeratur  (2d  ecL, 
Munich,  1806),  674  sqq. 

Anton  Baumstark. 

Ctosmas  and  Damian,  Saints,  early  Christian  phy- 
sicians and  martyrs  whose  feast  is  celebrated  on  27  Sep- 
tember. They  were  twins,  bom  in  Arabia,  and  prac- 
tised the  art  of  healins  in  the  seaport  ^jgea,  now 
Ayash  (Ajass),  on  the  Gulf  of  Iskanderun  m  Cilicia, 
Asia  Minor,  a^  attained  a  ^reat  reputation.  They 
accepted  no  pay  for  their  services  and  were,  therefore, 
called  iwdpyvpoi,  "the  silverless".  In  this  way  they 
brought  many  to  the  Christian  Faith.  When  the  Dio- 
cletian persecution  began,  the  Prefect  Lvaias  had 
Cosmas  and  Damian  arrested,  and  ordered  tnem  to  re- 
cant. Hiey  remained  constant  under  torture,  in  a 
miraculous  manner  suffered  no  injury  from  water, 
fire,  air,  nor  on  the  cross,  and  were  finally  beheadea 
with  the  sword.  Their  three  brothers,  Anthimus, 
Leontius,  and  Euprepius  died  as  martyrs  with  them. 
The  execution  took  place  27  September,  probably  in 
the  year  287.  At  a  later  date  a  number  otfables  grew 
up  about  them,  connected  in  part  with  their  r^cfl. 


CX>8MAS 


404 


OMlftAB 


The  remains  of  the  martyrs  were  buried  in  the  city  of 
Cyrus  in  Svria;  the  Emperor  Justinian  I  (627-565) 
sumptuously  restored  the  city  in  their  honour.  Hav- 
ing oeen  cured  of  a  dangerous  illness  by  the  interces^ 
sion  of  Cosmas  and  Damian,  Justinian,  in  gratitude 
for  their  aid,  rebuilt  and  adorned  their  church  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  it  became  a  celebrated  place  of  pil- 
grimage. At  Rome  Pope  Felix  IV  (526-530)  erected 
a  church  in  their  honour,  the'mosaics  of  which  are  still 
among  the  most  valuable  art-remains  of  the  city.  The 
Greek  Church  celebrates  the  feast  of  Saints  Cosmas 
and  Damian  on  1  July,  17  October,  and  1  November, 
and  venerates  three  pairs  of  saints  of  the  same  name  and 
profession.  Cosmas  and  Damian  are  regarded  as  the 
patrons  of  physicians  and  surgeons  and  are  sometimes 


landi  in  his  "Bibliotheca  veterum  patrum''  (Venioe, 
1776),  and  inMigne,  P.  G.  (Paris,  1864),  LXXXVin, 
51-476.  A  French  translation  of  the  most  important 
parts  is  found  in  Charton,  ''Voyageurs  anciens  et 
modemes"  (Paris,  1855);  a  complete  En^ish  transla- 
tion, with  notes  and  a  critical  introduction,  was  iasued 
for  the  Hakluyt  Society  by  J.  W.  McCrindle  (London, 
1897).  The  work  is  (fivided  into  twelve  books  tLod 
contains  a  description  of  the  universe,  as  Coemsa  con- 
structed it  in  his  imagination,  and  an  account  of  those 
regions  which  he  had  visited,  or  concerning  which  he 
hs^  gathered  information.  According  toOssmas  the 
world  is  a  rectangular  structure  in  two  sections,  their 
length  much  greater  than  their  breadth,  and  oorree- 
ponding  in  form  and  proportions  to  the  Tabernacle  of 


As  Phtsicians  Cast  ikto  the  Sea  The  DscAirrATioir 

SoBNSs  FROM  TKB  LiTSS  OF  Sts.  Cosmab  AND  Damian     (Fra  Angelico,  Gallery  of  Aneient  and  Modern  Art.  Florence) 


represented  with  medical  emblems.  They  are  in- 
voked in  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  and  in  the  Litany  of 
the  Saints. 

Acta  SS.,  27  Sept.;  Schleyer  in  KirchenUx.;  Alois.  Dae 
L^}en  und  Wirken  d.  fU.  Cosmas  und  Damian,  Patrone  aer 
AenU  (Vienna,  1876);  Dbubneb,  Kosmaa  und  Damian 
(Leipsig.  1907). 

Gabriel  Meier. 

Oosmas  Indicopleastes  (Cosmas  the  Indian 
Voyager),  a  Greek  traveller  and  geographer  of  the 
first  half  of  the  sixth  century,  b.  at  Alexanoria,  Ecprpt. 
Cosmas  probably  received  cmly  an  elementary  educar- 
tion,  as  ae  was  intended  for  a  mercantile  life,  and  in 
his  earlier  years  was  engaged  in  business  pursuits.  It 
may  be,  however,  that  by  further  study  he  increased 
his  Knowledge,  since  his  notes  and  observations  show 
more  than  ordinary  training.  His  business  took  him 
to  the  regions  lying  south  of  Egypt,  the  farthest  point 
of  his  ti;^velB  in  this  direction  oeing  Cape  Guaraafui. 
He  traversed  the  Mediterranean,  the  Red  Sea,  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  gathered  information  about  lands 
lying  far  to  the  East ;  but  it  is  not  certain  that  he  actu- 
fidly  visited  India.  In  his  later  years  he  entered  the 
monastery  of  Raithu  on  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai.  If  it 
be  necessary  to  suppose,  as  some  investi^tors  assert, 
that  Cosmas  was  at  any  time  a  Nestonan,  it  would 
appear  from  his  work,  the  ** Christian  Topography", 
that,  at  least  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  ne  returned 
to  the  orthodox  faith.  While  an  inmate  of  the  mon- 
astery he  wrote  the  "Topography"  above  mentioned, 
a  work  which  gives  him  a  position  of  importance 
among  the  ^ographers  of  the  early  Middle  Ages. 

The  "Christian  Topography"  has  been  preserved  in 
two  manuscript  copies,  one  in  the  Laurentian  Library 
at  Florence,  and  the  other  in  the  Vatican.  In  the 
second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  Isaac  Vossius, 
Emeric  Bigpt,  and  Melchis^dech  Th^venot  first  made 
the  work  known  in  a  fragmentary  way  bv  publishing 
extracts  from  it.  The  firat  complete  and  critical  edi- 
tion, accompanied  bv  a  Latin  translation,  was  issued 
by  Bernard  de  Montfaucon  in  his  "Collectio  nova  pa- 
trum  et  scriptorum  graecorum  (Paris,  1707),  II,  113- 
345.    The  '^Topography"  was  also  printed  by  Gal- 


the  Old  Testament.  The  base  is  formed  by  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  around  which  flows  the  ocean ;  on  the 
other  side  of  the  ocean  lies  another — unknown—con- 
tinent, from  which  rise  the  walls  that  support  the 
firmament  above.  The  stars  are  carried  by  the  angels 
in  a  circle  around  the  firmament.  Above  the  firma- 
ment springs  a  vault  which  separates  the  heaven  of 
the  blessed  from  the  world  beneath.  The  theory  that 
there  is  an  antipodes,  says  Cosmas,  is  a  doctrine  to  be 
rejected.  The  earth  rises  towards  the  north  and  ends 
in  a  cone-shaped' mountain  behind  which  the  sun  con- 
tinues its  wanderings  during  the  night,  and  the  nights 
are  long  or  short  according  as  the  position  of  the  sun  is 
near  the  base  or  the  sunmiit  of  the  mountain. 

This  curious  attempt  to  harmoniie  a  childish  Bibli- 
cal exegesis  with  ordinary  phenomena  and  the  current 
opinions  of  the  time  is  at  least  superior  to  the  extraor- 
dinary geographical  hypotheses  of  that  day.  Aside 
from  the  fact  that  the  theories  of  Cosmas  exercised 
no  influence,  they  are  not  of  sufficient  importance  to 
affect  the  genuine  worth  of  several  portions  of  the 
"Topography".  The  value  of  these  passages  rests 
on  the  methodical  conscientiousness  of  the  simple 
merchant,  as  it  is  seen,  for  example,  in  the  careful 
copy  of  the  so-called  Inscription  of  Adulis  (Manu- 
mentum  Advlitanum)  which  has  been  preserved  to 
Greek  epigraphy  only  in  the  copy  of  Cosmas.  Cos- 
mas, with  the  aid  of  his  travelling  companion,  Menas, 
took  a  copy  of  it  in  522  for  the  governor  of  the  Chris- 
tian King  Elesbaan  of  Abyssinui,  retaining  a  replica 
for  himself.  Of  equal  importance  is  the  information 
he  collected  concerning  Zanzibar  and  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  what  he  learned  as  to  the  trade  of  Abys- 
sinia with  the  interior  of  Africa  and  of  Egypt  with  tbs 
East.  The  best-known  and  most  celebrated  part  ol 
the  "Topography"  is  the  description,  in  the  ninUi 
book,  of  Ceylon  and  of  the  plants  and  animalfl  of 
India.  The  work  also  gives  much  valuable  informa- 
tion concerning  the  extension  of  Christianity  in  his 
day.  The  Vatican  manuscript  of  the  "Christian 
Topography"  has  explanatory  maps  and  sketches, 
cither  made  by  Cosmas  himself  or  prepared  under  his 
direction;  they  are  of  value  as  the  first  efforta  of  pik 


0081IAS 


405 


OOBKOaOHY 


tristic  geography.  Four  other  writings  of  Cosmas  are 
unfortunately  lost:  a  cosmograi^y,  an  astronomical 
treatim,  and  eommentariefi  on  the  Canticles  and  the 
Psahna. 

Maxinsuu,  La  fftogmfia  «  %  vadri  ddia  c^ieaa  (Rome,  1883); 
Gbusb,  KotnoB  der  Indienfahrer  in  Jahrbuth  fUr  proUeian' 
HaSeTkeolooU  (Ldpsig.  1883). IX.  105-141;  KacrscniiER, Die 
vkynaeke  Erdhtnde  im  ehrwaidien  MiUAiUer  (Vienna,  1880); 
Bbaslbt,  The  Dmm  of  Modem  Gtogtmphy  (London,  1897); 
Kbumbacbxb,  0€9ck.  der  hyganUnuekm  IJiU.  (2nd  ed.  Munich, 
1807),  412-14;  Stbztgowbki,  Der  BUderhreia  des  griech.  Phy- 
nolegue,  dee  Koemae  Jndieopleualea,  etc.,  in  ByxanlmieeheB 
Arckiv  (Loiptis.  180»). 

OlTO  Habtiq. 

Oounaa  of  Prague*  Bohemian  historian,  b.  about 
1045.  at  Pmgue,  Bohemia;  d.  there,  21  October,  1125. 
He  belonged  to  a  knightly  fainily,  received  his 
first  instruction  in  the  schools  of  Prague,  and 
studied  grammar  and  dialectics  at  Lidge  under  the 
direction  of  a  renowned  master  named  Franco.  At 
Uh^  he  acquired  good  literary  taste  and  that  ao- 
quamtanoe  mth  the  classics  which  is  evident  through- 
out Ids  work.  While  still  voung  he  entered  ec- 
clesiastical life  at  Prague,  but  was  not  ordained 
Sriest  until  11  June,  1009,  at  Gran,  Hungarv.  In 
ue  time  he  became  a  monber  of  the  cathedral 
chapter  of  St.  Vitus  in  Prague,  and  ultimately  its 
dean.  According  to  a  ^eral  custom  of  the  age, 
while  still  a  minor  dene,  he  was  married  to  one 
Bosetedia,  by  whom  he  had  a  son  named  Henry  or 
Zdic,  afterwaids  Bishop  of  OhnQts.  With  the 
Bishops  of  Prague,  Gebhard,  Cosmas,  and  Hermann* 
he  was  on  terms  of  great  intimacy,  and  often  ac- 
companied them  on  their  travels;  he  likewise  en- 
loyed  the  esteem  and  the  confidence  of  the  rulers  of 
Bohemia.  Ckismas  wrote  in  Latin  a  "Chronica  Bo- 
hemorum",  or  histoiy  of  Bohemia  from  the  earliest 
times  to  1125.  The  work  consists  of  three  books; 
the  first  brings  the  narrative  to  103S,  the  second  to 
1092,  the  third  to  1125.  For  the  early  part  he  relied 
almost  exclusively  on  popular  tradition,  since  there 
was  no  previous  work  on  the  subject.  For  the 
other  parts  he  drew  from  the  testimony  of  eyewit- 
nesses, from  his  own  experience,  or  from  monuments 
and  written  documents.  As  an  historian,  Cosmas  is 
genenlly  truthful  and  conscientious;  he  distin- 
guishes between  what  is  certain  and  what  is  based 
only  on  rumours  or  tradition,  and  often  indicates  his 
sources  of  information.  The  style  is  pleasing,  and 
the  character^ketches  are  vivid.  Owing  to  these 
qualities,  and  ako  to  the  fact  that  he  was  the  first 
writer  Of  Bohemian  history,  he  is  called  the  Herod- 
otus of  Bohemia.  The  work  was  edited  repeatedly: 
Freher,  "Scriptores  rerum  bohemicarum"  (Hanover, 
1602, 1607, 1620) ;  Mencke,  "  Scriptores  rerum  Germ.: 
Saron."  (Leipsig,  1728),  I;  Peld  and  Dobrowsky; 
"Scrii^res  rwum  bohemicarum"  (Prague,  1783); 
Koepke,  ''Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script."  (Hanover, 
1861),  IX;  also  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  CLXVI;  Emler  and 
Tom^    *"  Pontes   rerum   bohemicarum"    (Prague, 

1874),  11. 

KoBPKB,  FroUoomena  to  hia  edition  of  Cosmaa  in  Men, 
Otnn,  Hiet,^  and  Mions,  P.  L^  Bobowt  in  Kirchenlez.  (Frei- 
burg Im  Br.,  1884),  III;  Potthast,  Bibliotheca  medii  etvi  (Ber- 
lin. 1896),  I;  CnVALnB,  Bio-bibl.  (Paris,  1905).  I. 

Francis  J.  Schaefer. 

Ooamati  Mosaic  (Or.  ir^fiof),  a  peculiar  style  of  in- 
laid ornamental  mosaic  introduced  into  the  decorative 
art  of  Europe  dining  the  twelfth  centurv,  by  a  marble- 
worker  named  Laurentius,  a  native  of  Anagni,  a  small 
hill-town  thirty-seven  miles  east-south-east  of  Rome. 
Laurentius  acquh>ed  his  craft  from  Greek  masters  and 
for  a  time  followed  their  method  of  work,  but  eariy  in  his 
career,  freeing  hunself  from  Bysantine  traditions  and 
influences,  he  worked  along  original  lines  and  evolved 
s  new  style  of  decorative  mosaic,  vigorous  in  colour 
and  design,  whkh  he  invariably  employed  in  conjunc* 
tion  with  plain  or  sculptured  marble  surfaces,  making 


it  a  decorative  accessary  to  some  architectural  feature. 
As  a  rule  he  used  white  or  light-coloured  marbles  for 
his  backgrounds;  these  he  imaid  with  squares,  paral* 
lelograms,  and  circles  of  darker  marble,  porphyry, 
or  serpentine,  surrounding  them  with  ribb^  of 
mosaic  composed  of  coloured  and  gold-g^ass  tesserv. 
These  hariequinads  he  separated  one  m>m  another 
with  marble  mouldings,  carvings,  and  flat  bands,  and 
further  enriched  them  with  mosaic.  His  eariiest  re- 
corded work  was  executed  for  a  church  at  Fabieri  in 
1100,  and  the  eariiest  existing  example  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  church  of  Ara  Cceii  at  Rome.  It  consists  of  an 
epistle  and  gospel  ambo,  a  chair,  screen,  and  pave- 
ment. In  mucn  of  his  work  he  was  assCsted  by  his 
son,  Jacobus,  who  was  not  only  a  sculptor  and  mosaic- 
worker,  but  also  an  ardiitect  of  ability,  as  witness  the 
architecttuid  alterations  carried  out  by  him  in  the 
cathedral  of  Civitit  Casteliana,  a  foreshadowing  of 
the  Renaissance.  This  was  a  work  in  which  other 
members  of  his  family  took  part,  and  they  were  all 
followers  of  the  craft  for  four  generations.  Those  at- 
taining eminence  in  their  art  are  named  in  the  follow- 
ing genealogical  epitome:  Laurentius  (1140-1210); 
Jacobus  (1165-1234);  Luca  (1221-1240);  Jacobus 
(1213-1293);  Deodatus  (122^1294);  Johannes  (1231- 
1303).  Their  noted  Cosmatesque  mosaics  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  Roman  churches  of  88.  Alessio  e 
Bonifacio,  S.  Sabba,  S.  Oesareo,  S.  Giovanni  a  Porta 
Latina,  S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  S.  Balbina,  8.  Bfaria 
sopra  Minerva,  8.  Maria  Maggiore,  and  in  the  cloister 
of  8.  Seholastica  at  8ubiaco,  the  basilica  of  St.  Magus 
at  Anaeni,  the  duomo  of  Civit4  Casteliana,  and  the 
ruined  atmne  of  St.  Edward  the  Confessor  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

De  MoNTAtriA',  OMSalagie  d^artietee  italiena;  Coubman, 
Coemati  Moeaie  in  The  ArdkUeetural  Record  (New  York,  June, 
1902).  XII;  Parker.  7*A0  Arohceoloiiy  of  Rome  (Oxford.  1876). 
Pt.  Xl;  De  Roeax,  Delle  altre  iamtoUe  di  tnarmorarii  romoni 
(Rome,  1870). 

Cartl  Coleman. 

Cosmogony. — ^By  this  term  is  understood  an  ac- 
count of  how  the  universe  (poanoe)  eame  into  being 
{gonia — yiyowa  ^ I  have  become).  It  differs  from  cos- 
mology, or  the  science  of  the  universe,  in  this:  that 
the  latter  aims  at  understanding  the  actual  com- 
position and  governing  laws  of  the  universe  as  it 
now  exists;  while  the  former  answers  the  question  as 
to  how  it  first  came  to  be.  The  Christian  Faith  ac- 
counts for  the  origin  of  the  universe  by  creation  ex 
nihUo  of  the  matter  out  of  which  the  universe  arose, 
and  the  pneenxUiOy  or  maintenance,  of  Providence  ac- 
cording to  which  it  developed  into  what  it  now  is. 
Modem  science  has  propounded  many  theories  as  to 
how  the  primeval  gaseous  substance  evolved  into  the 
present  narmony  of  the  universe.  These  tibeories 
may  be  called  aaenUfic  cosmogonies ;  and  the  account 
of  the  origin  of  the  worid  given  in  Genesis,  i  and  ii,  is 
styled  Mosaic  cosmogony.  The  word  cosmoganu  is, 
however,  usually  applied  to  mythical  accounts  of  the 
world's  origin  current  among^  the  peoples  of  an- 
tiquity and  the  more  modem  races  which  have  not 
been  touched  by  recent  scientific  methods.  In  this 
article  the  word  is  understood  only  in  this  latter  sense. 
In  treating  of  the  strange  admixture  of  pseudo-scien- 
tific speculations  and  religious  ideas  whicn  the  human 
mind,  imassisted  by  reveliation,  elaborated  to  account 
for  the  existence  and  harmony  of  the  universe,  we  are 
forced  at  first  to  follow  only  the  chronological  order. 
The  different  accoimts  given  of  the  origin  of  the 
heavens  and  the  earth  are  at  first  sisht  so  irreconcil- 
able, so  fanciful,  that  no  other  order  of  treatment 
seems  possible ;  but  an  attempt  will  be  made  in  the 
conclusion  to  sum  up  and  systematise  the  various 
ideas  enumerated,  to  trace  the  various  lines  along 
which  past  thought  and  fancy  developed  to  some  irreat 
central  principles,  and  thus  to  show  the  unity  whidi 
underlies  even  this  confusing  diversity.    As  modem 


GOBKOOONY 


406 


GOSMOOOirT 


scholarehip  Heems  to  suggest  the  EuphrateB  valley  as 
the  cradle  of  all  civilization,  the  oosmoffonies  there  in 
vogue  shall  be  treated  first;  although  Ej^yptian  ideas 
on  this  subject  can  be  traced  to  an  antkiuity  at  least  as 
remote  as  that  of  the  earliest  Babylonian  cosmogonies 
known  to  us. 

Babylonian. — ^Two  different  Assyro-Babylonian 
cosmogonies  have  come  down  to  us.  The  lonfi»r  one 
is  known  under  the  name  of  Creation  Epos  or  "  Enuma 
elish",  the  words  with  which  it  b^jins.  The  shorter 
one  is  commonly  known  as  the  Biiinguar  Acooimt  of 
Creation  because,  on  the  fragmentary  tablet  on  which 
it  is  written,  the  Semitic  Babylonian  is  accompanM 
by  a  Sumerian  version. 

(a)  The  Creation  Epos. — ^A  good  summary  of  this 
cosmogony  had  been  known  since  the  sixth  century  of 
the  Christian  Era,  through  Damascius  (the  Atiienian 
neo-Flatonist  who  emigrated  to  Persia  when  Justinian 
suppressed  the  schools  of  Athens),  as  follows:  "The 
Babylonians,  passing  over  in  silence  the  one-principle 
<A  the  universe,  constitute  two,  Tauthe  and  Apason, 
making  Apason  the  husband  of  Tauthe  and  calline  her 
the  mother  of  the  gods.  And  from  these  proceeds  an 
only>begotten  son,  Moumis,  who,  I  consider,  is  nou^t 
else  but  the  intelligible  world  proceeding  from  the  two 
principles.  From  them  another  progeny  is  likewise 
produced,  Dache  and  Dachos,  and  a&o  a  third,  Kis- 
sar^  and  Assoros,  from  which  last  three  others  proceed, 
Anos,  and  Illinos,  and  Aos.  And  to  Aos  and  Dauke 
a  son  is  bom  called  Belos  of  whom  they  say  that  he 
is  the  creator  of  the  world  [demiurgtusy*  The  As- 
syrian original  upon  which  this  summary  is  based  was 
first  discovered  and  published  by  G.  Smith,  in  1875, 
from  seven  fragmentarv  tablets  in  the  British  Muse- 
um. It  has  been  translated  by  a  number  of  scholars, 
and  recently  (London,  1903),  with  the  addition  oi 
numerous  fragments,  by  L.  W.  King  of  the  same  mu- 
seum.   It  opens  as  follows: — 

When  on  high  the  heavens  were  not  uttered, 
Below  the  earth  bore  not  vet  a  name ; 
The  ocean  primevcd  was  their  beeetter, 
Mummu  Tiamtu  the  parent  of  all  of  them. 
Their  waters  were  mixed  together  in  one  and 
Fields  not  yet  marked,  mar&es  not  yet  seen  [?] 
When  of  the  gods  there  existed  still  none 
None  bore  any  name,  the  fates  [not  yet  settled] 
Then  came  into  being  the  gods  [in  order?] 
Lahmu  and  Lahamu  went  forth  [as  the  first?] 
Great  were  the  ages  •  •  •  . 
Ansar  and  Kisar  were  produced,  and  ov^  them 
Lonfi  grew  the  days,  there  appeared 
The  God  Anu,  their  son  .  . 

The  Greek  copyist  had  evidently  mistaken  AAXOC 
for  AAXOC,  but  otherwise  the  two  accounts  tally  ex- 
actly: Apason  is  Apsu  the  Ocean;  Tauthe  is  Tiamtu, 
as  Assyrian  labialises  the  nasals;  Lache  and  Lachos 
are  likewise  Lahmu  and  Lahamu;  Kissare,  Assoras,' 
Anos,  Illinos,  and  Aos  correspond  to  Kisar  and  Ansar, 
Anu,  Enlil,  and  Ea  or  Ae.  Damascius  considered 
Moumis  the  son  of  Tiamtu.  But  in  the  Babylonian 
text  Mummu  seems  to  have  Tiamat  in  apposition,  and 
the  participle  muaUidat  is  in  the  feminine,  yet  on  a 
later  fragment  Mummu  does  figure  as  the  son  of  Tia- 
mat, and  Damascius'  statement  seems  correct.  In 
any  case  they  began  with  a  double,  purely  material, 
pnnciple  Apsu  and  Tiamat,  male  ana  female,  probably 
personifying  the  mass  of  salt  and  sweet  water  ^  mixed 
together  in  one".  Out  of  all  these  things  even  the 
gods  arise,  their  birth  is  in  reality  the  gradual  differ* 
entiation  of  the  as  yet  undifferentiated,  imdetermined, 
undivided,  watery  ALL.  The  meaning  of  Ansar  and 
Kisar  is  plain;  they  are  personified  ideas:  Above  and 
Below.  The  meaning  of  Lahmu  and  Lahamu  is  not  so 
clear.  Popular  mytnolo^  spoke  of  the  Lahmu  as 
monsters  and  demons,  spirits  of  evil,  and  their  pro- 


geny sides  with  Tiamat  as  the  monster  of  Clioos;  yet^ 
on  the  other  hand,  they  cannot  be  evil  in  themselveiy 
for  Ihe  flood  gods,  Anu,  Bel,  and  Ea,  are  their  chiUd^i. 
It  has  been  suggested  with  great  nrobability  that 
Lahmu  and  Lahamu  are  the  perBonincations  of  Dawn 
and  Twiligjit. — In  the  watery  Chaos  first  the  light 
breaks^  an  above  and  a  below  becnn  to  be,  and  the 
result  IS  Anu,  Bel,  and  Ea — Sky,  Earth,  and  Water. 
But  this  process  of  development  is  not  to  proceed  un- 
opposed, nor  are  the  powers  (gods)  of  drder  peacefully 
to  conquer  the  power  of  Chaos.  This  war  is  m3rthologi- 
cally  describea  in  the  great  Epos.  Tiamat  creates  a 
brood  of  monsters  to  fight  on  her  side,  puts  Kingu,  her 
husband,  at  the  head,  g^ves  him  ^h»  tablets  of  fate  in 
his  bosom,  thereby  giving  him  supreme  power.  Ea 
hears  of  this  plot,  tells  Ansar,  his  father,  who  asks  Anu 
to  interfere,  but  in  vain.  Ea  is  likewise  applied  to,  but 
without  result.    At  last  Ea's  son  Marduk,  at  the  re- 

auest  of  the  gods,  becomes  their  champion  and  conquen 
le  Dra^n  of  Chaos.  Cutting  the  lifeless  body  of  the 
dragon  m  two  he  makes  out  of  one  half  the  expanse  of 
the  heavens,  thereby  preventing  the  waters  above 
from  coming  down:  out  of  the  other  the  earth.  He 
then  firmly  fixes  tne  stars,  arranging  the  constella- 
tions of  the  zodiac,  creates  the  moon,  ''sets  him  as  a 
creature  of  night,  to  make  known  the  days  monthly 
without  failing".  After  this  Marduk's  ''heart  tugged 
him,  and  he  made  cunning  plans,  he  opened  his  mouth 
and  said  to  Ae:  "  Let  me  gather  my  blood  and  let  me 
[take  my]  bone,  let  me  set  up  a  man  and  let  the  man 
...  let  me  make  then  men  dwelling  .  .  .  ''  Tha 
ffods  praise  Marduk's  work  and  they  applaud  him  with 
fifty  names ;  each  god  transferring  to  Marduk  his  own 
fimction  and  dignity.  Marduk,  then,  is  the  real  De^- 
urgus  or  world-creator,  a  dimity,  however,  whidi  was 
not  originally  his.  The  political  success  of  Maitluk's 
city,  Babylon,  necessitated  this  god's  rise  in  rank 
in  the  Pantheon;  this  was  ingeniously  contrived  by 
inventing  the  legend  of  all  the  gods  voluntarily  ceding 
their  plaee  to  him  because  he  conquered  the  Drt^on  ^ 
Chaos,  Tiamat.  This  part  of  the  cosmogony^  there- 
fore, probably  does  not  date  back  before  ^00  b.  c.  It 
is  auite  likely,  however,  that  some  stonr  of  a  stnig;^ 
witn  a  monster  of  evil  and  disorder  is  of  much  greatcsr 
antiquity.  In  any  case  this  cosmogony  is  &arpiy 
characterized  because  in  it  the  cosmos  arises  out  of  a 
struggle  between  Chaos  and  Order,  good  and  evil.  It 
must,  however,  not  be  forgotten  that  both  eood  and 
bad  cods  are  alike  the  pro^y  of  Apsu  and  Tiamat. 
(b)  The  Bilingual  Creaiion-Siory  was  found  on  a 
tablet  in  Sippar  by  Rassam  in  1882.  It  consists  of 
three  columns,  the  central  column  being  Semitic,  the 
first  and  third  being  Sumerian,  every  line  and  sentence 
being  cut  in  two  by  the  intervening  S^nitic  version. 
It  is  really  an  incantation  for  purification;  unfortu- 
nately the  tablet  is  mutilated,  and  the  connexion  of 
this  temple  ritual  with  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the 
world  is  not  quite  clear.  At  ih»  end  of  the  tablet  a 
second  incantation  b^ns,  of  which  onlv  the  words, 
"The  star  .  .  .  long  chariot  of  heaven  ,  are  left — 
sufficient  to  show  that  these  tablets  belonged  to  an 
astronomical  or  scientific  series.  The  cosmogony  be- 
gins, as  is  usual  with  cosmogonies,  by  thinking  away 
all  things  in  the  worid.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
empty  void  is  expressed  by  first  thinking  away  civili- 
sation, temples,  gardens,  houses,  cities;  the  ancient 
cities  are  even  given  by  name:  "Nippur  had  not 
been  built,  E-Kura  [its  temple]  not  been  constructed. 
Erech  had  not  been  built,  E-ana  not  been  constructed." 
— "  The  Abyss  had  not  been  made ;  Eridu  [the  oldest  d 
all  cities,  once  on  the  Persian  Gulf]>  with  itsf oimdations 
in  the  deep  [the  abyss],  had  not  been  constructed,  the 
foundation  of  the  house  of  the  g^da  not  laid — ^the 
whole  of  the  lands  was  sea.  When  within  the  sea 
there  was  a  stream,  in  that  day  Eridu  was  made, 
Esagila  [its  temple]  constructed — ^E^sagila,  which  the 
god  Lu^duazaga  founded  within  the  abyss — ^Baby- 


OOBMOOOVT 


407 


aosMoooirr 


(on  he  built,  Esagila  [a  counterpart  of  the  Ksagila  of 
Eridu]  was  completed.  He  created  the  gods;  the 
Anmmaki  [tutelary  spirits  of  the  earth]  created  the 
fi^orious  city  together  with  him.  The  seat  of  their 
heart's  joy  he  proclaimed  on  high  Marduk  bound 
together  a  foundation  [amu]  upon  the  waters.  He 
made  dust  and  cast  it  over  the  foundation,  that  the 
gods  might  sit  in  a  pleasant  'place.  He  miade  man- 
kind. Arurxi  [the  goddess  of  Sippar]  made  tiie  seed 
of  mankind  with  him".  Marduk  then  creates  the 
animals,  the  plants,  the  city,  the  state,  Nippur,  Erech, 
and  their  temples.  Lugalduazaea  is  considered  to  be 
another  name  for  Marduk.  In  tne  text  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  Anunnaki  were  created  by  Marduk  or 
whether  they  were  assistant-creators  with  Marduk^ 
The  latter  seems  preferable.  The  meaning  of  "he 
boimd  together  a  foundation"  is  doubtful,  because  of 
the  uncertainty  about  the  word  amu.  The  anci^its 
thoiip^t  the  ea^h  to  be  like  a  section  of  a  hollow  ball 
floatmg  on  the  great  waters,  convex  side  upwards. 
Marduk  is  here  forming  his  rough  skeleton  of  the 
earth  as  a  raft  on  the  waters,  and  he  fills  it  up  with 
soQ  or  clay  dust  according  to  the  text.  This  cos- 
mogony is  probably  not  so  ancient  as  that  of  the 
Creation  Epos,  because  it  makes  Marduk  sole  creator 
without  reference  even  to  Anu  or  £a.  It  is  remarka- 
ble that  man  is  created  before  animals  and  plants,  and 
scholars  have  not  failed  to  draw  attention  to  a  similar 
statement  in  Genesis,  ii,  7-9.  Furthermore,  the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates  are  named  in'  this  cosmogony: 
"  He  made  them  and  set  them  in  their  place — ^welT  pro- 
claimed he  their  name",  which  also  reminds  one  of  the 
mention  of  the  rivers  in  the  same  chapter  of  Genesis, 
Some  remote  connexion  is  of  course  possible. 

EoTPTiAN. — ^The  fundamental  ideas  of  Egyptian 
cosmogonies  can  be  gathered  from  the  Book  of  the 
Dead,  chapter  xvii,  which  goes  back  to  the  eleventh 
dynasty  (c.  2560  b.c),  if  not  to  the  sixth  (c.  3000 
B.  c).  Cosmogonic  speculations  in  greater  detail  can 
be  found  in  the  funeral  inscriptions  of  Seti  I,  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Dead  near  Thebes  (c.  1400  B.C.),  nor  are 
they  wanting  in  texts  on  monuments  and  papyri  down 
to  late  in  the  Ptolemaic  period.  But  according  to 
Brugsch,  Egyptian  thought  was  but  little  subject  to 
change  even  during  the  score  of  centuries  and  more 
during  whidi  it  is  known  to  us.  In  the  beginning 
there  was  neither  heaven  nor  earth.  Shoreless  waters, 
covered  with  thick  darkness,  filled  the  world-space, 
lliese  primeval  waters  are  called  Nun,  and  they  were 
said  to  contain  the  male  and  female  germs  and  the 
b^^nnings  of  the  future  world.  From  the  very  first 
^ere  dwelt  in  this  watery  proto-matter  a  divine  force 
or  proto-soul,  which  pervaded  and  penetrated  its  as 
yet  not  differentiated  parts.  This  penetration  was  so 
absolute  that  this  soul  became  almost  identical  with 
the  matter  it  pervaded.  The  divine  proto-soul  then 
felt  a  desire  for  creative  activity  and  this  his  will,  per- 
sonified as  the  god  Thot,  brought  the  universe  mto 
being;  whereas  the  image  of  uie  universe  had  pre- 
viouSy  formed  itself  in  me  eyes  of  Thot.  The  word 
of  Thot  brought  movement  m  the  still  watery  sub- 
stance of  Nun — movement  both  conscious  and  pur- 
poseful. Nun  now  began  to  differentiate  itself,  i.  e. 
its  Qualities  became  manifest  in  a  cosmogonic  ogdoad 
of  deities  (four  pairs,  male  and  female):  Nun  and 
Nunet,  Heh  and  Hehet,  Keke  and  Keket,  Nenu  and 
Nenut.  Nun  and  Nunet  represent  the  begetting  and 
bearing  Proto-Matter-Soul ;  Heh  and  Hehet  are  rather 
difiicult  ideas  to  grasp,  perhaps  active  and  passive 
infinity  would  be  a  good  expression.  This  infinity  is 
mostly  conceived  in  relation  to  time,  and  is  conse- 
quently equivalent  to,  and  often  described  b^,  the 
Greek  Alii^;  as  infinity  of  force  it  resembles  'IV>wt. 
Kek  and  Keket  are  the  abysmal  darkness,  the  Erebos 
of  the  Egyptians.  Nenu  and  Nenut  symbolize  rest; 
the  two  other  names  or  titles  of  Nenu,  Gohr  and  Hems, 
embody  the  same  idea — to  settle  or  lie  down,  to  cease 


from  work.  Contrary  to  the  Babylonian  idea  of  war 
with  the  Dragon  of  Chaos,  tranquillity  is,  in  E^^t,  a 
principle  of  pogress.  All  united,  these  divimties  of 
the  ogdoad  form  the  beginnings  and  are  the  fathers 
and  mothers  of  all  things.  Pictorially,  they  are  indi- 
cated by  figures  of  four  men  and  women;  the  men 
carry  a  frog;  the  women  a  serpent's  head  on  their 
shoulders.  The  frog  and  serpent  represent  the  first 
elements  of  animal  creation;  the  unaccounted  for 
appearanoe  and  disappearance  of  frogs  in  marshes 
seemed  like  a  sort  of  spontaneous  generation  of  animal 
life  out  of  sta^ant  water;  the  serpent  periodically 
shedding  its  skm  was  a  symbol  of  the  yearly  renewal 
of  nature.  The  male  figures  are  coloured  blue,  to 
signify  water  the  begetter  of  all  things;  the  female 
are  fleBh-coloured,  to  signify  the  life  produced.  These 
oosmogonic  gods  then  transform  the  invisible  divine 
will  of  Thot  into  a  visible  universe,  harmoniously 
welded  together.  The  first  act  of  creation  is  the  for- 
mation of  an  egg,  which  rises  upon  the  hands  of  Heh 
and  Hehet  out  of  the  proto-matter.  Out  of  the  egz 
arises  the  god  of  li|^t,  K&,  the  immediate  cause  of  lue 
in  this  world.  Now  this  universe  was  conceived  as 
being  both  the  house  and  body  of  God,  divinity  not 
dweUing  in,  but  being  identical  with,  the  cosmic  All. 
This  universe,  however,  was  formed  by  concurrence 
of  nine  divine  things,  i.  e.  the  great  Ennead  of  Gods: 
(1)  Shu,  the  dry  air  of  day;  (2)  Tafnut,  the  nig^t  air, 
pregnant  with  the  nja  of  the  waxing  moon;  (3)  Keb, 
the  god  of  the  earth,  or  soil;  (4)  Nut^  the  goddess  of 
the  heavens  above;  (5)  Osiris,  the  moist  or  fructifying 
element :  (6)  Isis,  the  maternal  or  conceiving  force  ot 
the  earth;  (7)  Set,  the  god  of  evil  and  contradiction — 
the  destructive  element  in  nature,  opposing  the  light, 
moisture,  and  fertility  of  the  earth — m  popular  myth- 
ology, the  brother-enemy  of  Osiris  and  Isis ;  (8)  Horus, 
popularly  conceived  as  the  divine  child  of  Isis  and 
Osiris,  living  nature  in  the  circle  of  her  perpetual  re- 

i'uvenesenoe;    (9)  Nephthys,  the  boundary  spirit  or 
lorison,  the  world-limit,  or  the  strand  of  the  endless 
aea. 

Parallel  with  these  quasi-scientific  explanations  of 
the  universe,  the  popular  mind  attributed  to  its 
favourite  diviiuties  a  share  in  the  cosmogony.  In 
Upper  Egypt  the  egg-productive  energy  save  first 
rise  to  a  divinity,  Chnum,  the  potter  who  snapes  the 
egg  on  his  wheel ;  in  Lower  Egypt,  Ptah,  the  artificer, 
becomes  the  creator  of  the  egg.  Sometimes,  however, 
a  divine  bird  b  required  to  lay  it.  Not  unfrequently 
the  cosmogonic  functions  of  tne  efgg  are  attributed  to 
the  lotus-bud.  In  one  of  the  inscriptions  of  Denderah, 
Pharao  hands  a  lotus-flower  to  the  solar  deity,  say- 
izxg:  "  I  hand  thee  the  flower  which  arose  in  the  begin- 
ning, the  glorious  lily  on  the  great  sea.  Thou  camest 
fortn  in  the  city  of  Chmun  out  of  its  leaves,  and  thou 
didst  give  light  to  the  earth  till  then  wrapped  in  dark- 
ness". On  the  other  hand,  BA  is  not  merely  the 
enlightener,  but  the  personal  creator  of  the  world,  the 
Lord,  infinite  in  his  being,  the  Master  Everlasting, 
who  was  before  all  things;  none  is  like  unto  him.  He 
suspended  the  heavens  above,  that  he  mieht  dwell 
therein;  he  laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth,  that  it 
might  sustain  his  form;  he  created  the  deep,  that  he 
might  be  hidden  in  the  lower  spheres,  he,  the  noble 
youth,  came  forth  out  of  Nun.  Thisj^ersonification 
of  the  spirits  of  light  in  the  sun-god  Kft  could  evoke 
real  sublimity  of  thought  and  expression,  so  much  so 
that,  for  a  little  whue,  the  idea  reached  a  quasi- 
monotheism  under  Amenophis  III  and  IV.  On  the 
other  hand  the  amplitude  of  divine  titles  of  each  local 
deity  plays  havoo  with  cosmogpnic  consistency,  thus 
Ptah  in  Memphis  is  ruler  of  infinity  (Heh)  and  Lord  of 
eternity  (Tet),  Min  Amum,  Lord  of  Infinity,  lasting 
for  eternity  j  Hathor  of  Denderah,  Mistress  of  Infinity 
and  Creatnx  of  Eternity;  Hathor  and  Horus  are 
mother  and  father  to  Horsamtui,  a  phase  of  BA  the 
sun-god,  and  similar  fancies. 


oosmmoiTT 


408 


OdSMOOOlTT 


Iranian. — ^In  considering  these  cosmogonies  we 
must  distinguish  a  threefold  phase  of  development:  (a) 
Tlie  ancient  Iranian  phase,  as  given  in  the  Avesta,  t^e 
Yasnas,  and  the  Vendidads.  Without  entering  into 
the  nmch-disputed  auestion  of  ttie  date  of  the  Avesta, 
it  may  be  safelv  said  that  these  oldest  ooffinogdnies  fi;o 
back  to  about  1000  b.  c.  (b)  The  later  Iranian  or  earty 
Persian  phase,  as  contained  in  orthodox  Pahiavi  litera- 
ture, the  Bundahis  and  the  Mainochired.  (c)  Hetero- 
dox Iranian  opinions  amongst  schiranatical  sects,  as 
the  Zervanites,  Gavomarthiya,  Rivayets,  and  others. 
We  shall  find  the  dualism,  which  is  me  great  chanio- 
teristic  of  Iranian  thought,  showing  a  gramial  tendency 
towards  monism,  and  its  primeval  simplicity  trans- 
formed into  f ancuul  iritricacy  without,  however,  alto- 
gether losing  the  loftiness  of  its  first  ideas. . 

Although  we  possess  no  full  systematic  ex|}Oritions 
of  the  views  of  tne  ancient  Iranians  (m  the  origin  of  the 
universe,  yet  scattered  passages  in  the  Avesta  leave  no 
doubt  that  at  the  banning  of  all  things  thev  postu- 
lated a  twofold  principle:  g^xl  and  evil  At  the  h^ui 
indeed  of  all  creation  stands  Ahura  Masda,  a  purely 
spiritual  bein£,  who  is  distinctly  and  expressly  styled 
•^Creator  of  the  World"  of  spint  and  of  matter.  Yet 
in  the  older  books  the  idea  ot  the  unity  of  origin  of  the 
universe  is  far  from  having  come  to  maturity;  so  in  the 
Oathas  a  distinct  dualism  of  origin  is  taught.  At  the 
end  of  Yasna,  xxviii,  Zarathustra  asks:  "Do  thou, 
Ahura  Mazda,  teach  me  from  th^lf ,  that  I  may  de- 
clare it  forth,  through  what  the  primeval  world  arose." 
And  in  Yasna,  xxx,  comes  the  answer:  "Thus  are  the 
primeval  spirits,  who  as  a  pair — ^yet  each  independent 
m  his  action — ^have  been  famed  of  old.  Tney  are 
[these  two  spiritual  principles]  a  better  thing  and  a 
worse  thing  as  to  thoueht,  word,  and  deed.  When  the 
two  spirits  came  together  at  the  first  to  make  life  and 
tton-hfe.  and  to  determine  how  the  world  at  last 
should  fee  made,  [then  there  was]  for  the  wicked  the 
worst  life  and  for  the  holy  the  beet  state  of  mind.  He 
who  was  the  evil  one  chose  the  evil,  but  the  bountiful 
spirit  chose  righteousness. "  Ahura  Masda,  or,  as  the 
name  later  became  abbreviated,  Ormuid,  the  Wise 
Lord,  is  the  good  spirit  or  Spenlo  Mainyu;  the  Evil 
One  is  Anro  Mainyu,  the  destroying  spirit  later 
known  as  Ahriman.  The  absolute  dualism  of  the 
above  passage  is  unmistakable:  in  the  beginning  was 
Good  and  Evil;  the  good  became  as  it  were  incarnate 
in  Ormuzd,  the  evil  in  Ahriman.  The  name  Ahriman, 
however,  does  not  actually  occur  in  this  Yasna.  Tliis 
dualism  gradually  softened  as  centuries  went  on,  and 
Ormuzd  was  repeatedly  and  emphatically  designated 
as  the  Creator.  Thus  Yasna,  i,  1  (which  is  of  consid- 
erably  later  date  than  Yasna,  xxx):  ''I  confess  and 
proclaim  Ahura  Mazda,  the  creator,  the  radiant,  the 
glorious,  who  sends  his  joy-creating  grace  afar,  who 
made  us  and  who  fashioned  us,  who  has  nourished  us 
and  protected  us,  who  is  the  Spento  Mainyu. "  But 
whenever  Ormuzd,  the  source  of  all  good,  produces 
what  is  good,  the  Evil  One  produces  its  opposite^  there- 
with to  destroy  Orrauzd's  creation.  Ahriman,  there- 
fore, becomes  only  a  secondary,  or  counterKjrcator. 
This  is  thus  expressed  in  Fargard  i  of  the  Vendldftd: 
"The  first  of  good  lands  which  I,  Ahura  Mazda,  cre- 
ated was  Iran- Veg,  thereupon  came  AAro  Mainyu,  who 
is  all  death,  and  He  counter-created  the  serpent  in  the 
river,  and  the  winter,  the  work  of  demons.  The  second 
of  good  lands  which  I  created  was  the  plain  of  Sogdiana. 
Tliereupon  came  Anro  Mainyu,  wno  is  all  death, 
and  he  counter-created  the  locust,  brii^ng  death 
unto  cattle  and  plants."  No  less  than  sixteen  such 
creations  and  coimter-creations  are  thus  enumerated: 
Ahriman  counter-creates  plunder,  sin,  ants  and  ant- 
hills, unbelief,  tears  and  wailing,  iddlatry",  pride,  im- 
purity, burial  of  the  dead,  the  cooking  of  corpses,  ab- 
normal issues,  excessive  heat,  and  bitter  cold.  From 
this  enumeration  of  Ahriman's  work  one  gathers  that 
be  and  his  good  adversaiy  were  originally  personified 


principles,  and  this  personification  led  to  their  being 
accounted  real  spiritual  beings.  Sometimes  this  per- 
sonification was  so  materialized  as  to  lead  to  the  as- 
cription of  a  body  to  Ormuzd,  but  this  was  of  some 
aerial  substance  invisible  even  to  the  celestials.  Be- 
sides these  two  worid-creators  we  meet  in  the  Avesta 
four  elementary  beings,  or  rather  attributes  of  Ormuzd, 
called  Thwasha  or  mnhite  Space,  Zrvan  Akanma  or 
Endess  Time,  Ana^ira  raocao  and  Temao  or  B^tn* 
ningless  Light  and  Darkness.  These  peraonified  ab- 
stractions—-Space,  Time,  Light,  and  jDarkness — are 
co-etemal  with  Ormuzd  and  Anriman*  they  do  not 
create,  but  they  constitute  the  receptacle,  the  source, 
and  the  twofold  material  of  creation. 

Later  Parthian  speculations  on  the  origin  of  the  uni- 
verse are  found  in  the  Bimdahis,  a  Pahiavi  commen- 
tary on  the  Avesta,  which  may  date  from  the  Sassar 
nlos,  but  in  its  present  form  cannot  be  earlier  than  the 
seventh  centuiy  of  the  Christian  Era.  Ormuzd  is  here 
described  as  in  endless  light  and  all-wise ;  but  Ahriman 
in  endless  darkness  and  lacking  in  knowledge.  Ldcht 
and  darkness  seem  to  have  been  identified  with  Or- 
muzd and  Ahriman  at  an  eariier  period,  according  to 
Poxphyrius  and  Plutarch.  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman 
botn  produced  their  own  creatures,  which  remain 
apart  m  a  spiritual  or  ideal  state  for  9000  years;  for 
Ahriman  is  unaware  of  the  existence  of  Ormuzd  and 
his  good  creation.  After  this  begins  Ahriman's  oppo- 
sition to  the  work  of  Ormuzd,  witn  the  understanding, 
however,  that  the  period  of  the  evil  influence  would  not 
exceed  9000  years,  and  only  the  middle  3000  years 
were  to  see  Ahriman  successful.  By  pronouncing  a 
mysterious  spell  Ormuzd  throws  Ahnman  into  a  state 
of  confusion  for  a  second  3000  years.  Meanwhile,  Or- 
muzd creates  the  archangels  and  the  material  imiverse 
with  s\m,  moon,  and  stars;  Ahriman  produces  the  de-- 
vas.  or  evil  spirits,  and,  helped  by  them,  he  throws  him- 
selr  upon  the  good  creation  to  destroy  it.  The  six  di- 
visions of  creation — ^the  sky.  water,  earth,  plants,  and 
animals,  and  men — suffer  tne  attacks  of  th»  devaa. 
The  primeval  ox,  symbolizing  the  later  animal  worid, 
is  slain,  and  so  is  Gayomard,  representing  humanity. 
Yet,  though  Gayomard  dies,  his  offspring  Eves.  After 
many  purifications  by  archangels,  the  Rivas  plant,  be- 
gotten of  him,  grows  up.  Tnis  plant  contains  both 
man  and  woman;  when  their  bodies  have  sufficiently 
developed  they  receive  "the  breath  spiritually  into 
them,  which  is  the  soul'';  for  Ahura  Mazda  said  that 
"  the  soul  is  created  before  and  the  body  after,  for  him 
who  was  created".  And  Ahura  Mazda  said  to  them, 
"  You  are  roan,  you  are  the  ancestry  of  the  worid".  A 
story  is  told  of  the  first  pair,  whether  Mashya  and 
Masnyana  or,  as  elsewhere  given,  Yrma  and  his  wife, 
similar  to  that  of  Adam's  sin  in  paradise;  a  like  simil- 
arity can  also  be  found  in  Ahura  Mazda  creating  the 
worid  in  six  stages,  but  there  is  nothing  to  show  that 
the  Bible  is  the  borrower,  in  fact  the  contrary  is  moet 
probable.  In  the  Mainochired  a  further  stage  in  Per- 
sian cosmogonies  is  reached.  There  the  li^t  is  dis- 
tinctly named  as  the  matter  out  of  which  the  universe 
is  created  and  zrvan,  or  endless  time,  is  no  longer  con- 
sidered an  attribute  of  Ormuzd,  but  is  an  independent 
fundamental  being,  which  pronounces  its  blessing  and 
joy  over  the  creation  which  Ormuzd  produces.  So 
chapter  viii :  **The  creator  Ahura  produced  these  crea- 
tures and  creation,  the  archangeb  and  the  spirit  of 
wisdom  from  that  which  is  his  own  splexidour  and  with 
the  blessing  of  endless  time.  For  this  reason  unlim- 
ited time  is  undecaying  and  immortal,  painless  and 
hungerless,  thirstless  and  undisturbed;  tor  ever  and 
ever  no  one  will  be  able  to  overpower  it  or  to  make  it 
not  all-over-ruling  in  his  own  anain.  And  Ahriman^ 
the  wickecL  oounteivcreated  the  devas  and  drugs  [de- 
mons and  nends]  and  the  rest  of  the  things  of  oomip 
tion."  He  made  a  treaty  with  Ormuzd  for  QOOOyears. 
during  which  things  must  remain  as  they  are,  Bui 
after  9000  years  iJiriman  will  be  utteri|y  impotent. 


OOBMOOONT 


409 


CeSMOMHT 


Brosh,  the  angd  of  obedienoe,  will  smite  Aeshun,  Uie 
attacking  demon.  Mithray  the  ansel  of  sunlight,  and 
Zrvan  Akarana,  Time-without-ena,  and  the  angel  of 
justice  and  pro'^enee,  will  smite  the  creation  of  Ahii- 
man,  and  AhuraBCazda  will  become  again  undisturbed 
as  in  the  beginning.  Cosmology  pemaps,  rather  than 
oosmoganv,  is  contained  in  chapter  zuv:  ''Skv,  and 
earth,  and  water,  and  what  is  therein  are  like  the  egg 
of  a  bird.  By  Ahuia  Masda,  the  creator,  the  sky  is  ar- 
ranged above  thoi^arth  like  an  egg  and  the  semblance 
of  the  earth  in  the  midst  of  thesky  is  just  like  the  yolk 
within  the  egs ;  the  water  within  the  earth  and  dky  is 
such  as  the  white  of  the  egg."  This,  of  course,  must 
not  be  understood  as  a  sort  of  earlr  evolution  theory; 
it  merely  indicates  the  shape  of  the  universe  as  ooi^ 
oeived  by  the  Persians. 

Iranian  dualism  then  was  never  quite  consistent, 
not  even  in  the  Avesta.  In  the  Mainochirod  it  makes 
indeed  an  attempt  at  monism  in  perscmifying  Zrvan, 
out  of  which  creation  comes,  and  oy  whicn  creation  is 
blessed,  but  the  inconsistencies  of  the  B3rstem  finally 
brought  forth  a  number  of  unorthodox  sects.  Each  of 
these  sects  solved  the  problem  of  unity  versus  plural- 
ity in  its  own  way.  Some,  as  the  Gayomarthiya,  those 
indicated  in  Firdosi's  book  of  kings,  and  the  author  of 
the  Vajarkart,  practically  believed  in  an  eternal  al- 
mig^ly  creator  of  heaven  and  earth,  much  in  the  same 
sense  as  CSuistianB  do.  Ahriman,  at  first  a  primeval 
being  ooeral  with  Ormusd,  is  transformed  into  the 
Pftnee  eauivalent  for  Satan.  Others  readied  a  sort  of 
monism  by  making  either  Thwasha  (Space)  or  Zrvan 
(Time)  the  origin  of  all  things,  even  of  Ormusd  and 
Ahriman.  That  Thwasha  was  once  the  head  oi  the 
Iranian  pantheon  is  perhaps  indicated  by  so  early  a 
witness  as  Herodotus  (I,  cxzxi)  and  much  later  by 
Damascius.  Zrvan,  as  the  souroe  of  aU  things  aanongst 
the  Persians,  is  attested  by  many  of  the  Fathers 
(Theod.  Mops.,  Moses  of  Chorene),  bv  Esnik  and  £lft- 
seus.  At  this  period  the  origin  of  all  thin|ss  was  con- 
ceived in  various  fantastical  ways.  Acoordmgtosome 
(lUvajets,  God.  XII),  Time  created  Water  and  Fire  and 
when  these  came  together  Ormusd  arose.  According 
to  others.  Time  for  1000  years  yearned  to  bring  forth  a 
son  and  offered  sacrifice  for  that  purpose,  but  then 
doubted;  Ormusd  was  conceived  as  fruit  of  the  sacri- 
fice, Ahiiman  as  fruit  of  the  doubt— and  similar  f all- 
eles which  strongly  suggest  Indian  influence.  It  is  re- 
markable, however,  that  Ormusd  remains  throughout 
the  foremost  and  immediate  creator  of  the  cosmos  or 
world  as  it  now  is,  and  as  far  as  it  is  good.  It  is  remark- 
able also  that  Iranian  cosmogonies  are  not  devoid  of  a 
noble  ettucal  strain,  however  much  they  may  have 
dianged  during  the  course  of  ages. 

Inoian. — These  cosmogonies  are  so  manifold  and  so 
bewilderuQg  in  their  fantastic  variety  that  only  the 
oldest  ami  most  purely  Indian  can  be  referred  to,  and 
the  mam  outlines  indicated.  As  ethical  dualism  is 
the  characteristic  of  Iranian  thought,  so  is  idealistic 
pantheism  of  the  thought  of  India.  In  Indian  cos- 
mogonies more  than  elsewhere  we  have  to  distinguish 
between  philosophic  speculation  and  popular  religion, 
which  each  in  its  way  influenced  their  conception  of 
the  oriffin  of  the  world.  The  oldest  cosmogomes  must ' 
naturaSy  be  sought  in  the  Eig-Veda.  The  ag^  of  these 
sacred  Dooks  is  largely  a  matter  of  controversy,  but 
their  origin  can  be  roughly  assigned  to  a  date  earlier 
than  1000  B.  c.  Among  the  1028  hymns  of  the  Eig- 
Veda  none  Is  so  famous  as  cxxix  of  Book  X,  of  which  a 
translation  was  given  by  Max  MiiUer  forty  years  tiff). 
This  translation,  though  metrical,  is  remarkably  fit- 
eral  and  contams  the  best  exposition  of  ancient  Indian 
thought  on  this  subject.    It  runs  as  follows: — 

Kor  Aught  nor  Naught  existed;  yon  bright  siky 
Was  not,  nor  heaven's  broad  woof  outstretched  above. 
What  covered  all?  what  sheltered?  wliat  concealed? 
Was  it  the  water's  fathomless  abyss? 


There  was  not  death— yet  there  was  nau^t  iamuMrtal. 
There  was  no  confine  betwixt  day  and  night; 
The  Only  One  breathed  breathless  by  itself. 
Other  than  it  there  nothing  since  has  been. 
Darkness  there  was,  and  aU  at  first  was  vefled 
In  gloom  profoimd — an  ocean  without  light— 
The  Germ  that  still  lay  covered  in  the  husk 
Burst  forth,  one  nature,  from  the  fervent  heat. 
Then  first  came  Love  upon  it,  the  new  Spring 
Of  mind — ^yea^  poets  in  their  nearts  discerned. 
Pondering,  this  bond  between  created  things 
And  uncreated.    Comes  this  spark  from  the  earth 
Piercing  and  all  pervading,  or  from  heaven? 
Then  seeds  were  sown  and  mighty  powers  arose — 
Nature  below  and  Power  and  Will  above — 
Who  knows  the  secret?    Who  proclaimed  it  here? 
Whence,  whence  this  manifold  creation  sprang? 
The  gods  themselves  came  later  into  being — 
Who  knows  from  whence  this  great  creation  sprang? 
He  from  whom  all  this  great  creation  came. 
Whether  his  will  created  or  was  mu^. 
The  Most-High  Seer  that  is  in  highest  heaven. 
He  knows  it — or  perchance  even  He  knows  not. 

If,  however,  we  divest  this  and  similar  Indian  effu- 
sions (Rig-V»,  X,  cxc,  Ixxii)  of  their  poetical  garb  and 
set  aside  the  agnostic  touch  in  the  last  line,  weir  cos- 
ipogony  is  philosophically  conceived  as  follows:  The 
first  principle  of  aU  Being  is  Tad  (i.  e.  the  absolutely 
indefinite  That),  this  unites  in  itself  all  spiritual  and 
material  elements  of  the  world.  Tad  is  an  idea  ob- 
tained only  by  absolute  abstraction,  for  it  possesses 
only  one  quality,  viz.  that  of  vitality.  From  Tad  the 
universe  proceeds  by  evolution.  Tnis  evolution  is  in- 
troduced by  TapaSp  i.  e.  the  intensity  of  self-contem- 
plation or  mtrosp|ection — self-love,  one  would  almost 
translate.  This  is  the  spiritual  progress  by  whidi 
Tad  for  the  first  time  leaves  his  inaction.  Then  there 
arises  within  Tad,  kamaf  or  the  desire,  the  will,  the 
purpose  to  create.  Tad  has  therefore  evolved  into  a 
conscious  act  of  the  will,  that  is  Manas  has  begun, 
thereby  Tad  has  ceased  to  be  unconscious  and  has 
completely  left  his  state  of  inactivity.  There  further 
arises,  in  consequence  of  Tapas,  Ritam,  i.  e.  the  highest 
law  or  causality.  The  production  of  the  world  through 
the  intelligent  will  of  a  personal  creator  is,  at  least 
with  regard  to  the  first  stages  of  evolution,  unknown 
to  these  hymns.  Yet  a  universe  without  any  regular 
connexion  of  phenomena  seemed  unthinkable,  hence 
this  principle  of  causality  was  postulated  previous  to 
all  cosmic  evolution,  and  in  this  sense  Ritam  was  the 
first  thin^  to  arise  out  of  Tad  previous  to  the  tmiverse. 
But  all  Ritam  must  have  its  Satyam,  or  counterpart  in 
actuality.  In  theistic  phraseoloRy  this  would  mean 
that  all  creation  must  have  its  archetype  in  the  Divine 
Mind,  and  that  to  create  is  nothine  but  the  realization 
of  this  archetype  as  distinct  from  God.  According  to 
Indian  thought  the  force  of  their  groimd  Drinciple, 
will,  or  kama,  was  not  blind  activity,  but  boimd  by 
Ritam,  or  Supreme  Law.  The  world  therefore  was 
not  the  result  of  chance,  and  thus  their  philosophers 
could  establish  connexion  between  their  speculations 
and  popular  religion.  Now  there  arose  out  of  Tad  the 
dements  of  the  material  world:  the  moist  primeval 
matter,  the  space  to  surround  it,  and  darkness  to  fill 
the  space.  Time  was  not  reckoned  among  the  ele- 
ments, as  in  some  Iranian  cosmogonies  -  it  was  but  the 
measure  of  changing  phenomena.  Material  evolu- 
tions having  so  far  proceeded,  the  first  cosmic  cycle  of 
gods  makes  its  appearance:  Aditi  and  his  Adit^ms. 
8Vom  Aditi,  or  Innnity,  imited  to  Daksha,  or  Spirit 
Force,  the  Adityas  take  their  origm.  The  hignest 
among  them  is  Varuna  (o^/>ay6t?),  the  world-creator  in 
popular  religion.  These  work  together  to  bring  about 
the  present  cosmos.  The  first  things  produced  by 
separating  the  primeval  waters  is  light,  then  follow 
darknessj.  day  and  nigiht;  and  thus  time  b^ins.    By 


OOSMOOOHT 


410 


fXMmoaoinr 


differeatiation  of  the  primeviil  matter,  sun,  moon,  and 
earth  arise;  by  differentiation  of  spaoe,  the  reahns  of 
heaven,  air,  and  ether.    Thus: — 


11 


Tad 

Protoplasm 

Tapas 

Darkness 

Kama 

Place 

Manas 

Alternation  of  Time 

Ritam 

Division  of  Space 

Satyam 

Great  World  Bodies 

Another  development,  or  rather  another  nomencla- 
ture for  the  same  cosmogonic  principles,  makes  Brahr 
ma  the  source  of  all  things.  jBrahma  is  Tad,  or  the 
impersonal,  unconscious  All-Soul.  This  word  Brah- 
ma, from  meaning  originally  sacred  sacrificial  food, 
came  to  be  used  for  the  Supreme  Being  out  of  which 
the  imiverse  comes  and  unto  which  it  returns.  In 
later  days  Atman,  or  Hi^est  Self,  becomes  the  start- 
ing point  in  Indian  cosmogonies.  ^ 

A  curious  feature,  es^cially  in  later  cosmogonic 
ideas,  is  the  power  of  sacrifice,  to  which  even  the  evolu- 
tion of  tiie  universe  is  due;  in  fact  sacrificial  food  is 
the  venr  material  out  of  which  the  world  is  made. 
Tliis  is  Drought  out  in  one  of  the  latest  hynms  of  the 
Riff- Veda  (Book  X,  xc,  the  so-called  song  of  Purusha) 
and  often  in  the  Upanishads.  Purusha  is  one  more 
designation  of  the  Supreme  Being.  On  his  spiritual 
sidene  \b  often  identified  with  Brahma  and  Atman,  on 
his  material  side  he  is  the  proto-matter  out  of  which 
the  world  is  made.  Out  oi  Purusha's  mouth  proceed 
IndraandAgni.  Indra  in  popular  religion  becomes  the 
world-creator  as  also  Varuna  the  king.  Some  refer- 
ences to  Kin^  Varuna  are  of  singular  sublimity  (Atharva> 
Veda,  IV,  xvi) :  "  If  two  persons  sit  together  and  scheme, 
King  Varuna  is  there  as  a  third  and  knows  it.  Both 
this  earth  here  belongs  to  Kmg  Varunaand  also  3ronder 
broad  skv,  whose  boundaries  are  far  awav.  The  oceans 
are  the  loins  of  Varuna,  yet  he  is  hidden  in  a  small 
drop  of  water.  He  that  ahould  flee  beyond  the  heav- 
ens would  not  be  free  from  King  Varuna.  King  Varuna 
sees  through  sdl  that  is  between  heaven  and  earth  and 
all  that  IB  beyond.  He  has  coimted  the  winkings  of 
man's  eyes ;  ue  world  is  in  his  hands  as  the  dice  in  the 
hands  of  a  player".  In  the  mind  of  the  people  the 
impersonal  abstractions  of  pantheism  became  Individ- 
uaUsed  and  conceived  as  an  intensely  personal  creator. 
On  the  other  hand  the  most  grotesque,  and  often 
coarse,  conceptions  arose  as  to  the  physical  process  of 
the  world's  production.  As  intermediary  oeings  or 
stages  were  mentioned  seed,  or  an  egg,  or  a  tree,  or  the 
lotus-bud;  different  animals,  such  as  a  boar,  a  fish,  a 
turtle;  or  sexual  intercourse.  The  most  common 
theory  is  that  of  the  egg  (Chand,  br.,  V,  xix):  "This 
sdl  was  in  the  beginning  non-existent,  only  Tad  ex- 
isted. Tad  became  transformed,  it  became  an  egg,  this 
lay  there  for  a  year;  then  it  divided  itself  in  two,  the 
two  halves  of  the  shell  were  silver  and  gold.  The 
Gold  is  the  Heaven,  the  Silver  the  Earth,  and  what 
was  bom  is  the  Sun".  Not  infrequent  are  the  incar- 
nations of  the  deity  in  animals.  Brahmanspati,  the 
personification  of  the  creative  power  of  Brahma,  or 
Frajapati,  or  Vishnu,  became  incarnate  in  a  boar  or  a 
turtle;  and  similar  fancies.  In  the  Atharva-Veda, 
especially  XIX,  53,  54,  another  fundamental  cosmo- 
gonic being  or  personification  enters,  which  is  im- 
known  to  earliest  Indian  speculations,  viz.:  Time;  it 
occurs  here  and  there  in  tne  Rig-Veaa,  but  in  Ath.- 
Ved.,  xix,  Kala  has  risen  to  the  first  place  of  all,  and 
even  Brahma  and  Tapas  proceed  from  it.  This  rise  in 
Kala's  dignity  was  prepared  alreadv  in  the  Unani- 
shads  (Maitri-Up.,  VI,  xiv),  where  Kala  and  Akala, 
time  and  not-time,  are  two  forms  of  Brahma,  after  he 
had  produced  the  world  or  rather  the  sun  as  the  first 
thing  in  the  universe. 

pHtENiciAN. — Almost  all  we  know  of  Phoenician 


ooemoeonies  is  derived  from  a  late  souroe,  FhHo  By- 
blius  (bom  a.  d.  42),  transmitted  to  us  by  Eusebitis  in 
his  "Praeparatio  Evangelica".  Philo,  howerer,  only 
claimed  to  have  translated  a  late  copy  of  an  ancient 
Fhoenidan  author  called  Sanchoniathon.  This  state- 
ment, thoudi  believed  by  Eusebius  and  bv  Poiphy- 
rius  before  him  (De  abst.,  II,  56)  is  rejected  as  a  liter- 
ary fraud  by  many  modem,  especially  German,  achxA- 
ars.  Philo  is  supposed  to  have  pretended  to  use  an  ex- 
tremely ancient  source  merely  to  bolster  up  his  theory 
that  all  mythology  was  deified  ancient  history.  Tlie 
great  controversy  that  has  raged  round  the  name  of 
Banchoniathon  cannot  here  be  gone  into,  but  in  read- 
ing this  cosmogony  it  must  throughout  be  borne  in 
mmd  that,  inst^ul  of  being  the  exposition  of  very  early 
Canaanitish  ideas,  it  may  possibly  be  a  m^iipulatrd 
account  of  that  cosmopolitan  mixture  of  ideas  which 
was  current  in  Syria  about  a.  d.  100.  The  bpginiiin^ 
of  all  things,  according  to  this  account,  was  air  moved 
bv  a  breath  of  wind  and  dark  chaos  black  as  Krebus. 
Tnis  windy  chaos  was  eternal,  infinite.  But  when  this 
breath  veamed  over  its  own  elements,  and  confusion 
arose,  this  was  called  Desire.  This  Desire  was  the  ori- 
gin of  an  creation,  and,  though  it  knew  not  its  own 
creation,  out  of  its  self-embrace  arose  Mot  a  slimy  or 
watery  substance,  out  of  which  all  croated  germs  were 
produced.  Animal  fife  without  sensation  came  first; 
out  of  this  came  beings  endowed  with  intetligenoe 
whifdi  were  called  Zophesamin  (pt3e^  UCOIT),  ''over- 
seers of  heaven''.  Mot  had  a  shape  like  that  of  an 
MS  out  of  which  came  forth  sun,  moon,  and  stars. 
The  air  being  thus  illumined,  owing  to  the  glow  of  the 
sea  and  land,  winds  were  formed,  and  clouds  and  a 
vast  downpour  of  the  heavenly  waters  took  place.  By 
the  heat  oi  the  sun  things  were  made  to  spbt  off  from 
one  another  and,  beine  projected  on  hi^,  clashed  with 
one  another,  caiised  tnunder  and  lightning,  and  thus 
awoke  the  above-mentioned  intelligent  beingB,  wrho 
took  fright  and  began  to  stir  on  the  earth  and  in  the 
sea  as  imdes  and  females.  Not  unlike  this  is  the  cos- 
mogony given  bv  Damaseius  on  the  authority  of  Ehide- 
mos.  Before  aU  things  was  Time,  then  Desire,  then 
Darkness.  Out  of  the  union  of  Desire  and  Darkness 
were  bom  Air  (masc.)  and  Breath  (fern.).  Air  repie- 
senting  pure  thought,  and  Breath  thejproto^rpe  oi  life 
proce^mg  therem>m  by  motion.  Out  of  Air  an^ 
Breath  came  forth  the  cosmic  eg^.  According  to  the 
eosmoffony  ^ven  by  the  same  writer  on  the  authoritv 
of  Mocnos,  Ether  and  Air  generated  Oulomos  (world- 
time,  acBculum),  ChouaorM  (artificer,  creative  enei^gy), 
,and  ihe  cosmic  ^g;  and  Damaseius  expressly  states 
that,  according  to  the  Phoenicians,  world-time  is  the 
first  principle  containing  all  in  itself.  The  origin  of 
manland  is  described  as  the  birth  of  .£on  and  Proto- 
gonos  from  the  wind  Colpias  and  the  woman  Baau, 
(said  to  mean  '^nig^t'O*  '^^  name  Baau  strongly 
suggeste  in3  of  Genesis ;  for  Colpias  several  derivations 
have  been  suggested:  rPD  Tip  voice  of  the  wind"; 
iV  *D  7)p»  "the  sound  of  the  voice  of  Jahve";  or  mXw-Cst, 
"turgid";  or  riKD  ^3,  ''wind  from  every  side".  But 
these  derivations  are  perhaps  more  ingenious  than 
probable. 

Greek. — The  cosmogonies  are  far  too  numerous 
and  diveroent  to  allow  of  one  simple  description  embrac- 
ing all.  Only  some  prominent  cosmogonies  can  foe  in- 
dicated, and  some  of  the  pointe  common  to  all.  Homer 
seems  to  have  taken  the  universe  as  he  found  it  without 
inquiring  further,  but  from  Hiad,  XIV,  verse  201,  one 
gathers  that  Oceanus  is  origin,  and  Thetys  mother  of 
all;  from  verse  244  that  Ndf  (Night)  has  power  even 
over  Oceanus;  hence  Darkness,  Water,  and  Mother- 
hood seem  the  three  stages  of  his  cosmogony.  The 
fragments  of  On>hic  cosmogonies  given  by  Eudemos, 
and  Plato,  and  Lydus  do  not  quite  agree,  but  at  least 
Night,  Oceanus,  and  Thptvs  are  elementary  beings, 
and  the  first  of  them  in  order  of  existence  was  proba- 
bly Night.    A  more  detailed  cosmogony  of  great  antiq> 


CXMMOaONT 


411 


CXMMOGONT 


uity  18  to  be  foimd  in  Hesiod's  '"Theogony"  (about 
800  B.  c.)  in  venes  160  aqq.,  which  C.  A.  Elton  trans- 
lated as  follows: — 

First  Chaos  was;  next  ample-bosomed  Earth, 

The  seat  immovable  for  evermore 

Of  those  Immortals  who  the  snow-topped  heights 

Inhabit  of  Ol^pus,  or  the  gloom 

Of  Tartarus,  m  tne  broad-tracked  ground's  abyss. 

Love  then  arose,  most  beautiful  amongst 

The  deathless  deities;  resistless,  he 

Of  every  god  and  every  mortal  man 

Unnerves  the  limbs;  cussolves  the  wiser  breast 

By  reason  steeled  and  quells  the  very  soul. 

From  Chaos,  Erebos  and  ebon  Night; 

From  Night  the  Day  sprang  forth  and  shining  air 

Whom  to  the  love  of  Erebos  she  gave. 

Earth  first  produced  the  heaven  and  all  the  stars. 

She  brought  the  lofty  mountains  forth, 

And  next  the  sea.  .  .  Then,  with  Heaven 

Consorting,  Ocean  from  her  bosom  burst 

With  its  deep  eddying  waters. 

Chaos,  then,  is  the  starting-point  of  Hesiod's  cos- 
moeony.  Qiaos,  however,  must  probably  not  be 
uiMferstood  as  ''primeval  matter ''  without  harmony 
and  oonder,  but  rather  as  the  ''empty  void"  or  "place 
in  the  abstract ' '.  To  Hesiod  x<^'  cannot  have  lost  its 
orig;inal  meaning  (from  xa  in  x^^w;  x^/m,  "chasm", 
etc  ) .  Hesiod,  then,  starts  at  infinite  space ;  other  Greeks 
take  Time,  or  XP^»  oa  a  starting-point.  The  cos- 
mogony of  Pherecyd^  (544  B.  c.)  clauns  a  high  place 
MTinng  Greek  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the  worla,  be- 
cause of  the  prominence  given  to  Zeus,  a  personal 
spiritual  being,  as  the  origin  of  all  things.  **  Zeus  and 
Chronos  and  Chthonia  have  always  been  and  are  the 
thr«e  first  beginnings;  but  the  One  I  would  consider 
before  the  Two,  and  the  Two  after  the  One.  Then 
Chronos  produced  out  oi  himself  fire,  air,  and  water, 
these  I  tiULe  to  be  the  three  Logical  Elements,  and  out 
c^  them  arose  a  numerous  progeny  of  gods  divided  into 
five  parts  or  a  perdecoamos. "  Pherecydes'  cosmogony 
has  come  down  to  us  in  some  other  sli^Uy  modified 
forms  but  Zeus  is  ever  at  the  head.  He  seems  also  to 
have  known  of  a  primeval  battle  between  Chronos  and 
Ophioneus,  but  how  it  fits  in  with  his  cosmogony  we 
know  not.  Chthonia  seems  to  be  the  moist  Proto- 
matter,  neither  dry  earth  nor  sea,  out  of  which  Ge,  or 
the  earth,  is  created.  The  stages  of  his  cosmogon^r  are 
ther^ore:  God,  Time,  Matter — all  tliree  first  princi- 
ples, yet  God  is  in  some  sense  first ;  God,  when  feeling  a 
desire  to  create,  changes  himself  into  love,  so  that  lie 
may  bring  forUi  a  C<Sano6,  L  e.  a  well-ordered  world, 
out  of  contraries,  bringing  its  elements  into  agree- 
ment and  friendship.  A  noble  idea,  truly,  only  faUing 
short  of  the  Christian  idea  in  conceiving  time  a^  mat- 
ter as  eternal,  Zeus  thus  being  maker  or  fashioner,  not 
creator,  of  heaven  and  earth. 

A  oosmogonv  of  almost  the  same  date  is  that  of  Epi- 
menides,  imch  seems  in  flat  contradiction  to  that  of 
Pherecydes;  for  it  postulates  two  first  principles,  not 
origiBating  from  Unity:  Air  and  Night.  Out  of  these 
arise  Tartarus  etc.  tjoAer  Orphic  cosmogonies  begin 
some  with  Chronos,  others  with  Water  and  Earth, 
some  with  'Armpos  "TXiy.  In  the  last  stage  of  the 
Greek  cosmogony  the  egg  plays  an  important  part, 
either  as  evolutionary  stagie,  as  embryomc  state  of  the 
earth,  or  merely  to  indicate  the  shape  of  the  Cosmos. 

We  possess  no  ancient  Etruscan  or  Latin  cosmogo- 
nies, but  it  is  certain  that  the  God  Janus  was  a  oosmo- 
gonio  deity;  though  Jupiter  was  summusy  the  hi^est 
god,  Janus  was  primua,  the  first  of  the  gods,  and  as 
such  he  received  sacrifice  before  even  Jupiter.  This 
ancient  reminiscence  of  Janus  as  creator  is  made  use  of 
hi  Ovid's  "Metamorphoses",  but  in  how  far  so  late  a 
writer  represents  earlv  speculations  we  know  not. 
Janus  is  i>erhaps  the  Latin  equivalent  for  the  Greek 
Chaos  as  origin  of  aU  things.    Janus  is  said  to  be  not 


only  xmlium  mundif  but  mundiis  itself,  i.  e  the  all-em- 
bracing. 

Summary  of  Ancient  Cosmogonibb. — Common  to 
all  is  the  effort  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  world  by  as 
few  elementary  beings  as  possible.  In  order  to  arrive 
at  the  origin  of  all  things,  man  b^an  by  abstraction 
from  the  actual  differentiation  of  being  which  he  saw 
around  him  to  obtain  some  simple  element  underl3ring 
all.  Mere  abstraction,  however,  or  reduction  from  the 
compound  to  the  simple,  did  not  suffice,  but  some  in- 
telligent causality  was  demanded  by  the  intellect  of 
man.  Hence  personification  plavs  a  great  r61e  in 
every  cosmogony,  and  the  actual  nmction  of  creating, 
or  rather  forming  and  arranging  the  world  as  it  now  is, 
is  ascribed  to  one  intelligent  personality;  every  people 
worshipped  some  deity,  be  he  then  Marauk  or  Varuna, 
or  Bel  or  Ahura-Masda,  or  Zeus  or  Janus.  No  ancient 
cosmogony,  however,  rose  to  the  pure  concept  of  cre- 
ation out  of  nothing  by  an  infinite  spirit;  for  none 
succeeded  in  eliminating  matter  or  its  phenomena 
altogether,  and  conceiving  a  subsistent  Intelligence 
which  could  create  both  matter  and  spirit.  The  first 
stens  in  this  process  of  abstraction  are  simple  enough 
ana  common  to  most  cosmogonies;  once  upon  a  time 
there  were  no  men  nor  beasts,  nor  plants;  no  stars  nor 
sky,  no  mountains  and  valleys,  and  neither  dry  land 
nor  sea.  Then  only  proto-matter  remained.  Some 
cosmogonies  stopped  here  and  were  frankly  material- 
istic; it  probabl^  depended  on  climatic  surroundings 
what  they  conceived  the  proto-matter  to  be,  whether 
clay  or  water,  or  air,  or  fire,  or  light  (conceived  as  sub- 
stances). Other  cosmogonies  carried  the  process  of 
abstraction  farther.  The  variation  between  light  and 
darkness,  dav  and  night,  season  and  season  cannot  al- 
ways have  been,  hence  these  were  also  abstracted 
from ;  naught  therefore  remained  but  Darkness.  Night, 
Eternity.  By  thinking  away  all  special  localities  in 
the  universe,  onlv  Place  remained  m  the  abstract,  or 
the  Void.  By-  tninking  away  all  differences  in  the 
mental  and  spiritual  sphere  naught  remained  but 
Force  in  genei^.  Force,  Place,  Tune,  and  Darkness 
became  personified  cosmogonic  elements.  Some  were 
able  to  abstract  even  from  Force;  to  them  only  Place, 
Time,  and  Darkness  remained.  Some  rightly  argued 
that  time  was  but  the  measure  of  phenomena,  and  by 
abstracting  from  phenomena  Time  ceased  to  be.  To 
them  only  Space  and  Darkness  remained;  but  then 
Darkness  was  conceived  as  the  fluid  filliiig  the  vessel  of 
Space,  and  therefore  could  be  abstracted  from,  and 
only  the  Void  remained.  All  these  ideas  actually  oc- 
cur in  the  different  cosmogonies.  Chaos  is  empty 
space;  Chronos,  Zrvan,  Heh,  abstract  time:  Nux,  the 
unchangeable  quintessence  of  time;  Zeus,  Tad,  Ahura 
Mazda,  Thot  are  spirit  forces.  Those  cosmo^nies 
which  did  not  go  so  far  as  to  personify  space  or  tune  or 
darkness,  but  stopped  short  at  the  idea  of  some  proto- 
substance,  were  faced  by  the  problem  whether  this 
primevfd  substance  was  spirit,  or  matter,  or  both. 
Some  answered,  both,  as  the  E^rptians  (Nun)  and  the 
later  Indians  (Purusha);  some  answered  that  spirit 
was  first,  as  some  Babylonian  thinkers  (Anu),  most 
Indians  (Tad,  Brahma,  Atman)  and  the  Iraniaos 
(Ahura,  Ahriman);  some  answered  that  matter  was 
first,  as  Bab}rlonians  (Apsu  Tiamat),  Persiansj  and 
Egyptians  (Light,  lU)  Phoenicians  (Air),  Etruscans 
(^tner).  Thus  ancient  thought  wandered  through 
the  whole  range  of  possible  theories,  not,  however, 
guided  by  mere  caprice,  but  forced  to  some  conclusion 
which  seemed  to  them  inevitable.  With  regard  to  the 
immediate  process  according  to  which  this  world  was 
produced,  ueer  scope  was  given  to  unbridled  fancy« 
Yet  even  here  the  analogy  with  the  production  of  life 
in  nature  was  the  guiding  principle,  the  world  was  pro* 
duced  as  life  comes  from  life  by  animal  generaUonSi  or 
as  the  tree  comes  out  of  the  seed,  the  flower  out  of  the 
bud,  or  &s  the  egg  is  laid  by  the  bird.  These  imagina- 
tions are  often  combined  in  a  grotesque  ensemble 


OOBMOGONT 


412 


OOSMOQOMY 


against  the  complexity  of  which  appear  in  greater  re- 
lief the  majesty  and  simplicity  of  tne  words:  In  the  be- 
ginning Qod  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 

Cosmogonies  of  More  Modern  Races. — ^Amongst 
more  modem  myths  of  the  worid's  origin  the  Norse 
and  the  American  cosmogonies  call  for  comment. 

The  Norse  Coamoganies  are  the  only  remnant  of  an- 
cient German  ideas  on  this  subject,  for  the  so-called 
"  Praver  of  Wessobrunn",  a  fragment  ascribed  to  the 
eighth  or  ninth  century,  is  too  short  to  give  us  any 
infbnnation  beyond  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  one 
almightv  god,  and  with  him  a  multitude  of  divine 
spirits,  bemre  the  world  was.  It  is,  moreover,  uncer- 
tain whether  the  Wessobrunner  fragment  represents 
pure  Germanic  thought  uninfluenced  by  Christianity. 
The  Norse  cosmogonies  are  contained  in  the  Edda; 
the  more  ancient  one  in  the  Voluspa  of  the  Poetic  Ed- 
da.  the  younger  one  in  the  Gylfaginning  of  the  Prose 
Edda.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  these  cosmogonies 
so  clearly  betray  the  influence  of  the  Arctic  climate 
that  they  can  in  no  sense  belong  to  the  Southern  Ger- 
mans. This,  however,  is  hardly  convincins,  as  it  is 
unknown  where  precisely  the  Germans  Uvea  previous 
to  their  immigration  into  Eim>pe,  and  what  was  the 
climate  of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia  when  these 
Sagas  first  grew  up.  In  the  third  verse  of  ''The  Si** 
byPs  Song",  of  Voluspa,  the  cosmogony  begins ^— 

There  was  a  time  when  only  Ymir  was, 

Nor  sand,  nor  sea,  nor  briny  waves, 

Nay  earth  existed  not,  nor  neaven  above. 

A  yawning  space  without  a  spot  of  green 

Until  the  vaults  were  raised  of  all 

Bv  Buri's  Sons  creating  noble  Midgard. 

Tnen  shone  the  Southern  Sun  on  stony  mountains, 

And  from  the  very  soil  the  herbs  were  sprouting. 

And  yet  the  Southern  Sun,  the  helpmate  of  the  Moon, 

Bridled  heaven's  steeds  with  her  right  hand. 

For  it  was  unknown  as  yet  where  me  i^ould  dwell, 

Nor  knew  the  moon  the  power  he  possessed, 

The  Stars  were  ignorant  of  their  ai>ode. 

Then  went  the  Powers  all  to  sit  in  judgment 

The  all-holy  Rods  held  thereupon  their  council, 

To  Nig^t  ana  to  the  waning  moon  gave  names. 

They  gave  to  Mom  and  Noon  their  calling 

To  Afternoon  and  Eve,  whereby  to  reckon  years. 

The  Sibyl  further  chants  how  the  Aesir  met  on  Ida's 
plain,  built  altars  and  temples,  lit  the  biasing  furnace, 
and  forged  their  tools.  The  creation  of  dwarfs  is  then 
related  in  detail,  and  finally  the  creation  of  man. 
Three  Aesir,  great  and  kind,  went  to  the  world  and 
found  in  utter  weakness  Ask  and  Embla,  the  first 
human  pair.  ''Spirit  they  possessed,  but  sense  had 
none;  No  blood,  nor  strength  to  move,  nor  goodly 
colour.  Life  gave  Odin,  Sense  gave  Hoenir,  Blood 
gave  Lodur  and  goodly  colour."  This  cosmogony  is 
exi>lained,  enlar^,  and  sli^tly  modified  in  the  Gyl- 
faginning, or  Gyifa's  deception.  The  lengthy  account 
can  be  summed  up  as  follows: — 

There  are  three  stages  of  development :  (a)  the  rise 
of  three  ftmdamentalbeings  in  times  primeval,  Mus- 
pelheim.  or  the  southern  realm  of  Light,  Niflheim  or 
the  northern  realm  of  Darkness,  and  between  them  the 
Ginnunga  Gap,  or  yawning  cleft.  Muspelheim  ex- 
isted first,  and  Niflheim  is  secondary  in  the  order  of 
bleing,  but  how  either  arose  the  cosmogony  does  not 
explain.  In  the  northern  realm  there  existed  a  well, 
called  Hwei^mir,  from  which  proceeded  twelve  tor- 
rents, callea  together  Elivagar,  or  Ic<«tream.  This 
stream  flowing  into  the  Ginnunga  Gap  formed  thecos- 
mogonic  being  Ymir.  At  first  this  was  a  lifeless  mass, 
but  this  mass  develops  under  the  influence  of  Aud- 
humla,  represented  as  a  oow  licking  the  ice,  being  a 
figure  for  the  Thawing  Warmth,  (b)  Out  of  Ymir  the 
Frost  Giants,  or  Hrimthurses,  arise,  and  the  funda- 
mental godH;  out  of  Audhunila  ariHC  Odin,  Vili,  ami 
Ve;  or  Odin,  Vili,  and  Ve  are  the  sons  of  Bdr,  who 


married  Bestla,  daufl^ter  of  the  Frost  Giant  BOllhcwii* 
(c)  Odin,  Vili,  and  Ve  slay  the  monster  Ymir^  throw 
his  body  into  the  Ginnunga  Gap,  and  out  of  hm  limbs 
form  the  visible  universe,  or  the  Midgard,  out  of  his 
skull  the  vault  of  heaven,  out  of  his  brains  the  do/ads, 
out  of  his  blood  the  seas,  and  so  on.  Then  they  build 
the  Burgh  of  the  Gods,  Asgard:  thev  order  the  course  of 
the  stars  and  create  the  Dwarfs.  Lastly,  the  first  man 
and  woman  are  created.  Ask  and  EmUa.  whom  Odin 
found  as  weak  and  miserable  beings  on  the  seashore. 

These  Norse  cosmosonies  differ  from  the  more  an- 
cient cosmogonies  in  wis:  that  they  do  not  really  go 
back  to  the  first  beginning  of  all  things,  but  presup- 
pose the  existence  of  a  twofold  world — one  South  the 
other  North — and  only  account  for  the  formation  of 
this  present  world  in  the  space  between  both.  They 
agree  with  most  other  cosmogonies  in  ascribing  the 
actual  formation  of  thb  Cosmos  to  one  (Odin)  or  more 
(Odin,  with  Vili  and  Ve  as  destroyers  of  Chaos)  inteUi-  ' 
gent  personal  beings  or  gods. 

American  Cosmogonies  have  been  preserved  in 
fair  number.  The  early  missionaries  to  America,  es- 
pecially those  to  Mexico,  Cental  America,  and  South 
America,  were  strondy  impressed  with  the  monotheis- 
tic character  of  Indian  speculations,  ascribing  this 
world  and  its  phenomena  to  the  influence  of  one  omni- 
present i^iritual  being,  called  in  one  place  the  ''Great 
spirit ' ',  in  another  place  Viraoocha,  in  another  Hunab- 
ku,  elsewhere  Quetzalcoatl,  etc.  Yet,  ooncurrenth^ 
with  these  true  religious  and  phiiosophio  ideas,  there 
existed  a  number  of  apparently  puerile  traditions  oon- 
oemine  the  beginning  of  thingi.  But  again  these 
childish  fancies  were  but  the  ckrthing  of  general  cos- 
mc^onic  ideas.  According  to  the  Ottawae  and  other 
northern  Algonquins,  a  ran  was  floating  on  the  shore- 
less waters.  Upon  this  raft  were  a  number  of  animals 
with  Michabo,  the  Giant  Rabbit,  as  their  chief.  As 
they  were  without  land  to  live  on.  Michabo,  the  Giant 
Rabbit,  made  first  the  beaver  and  then  the  otter,  that 
they  should  dive  and  bring  up  a  piece  of  mud.  As 
they  failed,  Wajashk,  the  female  muskrat,  at  her  own 
request  is  allowed  to  dive.  When  she  had  remained 
befow  for  a  day  and  a  ni^t,  she  floated  to  the  surface 
as  dead,  but  they  found  in  one  of  her  paws  a  little  dod 
of  mud.  Michabo,  endowed  with  creative  power, 
kneads  this  little  bit  of  soil  till  he  makes  it  Rrow  into 
an  island,  a  mountain,  a  country,  nay  into  thia  world 
in  which  we  live.  He  shoots  his  arrows  in  the  g^round 
and  transfixes  them  with  other  arrows,  thus  creating 
trees  with  stems  and  branches.  Some  say  he  created 
man  from  the  dead  bodies  of  certain  animals,  othero 
that  he'  married  the  muskrat  and  thus  begat  the  ances- 
tors of  the  human  race.  It  has  been  suggested  that  in 
thename '  'Michabo''  there  lies  oonoeaiedanother  word, 
viz. "  Michi  Waban'\  the  eireat  Dawn,  or  the  great  East. 
The  word  '*  Wajashk '',  likewise,  probably  contains  the 
word ' '  Aj  ishki ' ',  or  mud.  The  story  then  would  mean : 
When  the  great  lig^t  in  the  east  shone  upon  the  pri- 
meval waters,  dry  land  in  ever-increasing  extent  ap- 
peared  above  the  surface,  and  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
piercing  the  soil,  brought  forth  the  trees,  and  the  action 
of  the  light  on  the  slime  brought  forth  man. 

(Closely  similar  to  this  cosmogony  is  that  of  the  Iro- 
quois. In  the  beginning  the  heavens  above  were  peopled 
with  celestial  beings,  and  the  wide  ocean  below  with 
monstersofthedeep.  Then  Ataensic,  a  divine  bmng,  fell 
through  a  rift  in  the  sky  into  the  primeval  waters.  The 
turtle  offered  her  his  back  as  restmg  place.  Then  some 
animal  brought  her  a  little  clay,  out  of  which  she  pro- 
duced the  dry  land.  Ataensic  ^ve  birth  to  adau^ter, 
who,  thoueh  a  vir^,  gave  birth  to  twins,  Tawiseara 
and  Josk&a.  This  dau^ter  having  died  in  child' 
birth,  her  body,  beine  buried,  imparts  fertility  to  the 
soil.  A  mortal  batUe  is  wagea  between  the  two 
brothers  Joskeha,  the  good,  and  Tawiseara,  the  evil 
one.  The  latter  is  overcome,  flies  to  the  West,  and 
becomes  the  god  of  the  dead.    Joskeha  creates  first 


OOBMOORAPaY 


413 


OOftMOLOOT 


tbe  aiiunals  aud  then  man.  Ataensic  is  said  to  mean 
*'She-who-u-in-the-water".  L  e.  the  dry  land  in  the 
midst  of  the  ooeon;  Joskena  is  the  ^wing  iig^t,  or 
dawn;  Tawiscara,  the  evening  twilight,  or  growing 
darkness.  The  Quiche  of  Guatemala  have  left  us  in 
their  sacred  book  **  Popol  Vuh  "  the  most  detailed  cos- 
mogony of  Central  America.  The  universe  first  con- 
sisted of  the  endless  ocean  and  the  twilight  brooding 
over  it.  Then  the  Creator  took  counsel  with  his  help- 
mate to  produce  the  world.  Though  described  as  a 
pair  of  gcKis,  male  and  female,  this  pair  is  conceived  as 
a  unity  of  being,  male  and  female  being  but  different 
aspects  of  the  Ueity.  This  Creator  is  o&lled  by  every 
conceivable  name,  even  with  names  proper  to  other 
deities.  Thus  he  is  called  Heart  of  the  Universe, 
which  is  a  special  title  of  the  god  Hurakan,  or  of  Guku- 
mats  the  feathered  serpent.  He  is  evidently  con- 
ceived as  the  All-in-One,  as  Hunabku,  from  whom 
men  and  gods  descend.  This  Creator  uttered  the 
word  Earthf  and  the  land  b^n  to  rise  out  of  the 
waters.  As  often  as  God  called  a  thing  so  often  it  en- 
tered into  reality.  Then  God  takes  counsel  with  the 
lesser  gods,  whom,  apparently,  he  has  meanwhile  cre- 
ated, how  to  fashion  man.  Tnev  first  created  him  out 
of  day,  then  of  wood,  and  finally  out  of  maiae.  The 
first  two  attempts  failed,  the  third  succeeded.  The 
monkeys  are  the  surviving  ronnants  of  the  second  tm- 
successful  endeavour. 

Very  weird  are  the  cosnK>^nie8  of  the  ancient 
Mexicans.  They  are  charactenaed  by  the  strong  in- 
fluence of  dualism,  the  universe  being  in  the  throes  of  a 
perpetual  contest  between  good  and  evil.  The  infinite 
deity  has  four  sons:  the  black  and  the  red  Teseatlipoca, 
and  Quetsalooatl,  and  HuitzilopochtU.  These  four 
brothers  consulted  together  about  the  creation  of 
things.  The  actual  work  fell  to  the  lot  of  Quetzal- 
coatl  and  Huitsilopochtli.  They  made  fire,  then  half 
the  sun,  the  heavens,  the  watere,  and  a  certain  great 
fish  therein  with  the  name  of  Cipactli.  From  its  flesh 
was  fonned  soUd  earth  and  the  first  man  and  woman, 
Cipac^nal  and  Oxomuco.  The  half-sun  created  by 
Quetsalooatl  lifted  the  world  but  poorly,  and  the 
four  gods  oonsiut  once  more  to  add  another  half  to  it. 
Teseatlipoca  does  not  wait  for  their  decision,  but 
transforms  himself  into  the  sun.  But  alter  thirteen 
times  fifty-two  years,  Quetsalcoatl  seized  a  great  stick 
and  with  a  blow  knocked  Teseatlipoca  from  the  sky 
into  the  waters,  and  became  himself  the  sun.  Four 
times  was  the  earth  destroyed  in  this  struggle.  Quet- 
salooatl is  at  present  triumphant,  but  TezcatUpoca  is 
only  biding  his  time.  This  cosmogonic  episode  of 
war  between  brothers  runs  through  other  North 
American  accounts,  as,  e.  g.,  Tawiscara  and  Joskeha 
amongst  the  Iroquois,  and  is  prominent  in  the  Egyp- 
tian cosmogony. 

The  noblest  account  of  the  world's  ori^  was  found 
amongst  the  Maya  of  Yucatan,  who  ascribed  all  to  an 
inunaterial,  invisible  god  Hunabku,  father  of  Itsamna, 
the  personificatimi  of  the  heavenly  fire.  Similariy, 
the  ancient  Avmara  ascribed  all  to  Viracocha  (Foam- 
of-ihe^8ea — tne  colour  white,  the  Spaniards,  as  white- 
skins,  being  called  viracochos).  This  Viracocha,  or 
White  One,  was  Creator  and  Possessor  of  all  things. 
As  all  things  were  his,  and  he  was  everywhere,  the  In- 
css  built  him  no  temples.  Ere  sun  or  moon  was  made, 
he  rose  from  the  bosom  of  the  lake  Titicaca  and  presid- 
ed over  the  building  of  the  ancient  cities.  He  created 
the  huninaries  and  placed  them  in  the  sky,  and  peo- 
pled the  earUi  with  inhabitants.  But,  journeying  from 
the  lake  westward,  he  was  attacked  by  the  creatures  he 
had  made,  dooming  the  contest  with  the  work  of  his 
own  ha^ds,  he  <Hily  hurled  lightning  over  hillside  and 
forest,  and  when  his  creatures  repented  he  became 
T'coonciled  and  taught  them  all  things-  Viracocha 
was  the  divine  li^t,  symbolised  by,  but  not  identical 
with,  the  sun.  One  can  hardly  refrain  from  a  com- 
PmoQ  with  Khu-i^Aten,  the  solar  disc  of  Amenho- 


tep's  foreigii  worahip  introduced  into  Egypt  some 
three  thousand  years  before  the  religiouB  revival  of  the 
IncasofPeru. 

LrKAS^  Die  Orundideen  in  dm  Kotmogonian  der  atten  Vdlker 
(1893);  JbAaBANQB,  Biudu  Mur  Ua  reHmona  UmMquea  (2d  od.. 
Paris.  1905).  366-441;  Von  Ohslu,  AUqem.  lUlioumaoeschicKte 
(Bonn,  1S99);  Jbnbbm.  Die  K&amoiogie  aer  Bahylonier  (Lcipstg, 
1891);  DAJUfSsrarrBB,  Onmud  H  Akriman  (Paris,  1877); 
HoPKiNB,  The  Rdigiona  of  India  (Boston,  1895);  Wzndbuiand. 
Hietary  of  Ancient  JPhitoaophy  (tr.,  London,  1900);  Mjbter,  Die 
eddietAeKoamooonie  (Fnihaimim  Br..  1891);  Idbm,  Mytholoaie 
der  Oermanen  (Strasbuis.  19C»):  HAxlbr,  ReUmon  d.  mittl. 
Amerika  (MOnster,  1899);  Bbinton,  Bdigiona  of  l^m.  PeopUe 
(FhiUdelphia,  1897}:  Idbm,  Ameriean  Hero  Mytha  (Philadel- 


phia, 18^):  Inuf,  liytha  I 


the  New  World  a9dS^. 

J.  P.  Arbndzen. 


Oosmograpfaj.    See  Geogbapht. 

Oosmology. — ^From  its  Greek  etymology  (x^^t 
worid;  X<^ot,  knowledge  or  science)  the  word  ootmol' 
ogy  means  the  science  of  the  worid.  It  ought,  there- 
fore, to  include  in  its  scope  the  study  of  the  whole 
material  universe:  that  is  to  say,  of  inorganic  sub- 
stances, of  plants,  of  animals,  and  of  man  himself. 
But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  wide  range  indicated  by 
the  etymolo^  <rf  the  word  has  been  narrowed  in  the 
actual  meanmg.  In  our  day  cosmology  is  a  branch  of 
philosophical  study,  and  therefore  excludes  from  its 
mvestigation  whatever  forms  the  object  of  the  natural 
sciences.  While  the  sciences  of  physics  and  biology 
seek  the  proximate  causes  of  corporal  phenomena,  the 
laws  that  govern  them,  and  the  wonderful  harmony 
resulting  therefrom,  cosmology^  aims  to  discover  the 
deeper  and  remoter  causes  which  neither  observation 
nor  experiment  immediately  reveals.  This  special 
purpose  restricts  in  many  ways  the  field  of  cosmology. 
There  is  another  limitation  not  leas  important.  Man 's 
imique  position  in  the  universe  makes  him  the  object 
of  a  special  philosophical  study,  vis.  psycholo^,  or 
anthropologv;  and,  in  consequence,  that  portion  of 
the  corpor^  world  with  which  these  sciences  deal  has 
been  cut  off  from  the  domain  of  cosmology  properiy  so 
called. 

There  is  a  tendenojr  at  present  to  restrict  the  field 
still  further;  and  limit  it  to  what  is  known  as  inor- 
ganic creation.  FBychokogy  being  by  its  very  defini- 
tion the  study  of  human  life  consioered  in  its  first 
principle  and  m  the  totality  of  its  phenomena,  its  in- 
vestigations ought  to  comprise,  it  would  seem,  the 
threaokl  life  of  man,  v^^tive,  animal,  and  rational. 
And,  indeed,  the  inter-oependence  of  these  three  lives 
in  the  one  living  human  oeing  appears  to  justify  the 
enlaraement  demanded  nowadays  by  many  authors  of 
note  for  the  psychological  field.  Hence  for  those  who 
accept  this  view,  cosmology  has  nothing  to  do  with 
organic  life  but  is  reduced  to  "  a  philosophical  study  of 
the  inorganic  world".  Such,  in  our  opinion,  is  the 
beet  deflation  that  can  be  given.  At  tne  same  time 
it  should  be  remarked  that  many  philosophers  still 
favour  a  broader  definition,  which  would  include  not 
only  the  mineral  kingdom  but  also  living  things  con- 
sidered in  a  general  way.  In  Orman-speaking  coun- 
tries cosmolo^,  as  a  rule,  is  known  as  Naturphilo' 
9oMe,  i.  e.  phuosophy  of  nature. 

Under  this  name,  philosophers  usually  understand  a 
study  of  the  universe  along  the  lines  of  one  of  the  fore- 
going definitions.  Scientists,  on  the  other  hand,  give 
a  more  scientific  turn  to  this  philosophy  of  nature, 
transforming  it  into  a  sort  of  general  physics  with  an 
occasional  excursion  into  the  realm  of  sensitive  and 
intellectual  life.  A  notable  instance  is  the  work  of 
Prof.  Ostwald, '' Vorlesungen  aber  Naturphilosophie" 
(Leipzig,  1902). 

Origin  of  CoaiiOLoaT. — ^The  word  itself  is  of  recent 
origin.  It  was  first  used  by  Wolff  when,  in  1730.  he 
entitled  one  of  his  works  "Gosmolo^  Generaiis" 
(Frankfort  and  Leipzig).  In  this  treatise  the  author 
studies  especially  tne  laws  of  motion,  the  relations 
that  exist  among  things  in  nature,  the  contingency  of 
the  universe,  the  harmony  of  nature,  tha  necessity  of 


OOSMOLOOT 


414 


008MOL0OT 


postulating  a  God  to  explain  tho  origin  of  the  cosmos 
and  its  muiif  estation  of  purpose.  Because  of  the  ad* 
vance  the  natural  sciences  were  then  making,  Wolff 
omitted  from  his  philosophic  study  of  nature  the 
purely  scientific  pK>rtion  which  till  then  had  been 
closeiy  allied  with  it.  The  cosmology  of  the  ancients 
and  especially  of  Aristotle  was  simply  a  branch  of 
physics.  The  "Physics"  of  Aristotle  treats  of  cor- 
poreal beings  in  as  far  as  they  are  subject  to  motion. 
The  work  is  divided  into  two  parts:  (1)  General  phys- 
ics, which  embraces  the  general  principles  governing 
corporeal  being.  It  treats  of  local  motion  and  its 
various  kinds;  the  origin  of  substantial  compounds; 
changes  in  quality:  changes  in  quantity  by  increase 
and  decrease;  and  changes  arising  from  motion  in 
place,  on  which  Aristotle  hinges  our  notions  of  the  in- 
finite, of  time,  and  of  space.  (2)  Special  physios 
whidi  deals  with  the  various  classes  of  bein^:  terres- 
trial bodies,  celestial  bodies,  and  man.  It  is  the  first 
part  of  this  work  that  comes  nearest  to  what  we  mean 
by  cosmology.  The  Schoolmen  of  the  Biliddle  Ages, 
as  a  rule,  follow  the  path  marked  out  for  them  by 
Aristotle.  Cosmological  subjects,  properiy  so  called, 
have  no  reserved  place  in  philosopmcal  study,  and  are 
generallv  treated  as  a  part  of  physics.  In  our  own 
time,  philosophers  employ  the  words  "cosmology" 
and  "philosophy  of  nature"  to  designate  the  phucH 
sophic  study  of  the  corporeal  worid. 

Mbthod. — Cosmology  is  the  natural  complement  of 
the  special  sciences.  It  bepins  where  they  leave  off, 
and  its  domain  is  auite  distmct  from  theirs.  The  sci- 
entist determines  tne  immediate  cause  of  the  phenom- 
ena observed  in  the  mineral  or  the  organic  world: 
he  formulates  their  laws,  and  builds  these  into  a  syn- 
thesis with  the  help  of  certain  general  theories,  such 
as  those  of  light,  of  heat,  and  of  electricity.  The  cos- 
moloeist,  on  the  other  hand,  seeks  the  ultimate  causes, 
not  of  this  or  that  class  of  beings  or  of  phenomena,  but 
of  the  whole  material  universe.  He  inquires  into  the 
constituent  nature  of  corporeal  beines,  their  destiny, 
and  their  first  cause.  It  is  clear  that  these  laiger 
problems  are  quite  beyond  the  ran^  and  purpose  of 
the  various  sciences,  each  of  which  is  by  its  method 
confined  to  its  own  particular  subject.  Nevertheless, 
cosmology  must  borrow,  and  borrow  largely,  from  the 
data  of  science,  since  the  causes  which  it  studies  are 
not  directly  perceptible;  they  can  be  known  only 
through  phenomena  which  are  their  more  or  less 
f aitiiful  manifestations.  It  is  on  these  that  cosmol- 
ogy must  rest  in  order  to  pass  upward  from  cause  to 
cause  till  the  ^timate  cause  is  reached.  Since,  then, 
it  is  the  T6\e  of  the  natural  sciences  to  analyse  and 
classify  the  properties  and  phenoniena  of  nature,  cos- 
mology is  obliged  to  draw  very  freely  upon  those  sci- 
ences and  to  neglect  none  of  their  definitive  results. 
In  a  word,  the  cosmological  method  is  essentially  a 
posteriori.  Descartes  and  his  school  followed  a  differ- 
ent, even  an  opposite,  course.  Being  a  mathemati- 
cian above  all  else,  he  applies  to  cosmolo^  the  prin- 
ciples of  mathematics,  and  as  mathematics  sets  out 
from  the  simplest  propositions  and  travels  along  the 
road  of  deduction  to  the  most  complex  truths,  so 
Descartes,  starting  from  extension  as  the  primoraial 
and  universal  property  of  matter,  in  fact  its  very  es- 
sence, ends  by  ascribing  to  all  bodies  in  nature  what- 
ever extension  implies  and  by  eliminating  from  them 
whatever  it  excludes.  This  a  priori  method,  being  es- 
sentially deductive  is  anti-scientific;  and  \a  based, 
moreover,  on  a  false  supposition,  since  extension  is 
only  one  of  the  many  properties  of  matter,  not  its  es- 
sence. As  Leibniz  pointed  out,  extension  presupposes 
something  extendea,  just  as  a  repetition  presupposes 
something  to  be  repeated.  Philosophers,  therefore, 
have  fldmost  entirely  abandoned  this  method;  with 
the  exception  perhaps  of  the  Idealistic  Pantheists  of 
whom  we  shall  speak  presently. 

Division   of  Cosiiology. — Cosmology,   as   most 


philosophers  understand  it,  has  a  threefold  problem  to 
solve:  Whence  this  corporeal  world?  What  is  it? 
Why  is  it?  Hence  its  three  parts,  conoemed  respec- 
tively with  (1)  the  primordial  efficient  cause  of  the 
cosmos;  (2)  its  actual  constituent  causes;  (3)  its  final 
cause. 

The  first  cauw  of  the  material  wdverae. — Geology,  go 
back  as  it  may  and  as  far  as  it  may  in  the  scientmc 
history  of  the  earth,  must  ever  remain  face  to  face 
with  a  fact  that  calls  for  explanation,  viz.  the  exist- 
ence of  matter  itself.  Ehren  if  it  could  decisively 
prove  Laplace's  hypothesis,  according  to  which  all 
portions  of  this  universe,  earth,  sun,  and  the  whole 
stellar  system,  originally  made  up  a  single  nebular 
mass,  there  would  still  remain  the  very  reasonable 
question,  whence  came  this  mass  and  what  vras  its 
origin?  Now  this  is  precisely  the  question  cosmology 
asks;  and  in  seeking  the  answer  it  has  given  rise  to 
many  systems  which  can  always  be  brought  under  one 
of  the  following  headings:  (a)  Monism;  (b)  the  theory 
of  Transitive  Emanation;  (c)  Oreationism.  (a)  The 
Monist  theory  la  that  all  beings  in  the  worfd  are  but 
one  and  the  same  necessary  and  eternal  substance 
having  within  itself  the  sufficient  reason  of  its  exist- 
ence; while  the  seeming  diversity  of  thing?  and  their 
attributes,  are  but  the  various  manifestations  and 
evolutions  of  this  sinele  substance.  Pantheism  iden- 
tifies the  world  with  ttie  Divine  Being.  This  Being  is 
ceaselessly  in  process  of  evolution;  which,  however,  in 
no  wise  disturos  the  universal  identity  of  things.  The 
Pantheist  is  either  an  Idealist  or  a  Kealist  according 
to  the  view  he  takes  of  the  nature  and  character  of  the 
original  substance.  If  that  substance  is  real  he  is 
styled  a  Realist,  and  such  were  Eri^na,  Amalric, 
David  of  Dinant,  Giordano  Bruno,  and  Spinoza.  But 
if  the  original  substance  is  something  iaeal,  e.  g.  the 
Ego,  the  Absolute,  the  Concept,  he  is  styled  an  Ideal- 
ist, and  such  were  Hegel,  Schelling,  and  Fichte. 
Kraus  and  Tiberghien  support  the  Pantheistic  view: 
God  is  in  the  worid  and  the  world  is  in  God,  although 
they  are  not  identical.  Schopenhauer  devised  a  form 
of  Pantheism  which  is  known  as  Pantheliam.  Ae- 
cordinp  to  his  view  the  motive  force  of  the  whole  uni- 
verse is  a  single  blind  will.  Hartmann  goes  a  step 
farther  and  says  the  world  is  but  the  constant  evolu- 
tion of  the  unconscious:  hence  the  name  Pai^ylism. 
Modem  Materialists,  such  as  BOchner,  H&ckel,  B&- 
ruch,  as  well  as  the  old  Greek  Atomists,  Leucippus, 
Democritus,  and  Epicurus,  consider  all  the  activities 
of  the  universe  as  so  many  purely  material  phenomena 
arising  from  one  necessary  and  eternal  substance. 
Lastly,  according  to  the  supporters  of  the  Immanent 
Emanation  theory,  the  Divine  Being  develops  within 
itself  so  that  it  is  continually  identifying  itself  with 
the  beings  it  evolves,  or  that  come  forth  from  it,  just  as 
the  grub  maintains  its  substantial  identity  throughout 
its  transformation  into  chiysaliB  and  butterfly.  It  is 
clear  that  such  a  theory  hardly  differs  from  Pantheism. 

(b)  In  the  Transitive  Emanation  theory  all  beings 
issue  from  the  Divine  Substance  much  in  the  same 
way  as  new  fruits  appear  on  the  parent  tree  witiiout 
changing  its  substance  and  without  diminishing  its 

E reductive  power,  (c)  Oreationism  is  the  view  neld 
y  the  generalitv  of  spiritualistic  philosophers.  The 
universe  through  its  endless  transformations  reveals 
its  contingency:  that  is  to  say,  its  existence  is  not  a 
necessity:  therefore  it  must  have  received  its  exist- 
ence from  some  other  being.  This  first  cause  must  be 
a  necessary  and  independent  one,  unless  we  admit  an 
infinite  series  of  dependent  causes  and  so  leave  un- 
solved the  problem  of  the  world's  existence.  God  has, 
therefore,  drawn  all  things  from  nothingness  by  the 
free  act  of  His  Almighty  Will ;  in  a  word,  He  has  made 
them  out  of  nothing,  since  any  other  explanation, 
e.  g.  Emanationism,  which  implies  a  real  intrinsie 
change  in  God,  is  incompatible  with  the  immutability, 
necessity,  and  absolute  perfection  of  the  Drvine  T 


OOBMOUKIT 


415 


OMUOLOaT 


T*hs  eonatUiterU  causes  of  the  loorkL — ^The  compoBH 
tion  of  corporeal  beings*  is  also  the  subject  of  much 
discussion.  There  are  actually  four  systems  of  note, 
each  promising  to  solve  this  delicatie  problem:  Mech- 
anism; Hylomorphism  (the  Scholastic  system); 
Dynamic  Atomism;  and  Dynamism  proper. 

The  characteristic  tendency  of  Mechanism,  L  e.  of 
the  mechanical  theory,  is  to  disr^sard  all  qualitative 
dififerenoe  in  natural  phenomena  and  to  emphasise 
their  quantitative  differences.  That  is  to  say,  in  this 
system  the  constituent  matter  of  all  corporcau  beingB 
is  everywhere  the  same  and  is  essentially  homogene- 
ous; aU  the  forces  animating  it  are  of  the  seme  nature; 
they  are  simply  modes  of  local  motion.  Further- 
more, there  is  no  internal  principle  of  finalitjr;  in  the 
world  everything  is  determined  by  mechanical  laws. 
To  explain  all  cosmic  phenomena,  nothing  is  needed 
but  mass  and  motion;  so  that  all  the  differences  ob- 
servable between  corporeal  beings  are  merelv  differ- 
ences in  the  amount  of  matter  and  motion.  Mechan- 
ism appeals  especially  to  the  law  of  the  correlation  of 
forces  m  nature  and  of  the  mechanical  e(juivalent  of 
heat.  Heat,  we  know,  does  work;  but  it  consumes 
itself  in  proportion  to  its  own  activity.  In  like  man- 
ner mechaxucal  causes  produce  heat  and  grow  weaker 
in  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  their  effect.  So  it  is 
witii  all  corporeal  energy;  one  form  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  another,  but  the  quantity  of  the  new  force 
will  be  always  equivalent  to  the  quantity  of  the  force 
that  has  disappeared.  Having  in  this  wav  identified 
mechanical  force  with  motion,  the  holders  of  this 
theory  felt  authorized  to  unify  all  forces  and  reduce 
them  to  lo<»l  motion;  and  it  was  then  an  easy  step 
to  consider  substance  as  homogmeous  since  its  only- 
use  is  to  serve  as  a  background  for  phenomena. 
Other  arg;uments  are  drawn  from  chemistry,  espe- 
cially from  the  facts  of  isomerism,  polymerism,  uid 
allotropism. 

The  mechanical  theory  is  of  ancient  origin. 
Amongst  its  earliest  partisans  were  Thales,  Anaxi- 
mander,  and  Heraelitus.  whose  chief  concern  was  to 
prove  the  derivation  ot  the  worid  from  one  simple 
primitive  substance.  Empedodes,  however,  held  out 
for  four  elements — air,  earth,  water,  fire.  But  D&- 
mocritus,  and  later  Epicurus,  suppressed  this  dis- 
tinction between  the  elements,  proclamied  the  essential 
homogeneity  of  nu&tter,  and  referred  the  variety  of 
natural  phenomena  to  differences  of  motion.  After 
the  time  of  Epicurus  (270  b.  c,\  this  sjrstem  disap* 
peared  from  philosophical  thought  for  sixteen  cen- 
turies. Restored  by  Descartes,  it  soon  won  the  favour 
of  most  scientists,  and  it  is  still  dominant  in  scientific 
research.  Tlie  Cartesian  philosophy  was  a  restate- 
ment of  the  two  basic  principles  of  the  old  theorr,  the 
homogeneity  of  nature  and  the  reduction  of  all  forces 
to  terms  of  motion;  but  it  got  new  vigour  by  contact 
with  the  natural  sciences,  especially  phvsics  and  chem- 
istry;  hence  the  name  Atomism  (q.  v.)  by  which  it  is 
usually  known.  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that 
there  are  two  Atomisms,  the  one  purely  chemical,  the 
other  philosophicaL  According  to  the  former  all  sim- 
ple bodies  are  made  up  of  atoms,  L  e.  of  particles  so 
small  that  no  chemicu  force  known  to  us  can  divide 
them,  but  which  have  all  the  properties  of  visible 
bodies.  Atoms  form  groups  of  two  or  four  or  some- 
times more;  these  small  tenacious  groups,  known  as 
chemical  molecules  coalesce  in  physical  molecules,  and 
from  these  in  turn  are  built  up  the  material  bodies  we 
■ee  around  us.  Tlie  materiid  oody  th  us  results  from  a 
proeressive  aggregation  of  molecules,  and  the  very 
smalleet  portion  of  it  that  is  endowed  with  the  proper- 
ties of  the  compoimd  contains  many  atoms  of  vanous 
species,  since  by  definition  the  compound  results 
from  the  union  of  numerous  elements.  On  this  ato- 
mic theory,  independent  as  such  of  all  philosophical 
systems,  was  grafted  during  the  last  century  that 
philoeophical  Atomism  which,  while  ascribing  to  all 


atoms  the  same  nature,  differentiates  them  only  by 
varying  amounts  of  mass  and  motion. 

Another  eicplanation  of  the  material  world  is  offered 
by  Dynamism.  If  Mechanism  attributes  extension  to 
matter  and  complete  passivity  to  corporeal  substances, 
Dynamism  sees  in  the  worid  only  simple  forces,  unex- 
tended,  yet  essentially  active.  There  is  nothing 
strange  in  the  antithesis  of  these  two  systems.  The 
Dynamism  of  Leibnis — it  was  he  who  propounded  it — 
was  but  a  reaction  against  the  Mechanism  of  Descar- 
tes. To  these  two  matrix-ideas  oi  unextended,  active 
forces  the  majority  of  Dynamists  add  the  principle  of 
actio  in  distans.  They  soon  found  out  that  points 
without  extension  can  touch  only  by  completely 
merging  the  one  with  the  other,  and  on  their  own 
hypothesis  the  points  in  contact  would  amount  to 
nothing  more  than  a  mathematical  point  which  could 
never  gjve  us  even  the  illusion  of  apparent  extension. 
To  avoid  tiiis  pitfall,  the  Dynamists  bethought  them 
of  considering  all  bodies  as  aggregates  of  force  unex- 
tended indeed  but  separated  by  intervals  from  one  an- 
other. Conceived  by  Leibnis,  who  held  the  monads 
to  be  dowered  with  an  immanent  activity,  this  system 
has  been  amended  and  modernised  by  Father  Bos- 
covich,  Kant,  Father  Palmieri,  Father  Carbonelle, 
Him,  and  Father  Leroy.  On  the  whole  it  has  found 
few  supporters ;  scientists  as  a  rule  prefer  the  mechan- 
ical view.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  a  reaction 
towards  it  has  set  in  since  the  discovery  of  the  radio- 
activity of  matter.  The  property  manifested  by  a 
considerable  number  of  bodies  of  emitting  at  ordinary 
temperatures  a  seemingly-  inexhaustiMe  quantity  of 
electric  ra^  suggests  the  idea  that  matter  is  a  focus  of 
energy  wmch  tends  to  diffuse  itself  in  space.  But  in 
point  ol  fact  there  are  only  two  arguments  in  favour  of 
Dynamism.  One  is  drawn  from  the  difficulties  of 
grasping  the  concept  of  extension ;  the  other  from  the 
ract  that  all  we  know  of  matter  comes  to  us  through  its 
action  on  our  oigans  of  sense ;  hence  the  inference  that 
force  Is  the  only  thing  existing  apart  from  ourselves. 

Between  these  two  extrones  stands  the  Scholastic 
theory,  known  as  Hylomorphism,  or  theory  of  matter 
and  form  (p\%  matter;  fi»p^,  form),  also  as  the  Aris- 
totelean  theory,  and  later  as  the  Hiomistic  theonr 
from  the  name  of  its 'principal  defender  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  Aristotle  (384--322  B.  c),  who  was  its  author, 
gave  it  a  large  place  in  his  treatises  on  physics  and  on 
metaphysics.  It  was  discussed  during  centuries  in 
the  Peripatetic  and  neo-Platonic  schoMs  and  in  the 
schools  of  Constantinople  and  Athens;  but  from  the 
sixth  century  to  the  tw^th,  though  its  essential  prin- 
ciples survived,  it  was  an  insignificant  factor  in  philo- 
sophic thought.  An  exception,  however,  must  be 
made  in  favour  of  Avioenna  in  the  East  (980-1037) 
and  of  Averroes  in  Spain  (1126-1198),  both  famous 
commentators  on  the  Aristotelean  encyclopedia.  In 
the  thirteenth  century,  the  Goldoi  Age  of  Scholasti- 
cism, the  system  was  restored,  thanks  to  a  number  of 
Latin  translations,  and  its  long-forgotten  treasures 
were  brought  to  light  bv  daring  prospectors,  such  as 
Alexander  of  Hales,  Albertus  Magnus.  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas.  St.  Bonaventure,  and  Henry  of  Ghent.  Dur- 
ing the  rourte^ith  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  cosmo- 
logical  theory,  and  indeed  the  whole  Scholastic  sys- 
tem, suffered  a  decline  which  lasted  till  the  nineteenth 
century,  thou^  during  the  interval  it  found  ardent 
supporters  in  some  of  the  religious  orders.  The  res- 
toration movement  began  about  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  with  the  works  of  Kleutgen  (1811- 
1883);  Sansevenno  (1811-1865),  and  Liberatore 
(1810-1892);  but  it  was  especially  owing  to  the  im- 
pulse given  it  by  the  famous  Encyclical  of  Leo  XIII, 
"iBtemi  Patris^'  (1879),  that  Scholasticism  regained 
its  place  of  honour  beside  the  great  modem  systems. 

liie  Scholastic  theory  can  be  summed  up  in  the  fol- 
lowing propositions:  (l)  Bodies  both  elementi^  and 
conqpound  have  an  essential  unity;  they  differ  spe- 


QMwajoar 


416 


008MOL0OT 


cifically,  and  are  by  their  very  nature  extended;  (2) 
they  possess  powers  or  enerpea  both  paasive  and  ac- 
tive which  spring  from  their  substantial  nature  and 
are  inseparable  from  it;  (3)  they  have  an  immanent 
tendency  toward  certain  sp^ual  ends  to  be  realiied  by 
the  exercise  of  their  native  energies.  The  basic  prin- 
dole  of  this  cosmology  is  that  of  immanent  finality. 
Tne  corporeal  world  is  a  masterpiece  of  order  and  har- 
mony. In  spite  of  ceaseless  transformations,  eveiy 
species  of  body,  simple  and  oomposite  alike,  reappeara 
again  and  again  with  its  characteristic  properties  to 
f urUier  the  well-bein^  of  the  individual  and  of  the  uni- 
verse as  a  whole.  !Now  this  constant  and  harmonious 
co-operation  of  inniunerable  causes  acting  under  con- 
ditions the  most  diverse  can  only  be  explained,  sav  the 
Sdlolastics,  by  admitting  in  the  matenal  agents  tnem- 
selves  fixed  and  permanent  principles  of  order.  The 
universe  must  therefore  be  composed  of  specific  na- 
tures, L  e.  of  beings  which  by  tneir  constitution  and 
properties  are  real^  adapted  to  the  ends  they  have  to 
attain.  Substance  and  its  distinctive  eneigies  fonn  a 
whole  which  is  completely  subordinated  to  its  ap> 
pointed  destiny;  so  tnat  if  serious  alterations,  such  as 
chemical  combinations,  succeed  in  affecting  these 
properties  and  in  marring  the  harmony  that  ou^t  to 
exist  between  them  and  their  substantial  base,  the 
being  so  affected  must  put  on  a  new  nature  in  har- 
mony with  its  new  state.  There  takes  place,  in  other 
woros,  what  the  Scholastics  call  a  substantial  trans- 
formation. But  this  implies  that  an  essential  portion 
of  the  original  being  must  persist  throughout  the 
change,  ana  be  carried  over  into  the  final  result,  other- 
wise transformation  would  involve  the  annihilation  of 
the  first  being  and  the  production  of  the  second  out  of 
nothing.  On  the  other  hand»  if  we  hold  that  during 
the  process  the  being  in  question  doea  not  lose  its  own 
specific  difference  in  exchange  for  another,  it  would  be 
iUc^ical  to  speak  of  a  transformation,  since  a  change 
which  preserves  the  substantial  integrity  of  the  being 
can  never  have  as  its  result  the  production  of  a  new 
being.  All  bodies,  then,  that  are  subject  to  such  a 
change  must  contain,  in  spite  of  their  unity,  two  con- 
stituent principles.  The  one  is  a  specifsring  or  deter- 
mining principle  whence  spring  the  actuality  and  dis- 
tiT>giiiahing  marks  of  the  bodj  itself;  and  it  is  this 
principle  which  is  bom  and  dies  at  evei^y  step  in  the 
deeper  transformations  of  matter.  It  is  called  sub- 
stantial form.  The  other,  the  indeterminate  comple- 
ment of  this,  is  the  substratum  which  receives  the 
various  essential  forms;  and  it  is  called  first  matter. 
Tliese  are  the  fundamental  ideas  in  the  Scholastic 
theory. 

As  a  system  it  is  not  at  every  point  the  direct  anti- 
thesis of  the  two  other  systems  outlined  above.  It  is 
true  that,  while  Mechanism  claims  that  the  proper- 
ties of  bodies  are  nothing  but  local  motion,  the  Scho- 
lastics admit  the  existence  of  qualities  properly  so 
called  in  all  bodies,  i.  e,  accidental  determinations, 
fixed  and  destined  for  action.  These  properties  are 
generated  with  the  new  substance;  they  clii^  to  it 
mdissolubly  during  its  existence  and  they  are  its  nat- 
ural manifestation.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Scholastics  concede  to  tiie  mechanical  theoiy  that 
local  motion  pli^  a  large  part  in  the  world,  that  it  is 
the  accompaniment  and  the  measure  of  every  exertion 
of  material  force.  Hence  they  give  Mechanism  credit 
for  assigning  a  quantitative  value  to  the  phenom^ia  of 
nature  by  measuring  the  movement  proportionate  to 
each ;  while,  on  their  side,  they  explain  the  activity  at 
work  in  eacn  case  by  taking  into  account  the  qualita- 
tive elements  as  well  as  ihe  kinetic.  Again,  with  the 
mechanical  theory  the  Scholastic  recognises  in  eveiy 
corporeal  being  an  essential  principle  of  passivity,  of 
inertia,  divisibility,  and  extension — in  a  word,  oi  all 
the  properties  so  highly  prized  by  Mechanism;  this 
principle  is  first  matter.  But  the  Scholastic  theory 
adds  a  .substantial  form,  i.  e.  a  determining  prineipb 


and  a  rooi-oause  of  the  activities  and  peouliar  tendeo- 
cies  di^layed  by  each  individual  body. 

A  similar  partial  agreement  exists  between  Q6tu>- 
lastioism  and  Dsmamism.  In  the  hyk>mor|rfue  consti- 
tution of  bodies  the  dynamic  element  has  a  preponder- 
ating role,  reprosoiteid  by  the  substantial  lorm;  but 
since  thecorporeal  being  does  not  appear  to  be  a  source 
of  energy  pure  and  simple,  the  <^^namic  dement  is 
joined  with  first  matter,  of  which  passiyi^  and  exten- 
sion are  the  natural  outcome. 

A  fourth  and  last  sjrstem  is  called  Dynamic  Aton^ 
ism.  The  oidy  real  difference  between  it  and  Mechan- 
ism Kes  in  the  fact  that  it  attributes  to  bodies  f orees 
distinct  from  local  motion;  but  at  the  same  tune  it 
maintains  that  they  are  purely  mechanical  f otves. 
Matter,  it  asserts,  is  homogeneous  and  the  atom  in- 
capable of  transformation.  This  theory,  proposed  by 
Martin  and  Tongioigi,  and  upheld  nowaoays  by  cer- 
tain scientists,  is  a  transition  oetween  the  mewfcnical 
and  the  Scholastic  system.  Its  partisans,  in  fact,  are 
persuaded  that  a  theory  which  denies  the  reality  of 
oualitative  energies  inherent  in  matter  and  reduces 
tnem  to  local  motion  thereby  makes  the  true  explana- 
tion of  natural  phenomena  impossible  and  hands  over 
the  universe  to  the  whims  of  diance.  Some  I>yna- 
mists,  therefore,  to  meet  the  obvious  reouirements  of 
order  in  the  world,  seek  in  substance  itself  the  reasons 
of  its  secondary  principles  of  activity.  But  in  this 
hypothesis  it  seems  rather  hard  not  to  admit,  as  the 
Scholastics  maintain,  that  diversity  of  substance  is  the 
only  explanation  of  the  constancy  observed  in  the 
accidential  differences  of  things. 

The  final  cauae  of  the  material  univerm, — Tlie  last 
problem  that  cosmolo^  attempts  to  solve  is  that  of 
the  final  cause.  It  is  mtimatefy  bound  up  with  that 
of  the  first  cause.  Materialists  like  H&ckei  and  BOch- 
ner,  who  refuse  to  see  in  the  universe  a  jAan  or  a  pur- 
pose, can  assign  no  goal  to  cosmic  evolution.  In  tnetr 
opinion,  just  as  the  worid,  during  its  eternal  past,  has 
undeigone  countless  variations  in  form,  so  durin^its 
eternal  future  it  is  destined  to  ceaseless  change.  J^ie 
laws  <rf  mechanics,  the  chance  encounter  of  atoms  and 
molecules,  the  capricious  play  of  natural  foroes  follow- 
ing no  preconceived  aim,  will  determine  the  number, 
nature,  and  form  of  the  states  through  whidi  matter  is 
to  pass.  Pantheists  and  all  who  identify  God  with 
matter  share  as  a  rule  the  same  view.  For  them  the 
condition  of  the  world  is  but  the  fatal  result  of  pur- 
poseless evolution;  so  that  the  worid  is  its  own  end, 
or  rather  is  itself  the  term  of  its  existence  and  activity. 

Those  who  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  personal 
God  can  never  admit  that  an  all-wise  being  created 
without  a  purpose.  And  since  a  perfect  and  inde- 
pendent bem^  can  have  no  other  than  himself  as  the 
final  aim  of  his  action,  it  follows  that  the  ultimate  end 
of  creation  is  to  manifest  the  glory  of  the  Creator,  man 
being  the  intermediaiy,  and,  as  it  were,  the  high-priest 
of  the  material  world.  The  welfare  of  man  hims^  is 
the  secondary  purpose  of  creation.  According  to  St. 
Thomas  the  worid  is  a  vast  hierarchy  of  whidi  inor- 
ganio  matter  is  the  base  and  man  the  summit.  The 
mineral  order  mimstere  to  the  vegetable  and  this  in 
turn  to  the  animal,  ^riiile  man  finds  in  all  these  the 
satisfaction  of  his  needs  and  the  adornment  of  his 
earthly  life.  Above  all  he  finds  in  the  material  uni- 
verse and  in  the  service  it  renders  him  a  means  of  tis- 
ing  to  perfect  happiness  in  the  possession  of  God. 

JtiatorieB  of  PhUoaophy  by  Turner  (Boston,  1908),  Ubbeb- 
wao  (tr.  Morris,  New  York,  1903).  StOckl  <tr.  FirruiT,  Dab- 
lin,  1903):  Lamoe,  Hialary  of  MattriaKmn  (Lcipnc  1806); 
Aristotle.  Phyatet^  MeUmh^aicB'  Saint  Thomas,  iStunaia 
Theal.,  Contra  GentOes,  De  Ente  H  BasnttiA;  T.  Pbscr,  huHtw 
tumea  philoaophia  naturaiia  (Frmburg  im  Br..  1880);  Idrm.  Die 
gro$aen  Wdtrmhael  (FraborK  im  Br..  1883);  Laboosbb,  PrmU^- 
tionea  metaphyncat  (Lou vain,  1887--89),  llj  Nts,  Cotmoloffie 
(Louvain,  1904);  Gxttberlet,  Naturphuoaophie  (MQntter, 
1894);  John  Rickabt,  Oeneral  M^laphyne  (New  York,  1900); 
Hartsr.  TU  MOaphyaie*  of  ika  Sdboo£  .(London,  187»-M). 

D.  Nm 


OOSflA 


417 


008TA 


Oo88«,  Francesco,  known  sometimes  as  del  CJqs- 
BA,  Italian  painter  of  the  Sehool  of  Perrara,  b.  about 
1430;  d.  probably  at  Ferrara,  1485.  Cossa  is  noted 
espeeiall^r  for  his  fresco  work.  The  first  reooid  we 
have  of  him  is  in  1466  when  he  was  an  assistant  to  his 
father,  Cristofano  del  Cossa,  at  that  time  emr^oved  in 
painting  the  carving  and  statues  on  the  hign  altar  in 
the  cfaa^l  of  the  bishop's  palace  at  Ferrara.  Cossa 
after  this  worked  in  conjimction  with  Cosimo  Tura, 
decorating  the  summer  retreat  known  as  the  Sdii- 
faooia,  and  of  the  frescoes  whieh  remain,  t^ree  can  be 
safely  ascribed  to  him.  They  illustrate  the  manners 
and  dress  of  the  period  and  are  rich  in  architectural 
details,  somewhat  less  decorative  and  less  fantastic 
than  those  of  Tura,  but  stronger  and  grander  than  the 
latter's  work.  Considering  himself,  however,  insuf- 
ficiently remunerated  by  Duke  Borso,  Cossa  left  Fer- 
rara for  Bologna  in  1470,  where  he  obtained  many 
commissions  imder  the  BentivG^li.  Here  he  painted 
his  two  masterpieces,  one,  the  Viigin  and  Child  with 
two  saints  and  a  portrait  of  Alberto  de'  Catanei.  pro- 
duced in  1474;  the  other,  the  fresco  of  the  Maaonna 
del  Baracano,  representing  the  Vimn  and  Child  with 
the  portraits  of  Giovanni  BentivogHo  and  Maria  Vin- 
ziguerra,  painted  in  1472.  In  these  works  Cossa  r^' 
v^ds  himself  as  a  painter  of  great  power  and  ori^al- 
ity,  stately  in  his  conceptions,  grand  and  massive  in 
portraiture,  broad  in  modelling,  simple  and  severe  in 
composition.  In  the  National  Gallery  there  is  a  fine 
picture  bjr  him  representing  St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  an 
"Annunciation",  in  the  Dresden  collection,  which  has 
been  attributed  to  Pollajuolo,  and  a  fine  profile  por- 
trait at  Locko  Park  near  Derby,  said  to  represent 
Duke  Ercole  I  of  Ferrara.  He  executed  some  glass 
paintings  in  Bolo^m,  the  best  of  which  is  a  beautiful 
circular  window,  in  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  in 
Monte,  representing  St.  John  in  Patmos;  this  bears 
his  signature. 

Brinton,  7%«  Renaiaaanee  in  Halian  Art  (London,  1898); 
KvmMB,TKe  Italian  SchooU  of  PdinUn^  (London,  1900);  Mai- 
VASIA,  FtUina  PiUrioe  (Bologna,  1678);  Masini,  Bologna 
PerlaatrcUa  (Bologna,  16S6) ;  Gutda  di  Boloffnan7S2). 

Gborob  Charles  Williambon. 

Ooflta,  LoRSNSO,  Ferrarese  painter,  b.  at  Ferrara 
in  1400;  d.  at  Mantua  in  1535.  He  is  believed  to 
have  been  a  pupil  of  either  Tura  or  Cossa.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-three  Costa  established  himself  at 
Bologna,  under  the  patronage  Of  the  Bentivogli  fam- 
ily, in  the  same  workshop  as  Franoia.  The  two  men 
were  much  influenced  by  each  other;  Francia  worked 
as  a  goldsmith^  but  Costa  had  the  greater  imagina- 
tion, wider  knowledge,  and  more  pjerfect  skill  in  draw- 
ing. It  is  probable  that  his  coming  to  Bologna  was 
the  cause  of  Francia's  change  of  craft,  and  that  but 
for  this  friendship  the  greater  man  would  have  re- 
mained all  his  life  a  goldsmith.  Costa's  earliest  work 
in  Bologna  is  the  fresco  in  San  Giaoomo  Maggiore 
(1480);  his  matest,  the  altar-piece  in  San  Giovanni 
in  Monti  (1497).  The  two  friends  united  in  painting 
the  altar-piece  for  the  church  of  the  Misericordia,  the 
centre  and  upper  part  of  which  still  remain  in  Bolo- 
gna, while  the  predella  by  Costa  is  at  Milan.  They 
worked  for  the  same  patrons,  decorated  the  same 
walls  of  palace,  church)  and  oratorv,  and  both  suf- 
fered when  Bentivogli  was  driven  from  Bologna  in 
1509,  and  his  palaoe  became  a  heap  of  ruins.  Costa 
then  passed  into  the  service  of  the  Gonsaga  fam- 
ily at  Mantua.  His  work  can  be  well  studied  in 
^logna,  but  there  are  pictures  by  him  also  in 
Milan,  Berlin,  London,  and  Paris.  His  early  frescoes 
are  in  the  Schifanoia  in  Ferrara,  and  some  of  his 
latest  in  the  SchSilcheria  Castle  at  Mantua.  He  him- 
self enf^aved  more  than  one  plate  alter  his  pictures. 
HiB  paintings  are  ver^  much  m  the  style  of  those  by 
Francia,  but  the  subjects  are  treated  in  a  freer  and 
more  pictureeoue  manner.  The  colouring  is  always 
CDflTgetie,  the  neads  of  the  figures  well  modelled  and 
IV.— 27 


full  of  expression,  the  architectural  backgrounds  rich, 
varied,  and  accurate,  and  the  perspective  thoughtful 
and  well  planned.  The  draperies  in  Costa's  work  are 
far  less  hard  than  those  in  Francia's,  and  fall  in  easy 
and  not  in  rigid  folds. 

Uauvabia,  FMua  PUirica  (BolofEoa,  1678);  Oblakdi. 
Abbec€dano  PtUartco  (Bolofsna,  1719);  Oeetti,  unpabliBhed 
NoMH>ok9  in  the  Arcinnaasio  library,  Bologna;  Wxluaiibon, 
Francia  in  BuHingtonFiM  Arts  Club's  CataloQue  (1S04):  Brtak, 
Diet,  of  Pointert  and  Engmvert  (New  York,  1903),  b.  y. 

Gborqe  Chajeiles  Willbucbon. 

Oostadoni,  Giovanni  Domenioo,  frequently  known 
as  Dom  Anselmo.  his  name  in  relinon,  an  Italian 
Camaldolese  monk,  historian,  and  tneologian,  b.  6 
October,  1714,  at  Venice;  d.  23  Januaiy,  1785,  in  the 
same  city.  The  son  of  a  rich  merchant,  he  sacrificed 
at  an  early  date  his  prospects  of  success  in  the  world 
and  took  the  religious  habit  at  St.  Michaers  monas- 
tery, situated  on  toe  island  of  Muzano  in  the  Venetian 
lagoon.  Here  he  studied  philosophy  and  theology 
with  more  than  usual  success.  At  the  age  of  twenty* 
three  he  revealed  his  literary  ability  in  a  letter  (Let-, 
tera  critica)  written  in  defence  of  certain  Camaldolese 
writers,  who  had  been  attacked  by  Giusto  Fontanini 
in  his  ''Library  of  Italian  Eloquence''.  Costadoni 
subsequently  collaborated  for  eighteen  years  with  the 
learned  Mittarelli  in  the  publication  of  the  "Annales 
Camaldulenses"  (Venice,  1755-73).  Some  archajolog- 
ical  paapexs  due  to  his  pen,  such  as  '' Dissertaziond 
sopra  il  pesce  come  simbolo  degli  antichi  cristiani", 
were  published  in  the  voluminous  collection  of  histor- 
ical essays  edited  by  Caloger^,  a  moi^  of  the  same 
order.  His  works  also  include:  "  Awisi  ed  istruzioni 
pratiche  intomo  ai  principali  doveri  de'  regolari'' 
(Faenaa,  lt70;  Venice,  1771);  "Lettereconsolatorie" 
(Venice,  1 775) ;  "  Lettere  sopra  questione  teologiche  " 
(Venice,  1773).  Coatadom's  unpublished  manu- 
scripts were  transferred,  after  his  death,  to  St.  Greg- 
ory's monastery  at  Rome,  by  order  of  the  Camaldo- 
lese abbot,  Mauro  Cappellari  (later  Pope  Gregoiy 

Manoxuj.  Delia  vita  e  deMi  acritti  di  A.  CoatadoniCV eu'ice^ 
1787);  PicoT.  MemaiTes  (Paris,  18555,  V.  470:  Hurter. 
Nommdaior,  HI,  376. 

N.  A.  Wbbsr. 

Oosta  Bicft,  Republic  or,  a  narrow  isthmus  be- 
tween Panama  on  the  east  and  the  Republic  of  Nica- 
ragua on  the  north,  the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  north-east 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  south-west.  Between 
latitudes  north  9^  and  11°  and  longitudes  west  of  Green- 
wich 83°  and  86^  itsarea is  calculated  at  18,400  square 
miles;  the  population  in  1905  is  given  as  334,307,  be- 
sides 3500  Indians.  The  principal  city  is  San  Jos^  the 
capital,  with  24,500  inhabitants;  next  comes  Cartago 
with  7800»  then  Heredia  with  7151.  There  are  two 
ports  on  the  Atlantic  and  two  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
Aiountsan  ehidns  travenle  the  territory  in  many  direc- 
tions, but  the  principal  one  runs  throu^  the  whole 
lengtii  from  north-west  to  south-east.  Its  tallest  peak 
is  called  ''Pieo  Blanco''  and  rises  to  11,800  feet  above 
sea4evel.  Costa  Riea  has  six,  partly  active,  volca-' 
noes  among  which  the  tallest  (Irazu)  rises  to  a  height 
of  11,600  feet  and  has  been  dormant  for  many  years. 
The  surface  is  in  general  ver^  much  broken,  the  moun- 
tains are  eruptive  or  volcanic,  and  sedimentary  depos^ 
its  abut  against  them  at  a  lower  level.  Many 
streams,  some  of  which  are  navigable  for  a  short  disn 
tance,  water  the  territory.  The  Pacific  coast  has  two 
handsome  gulfs:  Nicoya  in  ihe  north,  and  the  Golfo 
Dulce  near  t^e  frontier  of  Pftnama4 

TThe  climate  is  tropical.  There  are  but  two  seasons : 
winter  or  the  dry,  and  summer  or  the  wet,  season.. 
Altitude  and  dimate  divide  the  country  into  three 
■ones,  the  hot  that  rises  from  the  shores  on  both  sides 
to  about  3000  feet;  the  temperate  (between  3000  and 
7500) ,  and  the  cold  higher  up.  Snowfalls,  even  on  the 
bluest  summits,  are  veiy  rare;  the  mean  temperature 


OOSTA 


418 


CXMTA 


of  the  hot  section  is  stated  as  varying  between  72^  and 
82®  Fahr;  of  the  temperate  zone,  from  57**  to  78  de- 
grees. Mahogany,  cedar,  rosewood  and  other  pre- 
cious woods  for  building  and  decorative  purposes  are 
scattered  through  its  forests,  also  dye-woods.  Medio* 
inal  plants  are  numerous  and  india-rubber  of  the  spe- 
cies called  CastiUoa  elasHca.  Among  resinous  plants 
copal  and  the  Myroxylum,  producing  Peru  ana  tolu 
balsams,  abound.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are 
coffee,  bananas,  tobacco,  cocoa.  Cotton  and  indigo  are 
also  raised.  Most  of  the  cultivated  plants  were  im- 
ported from  Europe  by  the  Spaniards.  Nearly  if 
not  all  larger  mammals  of  the  torrid  zones  of  America 
are  found.  To  entomologists  Costa  Rica  is  a  rich 
field.  There  are  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper  and 
lead.  Gold  was  discovered  as  early  as  Cfoiumbus' 
last  voyage  in  1502,  and  the  number  of  gold  ornaments 
found  in  the  hands  of  the  Indians,  as  well  as  the  auri- 
ferous sands  of  the  rivers,  §ave  the  newly  discovered 
country  its  name  Costa  Rica,  "the  rich  coast''.  In 
1815  the  rich  gold  district  of  Monte  del  Aguacate  was 
^t  brought  to  notice  by  Bishop  Garcia  of  Nicaragua 
and  Leon.  No  general  mining  statistics  exist.  Min- 
ing laws  are  rather  confused,  being  a  mixture  of  former 
Spanish  ordinances  with  modem  amendments.  But 
mining-machinery  is  imported  free  of  duty  and 
neither  the  Government  nor  municipalities  levy  any 
^xes  on  mining  property. 

Costa  Rica  became  independent  of  Spain  in  1821  and 
was  a  member  of  the  Central  American  confederacy 
from  1824  to  1848  when  that  confederacy  was  dis- 
solved. In  1870-1871  a  constitution  was  adopted 
which  has  been  modified  repeatedly  since.  The  exe- 
cutive head  of  the  republic  is  a  president^  but  t^ere 
have  been  several  dictators.  The  president  is  elected, 
for  four  years,  indirectly  through  electors  chosen  hy 
the  people,  and  cannot  serve  a  second  term.  He  is 
assisted  by  four  secretaries.  There  is  no  vice-presi- 
dent. In  case  of  the  inability  of  the  president  to  dis- 
charge his  duties,  he  is  replaiced  by  one  of  three  per- 
sons designated  by  Congress,  at  the  first  session  in  each 
presidential  term. .  Congress  consists  of  only  one 
house.  Its  members  are  also  indirectly  diosen  by  the 
people  for  four  years,  one  member  for  every  8000  in- 
habitants, and  one-half  are  elected  every  two  years. 
Members  of  the  supreme  court  of  juraoe  are  ap- 
pointed by  Congress.  The  territory  is  divided  poUti^ 
cally  into  five  provinces  at  the  head  of  each  of  which  is 
a  governor  appointed  by  the  president.  Costa  Rica 
has  a  civil  coae,  a  oode  of  civil  procedure  and,  since 
1888,  a  judiciary  law.  Trial  by  jury  takes  place  cmly 
in  criminal  cases. 

By  the  Constitution,  art  51.,  "The  Catholic  Apos- 
tolic Roman  is  the  reUgion  of  the  state  which  contrib- 
utes to  its  maintenance  without  impeding  the  exercise 
in  the  republic  of  any  other  religion  not  opposed  to 
universal  morality  and  good  behaviour'^  (bwmas  eo^ 
tumbrea).  By  the  Concordat  (7  October,  1852)  the 
jurisdiction  previously  exercised  from  the  time  of  the 
.Spanish  occupation  by  the  ecclesiastieal  authorities  in 
litigations  involving  Church  possessions  or  the  tern* 
pond  rights  of  the  Church,  passed  over  to  the  civil  tri** 
Dimals,  but  it  was  stipulated  at  the  same  time  that,  in 
the  courts  of  the  second  and  the  third  instance,  legal  trial 
of  criminal  cases  involving  priests  required  the  assist- 
ance as  judicial  assessors  Si  ecclesiastics  nominated  by 
the  bishop.  In  1908,  no  Apostolic  delegate  having 
been  appointed  for  Costa  Rioa  since  the  year  1882, 
Pius  A  communicated  to  the  republic  his  wish  to  re- 
establish the  delegation  there.  The  republic's  repre- 
sentative at  the  Vatican  answered  that  the  govern- 
ment welcomed  the  idea,  and  begged  His  Hohness  to 
give  the  new  delegate  the  character  of  envoy  to  the 
republic,  to  which  the  pope  assented.  The  envoy-ex- 
traordinary and  Apostolio  delegate  named  was  Mgr. 
Giovanni  Cagliera,  titular  Archbishop  x>f  Sebaste. 

Up  to  1850  the  Bie^op  of  Leon  (Nicaragua)  was  ako 


administrator  of  Costa  Rica.  The  first  Bishop  of 
Costa  Rica»  Anselmo  Llorente  y  Laf  uente,  was  conse- 
crated in  Guatemala,  7  Septembori  1851,  and  installed 
5  January,  1852.  Bishop  B.  A.  Thiel  (b.  at  Elber- 
feld,  1850;  d«  at.  San  Joa^  1901)  a  Lasarist,  who  was 
professor  of  theology  in  Ecuador  and  banished  for  de- 
fending  the  Jesuits,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  San  Jos^ 
in  1880.  He  was  an  explorer,  a  student  of  Indian 
languages,  and  the  founder  of  an  ethnographic  and 
bioloeieal  museum  at  San  Joe^.  He  translated  a  num- 
ber of  religious  works  from  German  into  Spanish  and 
wrote  "I(Eomas  de  loe  Indies";  "Viajes"  (1897)  and 
"Dates  cronoL  para  la  Hist,  ec.®*  de  Costa  Rica". 
There  are  forty-two  parishes  in  the  republic.  The  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  eonferenoes  are  very  active.  In  1899 
they  had  1S96  members.  In  San  Joa^  there  are  six. 
Women's  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  auxiliaries  are  organised 
in  nearly  all  the  cities.  In  1899  they  distributed  $26,- 
208.  Since  the  Plenary  Council  of  Latin  America 
(1899)  8pon9alia  (see  Betrothal.)  to  be  valid  must  be 
publidy  recorded.  In  1890  the  public  treasurv  con- 
tributed 19,404  pesos  to  the  sup^rt  of  the  Cnurch. 
Primary  education  is  free  and  compulsory.  Its  im- 
mediate direction  bdongs  to  the  municipalities,  the 
national  ex^utive,  hojnrever,  reserves  the  right  of  gen- 
eral supervision.  Art.  53  of  the  Constitutioa  permits 
every  Costa  Rican  to  give  or  to  receive  what  instruc- 
tion he  pleases  in  any  educational  establishment  not 
supported  by  public  funds.  The  budget  of  public 
instruction  rose  from  137,677.77  in  1890  to  235,203 
pesos  in  1002,  when  there  were  six  higher  scboola,  one 
normal  school,  and  306  primary  schools,  the  latter, 
with  17,746  pupils. 

After  Costa  Kica  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1502,  Diego  de  Nicuesa  attempted  to  oolonize  it  in 
1509,  but  it  was  fourteen  years  later  when  Francisco 
HemandC2  made  a  settlement  in  the  country,  and  its 
conquest  was  only  gradually  perfected  after  1526. 
Several  tribes  of  the  isthmus  spoke  a  language  alliod  to 
the  (Jhibcha  of  Colombia.  Amon^  these,  it  seems 
that  the  Talamancas  and  Guavmis  were  the  most 
prominent.  The  former  held  the  eastern  coast,  ex- 
tending to  the  boundary  of  Nicaragua,  the  latter  lived 
mostly  in  what  is  now  the  Republic  of  Panama.  A 
tribe,  to  which  the  Spanish  name  of  VaUerUes  has  been 
§^ven,  also  belonged  to  Costa  Rica.  In  culture,  espe- 
cially in  the  working  of  gold  and  silver,  the  Guaymis 
resembled  the  Chibcha.  All  these  aborigines  were 
grouped  in  small  independent  tribes  and  t£eir  resist- 
ance to  the  European  invaders  was  protracted  rather 
by  natural  obstacles  than  thrQ^gn  actual  power. 
During  Spanish  colonial  times  Costa  Rica  had  sixty- 
two  successive  rulers, — governors  (adelantados),  etc 
and  was  regarded  as  a  provinee  of  Guatemala. 

THUBii,  La  laUna  CaUolita  09»  Coata  Rica  in  ReviHa  de  e.  I.  en 
d  Siglo  XIX  (San  Jos^.  1902).  For  the  earliest  period  of  du- 
CO  very  and  Spanish  colonisation  of  Goeta  Rica,  the  letten  of 
OoKimbus  are  indispenaable.  Additfotud  infoimation  is  given 
by  NikVAaiieTK,  CUeccion  de  Vwoea  v  DeteubrimimloB  (Madrid, 
1829).  OvisDO.  Hist,  general  (Madrid,  1S50):  Gouara.  HU- 
ioria  general  de  Uu  Jnd%aa  (Antwerp,  1654);  FfeitvXvbEX,  Hi»- 
faria  de  Co»ia  Riea  dwrxnU  la  dotninaeidn  eepaflola  (Madrid, 
1889);  MouNA,  Botauejo  de  Coeta  Rioa  (London,  1851); 
CAhyQ.Republica  de  Cotta  Rica  (San  Jos^,  1887):  Feralta, 
Conta  Rica^  Nicaragua  y  Panamd  en  d  eiglo  XVI  (Madrid  and 
Paris,  1883);  Idem.  Uoata  Rioa  y  Cdombia,  de  157S  A  liSl 
(Bladrid.  1886);  VxiiiAVzcKNCio,  Republica  de  Coda  Rioa  (San 
Joe^,  1886);  Pxttzkb,  Apuntamientos  aobre  d  Clima  y  Oeogmfia 
de  la  Repijhlioa  de  Costa  Rioa  (San  Joe^,  189(0;  MoRKixyr.  Vey- 
aae  dana  VAmtrurm  eentraU  (Paris,  1851^);    Bbllt,  A  ' 

tf   A  < • '        •       /D^^_       1  OTON.       TIT  ^  ._ka«« 


VAmirimie  emUnde  (Paris,  1872);  WaoMbb.  l>io  Hmblik  t 
CoBta  Rtca  in  Central  Amedka  (Leipiig,  1856);  von  ScHuuEa, 
Wanderunaen  durch  die  MitUlamerikanigi0ien  Prristaaten 
(Brunswick,  1857):  Frobbbi.,  Aue  Amerika  (Leipsis.  1857- 
1858);  Squibb,  The  Statet  of  Central  America  (Naw  York. 
1858),  The  numerous  official  reports  by  the  Govenunent  and 
consular  reports  of  U.  S.  officifds;  Bureau  of  American  Repub- 
lics, Costa  Rica  (Washinnrton,  1892).  On  linguistiGs:  Lunswia, 
Literakue  of  Ameriean  Aboriffinal  LanffuagM  (London,  1858); 
BiONTON.  The  American  Race  (New  York.  1891):  FbrnXndki, 
Dociimentoa  para  la  hint,  de  Coeta  Rica  (San  Jose,  1881-1886): 
DXtila,  Teatro  ee,^  de  la  primitiva  igleeia  de  Uu  Indiae  oodd. 
(Madrid.  1649). 

An.  F.  Bandsuss. 


OOaTBE 


419 


OOSTUMX 


OoBtar,  Francis,  theologian,  b.  at  MeohUn,  16  June, 
1532  (1531);  d.  at  Brussels,  16  December,  1619.  He 
was  received  iato  the  Society  of  Jesus  by  St.  Ignatius, 
7  Novexx^er,  1552,  While  still  a  young  man  he  was 
sent  to  Cologne  to  lecture  on  Sacred  Scripture  and 
astroncmiy.  His  reputation  as  a  professor  was  estab* 
lished  within  a  very  abort  time,  and  on  the  10th  of 
December,'  1564,  the  university  of  Cologne  conferred 
on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  and  The- 
ology. He  was  ever  ready  to  defend  the  teaching  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  which  at  this  period  was  engs^ed 
in  the  struggle  with  heresy,  ana  by  word  and  by 
writing  he  broug|it  man^  back  to  the  true  fold.  He 
was  for  two  terms  provmcial  of  the  province  of  Bel- 
gium, for  one  term  provincial  of  that  of  the  Rhine,  and 
assisted  at  three  general  congregations  of  his  order. 
The  catalogue  of  his  writings  {pe  Backer,  I,  218)  men- 
tions forty>two  titles.  They  include  works  on  ascet- 
ical  subjerts,  meditations  on  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
sermons  jn  the  Gospel  for  each  Sunday  of  the  year. 
Probably  the  most  famous  was  his  "  Eilchiridion  oon- 
troversiarum  pneoipuarum  nostri  temporis  de  Re- 
l^one'  (Colore.  1585, 1587, 1589, 1593).  This  was 
afterwards  revised  and  enlarg^  by  its  author  in  1596, 
1605, 1608 ;  and  was  translated  into  various  languages. 
To  eath.  of  the  attacks  made  upon  it  by  Protestant 
writers,  such  as  Philip  Bfarbach,  Franeiscus  Oommar, 
Lucas  Osiander,  Coster  gave  an  able  r^Iy.  His  works 
directed  against  these  opponents  are  entitled: ''  Liber 
de  Ecclesia  contra  Fraaciscum  Gommarum  "  J^Cologne, 
1604);  ''Apologia  adversus  Lucce  Osiandri  heeretici 
lutherani  refutationum  octo  propositioinum  catho« 
licarum"  (Cologne,  1606) ; ''  Annotationes  in  N.  T,et  an 
pnecipua  loea,  quae  n9ipi  x>ossant  in  controversiam" 
(Antwerp,  1614). 

HtJBTEB,  Nbmen.  Lit.,  1,  209;  Dk  Bacxsr,  Bibt.  d€»  Eeri- 
vaifu  delacde  J.;  Son mxrvoobl,  BiM.  de  la  e.  de  J..  II,  1510 ; 
Rose,  Si.  Ignaliua  Loycia  and  Early  JesuiU,  342.  3413. 

G.  E.  Kelly. 

OoBtume,  Clerical. — To  discuss  the  ouesticm  of. 
ecclesiastical  costume  in  any  detail  would  oe  impossi- 
ble in  an  article  like  the  ))resent.  No  topiq  has 
fonned  the  subject  of  so  many  synodal  enactments, 
and  in  almost  every  country  and  every  order  of  the 
cdexgy  we  find  distinctive  features  which  might  call  for 
Bpedai  treatment.  Only  the  broad  outlines  can  there- 
fore be  dealt  with  here,  it  may  be  noted.'however,  that 
the  more  prominent  items  of  clerical  attire,  e.  g. 
Birbtta;  Mantblbtta;  etc.,  have  separate  articles 
assigned  to  them. 

Hittary, — ^It  seems  that  in  the  early  centuries  of 
C!hriBtianity  no  distinctive  dress  was  adopted  by  eo* 
deaiatftics.  Many  indications  point-  to  this  conclu- 
sion, e.  g.  the  laamat  or  birrtw,  and  (civil)  dalmatic, 
aasocmted  with  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Cyprian.  The 
most  explicit  testimony  is  that  afiforded  by  a  letter  of 
Pope  Celestine  in  428  to  certain  bishops  of  Gaul,  in 
which  he  rebukes  them  for  wearing  attire  which  made 
them  oon^iouous,  and  lays  down  the  rule  that  "we 
[the  bishops  and  deigvl  should  be  distinguished  from 
the  eommon  people  [pleoe]  by  our  leaining,  not  by  our 
clothes;  by  our  conduct,  not  by  our  dress;  by  clean- 
ness of  mind,  not  by  the  care  we  spend  upon  our  per- 
80n"  (Mansi,  "Concilia*',  IV,  466).  In  the  East  it 
would  seem  to  have  been  the  custom  for  aseeties  and 
philosophers,  whether  Christian  or  not,  to  affect  a 
special  habit,  but  the  Christian  clergy  generally  did 
not  profess  asceticism  in  this  distinctive  Way,  and 
were  content  to  wear  the  birrua  Wpot)  like  tlie  laity 
about  them.  This  usage  a  dmon  of  the  Council  of 
Gangra  (340),  especiallv  when  it  is  taken  in  conjimc- 
tioa  with  other  facts  (ef.  Sosomen,  III,  14),  distinctly 
approves.  "  If  any  man'',  says  this  oouncU,  "  uses  the 
pallium  [cloak]  upon  account  of  an  aaoetie  life,  and,  ss 
if  there  be  some  noliness  in  that,  condemns  those  who 
with  reverence  use  the  birrus  and  other  gannente  that 
ace  commonly  worn,  let  him  be  anatbtfnaf^  (Hefele- 


Lecleroq,  *'lli8t.desCk>uc.",1, 1037).  At  the  othei- ex- 
tremity of  Christendom  the  documents  that  survive 
concerning  St.  Patrick  and  other  early  Celtic  bishops 
present  them  to  us  as  habitually  dressed  in  the  casiua 
(<diasuble),  which  was  at  that  tune  not  a  distinctively 
liturgical  attire,  but  simply  an  outer  garment  com- 
monfy^  worn  by  the  humbler  classes.  In  the  sixth  and 
following  centuries  we  find  that  in  Rome  and  in  coun- 
tries near  Rome  the  civil  dress  of  the  clergy  began 
markedly  to  differ  from  that  of  the  laity,  the  reason 
probably  beLos  that  the  former  adhered  to  the  old 
Homan  type  of  costume  with  its  long  tunic  and  vol- 
uminous doak,  representing  the  toga,  whereas  the 
laity  were  increasingly  incUned  to  adopt  the  short 
tunic,  with  breeches  and  mantle,  of  the  gena  braccata, 
i.  e.  the  Northern  barbarians,  who  were  now  the  mas^ 
tere  of  Italy.  Probably  this  Roman  influence  made 
itself  felt  to  some  extent  throughout  Western  Cliristen- 
dom. 

The  canons  of  the  Council  of  Braga  in  Portugal 
(572)  required  the  cleigy  to  wear  ,a  vestia  talaris,  or 
tunic,  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  even  in  farroff  Britain 
we  find  indications,  both  among  the  Celts  and  An^o- 
Saxons,  that  undraped  lower  limbs  were  not  regarded 
as  seemly  in  the  cleigy,  at  any  rate  during  their  service 
at  the  altar.  During  the  same  period  synodal  decrees 
became  gradually  more  frequent,  restraining  in  vari- 
ous ways  the  tendency  of  the  clergy  to  adopt  the  cur- 
rent f  sshdon  of  worldly  attire.  By  a  German  council 
of  742,  priests  and  deacons  are  bidden  to  wear  habitu- 
ally not  the  sagumy  or  short  military  cloak,  but  the 
camda  (chaauble),  which  even  then  had  not  become  an 
exclusivelv  Uturgical  dress.  Perhaps  the  most  inter- 
estinff  and  significant  enactment  of  this  period  is  a  let- 
ter DtPope  John  VIII  (c.  875)  admonishing  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Canterbur]^  and  York  to  see  that  their 
clergy  wore  due  ecclesiastical  attire,  and  quoting  the 
example  of  the  English  clergy  in  Rome  who,  on  the 
eve  of  St.  Gregory^  feast,  had  given  up  their  short 
cloaks  and  adopted  the  long  Roman  tunic  reaching  to 
the  feet:  ''Apostolicce  sententia  usque  adeo  Sedis 
prsvaluit,  ut  voluntarie  omnes  Anglorum  clerici,  sub 
ipsis  vigiliis  S.  Gregorii,  laicalem  et  sinuosum,  sed  et  . 
curtum,  habitum  deponentes,  talares  tunicas  Ro- 
manas  induerenf  (Jaff6-Wattenbach,  Reg.  RR.  PP. 
2995).  In  the  East  the  distinction  between  Isiy  and 
clerical  costume  was  somewhat  slower  in  developing 
than  in  the  West,  probably  because  the  influence  or 
the  Teutonic  invaders  was  less  acutely  felt.  In  Jus-, 
tinian's  legislation  it  seems  clear  that  a  distinctive 
dness  was  recognised  as  belonging  to  monks,  but  there 
is  nothing  to  show  that  any  similar  distinction  applied 
to  the  clei^  at  large.  The  Trullan  council,  however, 
in  691  prescribed  that  all  who  were  enrolled  among  the 
clergy  should  use  at  all  times  the  robes  ((ttoKm)  ap- 
pointed for  those  of  their  profession,  imder  pain  of  ex- 
communioation  for  a  week.  Furtnermore  from  the 
ei^tb  century  onwards  we  find  almost  universally 
numerous  canons  passed  to  restrain  clerics  from  wear- 
ing rich  dresses,  bright  colours,  and  extravagant  orna- 
ments. In  Germany,  at  Aachen,  in  816  the  cucuUa 
was  forbidden  them,  as  being  distinctive  of  monks. 
On  the  other  hand,  at  Metz,  in  888,  the  laity  were  for- 
bidden to  wear  the  copes  {cap-pas)  belongmg  to  the 
clergy,  while  in  another  synoa  presbyters  were  en- 
joined to  wear  their  stoles  always,  as  an  indication  of 
their  priesthood.  Such  a  bishop  as  St.  Hu^  of  Lin- 
coln still  complied  with  this  rule  m  the  twelfth  century 
but  at  the  present  day  the  practice  is  peculiar  to  the 
Holy  Father  alone. 

In  the  later  Middle  Ages  the  dress  df  the  clergy  was 
regulated  by  the  canon  law,  the  jva  commune  of  the 
Church  at  large,  but  with  many  supplementary  enact- 
ments passed  by  local  synods.  The  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  (1215)  laid  down  the  principle  that  clerics 
must  wear  garments  closed  in  front  and  free  from  ex- 
travagance as  to  length  (Clausa  deferant  desuper  in- 


008TUMX 


420 


OOBTDia 


dumenta  nimid  brevitate  vel  longitudine  non  notanda* 
— Mansi,  XXII,  1006).  Ornamental  appendages, 
cloth  of  red  or  green  colour,  brooches  (fibulce)  to  fasten 
their  cloaJi^s,  and  the  wearing  of  sleeved  copes  (cappce 
manicaias),  either  at  Office  or  at  other  times,  are  all 
forbidden  by  the  same  enactment.  In  England,  the 
svnod  held  under  Cardinal  Langton,  in  1222,  required 
tnat  dignitaries  and  ordinary  priests  should  be  seen 
abroad  becomingly  attired  in  the  '*  ecclesiastical 
habit'*,  and  should  use  "closed  copes"  (Mansi,  XXII, 
1161).  These  ca'ppiB  clauses  seem  to  be  prescribed  as 
an  addition  to  the  habitus  dericalis,  and  were  perhaps 
now  imposed  upon  the  ordinary  secular  clergy  for  the 
first  time.  In  1237  the  national  council,  held  under 
the  presidency  of  the  Lesate  Otho,  declared  that  lav- 
folk  were  scandalized  aithe  dress  of  the  cleiw,  which 
was  not  cferical  at  all,  but  more  suited  to  knipits  (non 
dericalis  sed  potius  mtlitaris).  Offenders  m  future 
were  to  be  punished,  and  the  bishops  were  to  see  that 
all  in  sacrea  orders  used  garments  ot  fitting  length  and 
wore  closed  copes.  Somewhat  later  the  legatine  coun- 
cil under  Ottoboni  insisted  that  all  ecclesiastics, 
whether  in  Sacred  orders  or  not,  were  to  wear  clothes  of 
fitting  length,  coming  at  any  rate  below  the  middle  of 
the  shin  {saltern  uUra  tibiarum  medium  otHngenies). 
Further,  all  priests  and  beneficed  clergy  were  to  wear 
closed  copes,  except  when  on  a  journey,  or  for  some 
other  just  reason  (Wilkins,  "Concilia",  II,  4).  Severe 
penalties  were  enacted  against  transfirressors,  but  they 
do  not  seem  to  have  produced  any  Tasting  effect,  for 
numerous  other  decrees  on  the  same  subject  were 
passed  in  England  at  a  later  date,  notably  in  1281  and 
in  1342.  The  proper  dress  of  the  medieval  clergy  was 
therefore  the  vestts  taJariSf  and  over  this  priests  and 
dignitaries  were  bidden  to  wear  the  cappa  clauaii.  The 
former  of  these  must  have  been  a  sort  of  cassock,  but 
made  like  a  tunic,  i.  e.  not  opening,  and  buttoning 
down  the  front.  The  wearing  of  the  closed  cope  was 
no  doubt  often  evaded  by  the  secular  clergy.  Such 
writers  as  Chaucer  and  Langland  seem  to  lajr  so  much 
emphasis  upon  the  copes  of  the  friars  that  it  is  difficult 
to  believe  that  this  mantle,  resembling  a  liturgical 
cope,  but  partly  at  least  sewn  up  in  front,  was  as  com- 
monly worn  bv  secular  priests.  That  the  cope  was 
often  of  consiclerable  length  may  be  gathered  from  a 
passage  in  "Piers  Plowman's  Crede": — 

His  cope  that  biclypped  him,  wel  clene  was  it 

folden. 
Of  double-worstede  y-dyght,  doun  to  the  hele. 

It  would  seem  that  the  closed  cope  has  a  modem 
representative  in  the  cappa  magna  of  cardinals  and 
bishops,  and  also  in  the  chimere  (etymologically  de- 
scended from  the  Italian  nmarra)^  the  loose  mantle 
now  worn  bv  the  Anglican  episcopate  to  which  the 
well  known  lawn  sleeves  are  attached.  The  wearing 
of  a  separate  head-dress,  or  "  coif",  seems  to  have  been 
prohibited  to  the  inferior  orders  of  the  cleivy  except 
when  on  a  journey;  but  of  course  doctors  oftheology 
and  some  other  graduates  had  their  caps  of  honour. 
Besides  these  we  hear  of  the  "  liripipe",  a  sort  of  broad 
tippet  or  scarf  sometimes  drawn  over  the  head,  some- 
times worn  hanging  loose  on  the  shoulders.  The  dress 
of  the  cler^  in  other  countries  did  not  probably  differ 
very  greatly  from  that  of  medieval  England.  A» 
already  said,  innumerable  decrees  were  everywhere 
passed  in  provincial  synods  restraining  extravagances, 
for  every  eccentric  fashion — the  peaked  shoes,  the 
parti-coloured  dress,  the  headgear  of  flowers,  the  in- 
ordinately tidbt  hose,  etc. — ^was  liable  to  find  imitators 
among  the  clergy.  One  article  of  costume  which  oc- 
curs repeatedly  on  brasses  and  other  funeral  monu- 
ments, both  in  England  and  abroad,  is  the  "almuce", 
a  fur-Hned  tippet  and  hood,  still  retained  at  Rome  and 
elsewhere  by  the  canons  of  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches,  and  now  practically  confined  to  them.  For- 
merly the  almuce  was  worn  by  university  graduates, 


and  many  other  orders  of  the  clergy.  It  is  ptobaUy 
only  a  wanner  variant  of  the  bood,  whicA  almost 
eversrwhere  survives  as  part  of  a  university  academi- 
cal costume,  and  which  is  the  familiar  adjunct  of  the 
surplice  for  Anglican  ckfgymen  when  officiating  in 
the  sanctuary.  It  will  be  readily  understood  that  the 
indescribably  cold  and  dxaughty  oonditaon  of  our  old 
cathedrals  rendered  some  eSdi  furred  protection  for 
the  head  and  neck  almost  a  necessity  during  the  long 
hours  of  the  night  Offices.  Naturally,  the  richness 
and  amplitude  of  the  fur  lining  varied  in  some  measure 
with  the  dignity  of  the  fearer.  In  funeral  monumente 
the  almuce  is  found  constantly  associated  with  the 
cope,  also  primarily  a  choir  vestment. 

Modem  Usage, — ^Tfae  modem  and  more  centraliaed 
legislation  regsonding  clerical  costume  may  be  eonsid- 
ered  to  begin  with  a  constitution  of  Sixtus  V,  in  1589, 
insisting  under  the  severest  penalties  that  all  derios, 
even  ^ose  in  minor  ordera,  shouU  uniformly  wear  the 
ve9ti9  talaris  and  go  tonsured.  Offenders  were  to  loee 
all  tiiAe  to  their  benefices  or  ttnj  other  emolument 
which  they  held.  Another  edict  issued  under  Urban 
VIII,  in  1624,  goes  into  greater  detail.  It  directs  tiiat 
the  cassock  shotdd  be  confined  with  a  cincture,  aiui 
that  the  doak  worn  ov^r  it  should  normally,  like  the 
cassock,  fall  as  low  as  the  ankles.  The  under-dress, 
the  hose  induded,  should  be  modest,  and  dark  in  col- 
our. All  embroidery  and  lace  upon  coUar  or  cufiis  is 
forbidden.  The  hat  shall  be  of  apprcrved  shape,  and  a 
simple  cord  or  ribbon  shall  f onn  its  only  ornament. 
Infringpsments  (rf  these  regulations  are  to  be  punished 
with  a  pecuniary  fine.  Another  important  Roman 
decree,  issued  in  1708,  forbade  derios  to  wear  a  per- 
Tucpe  covering  any  part  of  the  forehead  or  eaie  and, 
while  admitting  the  use  of  shorter  garments  when  on  a 
journey,  required  such  garments  in  all  cases  to  extoid 
below  the  knees  and  to  exhibit  no  eccentricities,  such 
as  larae  buttons  and  huge  pockets.  In  1725  Pope 
Benedict  XIII  made  the  wearing  of  la^  costume  bv  an 
ecclesiastic  an  offence  of  the  most  senous  kind,  which 
not  onlv,  according  to  the  Bull  of  Sixtus  V,  entailed 
the  forfeiture  of  aU  emoluments,  but  denied  absolu- 
tion to  those  delinquents  who  did  not  spontaneoud^ 
surrender  their  benefices  if  they  had  been  guilty  of  this 
offence.  It  would  seem  that  this  extreme  rigour  haa 
never  been  uphdd  in  practice  by  the  Roman  Congre- 
gationa  with  whom  the  execution  of  such  decrees  ulti- 
mately lies.  Mgr.  Baritiier  de  Montault,  for  example, 
remancs  that,  althou^  infractions  of  the  law  of  eccle- 
siastical costume  are  by  no  means  allowed  to.  pass  with 
impunity,  and  thou^  ''the  Saoied  Congr^jation  of 
the  Council  ia  wont  to  anpport  the  decrees  of  bishops 
which  insist  upon  the  wouing  of  the  cassock,  still  so 
far  as  concerns  the  question  ctf  punishment  it  answers 
'Let  the  Inshop  proceed  with  moderation'"  (B.  de 
Montault,  ''Le  Costume"  etc.,  I,  45).  In  English- 
speaking  countries  where  the  wearing  of  the  tonsure  is 
not  obligatory,  the  rutes  affecting  the  costume  of  eo- 
clesiai^ics  are  less  rigid.  The  decrees  on  the  subject 
of  the  First  ^^nod  of  Westminster  and  the  Thixd 
Plenary  Councd  of  Baltimore  are  in  practical  ag^ree- 
ment.  The  latter  says  (§  77),  '*  We  wish  th^efore  and 
enjoin  that  all  keep  the  law  of  the  Church,  and  that 
when  at  home  or  wnen  engaged  in  the  sanctuaiy  they 
should  always  wear  the  cassock  [vesHs  talaru^  which  is 
proper  to  the  clergy.  When  they  go  abroad  for  duty 
or  relaxation,  or  when  upon  a  journey,  they  may  use  a 
shorter  dress,  but  still  one  that  is  black  in  eolour,  and 
which  reaches  to  the  knees,  so  as  to  distingaiBh  it  from 
lay  costume.  We  enjoin  upon  otir  priests  as  a  matter 
of  strict  precept,  that  both  at  home  and  abroad,  and 
whether  they  are  redding  in  their  own  diocese  or  out- 
side of  it,  thev  should  wear  the  Roman  collar. "  The 
general  introduction  of  the  use  of  bicydes  among  the 
dergy  has  brought  about  a  somewhat  laxer  practice 
regarding  the  length  of  the  uppo*  eannents  worn  out 
of  dooffl  and  the  Second  ^smod  of  Maynooth  (1900) 


008WAT 


421 


OOTEHIIA 


has  recently  found  it  necessary  to  msist,  for  Ireland, 
upon  certain  restrietions  in  this  matter. 

Babukh  OB  MoifTAUiv,  L€  Cottume  et  let  uaaget  eoeUaie»- 
tiquea  (2  vols..  Fans,  1902) — a  work  which  gqm  into  muoh 
detail  regardinc;  th«  costume  appropriate  to  the  deny  of 
various  grades;  ruNKce  in  Kircnenlex..  s.  v.  Kleider,  VIlTTfll; 
Ebbku  ibid.,  ■.  v.  SUMHoiapflie/Uen^  Xl.  718;  Chevtham  in 
Did.  ChriaL  Antiq.,  e.  v.  Dtmi;  Lacey  in  TrantactiinM  of  St. 
PauTt  Bedendoffioal  Society  AY;  Bintbriii,  DenkwHrdiakeiien, 
ni.  Pt.  II.  385;  Fbreabxb,  BtUfoCAeeo.  s.  v.  HabihU!  Wxrni, 
Jua  Deertttdium  (Home.  1906).  II.  Pt.  I.  266-272;  DBurrr. 
Manual  oi  Cottwme  (London.  1906);  Magxun,  Tke  BroMua  of 
ffn^loml  Oondon*  1907).  100-190. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

OoBway*  Maria,  miniature-painter,  b.  in  Florence, 
Italy,  1759 ;  d.  at  Lodi,  5  January,  1838.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Hadfield,  her  father  bein^  an  English- 
man. She  showed  great  talent  in  drawmg  at  an  early 
age,  and  when  only  nineteen  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  her  native  city,  where 
she  had  been  educated  at  a  Visitation  convent.  Her 
father  dying  in  1778  she  went  to  England,  at  the  invi- 
tation of  her  friend,  Angelica  Kaunman,  who  intro- 
duced her  to  society.  She  then  met  Richard  Coeway, 
regarded  aa  one  of  the  most  remarkable  miniature- 
pamters  of  the  eighteenth  centurv,  whom  she  married  In 
London.  18  January,  1781 .  In  that  year  she  first  exhib- 
ited at  tne  Academy,  continuing  to  do  so  down  to  1801, 
but  her  oil  pictures,  mytholo^cal  and  allegorical  in  sub- 
ject, were  not  works  of  specially  high  merit,  althou^ 
they  showed  signs  of  ^nius.  She  was  no  mean  ex- 
ponent of  the  art  of  miniature-painting,  however,  and 
many  of  her  copies  of  her  husband's  works  are  note- 
wortny.  Her  Sunday  evening  concerts  in  London  are 
often  mentioned  by  Horace  Walpole  and  other  writers 
of  the  day.  She  was  passionately  attached  to  her 
husband,  and  after  his  death  disposed  of  his  art 
treasures  and  went  to  Italy.  Prior  to  his  decease, 
Mrs.  Cosway,  had  started  in  Lyons  a  school  for  girls 
at  the  earnest  request  of  Cardinal  Fesch,  but  in  l8ll, 
owing  to  the  war,  this  was  closed.  In  the  following 
year  she  made  a  similar  effort  in  Italy,  acquiring  a 
convent  at  Lodi,  where  she  established  her  teachers 
from  Lyons.  Cosway  repeatedly  helped  her  in  her 
scheme  and  gave  her  considerable  sums  of  money 
towards  it.  After  his  decease  she  made  her  home  in 
Lodi,  bou^t  the  buildings  outright,  attached  them  to 
the  neighbouring  church,  and  merged  the  little  teach- 
ing community  she  had  established  in  that  of  the 
Dames  In^esi,  a  branch  of  which  Francis  I  desired  to 
establish  m  Italy.  For  her  generosity  the  Emperor 
in  1834  created  her  a  Baroness  of  the  Austrian  Empire 
and  gave  her  a  grant  of  arms.  She  devoted  the  whole 
of  her  time  and  means  to  her  school.  She  is  buried  in 
the  neighbouring  church.  The  municipality  erected 
a  btist  to  her  memory,  and  the  school  which  she 
foimded  and  endowed  is  still  a  flourishing  institution 
for  the  education  of  girls.  In  the  dining-room  of  it 
she  erected  a  replica  of  the  monument  to  the  memory 
of  her  husband  that  she  had  Westmaoott  put  up  in 
Marylebone  Church,  London.  In  the  library  are  pre- 
served many  of  her  husband's  works  together  with 
books  and  mmiture  which  had  belonged  to  Coswsnr, 
and  papers  relative  to  her  own  and  her  husband's  lite. 
Her  sister,  Charlotte,  married  William  Combe,  the 
author  of  the  "Tour  of  Dr.  Syntax*'. 

WxLUAMSOK.  Richard  Cosway,  R.A.,  Miniahtre  Paintet  (Lon- 
don, 1897:  new  ed.  1905). 

Gborob  Charles  WiLUAiiaoN. 

Ootelier  (Coteleriub),  jEAif-BAPnsTB,  patristic 
scholar  and  theologian,  b.  December,  1629,  at  Nlmes; 
d.  19  Aagust,  1686,  at  Paris.  The  eariy  education  of 
this  very  g^ted  man  was  under  the  penonal  direction 
of  his  father,  at  one  time  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  but  later  a  convert  to  Catholicity.  So  rapid 
was  his  progress  in  learning  that  he  could  fluently 
interpret  the  Bible  in  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek 
before  the  General  Assembly  of  the  French  deigy  at 


Mantes  (1641).  On  the  same  occasion  he  showed  his 
proficiency  in  mathematics,  and  made  such  a  favour- 
able impression  on  the  clergy  that  they  increased  his 
father's  pension  from  600  to  1000  livres.  To  this  sum 
300  livres  were  added  for  the  purchase  of  books.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  his  theological  studies  at  Paris  (1641- 
47),  Cotelier's  brilliant  intellectual  qualities  procured 
for  him  an  introduction  to  the  kine  (1644).  He 
graduated  as  bachelor  in  theology  in  1647  at  the  Sor- 
Donne,  of  which  he  became  a  member  in  1648,  thoueh 
he  never  received  priestly  ordination.  In  1654.  ne 
accompanied  Archbishop  d'Aubusson  de  la  Feuillaae  of 
Embrun  to  his  diocese  and  became  his  counsellor.  He 
returned,  in  1659,  to  Paris  and  again  devoted  bimsetf 
to  study.  With  the  philolo^st  Du  Cange  he  was 
commissioned  in  1667  by  Minister  Colbert  to  investi- 
mte  and  cataloeiie  the  Greek  manuscripts  of  the 
Royal  Library.  In  1676  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  the  Greek  language  in  the  College  Royal  at  Paris. 

The  editions  of  ancient  writings  prepared  by  Cote- 
lier  were,  in  chronological  order:  (1)  "Homihse  qua- 
tuor  in  Psalmbs  et  interpretatio  prophetiae  Danielis, 
gnece  et  latine"  (Paris,  1661).  He  attributed  these 
unpublished  homuies  to  St.  John  Chrysostom;  other 
critics,  owine  to  the  diversity  of  style,  hold  a  different 
opinion.  (2l  "  SS.  Patrum  qui  temporibus  apostolicis 
floruerunt,  Bamabce,  dementis,  Herms,  Ignatii, 
Poiycarpi  oi)era  edita  et  non  edita,  vera  et.supposita, 
grece  et  latine^  cum  notis"  ^Paris,  1672).'  Tnis  ex- 
cellent edition  is  Cotelier's  pnncipal  work.  From  its 
title  was  derived  the  designation  of  Apostolic  Fathers 
for  the  earliest  non-inspired  Christian  writere.  Most 
of  the  Coptics  of  the  work  were  consumed  by  a  con- 
flagration in  the  College  Montaigu  at  Paris.  Two  re- 
vised editions  were  published  by  Leclere  (Clcricus), 
one  at  Antwerp  (1698),  the  other  at  Amsterdam 
(1724).  Reprints  of  this  last  edition  are  found  in 
Migne,  P.  G.,  I,  II,  V.  (3)  "Ecclesiae  Graecaj  Monu- 
menta,  graece  et  latine"  (Paris,  1677,  1681.  1686). 
The  third  volume  of  this  series  was  published  two 
days  before  the  author's  death.  He  had  collected 
materiab  for  a  fourth  volume  which  was  edited  (1688) 
by  the  Maurists,  Pouget,  Montfaucon,  and  Lopin,  ana 
is  sometimes  known  as  ''Analecta  Grteca''.  Cotelier 
also  left  several  volumes  of  manuscripts,  which  bear 
chiefly  on  Christian  antic^uity  and  Kt^  still  preserved 
in  the  Biblioth6que  Nationale  at  Paris.  He  was  an 
extremely  accurate  scholar,  of  a  modest  and  retiring 
nature  and  kindly  disposition. 

Baluzb,  LeUer  to  Bigot,  in  Cotsubr-Leclbrc,  Patrea  Apoa- 
UAici  ^Amsterdam,  1724).  I,  after  the  Drefaee;  Nic^ron. 
Mimmraa,  IV,  243^-49;  von  HsrEUD  in  KircKenlex,,  ■.  v.;  Hcb- 
Tsa,  Nomkmdntor  (IniHbruok.  1893),  II.  471-74. 

N.  A.  WEBEa 

OpteniUy  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor.  Strabo 
(XII,  570)  mentions  the  Katenneis  in  Pisidia  adjoin- 
ing Selge  (now  SUrk)  and  the  tribe  of  Homonades 
(east  and  north  of  Trogitis,  S^idi  Sh^ihr  Lake) .  Their 
city  must  be  identified  with  the  modem  village  of 
Ckidena  or  Gudene,  on  the  Alaghir  Tchai,  in  the  \il- 
ajwt  of  Konia.  An  inscription  nas  been  found  dhow- 
iog  that  the  people  called  themselves  Kotenneis,  so 
that  the  true  name  of  the  town  was  Kotcnna.  Hie- 
rocles  mentions  it  as  Kotana  in  Pamphylia.  It  ap- 
pears as  Kotaina  in  Parthey's  ''Notitue  episcopa- 
tuum'',  X  and  XIII,  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century, 
as  a  suffragan  of  Side.  Six  bishops  are  known:  Hesy- 
diius  in  381,  Acacius  in  431,  Eugenius  or  Eusebius  m 
461,  FlavianuB  in  536,  Cosmas  in  680,  Macarius  in  879. 
It  has  been  said  that  the  Kotenneis  are  the  same  aa 
the  Etenneis,  mentioned  by  Polybius,  V,  73,  as  living 
in  Pisidia  above  Side,  and  who  struck  coins  in  the 
Roman  times.  The  native  name  may  have  been 
Hetenneis,  and  the  tribe  afterwards  divided  into  at 
least  two  districts,  the  northern  taking  the  name 
Etenneis  while  the  southern  preferred  Kotenneis. 
There  was  another  see  called  Etenna  or  something 


aOTUBUM 


422 


similar.  A  third  district  was  perhaps  also  called 
Banaba  or  Manaua;  for  in  680  Cosmas  appears  as 
Bishop  of  ''Kotenna  and  Manaua". 

RjkMBAT,  Hiat,  Oeogr,  of  Asia  Minor  (London,  1890),  418; 
LaquiBN,  OrienB  chriatianuat  I,  1009.  S.  PimUD^. 

Ootiaum,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor.  Kotiaion, 
according  to  its  coins,  better  Cotyaion,  the  city  of 
Cotys,  was  an  ancient  city  of  Phrygia  Salutaris. 
JSsop  is  said  to  have  been  bom  there.  It  was  a  cen- 
tre of  heresy  from  the  second  century  onwards.  Soc- 
rates (IV,  xxviii)  speaks  of  its  Novatian  bishop.  At 
first  a  simple  suffragan  of  Synnada,  it  became  an 
autocephalous  archbishopric,  probably  in  the  eighth 
century,  and  about  the  tenth  appears  as  a  metropolis 
with  three  suffragan  sees,  whicn  were  later  increased 
to  thirteen  (?).  Lequien  (I,  851)  mentions  ten  bish- 
ops, the  last  in  the  fourteenth  century.  The  firat  is 
Cyrus,  sent  thither  by  Theodosius  II,  after  four  bish- 
ops had  been  slain  by  the  inhabitants.  The  town 
preserves  some  ancient  ruins,  a  Byzantine  castle  and 
church.  It  was  taken  and  plundered  by  Timur-Leng 
(Tamerlane)  in  1402.  It  is  now  the  chief  town  of  a 
sanjak  in  the  vilayet  of  Brusa,  and  is  called  by  the 
Turks  Kutaya.  It  has  about  22,000  inhabitants,  in- 
cluding 4000  Greeks,  2300  Armenians,  700  Catholic 
Armemans,  and  a  few  Latins;  it  contains  two  schools. 
It  is  also  the  see  of  a  non-Catholic  Armenian  bishop. 
Diuing  late  centuries  Kutaya  has  been  renowned  for 
its  Tuncish  earthenware,  of  which  fine  specimens  may 
be  seen  at  the  Imperial  Museum  in  Constantinople. 

CuiNBT,  Turquie  dCAaie,  IV,  201-205;  Ramsat.  Asia  Aftruir, 
144,  436;  Idkm ,  Eariy  Christian  MonummU  in  Phrygia,  in  TKe 
Expositor  (1888, 1880);  Iobm,  CUiea  and  Biahoprica  of  Phryoia, 
Pawim-  S.  PfeTBIDias. 

Ooton,  Pierre,  a  celebrated  French  Jesuit,  b.  7 
March,  1564,  at  N^ronde  in  Forez;  d.  19  March, 
1626,  at  Paris.    He  studied  law  at  Paris  and  Boui^ges, 

'_  entered  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus  at  the 
age  of  twenty- 
five,  and  was  sent 
to  Milan  to  study 
philosophy.  Here 
he  became  ac- 
quainted with 
St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo.  On  his 
return  to  his  na- 
tive country  he 
preached  with  r^ 
markable  success 
at  Roanne,  Avi- 
gnon, Ntmes,  Gre- 
noble, and  Mar- 
seilles. An  ao- 
?uaintanoe  with 
[enry  IV  of 
France  soon  ri- 
pened into  friend- 
ship,   and    the 


PH^ftRF.  ton  OX . 


^;!:'ll|i|li'l)ill|]ffilif|]lli 


Archbishopric  of  Aries  being  vacant,  the  king  offered  it 
to  Father  Coton,  who  refu^  the  honour.  The  kinjg 
having  recalled  the  exiled  Jesuits  to  France,  their 
enemies  could  not  pardon  the  influence  Father  Coton 
had  in  bringing  this  about,  and  an  attempt  was  made 
to  assassinate  him.  Some  writers  have  pretended 
that  Father  Coton  was  not  above  suspicion  on  the 
doctrine  of  regicide,  and  when  Henry  IV  was  assassi- 
nated, they  accused  Father  Coton  of  defending  Ra- 
vaillac,  the  king's  murderer.  But  if  his  enemiea  at 
court  had  any  Knowledge  that  he  held  such  views 
thev  failed  to  make  it  public. 

Father  Coton  had  for  two  years  previous  to  the 
death  of  Henry  been  confessor  to  his  son,  the  young 
Dauphin.  In  1610  the  biting  satire  "  Anti-Coton,  od 
est  prouv6  gue  les  Jdsuites  sont  coupables  du  parri- 
cide d'Henn  IV "  was  followed  by  many  pamphlets 


lor  and  against  the  Society.  It  was  an  easy  task  for 
Father  Coton  to  defend  himself  against  thaae  calum- 
nies and  produce  proofs  of  his  innooenoe,  but  very 
difficult  for  the  author  of  the  libel,  who  was  said  to 
be  Pierre  Dumoulin,  a  Protestant  m>xJsterof  Cbaren- 
ton,  and  an  associate  of  the  Calvinists,  «x>  substantiate 
any  statement  that  he  had  advanced.  Father  Coton  was 
continued  in  his  capacity  as  confessor  to  the  new  kin& 
Louis  XIII,  which  duty  he  discharged  until  .1617, 
when  he  left  the  court  at  the  age  of  fifty-four  and 
withdrew  to  the  novitiate  at  Lyons.  He  then  trav- 
ersed the  provinces  of  the  South  as  a  missionary,  and 
went  to  Milan,  Loreto,  and  Rome  to  fulfil  the  vows 
the  reigning  king  had  made  to  the  Blessed  Vii^gin, 
St.  Charles,  and  St.  Peter.  He  returned  to  France 
as  provincial  of  the  Society  and  preached  at  Paris  in 
the  church  of  S.  Gervaise,  whither  the  kinf  and  the 
whole  court  flocked  to  hear  him.  Just  at  this  period 
a  book  published  by  Santarelli,  an  Italian  Jesuit, 
who  attributed  to  tne  pope  the  power  of  deposing 
kings  who  were  guilty  of  certain  crimes,  and  under 
such  circumstances  of  absolving  their  subjects  from 
their  allegiance,  was  the  object  of  severe  attacks 
from  the  many  enemies  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
France. 

The  doctrines  which  Santarelli  expounded  had 
been  unwisely  accepted  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  were 
still  further  profeased  by  the  Ultramontane  theo- 
logians, although  they  had  become  impossible  in  prac- 
tice. This  bomc,  which  in  Italy  was  received  m  its 
true  light,  was  in  Paris,  under  the  rule  of  Richelieu, 
construed  into  a  provocation  to  regicide  and  rebellion, 
lliese  .false  views  were  attributed  to  every  member 
of  the  Society,  and  the  Parliament  demanded  that  all 
Jesuits  residing  in  France  should  be  called  upon  to 
sign  a  protestation  disavowing  all  the  doctrines  con- 
tamed  m  Santarelli 's  treatise.  Father  Coton  was  ill  at 
the  time,  and  the  news  conveyed  to  him  aggravated 
hjs  condition.  On  his  death-bed  he  was  visited  by  an 
envoy  of  Parhament,  who  informed  him  of  the  con- 
demnation pronounced  against  Santarelli  and  the 
severe  measures  that  threatened  his  brethren.  The 
dying  Jesuit  murmured:  ''Is  it  possible  that  I  who 
have  served  so  faithfully  the  Kines  of  France  should 
be  looked  upon  at  last  as  guilty  ot  treason  and  a  dis- 
turber o!  the  peace?"  His  "Institution  catholiquc" 
and  "Geneve  plagiaire"  are  controversial  works,  as 
also  his ' '  Sacrince  de  la  Messe  ".  For  his  other  works 
see  De  Backer,  1st  ed.,  II,  p.  149. 

RovERius,  De  Vita  P.  Petri  Cotoni  (Lyota,  1660);  D*0»- 
LtANS,  La  Vie  du  P.  Pierre  Coton  (Paris.  168«);  Prat.  Reeher- 
Aea  hiaL  et  crit.  aur  la  c.  de  JSatta  en  France,  du  lempa  du  P. 
Colon  (Lyons,  1876);  Sommervoqkl.  Bibl.  de  la  c.  ds  J.,  II, 
1539;  B.  Nm  Tkejeauita,  Their  Foundation  and  Hiatory,  I,  SSS- 
328;  Clbmbntb,  Hiatory  of  the  SoeieHf  of  /anw,  I. 

G.  E.  Keixt. 

Ootrone.  Diocese  of  (Ootronensis),  a  sufirra«»n 
of  Reggio.  Cotrone  is  a  city  of  the  province  of  Ua- 
tanzaro,  in  Calabria^  Southern  Italy,  on  the  Ionian 
Sea.  It  is  the  ancient  Croton,  an  Acluean  colony 
founded  c.  707  b.  c,  and  long  one  of  the  most  flour- 
ishing cities  of  Magna  Gnecia.  Its  inhabitants  were 
famous  for  their  physical  strength,  and  for  the  simple 
sobriety  of  their  lives.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  MOo, 
the  famous  athlete,  and  it  was  at  Croton  that  iPythag- 
oias  founded  his  school.  In  380  b.  a  the  cit;r  was 
taken  by  Dionysius  the  Elder  of  Syracuse  and  m  296 
B.  c.  by  AgathocloB.  Later  it  was  pillaged  by  Pyr- 
rhus.  In  the  Second  Funic  War  it  was  s^aed  bv 
Hannibal,  but  some  time  later  became  a  Bomaa  col- 
ony. About  A.  D.  550,  it  was  unsuccessfully  beeieeed 
by  Totila,  King  of  the  Goths,  and  at  a  later  date  be- 
came a  part  of  the  Bysantine  Empire*  About  870  it 
was  taken  and  sadked  by  the  Saracens,  who  put  to 
death  the  bishop  and  many  people  who  had  taken 
lefuge  in  the  cathedral.  Later  on  it  was  conquered 
by  Normans  and  thenceforth  shared  the  fate  of  the 
lungdom  of  Na^^es. 


OOTTA 


423 


OOUNCILS 


Acoording  to  local  le^nd  the  Gospel  was  preached 
there  bv  St.  Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  Its  first 
known  bishop  was  Flavianus,  durmp  whose  epis- 
copate occurred  the  si^e  of  the  city  by  Totila. 
Other  bishops  were:  Theodosios  (642);  Petnis 
(680):  Theotimus  (790);  and  Nicephoms  (870); 
Worthy  of  note  are:  Antonio  Sebastiano  Mintumo 
(1565),  a  polished  writer  and  poet;  the  Spanish  Do* 
minican,  Juan  Lopez  (1595);  the  Theatine,  Tommaso 
dai  Monti  (1599)^  famous  for  his  seal;  and  Nice- 
foro  Melisseno  Commeno  (1628),  who  had  previously 
rendered  signal  service  to  the  Holy  See  in  the  Orient 
and  in  France.  The  diocese  has  a  population  of  14,- 
000,  with  10  parishes,  29  churches  and  chapels,  24 
secular  priests,  and  5  religious  orders  of  women. 

CAPPELLETn,  Le  chieM  dHtalia  (Venice,  1844).  XXI.  187; 
Ann,  ecd.  (Rome,  1907);  Lbnobmant,  La  Cfrande  Orkce  (Parii, 
1881-83). 

U.  Benigni. 
Ootta.    See  Surplice. 
C3otter,  J.  B.    See  Winona,  Diocese  of. 

Goacy,  Robert  db,  a  medieval  French  master- 
builder  and  son  of  a  master-builder  of  the  same  name, 
b.  at  Reims  (or  Coucy,  according  to  some  authorities) ; 
d.  at  Reims  in  1311.  In  1263  he  was  appointed  suc- 
cessor to  Hugues  Libergier  as  director  ot  the  work  of 
building  the  church  of  Saint-Nicaise  at  Reims,  and  be- 
tween this  date  and  1279  he  constructed  the  choir, 
chapels,  and  part  of  the  transept;  the  church  was 
afterwards  destroyed -during  the  Revolution.  Some 
good  iUustrations  of  this  biulding,  begun  in  1229  and 
considered  one  of  the  best  Gothic  churches  of  the  great 
period  in  France,  have  been  preserved.  A  nearly  con- 
temporary chronicle  of  the  Abbey  of  Saint-Nicaise 
says  that  "Hugo  Libergiers  pronaon  ecclesise  per- 
fecit.  Robert  afe  Coucy  caput  ecclesi®  construxit". 
After  the  death  of  his  father,  Robert  de  Coucy  had 
also  chief  charge  of  the  work  on  the  cathedral  at 
Reims,  which  was  rebuilt  after  its  destruction  by  fire 
in  1210.  The  new  cathedral  was  begun  in  1211,  and 
the  choir,  constructed  by  Robert  de  Coucy  the  elder, 
was  completed  in  1241.  The  cathedral  was  built  on  a 
simple  plan  of  a  vast  choir,  no  Ixansepts^^d  a  rather 
narrow  nave.  Viollet-le-Duc  says:  "This  building 
has  all  the  strength  of  the  cathedral  of  Chartr^  with- 
out its  heaviness;  in  short  it  combines  the  essential 
requirements  of  artistic  beauty,  power  and  grace ;  it 
is,  Desides,  built  of  fine  matermls  cunningly  put  to- 
gether, and  there  is  found  in  all  its  parts  a  pains- 
taking care  and  ji  skill  very  rare  at  a  period  when  men 
built  with  great  rapidity  and  often  with  inadequate 
resources".  In  a  labyrinth,  or  representation  of  a 
maze,  which  formerly  existe'd  in  the  pavement  of  the 
nave  of  the  cathedral  were  effigies  of  the  architects  of 
the  edifice  from  its  foimdation  up  to  1382;  among 
these  effigies,  according  to  tradition,  were  those  of  the 
two  Robert  de  Coucys,  father  and  son.  In  the  cloister 
of  the  Abbey  of  Saint- Denis  at  Reims  F^bien  noted 
the  gravestone  of  Robert  de  Coucy,  "Maistre  de 
Notre-Dame  et  de  Saint-Nicaise,  qui  tr^passa  en  Tan 
1311". 

Mariot,  Hutoire  de  la  vUle  de  Reims  (lille,  1666;  Reims, 
1843-45),  1, 636;  LObkk.  History  o/ Art  (1880),  I,  629;  Rbber, 
Hia(ary  of  Afedunal  Art  (New  York,  1897),  498;  Gwiur  and. 
Pafwobth,  Encyc.  of  ArehUecUire  (London  and  New  York, 
1903).  1132;  Meuzia.  Lives  of  Celebrated  Art^itecU,  I.  165; 
Lethabt.  MedicBval  Art  (London  and  New  York,  1904).  247; 
La  grat%de  encyeUmidie,  a.  v.  de  Coucy:  MAJUHAiiL,  Cathedral 
CiHsa  of  France,  4Sk49. 

Thobcas  H.  Poole. 

Ckmderti  Amtoine.  See  Colombo,  Archdiocese 
of. 

Oondert,  Frederic  Ren£,  b.  in  New  York,  1 
March,  1832;  d.  at  Washington,  D.  C,  20  December, 
1903.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  his 
native  city  in  1850,  and  on  his  majority  was  admitted 


to  practice  in  the  courts.  He  became  a  leader  of 
the  Bar,  being  learned  in  the  science  of  the  law  and 
skilled  in  its  art  and  practice.  During  the  controversy 
concerning  American  and  British  seal  fisheries  in  the 
Bering  Sea,  and  in  the  controversy  concerning  the 
disputed  boimdary  between  Venezuela  and  British 
Columbia,  he  acted  as  legal  adviser  for  the  "United 
States  Government.  He  was  an  orator  not  only  in 
English,  but  also  in  the  French,  Spanish,  and  Italian 
languages,  and  was  gifted  with  a  manner  and  style 
singularly  attractive,  with  ready  wit  and  power  of 
sarcasm.  He  bore  testimony  to  his  political  principles 
in  periods  of 
stram  and  con- 
troversy.  He 
consented  in 
1876  to  visit 
Louisiana  for 
the  purpose  of 
urging  the  "  Re- 
turning Board" 
of  that  political- 
ly distracted 
State  to  act 
justly  respect- 
mg  election  ren 
turne  which 
were  to  deter- 
mine the  presi- 
d  e  n  t  i  a  1  suc- 
cession, and  in 
1892  and  again 
in  1893  he  was 
a  prominent  op- 
ponent of  the 
courses  taken  by 
his  own  politi- 
cal party.  Poli-  ^  «  _^  ^ 
tics  he  seemed  Frbdmiic  RbnA  Coudbrt 
to  regard  as  a  means  for  carrying  into  effect 
certain  principles,  not  as  a  means  of  office-sedcing. 
He  declmed  the  Russian  mission,  a  jud^hip  of  the 
Court  of  Appeals  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  a 
justiceship  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  He  accepted  ^and  it  was  the  only  public 
office  he  ever  held)  the  mconspicuous  and  unsalaried 
membership  in  the  Board  of  fkiucation  of  the  City 
of  New  York.  As  a  Catholic  he  was  always  loyal 
to  the  Church;  as  the  son  of  a  French  refugee  he  never 
forgot  France.  On  two  subjects  he  declared  himself 
to  be  sensitive:  the  Bark  of  Peter  and  the  land  of 
his  ancestors. 

Addresses  by  Frederic  R.  C&udert  (New  York  and  London, 
1905);  Annual  Reports  of  the  Association  of  the  Bar  of  the  City 
of  New  York  (New  York.  1905);  U.  S.  Cath,  Hist.  Soc.  Records 
and  Studies  (New  York,  1904). 

Charles  W.  Sloane. 

OouncilB,  General. — ^This  subject  will  be  treated 
under  the  following  heads:  I.  Definition;  II.  Classifi- 
cation; III.  Historical  Sketch;  IV.  The  Pope  and 
General  Ck)uncils;  V.  Composition  of  General  Coun- 
cils: (a)  Rig^t  of  participation;  (b)  Requisite  number 
of  members;  (c)  Papal  neadship  the  formal  element 
of  Councils  ;  VI.  Factors  in  tne  Pope's  Co-opera- 
tion with  the  Council:  (a)  Convocation;  (b)  Direc- 
tion; (c)  Confirmation;  VII.  Business  Methods:  (a) 
The  facts;  (b)  The  theory;  VIII.  Infallibility  of  Gen- 
eral Councils;  IX.  Correlation  of  Papal  and  Concili- 
ary  Infallibility;  X.  Infallibility  Restricted  to  Unan- 
imous Findings;  XI.  Promulgation;  XII.  Is  a  Council 
above  the  Pope?  XIII.  Has  a  General  Council  Power 
to  Depose  a  rope? 

I.  Definition. — Councils  are  le^y  convened  as- 
semblies of  ecclesiastical  dignitanes  and  theological 
experts  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  and  regulating 
matters  of  church  doctrine  and  discipline.  The 
terms  council  and  synod  are  synonymous,  although  io 


ooinfoiLS 


424 


OOUVOILS 


the  oldest  Christian  literature  the  ordinary  meetingi 
for  worship  are  also  called  synods;  and  diocesan 
synods  are  not  properly  councils  because  th^  are  only 
convened  for  aeUberation.  Councils  unlawfully  as- 
sembled are  termed  condliabida,  oonvenHcula,  and 
even  latrocinia,  i,  e.  "robber synods".  The  constit- 
uent elements  of  an  ecclesiastical  council  are  the  fol- 
lowing:— 

(a)  A  legally  convened  nieeting  of 

(b)  members  of  the  hierarchy,  for 

(c)  the  purpose  of  canying  out  their  judicial  and 
doctnnal  functions, 

(d)  by  means  of  deliberation  in  common, 

(e)  resulting  in  regulations  and  decrees  invested 
with  the  authority  of  the  whole  assembly. 

All  these  elements  result  from  an  analysis  of  the  fact 
that  councils  are  a  concentration  of  the  ruling  powers 
of  the  Church  for  decisive  action. 

The  first  condition  is  that  such  concentration  oon» 
form  to  the  constitution  of  the  Church:  it  must  be 
started  by  the  head  of  the  forces  that  are  to  move  and 
to  act,  e.  g.  by  the  metropolitan  if  the  action  is  lim- 
ited to  one  province.  The  actors  themselves  are  nec- 
essarily the  leaders  of  the  Church  in  their  double 
capacity  of  judges  and  teachers,  for  the  proper  object 
of  concuiar  activity  is  the  settling  of  questions  of  faith 
and  discipline.  When  they  assemble  for  other  pur- 
poses, eitner  at  regular  times  or  in  extraordinary  cir- 
cumstances, in  Older  to  deliberate  on  current  ques- 
tions of  administration .  or  on  concerted  action  in 
emereencies,  their  meetings  are  not  called  councils  but 
simp^  meetings,  or  assemblies,  of  bishops.  Delibera- 
tion, with  free .  discussion  and  ventilation  of  private 
views,  is  another  essential  note  in  the  notion  ot  coun- 
cils. The^  are  the  mind  of  the  Church  in  action,  the 
$ensu9  eccIesicB  taking  form  and  shape  in  the  mould  of 
dogmatic  defijiition  and  authoritative  decrees.  The 
contrast  of  conflicting  opinions,  their  actual  clash, 
necessarily  precedes  the  final  triumph  of  faith. 
Lastly,  in  a  council's  decisions  we  see  the  highest  ex- 
pression of  authority  of  which  its  members  are  capable 
within  the  sphere  ot  their  jurisdiction,  with  the  added 
strength  and  weight  resulting  from  the  combined 
action  of  the  whole  body. 

II.  CLAflsiFiCATioN.— -Councils  are,  then,  from  their 
nature,  a  common  effort  of  the  Church,  or  part  of  the 
Church,  for  self-preservation  and  self-defence.  They 
appear  at  her  very  origin,  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles 
at  Jerusalem,  and  throughout  her  whole  history, 
whenever  faith  or  morals  or  discipline  are  seriously 
threatened.  Although  their  object  is  alwa3rB  the 
same,  the  circumstances  undef  which  they  meet  im- 
part to  them  a  great  variety,  which  renders  a  classifi- 
cation necessary.  Taking  territorial  extension  for  a 
basis,  seven  kinds  of  synods  are  distinguished: — 

(1)  (Ecumenical  councils  are  those  to  which  the  bish- 
ops, and  others  entitled  to  vote,  are  convoked  from 
the  whole  world  (oUovfJrij)  under  the  presidency  of 
the  pope  or  his  legates,  and  the  decrees  of  which,  hav- 
:ng  received  papal  confirmation,  bind  all  Christians. 
A  council,  cecumenical  in  its  convocation,  may  fail  to 
secure  the  approbation  of  the  whole  Church  or  of  the 
pope,  and  thus  not  rank  in  authority  with  oecumenical 
councils.  Such  was  the  case  with  the  Robber  Synod  of 
449  {Latrocinium  Evhesinum)  ,the  Synod  of  Pisa  m  1409, 
and  inp^rt  with  tne  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle. 

(2)  Tne  second  rank  is  held  by  the  general  tynodt  of 
fhe  East  or  of  the  West^  composed  of  but  one-half  of 
the  episcopate.  The  Synod  of  Constantinople  (381) 
was  originally  only  an  Eastern  general  synod,  at 
which  were  present  the  four  patriarchs  of  the  East 
(viz.  of  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jer- 
usalem), with  many  metropolitans  and  bishops.  It 
ranks  as  oecumenical  because  its  decrees  were  ulti- 
mately received  in  the  West  also. 

(3)  Patriarchalj  national,  and  primatial  councils 
represent  a  whole  patriarchate,  a  wnole  nation,  or  the 


several  provinces  subject  to  a  primateu  Of  audi 
coimcils  we  have  frequent  examples  in  Latin  Africa, 
where  the  metropolitan  and  ordinary  bishops  used  to 
meet  under  the  Primate  of  Carthage;  in  Spain,  under 
the  Primate  of  Toledo,  and  in  eanier  times  in  Sjrria, 
under  the  Metropolitan  — slater  Patriarch — of  Antioch. 
^4)  Provincial  councils  brine  together  the  suffragan 
biwops  of  the  metropolitan  of  an  ecclesiastical  prov- 
ince and  other  dignitaries  entitled  to  participate. 

(5)  Diocesan  synods  consist  of  the  clergy  of  the  dio- 
cese and  are  preaded  over  by  the  bishop  or  the  vicar- 
general. 

(6)  A  peculiar  kind  of  council  used  to  be  held  at 
Constantinople;  it  consisted  of  bishops  from  any  pari 
of  the  world  who  happened  to  be  at  the  time  in  that 
imperial  city.  Hence  the  name  ot^vodoc  iw9n^§iavcai 
**  visitors'  synods '  *. 

(7)  Lastly  t^ere  have  been  mixed  synods,  in  which 
both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  met  to  settle 
secular  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  matters.  '^^  were 
frequent  at  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  France, 
Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy.  In  England  even  ab- 
besses were  occasionally  present  at  such  mixed  coun- 
cils. Sometimes,  not  always,  the  dei^  and  laity 
voted  in  separate  chambers. 

Although  it  is  in  the  nature  of  councils  to  represent 
either  the  whole  or  part  of  the  Church  organism  vet 
we  find  many  councils  simply  consisting  of  a  number 
of  bishops  brought  together  from  different  countries 
for  some  special  purpose,  regardless  of  any  territorial 
or  hierarchical  connexion.  Th^v  were  most  frequent 
in  the  fourth  centurjr,  when  tne  metropolitan  and 
patriarchal  circumscriptions  were  still  imperfect,  and 
questions  of  faith  and  discipline  manifold.  Not  a  few 
of  them,  summoned  by  emperors  or  bishops  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  lawful  authorities  (such  as  that  of  Antioch 
in  341),  were  positively  irregular,  and  acted  for  evil 
rather  than  good.  Councils  of  this  kind  may  be  com- 
pared to  the  meetings  of  bishops  of  our  own  times; 
decrees  passed  in  them  had  no  binding  power  on  any 
but  the  subjects  of  the  bishops  present;  they  were 
important  manifestations  of  the  sensus  ecdesias  (mind 
of  the  Church)  rather  than  judicial  or  le^slative 
bodies.  But  precisely  as  expressing  the  mind  of  the 
Church  they  often  acquired  a  far-reaching  influence 
due,  either  to  their  internal  soundness,  or  to  the  au- 
thority of  their  framers,  or  to  both. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  tenns  concilia  plenaria, 
universalia,  or  generalia  are,  or  used  to  be,  applied  in- 
discriminately to  all  synods  not  confined  to  a  single 
province;  in  the  Middle  Ages,  even  ^vincial  synods, 
as  compared  to  diocesan,  receiv^  these  names. 
Down  to  the  late  Middle  Ages  all  papal  synods  to 
which  a  certain  number  of  bishops  from  different 
countries  had  been  summoned  were  regularly  styled 
plenary,  general,  or  universal  synods.  In  earlier 
times,  before  the  separation  of  East  and  West,  coun- 
cils to  which  several  distant  patriarchates  or  exarch- 
ates sent  representatives,  were  described  absolutely 
as  "plenary  councils  of  the  universal  Church".  These 
terms  are  applied  by  St.  Augustine  to  the  Council  of 
Aries  (314),  at  which  only  Western  bishops  were 
present.  In  the  same  way  the  Council  of  0)nstanti- 
nople  (382),  in  a  letter  to  Pope  Damasus,  calls  the 
•  council  held  in  the  same  town  the  year  before  (381) 
"an  oecumenical  synod"  i.  e.  a  synod  representing  the 
olKovpJirrff  the  whole  inhabited  worid  as  Known  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  because  all  the  Eastern  patri- 
ardiatea,  though  no  Western,  took  part  in  it.  The 
synod  of  381  could  not,  at  that  time,  be  termed  oecu- 
menical in  the  strict  sense  now  in  use,  because  it  still 
lacked  the  formal  confirmation  of  the  Apostolic  See. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Greeks  themselves  did  not  put 
this  council  on  a  par  with  those  oi  Niccsa  and  ESphesus 
until  its  confirmation  at  the  Synod  of  Chalcedon,  and 
the  Latins  acknowledged  its  authority  only  in  the 
sixth  century. 


dbunciLS 


425 


OOUNOILS 


in.  Historical  Sketch  of  (EcimmncxL  Coun- 
crLA. — ^The  present  article  deals  chiefly  with  the  theo- 
logical and  canonical  (questions  concerning  councils 
'wnich  are  cecumenical  m  the  strict  sense  above  de- 
fined. Special  articles  give  the  history  of  each  im- 
portant synod  under  the  head  of  the  city  or  see  where 
it  ^was  held.  In  order,  however,  to  supply  the  reader 
'With  a  basis  of  fact  for  the  discussion  of  principles 
which  is  to  follow,  a  list  is  subjoined  of  the  twenty 
oecumenical  councils  with  a  brief  statement  of  the  pur- 
pose of  each. 

(1)  The  First  (Ecumenical,  or  Council  of  Niceea  (325) 
lasted  two  months  and  twelve  days.  Three  hundred 
and  eighteen  bishops  were  present.  Hosius,  Bishop  of 
Cordova,  assisted  as  legate  of  Pope  Sylvester.  The 
Elmperor  Constantine  was  also  present.  To  this 
<K>uncil  we  owe  the  Creed  {Symbolutn)  of  Nicsea,  defin- 
ing against  Arius  the  tnie  Divinity  of  the  Son  of  God 
(6fioo&a-ua),  and  the  fixing  of  the  date  for  keeping 
Caster  (against  the  Quartodecimans). 

(2)  The  Second  Oecumenical,  or  First  General 
Council  of  Constantinople  (381),  under  Pope  Damasus 
and  the  Emperor  Theodosius  I,  was  attended  by  150 
bishops.  It  was  directed  against  the  followers  of 
Maceaonius,  who  impugned  the  Divinity  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  To  the  above-mentioned  Nicene  Creed  it 
added  the  clauses  referring  to  the  Holy  Ghost  (qui 
sitntd  adoratur)  and  all  that  follows  to  the  end. 

(3)  The  Third  (Ecumenical,  or  Council  of  Ephesus 
(431),  of  more  than  200  bishops,  presided  over  bv  St. 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  representing  Pope  Celestine  1,  de- 
fined the  true  personal  unity  ofChnst,  declared  Mary 
the  Mother  of  God  (SwrUoi)  against  Nestorius,  Bishop 
of  Constantinople,  and  renewed  the  condemnation  of 
Pelagius. 

(4;  The  Fourth  (Ecumenical,  or  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  (451) — 150  bishops  under  Pope  Leo  the  Great  and 
the  Emperor  Marcian — defined  tne  two  natures  (Di- 
vine and  human>  in  Christ  against  Eutyches,  who  was 
excommunicated. 

(5)  The  Fifth  (Ecumenical,  or  Second  General 
Council  of  Constantinople  (553),  of  165  bishops  under 
Pope  Vigilius  and  Emperor  Justinian  I,  condemned 
the  errors  of  Crigen  and  certain  writing  (The  Three 
Chapters)  of  TTieodoret,  of  Theodore,  Bishop  of  Mop- 
suestia,  and  of  Ibas,  Bishop  of  Edessa ;  it  further  con- 
firmed the  first  four  general  councils,  especiallv  that  of 
C^halcedon  whose  authority  was  contested  by  some 
heretics. 

(6)  The  Sixth  (Ecumenical,  or  Third  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople (680-681),  under  Pope  Agatho  and  the  Em- 
peror Constantine  Pogonatus,  was  attended  by  the 
ratriarchs  of  Constantmople  and  of  Antioch,  174  bish- 
ops, and  the  emperor.  It  put  an  end  to  Monothel- 
ism  by  defining  two  wills  in  (Thrist,  the  Divine  and  the 
human,  as  two  distinct  principles  of  operation.  It 
anathematized  Sergius,  Pyrrhus,  Paul,  Macarius,  and 
all  their  followers. 

(7)  The  Seventh  (Ecumenical,  or  Second  Council  of 
Nicsea  (787)  was  convoked  by  Emperor  Constantine 
VI  and  his  mother  Irene,  under  Pope  Adrian  I,  and 
was  presided  over  by  the  legates  of  Pope  Adrian;  it 
r^ulated  the  veneration  of  holy  images.  Between 
3(X)  and  367  bishops  assisted. 

(8)  The  Eighth  (Ecumenical,  or  Fourth  Council  of 
Constantinopte  (869),  under  Pope  Adrian  II  and  Em- 
peror Basil,  numbering  102  bisnops,  3  papal  l^ates, 
and  4  patriarchs,  consigned  to  the  flames  the  Acts  of 
an  irr^ular  council  (conaUabulum)  brought  together 
by  Photius  against  Pope'  Nicholas  and  Ignatius,  the 
Intimate  Patriarch  of  Constantinople;  it  condemned 
Photius  who  had  unlawfully  seized  the  patriarchal 
di^ty.  The  Photian  schism,  however,  tnumphed  in 
the  Greek  Church,  and  no  other  general  council  took 
place  in  the  East. 

(9)  The  Ninth  (Ecumenical  CJouncil  (1123)  was  the 
fint  held  in  the  Lateran  at  Rome  under  Pope  Calli»- 


tus  II.  About  900  bishops  and  abbots  assisted.  It 
abolished  the  right,  claimed  by  lay  princes,  of  investi- 
ture with  rins  and  erosier  to  ecclesiastical  benefices 
and  dealt  with  church  discipline  and  the  recovery  of 
the  Ho^y  Land  from  the  infidels. 

(10)  The  Tenth  (Ecumenical  Council  (1139)  was  the 
Second  Lateran  held  at  Rome  under  Pope  Innocent  II 
with  an  attendanee  of  about  IQOO  prelates  and  the 
Emperor  Conrad.  Its  object  was  to  put  an  end  to  the 
errors  of  Arnold  of  Bresaa. 

(11)  The  Eleventh  (Ecumenical  Council  (1179)  was 
the  third  assembled  at  the  Lateran,  and  took  place 
under  Pope  Alexander  III,  Frederick  I  being  emperor. 
There  were  302  bishops  present.  It  condemned  the 
Albigenses  and  Waldenses  and  issued  numerous  de- 
crees for  the  reformation  of  morals. 

(12)  The  Twelfth  (Ecumenical  Synod  (1215)  was 
the  Fourth  Lateran,  under  Innocent  III.  There  were 
present  the  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and  Jeru- 
salem, 71  archbishops,  412  bishops,  and  800  abbots, 
the  Primate  of  the  Maronites,  and  St.  Dominic.  It 
issued  an  enlaiged  creed  (eymbol)  against  the  Albi- 
genses (Firmiter  eredimus),  condemned  the  Trini- 
tarian errors  d  Abbot  Joachim,  and  published  70  im- 
pcMlant  reformatorv  decrees.  This  is  the  most  im- 
portant council  of  the  Middle  Aees;  it  marks  the  cul- 
minating point  of  ecclesiastical  life  and  papal  power. 

(13)  The  First  (General  Council  of  Lyons  (1245)  is 
the  lliirteenth  (Ecumenical.  Innocent  IV  presided; 
the  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Antioch,  and  Aqui- 
leia  (Venice),  140  bishops,  Baldwin  II,  Emperor  of  the 
East,  and  St.  Louis,  King  of  France,  assisted.  It  ex- 
communicated and  deposed  Emperor  Frederick  II 
and  directed  a  new  crusade,  under  the  command  of 
St.  Louis,  a^inst  the  Saracens  and  Mongols. 

(14)  The  Fourteenth  (Ecumenical  Coimcil  was  held 
at  L^ons  (1274)  by  Pope  Gregory  X,  the  Patriarchs  of 
Antioch  and  Constantinople,  15  cardinals,  500  bidiops, 
and  more  than  1000  other  d^^itaries.  It  effected  a 
temporary  reunion  of  the  Greek  Church  with  Rome. 
The  word  filioque  was  added  to  the  symbol  of  Con- 
stantinople and  means  were  soueht  for  recovering 
Palestine  from  the  Turks.  It  also  laid  down  the  rules 
for  papal  elections. 

(15)  The  Fifteenth  (Ecumenical  Council  took  place 
at  Vienne  in  France  (1311-1313)  by  order  of  Clement 
V,  the  first  of  the  Avi^on  popes.  The  Patriarchs  of 
Antioch  and  Alexandria,  300  oishops  (114  accordins 
to  some  authorities),  and  3  kings — Philip  IV  of 
France,  Edward  II  of  England,  and  Jmnes  II  of 
Aragon — ^were  present.  The  synod  dealt  with  the 
crimes  and  errore  imputed  to  the  Knights  Templars, 
the  Fratioelli,  the  Beghards,  and  the  Beguines,  with 
projects  of  a  new  crusade,  the  reformation  of  the 
clei^,  and  the  teaching  of  Oriental  languages  in  the 
universities. 

(16)  The  Council  of  Constance  (1414>1418),  the 
Sixteenth  (Ecumenical,  wajs  held  during  the  great 
Schism  of  the  West,  with  the  object  of  ending  the 
divisions  in  the  Church.  It  only  became  legitimate 
when  Gregory  XII  had  formally  convoked  it.  Owing 
to  this  circumstance  it  succeeded  in  putting  an  end 
to  the  schism  by  the  election  of  Pope  Martin  V,  which 
the  Council  of  Pisa  (1409)  had  failed  to  accomplish  on 
account  of  its  illegahtv.  The  rightful  pope  confirmed 
the  former  decrees  of  the  synod  against  W^clif  and 
Hus.  This  council  is  thus  only  oecumenical  m  its  last 
sessions  (XLII-XLV  inclusive)  and  with  respect  to 
the  decrees  of  earlier  sessions  approved  by  Martin  V. 

(17)  The  Seventeenth  (Ecumenical  Council  met  at 
Basle  (1431);  Eugene  IV  being  pope,  and  Si^ismund 
Emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Its  object  was 
the  religious  pacification  of  Bohemia.  Quarrels  with 
the  pope  having  arisen,  the  council  was  trani^erred 
first  to  Ferrara  (1438),  then  to  Florence  (1439),  where 
a  short-lived  union  with  the  Greek  Church  was  ef- 
fected, the  Greeks  acoeptiiSg  the  council's  definition  of 


oounoiLS 


426 


oouirozui 


controverted  points.  The  Council  of  Basle  is  only 
oecumenical  till  the  end  of  the  twenty-fifth  session, 
and  of  its  decrees  Eugene  IV  approved  only  such  as 
dealt  with  the  extirpation  of  iieresy,  the  peace  of 
Christendom,  and  the  reform  of  the  Church,  and 
which  at  the  same  time  did  not  derogate  from  the 
rights  of  the  Holy  See. 

(18)  The  Eighteenth  CEcumenical,  or  Fifth  Council 
of  the  Lateran,  sat  from  1512  to  1517  under  Popes 
Julius  II  and  Leo  X,  the  emperor  being  Maximilian  I. 
Fifteen  cardinals  and  about  eighty  archbishops  and 

« bishops  took  part  in  it.  Its  decrees  are  chiefly  disci- 
plinary. A  new  crusade  against  the  Turks  was  also 
planned,  but  came  to  naught,  owing  to  the  religious 
upheaval  in  Germany  caused  by  Luther. 

(19)  The  Council  of  Trent,  the  Nineteenth  (Ecu- 
menical, lasted  eighteen  years  (1545-1563)  under  five 
popes:  Paul  III.  Julius  III,  Maroellus  II,  Paul  IV, 
and  Pius  IV,  and  under  the  Emperors  Charles  V  and 
Ferdinand.  There  were  present  5  cardinal  legates  of 
the  Holv  See,  3  patriarchs,  33  archbishops,  235  bish- 
ops, 7  abbots,  7  generals  of  monastic  orders,  160  doc- 
tors of  divinity.  It  was  convoked  to  examine  and 
condemn  the  errors  promulgated  by  Luther  and  other 
Reformers,  and  to  reform  the  discipline  of  the  Church. 
Of  all  councils  it  lasted  longest,  issued  the  largest 
number  of  dogmatic  and  r^rmatory  decrees,  and 
produced  the  moat  beneficial  results. 

(20)  The  Twentieth  (Ecumenical  Council  was  sum- 
moned to  the  Vatican  by  Pius  IX.  It  met  8  Decem- 
ber, 1869.  and  lasted  till  18  July,  1870,  when  it  was 
adjoumea;  it  is  still  (1908)  unfinished.  There  were 
present  6  arohbishop-princes,  49  cardinals,  11  patri- 
archs, 680  archbishope  and  bishops,  28  abbots,  29 
generals  of  orders,  in  all  803.  Besides  important 
canons  relating  to  the  Faith  and  the  constitution  of 
the  Church,  the  council  decreed  the  infallibilitv  of 
the  pope  when  speaking  ex  cathedra,  i.  e.  when, 
as  shepherd  and  teacher  of  all  Christians,  he  defines 
a  doctrine  concerning  faith  or  morals  to  be  held 
by  the  whole  Church. 

IV.  The  Pope  and  General  CouNCita. — The  re- 
lations between  the  pope  and  general  councils  must 
be  exactly  defined  to  arrive  at  a  just  conception  of 
the  functions  of  councils  in  the  Church,  of  their  rights 
and  duties,  and  of  their  authority.  The  traditional 
phrase,  /'the  oouncU  represents  the  Church",  asso- 
ciated with  the  modem  notion  of  representative 
assemblies,  is  apt  to  lead  to  a  serious  misconception 
of  the  bishops'  function  in  general  synods.  The  na- 
tion's deputies  receive  their  power  from  tiieir  electors 
and  are  bound  to  protect  and  promote  their  electors' 
interests;  in  the  modem  democratic  State  they  are 
directly  created  by,  and  out  of,  the  people's  own 
power.  The  bishops  in  council,  on  the  contrary,  hold 
no  power,  no  commission,  or  delegation,  from  the 
people.  All  their  powers,  ordeiB,  jurisdiction,  and 
membership  in  the  council,  come  to  them  from  above 
— directly  from  the  pope,  ultimately  from  God. 
What  the  episcopate  in  council  does  represent  is  the 
Divinely  instituted  maaUteriurn,  the  teacnin^  and  gov- 
erning power  of  the  Church;  the  interests  it  defends 
are  those  of  the  depositum  ficUif  of  the  revealed  rules 
of  faith  and  morals,  i.  &  the  interests  of  God. 

The  council  is,  then,  the  assessor  of  the  supreme 
teacher  and  judge  sitting  on  the  Chair  of  Peter  by 
Divine  appointment;  its  operation  is  essentially  co- 
operation— ^the  common  action  of  the  members  with 
their  head — and  therefore  necessarily  rises  or  falls  in 
value,  according  to  the  measure  of  its  connexion  with 
the  pope.  A  council  in  opposition  to  the  pope  is  not 
representative  of  the  whole  Church,  for  it  neither 
represents  the  pope  who  opposes  it,  nor  the  absent 
bishops,  who  cannot  act  beyond  the  limits  of  their 
dioceses  except  through  the  pope.  A  council  not  only 
actine  independently  of  the  Vicar  of  Christ,  but  sitting 
in  jud^gment  over  him,  is  utathinkable  in  the  oonstitu* 


tion  of  the  Church ;  in  fact,  such  assemblies  have  only 
taken  place  in  times  of  great  constitutional  disturb- 
ances, when  either  there  was  no  pope  or  the  rightful 
pope  was  indistinguishable  from  antipopes.  In  such, 
abnormal  times  the  safety  of  the  C^iurch  becomes  the 
supreme  law,  and  the  uist  duty  of  the  abandoned 
flock  is  to  find  a  new  shepherd,  under  whose  direction 
the  existing  evils  may  be  remedied. 

In  normal  times,  when  according  to  the  Divine 
constitution  of  the  C!hurch,  the  pope  rules  in  the 
fullness  of  his  power,  the  function  of  councils  is 
to  support  ana  strengthen  his  rule  on  occasions 
of  extraordinarv  di^culties  arising  from  heresies, 
schisms,  relaxecf  discipline,  or  external  foes,  (gen- 
eral councils  have  no  part  in  the  ordinarv  normal 
government  of  the  Church.  This  principle  is  con- 
firmed bv  the  fact  that  during  nineteen  centuries 
of  Churcn  life  only  twenty  oecumenical  councils  took 
place.  It  is  further  illustrated  by  the  complete  failure 
of  the  decree  issued  in  the  thirty-ninth  session  of  the 
Council  of  Constance  (then  without  a  rightful  head), 
to  the  effect  that  general  councils  shomd  meet  fre- 
quently and  at  regmar  intervals;  the  very  first  synod 
summoned  at  Pa  via  for  the  vear  1423  could  not  be 
held  for  want  of  responses  to  the  summons.  It  is  thus 
evident  that  general  councils  are  not  qualified  to  issue, 
independently  of  the  pope,  dogmatic  or  disciplinary 
canons  binding  on  the  whole  Church.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  older  councils,  especially  those  of  Ephesua 
(431)  and  Chalcedon  (451),  were  not  convened  to  de- 
cide on  questions  of  faith  still  open,  but  to  give  addi- 
tional weight  to,  and  secure  the  execution  of,  papal 
decisions  previously  issued  and  regarded  as  fmly 
authoritative.  The  other  consequence  of  the  same 
principle  is  that  the  bishops  in  council  assembled  are 
not  commissioned,  as  are  our  modem  parliaments,  to 
control  and  limit  the  power  of  the  sovereign,  or  head 
of  the  State,  although  circumstances  may  arise  in 
which  it  would  be  their  right  and  duty  firmly  to  ex- 
postulate with  the  pope  on  certain  of  his  acts  or  meas- 
ures. The  severe  strictures  of  the  Sixth  CSeneral 
Council  on  Pope  Honorius  I  may  be  cited  as  a  case  in 
point. 

V.  CoiCPosiTioN  OF  Gbnerai^  Counciul — (a)  Right 
of  particiwUion, — ^The  right  to  be  present  and  to  act 
at  general  councils  belongs  in  the  nrst  place  and  logi- 
cally to  the  bishops  actually  exercising  the  episcopal 
office.  In  the  earlier  councils  there  appear  also  .the 
chorepiscopi  (country-bishops),  who,  according  to  the 
better  opinion,  were  neither  tme  bitiiopB  nor  an  order 
interposed  between  bishops  and  priests,  but  priests 
invested  with  a  jurisdiction  smaller  than  the  episcopal 
but  lai^r  than  the  sacerdotal.  They  were  ordained 
by  the  bishop  and  chai^ged  with  the  administration  of 
a  certain  district  in  his  diocese,  'thev  had  the  power 
of  conferring  minor  orders,  and  even  tne  subdiaconate. 
Titular  bishops,  1.  e.  bishops  not  niling  a  diocese,  had 
equal  rights  with  other  bishops  at  the  Vatican  (Coun- 
cil (1869-70),  where  117  of  them  were  present.  Their 
claim  lies  in  the  fact  that  their  order,  the  episcopal 
consecration,  entitles  them,  jure  divino,  to  take  part 
in  the  administration  of  the  Church,  and  that  a  gen- 
eral council  seems  to  afford  a  proper  sphere  for  t^e 
exercise  of  a  right  which  the  want  of  a  proper  diocese 
keeps  in  abeyance.  Di^itaries  who  hold  episcopal 
or  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction  without  being  bbhops 
— such  as  carainaf-priests,  cardinal-deacons,  abbots 
nuUxus,  mitred  abbots  of  whole  orders  or  oone?^ 
gations  of  monasteries,  generals  of  clerks  regular, 
mendicant  and  monastic  orders — were  allowed  to  vote 
at  the  Vatican  Council.  Their  title  is  based  on  posi- 
tive canon  law:  at  the  early  councils  such  votes  were 
not  admitted,  but  from  the  seventh  century  down  to 
Uie  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  contrary  practice  grad- 
ually prevailed,  and  has  since  become  an  acquired 
right.  Priests  and  deacons  frequently  east  decisive 
votes  in  the  name  of  absent  bishops  whom  they  repre* 


OOUHOILS 


427 


OOXTHOIU 


aented;  at  the  €k>uncil  of  Trent »  however,  such  pro- 
curatore  were  admitted  only  with  great  limitations, 
and  at  the  Vatican  Council  they  were  even  excluded 
from  the  council  hall. 

Besides  voting  members,  every  council  admits,  as 
oonsultoFB,  a  number  of-  doctors  in  theology  and  canon 
lavr.     In  the  Council  of  Constance  the  oonsultors 
were  allowed  to  vote.    Other  clerics  have  always  been 
admitted  as  notaries.    Lay  people  may  be,  and  have 
been,  present  at  councils  mr  various  reasons,  but 
never  as  voters.    They  gave  advice,  made  complaints, 
aaaented  to  decisions,  and  occasionally  also  signed  the , 
decrees.    Since  the  Roman  emperors  had  accepted 
duiatianity,  the^  assisted  either  personally  or  through 
deputies  (cwnrntMom).    Constantino  the  Great  was 
present  in  person  at  the  First  General  Council;  Theo^ 
doslua  II  sent  his  representatives  to  the  third,  and 
Eknperor  Marcian  sent  his  to  the  fourth,  at  the  sixth 
session  of  which  himself  and  the  Empress  Pulcheria 
assisted    pereonallv.    Constantino    Pogonatus    was 
present  at  the  sixui;  the  Empress  Irene  and  her  son 
CoQstantine  Porphyrogenitus  only  sent  their  repre- 
sentative to  the  seventn,  whereas  Emperor  Basil,  the 
Macedonian,  assisted  at  the  dgjith,  sometimes  in  per- 
son,  sometimes  through  his  deputies.    Onl}r  the  Sec- 
ond and  the  Fifth  General  Synods  were  held  in  the  ab- 
sence o(  the  emperom  or  imperial  commissaries,  but 
both  Theodosius  the  Great  and  Justinian  were  oi,  Con- 
stantinople while  the  councils  were  sittings  and  kept 
up  constiant  intercourse  with  them.    In  the  West  tne 
attendance  of  kings,  even  at  provincial  svnods,  was 
of  frequent  occurrence.    The  motive  and  object  of 
the  royal  presence  were  to  protect  the  synods,  to 
hei^ten  their  authority,  to  lay  before  thJ$m  the  needs 
of  particular  Christian  states  and  countries. 

This  laudable  and  legitimate  co-operati<m  led  by 
•  degrees  to  interference  with  the  pope's  rights  in  con- 
dliar  matters.  The  Eastern  Emperor  Michael 
claimed  the  rij^t  to  summon  councils  without  obtain- 
ing the  pope's  consent,  and  to  take  part  in  them  per- 
sonaUy  or  by  proxy.  But  Pope  Nicholas  I  resisted 
the  pretensions  of  Emperor  Biichael,  pointing  out  to 
him,  in  a  letter  (865),  that  his  imperial  preoeoessors 
had  only  been  present  at  general  synods  dealing  with 
matters  of  faith,  and  from  that  fact  drew  the  conclu- 
sion that  all  other  synods  should  be  held  without  the 
anperor's  or  his  commissaries'  presence.  A  few  years 
later  the  Eighth  General  Synod  (Can.  xvii,  Hefele,  IV, 
421)  declared  it  false  that  no  synod  could  be  held  with- 
out the  emperor's  presence — the  emperors  had  only 
been  present  at  general  councils — ^ana  that  it  was  not 
rsht  for  secular  princes  to  witness  the  condemnation 
o<  ecclesiastics  (at  provincial  synods).  As  early  as 
the  fourth  century  tne  bishops  greatl^r  complained  of 
the  action  of  Constantino  the  Great  in  imposing  his 
commissary  on  the  Synod  of  Tyre  (335).  In  the  West, 
however,  secular  princes  were  present  even  at  na- 
tional syiiods,  e.  g.  Sisenand,  King  of  the  Spanish  Vis- 
igotiia,  was  at  the  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo  (636)  and 
King  Chintilian  at  the  fifth  (638):  Charlemagne  as- 
sisted at  the  Coimcil  of  Frankfort  (794)  and  two  Anglo- 
Saxon  kin^s  at  the  Synod  of  Whitby  (CoUoHo  Phar^nr 
M)  in  664.  But  step  by  step  Rome  established  the 
principle  that  no  royal  commissary  may  be  present  at 
any  council,  except  a  general  one,  in  which  "faith, 
formation,  and  peace '^  are  in  question. 

(b)  ReqidsiiB  number  of  members. — The  number  of 
bishops  present  required  to  constitute  an  oecumenical 
council  cannot  be  strictly  defined,  nor  need  it  be  so 
defined,  for  oecumenicity  chieflv  depends  on  co-operii^ 
tion  with  the  head  of  the  Church,  and  on^  secondarily 
on  the  number  of  co-operators.  It  is  physically  im- 
poMible  to  bring  together  all  the  bishops  of  the  worid, 
nor  is  there  any  standaixi  by  which  to  determine  even 
an  approximate  number,  or  proportion,  of  prelates 
necessary  to  secure  cecumenicitv.  All  should  be  in- 
vited, no  one  should  be  debarreci,  a  somewhat  consid- 


erable nmnber  of  representatives  of  the  several  prov- 
inces and  countries  should  be  actually  present:  this 
ma^  be  laid  down  aa  a  practicable  theonr.  But  the 
ancient  Church  did  not  conform  to  this  tneory.  As  a 
rule  only  the  patriarchs  and  metropolitans  received  a 
direct  summons  to  appear  with  a  certain  number  of 
their  suffragans.  At  Ephesus  and  Chalcedon  the 
time  between  the  convocation  and  the  meeting  of  the 
council  was  too  short  to  allow  of  the  Western  bishops 
being  invited.  As  a  rule,  but  very  few  Western  bishops 
were  personally  present  at  any  of  the  first  eieht  sen- 
era!  synods.  Occasionally,  e.  g.  at  the  sixUi,  uieir 
absence  was  remedied  by  sending  deputies  with  pre- 
cise instructions  arrived  at  in  a  previous  council  neld 
in  the  West.  What  gives  those  Eastern  synods  their 
cBcumenical  character  is  the  co-operation  of  the  pope 
aahead  of  the  universal,  and,  especially,  of  the  West- 
ern, Church .  This  circumstance,  so  remarkably  prom- 
inent in  the  Councils  of  Ephesus  and  Chalcedon,  af- 
fords the  best  proof  that,  in  the  sense  of  the  Church, 
the  essential  constituent  element  of  oecumenicity  is 
less  the  proportion  of  bishops  present  to  bishops 
absent  than  the  organic  connexion  of  the  council 
with  the  head  of  the  Church. 

.  (o)  Papal  hsadMp  the  formal  element  of  councils, 
— It  is  the  action  of  the  pope  that  makes  the  councils 
oecumenic.  That  action  is  the  exercise  of  his  oiRce 
of  supreme  teacher  and  ruler  of  the  Church.  Its 
necessity  results  from  the  fact  that  no  authority  is 
commensurate  with  the  whole  Church  except  that 
of  the  pope;  he  alone  can  bind  all  the  faithful.  Its 
sufficiency  is  equally  manifest:  when  the  pope  lias 
spoken  ex  cathedra  to  make  his  own  the  decisions  of 
any  council,  regardless  of  the  number  of  its  members, 
nothing  further  can  be  wanted  to  make  them  bind- 
ing on  the  whole  Church.  The  earliest  enunciation 
of  the  principle  is  found  in  the  letter  of  the  Council 
of  Sanuca  (343)  to  Pope  Julius  I,  and  was  often 
quoted,  since  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  as 
tne  (Nicfl&an)  canon  concerning  the  necessity  of 
papal  co-operation  in  all  the  more  important  con- 
ciliary  Acts.  The  Church  historian  Socrates  (Hist. 
Eccl.,  II,  xvii)  makes  Pope  Julius  say,  in  reference 
to  the  Council  of  Antioch  (341),  that  the  law  of  the 
Church  (Kainbp)  forbids  ''the  churches  to  pass  laws 
contrary  to  the  judgment  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome", 
and  Soaomen  (III,  x)  likewise  declares  ''it  to  be  a  holy 
law  not  to  attribute  any  value  to  things  done  without 
the  judgment  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome  .  The  letter  of 
Julius  here  quoted  by  both  Socrates  and  Sozomen 
directly  refers  to  an  existing  ecclesiastical  custom, 
and,  in  particular,  to  a  single  important  case  (the  de- 
position of  a  patriarch),  but  the  underlying  principle 
IS  as  stated. 

Papal  co-operation  may  be  of  several  degrees:  to 
be  effective  m  stamping  a  council  as  universal  it 
must  amount  to  taking  over  responsibility  for  its 
decisions  by  giving  them  formal  confirmation.  The 
Synod  of  Constantinople  (381)  in  which  the  Ni- 
cene  Creed  received  its  present  form — the  one  used 
at  Mass — ^had  in  itself  no  claim  to  be  oecumenical. 
Before  Pope  Damasus  and  the  Western  bishops  had 
seen  its  full  Acts  they  condemned  certain  of  its  pro- 
ceeding at  an  Italian  sjmod,  but  on  receiving  the 
Acts,  Damasus,  so  we  are  told  by  Photius,  confirmed 
them.  Photius,  however,  is  only  right  with  regard  to 
the  Creed,  or  Svmbol  of  Faith:  the  canons  of  this 
council  were  still  rejected  by  Leo  the  Great  and  even 
by  Gregonr  the  Great  (about  600).  A  proof  that  the 
Creed  cd  Constantinople  enjoyed  papal  sanction  may 
be  drawn  from  the  way  in  which  tne  Roman  l^ates  at 
the  Fourth  General  Synod  (Chalcedon,  451)  cSlowed, 
without  any  protest,  appeals  to  this  Creed,  while  at 
the  same  time  they  energetically  protested  against  the 
canons  of  the  council.  It  was  on  account  of  the  papal 
approbation  of  the  Creed  that,  in  the  sixth  century, 
Popes  Vigilius,  Pelagius  II,  and  Gregory  the  Great 


OOX7HOIL8 


428 


cotmoiLd 


ctedared  this  council  oecumenical,  although  Gregory 
still  refused  to  sanction  its  canons.  Hie  First  Synod 
of  Constantinople  presents,  then,  an  instance  of  a 
minimum  of  papal  co-operation  impressing  on  a  par- 
ticular council  tne  mark  of  universality.  The  normal 
co-operation,  however,  requires  on  the  part  of  the  head 
of  the  Church  more  than  a  post-fadum  acknowledg- 
ment. 

The  pope's  oflfice  and  the  council's  function  in 
the  organization  of  the  Church  require  that  the  pope 
should  call  the  council  together,  preside  over  and 
direct  its  labours,  and  finally  promulgate  its  decrees 
to  the  universal  Church  as  expressing  the  mind  of  the 
whole  teaching  body  guided  by  the  Holy  Gho^t.  In- 
stances of  suda  normal,  natural,  perfect  co-operation 
occur  in  the  five  Lateran  councils,  which  were  pre- 
sided over  by  the  pope  in  person;  the  personal  pres- 
ence of  the  highest  authority  in  the  Church,  his  aireo- 
tion  of  the  deliberations,  and  approbation  of  the  de- 
crees, stamp  the  concilia^  proceedings  throu|;hout 
as  the  function  of  the  Magtnterium  ScdesicB  m  its 
most  authoritative  form.  Councils  in  which  the  pope 
is  represented  by  legates  are,  indeed,  also  reinresenta- 
tive  of  the  whole  teaching  body  of  the  Church,  but  the 
representation  is  not  absolute  or  adequate,  is  no  real 
concentration  of  its  whole  authority.  Thw  act  in  the 
name,  but  not  with  the  whole  power,  of  the  teaching 
Church,  and  their  decrees  become  universally  binding 
only  through  an  act,  either  antecedent  or  consequent, 
of  the  pope.  The  difference  between  councils  pre- 
sided over  personally  and  by  proxy  is  marked  in  the 
form  in  which  their  decrees  are  promulgated:  when 
the  pope  has  been  present  the  decrees  are  published  in 
his  own  name  with  the  additional  formula:  sacro  ap* 
probante  Concilia;  when  papal  legates  have  presided 
the  decrees  are  attributed  to  the  synod  (S.  Synodus 
declaratf  definit,  decernit). 

VI.  Factors  in  the  Pope's  Co-operation  with 
THE  Council. — We  have  seen  that  no  council  is 
oecumenical  unless  the  pope  has  made  it  his  own  by 
co-operation,  which  admits  of  a  minimum  and  a  max- 
imum, consequently  of  various  decrees  of  perfection. 
Catholic  writers  could  have  saved  themselves  much 
trouble  if  they  had  always  based  their  apologetics  on 
the  simple  and  evident  principle  of  a  sufficient  mini- 
mum ot  papal  co-operation,  instead  of  endeavouring 
to  prove,  at  all  costs,  that  a  maximum  is  both  re- 
ouired  in  principle  and  demonstrable  in  history.  The 
tnree  factors  constituting  the  solidarity  of  pope  and 
council  are  the  convocation,  direction,  -and  confirma- 
tion of  the  council  by  the  pope;  but  it  is  not  essential 
that  each  and  all  of  these  factors  should  always  be 
present  in  full  perfection. 

(a)  Convocation, — The  juridical  convocation  of  a 
council  implies  something  more  than  an  invitation 
addressed  to  all  the  bishops  of  the  worid  to  meet  in 
council,  via. :  the  act  by  which  in  law  the  bishops  are 
bound  to  take  part  in  the  council,  and  the  council 
itself  is  constituted  a  legitimate  tribunal  for  dealing 
with  Church  affairs.  Logically,  and  in  the  nature  of 
the  thing,  the  right  of  convocation  belongs  to  the  pope 
alone.  let  the  convocation,  in  the  loose  sense  of 
invitation  to  meet,  of  the  first  eijght  general  synods, 
was  regularly  issued  by  the  Christian  enaperors,  whose 
dominion  was  coextensive  with  the  Cnurch,  or  at 
least  with  the  Eastern  part  of  it,  which  was  then  alone 
convened.  The  imperial  letters  of  convocation  to  the 
Councils  of  Ephesus  (Hardouin,  I,  1343)  and  of  Chal- 
cedon  (Hardouin,  II,  42)  show  that  the  emperors  acted 
as  protectors  of  the  Church,  believing  it  their  duty  to 
further  by  every  means  in  their  power  the  welfare  of 
their  charge.  Nor  is  it  possible  in  every  case  to  prove 
that  they  acted  at  the  formal  instigation  of  the  pope; 
it  even  seems  that  the  emperors  more  than  once  fol- 
lowed none  but  their  own  initiative  for  convening  the 
council  and  fixing  its  place  of  meeting.  It  is,  how- 
ever, evident  that  the  Christian  emperors  cannot  have 


acted  thus  without  the  consent,  actual  or  presumed, 
of  the  pope.  Othenvise  their  conduct  had  been  nei- 
ther lawful  nor  wise.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  none  of  the 
eight  Eastern  oecumenical  synods,  ydth  the  ezceptloti, 
perhaps,  of  the  fifth,  was  summoned  by  the  empenor 
m  opposition  to  the  pope.  As  reeards  the  fifth,  thm 
conduct  of  the  emperor  caused  tne  legality  of  the 
council  to  be  questioned — a  proof  that  the  mind  of 
the  Church  required  the  pope's  consent  for  the  law- 
fulness of  councils.  As  r^ards  most  of  these  eight 
synods,  particularly  that  of  Ephesus,  the  jxeviouB 
consent  of  the  pope,  actual  or  presumed,  is  manifeet. 
Regarding  the  convocation  of  the  Coimcil  of  Chaloe- 
don,  the  Emperor  Marcian  did  not  (juite  fall  in  with 
the  wishes  of  Pope  Leo  I  as  to  the  time  and  place  of 
its  meeting,  but  ne  did  not  claim  an  absolute  ri^t  to 
have  his  will,  nor  did  the  pope  acknowled^  sudi  a 
ri|^t.  On  the  eontrary,  as  Leo  I  explains  m  his  let- 
ters (Epp.  Ixxxix,  xc,  ed.  Ballerini),  he  only  submitted 
to  the  imperial  arrangements  because  he  was  unwilling 
to  interfere  with  Marcian's  well-meant  endeavours. 

It  is  still  more  evident  that  convocation  by  the 
emperors  did  not  impl^  on  their  part  the  claim  to  con- 
stitute the  council  jundieally,  that  is,  to  give  it  power 
to  sit  as  an  authorized  tnounal  for  Church  affairs. 
Such  a  claim  has  never  been  put  forward.  The  ex- 
pressions jvbere  and  ixK^tv,  occasionally  used  in  the 
wording  of  the  convocation,  do  not  necessarily  con- 
vey the  notion  of  strict  orders  not  to  be  resisted ;  they 
also  have  the  meaning  of  exhorting,  inducing,  biddii^ 
The  juridical  constitution  of  the  coimcil  could  oi^ 
emanate,  and  in  fact  always  did  emanate,  from  the 
Apostolic  See.  As  the  necessity  of  the  bishops'  meet- 
ing in  council  was  dictated  rather  by  the  distressful 
condition  of  the  Church  than  by  positive  orders,  the 
pope  contented  himself  with  authorizing  the  council, 
and  this  he  effected  by  sending  his  legates  to  preside 
over  and  direct  the  work  of  the  assembled  prelates. 
The  E}mperor  Marcian  in  his  first  letter  to  Leo  I  de- 
clares that  the  success  of  the  intended  synod  depends 
on  his — the  pope's — ^authorization,  and  Leo,  not  Mar- 
cian, is  later  called  the  auctor  synodi  without  any 
restrictive  qualification,  especially  at  the  time  of  the 
'*  Three  Chapters  "  dispute,  where  the  extension  of  the 
svnod's  authority  was  called  in  question.  The  law 
therefore,  at  that  period  was  the  same  as  it  is  now  as 
far  as  essentials  are  concerned:  the  pope  is  the  sole 
convener  of  the  council  as  an  authoritative  juridical 
assembly.  The  difference  lies  in  the  circumstance 
that  the  pope  left  to  the  emperor  the  execution  of  the 
convocation  and  the  necessary  measures  for  rendering 
the  meeting  possible  and  surroimding  it  with  the 
^dat  due  to  its  dignity  in  Church  and  State.  The 
material,  or  business,  part  of  the  councils  being  thus 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  emperors,  it  was  to  be 
expected  that  the  pope  was  sometimes  induced — if 
not  forced — by  circumstances  to  make  his  authorissr 
tion  suit  the  imperial  wishes  and  arrangements. 

After  studying  the  principles  it  is  well  to  see  how 
they  worked  out  in  fact.  Hence  the  foUowix^  histo- 
ric^ summary  of  the  convocation  of  the  fint  ei^t 
general  councils: — 

(1)  Eusebius  (Vita  Constantini,  III,  vi)  informs  U6 
that  the  writs  of  convocation  to  the  First  General 
Synod  were  issued  by  Emperor  Constantine,  but  aa 
not  one  of  those  writs  has  come  down  to  us,  it  remains 
doubtful  whether  or  not  they  mentioned  any  previous 
consultation  with  the  pope.  It  is,  however,  an  unde- 
niable fact  that  the  Sixth  General  Synod  (680)  plainly 
affirmed  that  the  Council  of  Niccea  had  been  convened 
by  the  emperor  and  Pope  Sylvester  (Mansi,(3oll.Oonc., 
XI,  661).  The  same  statement  appears  in  the  Mfe 
of  Sylvester  found  in  the  "Liber  rontificaliB",  but 
this  evidence  need  not  be  pressed,  the  evidence  from 
the  council  being,  from  the  circumstances  in  which  it 
was  given,  of  sufiicient  strength  to  carry  the  point. 
For  tne  Sixth  Greneral  Council  took  place  in  Constaii* 


0OUH0IL8 


429 


0OX7NOILS 


tinople,  at  a  time  when  the  biahops  of  the  imperial 
city  aiready  attempted  to  rival  the  bi^opa  ca  Old 
Iioaxie»  and  the  vast  majority  of  its  memDen  were 
Greeks ;  their  statement  is  therefore  entirely  free  from 
the  stispicion  of  Western  ambition  or  prejudice  and 
must  be  accepted  as  a  true  presentment  of  fact. 
Rufinus,  in  his  continuation  of  Eusebius'  history  (1, 1) 
Bays  that  the  emperor  summoned  the  e^ynod  ex  facer- 
datum  aerUentid  Ton  the  advice  of  the  dergv);  it  is  but 
fair  to  suppose  that  if  he  consulted  sevem  prelates  he 
did  not  omit  to  consult  with  the  head  of  all. 

(2)  The  Second  General  Synod  (381)  was  not,  at 
first,  intended  to  be  oecumenical;  it  only  became  so 
because  it  was  accepted  in  the  West,  as  has  been 
shown  above.  It  was  not  summoned  by  Pope  Da- 
masus,  as  is  often  contended,  for  the  assertion  tnat  the 
assembled  bishops  professed  to  have  met  in  conse- 
quence of  a  letter  of  the  pope  to  Theodosius  the  Great 
IS  .baaed  on  a  confusion,  llie  document  here  brou^t 
in  as  e videnee  refers  to  the  synod  of  the  following  year 
which  was  indeed  summoned  at  the  instigation  of  the 
pope  and  the  Synod  of  Aquileia,  but  was  not  an  cbou- 
menical  synod. 

(3)  The  Thixd  General  Council  (Ephesus,  431)  was 
oonvoked  bv  Emperor  Theodosius  II  and  his  Western 
colleague  Valentinian  III;  this  is  evident  from  the 
Acta  of  the  council.  It  is  equally  evident  that  Pope 
Celestine  I  gave  his  consent,  for  he  wrote  (15  Ma^, 
431)  to  Theodosius  that  he  could  not  appear  in  person 
at  the  synod,  but  that  he  would  send  bis  representa- 
tives.  And  in  hia  epistle  of  8  May  to  the  63rnod  itsdf , 
he  insists  on  the  duty  of  the  bishops  present  to  hold 
faat  to  the  orthodox  faith,  expects  them  to  accede  to 
the  sentence  he  has  already  pronounced  on  Nestorius, 
and  adds  that  he  has  sent  his  legates  to  execute  that 
dentenoe  at  £phesus.  The  members  of  the  coundl 
acknowledge  the  papal  directions  and  orders,  not  only 
the  papal  consent,  in  the  wording  of  their  solemn  con- 
denmation  of  Nestorius:  ''  Urged  by  the  Canons  and 
conforming  to  the  Letter  of  our  most  holy  Father  and 
feUow  servant  Celestine  the  Roman  bishop,  we  have 
framed  this  sorrowful  sentence  against  Nestorius." 
They  express  the  same  sentiment  wnere  they  say  that 
''the  epistle  of  the  Apostolic  See  (to  Cyril,  communi- 
cated to  the  council)  aiready  contains  a  judsment  and 
a  rule  i^n^  '(«'  rih-Qr)  on  the  case  of  Nestorius''. 
and  that  they — the  bishops  in  council — liave  executed 
that  ruling.  All  thianaanifests  the  bishops'  conviction 
that  the  pope  was  the  moving  and  quickening  spiht  of 
the  synod. 

(4)  How  the  Fourth  General  Synod  (Chaloedon, 
451)  was  brought  together  is  set  forth  in  several  writ- 
ings of  Pope  Lieo  I  and  Eknperors  Theodosius  II  and 
Marcian.  Immediately  after  the  Bobber  Synod, 
Leo  asked  Theodosius  to  prepare  a  council  composed 
of  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  to  meet,  pref- 
erably, in  Italy.  He  repeated  the  same  request,  first 
made  13  October,  449,  on  the  following  feast  of  Christ- 
mas, and  prevailed  on  the  Western  Emperor  Valen- 
tinian III  together  with  his  empress  am  his  mother, 
to  support  it  at  the  Byzantine  Court.  Onoe  more  (in 
July,  450)  Leo  renewed  his  rectuest,  adding,  however, 
that  the  council  might  be  dispensed  with  if  all  the 
bishops  were  to  maae  a  profession  of  the  orthodox 
faith  without  being  united  in  council.  About  this 
time  Theodosius  11  died  and  was  suooeeded  by  his 
sister,  St.  Pulcheria,  and  her  husband  Marcian.  Both 
at  once  informed  the  pope  of  their  willingness  to  sum- 
mon the  council,  Marcian  specially  asking  him  to  state 
in  writing  whether  he  could  assist  at  the  synod  in  per- 
son or  through  his  legates,  so  that  the  necessary  writs 
of  convocation  might  be  issued  to  the  Eastern  bishops. 
By  thai  time,  however,  the  8ituatk>n  had  sreatly  im- 
proved in  the  Eastern  Churdi;  neariy  all  the  bishops 
who  had  taken  part  in  the  Robber  Svnod  had  now 
repented  of  their  aberration  and  signed,  in  union  with 
their  orthodox  colleagues,  the  ''Epistola  dogmatica'' 


of  Leo  to  Flavian,  by  this  act  rendering  the  need  of  a 
council  less  urgent.  Besides,  the  Huns  were  just  then 
invading  the  West,  preventing  many  Latin  bishops, 
whose  presence  at  the  council  waa  most  desirable, 
from  leaving  their  flocks  to  undertake  the  long  journey 
to  Chalcedon.  Other  motives  induced  the  i)ope  to 
postpone  the  sjrnod,  e.  g.  the  fear  that  it  mi^t  be 
made  the  occasion  by  the  bishops  of  Constantinople 
to  improve  their  hierarchical  position,  a  fear  well 
justified  by  subsequent  events.  But  Marcian  had 
already  summoned  the  synod,  and  Leo  therefore  gave 
his  instructions  as  to  the  business  to  be  transacted. 
He  was  then  entitled  to  say,  in  a  letter  to  the  bishops 
who  had  been  at  the  council  that  the  synod  had  been 
brought  together  ''ex  preecepto  christianorum  prin- 
cipum  et  ex  consensu  apostolicse  sedis"  (by  order  of 
the  Christian  princes  and  with  the  consent  of  the 
Apostolic  See).  The  emperor  himself  wrote  to  Leo 
that  the  ^ynod  had  been  held  by  his  authority  (to 
aucU)re)t  and  the  bishops  of  Moesia,  in  a  letter  to  the 
Byzantine  Emperor  Leo,  said:  "At  Chalcedon  many 
bishops  assembled  bv  order  of  Leo,  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff, who  is  the  true  nead  of  the  bishops". 

(5)  The  Fifth  Greneral  Synod  was  planned  by  Jus- 
tinian I  with  the  consent  of  Pope  Vi^ius  (q.  v.),  but 
on  account  of  the  emperor's  dogmatic  pretensions, 
quarrel  arose  and  the  pope  refused  to  be  present, 
although  repeatedly  invited.  His  ConatitiUum  of  14 
May,  553,  to  the  effect  that  he  could  not  consent  to 
anathematise  Theodore  of  Mopoiestia  and  Theodoret, 
led  to  open  opposition  between  pooe  and  council.  In 
the  ena  all  was  righted  by  Viguius  approving  the 
synodal  decrees. 

(6,  7,  8)  These  three  synods  were  each  and  all 
called  by  the  emperors  of  the  time  with  the  consent 
and  assistance  of  the  Apostolic  See.  (See  Constan- 
tinople, CoUNGIIfl  of;    NiC^A,  CoUNCIIiS  OF.) 

(b)  Direction. — The  direction  or  presidency  of 
councils  belongs  to  the  pope  by  the  same  right  as  their 
convocation  and  constitution.  Were  a  council  di- 
rected in  its  deUberations  and  acts  by  anyone  inde- 
pendent of  the  pope  and  acting  entirelv  on  his  own 
responsibility,  such  a  councU  could  not  oe  the  pope's 
own  in  any  sense:  the  defect  could  only  be  made  g^)od 
by  a  consequent  formal  act  of  the  pope  accepting 
responsibility  for  its  decisions.  In  point  of  fact,  papal 
legates  presided  over  all  the  Eastern  oouncib,  which 
from  their  beginning  were  legaUv  constituted.  The 
reader  will  obtain  a  clearer  insignt  into  this  point  of 
oonciliar  proceedings  from  a  concrete  example,  taken 
from  Heiele's  introduction  to  his  "History  of  the 
Councils": — 

Pope  Adrian  II  sent  his  legates  to  the  Eighth  (Ecu- 
menical Synod  (787)  with  an  express  declaration  to 
the  Emperor  Basil  that  they  were  to  act  as  presidents 
of  the  council.  The  legates.  Bishop  Donatus  of  Ostia, 
Bishop  Stephen  of  Nepesina,  and  the  deacon  Marinus 
of  Rome,  read  the  papal  rescript  to  the  synod.  Not 
the  sl^test  objection  was  raised.  Their  names  took 
precedence  in  all  protocols ;  they  determined  the  dura- 
tion of  the  several  sessions,  gave  leave  to  make 
opeeches  and  to  read  documents  and  to  admit  other 
persons;  they  put  the  leading  Questions,  etc.  In 
short,  their  presidency  in  the  first  nve  sessions  cannot 
be  disputed.  But  at  the  sixth  session  Emperor  Basil 
was  present  with  hia  two  sons,  Constantine  and  Leo, 
and,  as  the  Acts  relate,  received  the  presidency. 
These  same  Acts,  however,  at  once  clearly  distinguiw 
the  onperor  and  his  sons  from  the  synod  when, 
after  naming  them,  they  continue:  conveniente  aatuid 
ac  uwweraah  eynodo  (the  holy  and  universal  synod 
now  meeting),  thus  disassociating  the  lay  ruler  from 
the  council  proper.  The  names  of  the  papal  legates 
continue  to  appear  first  among  the  monbers  of  the 
mrnod,  and  it  is  they  who  in  those  latter  sessions 
determine  the  matters  for  discussion,  subscribe  the 
Acts  before  anyone  '!;se,  expressly  as  presidents  of  tha 


OOUKCILS 


430 


OOUNOILS 


mpod,  whereas  the  emperor,  to  show  clearly  that  he 
cud  not  consider  himself  the  president,  would  only 
subscribe  after  all  the  bishops.  The  papal  l^ates 
begged  him  to  out  his  and  his  son's  names  at  the  head 
of  the  list,  but  ne  stoutly  refused  and  only  consented, 
at  last,  to  write  his  name  after  those  (x  the  papal 
legates  and  of  the  Eastern  patriarchs,  but  before  those 
of  the  bishops.  Consequently  Pope  Adrian  II,  in  a 
letter  to  the  emperor,  praises  him  for  not  having 
assisted  at  the  council  as  a  judge  (judex),  but  merely 
as  a  witness  and  protector  (conseius  et  obaecundator). 

The  imperial  commissaries  present  at  the  synod 
acted  even  less  as  presidents  than  the  emperor  nim- 
sdf.  They  signed  the  reports  of  the  several  sessions 
only  after  the  representatives  of  the  patriarchs, 
though  before  the  bishops;  their  names  are  absent 
from  the  signatures  of  the  Acts.  On  the  other  hand 
it  may  be  contended  that  the  Eastern  patriarchs, 
Ignatius  of  Constantinople,  and  the  representatives 
of  the  other  Eastern  patriarchs,  in  some  degree  par- 
ticipated in  the  presidency:  their  names  are  con- 
stantly associated  with  those  of  the  Roman  legates 
and  clearly  distinguished  from  those  of  the  other 
metropolitans  and  bishops.  They,  as  it  were,  fonn 
with  tne  papal  legates  9  board  of  directors,  fix  with 
him  the  order  of  proceedings,  detennine  who  shall  be 
heard,  subscribe,  like  the  legates,  before  the  emperor, 
and  are  entered  in  the  reports  of  the  several  sessions 
before  the  imperial  commissaries.  All  this  being 
granted,  the  fact  still  remains  that  the  papal  legates 
unmistakably  hold  the  first  place,  for  they  are  always 
named  first  and  sign  first,  and — a  detail  of  great  im- 
portance— for  the  final  subscription  they  use  the 
formula:  huic  sanctas  et  univermli  synodo  prccsidens 
(presiding  over  this  holy  and  universal  synod), 
while  Ignatius  of  Constantmople  and  the  represent'a- 
tives  of  the  other  patriarchs  claim  no  presidency, 
but  word  their  subscription  thus:  suscipiena  et  omni- 
hu8  quoB  ab  ed  judicata  et  scrivta  sunt  concordans  et 
defimens  suhscripsi  (receiving  this  holy  and  universal 
synod  and  a^reemg  with  all  it  has  judged  and  written, 
and  defining  I  have  signed).  If,  on  the  one  hand,  this 
form  of  subscription  differs  from  that  of  the  president, 
it  differs  no  less,  on  the  other,  from  that  of  the  bishops. 
These,  like  the  emperor,  have  without  exception  used 
the  formula:  suscipiens  (synodttm)  suhacripn  (receiv- 
ing the  synod  I  have  signed),  omitting  the  otherwise 
customary  definiens,  which  was  used  to  mark  a  decisive 
vote  {ix>tum  decisivum). 

Hefele  gives  similar  documentary  accounts  of  the 
first  eight  general  synods,  showing  that  papal  legates 
always  presided  over  them  when  occupied  in  their 
proper  business  of  deciding  questions  on  faith  and  dis- 
ciphne.  The  exclusive  rimt  of  the  pope  in  this  matter 
was  generallv  acknowledged.  Thus,  the  Enaperor 
Theodosius  II  says,  in  his  edict  addressed  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ephesus,  that  he  had  sent  Count  Candidian  to 
represent  him,  but  that  this  imperial  commissary  was 
to  take  no  part  in  dogmatic  disputes  since  ''it  was  un- 
lawful for  one  who  is  not  enrolled  in  the  lists  of  the  most 
holy  bishops  to  mingle  in  ecclesiastical  inquiries". 
The  CJouncil  of  Chalcedon  acknowledc:ed  that  Pope 
Leo,  by  his  legates,  presided  over  it  as  'the  head  over 
the  members  .  At  Nicaea,  Hosius,  Vitus,  and  Vincen- 
tius,  as  papal  legates,  signed  beforo  all  other  members 
of  the  council.  The  right  of  presiding  and  directing 
implies  that  the  pope,  if  he  chooses  to  make  a  full  use 
of  nia  powers,  can  determine  the  subject  matter  to  be 
dealt  with  by  the  council,  prescribe  rules  for  conduct- 
ing the  debates,  and  generally  order  the  whole  busi- 
ness as  seems  best  to  film.  Hence  no  concUiar  decree 
is  legitimate  if  carried  under  protest — or  even  without 
the  positive  consent— of  the  pope  or  his  legates.  Ttie 
consent  of  the  legates  alone,  acting  without  a  special 
order  from  the  pope,  is  not  sufficient  to  make  cdnciliar 
decrees  at  once  perfect  and  operative;  what  is  neces- 
Hiry  is  the  pope's  own  consent.    For  ibis  reason  no 


decree  can  become  illegitimate  and  null  in  law  <m  ac- 
count of  pressure  broudiit  to  bear  on  the  assembly  h^ 
the  presiding  pope,  or  by  papal  legates  acting  on  ma 
orders.  Suob  pressure  and  restriction  of  libertv,  pro- 
ceeding from  tAe  internal,  natural  principle  of  order 
through  the  use  of  lawful  power,  does  not  amount  to 
external,  unnatural  coercion,  and,  therefore,  does  not 
invalidate  the  Acts  due  to  its  exercise. 

Examples  of  councils  working  at  high  pressfure,  if 
the  expression  may  be  used,  without  spoiling  their 
output,  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Most  of  the 
early  councils  were  convened  to  execute  decisions  al- 
rc:my  finally  fixed  by  the  pope,  no  choice  bein^  left 
the  assembled  Fathers  to  arrive  at  another  deciaton. 
They  were  forced  to  conform  their  judgment  to  that 
of  Komej  with  or  without  discussion.  Should  papal 
pressure  go  beyond  the  limits  oi  the  council's  d^^ity 
and  of  the  importance  of  the  matters  under  discoMion, 
the  effect  would  be,  not  the  invalidation  of  the  coun- 
cil's decrees,  but  the  paralysing  of  its  moral  influence 
and  practical  usefulness.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fact 
that  a  synod  is,  or  has  been,  acting  under  the  leader- 
ship of  its  Divinely  appointed  head,  is  the  best  guar- 
antee of  its  freedom  from  unnatural  disturbances,  such 
as  intrigues  from  below  or  coereion  from  above.  In 
the  same  way  violent  interference  with  the  papa* 
leadership  is  the  grossest  attack  on  the  council's  nat 
ural  freedom.  Thus  the  Robber  Synod  of  Ephe- 
sus (449),  though  intended  to  be  general  and  at  first 
duly  authorized  by  the  presence  of  papal  legates,  was 
declared  invalid  and  null  by  those  same  Wates  at 
Chalcedon  (451),  because  tlie  prejudiced  Emperor 
Theodosius  II  had  removed  the  representatives  of  the 

g)pe,  and  entrusted  the  direction  of  the  council  to 
ioscurus  of  Alexandria. 

(c)  Con/irwa^ian.— Confirmation  of  the  conciliar  de- 
crees is  tne  third  factor  in  thepope's  necessary  co- 
operation with  the  council.  Tne  council  does  not 
represent  the  teaching  Church  till  the  visible  head  of 
the  Church  has  given  his  approval,  for,  unaj^roved,  it 
is  but  a  headless,  soulless,  impersonal  body,  unable  to 
give  its  decisions  the  binding  force  of  kws  for  the 
whole  Church,  or  the  finality  of  judicial  sentences. 
With  the  papal  approval,  on  the  contrary,  the  coun- 
cil's pronouncements  represent  the  fullest  eflTort  of  the 
teaching  and  ruling  Chureh,  a  judicium  pfewisnmuin, 
beyond  which  no  power  can  go.  Confirmation  bein^ 
the  final  touch  of  perfection,  the  seal  of  authority,  ana 
the  very  life  of  conciliar  decrees,  it  is  neeessaiy  that  it 
should  be  a  personal  act  of  the  highest  authority,  for 
the  highest  auUiority  cannot  be  dd^ted.  So  much 
for  the  principle,  or  the  Question  of  right.  When  we 
look  for  its  practical  wonting  throu^out  the  history 
of  councils,  we  find  great  diversity  m  the  way  it  has 
been  applied  under  the  influence  of  varying  circum- 
stances. 

(1)  Councils  over  which  the  pope  presides  in  person 
require  no  further  formal  confirmation  on  his  part,  for 
their  decisions  formally  include  his  own  as  tne  body 
includes  the  soul.  The  Vatican  Council  of  1869-70 
offers  an  example  in  point. 

(2)  Councils  over  which  the  pope  presides  throu^ 
his  legates  are  not  identified  with  nimself  in  the  same 
d^ree  as  the  former.  They  constitute  separate,  de- 
pendent, representative  tribunals,  whose  finding  only 
become  final  throu^  ratification  by  the  authority  for 
which  they  act.  Such  is  the  theory.  In  practice, 
however,  the  papal  confirmation  is,  or  may  be,  pre- 
sumed in  the  following  oases: — 

(a)  When  the  council  is  convened  for  the  express 
purpose  of  carrying  out  a  papal  decision  previoosly 
arrived  at,  as  was  the  case  with  most  of  the  eariy 
synods;  or  when  the  legates  give  their  cooaent  m  vir- 
tue of  a  special  public  instruction  emanating  from  the 
pope;  in  these  circumstances  the  papal  ratification 
pre-exists,  is  implied  in  the  ooncihar  decision,  and 
need  not  oe  formally  renewed  after  the  oounciL    It 


GOtJNOILS 


431 


OOUKfOILS- 


may,  however,  be  superadded  ad  abundanHam,  aa, 
e.  g.  the  confirmation  of  the  Council  of  Chaloedon  by 
LeoL 

(b)  The  neceBsaiy  consent  of  the  ApostoUe  See  may 
also  be  presumed  when,  as  generally  at  the  Council  of 
Trent,  the  I^ates  have  personal  instructions  frcxn  the 
pope  on  each  particular  question  coming  up  for  deci* 
81  on,  and  act  conformably,  i.  e.  if  they  allow  no  decision 
to  be  taken  unless  the  pope's  consent  has  previously 
been  obtained. 

(c)  Supposing  a  council  actually  composed  of  the 
greater  port  of  the  episcopate,  concurring  freely  in  a 
unanimous  decision  and  thus  bearing  unexceptional 
vritnesB  to  the  mind  and  sense  of  the  whole  Church: 
The  popBy  whose  office  it  is  to  voice  infallibly  the  mind 
of  toe  Church,  would  be  obliged  by  the  very  nature  of 
his  office,  to  adopt  the  council's  decision,  and  conse- 
quently his  confirmation,  ratification,  or  approbation 
could  be  presumed,  and  a  formal  expression  of  it  dis- 
pensed with.  But  even  then  his  approbation,  pre- 
sumcsd  or  expressed,  is  juridically  the  constituent 
factor  of  the  decision's  perfection. 

(3)  The  express  ratification  in  due  form  is  at  all 
times,  when  not  absolutely  necessary,  at  least  desir- 
able  and  useful  in  many  respects: — 

(a)  It  gives  the  oonciliar  proceedings  their  natural 
and  lawful  complement,  the  keystone  which  closes  and 
crowns  the  arch  for  strength  and  beauty ;  it  brings  to 
the  front  the  majesty  and  significance  of  the  supreme 
head  of  the  ChujK^. 

(b)  Presumed  consent  can  but  rarely  &pply  with  the 
same  efficacy  to  each  and  all  of  the  decisions  of  an  im- 
portant council.  A  solemin  papal  ratification  puts 
them  all  on  the  same  level  and  removes  all  possible 
doubt. 

(c)  Lastly  the  papal  ratification  formally  promul- 
gates the  sentence  of  the  council  as  an  article  of  faith 
to  be  known  and  accepted  by  all  the  faithful;  it 
brings  to  light  and  public  view  the  intrinsic  cecumen- 
icitv  of  the  council;  it  ia  the  natural,  official,  indispu- 
table criterion,  or  test,  of  the  perfect  legality  of  the 
conoiliar  tranmctions  or  conclusions.  If  we  bear  in 
noind  the  numerous  disturbing  elements  at  work  in 
and  around  an  ceeumenical  council,  the  confficting 
religious,  poUtical,  scientific,  and  personal  interests 
contending  for  supremacy,  or  at  least  eager  to  secure 
aome  advantage,  we  can  easily  realize  the  necessity  of 
a  papeX  ratification  to  crush  the  endless  chicanery 

*  which  otherwise  would  endanger  the  success  and  effi- 
cacy of  the  highest  tribunal  of  the  Church.  Even 
they  who  refuse  to  see  in  the  papal  confirmation  an. 
authentie  testimony  and  sentence,  declaring  infallibly 
the  oecianenidty  of  the  council  and  its  decrees  to  be  a 
dogmatic  fact,  must  admit  that  it  is  a  sanative  act 
and  supplies  possible  defects  and  shortcomings;  the 
oecumenical  authority  of  the  pope  is  sufficient  to  im- 
part validity  and  infallibility  to  the  decrees  he  makes 
nis  own  by  officially  ratifying  them.  This  was  done 
by  Pope  VigfliuB  for  the  Fifth  General  Synod.  Suffi- 
cient >proof  for  the  sanatory  efficacy  of  the  papal  rati- 
fication lies  in  the  absolute  sovereignty  ol  the  pope 
and  in  the  infallibility  of  his  ex-cathedra  pronounce- 
ments. Should  it  be  argued,  however,  that  the  sen- 
tence of  an  oecimienical  council  is  the  only  absolute, 
final,  and  infallible  sent^ioe,  even  then,  and  then 
more  than  ev^ ,  the  papal  ratification  would  be  neces- 
sary. For  in  the  transactions  of  an  oecumenical 
council  the  pope  plays  the  principal  part,  and  if  any 
deficiency  in  his  action,  especially  in  the  exercise  of 
his  own  special  prerogatives,  were  apparent,  the  la- 
bours of  tne  council  would  be  in  vain.  The  faithful 
hesitate  to  accept  as  infallible  guides  of  their  faith 
documents  not  authenticated  by  the  seal  of  the  fisher- 
man, or  the  Apostolic  See,  which  now  wields  the  au- 
thority of  Bt.  Peter  and  of  Christ.  Leo  II  beautifully 
expresses  tliese  ideas  in  his  ratification  of  the  Sixth 
Genial  Council:  "Because  this  ^;reat  aAd  ufiiveraal 


synod  has  most  fully  proclaimed  the  definition  of  the 
right  faith,  which  toe  Apostolic  See  of  St.  Peter  the 
Apostle,  whose  office  we,  though  unequal  to  it,  are 
holding,  also  reverently  receives:  therefore  we  also, 
and  through  our  office  this  Apostolic  See,  consent  to, 
and  confirm,  by  the  authority  of  Blessed  Peter,  those 
thines  which  have  been  defined,  as  being  finally  set  by 
the  Lord  Himself  on  the  solid  rock  which  is  Christ. " 

No  event  in  the  history  of  the  Church  better  illus- 
trates the  necessity  and  the  importance  of  papal  co- 
operation and,  in  particular,  confirmation,  than  the 
controversies  which  in  the  sixth  century  raged  about 
the  Three  Chapters.  The  Three  Chapters  were  the 
condemnation  (1)  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  his  per- 
son, and  his  writings;  (2)  of  Theodoret's  writings 
against  Cyril  and  the  Council  of  Ephesus;  (3)  of  a  let- 
ter from  Ibas  to  Maris  the  Persian,  also  against  Cyril 
and  the  council.  Theodore  anticipated  the  heresy  of 
Nestorius;  Ibas  and  Theodoret  were  indeed  restored 
at  Chalcedon,  but  only  after  they  had  given  orthodox 
explanations  and  shown  that  tiiey  were  free  from  N^s- 
torianism.  The  two  points  in  debate  were:  (1)  Did 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  acknowledge  the  orthodoxy 
of  the  said  Three  Chapters?  (2)  How,  i.  e.  by  what 
test,  is  the  point  to  be  settled?  Now  the  two  contend- 
ing parties  agreed  in  the  principle  of  the  test:  the  ap- 
probation of  the  council  stands  or  falls  with  the  appro- 
bation of  the  pope's  legatee  and  of  Pope  Leo  I  himself. 
Defenders  of  the  Chapters,  e.  g.  Ferrandus  the  Deacon 
and  Facundus  of  Hermiane,  put  forward  as  their  chief 
argument  (prima  et  immolnlis /atio)  the  fact  that  Leo 
had  approved.  Their  opponents  never  questioned 
the  principle  but  denied  the  alleged  fact,  basing  their 
denial  on^  Leo's  ejpistle  to  Maximus  of  Antioch  in 
which  they  read:  ^Si  quid  sane  ab  his  fratribus  quos 
ad  S.  Synodum  vice  meii,  praeter  id  quod  ad  causam 
fidei  pertinebat  gestum  fuerit,  nullius  erit  firmitatis'' 
(If  indeed  anything  not  pertainine  to  the  cause  of 
faith  should  have  been  settled  by  the  brethren  I  sent 
to  the  Holy  Synod  to  hold  my  place,  it  shall  be  of  no 
force).  Tne  point  of  doctrine  (causa  fidei)  referred  to 
is  the  heresy  of  Eutyches;  the  Three  Chapters  refer  to 
that  of  Nestorius,  or  rather  to  certain  persons  and 
writings  connected  with  it. 

The  bishops  of  the  council,  assembled  at  Constan- 
tinople in  533  for  the  purpose  of  putting  an  end  to  the 
Three  Chapters  controversy,  addressed  to  Pope  Vigil- 
ius  two  Confessions,  the  first  with  the  Patriarch  Men- 
nas,  the  second  with  his  successor  Eutychius,  in 
which,  to  establish  their  orthodoxy,  they  profess  that 
they  firmly  hold  to  the  four  general  synods  as  ap- 
proved by  the  Apostolic  See  and  by  the  popes.  Thus 
we  read  m  the  Confeano  of  Mennas:  ''^But  also  the 
letters  of  Pope  Leo  of  bleesed  memoiy  and  the  Con- 
stitution of  tne  Apostolic  See  issued  in  support  of  the 
Faith  and  of  the  authority  (ArmiUui)  of  tne  aforesaid 
four  synods,  we  promise  to  iollow  aiid  observe  in  all 
points  and  we  anathematize  any  man,  who  on  any 
occasion  or  altercation  should  attempt  to  nullify  our 
promises."  And  in  the  Confessio  of  Eutychius: 
"  SvMipimu8  autem  et  ampUciimwr  epiMolas  prcemdum 
Romance  Sedts  Avostolicce,  tam  aliorum  quam  Leonia 
aanctce  memorioe  ae  fide  acriptae  et  de  quailuor  aanctia 
canciliia  vel  de  uno  eorum'*  (We  receive  and  embrace 
the  letters  of  the  bishops  of  the  Apostolic  Roman  See, 
those  of  others  as  well  as  of  Leo  of  holy  memory, 
concerning  the  Faith  and  the  four  holy  synods  or  any 
of  them). 

VII.  Business  Msthods. — The  way  in  which  coun- 
cils transact  business  now  demands  our  attention. 
Here  as  in  most  things,  there  is  an  ideal  which  is  never 
completely  realized  in  practice, 

(a)  The  facts, — It  has  been  sufficiently  shown  in  the 
foregoing  section  that  the  pope,  either  m  person  or  by 
deputy,  directed  the  transaction  of  conoiliar  business. 
But  when  we  look  for  a  fixed  order  or  set  of  rules  regu- 
^tiug  the  proceedings  we  have  to  come  down  to  tbe 


ooimozLs 


432 


00UNG1L8 


Vatican  Council  to  find  an  official  Ordo  c&ncUii  <Bcur 
menvci  and  a  Methodus  servanda  in  primd  seasione,  etc. 
In  all  earlier  councils  the  management  of  affairs  was 
left  to  the  Fathers  and  adjusted  by  them  to  the  par- 
ticular objects  and  circumstances  or  the  council.  The 
so-called  Ordo  celebrandi  ConcUii  Tridentini  is  a  com- 
pilation posterior  to  the  council,  written  by  the 
conciliar  secretary,  A.  Massarelli;  it  is  a  record  of 
what  has  been  done,  not  a  rule  of  what  should  be 
done.  Some  fixed  rules  were,  however,  already  estab- 
lished at  the  reform  councils  of  the  fifteenth  century 
as  a  substitute  for  the  absent  directing  power  of  the 
pope.  The  substance  of  these  rulings  is  given  in  the 
^'Caremoniale  Romanum"  of  Augustinus  Patritius  (d, 
1496).  The  institution  of  ** congregations"  dates 
from  the  Council  of  Constance  (1415).  At  earlier 
councils  all  the  meetings  of  the  Fathers  were  called 
indiscriminately  sessiones  or  actioneSy  but  since  Con- 
stance the  term  session  has  been  restricted  to  the 
solemn  meetings  at  which  the  final  votes  are  given, 
while  all  meetings  for  the  purpose  of  consultation  or 
provisory  voting  are  termed  congregations. 

The  distinction  betw^een  general  and  particular 
congregations  likewise  dates  from  Constance,  where, 
however,  the  particular  congregations  assumed  a 
form  different  in  spirit  and  composition  from  the 
practice  of  earlier  and  later  councils.  They  were 
simply  separate  assemblies  of  the  "nations  (first 
four,  then  five)  present  at  the  council;  their  de- 
liberations went  to  form  national  votes  which 
were  presented  in  the  general  assembly,  whose 
decisions  conformed  to  a  majority  of  such  votes. 
The  particular  congregations  of  more  recent  councils 
were  merely  consultative  assemblies  (committees, 
commissions)  brought  together  by  appointment  or 
invitation  in  order  to  deliberate  on  special  matters. 
At  Trent  there  were  congregations  of  prelates  and 
congregations  of  theologians,  both  partly  for  dogma, 
partly  for  discipline.  The  congregations  of  pretotes 
were  either  "  deputations",  i.  e.  committees  of  specially 
chosen  experts,  or  conoiliary  groups,  usually  three, 
into  which  the  council  divided  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  discussion. 

The  official  ordo  of  the  Vatican  Coundl  confirmed 
the  Tridentine  practice,  leaving,  however,  to  the  m- 
itiative  of  the  prelates  the  formation  of  groups  of  a 
more  private  character.  The  voting  by  "nations", 
peculiar  to  the  reform  councils,  has  also  been  aban- 
doned in  favour  of  the  traditional  votine  by  individ- 
uals {capita).  At  the  Vatican  Council  there  were 
seven  "commissions"  consisting  of  theologians  from 
all  countries,  appointed  a  year  before  the  actual 
meeting  of  the  assembly.  Their  dutv  was  to  prepare 
the  various  matters  to  be  laid  before  the  council. 
The  object  of  these  congregations  is  sufficiently  de- 
scribed by  their  titles:  (1)  Congregatio  cardinalitia 
directrix;  (2)  Commissio  caeremoniarum-;  (3)politico- 
ecclesiastica;  (4)  pro  ecdesiis  et  missionibus  Orientis; 
(5)  pro  Regularibus;  (6)  theologica  dogmatica;  (7) 
pro  discij)linfi.  ecclesiastic^  (I.  e.  a  general  directive 
cardinalitial  congregation,  and  several  commissions 
for  ceremonies,  politico-ecclesiastical  affairs,  the 
churehes  and  missions  of  the  Orient,  the  regular  or- 
ders, dogmatic  theology,  ecclesiastical  discipline). 
On  the  basis  of  their  labourB  were  worked  out  the 
schemata  (drafts  of  decrees)  to  be  discussed  by  the 
council.  Within  the  council  itself  there  were  seven 
"deputations":  (1)  Pro  recipiendis  et  expendendis 
Patrum  propositionibus  (appointed  by  the  pope  to 
examine  the  propositions  of  tne  Fathers) ;  (2)  Judices 
excusationum  (Judges  of  excuses) ;  (3)  Judices  quere- 
larum  et  controversiarum  (to  settle  questions  of  prece- 
dence and  sudi  like) ;  (4)  deputatio  pro  rebus  ad  fidem 
pertinentibus  (on  matters  pertaining  to  faith);  (6) 
deputatio  pro  rebus  disciplinse  ecclesiasticcD  (on  eccle- 
siastical discipline) ;  (6)  pro  rebus  ordinum  regularium 
(on  religious  orders);  (7)  pro  rebus  ritus  orientalis  et 


apofltoliciB  miBsionibus  (Oriental  rites  and  Apostolic 
missionB). 

All  these  deputations,  except  the  first,  were  cfaoeea 
by  the  counoii.  Objections  and  amendments  to  the 
proposed  sehemata  had  to  be  handed  in  in  writing  to 
the  ren>onsible  deputation  which  considered  the  mat- 
ter and  modified  tne  aehema  aooordinriy.  Anvone  do- 
ling further  to  improve  the  modified  draft  had  to 
obtain  from  the  legaites  permission  to  propose  his 
amendments  in  a  speech,  after  which  he  put  them 
down  in  writings  If,  however,  ten  prelates  decided 
that  the  matter  had  been  sufficiently  debated,  leave 
for  speaking  was  refused.  At  this  stage  the  amend- 
ments were  collected  and  examined  by  the  synodal 
congregation,  then  again  laid  before  the  general  con- 
gregation to  be  vot^  on  severally.  The  votes  for 
admission  or  rejection  were  expressed  by  the  prdates 
standing  or  remaining  seated.  Next  the  Bckema,  re- 
formed m  accordance  with  these  votes,  wb0  submitted 
to  a  general  congregation  for  approval  or  disapproval 
in  ioto.  In  case  a  majority  of  plaeels  were  ^ven  for 
it,  it  was  accepted  in  a  last  solemn  public  session,  after 
a  final  vote  ot  placet  or  fum  placet  C'  it  pleases  ",  or  "  it 
does  not  please"). 

(b)  The'  theory. — ^The  principle  which  directs  the 
practical  working  of  a  council  is  the  perfect,  or  best 
possible,  realisation  of  its  object,  viz.  a  final  judgment 
on  questions  of  faith  and  morals,  invested  wiUi  the 
authority  and  majesty  of  the  whole  teaching  body  of 
the  Chureh.  To  this  end  some  means  are  absolutely 
necessary,  others  are  only  desirable  as  adding  perfec- 
tion to  the  result.  We  deal  first  with  these  latter 
means,  which  may  be  called  ihe  ideal  elements  of  the 
coimcil: 

(1)  The  presence  of  all  the  bishops  of  the  worid  is 
an  ideal  not  to  be  realised,  but  the  presence  of  a  ver^ 
great  majority  is  desiraUe  for  many  reasons.  A  quasi- 
complete  council  has  the  advantage  of  being  a  real 
representation  of  the  whole  Chureh^  while  a  spandy 
attended  one  is  only  so  in  law,  i.  e.  the  few  members 
present  legally  represent  the  many  absent,  but  only 
represent  their  juridical  power,  their  ordinary  power 
not  being  representable;  Thus  for  every  bisnop  ab- 
sent there  is  absent  an  authentic  witness  of  the  Faitii 
as  it  is  in  his  diooese.  (2)  A  free  and  exhaustive  dis- 
cussion of  all  objections.  (3)  An  appeal  to  the  uni- 
versal belief — ^if  existing — ^ifvnltnessed  to  by  all  the 
bi^ops  in  council.  This,  if  realized,  would  render  all 
further  discussion  superfluous.  (4)  Unanimi^  in  the 
final  vote,  the  result  either  of  the  universal  faith  as 
•  testified  to  by  the  Fathers,  or  of  conviction  gained  in 
the  debates.  It  is  evident  that  these  four  elements  in 
the  working  of  a  council  generally  contribute  to  its 
ideal  perfection,  but  it  is  not  less  evident  that  ihey  are 
not  essential  to  its  substance,  to  its  oonciliaiy  effec- 
tiveness. If  they  were  necessary  many  acknowledged 
councils  and  decrees  would  lose  their  intrinsic  au- 
thority, because  one  or  other  or  all  of  these  conditions 
were  wanting.  Again,  there  is  no  standard  by  whidi 
to  determine  wheuier  or  not  the  number  of  assisting 
bishops  was  sufficient  and  the  debates  have  been  ex- 
haustive; nor  do  the  Acts  of  the  councils  always  in- 
form us  of  the  unanimity  of  the  final  decisions  or  of 
the  way  in  which  it  was  obtained.  Were  each  and 
all  of  these  four  elements  essential  to  an  authoritative 
council  no  such  council  could  have  been  held,  in  many 
cases,  when  it  was  none  the  less  uraently  required  by 
the  necessities  of  the  Church.  Autnors  who  insist  on 
the  ideal  perfection  of  councils  only  succeed  in  under- 
mining their  authoritv,  which  is,  perhaps,  the  object 
they  aim  at.  Their  fundamental  error  is  a  false  no- 
tion of  the  nature  of  councils.  They  conceive  of  the 
function  of  the  oouncU  as  a  witnessing  to,  and  teaching 
of,  the  ^nerally  accepted  faith;  whereas  it  is  essen- 
tially a  juridical  function,  the  action  of  judges  as  weU 
as  of  witnesses  of  the  Faith.  This  leads  us  to  oonskiar 
the  essential  elements  in  conciliar  action. 


QOUNOILS 


433 


QomraiLB 


From  tlie  notion  that  the  council  is  a  court  of  judges 
the  following  inferences  may  be  drawn:  (1)  The  bish- 
ops, in  giving  their  judgment,  are  directed  only  by 
their  personal  conviction  of  its  rectitude;  no  previous 
consent  of  all  the  faithful  or  of  the  whole  episcopate  is 
reauired.  In  unity  with  their  head  they  are  one  solid 
(soliege  of  judges  authoritatively  constituted  for  uni- 
ted, decisive  action — a  body  entireljy  different  from  a 
body  of  simple  witnesses.  (2)  This  being  admitted, 
the  assembled  college  assumes  a  representation  of  their 
colleagues  who  were  called  but  tailed  to  take  their 
seats,  provided  the  number  of  those  actually  present 
is  not  altogether  inadequate  for  the  matter  in  hand. 
Hence  theu*  resolutions  are  ri^tly  said  to  rest  on  uni- 
versal consent:  wnveraoM  conaeruu  (unutUtUaf  as  the 
formula  runs.  ^  (3)  Further,  on  the  same  supposition, 
the  college  of  judges  is  subject  to  the  rule  obtaining  in 
all  assemblies  constituted  tor  framing  a  judicial  sen- 
^«nce  or  a  common  resolution,  due  regaitl  being  paid 
to  the  special  relations,  in  the  present  instance,  between 
the  head  and  the  m^nbera  of* the  cc^ege:  the  co-oper- 
ative verdict  embodies  the  opinion  c3  the  majority, 
including  the  head,  and  in  law  stands  for  the  verdict  of 
the  whole  assembly;  it  is  eommum  aensu  consttttUum 
(established  by  common  consent).  A  majority  ver- 
dict, even  headed  by  papal  l^ates,  if  disconnected 
from  the  personal  action  of  the  pope,  still  fdls  short 
of  a  perfect,  authoritative  pronouncement  of  the 
whcrfe  Church,  and  cannot  claim  infallibility.  Were 
the  verdict  unanimous,  it  would  still  be  impnrfect  and 
fallible,  if  it  did  not  receive  the  papal  approbation. 
The  verdict  of  a  majority,  therefore,  not  endorsed  by 
the  pope,  has  no  binding  force  on  either  ihe  dissen- 
tient members  present  or  the  absent  members,  nor  is 
the  pope  bound  in  any  way  to  endorse  it.  Its  only 
value  is  that  it  justifies  the  pope,  in  case  he  approves 
it,  to  say  that  he  confirms  the  decision  of  a  council,  or 
^ves  his  own  decision  saero  approbarUe  cancUio  (with 
the  consent  of  the  council).  Tnis  he  coukl  not  say  if 
he  annulled  a  decision  taken  by  a  majority  including 
his  legates,  or  if  he  gave  a  casting  vote  between  two 
e^ual  parties.  A  unanimous  conciliary  decision,  as 
distinct  from  a  simple  majority  decision,  may  under 
certain  circumstances,  be,  in  a  war,  binding  on  the 
pope  and  compel  his  approbation — by  the  compelling 
power,  not  of  a  superior  authority,  but  of  the  Cath- 
olic truth  shiiung  forth  in  the  witnessing  of  the  whole 
Church.  To  exert  such  power  the  council's  decision 
must  be  clearly  and  unmistakably  the  reflex  of  the 
faith  of  all  the  absent  bishops  and  of  the  faithful. 

To  pain  an  adequate  conception  of  the  council  at 
work  it  should  be  viewed  under  its  twofold  aspect  of 
judging  and  witnessing.  In  relation  to  the  faithful 
the  conciliar  assembly  is  primarily  a  judge  who  pro- 
nounces a  verdict  conjointly  with  the  pope,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  acts  more  or  less  as  witness  in  the  ease. 
Its  position  is  similar  to  that  of  St.  Paul  towards  the 
first  Christians:  quod  aceepU/tis  amever  mtdtos  testes. 
In  relation  to  the  pope  the  ooimcil  is  but  an  assembly 
of  authentic  witnesses  and  competent  counsellors 
whom  influence  on  the  papal  sentence  is  that  of  the 
mass  of  evidence  which  thev  represent  or  of  the  pre- 
paratory^ judgment  which  they  pronounce;  it  is  the 
only  way  in  which  numbers  of  judges  can  influence 
one  another.  Such  influence  lessens  neither  the  dig- 
nity nor  the  efficiency  of  any  of  the  judges;  on  the 
other  hand  it  is  never  required,  in  councils  or  else- 
where, to  make  their  verdict  unassailable.  The  Vati- 
can Council,  not  excluding  the  fourth  session  in  which 
papal  infallibUity  was  defined,  comes  nearer  than  anv 
former  council  to  the  ideal  perfection  just  describea. 
It  was  composed  of  the  greatest  number  of  bi^ops, 
both  absolutely  and  in  proportion  to  the  totality  of 
biriiops  in  the  Church;  it  allowed  and  exercised  the 
ri^t  of  discussion  to  an  extent  perhaps  never  wit- 
nessed before;  it  appealed  to  a  general  tradition, 
present  and  past,  containing  the  effective  principle  of 
IV.  -28 


the  doctrine  under  discussion,  vis.  the  duty  of  sub- 
mitting in  obedience  to  the  Holjr  See  and  of  conforming 
to  its  teaching;  lastly  it  gave  its  final  definition  with 
absolute  unanimity,  and  secured  the  greatest  majority 
— ^nine-tenths — for  its  preparatory  judnnent. 

VIII.  iNFAIiUBIUTT  OF  QbNERAL  COUNCILS. — ^All 

the  arguments  which  go  to  prove  the  infaUibilitv  of 
the  Church  apply  with  their  lullest  force  to  the  inmlli- 
ble  autiiority  of  seneral  councils  in  union  with  the 
pope.  For  concluary  decisions  are  the  ripe  fruit  of 
the  total  lifo-eneigy  of  the  teachizig  Churm  actuated 
and  directed  by  the  Holy  Qhost.  Such  was  the  mind 
of  the  Apostles  when,  at  the  CJouncil  of  Jerusalem 
(Acts,  zv,  28),  iheyjput  the  seal  of  supreme  authority 
on  their  decisions  m  attributing  them  to  the  joint 
action  of  the  Spirit  of  God  and  of  themselves:  Visum 
est  Spiritui  sancto  et  nMs  (It  hath  seemed  good  to 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  to  us).  This  formula  and  the 
dogma  it  enshrines  stand  out  brightly  in  the  deposit 
of  faith  and  have  been  carefully  guarded  throu^out 
the  many  storms  raised  in  councils  by  the  play  of  the 
human  element.  From  ihe  earliest  times  they  who 
rejected  the  decisions  of  councils  were  themselves  re- 
jected by  the  Church.  Emp^xjr  Constantino  saw  in 
the  decrees  of  Nlcsa  ''a  Divine  commandment"  and 
Athanasius  wrote  to  the  bishops  of  Airica:  "What 
God  has  spoken  through  the  Council  of  Nic»a  en- 
dureth  for  ever."  St.  Ambrose  (Ep.  xxi)  pronounces 
himself  ready  to  die  by  the  sword  rather  than  give  up 
the  Nicene  decrees,  and  Pope  Leo  the  Great  expressly 
declares  that  ''whoso  resists  the  Councils  of  Nicsea  and 
Chalcedon  cannot  be  numbered  among  Catholics" 
<Ep.  Ixxviii,  ad  Leonem  Augustum).  In  the  same 
epistle  he  says  that  the  decrees  of  Chalcedon  were 
framed  instmenle  Spiritu  Sando,  i.e.  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  Holy  Ghost.  How  the  same  doctrine  was 
embodied  in  many  professions  of  faith  may  be  seen  in 
Denainger's  (ed.  Stahl)  "Endiiridion  symbolorum  et 
definitk>num",  under  the  heading  (index)  ''Concilium 
generale  representat  ecclesiam  universalem,  eique  ab- 
solute obeaiendum"  (General  councils  represent  the 
universal  Church  and  demand  absolute  obedience). 
'Die  Scripture  texts  on  whidi  this  unshaken  belief  is 
based  are,  among  others:  ''But  when  he,  the  Spirit  of 
truth,  is  come,  he  will  teach  vou  all  truth  .  .  ."  (John, 
rvi,  13);  '^Bdiold  I  am  with  you  [teaching]  all  days, 
even  to  the  consummation  of  the  worid  "  (Matt. ,  xxviii, 
20);  "The  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  i^inst  It 
[i.e.  the  Church]"  (Matt.,  xvi,  18). 

IX.  Papai/  and  Conciuar  iNTAxaJBiLnr. — Papal 
and  conciliar  infallibility  are  correlated  but  not  iden- 
ticaL  A  council's  decrees  approved  by  the  pope  are 
infallible  by  reason  of  that  approbation,  because  the 
pope  is  infallible  also  extra  conctUum,  without  the  sup- 
port of  a  council.  The  infallibility  proper  to  the  pope 
IS  not,  however,  the  only  formal  acfequate  ground  of 
the  council's  infallibility.  Hie  Piviae  constitution  of 
the  Church  and  the  promises  of  Divine  assistance 
made  by  her  Founder,  guarantee  her  inerrancy,  in 
matters  pertaining  to  fai&  and  morab,  independently 
of  the  pope's  infallibility:  a  fallible  pope  supporting, 
and  supported  by,  a  council,  would  still  pronounce  in- 
fallible decisions.  This  accounts  for  tlie  fact-  that, 
before  the  Vatican  decree  concerning  tiie  supreme 
pontiff's  ex-cathedra  judgments,  cecumenical  councils 
were  generally  held  to  be  infallible  even  bsr  those  who 
denied  the  papal  infallibility;  it  also  expkiins  the  con- 
cessions largely  made  to  the  opponents  of  the  pftpBl 

Srivilege  that  it  is  not  necessarily  implied  in  the  inial- 
bility  of  councils,  and  the  claims  that  it  can  be 
proved  separately  and  independently  on  its  proper 
merits.  The  infallibility  of  the  council  is  intrinsw, 
i.e.  springs  from  its  nature.  Christ  promised  to  be  in 
the  midst  of  two  or  three  of  His  diMsiples  gathered  to- 
gether in  His  name;  now  an  oecumenical  council  is,  in 
fact  or  m  law,  a  gathering  of  all  Christ's  co-workers 
for  the  salvation  of  man  tnrougti  tme  faith  and  hob 


00U90XIi8 


434 


COUJiOXU 


oonduct;  He  is  therefore  in  their  midBt,  fulfiiUng  His 
promisee  and  leading  them  into  the  truth  lor  i^ieh 
they  are  striving.  His  presence,  by  cementing  the 
unitv  of  the  assembly  into  one  body— His  own  mysti* 
cal  body — gives  it  the  necessary  completeness,  and 
makes  up  for  any  defect  possibly  arising  from  the  phy^ 
ical  absenoe  of  a  certain  number  of  bishops.  Tne 
same  presence  strengthens  the  action  of  the  pope,  so 
that,  as  mouthpiece  of  the  council,  he  can  say  in 
truth,  "it  has  teemed  good  to  the  Holy  Ghost  and  to 
us",  and  conseauently  can,  and  does,  put  the  seal  of 
infallibility  on  tne  conciliar  decree  irrespective  of  his 
own  personal  infallibility. 

Some  important  consequences  flow  from  these  prin- 
ciples. O^nciliar  decrees  approved  by  the  pope  nave 
a  double  guarantee  of  infallibility:  their  own  and  that 
of  the  infallible  pope.  The  council's  dignity  is,  there* 
fore,  not  diminished,  but  increased,  by  the  defini* 
tion  of  papal  infallibility,  nor  does  that  definition 
imply  a  "  circular  demonstration"  by  whidi  the  coun- 
cil would  make  the  pope  infallible  and  the  pope  would 
render  the  same  service  to  the  council.  It  should* 
however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  council  without 
the  pope  has  no  guarantee  of  infallibility,  therefore 
the  conciliar  and  the  papal  infallibilities  are  not  two 
separate  and  addible  units,  but  one  unit  with 
8tng:le  or  double  excellence.  An  infallible  statement 
of  Divine  truth  is  the  voice  of  Christ  speaking  throu^ 
the  mouth  of  the  visible  head  of  His  mystical  body  or 
in  unison,  in  chorus,  with  all  its  members.  The  united 
voice  of  the  whole  Church  has  a  solemnity,  impressive** 
ness,  and  eHectiveness,  an  external,  circuinstantial 
weight,  which  is  wanting  in  simple  ox-cathedra  pro- 
nouncements. It  works  its  way  into  the  minds  and 
hearta  of  the  faithful  with  almost  irresistible  force, 
because  in  the  univensal  harmony  each  hidividual  be- 
liever hears  his  own  voice,  is  carried  away  by  the 
powerful  rhythm^  and  moved  as  bv  a  Divine  spell  to 
follow  the  leaders.  Again,  the  bishops  who  have  per- 
ac^aaUy  contributed  to  the  definitions  have,  in  that 
fsfit,  an  incentive  to  zeal  in  publishing  them  and  en^ 
forcing  them  in  their  dioceses;  nay  the  council  itself 
is  an  effective  beginning  of  its  execution  or  enforce- 
ment in  praotice.  For  this  reason  alone,  the  holdiog 
of  most  Eastern  councils  was  a  moral  necessity;  the 
great  distance  between  East  and  West,  the  difficulty 
of  commutiication,  the  often  keen  opposition  of  the 
Orientals  to  Old  Rome  made  a  solemn  promulgation  of 
the  definitions  on  the  ^pot  more  than  desirable.  No 
aids  to  effectiveness  were  to  be  neglected  in  that  cen- 
tre of  heresies. 

These  cansiderations  further  acoouikt  for  the  great 
eateem  in  which  conciliar  definitions  have  always 
been  hekl  in  the  Church,  and  for  the  great  authority 
the^  universally  enjoyed  withoutany  detriment  to,  or 
diminution  of,  the  authority  of  the  Apostolic  See. 
.  From  of  old  it  has  been  customarjr  to  place  side  by 
side,  in  the  rule  of  faith,  th^  authorit)^  of  the  eouncik 
and  that  of  the  popes  as  substantiall>r  the  same. 
Thus,  we  read  in  tne  formula,  or  profession  of  faith, 
imposed  by  Pope  Hormisdas  (514-23)  on. the  East- 
ern bishops  implicated  in  the  schism  of  Acacius: 
''llie  first  [step  towards]  salvation  is  to  keep  the  rule 
of  orthodox  [rec/iE]  faith  and  in  no  wise  to  deviate 
from  the  constitutions  of  the  Fathers  [Le.  counoilsj. 
But  tho  words  of  Our  Lord  to  St.  Peter  (Thou  art 
Peter  .  *  .  )  cannot  be  passed  over,  for  what  He  said 
has  been  verified  by  the  events,  since  in  the  Apostolic 
See  the  Catholic  religion  has  always  been  preserved 
Without  spot  or  stain.  Wishing  by  no  m^ns  tQ  be 
separated  from  this  hope  and  faith,  and  following  the 
constitutions  of  the  Fathers,  w)d  anathematise  all 
heresies,  especially  the  heretic  Nestorius»  in  his  time 
Bishop  of  Ck>nstantinople,  wh^. was  condemned  in  the 
Qoun<»l  of  Ephesus  by  Blessed  OelesUi^e,  P<»pe  of 
^tome,  and  by  Cyril,  Bishop  of  Alexandria  ^  .  .  We 
faoeive  and  anpi^aif^ .  all  the  letters  of  Lieo^  Pope, 


which  he  wrote  conoeming  the  Christiaii  vriigioB,  as 
we  have  stated  before,  foUowinff  in  all  tilings  the 
Apostolic  See  and  professing  [pnesafcan^]  all  its  con- 
stitutions. And  therefore  I  hope  to  be  worthy  to  be 
with  you  [the  pope]  in  tiie  one  commumoa  whSoh  thisi 
Apostolic  See  professes,  in  which  lies  the  entire,  vera- 
cious, and  pesMseful  solidity  of  the  Christian  rdUgion* 
• . ."  It  should  be  noted  that  in  this  formula  the  in* 
fallibility  of  the  Apostolic  See  is  tiie  centre  from  which 
radiates  the  inf  aliibility  of  the  ooimoils. 

X  SUBJEXTT  Matter  ot  Infalz^ibilixt. — Hie  sub- 
ject mattar  of  inf allibfli^,  or  supfeme  judicial  author- 
ity, is  found  in  the  defimtions  and  decrees  of  oouneils, 
and  ui  them  alone,  to  the  exeluskm  of  the  theologioal, 
sdentifie,  or  historical  reasons  upon  which  th^  are 
built  up.  These  represent  too  mxxth  of  the  human 
element,  of  transient  mentalities,  of  personal  interests 
to  claim  the  promise  of  infallibility  made  to  the 
Church  as  a  whole;  it  is  the  sense  of  the  unchangins 
Church  that  is  infallible,  not  the  sense  of  individual 
churchmen  of  any  a^  or  exceUeoce,  and  thai  sense 
finds  ezpreasion  odiy  m.tlie  oonciusions  of  the  eoundl 
approved  b^  the  pope.  Decieionr  tefening  to  dogma 
were  called  m  the  East  iMrvrt^irctf  (coostitut^one,  stat- 
utes); those  ooncemed  with  discipline  wne  termed 
Kaw6ptt  (canons,  rulesX  often,  with  the  addition  of 
rift  c^ro^laf  (of  discipline,  or  good  order).  The  ex- 
pressions Bwftol  and  Bp9i  apply  to  both,  and  the  short 
f  ormulse  of  condemnation  were  known  as  ^vaBtftamvpol 
(anathemas). 

In  the  West.no  careful  distinction  of  terms  was  ob- 
served: canoAss  and  (iecfitfto  signify  both  dogniatic  and 
diseiplinaiy  decisions.  The  Council  of  Trent  styled 
its  disciplinary  edicts  4ficnita  de  refarmaHone;  its  dog- 
matic definitions  deeretat  without  qualification^  where 
they  positively  assert  the  points  of  faith  then  in  dis- 
pute, and  canowa  when,  in  isaitatkxi  of  the  ancient 
anathematismS)  they  imposed  an  anaihema  sii  on 
those  that  refused  assent  to  the  defined  propositions. 
An  epinlon  too  absurd  to  require  refutation  metends 
that  only  these  latter  canons  (with  the  attaohed  ana- 
themas) contain  the  peremptory  judgment  of  the 
council  demanding  unquestioned  submission*  Equallv 
absurd  is  the  opimon,  sometimes  recklessly  advaneed^ 
that  the  Tridentine  capita  are  no  more  than  explana- 
tions of  the  camme$,  not  proper  definitions;  the  ooun- 
cil  itself}  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  e^  chapter,  de- 
clares them  to  contain  the  rule  of  faith.  Thus  Sesnoa 
XIII  be^:  "The  Holy  Synod  forbids  to  all  the 
faithful  in  future  to  believe,  teach,  or  preadi  concern- 
ing the  Hol^  £ucharist  otnerwise  than  is  explained 
and  defined  m  Uie  present  decree",  and  it  ends:  "  As, 
however^  it  is  npt  enough  to  si)eak  the  truth  without 
discovenng  and  ref atins|  eiYor,  it  has  pleased  the  Holv 
Synod  to  subjoin  the  following  canons,  so  that  all, 
now  knowing  the  CathoUc  doctrine»  may  also  under- 
stand what  heresies  they  have  to  beware  as^nat  and 
avoid. "  The  same  remark  applies  to  the  ehapters  of 
the  Vatican  Council  in  its  two  Constitutions,  as  appeals 
from  the  concluding  words  of  the  proaemium  of  the  first 
Constitution  and  from  the  initial  phrasesof  most  chap- 
ters. All  that  may  be  conceded  is  that  the  chapters 
of  both  councils  contain  the  dodrimi  caihoUca,  Le.  the 
authorized  teachh^  of  the  Church,  but  not  alwavs  and 
invariably  dogmata  formalia,  i.e.  propositionB  of  faith 
defined  as  such. 

XL  Promulgation. — ^Promulgation  of  oonoDiar 
decrees  is  necessary  because  they  are  laws,  and  no  law 
is  binding  until  it  has  been  brought  unmistakably  to 
the  knowledge  of  all  it  intends  to  bind.  The  decrees 
are  usually  promulgated  in  the  name  of  the  sjmod 
itself;  in,  cases  of  the  pope  pvesiding  in  person  they 
*have  also  be^n, published  in  the  form  of  papal  dejcrees 
with  the  forzqula:  ■  sacrA  un%ver9Qli  aynoJa  approbanU, 
This  was  done  first  at  the  Third  Lateran  Council,  Uien 
at  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  I,»»|enMi^  mi  fUso  partly  at  the 
Council  of  CoQstanoer 


OOUHSEU 


435 


C0II1I8KL8 


XII.  Is  A  Council  Above  tbb  Popsf — ^Tbe  Coun- 
cUs  of  Constance  and  of  Basle  have  affirmed  with 
^reat  emphasis  that  an  oeoumenical  council  is  superior 
in  authority  to  the  pope,  and  French  theologians  have 
adopted  that  proposition  as  one  of  the  famous  four 
Gallican  Liberties.  Other  theologians  affirmed,  and 
still  affirm,  that  the  pope  is  above  any  general  council. 
The  leading  exponents  of  the  Gallican  doctrine  are: 
Dupin  (1657-1719),  professor  at  the  Sorbonne  in 
Paris  ("Dissertatio  de  concilii  generalis  supra  Ro- 
manum  Pontificem  auctoritate'\  in  his  book  on  the 
ancient  discipline  of  the  Church,  ''De  antique  £o- 
clesisD  discipline  dissertationes  histories");  >uul 
Natalis  Alexander,  O.  P.  (Id39~1724),  in  the  ninth 
volume  of  his  ereat  ''Historia  Ecdesiastica"  (Diss. 
iv  ad  ssBculum  XV).  On  the  other  side  Lucius  Fer- 
raris (Bibliotheca  Canonica,  s.  v.  Concilium)  and 
Roncaglia,  editor  and  corrector  of  Natalis  Alexander's 
history,  stoutly  defend  the  papal  superiority.  Hefele, 
after  carefully  weighing  the  main  arguments  of  the 
Gallioans  (vis.  that  Pope  Martin  V  approved  the 
declaration  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  and  Pope 
Gugene  IV  the  identical  declaration  of  the  Council 
of  Basle,  affirming  the  superiority  of  an  cecumenical 
svnod  over  the  pope),  concluded  that  both  popes,  in 
the  interests  of  i>eace,  approved  of  the  councils  in 
general  terms  which  might  imply  an  approbation  of 
the  point  in  question,  but  that  i^ither  Martin  nor 
£ugene  ever  intended  to  acknowledge  the  superiority 
of  a  council  over  the  pope.  (See  Hefele^  Concilien- 
geschidite,  I,   60-64.) 

The  principles  hitherto  set  forth  BuppLy  a  complete 
solution  to  tne  controversy.  General  councils  repre- 
sent the  Church ;  the  pope  therefore  stands  to  them 
in  the  same  relation  as  ne  stands  to  the  Church.  But 
that  relation  is  one  of  neither  superiority  nor  inferior- 
ity, but  of  intrinsic  cohesion:  the  pope  is  neither  above 
nor  below  the  Church,  but  in  it  as  the  centre  is  in 
the  circle,  as  intellect  and  will  are  in  the  soul.  By  tak- 
ing our  stand  on  the  Scriptural  doctrine  that^  the 
Church  is  the  mystical  body  of  Christ  of  which'  the 
pope  is  the  visible  head,  we  see  at  once  that  a  coun- 
cil apart  from  the  pope  is  but  a  lifeless  trunk,  a 
''rump  parliament'',  no  matter  how  well  attended  it 
be. 

XIII.  Can  a  Council  Depose  the  Pope? — ^This 
Question  is  a  legitimate  one,  for  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  circumstances  have  arisen  in  which  several 
pretenders  contended  for  papal  authority  and  coun- 
cils were  called  upon  to  remove  certain  claimants. 
The  Councils  of  G[>nstance  and  Basle,  and  Gallican 
theologians,  hold  that  a  council  may  depose  a  pope 
on  two  main  grounds:  (l)  ob  mares  (for  nis  conduct 
or  behaviour,  e.  g.  his  resistance  to  the  synod);  (2)  ob 
fidem  (on  account  of  his  faith  or  rather  want  of  faith, 
i.  e.  heresy).  In  point  of  fact,  however,  heresy  is  the 
only  legitimate  ground.  For  a  heretical  pope  has 
ceased  to  be  a  member  of  the  Church,  and  cannot, 
therefore,  be  its  head.  A  sinful  pope,  on  the  other 
hand,  remains  a  member  of  the  (visible)  Church  and 
is  to  oe  treated  as  a  sinful,  unjust  ruler  for  whom  we 
must  pray,  but  from  whom  we  may  not  withdraw  our 
obedience. 

But  the  ouestion  assumes  another  aspect  when  a 
munber  of  claimants  pretend  to  be  the  rightful  occu- 
pants of  the  Apostolic  See,  and  the  right  of  each  is 
doubtful.  In  such  a  case  the  council,  according  to 
Bellarmine  (Disputationes,  II,  xix,  dc  Conciliis)  has 
a  ri^t  to  examine  the  several  claims  and  to  depose 
the  pretenders  whose  claims  are  unfounded.  This 
was  done  at  the  Synod  of  Constance.  But  during  this 
process  of  examination  the  synod  is  not  yet  oecumeni- 
cal; it  onl)r  becomes  so  the  moment  the  rightful  pope 
assents  to  its  proceedings.  It  is  evident  that  this  is 
no  instance  of  a  legitimate  pope  being  deposed  by  a 
legitimate  council,  but  simply  the  removal  of  a  pre- 
tender by  those  oi)  whom  he  wishes  to  impose  his  will. 


Not  even  John  XXIII  could  have  been  deposed  at 
Constance,  had  his  election  not  been  doubiful  and 
himself  suspected  of  heresy.  John  XXIII,  moreover, 
abdicated  and  by  his  abdication  made  his  removal 
from  the  Apostolic  See  lawful.  In  all  controversies 
and  eomplamts  r^arding  Rome  the  rule  laid  down  by 
the  Ei^th  General  Synod  should  never  be  lost  sight 
of:  ^'If  a  universal  synod  be  assembled  and  any 
ambiguity  or  oontroversv  arise  concerning  the  Holy 
Church  of  the  Romans,  the  question  should  be  exam- 
ined and  solved  with  due  reverence  and  veneration, 
in  a  spirit  of  mutual  helpfulness;  no  sentence  should 
be  audaciously  pronounced  against  the  supreme  pon- 
tiff of  the  elder  Rome"  (ean.  xzi,  Hefele,  IV,  421-22). 
ScBBEBSN  wrote  oopiously  atul  learnedly  in  defence  of  the 
Vatican  Council;  his  article  in  the  Kirchenlexicont  written  in 
1883,  oontalns  the  marrow  of  hie  previous  writinm,  while 
Hsfkub'b  Hi&lory  of  the  CouncOa  is  tne  standard  work  on  the 
subject.  For  a  deeper  study  of  the  eoundls  a  good  collection 
of  the  Ada  Coneiliorum  is  indispensable.  The  firet  ever  printed 
was  the  very  imperfect  one  of  Merlin  (Pkris,  1623).  A  sec-v 
ond  and  richer  collection,  by  the  Belgian  Francieean  l^vrmti 
CRA.BBE,  appeared  in  1538  i^  Oologne,  in  3  vols.  Completer 
editions  were  published  as  time  went  on:  Sxtriub  (Coiosne, 
1567,  5  vols.);  Boianub  (Venice,  1585,  5  vols.);  Binitjb  (Col- 
ore, 1006),  with  historical  and  expUnatoiy  notes  from  Baro- 
nius — ^republished  1618,  and  in  PariSj  1636,  in  9  vols.;  the 
Roman  collection  of  general  councils  with  Greek  text,  arranoed 
by  the  Jesuit  Sirmond  (1608-1612),  in  4  vols. — each  councfl  is 
preceded  by  a  short  history.  On  Bellannine's  advice  Biimand 
omitted  the  Acta  of  tf  "  *  *  ' 
tion  is  the  foundation 


omitted  the  Aote  of  the  Synod  of  Basle.  This  Roman  collec- 
tion is  the  foundation  of  all  that  followed,  first  among  these 
is  the  Paris  CoUectio  Regie,  in  37  vols.  (1644).    Then  comes  the 


Still  completer  collection  oi  the  Jesmts  Labsb  and  CossAsr 
(Paris,  1674).  in  17  folio  vols.,  to  which  Balxtze  added  a  supple- 
mentary volume  (Paris,  1683  and  1707).  Host  French  authors 
Suote  from  Labbe-Balues.  Yet  another  and  better  edition  is 
ue  to  the  Jesuit  Habdouin;  it  is  of  all  the  moet  perfect  and 
serviceable.  Manbi — later  Archbishop  of  Lucca,  his  native 
town — with,  the  help  of  many  Italian  scholars,  brought  out  a 
new  collection  of  31  volumes,  which,  had  it  been  finished,  wotiM 
have  sarpASBed  all  its  predeeeeson  in  merit.  Unfortunately  it 
only  comes  down  to  the  fifteenth  century,  and,  bein^  unfinished, 
has  no  indexes.  To  fill  this  gap.  Welter,  a  Pans  publisher, 
took  up  (1900)  the  new  collection  proposed  (1870)  by  V.  Palm^. 
To  a  facsimile  reprint  of  the  31  volumes  of  M akbi  (Florenoe- 
Venice,  1757-^1797)  he  added  19  supplementary  volumes,  fur- 
nishing the  necmsary  indexes,  etc.  Tne  Acta  ei  Decreta  tacrorum 
eoneHionint  recentiorumCoUeetio  Laeenais  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1876- 
90).  published  by  the  Jesuits  of  Maria-Leach,  extends  from 
1682  to  1869.  An  English  translation  of  Hefble's  standard 
History  of  the  Chriatian  CounciU,  by  W.  R.  Cuirk,  was  com- 
menced in  1871  (Edinbunh  and  London);  a  French  tianslBtion 
by  the  Benedictines  of  Famboroogh  is  also  in  oourae  of 
publication  (Paris,  1907).  Among  the  latest  authors  treating 
of  councils  are  Wbbnz,  Ju»  Decretalium  (Rome,  1899},  I,  II; 
Ojettt,  Synopsis  rerum  moralium  et  juris  eanontci,  s.  v. 
Concilium. 

J.   WlLHBUi. 

Ooniiflals,  Evangelical  (or  Counsels  of  Pebfec- 
tion). — Christ  in  the  Gospels  laid  down  certain  rules  of 
life  and  conduct  which  must  be  practised  by  eveiy 
one  of  His  followers  as  the  necessary  condition  for  at- 
taining to  everlasting  life.  These  precepts  of  the 
Go^Tel  practically  consist  of  the  Decalogue,  or  Ten 
Conunandments,  of  the  Old  Law,  interpreted  in  the 
sense  of  the  New.  Besides  these  precepts  which  must 
be  obsenred  by  all  under  pain  ot  eternal  damnatloD, 
He  also  taught  certain  principles  which  He  expresslv 
stated  were  not  to  be  considered  as  bindine  upon  all, 
or  as  necessary  conditions  without  which  neaven 
could  not  be  attained,  but  rather  as  counsels  for  those 
who  desired  to  do  more  than  the  minimum  and  to  aim 
at  Christian  perfection,  so  far  as  that  can  be  obtained 
here  upon  earth.  Thus  (Matt.,  xix,  16  so.)  when  the 
young  man  asked  Him  what  he  should  do  to  obtain 
eternal  life,  Christ  bade  him  to  ''keep  the  command- 
ments'*. That  was  all  that  was  necessary  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  word,  and  by  thus  keeping  the  com- 
mands which  God  had  given  eternal  life  could  be  ob- 
tained. But  when  the  young  man  pressed  further, 
Christ  told  him :  "  If  thou  wilt  be  perfect,  go  sell  what 
thou  hast,  and  give  to  the  poor''.  So  again,  in  the 
same  chapter,  He  speaks  of  '^eunudns  who  have  miMie 
themselves  eunuchs  for  the  kingdom  Of  heaven",  and 
added,  **  He  that  can  receive  H, let  him  receive  it". 

This  distinction  between  the  precepts  of  the  Gospel 


OOUSTSBPOIMT 


436 


OOUSTEBPOIMT 


whiob  aie  binding  on  all,  and  the  counsels,  which  are 
'the  subject  of  the  vocation  of  the  comparativelv  few, 
has  ever  been  maintained  by  the  Catholic  Church.  It 
has  been  denied  by  heretics  in  all  ages,  and  especially 
by  many  Protestants  in  the  sixteenth  and  following 
centuries,  on  the  ground  that,  inasmuch  as  all  Chris- 
tians are  at  all  times  bound,  if  they  would  keep  God's 
Commandments,  to  do  their  utmost,  and  even  so  will 
fall  short  of  perfect  obedience,  no  distinction  between 
precepts  and  counseb  can  rightly  be  made.  The  op- 
ponents of  the  Catholic  doctrine  base  their  opposition 
on  such  texts  as  Luke,  xvii,  10,  '^  When  ye  have  done 
all  that  is  commanded  you,  say,  we  are  unprofitable 
servants".  It  is  impossible,  they  say,  to  keep  the 
Commandments  adequately.  To  teach  further  "  coun- 
sels" involves  either  the  absurdity  of  advisine  what 
is  far  beyond  all  human  capacity,  or  else  the  im- 
piety of  minimizing  the  commands  of  Almighty  God. 
The  Catholic  doctnne,  however,  founded,  as  we  have 
seen,  upon  the  words  of  Christ  in  the  Gospel,  is  also 
supported  by  St.  Paul.  In  I  Cor.,  vii,  for  instance,  he 
not  only  presses  home  the  duty  incumbent  on  all 
Christians  of  keeping  free  from  all  sins  of  the  flesh,  and 
of  fulfilling  the  omigations  of  the  married  state,  if  they 
have  taken  those  obligations  upon  themselves,  but  also 
gives  his  ^'counsel"  m  favour  of  the  unmarried  state 
and  of  perfect  chastity,  on  the  0*ound  that  it  is  thus 
more  possible  to  serve  God  witn  an  undivided  alle- 
giance. Indeed,  the  danger  in  the  Earlv  Church,  and 
even  in  Apostolic  timra,  was  not  thai  the  ''counsels" 
would  be  neglected  or  denied,  but  that  they  should  be 
exalted  into  commands  of  universal  obligation,  ''for- 
bidding to  marry"  (1  Tim.,  iv,  3),  and  imposing  pov- 
erty as  a  duty  on  all. 

The  difference  between  a  precept  and  a  counsel  lies 
in  this,  that  the  precept  is  a  matter  of  necessity  while 
the  counsel  is  leit  to  the  free  choice  of  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  proposed.  It  is  fitting,  therefore,  that  the 
New  Law,  which  is  a  la^  of  liberty,  should  contain 
counsels  of  this  kind,  which  would  have  been  out  of 
place  in  the  Old  Law,  which  was  a  law  of  servitude. 
The  precepts  of  the  New  Law  have  for  their  scope  the 
brdinance  of  those  matters  which  are  essential  for  the 
obtaining  of  life  eternal — the  gift  which  it  is  the  spe- 
cial object  of  the  New  Law  to  place  within  the  reach  of 
its  followers.  But  the  counsels  show  the  means  by 
which  that  same  end  may  be  reached  jret  more  cer- 
tainly and  expeditiously.  Man  is,  in  this  life,  placed 
between  the  good  things  of  this  world  and  the  good 
things  of  eternity,  in  such  a  way  that  the  more  he  in- 
clines to  the  first  the  more  he  alienates  himself  from 
the  second.  A  man  who  is  wholly  given  up  to  this 
world,  finding  in  it  the  end  and  object  of  his  existence, 
loses  altogether  the  goods  of  etermty,  of  which  he  has 
no  appreciation.  So  in  like  manner,  the  man  who  is 
whoUv  detached  from  this  world,  and  whose  thoughts 
are  wholly  b«it  on  the  realities  of  the  world  above,  is 
taking  the  shortest  way  to  obtain  pOBsesston  of  that 
on  which  his  heart  is  fixed.  The  children  of  this 
world  are  in  their  generation  wiser  than  the  children 
of  light,  but  the  case  is  reversed  if  a  larger  view  be 
taken. 

Now  the  principal  good  things  of  this  worid  easily 
divide  themselves  into  three  classes.  There  are  the 
riches  which  make  life  easy  and  pleasant,  there  are  the 
pleasures  of  the  flesh  which  appeal  to  the  wpetites, 
and,  lastlv,  there  are  honours  and  positions  of  author- 
'^  which  delight  the  self-love  of  the  individual. 
These  three  matters,  in  themselves  often  innocent  and 
not  forbidden  to  the  devout  Christian,  may  yet,  even 
when  no  kind  of  sin  is  involved,  hold  back  the  soul 
from  its  true  aim  and  vocation,  and  delay  it  from  be- 
coming entirely  conformed  to  the  will  of  God.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  object  of  the  three  counsels  of  perfection 
to  free  the  soul  from  these  hindrances.  The  soul  may 
Indeed  be  saved  and  heaven  attained  without  follow- 
ing the  counsels;  but  that  end  will  be  reached  more 


easily  and  with  greater  certainty,  if  the  counsels  be 
accepted  and  the  soul  does  not  wholly  confine  bendf 
to  doing  that  which  is  definitely  commanded.  OaU^e 
other  hand,  there  are,  no  doubt,  individual  eases  in 
which  it  may  be  actually  necessary  for  a  person,  owing 
to  particular  circumstajioes,  to  follow  one  or  more  of 
the  counsels,  and  one  may  easily  conceive  a  case  in 
which  the  adoption  of  the  religious  life  mi^t  seem, 
humanly  speaking,  the  only  way  in  which  a  particular 
soul  coiud  be  sav^.  Such  cases,  however,  are  always 
of  an  exceptional  character.  As  there  are  ihret  great 
hindrances  to  the  higher  life,  so  also  the  oounsi^  are 
three,  one  to  oppose  each*  The  love  of  ridies  is  op- 
posed by  the  counsel  of  poverty;  the  pleasures  of  the 
flesh,  even  the  lawful  pleasures  of  holy  matrimony,  are 
excluded  by  the  counsel  of  chastity;  while  the  desire 
for  worldly  power  and  honour  is  met  by  the  counsel  of 
holy  obedience.  Abstinence  from  unlawful  indulg- 
ence in  any  of  these  directions  is  forbidden  to  all 
Christians  as  a  matter  of  precept.  The  further  volun- 
tary abstinence  from  what  is  in  itself  lawful  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  counsels,  and  such  abstinence  is  not  in  itself 
meritorious,  but  only  becomes  so  when  it  is  done  for 
the  sake  of  Christ,  and  in  order  to  be  more  free  to 
serve  Him. 

To  sum  up:  it  is  possible  to  be  rich,  and  noarried, 
and  held  in  honour  by  all  men,  and  yet  keep  the  Com- 
mandments and  to  enter  heaven.  Christ's  advice  is, 
if  we  would  make  sure  of  everiasting  life  and  desire  to 
conform  ourselves  perfectly  to  the  Divine  will,  that 
we  should  sell  our  possessions  and  give  the  proceeds 
to  others  who  are  in  need,  that  we  sfanould  live  a  life  of 
chastity  for  the  Gospel's  sake,  and,  finally,  should  not 
seek  honours  or  commands,  but  place  ourselves  under 
obedience.  These  are  the  Evangelical  Counsels,  and 
the  things  which  are  counselled  are  not  set  f  orwa^  so 
much  as  good  in  themselves,  as  in  the  li^t  of  means  to 
an  end  and  as  the  surest  and  quickest  way  of  obtaining 
everlasting  life.  (See  AscvncisM ;  MoNABnciaii ;  Rk- 
uqious  Ordsks.) 

All  writers  on  donnado  or  moral  theology  touch  on  the  sub- 
ject more  or  lees  mrectly.  The  followins  eapedaUy  may  be 
consulted:  St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol..  l-II,  Q.  c\-iii;  Il-Il, 
O.  exxiv;  Suarbz.  Opera  (ed.  1858),  XV,  p.  38;  Mionk,  Diet. 
cToeoftieume,  s.  v.;  Maiooicatus,  CommeiUeay  on  MatL  xix. 

Arthur  S.  Barnes. 

Ooonterpoint  (Lat.  contraparuium;  Ger.  Kontra- 
pufUU;  Ft.  contrepoirU;  It.  conimpwUo),  from  punc- 
turn,  ''point'' — ^as  a  note  was  form^v  called  in 
music — and  contra ^  "against'';  originaUy],  punctum 
contra  ptinctumy  or  nota  contra  notam — ''  point  against 
point",  or  ''note  against  note".  Tlie  term  counter- 
point  originated  in  the  fourteenth  centuiy,  though 
the  art  designated  by  it  had  been  practised  tor  several 
centuries  previous.  The  desire  for  harmony,  that  is, 
the  simultaneous  sounding  ¥rith  the  caniue  ^irmtts. 
tenor,  or  theme,  of  one  or  more  voices  on  different 
intervals,  first  found  expression  in  the  so-called  di- 
aphony  or  "Organum"  of  Hucbald  (840-930  or  932). 
[H.  E.  Woolridge  in  his  "Oxford  History  of  Music" 
(1901),  vol.  I,  p.  61,  quotes  from  a  treatise  "De 
divisione  nature",  by  Sootus  Erigena  (d.  880),  a 
passage,  describing  the  organwn,  which  would  indi- 
cate mat  diaphony,  even  in  contrary  motion,  was  in 
use  in  England  previous  to  Hucbald's  innovation, 
thou^  proof  of  its  general  use  in  the  British  Isles  is 
wanting.] 

In  the  twelfth  century,  in  France,  the  custom  arose, 
and  became  general  amone  singers,  of  improvising  one 
or  more  independent  melodies  above  the  liturgical 
melody,  or  carUu9  firmua.  This  was  known  as  (Uchantt 
or  diacaniua.  In  England  the  gymel,  or  canlus  genhd" 
lu8  (twin  song),  flourished  at  an  even  earlier  date. 
The  gymel  consisted  in  adding  the  interval  of  the  third 
both  above  and  below  the  canJlua  finmta,  later^  the 
third  below  was  transposed  an  octave  highex,  giving 
rise  to  the  /also-bordonef  faux^bourdon,  or  false  basa 


OOUNTBRrRErOBMATXOR 


437 


OOVHTSMCKFOEliATIOll 


All  tliese  sporadic  attempts  at  polyphony  cvdminated, 
in  the  forrteenth  century,  in  tne  addition  of  different 
m^odies  to  the  cantus  fvn.vus  in  accordance  with  well- 
formuLated  iawg  of  counterpoint  which  are  still  valid 
at  the  present  day.    The  aim  was  the  perfect  integrity 
and  independence  of  the  various  melodies  in  their 
flow^y  from  which,  of  oourse,  resulted  passing  disso- 
nances, but  these  were  continually  solved  into  conso- 
nances on  the  accented  notes  of  the  measure.    Durine 
the  course  of  the  following  century  contrapuntal  skiU 
reached  unprecedented  heights  among  both  the  nu- 
merous masters  of  the  Neth^lands  and  those  of 
En^and ;  but  it  served  its  highest  purpose  r.nd  bore 
its  ripest  fruit  in  the  Roman  school  of  the  sixteenth 
century.    The  polyphony  for  four,  five,  six,  eight,  or 
more  parts,  produced  in  that  century,  with  its  pre- 
vailing consonance  and  xmifying  and  life-giving  prin- 
cnple,  the  cantus  firmus  (generallyaGregorian  melody), 
is.  in  a  sense,  an  image  of  the  congrc^tion  or  of  the 
Church  itself.    We  have  unity  in  variety:  each  voice 
mnging  its  own  melody  and  still  harmonising  with 
every  other  voice,  just  as  every  member  of  the  Church 
aspires  tp  the  same  ideal  according  to  his  own  nature 
and  capacity.    When  monodv  came  into  fashion  at 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  study  knd  practice  of  coun- 
terpoint was  almost  entirely  neglected,  but  it  received 
a  new  and  wonderful  development  at  the  hands  of 
H^ndd  and  Bach.    For  a  time  contrapuntal  art 
served  masters  other  than  the  Church  and  her  littvgy. 
but  with  the  revived  observance  of  her  laws  in  regard 
to  music,  and  with  the  study  and  revival,  during  the 
past  sixty  years,  of  her  greatest  musical  treasures, 
counterpoint  in  accordance  with  its  original  principles^ 
has  come  into  its  own  again  and  is  bearing  fruit  as  it 
did  of  yore, 

Ambbas,  Getehukteder  Mtuik  (Leipiig.  1881),  HI;  Hibuank. 
Handbuck  der  Munkoeschichte  (Leipsig.  1907).  II.  pi.  I;  Hai/- 
u:r.  KamptmtumaUhre  (Ratisbon,  1890) ;  Dehm.  Lekrt  vom 
Cordrapunkt  (Berlin,  2883).  JOSEPH  Otten. 

Ooanter-Reformation,  The. — ^The  subject  wHl  be 
considered  under  the  following  heads:  I.  Significance  of 
the  term;  II.  Low  ebb  of  Catholic  fortunes;  III.  St. 
Ignatius  and  the  Jesuits,  pioneers  of  the  new  move- 
ment; IV.  The  Council  of  Trent;  V.  Three  great 
reforming  popes;  VI.  The  missions;  VII.  Progress 
in  European  States;  VIII.  Ecclesiastical  literature; 
IX.  Close  of  the  period  and  retrospect. 

I.  SiaNiPiCANCB  OF  THE  Term. — ^Thc  term  Counter' 
Reformation  denotes  the  period  of  Catholic  revival 
from  the  pontificate  of  Pope  Pius  IV  in  1560  to  the 
dose  of  the  Thirty  Yeara'  War,  1648.  The  name, 
though  long  in  use  among  Protestant  historians,  has 
only  recently  been  introduced  into  Catholic  hand- 
books. The  consequence  is  that  it  already  has  a 
meaning  and  an  application,  for  which  a  wqrd  with  a 
different  nuance  should  perhaps  have  been  chosen. 
For  in  the  first  place  the  name  suggests  that  the 
Catholic  movement  came  after  the  Protestant; 
whereas  in  truth  the  reform  originallv  began  in  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  Luther  was  a  Catholic  Reformer 
before  he  became  a  Protestant.  By  becoming  a  Prot- 
estant Refonner,  he  did  indeed  hinder  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Catholic  reformation,  but  he  did  not  stop 
it.  It  continued  to  gain  headway  in  the  Catholic 
South  tmtil  it  was  strong  enough  to  meet  and  roll 
back  the  movement  from  the  North.  Even  if  our 
Catholic  refonn  had  been  altogether  posterior  to  the 
Protestant,  we  could  not  admit  that  our  reform  move- 
ment owed  its  motive  power  or  its  line  of  action  to 
the  latter,  in  the  way  that  modem  reform  movements 
amon^  Orientals  are  due  to  the  influence  of  Euro- 
peanthought.  For  the  principles  of  the  Protestant 
Refonnatk)n  are  to  Catholics  principles  leading  to 
drformation  and  to  the  perpetuation  of  abuses,  such 
as  the  subservience  of  Church  to  State,  or  the  mar* 
riage  of  the  clergy,  to  say  nothing  of  doctrinal  eiror* 


Both  the  continuance  and  correction  of  the  same  abuse 
ciinnot  be  due  to  the  same  movement.  Moreover,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  Catholic  reform  was  not  even 
originally  due  to  reaction  from  Ptt>te8tantism,  in  the 
wa>[  in  which  inert  nations  are  sometimes  spurred  by 
initial  defeats  to  increased  energy,  which  in  the  end 
may  oven  make  them  victork)us.  Tliou^  this  reac- 
tion undoubtedlv  had  its  effect  on  certain  Catholic 
reformers,  it  had  little  or  no  influence  on  the  leadens 
or  on  the  best  representatives  of  the  movement,  as, 
for  instance,  on  St.  Ignatius,  its  pioneer,  or  on  St. 
Philip  Neri  and  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  exemplars  of  its 
maturity. 

Another  point  to  be  noticed  is  that,  though  we 
assijgn  certain  dates  for  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
period  under  consideration,  there  has  never  been  any 
break  in  the  striving  of  the  Church  against  the  heresies 
which  arose  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  this  sense 
the  CounteivR^ormation  began  in  the  time  of  Luthei^ 
and  is  not  even  yet  dosed.  But  while  the  points  of 
similarity  between  this  period  and  those  which  pre- 
ceded and  followed  it  miglit  be  dwelt  upon  at  some 
length,  and  must  occasionally  be  called  to  mind,  there 
is  no  reason  for  rejecting  the  term,  or  for  denying  that 
it  corresponds  with  a  real  and  important  historical 
period.  Historical  periods,  it  will  be  remembered, 
are  never  shaiply  cut  off,  during  the  actual  course  of 
events,  from  wnat  goes  before  and  comes  after,  as  they 
are  described  in  books;  for  history  in  the  concrete  la 
always  continuous.  In  this  case  the  limits  of  the 
period  are  to  be  measured  not  by  reversals  of  reform- 
mg  policy  and  methods,  but  by  the  increased  or  de- 
creased energy  with  which  such  reformation  is  pur- 
sued. When  there  is  intense  zeal  on  the  part  of  many 
for  making  reforms,  then  is  the  "periocr'  of  reform. 
Similarly  this  ''period"  ceases  when  such  seal  be- 
comes rare,  or  only  mediocre  in  intensity,  even  thouch 
it  does  really  continue  here  and  there  m  some  indi- 
viduals  or  classes.  It  would  be  a  misrepresentation  of 
the  heroes  of  the  Counter-Reformation  to  describe 
their  reforms  as  having  differed  from  those  of  the 
older  opponents  of  Protestantism,  except  in  degree, 
in  earnestness,  thoroughness,  adaptability  to  altered 
circumstances,  etc.  Their  predecessors  had  been 
clear  in  the  condemnation  and  punishment  of  error. 
They  had  preached,  pleaded,  threatened,  even  fought, 
but  they  aid  not  remodel  their  ways  seriously  every- 
where, in  small  things  and  in  great.  They  did  not  insti- 
tute new  and  vast  schemes  of  education,  or  alter  the 
constitutions  of  their  States.  They  did  not  succeed 
in  awakening  the  enthusiasm  of  their  party,  or  in 
encoun^ging  whole  classes  to  make  heroic  sacrifices, 
or  heroic  efforts.  But  there  did  come  a  time  when 
there  was  such  heroism  on  a  large  scale,  when  whole 
classes,  as  for  instance  episcopates,  new  religious  orders, 
and  even  the  laity  (as  m  England  during  the  persecu- 
tions), were  filled  with  enthusiasm;  when  martyrs 
were  numerous;  when  great  writers,  preachers,  and 
leaders  abounded;  when  education  was  attended  to 
from  the  hi^est  motives  and  with  the  greatest  in- 
terest; when  the  old  duties  of  life  were  dischaiged 
with*an  alertness,  a  faith,  a  meaning  which  were  new; 
when  for  a  time  Catholic  rulers  and  whole  States  rose 
superior  to  considerations  of  self-interest. 

The  span  of  time  during  which  this  enthusiasm 
lasted  may  be  justly  considered  as  an  historical 
period,  and  it  is  that  which  we  call  the  period  of  the 
Counter^Reformation.  It  may  also  be  well  to  note 
at  the  outset  that  this  period  is  the  harder  to  follow, 
not  only  because  of  its  continuity  with  previous  a&d 
succeeding  periods,  but  also  because  It  did  not  com- 
mence or  end  at  the  same  time  in  any  two  countries, 
and  in  each  land  began,  grew  strong,  and  di<Kl  away, 
through  different  causes,  m  different  ways  and  de- 
grees, and  at*  different  times.  Broadly  considered, 
however,  the  dates  assigned  above  will  be  shown  to 
be  perfectly  accurate. 


OOUMTlBrREFOEMATION 


438 


OOUMTlBrBSroaiiAniMI 


II.  Low  Ebb  of  Catholic  Fortunes. — ''From  the 
time  of  St.  Peter  there  has  not  been  a  pontificate  so 
unfortimate  as  mine.  How  I  regret  the  past!  Pray 
for  me. "  Such  were  the  sad  words  of  Pope  Paul  I V 
to  Father  Laynez,  as  he  lay  dying  in  Augusti  1569 
(OUver  Manare,  Commentarius  de  rebus  Soc.  Jesu, 
Florence,  1886, 125).  It  never  looks  daricer,  it  is  said, 
than  just  before  dawn;  the  prospects  of  Catholicism 
at  Ihat  moment  did  indeed  seem  ^oomy  to  the  watch- 
eiB  in  the  Vatican.  Luigi  Mocemgo,  Venetian  ambas- 
sador at  Rome,  sent  thence  to  the  seipnory  this  report 
on  the  situation:  ''In  many  countries,  obedience  to 
the  pope  has  almost  ceased,  and  matters  are  becoming 
so  critical  that,  if  God  does  not  interfere,  they  will 
soon  be  desperate  .  .  .  Germany  .  .  .  leaves  little 
hope  of  being  cured.  Poland  is  in  almost  as  hopeless 
a  state.  The  disorders  which  have  just  lately  taken 
place  in  France  and  Spain  are  too  well  known  for  me 
to  speak  of  them,  ana  the  Kingdom  of  England  .  .  . 
after  returning  a  short  time  since  to  her  old  obedience, 
has  again  fallen  into  heresy.  Thus  the  spiritual  power 
of  the  pope  is  so  straitened  that  the  only  remeay  is  a 
council  simomoned  by  the  common  consent  of  all 
princes.  Unless  this  reduces  the  affairs  of  religion 
to  order,  a  grave  calamity  is  to  be  feared."  Another 
Venetian  diplomatist  (and  these  men  were  reckoned 
among  tiie  most  acute  of  their  day)  wrote  not  long 
after,  that  Cardinal  Morone,  when  leaving  for  the 
council,  told  him  that  "there  was  no  hope^  (Alb^ri, 
Relasioni  degli  ambasciatori  Veneti,  1859,  II,  iv,  22, 
82).  Though  Morone's  prophecv  was  soon  falsified 
by  l^e  events  about  to  be  described,  his  words  must 
be  considered  as  conclusive  proof  that  even  the  brav* 
est  and  best-informed  in  Rome  regarded  the  situation 
with  profound  discouragement,  8^  it  will  be  worth 
while  to  seek  an  explanation  by  goine  back  to  Mo- 
cenigo's  words.  At  the  same  time,  without  attempt- 
ing an  account  of  the  Reformation  itself,  notice  may 
be  taken  of  what  had  hitherto  been  done  in  ordor  to 
stem  the  religious  revolution. 

Oennany, — Even  before  the  Protestant  Reformsr 
tion  the  holding  of  synods  and  provincial  councils  had 
been  frequent,  and  uiey  had  always  been  attentive  to 
points  requiring  reform.  After  it,  the  pofses  had  sent 
thither  a  succession  of  le^tes  and  nuncios,  sudi  as 
Aleander,  Campeggio,  Cajetan,  Contarini^  Morone, 
who  had  upon  tne  whole  been  men  of  conspicuous  sin- 
cerity, vigour,  and  prudence.  There  had  also  been 
found  among  the  German  Catholics  many  men  of 
splendid  eloquence  and  zeal,  of  holy  life  and  ceaseless 
labour,  such  as  Tetzel,  Johann  von  Eck,  Miltiti, 
Nausea,  Jerome  Emser,  Julius  Pflug,  Johann  Cropper, 
who  had  striven  courageously  and  most  effect! vdy  on 
the  Catholic  side.  The  Emperor  Chaiies  V  (q.  v.) 
had  laboured  upon  the  whole  with  marked  devotion 
in  favour  of  Catholicism,  thou^^  his  Italian  policy, 
it  is  true,  had  frequently  been  repugiiant  to  the  wishes 
and  the  interests  of  the  Roman  pontiffs.  But  now  he 
was  gone,  and  his  successors,  Philip  II  of  Spain  and 
Ferdmand  of  Austria,  whether  their  eneigy  and  devo- 
tion or  the  power  which  thev  wielded  be  considered, 
were  far  inferior  to  him  as  cnampions  and  protectors 
of  Catholicism*  There  had,  of  course,  been  some,  in- 
deed many,  improvements  on  the  Catholic  side.  The 
Gennan  episcopate,  once  so  worthless,  now  numbered 
many  noble  oharactom,  of  whom  Otto  von  Truchsess, 
Bishop  of  Augsburg  axid  afterwards  cardinal,  was  the 
most  brilliant  representative.  The  I>ominican  and 
Franciscan  friars  nad  showed  from  the  first  to  advan- 
tage; always  ready  to  meet  the  foe,  they  everywhere 
enoourased  and  strengthened  the  men  of  their  own 
skie,  a^  prevented  many  defections  (see  N.  Paulus, 
Die  deutsdien  Dominikaner  im  Kampf  gegen  Luther, 
1903).  The  first  Jesuits  too  had  won  many  notable 
Bttcoesees.  Thus  while  on  the  one  hand  it  was  evident 
that  there  was  still  life  in  the  Chureh  of  Germany, 
while  there  was  no  intrinsic  impoasibility  in  eanrying 


*  further  the  good  that  had  b^un,  on  the  wliide  the  oat- 
look  was  as  dark  as  the  retrospect.  No  bulwark 
against  Protestantism  had  yet  been  found.  Attempts 
to  conclude  a  ''religious  peace"  or  an  "Intertm",  at 
the  various  dtets  of  Nuremberg,  Speyer,  RatisboD, 
and  Augsburg  seemed  to  effect  nothing  better  than  to 
^ve  the  Protestants  breathing  time  for  fresh  organ- 
ization, and  so  prepare  the  way  for  new  attacks  and 
victories.  The  Turks  were  pressing  on  Hungarv  and 
Austria  from  the  south-east;  the  French,  allying 
themsdves  with  the  Reformers,  had  invaded  the  Ger- 
man West,  and  had  annexed  the  ''three  bishoprics" 
Metz,  Verdun,  and  Toul.  Charles  had  then  made 
larpe  sacrifices  to  get  the  Protestants  to  agree  to  "  the 
religious  peace  of  Augsbui^"  (1555),  in  order  to  com- 
bine all  forces  against  france.  The  allianoe  was 
made,  but  was  unsuccessful;  the  French  retained 
their  conquests;  Charles  retreated;  the  power  of 
Catholic  Germany  seemed  to  be  under  an  eclipse. 
Mocenko  might  well  say  that  ''Germany  leaves  little 
hope  of  beiiur  cured". 

Poland,-^^Fo\»iid  is  in  almost  as  hopeless  a  state/' 
Protestantism  had  latteriy  gained  dt>und  rapidly. 
In  1555  a  ''national  synod"  had  been  neld,  whioi  had 
requested  the  marri^  of  priests,  Cooununion  under 
both  kinds,  Mass  in  Polish,  the  aJx^ishment  of  "  an- 
nates". Such  demands  had  but  too  often  proved  the 
forerunners  of  a  lapse  to  Protestantism,  and  in  fact  in 
1557  the  weak  King  Sigismund  Augustus  had  allowed 
"liberty"  of  conscience  in  Danzig  and  some  other 
towns.  There  were  waverers  evexk  among  the  deigy 
and  the  bishops,  like  James  Uchanski,  Ardibisbop  of 
Gnesen  and  Prixnate  of  Poland  in  1562.  Fortunately 
the  evil  was  not  yet  deeply  rooted  in  the  eountry. 
There  had  been  no  sweeping  confiscations  of  diurch 
property,  nor  apostasies  among  the  actual  rulers. 
The  great  bishop  and  cardinal,  Stanislas  Hosius,  was 
rising  to  fame,  and  behind  him  stood  a  number  of 
zealous  clergy,  who  would  in  due  time  renew  the  face 
of  the  Church.  Still  for  the  moment  the  state  of  the 
country  was  very  serious.  (See  Krause,  Die  Ref- 
ormation und  Gegenreform.  im  ehemaligen  KOnig- 
reiche  Polen,  Posen,  1^10 

France  and  Spain, — "Tne  disorders  in  France  and 
&>ain  are  too  well  known  for  me  to  speak  of  them. " 
Ine  first  open  revolt  of  the  Huguenots,  styled  the 
Tumuile  d^AmboiWt  had  taken  place  iust  before  Mo- 
cenigo  wrote.  Hitherto,  France  though  allying  herself 
with  the  heretics  of  Germany,  had  preserved  her  own 
religious  peace.  But  the  converts  to  Protestantism 
were  numerous  and  well  organized,  and  counted  not 
a  few  of  the  hi^est  nobility  and  of  the  blood  royal, 
especially  princes  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  to  which 
the  crown  was  destined  to  fall  ere  very  long.  The 
ruUng  sovereign,  Francis  II,  was  but  a  boy,  and 
thouSi  for  the  moment  the  House  of  Lorraine  and  the 
family  of  'the  Guises  brou^t  victory  to  the  Catholics, 
the  position  was  one  of  evident  danger,  and  was  soon 
to  result  in  a  long  series  of  wars  of  religion. 

The  troubles  of  Spain  were  in  a  sense  rather  foreign 
than  domestic.  It  was  true  that  there  had  been  some 
defections,  as  Enzinas  (Dryander),  Servetus,  and 
Valdez.  Though  not  numerous,  these  had  been  suf- 
ficient to  cause  much  alarm  and  suspicion,  so  much 
so  that  the  Ardibishop  of  Toledo  himself,  Bartolora^ 
Carranza  (q.  v.)  was  put  on  his  trial.  (Cf.  Sdiafer, 
''Gesch.  des  spanischen  Prot^antismus",  Guter^ 
sloh,  1902 ;  Menendez  y  Pelayo,  **  Historia  do  los  heter- 
odoxos  Espafioles",  Madrid,  1880-82.)  TTie  proceed* 
ings  lastea  a  long  term  of  years,  but  in  the  end  noth- 
ing could  be  proved  against  him.  There  was  also 
danger  from  the  Moriscoes.  But  what  gave  most 
cause  for  anxiety  to  serious  thinkers  was  tne  linking 
of  the  Netherlands,  Naples,  and  so  many  parts  (n 
Italy  to  the  Spaniards.  The  latter  were  everywhere 
unpopular,  and  the  Reformers  were  begimiing,  espe- 
pecially  in  the  Netherlands,  to  pose  as  patriots,  with 


ooxTmsa-RXFOBMAnoy 


489 


OMnmB-BBFORMATIOH 


nssults  veiy  unfortunate  for  Catholicism.  For  in- 
atanoe.  King  Philip  had  arranged  with  the  Holy  See 
in  1550  for  certain  changes  in  the  Flemish  sees.  Meqh* 
lio»  Caonbrai,  and  Utrecht  were  naade  archfoishoprics, 
and  fourteen  smaller  districts  were  formed  into  bish- 
>pricflL  This  measure,  wise  and  commendable  in 
ttaelf ,  was  badly  received  when  it  came  from  Spanish 
rulers.  The  zedistribution  of  benefices,  which  had  to 
be  made  in  order  to  endow  the  new  sees,  caused  com- 
plaints which  grew  constantly  k>uder,  and  in  the 
end  proved  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  revolt  of  the 
Netherlands. 

EngUxni, — Of  all  the  countries  of  Europe  none 
changed  sides  with  such  appalling  facility  Us  England* 
At  fint  she  had  seemed  tne  least  lik^  of  any  to  re- 
volt.    She  had  been  peaceful  and  contented;  the  ob-^ 
servanee  of  the  canons  compared  favourably  with  that 
in  many  other  countries;  her  king  was  emphatically 
on  the  side  of  the  Church,  until  "^  the  Qoapel  light 
first  shined  in  Boleyn's  eves''.    Then  it  wsa  found 
that  the  absolute  power  ot  the  sovereign  was  eamly 
greater  than  an^  other  force  in  the  realm.     There 
were   aome  glorious  martyrs  (see  Fishbr;  HoiniB- 
ton;  More)  and,  in  general,  sufficient  resistance  to 
show  that  the  country,  aa  a  whole,  ijlung  to  its  old 
faith,  and  would  never  have  diaoged  but  for  force. 
When  that  force  was  applied,  the  <mange  was  shame- 
fully rapid  and  complete.    When  Queen  Mary  gained 
the  upper  hand,  there  was  remarkably  little  difficulty 
founa  m  the  much  more  arduous  task  of  restoring  the 
old  order,  in  spite  of  the  church  property,  whidi  had 
been  confiscated,  and  had  alreadv  been  redistributed 
into  thousands  of  hands.    Only  about  two  vears  were 
available  for  the  actual  restoration  of  the  Cnurch,  and 
though  the  work  was  carried  out  in  a  way  that  was 
not  very  conciliating,  vet  the  Marian  establishment 
proved  itself  more  stable,  when  tried  in  the  fire  of 
flliaabeth's  persecution,  than  the  ancient    Church 
when  attacked  by  King  Hexirv.    In  neither  case, 
however,  could  the  Church  withstand  the  power  of 
the  Crown;  and  again  the  resistance,  though  sufficient 
to  be  reckoned  a  magnificent  protest  M^inst  the  royal 
t3rrannv,  was  entirely  inadequate  to  hinder  the  dic- 
tates of  the  Tudor  sovereign  and  her  powerful  minis- 
ters.   The  M«nan  reaction  movement  should  not  be 
reckoned  under  the  Counter-Reformation  proper,  for 
it  was  in  effect  almost  entirely  a  restoration  of  old 
methods  and  old  ideas,  and  derived  its  force  from  the 
old  religious  feelings  of  the  land.    These  had    lain 
dormant  while  beaten  down  by  overwhelming  force, 
but  rose  again  as  soon  as  that  repression  ceased. 

Scotland  and  Ireland* — These  countries  were  prob- 
ably included  by  Mocenigo  under  England,  though 
their  condition  waa  in  reality  widely  different.  Soot- 
land,  unlike  England,  was  perhaps  of  all  countries  in 
Europe  the  most  Mkely  to  take  up  the  Reformation. 
Bloody  and  incessant  feuds  had  sadly  demoralized 
monastic  life,  and  rendered  church  government  ex- 
tremeiv  diTicult,  while  the  rough  barons  had  intruded 
their  ill^timate  children  into  a  large  number  of  the 
livings,  abbacies,  and  episcopal  sees.  Yet  Scotland 
resiated  for  a  generation  the  r^onnation  which  Henry 
and  Edward  strove  with  all  their  might  to  impose 
upon  her.  Elisabeth's  efforts  were  more  subtle  and 
more  sucoessfuL  Mary  of  Quise,  Queen  Reeent  of 
Scotland,  relied  almost  entirely  upon  the  French 
anns  for  the  maintenance  of  royal  and  religious 
authority*  It  was  represented  to  the  nobility  that 
this  was  an  insult  and  an  injury  to  those  Oti  whom 
ihe  government  of  Scotland  should  naturaUy  have 
fallen,  the  House  of  Hamilton  and  the  nobility  of 
the  hind.  Moreover  the  Calvinists  in  France  had 
won  over  many  young  Scottish  soldiers  and  students 
in  Pkris,  notably  the  Eari  oi  Arran  who  stood  but  two 
or  three  steps  from  the  throne.  The  revolution  took 
place,  and  though  the  regent  might  have  held  her  own 
(f  England  had  been  neutra   there  eould  be  no  doubt 


as  to  the  issue  when  EUizabeth  actively  supported 
the  rebels  with  money,  men,  and  ships.  The  ninth 
clause  of  the  Treaty  of  Edinburgh  (6  July,  1560) 
stipulated  that  "  the  matter  of  religion  be  passed  over 
in  silence",  which  in  effect  left  to  the  Scottish  Prot- 
estants, with  England  at  their  back,  absolute  power 
to  do  what  they  liked.  The  estates  of  the  Cnurch 
were  seised  by  the  laity,  and  (exoept  in  the  inaccessi- 
ble North)  every  vestige  of  Cathonc  observance  was 
forcibly  banished  from  the  land.  It  was  the  last  na- 
tional revolt  from  the  Church,  and  was  the  more  lar 
mentable  because  of  Scotlancf's  previous  constancy. 

As  to  Irdand,  Rome  probably  knew  nothing  ex- 
cept the  darkest  features.  The  Marian  bishops  and 
indeed  all  the  Anglo-Irish  of  the  Pale  had  thrown 
in  their  lot  with  Elisabeth,  though  she  had  as  yet 
made  few  changes.  Officially  the  state  of  Ireland 
seemed  as  bad  as  that  of  England.  Communication 
with  the  Irish  beyond,  the  Pale  was  most  difficult  to 
keep  up;  it  had  probably  not  yet  been  opened. 

Scandinavia  and  Italy, — ^Mocenigo  said  nothing  of 
these  nations.  The  former  was  so  far  away  from 
Roman  influence  that  the  Counter-Reformation  never 
reached  it.  Of  the  latter  he  would  surely  have  given 
a  better  account  than  of  any  other  European  nation. 
A  couple  of  generations  backj  when  the  pagan  Renais- 
sance was  at  its  height,  it  might  have  been,  or  at  least 
seemed,  otherwise.  There  was  then  corruption  in 
high  places,  as  everyone  could  see,  but  the  miseries  of 
war  had  cheeked  the  spread  of  luzuiy,  which  had  not 
penneated  far  down  amona;  the  people,  and  better 
condition^  resulted  (Cantil,  Gli  eretwi  d'ltalia,  Turin, 
1865-67).  At  every  papal  election  better  men  were 
chosen,  and  the  College  of  Cardinals  certainly  con- 
tained nusre  enlightened  reformers  than  could  be 
foimd  in  any  other  body.  Aieander,  Contarini,  Mor- 
one,  Pole,  Sadolet  may  be  named  as  good  examples  of 
their  class.  There  were  many  admirable  prelates  like 
Gian  Matteo  Giberti,  Bishop  of  Verona.  Moreover,  sev- 
eral new  and  efficient  religious  orders  had  lately  come 
into  existence,  the  Capuchins,  Theatines,  and  Bama- 
bites,  while  St.  Jerome  Emiliani  had  formed  the  Clerics 
Regular  known  as  the  Somaachi. 

Pope  Paul  lY  (Giovanni  Pietro  Caraffa)  was  him- 
self a  representative  of  the  best  traditions  of  the  Ital- 
ian Church  immediately  before  the  Council  of  Trent. 
He  was  holy  and  sincere,  business-like  and  energetic, 
as  he  had  proved  before  his  elevation  to  the  papacy. 
But  the  virtues  of  a  great  reformer  are  not  always  the 
virtues  most  needed  in  a  ruler.  Like  St  Pius  V,  on 
eertain  occasions,  Paul  IV  was  sometimes  rash  in 
having  recourse  to  medieval  methods.  His  Bull 
against  nepotism  was  a  reform  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance, 3ret  he  was  betrayed,  in  a  great  measure  by 
nepotism,  into  the  fatal  war  against  Spain  (1557-58). 
the  fmsfortunes  and  distiurbanoes  of  which  affected 
the  cause  of  Catholicism  so  adversely  throughout 
Western  Europe.  Becauseof  this  war  Sfaiy  Tudor's 
reign  dosed  in  gloom,  the  Netherlands  were  distracted, 
intercourse  with  the  pope  was  practically  intermitted 
tor  England,  Flanders,  and  Spain,  and  the  Reformers 
in  France  maintained  that  the  evils  of  the  time  were  due 
to  the  ambition  of  the  popes.  As  soon  as  the  Peace 
of  Paris  was  concluded,  in  1559,  the  evils  which  had 
hitherto  been  working  unperceived  became  evident. 
While  England  fell  away,  followed  by  Scotland, 
France  and  the  Netherlands  were  found  to  be  deeply 
infected  by  heresy;  the  Holy  See  had  either  no  repre- 
sentatives in  those  countries  to  combat  the  evil,  or 
they  were  so  out  of  favour  as  to  have  little  or  ik) 
power.  This  explains  the  words  of  Paul  IV  on  his 
death-bed,  quoted  above,  which  so  vividly  describe 
the  unfortimate  condition  of  the  Church  at  this  mo- 
ment. 

III.  St.  Ignatius  and  thb  Jbsuits,  Pionbers  of 
THE  Nhw  Movkmpnt. — But  thou£^  Paul  IV  did  not 
advert  to  it,  tho  Catholic  reaction  had  alrea/ly  made 


0OUHnR-MUrORMA.TlO!r 


440 


OOUlVTSBpBXFOBBIAtlOir 


eonaiderable  progress.  The  number  of  ereat  men 
among  the  cardinalB,  and  the  foundation  of  the  Capu- 
chins, Theatines,  and  other  orders,  have  already  been 
mentioned  aassrmptomatio  of  the  improvement.  Then 
there  appeared  Ignatius  and  the  Jesuits,  so  conspicuous 
in  the  new  movement.  And  here  it  mav  be  well  to 
notice  how  very  different  the  evolution  of  the  Protec- 
tant Reformers  (even  of  those  who  were  most  conscien- 
tious) was  from  that  of  the  vocation  of  this  Catholic 
leader.  The  monk  Luther  and  many  like  him  began 
by  denoxmcing  abuses.  The  abuses  were  serious,  no 
doubt,  but  from  the  nature  of  the  case  abuses  in 
matters  or  of  matters  themselves  holy  and  laudable. 
Yet  so  violent  did  the  accusers  become  that  the^  grad- 
ually forgot  any  good  there  was  connected  with  t^e 
object  decried,  though  the  good  perhaps  in  reality  far 
outweighed  the  evil.  Then  came  attacks  upon  the 
persons  who  maintained  or  defended  the  thing  im- 
pugned, or  who  failed  to  make  the  changes  demanded, 
and  they  were  almost  always  declared  to  have  vir- 
tually or  actually  betrayed  or  deserted  the  Church  it- 
self. Finally  the  reformer,  setting  himself  up  as  the 
true  standard  of  orthodoxy,  fell  to  self-exaltation, 
and  at  last  rebelled  and  separated  from  the  Church, 
which  he  had  originally  intended  to  serve. 

The  aoldier,  Ignatius,  in  the  enforced  leisure  after 
his  woimd  at  Pampeluna  (1521)  bethought  himself  erf 
serving  Christ  as  a  captain.  The  idea  dowly  took 
possession  of  him  and  aroused  a  lofty  spiritual  ambi- 
tion. The  imitation  and  service  of  Chnst  were  to  be 
most  thorough.  He  would  first  educate  himself  as  well 
as  his  ace  would  allow,  become  a  priest,  induce  the 
best  of  nis  companions  to  join  him,  and  then  go 
to  the  Holy  Land  and  imitate  the  Saviour's  life  as 
literallv  and  exactly  as  possible.  This  was  a  humble 
but  sublime  ideal,  capable  of  appealing  to  and  satis* 
f ying  the  most  earnest  souls,  and  sure  to  lead  to  great 
efforts.  There  was  no  preoccupation  here  about  the 
reform  of  abuses,  nor  indeed  any  temporal  concern 
whatever,  even  the  most  praiseworthy.  For  twelve 
years  Ignatius,  now  a  middle-aged  man,  laboured  at 
the  education  and  the  sanctification  of  himself  and  of 
the  few  followers  who  threw  in  their  lot  with  him,  and 
the  plan  would  have  been  completed  as  it  had  been 
conceived,  had  not  war  with  the  Turks  kept  him  and 
his  companions  waiting  for  several  months  at  Venice, 
unable  to  proceed  to  ralestine.  Then  he  turned  to 
Rome,  which  he  reached  in  November,  1537.  and 
never  left  again.  The  servfces  of  his  small  band  of  com- 
panions were  soon  in  great  request;  they  were  the 
"  handy  men  "  of  the  hour,  with  heads  and  hearts  ready 
for  any  work.  In  a  short  time  they  had  been  heard 
of  and  seen  eveiywhere.  Though  few  in  number  they 
had  carried  the  Uospel  to  Abyssmia,  India,  and  China, 
the  ends  of  the  known  worid.  They  had  faced  ana 
fought    the   most   redoubted    heretics;     the^    had 

§  readied  to  the  poor  and  tended  the  sick  in  tlie 
arkest  purlieus  of  the  manufacturing  cities.  They 
had  not  indeed  as  ye$t  the  great  colleges  which  after- 
wards made  them  famous,  nor  did  people  feel  their 
force  as  a  corporate  body,  but  this  only  made  their 
position  as  the  pioneers,  or  advance  guard  pf  the 
Chureh.  the  more  noteworthy.  If  so  few  preachers 
could  dfo  so  much,  their  calls  on  others  to  join  in  the 
struggle  roused  multitudes  to  confidence,  energy,  and 
fresh  efforts.     (See  Socibtt  of  Jesus.) 

IV.  The  Council  or  Trent. — ^The  Council  had 
been  ori^nally  summoned  in  the  year  1537,  and  six- 
teen sessions  were  held  during  the  next  fourteen  years. 
In  1552  it  was  prorogued  for  the  third  or  fourth  thne, 
and  so  serious  were  the  quarrels  throu^out  Europe 
that  its  conclusion  was  almost  despaired  of.  "Tne 
only  remedy",  said  Mocenigo, "  is  a  council  summoned 
by  the  common  consent  of  all  princes. "  Yet  there 
was  small  chance  that  the^  factious,  overbearing 
princes  of  those  davs  would  give  up  their  own  views 
and  interests.    StUl,  for  the  common  good,  it  had  to 


be  attempted,  and  when  the  bishops  met  again  in  1661 
they  came  with  hearts  resolved  to  do  their  utmost. 
But  "the  consent  of  all  the  princes"  was  not  easr  to 
obtain.  If  th^  had  known  of  Elisabeth's  secret  deal- 
ing with  the  french  Court  (Foreign  Calendara,  1561, 
nn.  682,  684),  thev  might  have  put  a  very  sinister 
interpretation  on  the  proposals  with  whidi  Uie  Cardi- 
nal of  Lorraine  and  other  Gallk»ns  were  constantly 
interrupting  the  progress  of  business.  At  last  Osrdi- 
nal  Morone  and  the  ^urdinal  of  Lorraine  paid  personal 
visits  to  the  emperor  and  the  pope.  A  better  under- 
standing between  the  clerical  and  the  state  parties 
ensued,  and  so  the  coimcil  was  concluded,  with  much 
more  expedition  and  siitiBfaction  than  had  eeemed 
possible.  While  the  politicians  had  been  squabbling, 
the  theologians  had  been  doing  their  work  wdl,  and 
when  the  decrees  came  to  be  promulgated,  there  was 
g0neral  admiratk>n  at  the  amount  of  definition  that 
had  been  accomplished.  Though  there  had  been  so 
many  rumours  of  quarrels  and  divisions,  the  points 
on  which  all  were  agreed  were  surprisingly  numerous 
and  formed  a  Striking  contrast  to  tlie  contradictions 
and  feuds  among  the  Protestant  sects,  which  were 
becoming  ever  more  conspicuous  and  bitter.  No 
council  that  had  ever  been  held  had  pronounced  so 
clearly  nor  on  so  many  useful  points.  Moreover,  the 
Catholic  bishops  and  representatives  of  various  coun- 
tries had  come  to  know  one  another  as  never  before, 
and  when  they  separated  they  returned  to  their 
flocks  with  a  new  perception  of  ihe  unity  of  the 
Chureh,  and  edified  bv  the  sincere  holiness  of  her 
hierarchy.  From  this  time  we  find  that  a  cer- 
tain readiness  for  compromise,  and  apprehension  of 
change,  which  was  once  wioespreaa,  has  passed 
away.  Though,  for  instance,  many  had  wished  the 
laity  to  receive  the  Chalice,  in  order  to  stay  further 
defections,  and  though  the  council  and  the  Holy  See 
had  allowed  it  for  certain  cotmtries,  it  was  now  found 
that  the  concession  was  unnecessary,  and  it  was  not 
made  use  of.  The  decrees,  at  least  those  which  regarded 
doctrine,  were  everywhere  received  with  approval. 
The  disciplinary  decrees,  on  the  other  hand,  were  not 
accepted  without  serious  qualifications  by  the  Catholic 
sovereigns.  Spain  withheld  ''the  privQeges  of  the 
Spanish  Crown";  France  at  first  refused  them  alto- 
gether as  inconsistent  with  the  Gallican  Liberties,  a 
refusal  significant  of  the  danger  of  Regalism  which 
was  to  b^t  the  Chureh  of  France  for  generations  to 
come.  [Cf .  besides  the  decrees  of  the  council  (Rome, 
1564,  et  9CBp.\  the  valiiable  publication  of  the  GOrree 
Society,  ''Concflium  Tridentinum,  Diariorum,  acto- 
rum,  epistulsJTum,  Tractatuum  nova  ooUectio",  I, 
"Diariorum  pars  prima",  ed.  S.  Merkle  (Freiburg, 
1901),  and  *'Actorum  pars  prima",  ed.  S.  Ehses 
(Fk^iburg,  1904).] 

V.  Three  Great  Reformino  Popes. — The  popes 
are  as  a  rule,  and  from  the  nature  of  their  positbn, 
extremely  conservative,  but  it  was  characteristic  of 
the  Counter-Reformation  that  after  the  Council  of 
Trent  tkree  popes  of  great  reforming  energy  should 
be  elected  in  close  succession. 

(1)  SL  Fins  V. — The  great  achievement  of  this  pope 
was  the  example  which  ne  gave  of  heroic  virtue.  In 
the  language  of  the  dav,  "he  made  hb  palace  into  a 
monasteiy,  and  was  himself  a  model  of  penance, 
asceticism,  and  prayer".  He  inspired  all  about  him 
with  his  own  high  views,  and  new  life  and  strength 
were  soon  seen  m  all  parts  of  the  papal  administra- 
tion. Many  and  notorious  had  been  the  corruptions 
which  had  crept  in  during  the  reigns  of  the  easy-going 
humanistic  popes  who  had  preceded  him.  They  had 
indeed  passed  severe  laws,  after  the  fashion  of  the 
time,  hoping  to  maintain  good  order  by  occasional 
severities  ami  the  constant  dread  of  heavv  penalties, 
but  with  lax  administration  such  a  method  of  govern- 
ment produced  deplorable  results.  Pius  V  applied 
the  laws  with  an  unflinching  regularity  to  rich  and 


ooxmsnMiirwMATMm 


441 


OOUVTSB-RSFOBICATIOH 


noble,  80  well  as  to  mean  and  poor.  His  ligour  and 
vigour  were  eometimes  exceesive,  no  doubt,  but  this 
would  not  have  seemed  very  reprehensible  in  those 
days.  There  had  been  a  popular  outciy  for  "reform 
in  the  head  as  well  as  in  the  members",  but  it  had 
seemed  hopeless  to  expect  it,  considerii^  the  strong 
conservative  traditions  of  the  Roman  Court.  Now 
that  the  seemmgly  unattainable  had  been  aooom- 
>  plished,  occasional  excesaes  in  the  manner  of  its  at- 
tainment were  easily  foigiven,  if  thcfy  were  not 
actually  relished,  as  signs  of  the  thoroudmess  with 
which  the  desired  d&ange  had  been  ma&.  Esteem 
for  the  papacy  rose,  pa]^  nuncios  and  legates  failed 
with  firmness  the  powOTful  sovereigns  to  whom  they 
were  sent,  and  strove  with  dignity  for  the  correction 
of  abuses.  Reforms  were  more  easily  accepted  by 
inferiors  when  superiors  had  ah«ady  embraced  them. 
£ven  Protestants  mentioned  Pope  Pius  with  respect. 
Bacon  spoke  of  -'that  exceUent  Pope  Pius  QutrUua, 
whom  I  wonder  his  succeasors  have  not  declared  a 
saint''  ("  Of  a  Holy  War",  in  his  Works,  ed.  of  1838, 
I,  523;  the  words  however  are  put  into  the  mouth  of 
another).  Though  the  forces  against  Pope  St.  Pius 
were  powerful,  and  the  general  position  was  every- 
where so  critical  that  extreme  caution  m^t  have 
seemed  the  best  policy,  his  fearless  enforcement  of 
ezistinff  diurch  law  was  on  the  whoAe  wonderfully 
suocessul.  Thus,  thou^  his  Bull  excommunicating 
and  depriving  Elisabeth  (1570)  was  in  one  sense  ill- 
timed  and  a  failure,  on  the  other  hand  its  results  in 
the  spiritual  sphere  were  admirable.  It  broke  the 
English  Catholics  of  their  subservience  to  Elizabeth's 
tyranny  over  their  consciences  in  a  way  which  no 
xnilder  measure  could  have  done. 

(2)  Oregory  XIII  became  a  leader  of  the  refonn 
movement  by  virtue  of  qualities  very  different  from 
those  of  his  predecessor.  He  was  a  kindly,  sociable 
man,  ^^  h^  nsen  to  fame  as  a  lecturer  on  canon 
law,  and  hiB  successes  were  due  to  his  zeal  for  educa- 
tion, piety,  and  the  machinery  of  ^vemment,  rather 
than  to  anything  magnetic  or  inspiring  in  ^  personal 
influence.  He  was  boimtiful  in  his  supiiort  of  the 
Jesuit  missions,  and  in  his  grants  to  seminaries  and 
collies.  The  German,  En^ish.  and  Greek  coUeges. 
and  many  others  owe  him  their  roundation  Bull%  ana 
much  of  their  funds.  He  sent  out  missionaries  at  his 
own  expense  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Thou^  he 
had  no  great  genius  for  politics,  he  had  an  admirable 
secretary,  Ptolomeo 'Gatli,  Cardinal  of  Como,  whose 
papers  remain  to  this  day  models  of  perspicacitv  and 
oroer.  Standing  nunciatures  were  now  established 
at  Cathcdic  courts  in  lieu  of  the  old  special  envoys 
(Vienna,  1581;  Oolc^pie,  1584),  smd  with  the  happiest 
results.  Thus,  when  Gebhard  Tnichseas  (q.  v.)  the 
Archbishop  of  Cologne,  turned  Protestant  and  tried 
(1582)  to  carry  over  his  electorate  with  him,  the 
nuncios  on  all  sides  organized  a  vigorous  counter- 
attack, which  was  completelv  suocesnul.  Since  then 
Cologne  has  been  a  tower  of  strength  to  the  Catholi- 
cism of  North- Western  Europe.  The  reform  of  the 
Calendar  was  another  piece  of  large-minded  and  far- 
sifted  office  work,  if  it  may  be  so  described,  which 
reflected  much  credit  on  the  pope  who  or^;aiuzed  it. 
Oegory  was  also  most  generous  in  panting  Indul- 
gences, and  he  encouraged  works  of  piety  on  a  large 
scale.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  celebration  of 
the  Holy  Year  of  Jubilee  in  1575,  and  the  pilgrims, 
who  had  flocked  in  thousands  to  the  Eternal  City, 
returned  to  spread  throughout  Europe  the  satisfac- 
tion they  had  felt  at  the  sight  of  the  good  pontiff 
performing  in  person  the  long  religbus  ceremonies, 
leading  processions,  or  tendii^  poor  pilgrims  with  his 
own  hands.  

(3}  Sixtus  v.— like  Pius  V,  Greoory  XHI  was  too 
much  of  an  enthusiast  for  abstract  theories  and  medie- 
val practices  to  be  an  ideal  ruler;  he  was  also  a  poor 
Qnancier,  and,  tike  many  other  good  lawyers,  waa 


somewhat  deficient  in  practical  judgment.  It  was 
exactly  on  these  points  that  his  successor,  Sixtus  V, 
was  strong.  Where  Gr^oiy,  at  the  end  of  his  reign, 
was  crippled  by  debts  and  unable  to  restrain  tke 
bandits,  who  dominated  the  country  up  to  the  gates 
of  Rome,  Sixtus,  by  dint  of  good  management,  was 
soon  one  of  the  richest  of  popes,  whose  word  was  law 
in  every  comer  of  his  States*  He  fimshed  St.  Peter's, 
and  erected  the  obelisk  of  Nero  before  it.  He  built 
the  Vatican  Library  and  that  wing  of  the  palace, 
which  the  popes  have  inhabited  ever  since,  wnile  he 
practically  rebuilt  the  Quirinal  and  Lateran  Palaces. 
He  constructed  the  aqueduct  known  as  the  Aqua 
Felice^  the  Via  Sistina,  the  hospital  of  San  Girolamo 
and  other  buildings,  though  his  reign  only  lasted  five  • 
and  a  half  vears.  Sixtus  was  large-minded,  strong, 
and  practical,  a  man  who  did  not  fear  to  grapple  wiS 
the  greatest  problems,  and  under  him  the  aelays  (re- 
puted to  be  perpetual)  of  the  Etemal  City  seemed  to 
be  changi^  to  briskness,  almost  precipitation. 

As. the  (Council  of  Trcuat  had  given  Catholics,  just 
when  the^r  most  needed  it,  an  irrefragable  testimony 
to  the  unity  and  catholicity  of  their  Faith,  so  these 
three  ponticEs,  with  their  varying  excellences,  showed 
that  tne  papaoy  possessed  all  the  qualifications  which 
the  faithful  eiq)ected  in  their  leaders,  virtues  which 
afterwards  repeated  themselves  (though  not  quite  so 
often  or  so  frequently)  insucceeding  popes,  especially  in 
Clemwit  VUI,  Paul  V,  and  Urban  VIII.  Now  at  all 
events,  the  tide  of  the  Counter-Reformation  was  run- 
ning in  full  flood,  and  nowhere  can  its  course  and 
strength  be  better  studied  than  in  the  missions. 

VI.  Thb  Missions. — While  persecution  and  war, 

g>litics  and  inveterate  custom,  nampered  progress  in 
urope,  the  wide  continents  of  America,  Asia,  and 
Africa  offered  a  freer  outlet  for  the  spiritual  energy  of 
the  new  movement.  Beginning  with  St.  Francis 
Xavier  (q.  v.),  there  are  among  the  Jesuits  alone  quite 
a  multitude  of  apostles  and  martyrs,  confessors  and 
preachers  of  the  first  order.  In  India  and  China, 
Antonio  Criminaie,  Roberto  de'  Noblli,  Ridolfo  Acqua- 
viva,  Matteo  Ricci,  Adam  SchaU.  In  Japan,  after 
Padre  Valignano's  great  successes,  ensued  tne  terrible 
persecution  in  which  there  perished  b^  heroic  death 
ahztoet  ei^tv  Jesuits,  to  say  nothing  of  others. 
Abyssinia  and  Uie  Congo  were  evangelised  by  Fathers 
Nufies,  Baretto,  and  Syhreira.  In  North  America 
there  were  heroio  struggles  to  convert  the  Indians  (see 
BaiiBKcr;  Lajxeiunt),.  and  in  South  America  St. 
Peter  Claver's  woric  for  the  slaves  from  Africa  and  the 
reductions  of  Paraguay.  The  Franciscan  and  Do- 
minican friars  and  the  secular  clergy  were  in  the  field 
before  the  Jesuits  in  Central  America  (where  Las 
Casas  has  left  an  unperishing  name);  elsewhere  also 
thev  were  soon  in  the  front  rank.  Later  on  in  the 
penod  there  are  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (q.  v.)  and  his 
zeidous  apostolic  followers  and  (1622)  the  Roman 
Congregation  "De  Propaganda  Fide'',  with  its 
organized  missionaries   (see  Propaganda,  Collsqs 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  connexion  of  the  afore- 
said names  with  the  movement  under  consideration, 
we  must  remember  that  these  apostles  were  not  only 
showing  forth  in  their  heroic  labours  and  sufferings 
the  true  nature  of  the  O>unter-Refonnation;  they 
were  also  winning  many  new  converts  to  it  bv  their 
preaching,  while  their  letters  raised  to  the  nighest 
pitch  the  enthusiasm  of  generous  soub  at  home  (see 
Cros,  "St.  FranQois  Xavier,  Sa  vie  et  Ses  lettres", 
Paris,  1900;  also  ''Lettres  Edifiantee  et  Curieuses", 
34  vols.,  Paris,  1717,  sqq.). 

VII.  Proobesb  IK  European  States.— ^Whilst  in 
distant  lands  the  new  sjjsirit  found  to  some  extent  a 
free  field,  its  prc>gress  m  Europe  wss  very  largely 
dependent  on  the  varying  fortunes  of  the  Catholic 
and  Protestant  political  powers.  Here  it  will  only 
be  possible  to  jndio&te  the  chief  stages  in  that  pro- 


OOUNTSBrREFOBMAnOH 


442 


oMmrauitxraEMATioH 


and  it  must  be  remembered  that  controversies 
ave  arisen  at  one  time  or  another  even  about  the 
leading  facts. 

Oermany  and  Attstria. — Here  it  is  evident  that  in 
the  first  named  country  the  losses  of  the  Catholics  did 
not  cease  with  the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  in 
1555.  The  Protestants,  as  the  occasion  arose,  nad 
not  hesitated  to  avail  themselves  of  religious  troubles 
in  various  episcopal  sees  and  had  possessed  themselves 
of  two  archoishoprics  (Magdebui^  and  Bremen),  and 
of  12  important  bishoprics.  It  was  only  by  recourse 
to  arms  that  Cologne  was  saved  in  1583;  and  the 
freedom  of  Strasburg  and  Aachen  was  in  grave  danger. 
There  were  also  many  defections  among  the  lesser 
'princes,  and  so  long  as  Maximilian  II  (1564-76) 
was  emperor,  his  Protestant  proclivities  prevented 
the  Catholics  from  acting  with  tne  vigour  and  author- 
ity which  became  their  number  and  their  cause.  For 
the  alarming  condition  of  Northern  Germany  about 
1600  see  "R6m.  Quartalschrift"  (1900),  p.  385  eqo.  So 
serious  did  the  eeneral  position  become,  that  St.  Peter 
Canisius  (a.  v.)  rhetorically  compared  the  Catholic 
countries  of  Bavaria  and  the  Tyrol  to  the  two  tribes  of 
Israel,  which  alone  were  saved  while  all  the  others 
were  carried  off  captive  (see  O.  Braunsbereer,  Canisii 
EpistulfiB  et  Acta,  Freiburg,  1896-4905,  I-IV).  In- 
deed, Albert  V  of  Bavaria  (1550-79)  seemed  almost 
the  only  Catholic  prince  who  could  make  head  against 
the  Protestants.  He  used  his  authority  freely  to  ex- 
clude Protestants  from  posts  of  trust,  etc.,  an  example 
afterwards  imitated  by  other  Catholic  princes  (see 
Kndpfler,  Die  Kelchbewegung  in  Bayem  UTiter 
Albrecht  V,  Munich,  1901).  There  was  more  satis- 
factory progress  among  the  Catholics  themselves.  A 
new  generation  of  bishops  was  growing  up.  Though 
it  was  impossible  to  put  an  immediate  end  to  tlie 
abuses  of  'patronage  practised  by  the  nobility  and 
the  princes,  the  proportion  of  men  chosen  for  their 
capacity  and  virtues  had  everywhere  increased.  Otto 
von  Truchsess,  Bishop  of  Augsbuiig,  has  been  men- 
tioned, and  with  him  may  be  classed  Julius  Echter 
von  Mespelbnmn,  Bishop  of  Wtirzburg  (said  to  have 
reconcile  some  60,000  souls),  Cardinal  Klessel,  Arch- 
bishop of  Vienna,  Theodore  von  Furstenbere,  Ernst 
von  Me-igeredorf,  Dietrich  von  Raitenau,  of  Pader- 
bom,  Bamberg,  and  Salzburg  respectively,  and  many 
others.  They  were  truly  "columns  of  the  church*, 
whose  influence  was  felt  far  beyond  the  limits  of  their 
dioceses.  Far-reaching,  too,  were  the  good  results 
effected  by  the  Cathmic  writers,  Tanner,  Gretscher 
(Gretser),  Laymann,  Contzen,  and  by  preachers  and 
missionaries,  especially  Canisius,  called  the  nvilleus 
hoBreticorumj  and  other  Jesuits  and  Dominicans.  The 
Jesuit  colleges  also  increased  steadily  and  were  pro- 
ductive of  great  and  permanent  good. 

At  last  with  the  reign  of  Rudolph  11  as  emperor 
(1576-1612)  came  the  occasion  for  the  Counter- 
Reformation  in  Germany  and  Austria.  Wherever  the 
House  of  Hapsburg  had  influence  the  Catholic  princes 
and  lords  began  to  exercise  the  same  right  of  reforma- 
tion (Refonnatwnm'echtj  Jus  reformandi)  in  behalf  of 
the  Church,  which  the  Protestants  had  hitherto  used 
against  her.  But  the  latter  ere  long  became  sus- 
picious. In  1608  they  joined  in  an  offensive  and  de- 
fensive "union*'  which  the  Catholics  answered  by 
their  "  League  *\  In  this  way  the  opposing  parties 
soon  drifted  into  the  Thirty  Years  War  (q.  v.)  ^ich 
lasted  from  1618  to  1648  Though  the  Catholic  allies 
commenced  at  the  greatest  disadvantage,  they  grad-* 
uaOy  won  the  upper  hand.  By  the  end  of  1631  they 
seemed  so  secure  of  their  superiority,  that  Ferdinand 
II  by  his  "Restitutionsedict"  (Edict  of  Restitution) 
Tecalled  the  Church  lands  seiced  by  Protestants  since 
the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  in  1555,  and  in  partic- 
ular Uie  aforesaid  two  archbtshoprics  and  twelve  bish** 
optics.  The  political  power  of  the  Cathol ics  now  stood 
at  the  highest  point  it  reached  during  the  Counter- 


Reformation.  But  a  reaction  soon  set  in ;  Fnuiee  and 
Sweden  joined  hands  with  the  Protestants,  and  the 
Catholics  had  neither  the  fflithusiasm  nor  the  unity  of 

Surpose  to  maintain  their  advantage.  The  Peace  of 
[Onster  and  OsnabrQok,  in  1648,  disastrous  and  hu- 
miliating as  it  was  for  Germany  politically,  was  also 
most  injurious  to  Catholicism.  (See  Westphalja, 
Treaty  of.)  Church  lands  were  freely  secularized, 
and  distributed,  as  the  price  of  peace,  to  lay  lords 
who  practically  had  the  ripht  of  dictating  to  their 
subjects  the  religion  they  might  profess.  The  secular 
authorities,  even  in  Catholic  countries,  claimed  and 
exercised  a  ri^t  of  plaoei  in  the  i^ioe  of  biriiops, 
which  was  in  tne  long  run  most  injurious.  Amid  the 
distractions  of  war,  the  deceits  of  victory,  and  the 
miseries  of  defeat,  the  fervour  of  the  Counter-Refor- 
mation had  evaporated. 

France. — If  the  Counter-Reformation  had  much  to 
fear  and  to  suffer  from  the  politics  of  secular  princes^ 
it  was  from  France  that  it  had  most  to  dreaoL  The 
wars  of  Francis  I  with  the  Emperor  Charies  V  had 

fiven  the  Reformation  an  occasion  for  aprea<fing. 
ranee  had  been  the  chief  difficulty  at  the  Council  of 
Trent.  In  France  the  stru^e  between  Catholicism 
and  Protestantism  was  earned  on  with  great  bitter- 
ness and  cruelty.  Though  the  eventual  victory  of 
the  Counter-Reformation  was  very  extensive,  it  was 
nowhere  later  in  coming ;  nowhere  had  there  been  sudi 
danger  of  a  great  disaster.  This  was  due  to  the  cl  ^ee- 
ness  of  the  connexion  of  Church  with  State.  In  vir- 
tue of  the  so-called  Gallican  liberties  (q.  v.)  the 
king  and  nobles  exercised  imdue  influence  over  the 
appointment  of  bishops,  abbots,  and  clergy,  and  ec- 
clesiastical administration  in  general.  But  the  later 
rulers  of  the  House  of  Valois,  as  also  Catherine  <ie' 
Medici  were  miserably  wanting  in  principle,  and  ail 
efforts  at  reform  under  such  li»ders  ended  in  turmofl 
and  strife.  Margaret  of  Valob,  sister  of  Francis  I,  had 
favoured  Protestantism,  and  it  soon  infected  the 
House  of  Bourbon  (Kings  of  Navarre),  into  which  she 
had  married,  and  which  claimed  the  succession  to  the 
French  throne.  Henry  II  had  shamelessly  allied  him- 
self with  Protestant  powers  abroad,  while  be  burned 
heretics  at  home.  Heresy  spread  among  the  princes 
of  the  blood  and  the  hi^est  nobility,  who  drew  their 
retainers  after  them.  Henoe  the  numberiess  quar- 
rels and  the  seven  bloody  ''  Wars  of  Religion"  (1562, 
1567,  1569,  1573,  1577,  1580,  1587-^).  Both  sides 
were  cruel,  but.  the  barbarities  of  the  Calvinists  were 
especially  revolting  to  Catholic  feelings.  In  battle 
-the  Catholics  were  generally  victorious,  but  in  the 
negotiations  for  peace  the  Protestants  gained  more 
and  more  concessions.  This  was  in  great  measure 
due  to  the  unprincipled  ''see-saw"  policy  of  Catherine 
de*  Medici  (q.  v.),  who  cjmically  inclined  first  to  one 
side,  then  to  another.  At  last  Henry  III  having  as- 
sassinated the  Catholic  leaders  of  the  House  of  Guise, 
was  himself  assassinated,  and  the  throne  was  claimed 
by  Henry  of  Navarre.  But  as  he  was  a  Huguenot, 
the  Catholic  people  of  France  would  not  accept  him, 
and  the  war  drag^  on,  with  disastrous  effects  to 
French  power,  until  Henry  IV  became  a  Catholic  in 
1503,  and  was  absolved  by  Pope  Clement  VIII  in 
1595.  France  recovered  with  wonderful  rapidity  on 
the  restoration  of  peace,  and  it  was  now  that  the 
Catholic  revival  be^n  in  earnest,  reaching  its  highest 
point  in  the  following  reign. 

Clement  VIII  had  laid  down  four  principal  condi- 
tions for  absolving  Kins  Heniy:  (1)  the  heir  to  the 
throne  must  be  educated  as  a  Catholic;  (2)  a  convent 
or  monastery  was  to  be  established  in  evenr  province 
in  reparation  for  the  numb^s  which  had  been  de- 
stroyed; (3)  Catholic  worship  must  be  introduced 
even  into  Huguenot  towns;  (4)  the  Council  of  Trent 
must  be  prodaimed.  The  Counter-Reformation  in 
France  may  be  said  to  have  followed  the  lines  here 
laid  down.    Thus  (1)  Louis  XIII,  the  son  and  heir  of 


CX>IJKTERrBBPOIlMAT10H 


443 


CMnmSE-BBVQElSATIOir 


Heturv  IV,  was  educated  by  Pk«  Coton  (q.  v.),  aad  it 
was  through  him  that  most  of  the  good  traditions  of 
the   fVench  kings  in  exereising   their  ecclesiastical 
patronage  took  shape.    He  was  also  remarkable,  per- 
tiape  iJmost  singular,  among  the  old  French  kings  for 
the  purity  of  his  domestic  relations.    Thus,  though  he 
died  comparatively  young,  and  though  he  was  com- 
^etely  eclipsed  by  his  omnipotent  prime  minister 
Richdieu  (q.  v.)>  he  was  no  unfit  person  to  preside  over 
and  to  protect  a  movement  of  religiotis  reform.     (2) 
'niat  reform  reached  its  highest  development  in  tne 
multiplication  of  religious  congregations  and  ordeis. 
In  his  "M^moires"  Richelieu  says  of  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIII,  ''Le  vrai  sidde  de  Saint  Louis  6tait  revenu,  c}ui 
oommenQa  k  peupler  ce  ro^ume  de  maisons  religi- 
euaes ' '.    The  most  distinguished  founder  &nd  director 
of  such  congregations  was  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  whose 
religioufl  oreanizations,  be^nning  in  1617,  reached 
such  astoni^in^  extension  m  the  period  immediately 
following.    Besides  those,  there  were  the  foundations 
or  reforms  of  Saint-Maur  (Benedictine);  Port-Royal; 
Brothers  of  Charity;. Congregation  of  Notre  Dame 
( 1607) ;  of  the  Visitation  (1610) ;  the  Ursulines  (1612) ; 
the  fVench  Oratory  by  Cardinal  de  BeruUe.    Moreover 
the  Bamabitee,  Capuchins,  and  Carmelites  developed 
new  provinces,  and  established  many  new  houses.    St. 
Peter  Fourier  founded  the  Canons  Regular  of  St. 
Saviour.    The  Jesuits,  who  had  previouMy  had  only 
thirteen  colleges,  now  increased  ^^atly  both  in  num- 
bers and  influence,  but  amid  many  contradictions  and 
acrimonious  controversies  with  the  University  and 
the  Pariement  of  Paris.    The  Society,  however,  was 
efFectivelv  supported  by  the  Crown,  and  at  Paris  the 
College  de  Clermont,  wterwards  Louis-le-Grand,  be- 
came one  of  the  chi^f  centres  of  the  Counter-Refor- 
mation.    (3)  The  re-establishment  of  Catholicism  in 
the  districts  left  under  the  power  of  the  Hitt;uenots 
through  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598)  proceeded  idowlv 
and  was  attended  with  difficulty.    But  the  French 
monarchs  had  many  reasons  for  exacting  obedience 
from  their  often  insubordinate  Protestant  subjects. 
Eventually  La  Rochelle,  after  a  celebrated  siegje,  was 
reduced  by  force  (1628).    Though  their  quasi-inde- 
pendence  was  now  gone,  and  with  it  their  political  im- 
portance,  the  Counter- Reformation  did  notJead  to  the 
abolition  of  religious  liberty  for  the  Huguenots,  which 
was  fully  confirmed  by  the  Edict  of  Nhnes  in  16^. 
(4)  There  was  much  reluctanoe  to  admit  the  Council 
of  Trent,  and  an  obstinate  insistence  on  the  Galilean 
Liberties  which  proved  eventually  a  calamity  for  the 
French  Church. 

On  the  one  hand  we  find  great  names  amoi^  the 
bishops  of  this  period,  such  as  St.  Francis  of  Sales, 
Cardinals  de  BeruUe  and  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  Hon- 
or6  de  Laurens,  Archbishop  of  Embrun,  Philippe 
de  Cosp^an,  Bishop  of  Nantes.  Synods  were  fre- 
quent, the  education  of  the  priests  was  much  im- 
proved. In  1642  St.  Vincent  of  Paul  opened  the  Col- 
lege des  Bons  Enfants,  whidi  served  as  a  model  for 
seminaries  in  many  other  dioceses;  while  M.  Olier  be- 
tween 1642  and  1645  carried  into  execution  his  idea 
of  the  Grand  S6minaire  of  Saint  Sulpice.  The  clergy 
in  general  reached  so  high  a  level  that  the  period  may 
be  r^;arded  as  one  of  the  brightest  in  the  history  o( 
the  Gallican  Church.  On  the  other  hand  the  great 
influence  of  the  State  and  of  the  nobility  in  the  selec-  • 
tion  of  abbots  and  bishops,  especially  for  the  highest 
and  most  wealthy  sees,  could  not  but  be  injurious. 
We  sometimes  hear  of  prelates,  like  the  Cardinal  de 
Retz,  who  were  a  shame  to  their  order,  and  still  more 
of  worldly  prelates,  like  the  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who 
though  not  proved  to  be  immoral,  lowered  the  ideals 
of  ecclesiastical  devotion  to  the  Church,  which  had 
given  the  Counter-Reformation  so  much  of  its  first 
vigour.  Other  weak  points  in  the  progress  of  the 
CJbunter-Reformation  in  France  may  be  studied  in  the 
careers  of  Edmond  Richer  and  of  the  Abb4  of  Saint 


Cyran,  Du  Verger  de  fat  Hauranne,  and  m  the  rise  of 
the  Janaenists.    <See  Jambenisbc.) 

Spcan  and  Portupal, — ^Turning  now  to  Spain  and 
Portugal,  we  see  the  Counter-Ileformation  winning 
here  its  most  signal  spiritual  victories.  There  can  be 
no  question  that  the  saints  of  Spain  who  flourished  at 
this  period,  the  theologians,  canonists,  and  spiritual 
writers  whom  it  educated,  were  more  remarikable  than 
those  produced  bv  any  other  country,  e.  g.  St.  Igna- 
tius, St.  Tereisa,  St.  Firancis  Borgia,  St.  John  of  God, 
St.  Peter  of  Alc&ntara,  8t.  John  of  the  Cross,  St.  Fran- 
cis of  Solano,  John  of  Avila,  Bialdonado,  Navarro, 
Sahneron,  Toleto,  Gregory  of  Valencia,  Sanchea, 
Suares,  Juan  a  Santo  Tomaso,  Ripalda,  Barbosa. 
These  form  a  gala^  of  brilliant  names,  which  in  their 

?>here  have  never  been  surpassed.  The  Spanisfa  and 
ortuguese  colonies  in  South  America  and  the  Ewt 
Indies  were  also  ennobled  by  missionaries,  whose 
heroisnL  self-devotion,  and  energy  were  beyond  com- 
pare, starting  from  Las  Casas,  whosQ  chief  achieve- 
ments, however,  belong  to  an  earlier  period,  mention 
must  be  made  of  the  reductions  of  Paraguay  and  the 
first  missions  to  the  Philijf^ines,  while  the  majority 
of  the  spiritual  labourers  m  India,  China,  and  Japan 
were  dso  furnished  by  the  Spanish  Peninsula.  But 
here  again,  as  in  France,  it  was  in  great  measure  the 
absolutism  of  the  Crown  which  prevented  the  tri- 
umph of  the  new  movement  from  being  as  complete 
and  permanent  as  it  might  have  been^  A  series  of 
second-rate  sovereigns,  an  indifferent  bureaucratic 

government,  slavery,  and  a  very  bad  colonial  system, 
rought  on  the  premature  decav  not  oi^y  of  the 
temporal,  but  also  of  the  spiritual,  greatness  of  these 
countries.  Though  the  Incjuisition  was  established 
in  several  European  countries,  it  was  more  active  in 
Spain  than  elsewhere. 

Italy, — ^This  country  had  from  the  first  been  ready 
for  the  Counter-Reformation,  and  in  the  papaey  and 
the  Council  of  Trent  had,  as  it  were,  opened  tne  neldto 
reform.  Nowhere  did  the  course  of  the  movement 
progress  more  uniformly,  or  last  longer.  This  is  bait 
seen  in  the  papal  Curia,  where  the  Colle^  of  Cardinals 
continued  to  be  thoroi^ly  representative  of  the  best 
tal^it  and  virtue  in  the  Church  and  where  the  Sacred 
Congregations  worked  with  an  eflUciency  and  steadfast- 
ness never  known  before.  But  in  truth,  wherever  it 
is  possible  to  look  into  the  religious  life  of  the  nation, 
a  remarkably  high  level  of  fervour  will  be  recognised. 
St.  Charles  Borromeo  did  not  lack  followers  among  the 
bishops,  as  the  great  names  of  Sirleto,  Paleotto,  Ar- 
ri^m,  Rusticucci,  and  many  others  testify.  The  de- 
tailed accounts  that  have  come  down  to  ua  of  the  Jubi- 
lees of  1576  and  1600,  give  us  a  glimpse  of  a  whole 
community  sensible  to,  and  familiar  with,  works  of 
piety  and  charity  on  a  very  large  scale.  Among  the 
new  congregations  of  this  period  mention  should  be 
made  of  the  Scolopii,  foimded  In  1600  by  St.  Joseph  of 
Calasanza  (Calasanctius).  The  most  serious  set-back 
was  the  quarrel  of  Paul  V  with  Venice,  1608  to  1607, 
and  the  constant  friction  with  unsympathetic  Span- 
ish rulers  of  Milan,  and  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  about  the 
immunities  of  the  clergy  and  the  administration  of 
ecclesiastical  property.  In  the  former  case  the  pope 
may  have  precipitated  the  quiirrel  by  the  vigour  with 
which  he  took  extreme  measures.  But  when  the  hos- 
tilities had  commenced  the  Venetians  showed  an  om- 
inous tendency  to  ally  themselves  with  the  Gallicabs 
and  even  with  English  heretics.  The  quarrel,  how- 
ever, only  lasted  one  year.  Such  men  as  Paolo  Sarpi 
and  Antonio  de  Dominis  were  found  but  seldom.  Tlie 
**  Index  Librorum  Prohibitorum"  of  1664  may  appro- 
priately be  mentioned  here,  though  it  applies  to  and 
illustrates  all  countries. 

England, — ^Turning  now  to  England  we  find  the 
spirit  of  the  Counter-Reformation  suddenly  bursting 
into  most  vigorous  life  at  the  preaching  of  Blessed 
Edmund  Campion  in  1680.    The  organisation  of  th^ 


OOUNTEB^BBrOBMATlOir 


444 


OOUXTER^BSFORMATIOir 


mission  was  due  to  the  maghanimous  soul  of  Cardinal 
AUen,  whose  noble  sentiment  oportet  mdiora  non  ex- 
pedare  sed  facere  (Letters,  p.  367)  conceived  as  it  was 
m  the  face  of  overwhelming  persecution,  gives  us  the 
measure  of  his  lofty  spirit.  ''This  Church  here", 
wrote  Campion,  ''shall  never  fail,  so  long  as  priests 
and  pastors  shall  be  found  for  the  sheep,  rage  man 
or  devil  never  so  much*"  So  it  fell  out.  Allen's 
seminary,  first  at  Douai,  then  at  Reims,  sent  forth, 
year  after  year,  its  small  quota  of  missionaries,  and 
the  Jesuits,  with  the  lesser  seminaries,  added  a  few 
more.  It  was  an  heroic  struggle,  for  no  persecution 
can  be  heavier  than  that  of  the  law  remorselessly  ap- 
plied in  a  law-loving  country.  But  the  courage  of  the 
whole  Catholic  body  (num^cally  small)  rose  to  the 
occasion,  and  if  there  were  many  failures,  as  also  some 
serious  quarrels  and  scandals,  there  was  an  astonish- 
ingly high  average  of  courage  and  perseverance.  In 
time  their  worst  persecutors  died  off,  and  calmer 
days  ensued,  but  at  the  close  of  the  period  the  Puri- 
tans were  renewing  Elisabeth's  cruelties,  and  priests' 
blood  was  flowing  almost  as  fast  as  ever.  This  same 
religious  enthusiasm  manifested  itself  during  the  last 
decade  or  so  of  the  period,  in  the  foundation  of  new 
convents,  orders,  etc.,  on  tixe  Continent.  The  move- 
ment roi^hly  corresponded  with  the  similar  move- 
ment in  France.  The  name  of  Maiy  Ward  (q.  v.)  is 
one  of  the  most  noteworthy  in  England.  The  mission 
of  the  English  Jesuits  to  Maryland  (a.  v.)  in  spite  of 
home  triais  is  another  manifestation  of  the  same  spirit. 

Ireland. — ^During  Elizabeth's  reign  the  Irish  were 
almost  alway;s  engaged  in  a  struggle  lor  life  against  the 
ever  increasing  forces  of  the  English  "planters". 
Sometimes  they  had  their  hour  of  victory,  but  there 
never  had  been  time  for  reform.  The  process  of  the 
Irish  martyrs  claims  about  a  hundred  sufferers  in  this 
reign,  headed  by  Dermod  O'Hurley,  Archbishop  of 
Cashel.  There  were  also  many  missionaries  of  note, 
the  earliest  of  whom  was  David  Wolfe,  S.  J.,  sent  by 
Pope  Pius  V;  there  were  also  several  heroic  bishops  like 
Richard  Crea^h  of  Armagh,  and  many  notable  Fran- 
ciscans and  Jesuits. 

But  it  was  not  until  the  comparative  peace  under 
King  James  that  it  was  possible  to  fill  up  the  gaps  in 
the  episcopate,  to  found  colleges  on  the  Continent,  at 
Paris,  Salamanca,  Lisbon,  Douai,  etc  (only  one  or 
two  had  commenced  earlier),  to  organize  anew  the  re- 
ligious orders  (especially  the  Franciscans).  The  old 
life  revived  in  many  secluded  sanctuaries  at  home; 
synods  were  actually  held  at  Kilkenny,  Dublin,  and 
Armiueh,  and  elsewhere  literary  life  was  reawakening. 
(See  Four  Masters;  Wadding,  Luke.)  There  were 
many  notable  bishops  like  Peter  Lombard,  David 
Rothe,  etc.  Though  the  persecution  never  wholly 
ceased  (Bishop  Cornelius  O'Devany,  1612,  and  some 
sixty  otiiers  were  martyred  during  this  period),  the 
Counter- Reformation  made  great  progress,  and  there 
were  moments  when  it  seemed  about  to  triumph,  as, 
for  example,  in  1625  and  1641-19.  But  at  the  close  of 
the  period  Cromwell  was  to  blot  out  with  cruelties 
worse  than  those  of  the  Tudors  all  the  good  that  had 
been  accomplished. 

Scotland  and  Scandinavia. — ^The  Counter-Reforma- 
tion can  hardly  be  said  to  have  affected  Scotland  and 
Scandinavia,  so  complete  had  been  the  victory  of 
Protestantism.  Yet  while  Queen  Mary  reined  in« 
Scotland  there  had  been  renewed  signs  of  life.  Fathers 
de  Gouda,  Edmtmd  Hay,  James  Gordon,  S.  J.,  Bishop 
LesH^,  and  Ninian  Winzet  are  the  more  notable  names 
of  this  period.  Mention  must  also  be  made  of  John 
Ogilvie,  S.  J.,  martyred  in  1615,  and  the  heroic  resis- 
tance made  by  many  Catholic  nobles  to  the  tyranny  of 
the  Kirk.  There  was  no  local  ecclesiastical  superior 
or  government,  the  mission  depending  directly  on  the 
Holy  See  till  1653;  but  there  were  some  small  Scottish 
eoUeees  for  the  secular  clergy  at  Rome,  Douai,  Paris, 
and  Madrid-    In  Scandinavia  the  fall  of  Catholicism 


did  not  come  about  in  a  day  or  a  genemtion — FalliBt 
Possevin,  S.  J.,  aa  also  several  papal  nuncios  strove 
hard  to  avert  it — ^but  the  Counter-tt^ormation  as  a 
movement  did  not  reach  any  of  its  peoples. 

The  Netherlands. — ^In  the  Netherlands  every  effcHt 
was  made  to  exterminate  Catholicism  in  the  United 
Provinces,  which  had  revolted  from  Spain,  contrary 
to  the  repeated  promises  of  the  Prince  of  Orange* 
Still  considerable  numbers  retained  their  faith — their 
spiritual  needs  beine  cuied  for  by  miasionaries— 
though  it  was  impossible  to  keep  up  the  ancient  hier- 
archy. In  Catholic  Flanders  the  revival  ran  a  more 
or  less  uniformly  prosperous  course.  Amongst  the 
great  prelates  and  writers  of  this  period  were  Lin- 
danus,  Bishop  of  Roermond,  Justus  Lipsius,  Leonard 
Lessius,  Comehus  a  Lapide,  Martin  Becan,  Thomas 
Stapleton  (an  Englishman),  etc.  But  the  contro- 
versies occasioned  by  Baius  form  a  less  pleasant  epi- 
sode, and  the  wars  at  the  end  of  this  period  were  most 
injurious.  Campaigns  and  battles  ruined  the  eoimtiy, 
and  the  final  terms  of  peace  notably  reduced  its  power. 

Poland. — In  this  country  there  was  a  lone  struggle 
between  Catholicism,  which  was  held  by  the  Crown 
and  the  people,  and  Protestantism,  which  filtered  in 
from  the  neighbouring  Protestant  countries  and  uni- 
versities,  and  was  affected  by  many  of  the  faction- 
loving  nobles  and  the  merchants.  Catholicism  at  last 
gained  the  decided  upper  hand,  through  the  efforts  of 
Stanislas  Hosius  and  other  bishops,  preachera  like 
Scaiea,  and  the  Jesuit  colleges.  King  Sigismundll 
and  Wladislaus  IV,  co-operating  with  a  series  of  venr 
active  and  able  papal  nuncios,  ensured  the  Church^ 
victoiy;  the  Protestants,  however,  still  retained  much 
power. 

VIII.  Ecclesiastical  Literature. — ^The  hi^ 
spirit  of  this  period  manifested  itself  in  literature  m 
many  characteristic  forms.  The  age  was  one  of  the 
greatest  for  theology  the  world  has  ever  known  It 
suffices  to  recall  the  names  of  Bellarmine,  Baionius, 
Suares,  Vasauez,  Petavius,  and  many  others  who 
have  been  alluded  to  already.  More  characteristic 
still  were  the  writers  on  personal  or  interior  reform, 
foremost  among  them  St.  Ignatius,  whose  "Spiritual 
Exercises '^  for  their  profound  spiritual  and  practica] 
wisdom,  must  be  placed  in  a  class  apart.  Similarly 
distinguished  writers  were  St.  Francis  of  Sales  (de- 
claredT  in  1877,  a  Doctor  of  the  Church),  St.  T^Bsa, 
Scupoli,  Blosius..  Louis  of  Granada,  M.  Olier,  Alfonso 
Rodri^es.  Thie  teachings  of  the  Church  were  set 
forth  m  the  admirable  catechisms  of  Canisius  (1555- 
60)  and  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (1566).  To  the  same 
period  belong  the  revised  editions  of  the  Vulgate 
(1590-^8),  the  Roman  Breviary  (1568),  the  Roman 
Missal  (1570),  the  Roman  Martyrology  (1582),  the 
Corpus  Juris  Canonic!  (1582),  the  Decretum  of  Gra- 
tian  (1582).  Father  Campion's  "Decem  Rationes" 
(1581)  and  Father  Person^s  "Christian  Directory;', 
exercised  an  extensive  influence,  doctrinal  and  rdig- 
ious,  on  contemporary  opinion,  which  was  also  deep^ 
affected  by  the  religious  poems  of  Tasso  and  Calderon, 
of  Southwell  and  Crashaw.  The  music  of  the  age  also 
partook  in  the  revival,  as  is  testified  by  the  great  name 
of  Palestrina  and  the  pleasant  memories  of  the  exer- 
cises of  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  NerL 

IX.  Cix>SE  OF  THE  Period  and  Retrospect. — ^It 
has  been  said  before  that  a  period  of  fervour  and 
zeal  comes  to  an  end  when  that  seal  dies  down  to 
mediocrity  in  many  countries,  or  among  the  Uige 
majority  of  people.  This  had  taken  pUoe  by  the 
year  1648.  In  Germany  the  period  is  generally  said 
to  close  in  1618,  but  elsewhere,  i.  e.  in  France  and 
in  Ireland,  the  tide  of  fervour  was  still  flowing 
in  many  places,  while  in  Rome  and  Italy  it  was 
stiU  fairly  strong.  But  this  does  not  prevent  our  re- 
mrding  the  broad  movement  as  having  spent  itself. 
Though  the  level  of  education  had  risen,  the  diminu- 
tion m  the  number  of  men  of  genius  was  marked 


OOtTET 


445 


oomtT 


There  were  but  few  new  foundations ;  some  great  mis- 
aions  (Japan,  Abvasinia,  the  Congo)  were  given  up  or 
in  full  decline,  though  others  stifi  were  growing  and 
flourishing.  And  the  reason  was  that  the  interior 
fervour,  the  enthusiasm  had  cooled  down.  The  same 
thing  was  true  also  about  the  Piotestants.  An  age  of 
fair  mediocrity  had  taken  the  place  of  the  fiercely 
keen  ardour  of  the  previous  century.  In  this  there 
was  no  wonder.  It  is  the  ordinary  course  of  human 
nature  to  slacken  down  after  imusual  effort,  to  wax 
oool  after  an  effervescence  of  excitement.  What  was 
not  ordinary,  what  was  on  the  contrary  one  of  the 
strangest  things  in  the  historv  of  the  worid,  was  the 
display  of  life  and  vigour  whion  had  been  given  bv  the 
Church  just  when  she  seemed  to  be  about  to  fall  be^^ 
hind,  and  to  be  beaten  out  of  the  field  by  her  rivals. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  Counter-Reformation 
may  be  r^aided  as  one  of  the  most  striking  proofs  of 
the  inherent  vitality  of  the  Church  which  Providence 
has  ever  vouchsafed,  only  to  be  paralleled  by  her  tri- 
umph over  the  persecutions  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the 
invasions  of  the  Barbarians,  or  the  subversive  torees  of 
the  Frekich  Revolution. 

This  wide-aprMding  Bubjeet  has  oeottRoned  an  Immmisn 
fitaralure.  no  adequate  aotount  of  which  can  be  given  here, 
thouch  its  elaasificationa  may  be  followed  by  referring  to  Tuz 
Catbolic  Enctclopedia, where  the  various  peraons  and  subjects 
mentioned  above  are  treated  in  detail.  Very  few  writers,  how- 
ever, have  studied  the  broad  but  subtle  innuenee  of  ideai^  in 
virtue  of  which  this  revival  originated,  passed  from  land  to 
land,  grew,  flourished  and  failed.  No  Catholic  writer  has 
deeciibed  the  whole  movement  with  adequate  fullnees.  ( 1 )  The 
beet  contemporary  witnesses  were  the  Roman  nuneios,  whose 
special  business  it  was  to  study  these  subjects  and  to  report 
upon  them.  But  few  of  thei r  papers  are  however  yet  published, 
pt  those  relating  to  Germany.    The  reports  of  the  nuncios 


to  Germany  (Nwuiaiturherichie  mu  DeuisefUan^  are  bd^ig 
edited  (since  1892).  partly  by  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  Histor- 
ical Institutes  at  Rome  and  partly  by  the  QOrres  Oesellschaft; 
Db  Hinojosa.  toa  despeu^uts  de  la  dipiomaeia  ponHfieia  «n 
Espatki  (Madrid,  IS96);  Cadcrib,  hutruetumM  gtniralen  aux 
nonon  ie  Flandre,  1690-15SS;  Polijim,  Papal  Neootiationa  with 
Mary  Queen  of  ScoU,  mi-1567  (London,  1901);  HObnkr, 
SixU-QuxfU  (Paris,  1870);  Pastor,  Hialory  tf  the  Popee  from  the 
CUmc  of  the  Middle  Agee;  Janbsbn,  Hietory  of  ths  OermoH  Pea- 
jde.  with  criticisms  of  Maubenbbbchkr.  Geech,  der  Kathol. 
Reformation  (1880,  only  one  volume  published),  and  counter 
eritidsm  by  Dittbich  in  Jahrbitdt  der  OArtei  Oes,^  ii,  610. 
There  are  several  monographs  en  the  details  of  the  progress, 
firet  of  the  Reformation,  then  of  the  Counter-Reformation,  in 
particular  parts  of  Germany,  e.  g.  Wiedbmann,  Oee^.  der 
Reformation  und  OegenreformaHon  im  Lande  unter  der  Bnna 
(S.vob.,  1879*^6);  others  by  Qinublt  (Bohemia),  Kbu<bb 
(Westphalia),  Lobebtu  (Austria),  Matxb  (Switzerland),  Mbt- 
br  (Schleswig),  etc.:  Dunn,  Geech,  der  Jeauiten  in  den  lAndem 
detdacher  Zunge  (1907);  Drotbrn,  QeaA.  der  Gegenreformalion 
(1903,  in  Onckbn,  AUgemeine  Gtadkidhle),  French  history  is  the 
hardest  to  follow.  Consult  Vxcqiite  db  Meattx,  LitHtea  rdi- 
gieuaea  en  France  (Paris,  1879),  and  La  rUforme  et  la  volitigue 
Franpaiae  en  Europe^  juaqu'h  la  paix  de  Weatphalie  ^ftris.  1889); 
PEBRBHS,  L^igliae  et  Vitat  en  France  aoua  Henr%  IV  (1873); 
CouSABo.  Una  ambaaaade  h  Rome  aoua  Henri  IV  (1902):  Pbat, 
Rethtrchea  aur  laC.de  Jisus  du  tempa  du  P.  Coton^  lS6tf^l9ie 
(1876);  Ohbnoh,  La  Cour  de  Rome  et  la  riforme  eaih.  m  Lamssb 
AKD  Rambattp,  Hiatoire  Ght^raU  (Paris,  1897),  V.  A  more 
objective  treatment  of  the  period  is  to  be  desir^  For. the 
ecclesiastical  writers  of  the  period,  see  Hctrter,  ffomenddior; 
SomfBRVOOBL.  Sibl,  delae.de  J.  (1890-1000);  Hilobrs,  Der 
Aides  der  verMenen  Bikher  (Freiburg.  1904). 

.     J.  H.  POLLVK. 

Oonrt  (in  ScRiPnmB). — ^I.  Open  Space, — ^The 
word  e&url,  in  the  En^ish  Bible,  oorrssponds  to  the 
Hebrew  nvn  (hapir)  enclosed  space.  The  latter  is 
used  to  designate:  (1)  an  encampment  of  nomads; 
(2)  a  space  protected  by  a  stockade  or  palisades,  or  by 
a  rampart  of  stones  or  earth,  henee  a  village ;  (3)  the 
court-yards  of  the  houses  or  temples.  In  the  first 
sense  the  Hedrew  term  Is,  In  the  D,y.,  rendered  in 
various  ways:  "castle"  (Gen.,  xxv,  16),  "cities  of  the 
desert"  (Is.,  xlii,  11),  "private  placeH"  (L  e.  places  of 
ambush  near  the  settlemoits,  Ps.  ix,  8).  The  word 
v^lage  usually  expresses  Ihe  second  meanihg  (Lev., 
XXV,  31;  Jos.,  xiii,  xv,  xvi^  etc.;  I  Par.,  ivj  33,  etc. 
However,  in  Ex.,  viii,  13,  viUage  is  a  mistransla- 
tion for  eouH'yard).  In  connexion  with  this  sense 
it  may  not  be  amiss  to  notice  that  the  Hebrew  word, 
either  in  the  form  tfdfier,  or  in  the  slightly  different 


form  Ila^,  was  not  infrequently  used  in  pfopor 
names.  One  of  the  first  encampments  of  the  He> 
brews  after  their  departure  from  the  foot  of  Mount 
Sinai  was  at  a  place  called  Haseroth  (Num.,  xi,  34). 
There  was  a  Chanaanite  city  of  Asor  near  the  waters 
of  Meiom  (Jos.,  xi,  5;  Joscphus,  Ant.  Jud.,  V,  v,  1>; 
this  city,  taken  and  burned  bv  Josue  (Jos.,  xi,  10,  11), 
was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Nephtali  (Jos.,  xix,  36), 
but  probably  rebuilt  by  the  Chanaanites  (Judges,  iv. 
2),  fortified  by  Solomon  (HI  K.,  ix,  16),  and  seised 
by  Theglathphalasar  (IV  K.,  xv,  29).  This  Asor  or 
Aser  was,  according  to  the  Greek  text,  the  native 
place  of  Tobias  (Tob.,  i,  2),  and  at  a  short  distance 
from  it  Jonathan  Machabeus  defeated  the  army  of 
Demetrius  (I  Mach.,  xi,  67).  We  read  (Jos.,  xv,  23) 
of  another  Asor,  called  Esron,  in  Jos.,  xv,  3,  and 
Hesron,  xv,  25  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Juda. 
The  same  text  (xv,  25)  even  mentions  in  the  same 
borders  a  New  Asor.  A  third  Asor  existed,  at  least 
after  the  Captivity,  near  Jerusalem,  in  the  territory 
of  Benjamin  (II  Esd.,  xi,  33).  Among  the  compound 
proper  names  may  be  mentioned:  Hasar  Adar  (D. 
v.,  "the  town  called  Adar",  Nmn.,  xxxiv,  4);  As- 
eigadda  (Jos.,  xv,  27);  Hasersusa  or  Hasarsusim 
(Jos.,  xix,  5;  I  Par.,  iv,  31);  Hasar  Enoh  (D.  V.. 
"couriof  Enan",  Efc.,  xlvii,  17:  xlviii,  1:  "village  or 
Enao".  Num.,  xxxiv,  0^  10);  Hasersual  or  Hasar- 
suhal  (Jos.,  XV,  28;  xix,  3;  II  Esd.,  xi,  27;  I  Par., 
iv,  28);  Hasar  hattikhon  (D.  V.,  "^le  house  of 
Tichon",  Ea.,  xlvii,  16);  Baalhasor  (II  K.,  xiii,  23); 
Enhasor  (Jos.,  xix,  37). 

The  recent  excavations  in  S^ria  and  Palestine,  as 
well  as  the  modem  customs  inherited  from  olden 
times,  give  precise  indications  concerning  the  house- 
courts,  not  seldom  alluded  to  in  Holy  Writ.  When, 
as  occurs  frequently,  the  house  does  not  c^n  directly 
on  the  street,  there  is  a  first  court^yard  extending  be- 
tween the  outer  wall  and  the  building.  .From  this 
outer  court  an  entrance  doorway  leads  into  the  imier 
court,  around  which  the  various  apartments  are  lo- 
cated. The  inner  court  sometimes  contains  in  the 
centre  a  well  (II  K.^  xvii,  18)  or  a  fountain  surrounded 
with  fine  trees;  the  walls,  porches,  and  verandas  are 
usually  covered  with  vines  and  creepers,  and  an  awn- 
ing may  be  stretched  oveihead  tx>  Keep  off  the  sun. 
From  the  narration  of  the  Passion  we  may  infer  that 
such  was  the  arrangement  in  the  high-priest's  house. 
While  Jesus  was  being  tried  in  one  of  the  halls,  the 
servants  and  ministers  had  gathered  around  a  fire  of 
coals  in  the  inner  court:  thither  Peter  came  to  warm 
himself,  and  there  he  aenied  his  Master.  From  the 
judgment-hall,  Jesus  turning  (Luke,  xxii,  61)  could 
essuy  look  outside  (Matt.,  xxvi,  69)  on  Peter.  Then 
the  latter,  smitten  with  remorse,  betook  himself  to  the 
outer  oo\n*t  (Mark,  xiv,  68;  D.  V.,  "before  the  court", 
a  literal  translation  of  the  awkward  Latin  rendering: 
ante  atrium),  there  to  weep  freel;^^.  Ro3ral  residences 
displayed,  on  a  laiger  scale  and  in  a  more  elaborate 
way,  a  similar  general  arrangement.  The  Bible 
speaks  of  the  courts  of  the  palaces  of  Solomon  (III  K., 
vii,  9,  etc.),  Ezechias  (Iv  K.,  xx,  4),  and  Sedecias 
(Jer.,  xxxii,  2,  12;  xxxiii,  l;xxxvi,  20:  xxxviii,  6),  as 
well  as  those  of  Assuerus  at  Susan  (Estn.,  ii,  11 ;  iv,  1 1; 
V,  2;  etc.)  and  of  Seleucus  at  Tyre  (II  Mach.,  iv,  46). 

In  connexion  with  sacred  places,  courts  are  most 
frequently  mentioned.  We  learn  from  Ex.,  xxxviii, 
9  sq.  that  the  place  of  meeting  in  the  wilderness  was 
a  court,  a  hundred  cubits  long  and  fifty  cubits  wide, 
encompassed  bypillars  suoporting  hanging^  of  fine 
twisted  linen.  Tne  sacred,  precincts  cont&ied^  b»* 
sides  thft  tabemade  and  its  furniture,  the  altar  of  nok^ 
causta  and  th^  brazen  laver  (Ex.,  xl,  6, 7).  Still  mof? 
famous  are  Solomon's  constructions.  All  the  builds 
ings  erected  by  this  prince  on  Moimt  Sk>n  were  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  encompassing  what  may  be  stjrled 
"the  greater  court".  Southernmost  in  the  lowest 
court  were  the  public  halls,  namely:  the  " house  of  llii 


OOITETBHAT 


446 


OOtlSTBIIAT 


foi^  of  Libanus",  tbe  ''Porch  of  pillars'',  and  the 
throne-hall ;  farther  in  from  the  throne-hali  (III  K., 
viiy  &  Heb.  text)  and  on  a  higher  level  another  court, 
caUed  "middle  court'',  IV  K.,  xx,  4  (Heb.;  D.  V., 
''the  middle  of  the  court"),  contained  the  king's  man* 
sion  and  the  house  buHt  for  Pharao's  daughter  (III 
K.,  vii,  8).  North  of  the  middle  court,  on  the  top  of 
the  hill,  was  the  "inner  court '*  (III  K.,  vi,  36),  also 
called  ''upper  court"  (Jer.,  xxxvi,  10)  and  "court  of 
the  priests  '  (II  Par.,  iv,  9).  No  information  k  sup- 
plied  by  the  Sacred  Text  about  the  extent  and  form  of 
this  latter  court.  Judging,  however,  from  the  second 
and  third  temples,  it  would  seem  to  have  been  rect- 
angular; the  rabbis  say  that  itmeasiu^  135  (N.  to  S.) 
by  187  (£.  to  W.)  cubits;  but  these  figures,  obtained 
from  the  traditions  concerning  the  second  temple,  can 
claim  no  certainty.  The  floor  of  the  inner  court  was 
paved  with  stones  (XI  Par.,  vii,  3;  IV  K.j  xvi,  17,  han 
no  reference  to  this  point;  pavement  m  the  Eng- 
lish Bibles  ought  to  be  imderstood  here:  stone  base- 
ment). The  descriptions  of  III  K.  and  II  Par.  mex^ 
tion  no  gates,  but  some  must  have  existed;  one,  very 
likely,  on  the  south  side,  connecting  the  temple  court 
with  the  middle  court,  and  others  probably  on  the 
north  and  east  sides  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
people.  At  any  rate,  that  some  time  before  theExite 
there  were  gates  is  evidenced  by  such  passages  as  J^^ 
xx^tviU,  14;  IV  K.,  xxv,  18  (cf.  Jer,,  lU,  24).  An 
eastern  gate  is  said  (I  Par.,  ix,  18)  to  have  existed;  it 
was  called  "  the  king's  gate"«  To  Joatham  is  attrib- 
uted (IV  K.,  XV,  35)  the  construction  of  "  the  highest 
gate  of  the  house  of  the  Lord",  most  probably  the 
same  as  the  "upper  gate  of  Benjamin"  of  Jer.,  xx,  2, 
or  the  "  new  gate"  of  Jer.,  xxvi,  10,  xxxvi,  10,  and  pet* 
haps  also  the  "gate  of  the  altar"  of  Ex.,  viii,  5;  all 
these  passa^s  point  out  a  gate  on  the  north  side. 
Within  the  inner  court  were  the  temple  proper,  the 
altar  of  holocausts,  the  brazen  sea,  and  lavers.  All 
the  walls  encircling  these  various  coiu-ts  "were  made 
of  three  rows  of  hewn  stones  and  one  row  of  eedar 
beams"  (III  K.,  vii,  12).  Modem  archssologists  are 
inclined  to  attribute  to  the  son  of  David  these  courses 
of  huge  stones  which  may  be  seen  in  various  places  of 
the  walls  of  the  Haram  esh-Sherif. 

We  possess  little  information  concerning  the  second 
temple;  but  there  are  reasons  to  believe  that,  with  the 
exception  of  the  temple-house,  which  was  certainly 
smaller^  the  arrangement  and  dimensions  were  about 
the  same  as  those  of  Solomon's  temple.  In  Herod's 
time  the  temple  area  was  extended  towards  th»  north, 
according  to  some;  towards  the  south,  in  tbe  opinion 
of  others,  so  that  the  outer  court  had  probably  the 
same  form  and  dimensions  as  the  actual  Haram. 
This  court  was  surrounded  by  a  hi^  wall  covered 
with  spikes.  Along  the  walls  on  the  inside,  north, 
west,  and  east  (Solomon's  Porch),  were  double  portn 
eoes,  and  on  the  soilth  a  triple  portico,  the  ''royal 
porch".  Ei^t  gates  gave  access  from  the  outside: 
four  on  the  west,  two  on  the  south  (Huldah  gates), 
one  on  the  east,  and  one  on  ^e  north  (Tadhi  gate): 
between  the  gates,  along  the  outer  walls,  halls  and 
chambers  hadbeen  erected,  among  which  we  may  men- 
tion tbe  Beth-Din,  or  meeting-place  of  the  Sanhedrin. 
Within  thlBOUter.court,  towards  the  north,  a  wall  forty 
eubits  high,  limited  the  inn«r  court.  All  around  this 
wall  extended  a  terrace  (the  yr\y  heT)  ten  cubits  wide 
and  reached  by  a  flight  of  fourteen  steps.  A  stone 
parapet,  about  a  cubit  high,  encircled  the  inner  edge 
of  tne  y^f  to  which  thirteen  openinsB  gave  access; 
on  the  parapets  tablets  .wamea,  under  pcinalty  of 
death,  the  non-Jews  against  trespassing.  From  the 
inn  nine  gates  and  stairways  led  the  Israelites  into 
the  inner  courts.  On  the  insidt,  along  the  wallSi 
twenty-five  cubits  high  (the  ground  was  some  fifteen 
cubits  higher  than  the  court  of  the  Qehtiles).  ran 
porticoes,  and  cells  for  sundry  purposes  had  been 
erected  between  the  gates.    The  wails  of  the  inner 


court  encompassed  two  distinct  spaces:  tbe  eastern 
part,  calUnl  "the  women'iei  court",  which^  anionjg 
other  things,  contained  the  boxes  for  the  various  ooi- 
lections;  thence  a  gate,  preceded  by  a  flight  of  fifteen 
steps,  led  to  the  western  part,  or  ''men's  eotirt". 
There  a  balustrade  separated  the  "priests'  court '% 
containing  the  temple  proper  and  the  altar  of  holo- 
causts and  all  their  appurtenances,  from  the  place 
assigned  to  the  lay  people. 

if.  ATTENnANCE  OF  A  KiKG. — In  the  English  Bible 
the  word  court  is  occasionally  used  also  to  mean  the 
retinue  of  a  person  of  h^h  raiik  and  authority  (Gen., 
xlv,  16;  IV  K,  vii,  0:  Esth.,  xi.  3).  It  then  stands 
generally  for  the  Hebrew  word  tV2,  "house",  the 
only  word  which,  in  the  sacred  language,  mig^t  in 
some  instances,  receive  the  sense  with  whidi  we  are 
now  concerned.  The  Latin  Bible  in  such  JP^ii^ces  usu- 
ally has  the  noun  aii2a,  and  onee  in  the  N.  T.  exerciVus 
(Luke,  xxiii,  11).  Although  mention  of  a  court  is 
seldom  made  in  connexion  with  the  kings  of  Israel 
and  Juda,  they  neverthdess  naturally  had  thnr  court, 
consisting,  besides  their  family  and  l>ody-g:aard,  of 
counsellors,  secretaries,  recorders,  chancellon,  min- 
isters, superintendents  of  public  works,  govemois  of 
the  house,  «ven  the  high  dignitaries  of  the  temple. 
Glowing  descriptions  are  given  of  the  splendour  of  the 
court  of  such  kings  as  David  (II  K.,  xxiii;  I  Par.,  xi) 
and  Solomon  (Cant.,  iii,  7,  8);  thejr  f umirfied  to  later 
Jewish  writers  the  colours  wherewith  to  describe  the 
glory  of  the  palace  of  God.  For  Yahweh  is  king,  not 
only  over  Israel,  but  over  the  whole  world,  and  as  be- 
comes a  kin^  he  must  have  his  court.  This  is  con- 
stituted by  uie  innumerable  host  of  the  angels,  ever 
ready  to  do  his  will.  Several  (seven,  in  the  received 
text)  unceasingly  stand  in  His  presence;  legions  of 
seraphim  surround  his  throne,  as  a  body-guara;  thou- 
sands of  heavenly  spirits  form  his  council  (Tob.,  xii, 
15 1  Is.,  vi,  2,  6;  Pss.  Ixxxii,  Ixxxix).  Ecclesiastical 
writers,  developing  this  idea,  oftentimes  describe  the 
heavenly  court,  made  up  not  only  of  the  angels,  but 
also  of  the  host  of  all  tnose  blessed  souls  who  enjoy 
the  beatific  vision.  On  the  other  hand  the  courts  (» 
the  Temple  have  sometimes  been  r^itied  by  noystic 
writers  as  a  figure  of  the  souls  striving  for  Christian 
perfection:  the  brazen  laver  represents  the  purifying 

genance,  whereas  the  altar  of  holocausts  signifies 
hristian  mortification  and  its  necessary  sacrifices. 

JOMBPHUS.  JBeU.  Jud.,  V,  v;  Iobm.  AfU,  Jvd.,  VI,  U,  iv,  XTV, 
iv.  xi;  Talmud,  tr.  Middoth  (Amaterdam.  160O-17O3),  V; 
Wilson,  Warben,  etc..  The  Recovery  of  Jeruaalem  (Lond<m, 
1870);  Staob,  Gewh,  dee  Volkea  lerad  (ISSS);  Db  VoGCi.  L« 
ternfle  de  JSruaaUm  (Paris,  1864);  Pbbrot  and  Cripxbz.  Hie- 
toire  de  Vari  dona  Vantiqu%U  (Paris),  IV;  Vxncbnt,  Canaan 
d^apr^e  V  exphnaion  Hcente  (Paris.  1007);  Revue  btkUffue  inte^ 
•io<.,  II.  VII,  etc, 

Charlss  L.  Sovyat. 

Oourtenay,  William,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
b.  in  the  parish  of  St.  Martin's,  Exeter,  England,  c. 
1342;  d.  at  Maidstone,  31  July,  1396;  was  the  son 
of  Hugh  Courtenay,  Eari  of  Devon,  and  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Humphrey  Bohun,  Eari  of  Hereford.  He 
stucfied  at  Oxford,  where  he  took  thedegree  of  D.G.L. 
In  1367  he  was  elected  chancellor  of  the  university. 
On  this  occasion  the  univet^ity  .suocessfullv  resisted 
the  Bishop  of  Lincoln's  claim  to  the  right  of  confirm- 
ing its  choice,  and  later  Ck)urtenay  obtained  from 
IM>an  V  a  Bull  dedaring  a  chancellor's  election  valid 
without  the  confinnatxon  of  the  diocesan.  After  hold- 
ing prebends  in  the  churches  of  Exeter.  Wells,  and 
York,  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Hereford  and  conse- 
crated, 17  March,  1370.  As  bishop  his  support  wai 
given  to  the  Prince  of  Wales  and  Bi^op  Wykeham 
against  the  anti-derioal  movetneat  led  by  John  of 
Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  and  later  his  efforts  to  sup 
press  the  Lollards  were  unoeasmg.  In  the  Conroesr 
tion  of  1373  he  strongly  opposed  the  granting  of  a  suh 
sidy  to  the  king  untfl  the  latter  should  try  to  remedy 
the  evils  then  afflicting  the  Church.    Courtenay  W 


OOtJETS 


447 


OOVRTS 


Uanaferred  ta  the  See  of  Loudon^  12  Sept.,  1375.  In 
1377  Pope  Gregpiy  XI  isauod  a  Bull  of  excommunica- 
tion agamst  the  Florentines,  and  Courtenay  published 
it  at  Paul's  Cross.  The  result  was  that  the  Floren- 
tines in  London  were  attacked  bv  the  populaoe;  the 
magistrates  had  to  interfere,  and  the  King  extended 
his  protection  to  the  foreigners.  Courtenay  was  ao* 
cus^  of  violating  the  law  by  publishing  the  Bull. 
When  called  upon  to  retract  what  he  hacTpublished. 
bis  answer  was  made  through  an  official,  who  dedarea 
from  the  pulpit  that  the  bisnop's  words  had  been  mis- 
understood, and  there  the  matter  ended.  When  the 
Convocation  was  summoned  in  1377,  the  archbishop, 
in  ihe  interests  of  John  of  Gaunt,  omitted  to  summon 
the^  Bishop  of  Winchester.  Courtenay  protested 
against  this  and  succeeded  in  getting  Wykeham's 
rights  recognized-.  Then  followed  his  attempts  to  re- 
piess  the  Lollards,  and  Wyclif  was  cited  to  appear  be- 
fore the  archbishop  at  St.  Paul's.  Wyclif  came  ac- 
oompazued  by  John  of  Gaunt,  who  insisted  upon  a 
seat  being  provided  for  the  accused ;  an  altercatbn  en- 
sued which  resulted  in  the  court  breaking  up  in  con- 
fusion. Courtenay 's  authority  alone  restrained  the 
citixens^  from  using  violence  towards  Lancaster, 
Again,  in  obedience  to  the  pope,  18  Dec.,  he  sum- 
moned Wyclif,  but  nothing  came  of  the  summons,  and 
the  Lollards  continue4  to  mcrease  in  numbers  and  in- 
fluence. Some  think  that  about  this  time  the  po{)e 
offered  to  create  Courtenay  a  cardinal;  whether  this 
waa  so  or  not,  he  was  never  raised  to  that  dignity,  but 
on  30  July,  1381^  he  became  Archbishop  of  Canter-- 
buiT<  Then  followed  his  appointment  to  the  chancel- 
lorship of  the  kingdom  10  Aiu;.,  1382,  an  office  which 
he  shortly  afterwards  resisted  (1^  Nov.,  1382). 

Urged  DV  Parliament  he  again  turned  his  attention 
to  the  Lollards^  calling  a  council  which  condemned 
their  heretical  opinions.  Rigge,  the  Chancellor  of  Ox- 
ford and  a  leadii^  Lollard,  retracted  and  sued  for  par* 
don  on  his  knees,  but  on  his  return  to  the  imiver- 
sity  continued  as  before.  The  Oxford  Lollards  were 
finally  brought  to  submission  on  18  Nov.,  when  the 
recantation  of  their  leaders  was  received  at  St.  Fride- 
swide  'a.  The  archbishop  then  obtained  a  statute  com- 
mending,  sheriffs  and  other  officers  of  the  king  to  im- 
prison heretics  when  oertiiied  aa  such  by  a  bishop. 
Tho\^  this  law  was  repealed  the  next  yeari  he  stdl 
had  tne  royal  sanction  allowing  bishops  to  detain 
heretics  in  their  own  prisons.  After  the  subjugation 
of  Oxford  he  turned  to  Leicester  (1389),  placed  the 
town  under  an  interdict,  and  in  the  end  received  the 
ieeantatk)A  of  the  leadem.  About  1382  ha  began  a 
general  visitation  of  his  province  and  met  with  much 
oppoaition;  his  interfer^ce  waa  appealed  against  bv 
tne  Bishops  of  Exeter  and  Salisbury,  though  both 
finally  submitted.  The  Benadktine  abbots  also  or- 
ganijied  a  stro^  opposition  to  his  proposed  visitation 
of  Gloucester  CoUeee,  Oxford  (1389);  on  his  arrival 
he  waa  treated  with  due  respect,  but  they  so  firmly 
refused  to  acknowledge  his  nght  that  he  abandoned 
his  design.  Though  a  strong  defender  of  the  rights  of 
the  Chivoh  in  En^and,  he  was  always  true  and  loyal 
to  the  pope.  He  so  fearlessly  condemned  the  extrava- . 
ganee  of  the  king  Uiat  he  once  (1385)  had  to  take 
refuge  in  Devonshire  to  escape  the  royal  anger* 
When  the  relations  between  kine  and  Parliameoit  oe- 
eame  ao  strained  aa  almost  to  lead  to  war,  it  was 
Courtenay  who  acted  aa  mediator  and  averted  the 
danger.  He  was  first  buried  at  Maidstone,  where  he 
had  founded  the  College  of  St.  Mary  and  All  Saints; 
afterwards  his  bodv  was  removed  to  Cantf^uiy  and 
buried,  in  the  king's  presence,  at  the  feet  of  the  Black 
IVinoe,  near  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas. 

MwiiimfUa  Amdemiea,  ed.  \fnfnr  (London,  1868),  I.  229;- 
FatdmU Zitamafum,  ed.  Shiruit  (London.  1858),  xxix,  272-5. 
8(M-0,  356.  493:  Hook.  Lives  of  ArMnhopa  of  Canierhurv 
(London.  1860-73).  IV,  3)6-08;  fttUBBS,  CongMutional  Hi^ 
toru  ol  Bntfymd  (Londoo,  t857-80).  II,  42S-38»  460-88;  III. 
880,  366t^«KSfii«ef«Ml  UonununU  (I«ondOo.  1684). I,  405^ 


500;  Qricbn.  Hi$tory  of  tla  EnglUh  People  (London,  1895).  EL 
33&-46. 

G.  E.  Hind, 

Oonrtfl,  Ecclesiastical.— I.  Judicial  Power  in 
THE  Church. — In  instituting  the  Church  as  a  perfect 
society,  distinct  from  the  civil  power  and  entixelv 
independent  of  it,  Christ  gave  her  le^lative,  judicial, 
and  executive  power  to  Le  exercised  over  her  mem- 
bere  without  any  interference  on  the  part  of  civil 
society.  It  does  not  fall  within  our  scope  to  prove 
that  the  Church  is  a  perfect  society,  consequently 
endowed  with  the  above-mentioned  power.  If  one 
admits  the  Divine  institution  of  the  Church,  and 
the  authenticity  and  authority  of  the  Gospels,  he 
must  acknowledge  that  Christ  so  constituted  His 
Church  as  to  enable  her  rulers  to  make  laws  and 
regulations  for  tlie  faithful  conducive  to  the  attain- 
ment of  eternal  happiness.  Moreover,  as  John 
XXII  (1316-34)  wiselv  remarks:  "It  would  be  foUy 
to  make  laws  unless  there  were  some  one  to  enforce 
them'*  (Cap.  un.  de  Judiciis,  II,  1,  in  Extrava^. 
Comm.).  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  Christ  m 
conferring  legislative  power  upon  the  Church  also 
gave'  judicial  and  coercive  power.  In  proof  of  this 
we  have,  besides  theological  arguments,  the  practice 
of  the  Church  which  explicitly  claimed  such  power, 
as  well  in  the  beginning  (II  Cor.,  x,  8;  xrii,  2  sqq., 
etc.)  3S  during  tlie  subsequent  centuries  of  her  ex- 
istence; and,  moreover,  made  frequent  use  of  it. 
SufEce  it  to  recall  the  institution  of  canonical  pen- 
ances, the  constitutions  and  laws  of  so  many  pontiffs 
and  councils,  containing  not  only  positive  enactments, 
but  also  sanctions  to  be  incurred  ipso  facto  by  the 
rebellious  and  obstinate,  or  to  be  iimicted  upon  them 
at  the  discretion  of  ecclesiastical  supeiiors. 

Now  the  infliction  of  punishment  certainly  pre- 
supposes evidence  of  the  crime,  since,  accorcung  to 
the  natural  law,  no  one  should  be  condemned  imtil 
his  guilt  has  been  established.  Hence  the  Church, 
in  making  use  of  her  powers  of  legislation  and 
coeix:ion,  must  have  also  exercised  judiciijl  power. 
It  is,  moreover,  historically  evident  that  the,  Church 
often  exercised  these  powers  either  through  the 
Roman  pontiff  alone,  by  the  agency  of  his  delegates, 
or  through  councib,  individual  bishora,  or  other 
judges,  ordinary  or  delegated.  St.  Taul  pl^nly 
refers  to  a  perfect  judicial  procedure  when  he  cau- 
tions his  disciple  Timothy  (I  Tim.,  v,  19)  not  to 
receive  an  accusation  against  a  priest  except  in  the 
presence  of  two  or  three  witneases.  In  the  next 
century,  Marcion,  after  being  expelled  from  the 
clei^,  vainly  appealed  k  the  Apostolic  See  for 
restoration  to  his  office.  In  the  trial,  degradation, 
and  excommunication  of  Paul  of  Samosata  by  the 
Council  of  Antioch  (c.  268)  we  meet  witli  a  formal 
ecclesiastical  trial.  The  Council  of  Elvira  (c.  300) 
threatens  with  excommunication  eveiy  accuser  of 
a  bishop,  a  priest,  or  a  deacon  who  fails  to  prove  his 
charge-  The  Third  Council  of  Carthage  (397)  dis-. 
cusses  regulations  regarding  appeals,  and  the  Fourth 
Council  of  Carthage  (398)  prescribes  the  manner  in 
which  bishops  are  to  exercise  judicial  authority. 
Finally,  in  tne  Apostolic  Constitutions,  which  cer- 
tainlv  are  representative  of  the  ancient  practice  of 
the  Chureh,  we  find  that  certain  days  are  set  for  con- 
ducting trials;  the  mode  of  procedure  and  other 
detaik  are  also  clearly  set  forth.  For  later  periods 
evidence  abounds. 

II.  Th£  Historical  Development  of  This 
Power. — ^In  the  early  centuries,  when  the  Christians 
were  still  few  in  number;  when  their  new  faith  and 
new  moral  life  constrained  the  followers  of  Christ 
to  carry  out  ail  His  precepts  (especially  the  one  by 
which  He  wished  them  to  be  distinguished  from  afi 
other  men  in  this  period)*  and  when  there  existed, 
generally,  among  the  faithful  one  heart  and  one  soul 


00XJET8 


448 


OOURTS 


It  was  eustomaiy,  in  case  a  controversy  arose,  to 
appeal  before  the  bishop  and  accept  his  decision. 
Tms  was  in  accordance  with  the  grave  admonition 
of  St.  Paul  (I  Cor.,  vi,  1),  who  ur^ra  the  faithful  not 
to  appear  as  litigants  before  the  civil  courts.  Though 
in  such  cases  the  bishops  often  assumed  the  rOle 
of  friendly  arbiters  rather  than  strict  judges,  we 
should  not  infer  that  they  never  conducted  a 
strict  trial.  Tertullian  (Apol.,  xxxix)  furnishes  us 
with  information  on  this  point  in  these  words  ad- 
dressed to  the  pagans:  "Ibidem  [in  ecclesifi]  etiam 
exhortationes  castigationes  et  censttra  divina:  nam 
et  judicatwr  magno  cum  pondere,  ut  apud  certos  de 
Dei  conspectu  ,  i.  e.  the  Church  is  wont  to  warn 
and  pumsh,  is  a  Divinely  appointed  censor,  whose 
weighty  decisions  are  accepted  as  rendered  in  the 
presence  of  God.  Many  similar  utterances  from 
the  Fathers  and  the  councils  could  easily  be  cited. 
It  was,  of  course,  impossible  for  the  ecclesiastical 
magistrates  (the  bishops)  to  make  use  at  that,  time 
of  tne  legal  solemnities  introduced  at  a  later  period. 
Though  rather  summary,  the  judicial  proceedings 
of  the  primitive  episcopal  tribunals  were  trials  m 
the  strict  sense  of  tne  word.  In  the  work  of  Bishop 
Fessler  concerning  the  early  history  of  canonical 
procedure  (Der  kanonische  Process  ...  in  der 
vorjustinianischen  Periode,  Vienna,  1S60)  may  be 
found  details  of  interest  concerning  the  ecclesiastical 
trials  of  Montanus,  Origen,  Fortunatus,  Paul  of 
Samosata,  Athanasius,  and  others. 

When  the  Christians  obtained  control  of  the  civil 
power  of  Rome,  the  reasons  that  moved  St.  Paul 
to  persuade  or  command  the  faithful  to  avoid  the 
civil  tribunals  were,  of  course,  no  longer  pertinent. 
Gradually  the  Church  allowed  the  faithful  to  submit 
their  differences  either  to  ecclesiastical  or  to  civil 
tribunals.  From  the  beginning  of  the  new  era  the 
bishops  shared  with  the  secular  magistrates  the 
power  of  settling  the  disptites  of  the  faithful.  Con- 
stantine  the  Great  publisned  two  constitutions  (321, 
331)  wherein  he  not  only  permits  laymen  to  nave 
their  cases  tried  before  their  bishops,  but  also  decides 
that  aU  cases  which  until  then  were  wont  to  be  tried 
by  the  prsetorian,  i.  e.  by  the  civil,  law  should,  when 
once  settled  before  the  episcopal  courts,  be  considered 
as  finally  adjudicated.  It  was  rightly  established, 
however,  that  not  all  cases  could  be  submitted  to  the 
civil  courts,  nor  could  all  persons  have  recourse  to 
them.  To  decide  a  controversy  the  judge  must  first 
have  jurisdiction  over  the  matters  in  question  and 
the  x>arties  engi^;ed  in  the  controversy.  A  private 
individual,  for  instance,  could  not  hand  down  a 
decision,  nor  could  he  compel  others  to  abide  by  it. 
In  the  case  of  a  secular  judge,  his  jurisdiction  comes 
from  the  civil  authority.  In  purely  spiritual  matters 
the  latter  is  powerless,  since  God  has  committed  them 
exclusively  to  the  Church.  In  this  domain  the  civil 
power  has  neither  legislative  nor  judicial  authority. 
Whatever,  therefore,  concerns  the  Faith,  Divine  wor- 
ship^ the  sacraments,  or  ecclesiastical  discipline  is 
foreign  to  the  civil  order.  With  regard  to  such 
matters  the  Church  has  ever  asserted  ner  exclusive 
judicial  authority  [c.  1.  dist.  96;  c.  8,  de  arbitriis,  X. 
(I,  43);  c.  2.  de  judiciis,  X.  (II,  1)].  This  solemn 
contention  of  the  ecclesiastical  power  was  recognized 
and  confirmed  by  the  Roman  emperors  in  their  civil 
constitutions  [Cod.  Theod.,  de  relidone  (XVI,  2), 
an.  390;  VII,  De  episcop.  audienti&,  C.  (I,  4)].  Like- 
wise, not  all  persons  are  to  be  judged  by  secular 
courts.  The  (5hurch  could  not  permit  her  clergy  to 
be  judged  by  laymen;  it  would  be  utterijr  unbecoming 
for  persons  of  superior  dignity  to  submit  themselves 
to  tneir  inferiors  for  judgment.  The  cleiigy,  there- 
fore, were  exempt  from  civil  jurisdiction,  and  this 
ancient  rule  was  sanctioned  by  custom  and  confirmed 
by  written  laws.    On  this  point  the  Church  has 

[ways  taken  a  firm  stand;  concessions  have  been 


bv 
ah 


wrung  from  her  only  where  greater  evils  were  to  be 
avoided.  Thus,  in  (Hiristian  anticmitv,  a  Conncil  ol 
Aquileia  condemned  the  bishop,  Pailadius,  for  de- 
manding a  civil  trial,  and  a  Council  of  Mileve  decreed 
that  clerics  who  strive  to  bring  their  lawsuits  or 
disputes  before  secular  iudges  should  be  deprived  of 
their  clerical  dignity  and  removed  from  their  offices. 
Innocent  III  reprehended  the  Archbishop  of  Pisa 
[c.  12,  De  foro  oompetenti,  X.  (II,  2)]  for  maintaining 
that  at  least  in  temporal  matters  a  cleric  could 
renounce  his  right  of  exemption  and  appear  before 
a  secular  court.  Such  action,  said  Innocent,  was 
unlawful  even  when  the  conflicting  parties  agreed  Xo 
submit  the  matter  to  civil  magistrates.  The  eccle- 
siastical exemption  was  not  a  personal  privilege;  it 
belonged  to  the  entire  ecclesiastical  body  and  could 
not  be  renounced  by  individuals. 

Matters  purely  spiritual,  as  explained  above,  fall 
withm  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  ecclesiastical  law. 
In  addition  to  these  there  were  in  the  past,  and  ate 
still,  cases  in  which  the  natural  and  spiritual  elements 
are  so  conjoined,  as  Le^  remarks  in  his  excellent 
work  "  De  judiciis  ecclesiasticis  ",  that  they  take  on 
juridically  another  nature  and  ^ve  rise  to  different 
rights.  To  make  thb  clearer,  the  auUior,  in  addition 
to  the  example  drawn  from  certain  effects  of  matri- 
mony, borrows  from  the  ancient  canonists  the  illus- 
tration of  a  contract  entered  into  by  lay  persons  and 
confirmed  by  oath.  Here,  to  the  obligation  of  justice 
is  added  that  of  religion,  and  we  eaolv  recognise  a 
twofold  juridical  element,  bringing  the  matter  in 
Question,  at  least  as  far  as  the  vahie  or  execution  of 
tne  contract  is  concerned,  within  the  ecclesiastical  as 
well  as  the  civil  domain.  Were  it  a  ouestion  only  of  the 
value  of  the  oath,  the  matter  would,  of  course,  be  a 
purely  spiritual  one.  There  is  another  order  of  caaea 
m  which  the  issues  are  purely  temporal.  Over  these 
the  (Jhurch  never  claimed  an  essential  rif  ht  to  the 
exclusion  of  civil  power.  Even  in  the  Biiddle  Agps 
she  recognised  the  principle  that  ecclesiastical  judjB^?s 
are  incompetent  in  such  cases  unless  urgent  neccstiity 
or  custom  should  require  otherwise.  If,  in  medieval 
times,  the  Church  exercised  jurisdiction  in  regard  to 
the  temporal  concerns  of  orphans,  widows,  or  other 
persons  of  unfortunate  condition,  no  equitable  mind 
will  see  therein  a  usurpation  of  civil  jurisdiction  on 
the  part  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  The  true 
and  adequate  explanation  lies  in  the  peculiar  neces^ 
sities  of  the  a^,  the  deficient  administration  of 
justice,  and  the  undue  power  exercised  bv  the  rich 
and  mighty.  Rather  does  it  redound  to  the  honour 
of  the  Church  that  she  then  assumed  the  defence  of 
the  poor  against  the  wealthy  and  powerful,  and  came 
to  tne  aid  of  those  who  were  deprived  of  all  human 
help.  It  must  also  be  mentioned  that  in  medieval 
and  later  thnes  eodesiastioal  magistrates  were  often 
vested  wit^  civil  power  legitimately  aoquiied*  and 
exercised  it,  not  as  ecolesiastics,  but  as  civil  magis- 
trates. 

III.  TrS    StTBJCCP   OF    JumdilL    POWKB    IN  TH£ 

Chttrcb. — Since  the  judicial  power  flows  from  the 
legislative,  it  is  clear  that  the  former  resides  primarily 
and  chiefly  in  those  who  possess  the  latter.  The 
common  welfare,  evidently,  does  not  require  that 
every  person  endowed  with  legislative  power  in  a 
social  organization  should  therefore  enjoy  the  fullness 
of  such  power;  so  also  it  is  obvious  that  not  every  one 
possessed  of  judicial  power  in  a  society  has  at  once  the 
right  to  exercise  it  i^x>n  all  members  of  that  societv. 
It  was  this  Exigency  of  the  common  welfare  that  made 
it  necessary  to  fix  the  limits  of  the  juiisdiction  of 
magistrates  even  in  dvil  societies.  We  know^  for 
instance,  that  in  primitive  Roman  society  there  was 
in  every  district  one  maf;istrate  who  was  supreme, 
and  who  had  undivided  jurisdiction  in  the  province 
allotted  to  him,  but  none  beyond  its  limits  [Bks.  1  and 
9,  De  off.  proc..  D.  (1, 16)}.    This  first  limitation  of  the 


OOXJETS 


449 


OOITBTS 


magistrste's  power  was  based  on  territoiy;  later  on 
there  followed  another  limitation  based  on  the  im- 

e>rtaiice,  or  '' quantity",  of  the  case  or  controversy, 
enee,  in  later  Roman  law  the  plaintiff  had  to 
in(^uire  not  onl^  what  territory  came  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  his  jud^,  but  also  what  '' (quantity '% 
or  gravity  of  matter  [Bk.  19  sq.,  1,  De  junsdict.,  D. 
(II,  1)].  In  later  times  these  principles  have  been 
retained  and  even  partially  increasea  and  extended 
by  our  civil  codes;  they  serve  even  yet  to  justify 
many  special  courts,  e.  g.  courts  for  a^queducts,  for 
commercial  disputes,  etc.  These  various  arrange- 
ments are  not  altogether  foreign  to  ecclesiastical  law; 
indeed,  in  many  cases  it  has  adopted  them  outright. 
Thus,  it  is  not  only  by  Divine  disposition  that  the 
Roman  pontiff  is  the  supreme  jud^  in  the  Universal 
Church — as  he  is  also  its  sovereign  legislator — and 
that  the  bishops  are  the  law-^vers  and  judges  in  their 
respective  dioceses;  but  it  is  also  by  ecclesiastical 
nihn^  that  certain  cases  are  reserved  to  the  Roman 
pontiff.  These  were  first  called  by  Innocent  I  (401- 
17)«  in  his  epistle  to  Victricius  of  Rouen,  causa 
maiores  (greater  cases) ;  other  cases  are  reserved  to  the 
bishops,  to  the  exclusion  of  inferior  ma^trates  and 
judges;  and  others,  finally,  to  the  various  Roman 
Congrc^tions.  It  was  likewise  by  ecclesiastical  law 
that  in  former  times  certain  matters  were  reserved 
to  provincial  councils,  particularly  in  the  African 
Church  (Concil.  Hipponense,  393);  this  custom,  how- 
ever, was  never  sanctioned  by  a  general  law. 

Many  facts  go  to  prove  that  this  limitation  of 
ecclesiastical  authority,  a  necessaiy  consequence  of 
the  primacy  conferred  by  Christ  on  Peter  and  his 
successors,  was  introduced  in  the  earliest  ages  of 
the  Church;  a  brief  mention  of  some  will  suffice. 
About  the  ^ear  96,  we  find  the  celebrated  letter  of 
the  Corinthians  to  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  of  which 
Eusebius  makes  mention  (Hist,  eccl.,  Ill,  xv),  and 
which  he  calls  ''in  every  respect  excellent  and  praise- 
worthy'^  This  letter  disclosed  to  St.  Clement  the 
causes  of  the  discords  in  Corinth  and  asked  for  a 
remedy.  In  the  second  centurv  the  Montanists 
broujght  their  grievances  before  the  Roman  pontiff; 
deceived  at  first,  he  restored  them  to  their  standing 
in  the  Church,  but  later  condemned  them.  Many 
other  similar  occurrences  could  be  enumerated;  let 
it  suffice  to  mention  the  letter  of  Marcellus,  Bishop 
of  Ancyra,  in  which  he  clears  himself  before  Pope 
Julius  I  (337-52)  and  makes  profession  of  his  faith: 
also  the  letter  of  the  Arian  Bishope,  Valens  ana 
Ursacius,  in  which  they  retract  their  accusations 
against  Athanasius  and  sue  for  pardon.  In  eccle- 
siastical law,  cases  affecting  civil  rulers  or  cardinals, 
also  criminal  cases  of  bishops,  are  still  reserved 
exclusively  to  the  Roman  pontiff.  In  the  Church, 
however,  judicial  authority  is  vested  (by  Divine 
right)  not  only  in  the  Roman  pontiff  and  the  bishope, 
but  in  others  also,  though  m  a  more  or  less  re- 
stricted form.  In  former  times,  there  was  the  pro- 
vincial council,  with  judicial  authority  in  not  a  few 
cases,  also  the  court  of  the  archdeacon,  distinct  from 
that  of  the  bishop,  and  with  these  the  courts  of 
inferior  judges,  whose  authority  was  based  on  custom 
or,  more  generallv,  on  privilege.  In  place  of  these 
earlier  judges  we  have  now  the  vicars-general  (q.v.J, 
who,  however^  constitute  but  one  court  with  their 
bishop  and  judge-delegates,  representative  either 
of  bishops  or,  more  particularly,  of  the  sovereign 
pontiff 

IV.  Classification  op  Ecclesiastical  Courts. — 
In  every  society  courts  may  be  classified  in  two 
ways,  according  to  the  twofold  manner  in  which 
justice  may  be  administered.  Thus  it  may  happen 
that  in  a  certain  society  the  administration  of  justice 
is  so  established  that  a  controversy  is  not  ended 
by  one  sentence^  but  several  appeals  may  be  made. 
The  defendant,  if  unwilling  to  skbide  by  the  decision 
IV.— 29 


of  the  first  tribunal,  may  then  appeal  from  a  lower 
to  a  higher  court,  and  this  appeal  may  be  renewed 
as  often  as  the  law  aUows  it;  thus  there  may  be  two, 
three,  or  even  more  courts  wherein  a  case  may  be 
tried.  It  may  also  happen  that  any  given  contro- 
versy must  be  settled  by  one  judicial  sentence,  even 
though  diverse  tribunaJs  exist,  because  the  cases, 
on  accoimt  of  their  "quflintity'' — to  use  the  termi- 
nolo^  of  the  Roman  uiw — i.  e.  on  account  of  their 
varying  importance,  come  under  the  cognisance  of 
vanous  judges  and  tribunals.  In  this  case  separate 
tribunals  are  so  arranged  that  there  exists  a  highest 
and  a  lowest,  between  which  there  may  be  a  third 
or  even  sevend  other  tribunals.  Or  again  a  mixed 
system  may  prevail,  in  which  are  found  both  systems 
of  regulating  the  administration  of  justice. 

In  the  Church  it  is  precisely  this  last  intermediate 
system  that  prevails.  For,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
tnere  are  certain  cattsiB  majores  reserved  to  the 
judgment  of  the  Roman  pontiff  exclusivdy;  and  as 
he  has  no  superior  there  can  be  no  higher  court  of 
appeal,  nor.  indeed,  is  it  becoming  that  nis  judgment 
be  reconsidered  by  any  other,  much  less  that  it  be 
revised.  In  these  cases,  therefore,  there  can  be  but 
one  court  of  judgment.  Nevertheless  it  may  be  well 
to  remark  here  that,  as  the  Roman  pontiff  does  not 
generally  judge  personally,  but  through  ddegates 
who  give  sentence  in  his  name,  he  usually  allows  a 
hearing  of  the  case  by  different  judges,  if  it  should 
happen  that  one  of  the  contending  parties^  not 
satisfied  with  the  first  judgment,  requests  this  re- 
vision from  the  pontiff  himself.  AU  other  ecclesi- 
astical cases,  however,  in  which  inferior  courts  ^ve 
judgment  admit  of  an  appeal  to  higher  ecclesiastical 
authority,  and  one  may  appeal  not  once  only,  but 
twice.  Hence  in  ecclesiastical  law  there  are, 
generally  speaking,  three  courts  of  judgment,  neither 
more  nor  less.  This  assertion  admits  of  one  excep- 
tion, vis.,  when  there  is  question  of  the  validity  of^a 
marriage,  or  of  similarly  important  matters,  appeal 
to  a  fourth  court  is  then  at  times  admitted.  In  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  however,  vicars- 
general  succeeded  the  archdeacons,  and  after  the 
Council  of  Trent,  during  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries,  the  archdeacons'  courts  ceased 
to  exist.  Consequently  the  first  ecclesiastical  court 
is  now  regularly  that  of  the  bishop  or  of  his  vicar- 
seneral.  The  second  court  is  that  of  the  metropolitan. 
But  if  it  should  happen  that  the  bishop  who  gave 
judgment  in  the  first  court  is  himself  the  metro- 
politan or  an  exempt  bishop,  or  if  the  case  was,  in 
the  first  instance,  brought  before  a  provincial  council, 
then  the  tribunal  of  first  appeal  is  none  other  than 
the  tribunal  of  second  and  last  appeal,  and  this  is 
fdways  and  for  all  parties  the  tribunal  of  the  Roman 
pontiff.  In  this  case,  therefore,  only  two  appeals  are 
possible.  This  is  the  provision  macle  by  the  common 
law,  though  sometimes  an  approved  custom — ^more 
frequently  an  express  privileges — ^provides  differently. 
Thus,  for  instance,  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire 
the  ecclesiastical  court  of  Prague  is  the  court  of 
appeal  for  the  Archdioceses  of  Vienna  and  Salsbuig; 
for  Prague  it  is  OlmUtz;  for  Olmtttz,  Vienna.  So, 
too,  in  Latin  America,  it  the  first  two  sentences  do 
not  agree,  an  appeal  may  be^  taken  in  the  third  in- 
stance to  the  bisnop  who  resides  nearest  to  the  one 
who  first  cpive  judgment.  This  was  decreed  by 
Leo  XIII  m  his  Ekicyclical  ''Trans  Oceanum  , 
18  April;  1897.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however, 
that,  owmg  to  the  special  pre-eminence  of  the  Roman 
pontiff,  an  appeal  may  always  be  made  from  the 
tribunal  of  an  inferior  judge  to  his  tribunal  im- 
mediately, thus  passing  over  the  intermediate  courts, 
to  which,  according  to  the  general  rules,  the  appeal 
must  otherwise  be  directed. 

What  has  been  said  above  applies  to  the  eo- 
clesiastical   discipline  now  in  force.    It  must  be 


OOURTS 


450 


COURTS 


ftdded  that  in  the  Eaatem  Church  the  title  of  metro- 
politan is  generally,  though  not  alwavB,  a  merely 
honorary  title,  the  metropolitan  power  being  almost 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  patriarch  himself;  it  is 
consequently  to  him  that  an  appeal  lies  from  the 
judgment  of  the  bishop.  With  regard  to  the  ancient 
ecclesiastical  discipline  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
in  former  times  an  appeal  was  allowed  from  the 
tribunal  of  the  metropolitan  to  that  of  the  primate 
or  patriarch.  Actually,  with  exception  of  the 
Primate  of  Hungary  in  certain  cases,  this  primate's 
court  no  longer  exists.  Where  appeals  are  possible, 
the  courts  are  said  to  be  subordinate  one  to  the 
other,  and  are  so  in  fact;  hence,  for  instance,  a  metro- 
politan court  can,  by  a  genuine  order  or  mandate, 
require  such  data  from  the  inferior  court  as  may 
seem  to  it  necessary  for  a  proper  cognizance  of  the 
case.  Here  we  must  carefully  note  the  difference 
wliich  oftentimes  exists  between  subordinate  courts 
in  ecclesiastical  and  in  civil  law.  In  the  latter  the 
superior  court  frequently  exercises  a  certain,  true, 
disciplinary  power  over  the  inferior  coiui;,  either  by 
instituting  an  inquiry  into  its  proceedings,  or  by 
delegating  a  substitute,  if  the  inferior  judge  should 
be  prevented  from  exercising  his  office  or  should  be 
found  incapable.  All  this  is  foreign  to  ecclesiastical 
law,  in  which  the  courts  of  suffragan  sees  are  subject 
to  the  metropolitan  court  in  such  matters  only  as 
regard  the  appeal  actually  before  the  metropohtan. 
In  all  other  matters  the  episcopal  courts  are  quite 
independent  of  metropolitan  authority.  Other  courts, 
however,  whether  metropolitan  or  episcopal,  are  in 
no  way  subordinate,  but  are  entirely  independent 
of  one  another,  though  this  does  not  relieve  them 
from  the  obligation  of  mutual  assistance.  Thus  it 
may  often  happen  that  the  administration  of  justice 
in  one  locality  necessitates  proceedings  in  the  territory 
of  another  judge.  Should  this  happen,  the  court 
which  has  the  case  in  hand  may  request  the  court 
of  the  locality  in  which  some  proceeding  necessary 
to  the  administration  of  justice  or  to  a  proper 
cognizance  of  the  case  must  be  instituted  (e.  g.  the 
examination  of  witnesses  or  the  execution  of  a 
summons)  to  see  to  its  performance.  And  the 
court  to  which  such  a  petition  has  been  addressed 
through  requisitional  letters  by  another  court  is 
obliged  to  render  this  aubaidium  turiSf  or  legal  assist- 
ance, unless  the  request  be  evidently  unlawful.  But 
the  obligation  arises,  not  from  the  authority  of  the 
court  requesting  assistance,  but  from  the  authority 
of  the  common  law,  which  so  ordains.  This  is 
evidently  just,  for  all  such  courts  are  courts  of  one 
ecclesiastical  society,  the  one  Catholic  Church, 
whose  welfare  demands  that  in  it  justice  be  rightly 
administered. 

V.  CoNSTrruTioN  of  tbtb  Courts. — In  ecclesiastical 
law  the  Roman  pontiff  and  the  bishops,  as  also  the 
metropolitans  in  cases  of  appeal,  likewise  all  those 
who  in  their  own  right  (ordinario  iure)  exercise 
judicial  power  in  the  Church,  may  pronounce  sentence 
personally  in  all  cases  brought  before  their  tribunal. 
They  may  also,  if  they  think  fit,  entnist  the  hearing 
of  the  case  to  judges  delegated  by  them;  and  they 
may  thus  delegate,  not  only  one  person,  but  also 
several,  either — ^to  use  the  canonical  terms — in 
aolidum  or  ecUegialUer.  If  they  were  delegated  in 
aolidum,  or  sevemlly,  then  he  who  first  took  the  case 
in  hand  must  examine  it  and  pronounce  judgment. 
But  if  they  are  to  proceed  coUe^ialiter,  we  have  a  true 
college  of  judges,  in  which,  therefore,  everything  is  to 
be  observed  which  the  law  prescribes  and  the  nature 
of  things  demands  in  the  exercise  of  ^  collegiate  acts. 
We  have  many  examples,  both  in  ancient  and  modem 
times,  of  judges  wno  had  thus  to  proceed  as  a 
college.  We  have  already  made  mention  of  the 
ancient  discipline  that  prevailed,  principally  in  the 
African  Church,  and  according   to  which    ''ertain 


graver  cases  were  to  l^e.  referred  to  provincial  councils. 
This  regulation  was  retained,  partially  at  leasts  by 
the  Council  of  Trent.  It  decreed  that  the  more 
important  criminal  cases  of  bishops  should  be  re- 
served to  the  pope,  whilst  those  of  lesser  importance 
are  left  to  the  co^izance  of  provincial  councils. 
This  is  also  the  origin  of  the  celebrated  tribunal 
called  the  Rota  Romana. 

The  Roman  congregations  themselves  are  simply 
collegiate  courts  whenever  they  exercise  judicial 
authority.  In  not  a  few  dioceses  the  ao-caUed 
OfficiaUUus  (Ofjicialit^s)  exist,  which  also  administer 
justice  as  a  college.  Gregory  XVI  erected  in  the 
various  dioceses  ol  the  States  of  the  Church  courts 
for  criminal  cases  which  were  truly  collegiate  bodies 
and  proceeded  as  such;  though  herein  the  pope  acted, 
not  as  pope,  but  as  temporal  sovereign.  Hence 
this  case  does  not  property  belong  to  canon  law. 
In  these  courts  the  numoer  of  judges  is  not  definitely 
fixed,  though  there  are  usually,  besides  the  president, 
two  or  four  iudees,  seldom  more  than  six.  Therefore 
it  is  generally  the  rule  that  the  number  of  judges  be 
uneven,  as  the  case  might  otherwise  often  be -left 
undeciaed.  A  majority  of  votes  decides,  especiaOy 
in  giving  sentence;  if  the  votes  for  both  sides  are  equal 
the  case  (^  se)  remains  undecided.  In  this  event, 
however,  it  is  often  provided  that  the  vote  of  the 

§  resident  shall  be  decisive,  or  that  the  case  shall  be 
ecided  in  favour  of  the  defendant  and  not  of  the 
plaintiff,  unless  the  case  be  a  privileged  one,  v.  g., 
if  the  validity  of  a  marriage  is  in  question.  Wluit 
the  powers  of  the  president  are  in  a  college  of  judges 
must  be  ^thered  from  the  decree  which  establismd 
the  court  m  question,  or  also  from  the  tatter's  practice 
and  tradition.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  sometimes  a 
court  resembles  a  college  of  judges  without  being 
such  in  fact.  Thus  a  bishop  can  order  his  vicar- 
^neral  in  giving  judgment  in  certain  cases,  par- 
ticulariy  in  those  of  greater  moment,  to  appoint 
assessors,  whose  counsel  he  must  hear  before  pro- 
nouncing sentence.  In  this  case  it  is  evident  that 
there  is  no  real  college  of  judges,  as  only  the  vicai^ 
general  can  pronounce  sentence;  still  the  case  must 
be  examined  by  the  assessors,  who  can  and  ought  to 
manifest  to  the  judge  all  which  they  think  may 
conduce  to  a  just  sentence. 

TJie  Judge. — It  is  evident  that  in  every  trial 
the  judge  has  the  leading  r61e,  whether  this  judge 
be  an  individual  or  a  college,  and  his  obligation  is  to 
apply  the  law  between  the  two  contending  parties, 
or  to  pronounce  what  is  conformable  to  estaoKshed 
right  and  equity;  and  as  his  office  is  to  see  to  the 
execution  of  the  law,  he  has  the  right  to  require 
from  the  contending  parties  reverence  and  obedience. 
For  this  same  reason  ne  is  empowered  to  do  whatever 
is  necessary  to  make  his  jurisdiction  effective,  and 
therefore  to  use  moderate  coercion  towards  obtaining 
the  same  end.  This  coercion  can  be  exercised  not 
only  against  the  contending  j>arties,  if  they  are  dis- 
obedient, but  also  against  others  who  have  an 
accessary  part  in  the  trial,  e.  g.  the  procurators  and 
advocates.  In  his  capacity  as  a  public  person  the 
judge  is  worthy  of  public  confidence;  hence  the  pre- 
sumption is  in  his  favour  that  the  legal^  formalities 
have  been  properly  observed  in  his  judicial  proceed- 
ings, and  that  what  he  testifies  t^  as  judge  is  true. 
Canon  law  commonly  requires  that  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal tribunals  there  shall  be  other  persons  present 
besides  the  judge:  thus  there  are  alwavs  a  notary 
and  a  defender  of  the  marriage  bond  in  matn- 
monial  cases,  and  a  fiscal  promoter  {promoter  fiscaUs) 
in  the  great  majority  of  criminal  cases.  Orciinarily 
other  persons  are  admitted,  not  by  mandate,  but 
through  permission  of  the  law,  for  the  rapia  and 
better  administration  of  justice,  v.  g.  assessors  and 
auditors. 

The    Notary    (actuarius),   whose    presence    wap 


00U&T8 


451 


OOURTS 


deoreed  by  Iniioocut  III  in  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  [cap.  33,  c.  11  de  probat.,  X.  (II  19)],  Ib  a 
public  peiaon  whose  obligation  it  is  to  transcribe 
with  fidelity  the  acts  of  the  case.  As  this  office  is 
merely  that  of  a  clerk,  and  does  not  include  any 
judicial  power  or  jurisdiction,  it  may  be  held  in 
ecclesiastical  courts  even  by  a  layman.  Still,  clerics 
are  not  excluded  from  this  office,  nor  does  cap.  8, 
"Ne  derici  vel  monachi",  etc.,  X.  fill,  50)  contra- 
diet  Uiis,  as  there  it  is  a  Question  omy  of  clerics  who 
hold  such  office  for  the  sake  of  pecuniary  profit;  nor 
is  the  oontraiy  affirmation  of  Fagnani  of  any  weight, 
as  it  is  not  supported  by  conclusive  reasons.  This 
is  shown  also  by  the  actual  practice  of  ecclesiastical 
courts.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  call  to  mind  the 
notaries  of  ancient  times  who  wrote  down  the  acts 
of  the  martyrs,  those  who  were  employed  in  the 
councils,  and  still  more  the  class  of  the  prothonotarics, 
who  have  recently  been  divided  by  Pius  X  (21 
Feb.,  1905)  into  four  classes,  and  rank  among  the 
hi^est  prelates. 

The  Auditor  is  sometimes  a  delegated  jud^,  to 
whom  is  entrusted  a  certain  amount  of  jurisdiction, 
V.  g.  the  formal  opening  of  a  case  (jcontesiatw  litis); 
in  the  practice  of  the  present  day  he  would  be  called 
an  instructing  judge.  He  may  also  be  an  ordinary 
official  to  whom  has  been  assigned,  but  without  any 
jurisdiction,  a  part  of  the  proceedings,  e.  g.  the  simple 
examination  of  the  witnesses;  he  is  then  properly 
called  auditor.  It  follows  from  all  this  that  the 
duties  and  powers  of  the  auditor  must  be  deduced 
from  the  mandate  itself.  It  was  customarv  to  have 
auditors  even  in  the  Middle  Ages,  especially  in  the 
Koman  Curia,  and  there  still  remains  some  vestige  of 
this  office  in  the  auditors  of  the  Roia  RoTnanat  who 
after  the  time  of  Gregorv  IX  formed  a  special  college 
(Durandus,  in  Speculum). 

Assessor. — ^The  title  of  assessor  has  also  a  twofold 
meaning,  i.  e.,  he  may  be  a  judge  in  a  collegiate 
tribiuuir(Diff.  1, 22;  Cod.  I,  51),  or  one  who  assists  the 
presiding  judge  in  interpreting  the  law.  In  the  latter 
meaning  assessors  are  simply  advisers  of  the  judge, 
who  aid  him  to  obtain  a  full  knowledge  of  the  case  and 
by  their  advice  help  him  to  decide  justly. 

There  are  some  other  inferior  ministers  of  the  j  udge 
in  an  ecclesiastical  court,  whose  names  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  mention,  e.  g.  the  apparitores,  tabelliones, 
eursorea  (sheriffs,  reporters,  messengers),  etc.,  accord- 
ing to  the  different  customs  of  the  courts. 

Fiscal  Promoter, — ^After  having  spoken  of  the 
jud^  and  of  those  who  assist  them  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice  in  the  different  courts,  it  is  necessary 
to  say  a  few  words  on  the  fiscal  promoter  (promoior 
fMxdts),  since  he  plays  an  important  part,  especially 
m  criminal  cases.  Although  not  on  the  side  of  the 
judge,  as,  by  public  authority,  he  rather  takes  the 
pla^  of  accuser  or  public  prosecutor,  still  he  con- 
tributes greatly  to  the  end  for  which  the  courts 
were  established.  The  fiscal  promoter  (fiscus,  public 
treasury)-— though  perhaps,  if  we  attend  to  the  most 
important  part  of  his  office,  a  better  title  would  be 
*' promoter  of  justice" — ^is  a  person  who,  constituted 
by  ecdesiastical  authority,  exercises  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical courts  and  in  his  own  name  the  office  of  a  public 
prosecutor,  especially  in  criminal  cases  (Instr.  S.  C. 
Kpisc.  et  Reg.,  11  Jan.,  1880,  art.  13).  If  we  wish  to 
include  in  the  definition  all  that  is  comprehended  in 
his  office,  he  might  be  defined  as  a  pubUc  person 
legitimately  appointed  to  defend  the  rights  of  his 
diurch,  especially  in  court.  P^i^,  in  his  article 
"Le  procureur  fiscal  ou  promoteur''  rRevue  des 
sdenoes  ecd^siastiques,  April,  1897),  rightly  says  that 
the  whole  office  of  the  fiscal  promoter  may  be  summed 
up  in  three  points:  solicitude  for  the  observance  of 
discipline,  pitfticularly  among  the  clergy;  attendance 
at  the  proeesses  of  beatification  and  canonization  in 
episcopal  courts;  and  defence  of  the  validity  of  mar- 


ri^  and  of  religious  profession.  All  these  functions, 
it  is  true,  are  not  always  carried  out  by  one  and  the 
same  person;  they  are  all,  however,  included  in  the 
full  idea  of  the  promoior  fisccUis,  for  it  is  this  official's 
duty  to  defend  the  rights  of  the  Church,  the  decency 
of  Divine  service,  the  dignity  of  the  cler^,  the  holi- 
ness of  matrimony,  ana  perseverance  m  the  per- 
fect state  of  life. 

It  is  unnecessaiy  here  to  say  more  about  the 
plaintiff  and  the  defendant  in  ecclesiastical  courts,  or 
about  the  persons  appointed  to  assist  both,  e.  g. 
advocates  and  procurators. 

VI.  The  Competence  of  Ecclesiastical  Judges. 
—As  already  explained,  there  are  different  kinds  of 
judges  and  courts  in  the  ecclesiastical  forum.  Never- 
theless contending  parties  cannot  choose  their  judge; 
the  trial  must  be  conducted  by  the  proper  judge 
(proprius  judex) ,  i.  e.  by  one  who  can  exert  his  juris- 
diction against  the  accused:  in  other  words,  he  must 
be  a  competent  judge.  Moreover,  as  the  accused  is 
brought  to  court  against  his  will,  it  is  further  neces- 
sary that  the  judge  have  the  power  to  summon  him 
and  oblisc  him  to  appear.  There  are  four  chief  titles 
by  which  an  accused  party  comes  under  the  juris- 
diction of  a  certain  judge:  residence  or  domicile,  con- 
tract, situation  of  obiect  in  dispute,  place  of  crime 
committed.  Jt  is  self-e\adent  that,  if  in  the  civil 
courts  it  was  necessary  for  the  proper  administration 
of  justice  to  place  territorial  limitations  to  the  exer- 
cise of  jurisdiction,  this  same  restriction  was  much 
more  necessary  in  canon  law,  since  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Church  extends  to  the  entire  world.  Otherwise 
fpreat  confusion  would  have  resulted  and  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  itself  would  have  suffered,  since  it 
would  Iiave  been  very  difficult  to  hear  many  cases  if, 
as  is  often  the  case,  the  persons  and  matters  con- 
cerned were  at  a  great  distance  from  the  court.  For 
this  reason  the  famous  principle  of  the  Roman  law: 
"He  who  acts  as  judge  out  of  his  district  can  be  dis- 
obeyed with  impunity"  [extra  territorium  jus  dicenti 
impune  non  pareiur,  §20,  De  jurisdict.,  D.  (II,  1)], 
adopted  also  by  modern  civil  codes,  was  accepted  in 
canon  law.  This  territorial  character  of  certain  courts 
affects  not  only  persons,  but  also  things  (res)  and 
rights  (jura);  competent  judges,  therefore,  have 
power  not  only  over  persons,  but  also  over  things 
situated  in  their  territory.  In  both  civil  and  criminal 
cases,  therefore,  all  persons  are  subject  to  the  judge 
of  their  place  of  residence  (judex  domicilii).  This 
residentialforum  is  considered  the  most  natural  of  all, 
therefore  the  ordinary  and  general  forum  for  all  cases, 
so  that  a  person  may  be  summoned  to  trial  by  the 
judge  within  whose  jurisdiction  he  resides,  whether 
the  offence  was  committed  within  that  territory  or 
not.  Hence  it  is  accepted  that  the  jurisdiction  of 
such  a  judge  always  concurs  with  the  jurisdiction  of 
any  other  judge  or  any  other  forum. 

A  person  mav  also  "acquire"  forum,  i.  e.  become 
subject  to  trial  in  any  place  by  reason  of  a  crime 
committed  there;  in  other  words,  his  own  act  brings 
him  within  the  jurisdiction  of  a  judge  of  a  given  place 
who  can  punish  liim,  and  of  whom  he  would  otherwise 
be  independent.  It  is  easy  to  see  the  reasonableness 
of  this;  for  it  is  just  that  where  a  person  has  given 
scandal  by  his  bad  conduct  he  should  there  make 
amends  for  it  by  accepting  the  de^served  punishment. 
Again  it  is  much  easier  to  establish  the  fact  and 
inquire  into  the  authorship  of  a  crime  in  the  very 
place  where  it  has  been  committed.  Thus  a  person 
who  makes  a  contract  in  a  certain  place  thereby 
acquires  right  of  forum  in  the  same  place,  though  not 
one  of  its  citizens  nor  in  any  sense  a  resident,  provided, 
of  course,  he  be  present  in  that  locality  (c.  1,  §  3,  De 
foro  competenti,  II,  2,  in  6°),  it  being  much  easier  to 
adjudicate  disputes  about  a  contract  in  the  place 
where  it  was  entered  into.  Finally  the  possessor  of 
a  chattel  (res)  may  be  summoned  before  the  judge  of 


CK>UBTS 


452 


0OUET8 


the  temtory  where  the  object  in  question  \b  situated, 
because  it  is  only  natural  that  where  a  chattel  is  in 
question  (acHo  realis),  precisely  such  chattel,  and  not 
tne  person,  should  be  taken  chiefly  into  consideration; 
thereby,  also,  the  trial  becomes  more  easy  and  rapid. 
In  adoition  there  are  other  (extraordinary)  ways  by 
which  a  person  can  obtain  ''right  of  forum"  in  a 
certain  place;  it  will  suffice  to  indicate  them  briefly. 
Besides  the  ''forum"  that  everybody  is  considered 
to  have  in  the  Roman  Curia,  there  is  also  the  "forum" 
granted  by  reason  of  the  prorogation  or  suspension  of 
a  case,  to  which  should  be  added  the  prevention 
(queBhing  of  indictment)  and  transfer  of  a  case. 

VII.  Ecclesiastical  Procedure. — ^Two  methods 
of  judicial  procedure  are  recognized  in  canon  law: 
one  ordinary,  also  called  full  and  solemn;  the  other 
simple,  extraordinary,  and  summary.  In  the  ordinary 
procedure  all  the  solemnities  prescribed  by  the  law 
are  observed.  These  are  described  in  the  second 
book  of  the  "Decretals"  of  Gregory  IX,  devoted 
entirely  to  the  conduct  of  ecclesiastical  courts. 
They  may  be  summarized  as  follows: — ^The  party 
Intending  to  bring  suit  must  first  send  to  the  judge 
a  written  petition  manifesting  his  intention,  and 
setting  fortli  his  claim.  If  the  judge  thinks  the 
claim  reasonable  and  therefore  worthy  of  a  hearing, 
he  issues  a  summons  (cUaHo)  calling  the  accused 
before  his  court.  In  modem  civil  codes  a  private 
citizen  can  oblige  his  fellow-citizen  to  present  nimself 
before  the  ju&e  for  the  examination  of  a  case. 
Though  found  m  the  Roman  law  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  the  canon  law  does  not  recognize  in  the 
private  individual  any  such  right,  and  holds  to 
the  later  procedure  of  Roman  law,  that  dates  from 
Ulpian  and  Paulus,  and  was  afterwards  confirmed 
by  the  laws  of  Justinian.  According  to  this  pro- 
cedure, the  summoning  of  the  accused  implies  power 
of  jurisdiction,  and  must  therefore  proceed  from 
the  judge  himself.  Generally  an  ecclesiastical  judge 
ought  not  to  be  satbfled  with  one  summons;  it  should 
be  repeated  three  times  before  the  accused  can  be 
consioered  contumacious.  However^  if  in  the  sum- 
mons itsdf  it  be  cleariy  stated  that  it  must  be  con- 
sidered as  final,  a  repetition  of  the  summons  is  not 
necessary.  The  defendant,  being  summoned,  must 
appear  before  the  judge,  and,  unless  the  case  be  a 
criminal  one,  instituted  to  bring  about  the  legal 
punishment  of  the  guilty  party,  or  one  of  certain 
other  exceptional  cases^  he  may,  after  hearing  the 
cause  of  the  summons,  immediately  enter  a  coimter- 
plea  against  the  plaintiff  before  the  same  jud^. 

When  the  defendant  is  summoned,  whether  it  be 
his  wish  to  enter  a  counter-plea  or  not,  he  must 
appear  along  with  the  plaintiff  before  the  judge, 
and  within  the  time  fixed  by  the  latter.  ^  When  they 
have  come  before  the  judge,  the  plaintiff  states 
cleariy  and  precisely  what  he  demands  of  the  de- 
fendant, and  the  demdant  on  his  part  either  admits 
the  justice  of  the  plaintiff's  demand,  in  which  case 
he  must  make  complete  satisfaction,  or  he  denies 
it  (at  least  in  part),  and  makes  known  his  wish  to 
contest  the  matter  judicially;  we  then  have  a  con- 
tested case  (JU  canUstata).  Such  a  contestation 
accomplishes  two  things:  nrst,  it  fixes  precisely  the 
object  of  the  trial,  and,  second,  the  parties  bind  them- 
selves by  a  quasi-contract  to  prosecute  the  trial, 
and  agree  from  that  moment  to  accept  all  the  obligar 
tionsunposed  by  the  sentence,  including  the  obligar 
tion  of  the  condemned  party  to  make  payment: 
in  a  word,  they  agree  to  abide  dv  the  legitimate  find- 
ing of  the  court.  Then  foUows  the  "oath  of  calumny*' 
{juramentum  calummoB),  i.  e.  if  demanded  by  either 
party.  This  oath  covers  the  entire  case,  and  can 
therefore  be  taken  but  once  in  the  course  of  the  same 
triad.  Its  object  is  the  credibility  which  both  plain- 
tiff and  defendant  are  anxious  to  maintain,  convmoed 
as  each  is  that  he  has  a  just  case.     By  this  oath 


each  party  affirms  that  he  will  continue  the  tnal 
solely  for  the  purpose  of  litigation,  and  not  of 
calumny;  he  promises,  moreover,  to  observe  mod 
faith  throughout  the  proceeding.  To  this  oath  is 
added  another,  namely,  to  tell  the  truth,  and  alac 
an  oath  of  malice  or  fraud  (juramerUum  maUtiai), 
This  latter  would  not  be  called  for  with  reference  to 
the  entire  case,  but  only  to  some  part  of  the  pfo- 
oeedin^,  if  ever  a  presumption  arose  acaixtst  one 
of  the  litigants  as  acting  from  maUce  or  fraud.  In 
modem  canonical  procedure  the  "oath  of  calumny" 
is  no  longer  called  for.  At  this  stage,  the  judge  fixes 
a  period  within  which  the  parties  must  set  forth 
their  arguments  in  defence  of  their  rights;  this  period 
can  easily  be  extended  by  the  judge  at  the  request 
of  one  of  the  parties,  should  he  declare  that  be  has 
not  yet  been  able  to  produce  all  his  evidence.  Tbeie- 
upon  the  case  is  aiigued,  and  the  judge  m\ut  weigh 
aU  the  evidence  brought  forward  by  the  contestants, 
whether  this  evidence  be  written  or  oral.  If  after 
this  the  parties,  on  being  questioned,  answer  that 
they  have  no  further  arguments  to  make,  the  jud||e 
declares  that  the  time  for  producing  evidence  is 
closed.  The  aforesaid  judicial  interrogatory  and 
declaration  are  known  as  the  canduaio  in  caued, 
or  the  last  act  of  the  judicial  hearing  of  the  case, 
and  with  it  expires  the  time  allowed  for  submiasioa 
of  evidence. 

To  this  period  of/  argumentation  sueoeeds  the 
interval  during  which  the  judge  studies  and  wei^^ 
the  alignments  advanced.  During  this  time  the 
judge  may  ask  the  parties  to  supply  declarations 
and  explajiations  of  their  evidence.  If,  in  spite  of 
this,  the  judge  is  unable  to  form  a  morally  certain 
judgment  as  to  the  rights  of  the  plaintiff  or  of  the 
defendant,  he  must  reauest  that  the  proceedinsp 
be  supplemented  by  further  proofs;  if,  notwithstand- 
ing, the  case  is  still  doubtful,  he  must  decide  that  the 
plaintiff  has  not  established  his  claim.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  judge  can  arrive  at  a  decision  from 
the  proceedings  and  from  the  evid^ioe  adduced, 
he  must  le|;ally  acquit  or  condemn  the  defendant 
by  a  defimtive  sentence,  this  being  precisely  the 
l^al  decision  of  the  judg^  concerning  the  case  pn>- 
pSeed  by  the  litigants.  What  has  been  said  thus 
far  holds  good  for  a  solemn  ecclesiastical  triaL 
In  a  summary  trial,  as  already  stated,  some  of 
these  solemnities  may  be  omitted.  To  b^in  with, 
the  formal  written  petition  may  be  omitted.  The 
plaintiff  may  present  his  petition  orally^  and  the 
chancellor  of  the  court  makes  record  of  it  m  the  acts 
of  the  proceeding.  Nor  are  thrM  judicial  summooa 
required:  one  suffices,  even  though  it  be  not  expressly 
stated  that  it  must  be  considered  peremptory  and 
finaL  The  solemn  declaration  of  mutual  purx>qae 
to  pursue  the  case  to  a  legal  ending  is  likewise 
omitted,  being  implicitly  contained  in  the  articles 
on  which  the  mutual  argumentation  of  the  case  is 
based.  The  proceedinflps  may  continue  even  on  days 
when  the  court  would  not  otherwise  sit  (temw/re 
feriato).  As  far  as  possible,  all  postponements  (dUo' 
Hemes)  are  avoided.^  The  formal  dedaration  of  the 
judge  that  the  hearing  is  dosed  is  not  necessary,  and 
sentence  may  be  pronounced  without  the  usual  solemn 
foimalities;  it  must,  however,  be  written,  and  the 
parties  must  have  previously  been  cited  by  at  least 
one  summons. 

Those  thinffi,  however,  which  are  demanded  in 
all  trials  by  tne  natural  law  or  the  common  usage 
of  nations  must  not  be  omitted  in  this  summary 
trial.  The  promise  under  oath  to  speak  the  truth 
is  never  dispensed  with.  Each  litigant  may  present 
a  full  argumentation  (positumes  et  artictdx)  of  his 
case,  and  may  produce  his  evidence.  Finally,  the 
judicial  interrogatory  of  the  two  parties  cannot  be 
omitted,  whether  it  takes  place  at  the  recjuest  of  the 
litigants,  or  because  the  judge  considere  it  hk  duty. 


0OU8IN 


453 


OOX7S8EMAKIR 


Summaiy  prooeedinss  are  commonly  entered  upon 
for  ooa  of  two  reasons:  either  because  the  cases  are 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  demand  prompt  settlement 
(alimony  or  necessary  support,  marriage  cases,  and 
many  cases  of  ecclesiastics,  e.  g.  elections,  offices 
and  benefices);  or  because  the  cases  are  of  minor 
importance,  slight  and  easily  remediable  injuries, 
comparable  to  civil  lawsuits  for  trifling  debts.  In 
all  such  cases  the  judge  is  allowed  to  base  his  sen- 
tence on  evidence  somewhat  less  conclusive  than 
would  be  called  for  in  cases  of  greater  importance 
{semtplena  probtUio).  Summary  procedure  is  now 
frequently  employed  in  criminal  cases  of  clerics; 
the  canon  law,  however,  by  an  instruction  of  the 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars  (11  June, 
1880),  restricts  its  use  to  countries  whose  bishops 
have  fonnall^r  obtained  the  pifht  to  proceed  accord- 
ing to  said  instruction,  originally  granted  to  the 
bishope  of  France.  In  1883  the  Congregation  of 
Propaganda  extended  its  use  to  the  bishops  of  the 
Uiutea  States  of  America.  (See  also  the  decrees 
of  the  First  Plenary  Council  of  South  America, 
art.  965-991.) 

It  mav  be  asked,  finally,  what  influence  has  the 
Roman  law  exercised  on  the  canonical  procedure 
described  above?  It  is  certain,  on  the  one  hand 
(Feeeler,  op.  cit.)»  that  the  judicial  procedure  of  the 
canon  law  was  already  quite  elaborate  in  form  when, 
eariy  in  the  sixth  century,  the  Emperor  Justinian 
Dublished  his  "Institutes'^,  " Digest '\  and  "Code". 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  verv  evident  that  Roman 
law,  and  particulariy  that  of  Justinian,  has  exercised* 
a  very  great  influence  upon  canon  law;  it  is  universally 
admitted  as  one  of  the  subsidiary  sources  (JonUs) 
of  canon  law,  especially  in  court  procedure.  The 
canon  law,  however,  has  wisely  perfected  certain 
enactments  of  the  Koman  law.  Thus,  the  ri^t 
of  provisional  possession,  insUttUum  jmaeswnum 
in  the  Roman  law,  was  amplified  and  highly 
developed  by  canon  law,  which  gave  additional 
legal  protection  in  the  case  of  actual  possession 
obtained  by  injunction  (interdicitim)  of  toe  magis- 
trate. The  possessorv  interdict  {unde  vi),  it  is  well 
known,  was  gianted  by  Roman  law  for  immovable 

•  movable 

jura  %ncar-> 

law  only 

a  strictly  legal  suit  (actio  spolii)  was  open  to  a  person 
despoiled  of  his  j^oods,  the  canon  law  allowed  him  an 
admtional  plea  m  eouity  (exceptio  spoUi).  In  addi- 
tion, in  the  Roman  law,  a  suit  lay  only  against  the 
despoiler  (svoliafUem)  or  the  one  who  ordered  or 
approved  the  act  {spolium  mandantem,  ratiha* 
beniem),  whereas  the  canon  law  permitted  the  enter- 
ing of  suit  against  any  third  person  found  in  pos- 
session of  the  plaintiff's  goods,  whether  such  detention 
were  in  good  faith  or  not. 

Pisite,  La  proeSdun  can,  mod.  dant  le»  eautea  diadp,  H 
erim,  (Paria,  1808);  Bouhk,  De  fudiciia  eed.  (Fans*  1855); 
MouTOR,  Udfer  eonon.  GeriefUtverf.  gegen  Kleriker  (1856); 
MthfCBEN,  Canon.  GerkhUverf.  (2d.  ed..  Cologne,  1874); 
FouBNiEB,  Lea  ofJMaliUa  au  moym  dge  (Paria,  1850):  Fssslbr, 
Der  eanon.  Proeeas  naeh  aeinen  poaitiven  Grundl.  und  aeiner  OU. 
hial,  Rntwiek.  m  der  vorfuatinianiachen  Periode  (Vienna,  1860); 
I^BRAMTONSLLi,  Pfuxta  fofi  ecd.  (Rome,  1883);  Lboa,  De 
iudiciia  eed.  (2d  ed..  Rome,  1905);  Kulbb.  Dtr  rdnt.  Zivil- 
mtaaa  (Leipng  1855):  Endemann,  Dm  ZivUprozeaaverf.  nach 

BBNBDirrTo  Ojetti. 

Oouflin,  Jeak,  a  French  painter,  sculptor,  etcher, 
engraver,  and  geometrician,  b.  at  Soucy,  near  Sens, 
1500:  d  at  Sens  before  1593,  probably  in  1590. 
Cousm  began  his  long  art-life  in  his  native  town  with 
the  study  of  glasa-painting  under  Hympe  and  Grassot. 
At  the  same  time  he  was  dilif;ently  applying  himself 
to  this  branch  of  art,  wherein  he  was  to  become  a 
master,  the  young  man  became  a  great  student  of 
mathematics  and  published  a  successful  book  on  the 


subject.  He  also  wrote  on  geometry  in  his  students 
da^  In  1530  Cousin  finished  the  beautiful  windows 
for  the  Sens  cathedral^  the  subject  chosen  beinx  the 
''  Legend  of  St  Eutropius ".  He  had  also  painted  the 
windfows  of  many  of  the  noble  ch&teaux  in  and 
around  the  city.  The  latest  date  on  any  of  his  Sens 
work,  1530,  points  to  this  as  the  year  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  began  work  as  a  goldsmith;  but  the  amount 
and  kind  of  his  productions  in  the  precious  metals  are 
alike  unknown. 

In  Paris  Cousin  continued  his  eminent  career  as  a 
glass-painter,  and  his  masterpiece,  the  windows  of  the 
Sainte^hapelle  in  Vincennes,  are  considered  the 
finest  examples  of  glass-painting  in  all  France.  He 
subseauently  devoted  himself  to  painting  in  oil,  and 
is  said  to  be  the  first  Frenchman  to  use  the  ''new 
medium".  For  this  and  other  reasons  Cousin  has 
been  called  ''The  Founder  of  the  French  School '';  but 
his  work  in  oil,  while  graceful,  refined,  reserved,  and 
eyen  classically  severe,  is  more  that  of  an  Italian 
"Eclectic"  than  of  a  "founder  of  a  national  school". 
Pictures  attributed  to  him,  all  of  much  merit,  are 
found  in  several  of  the  large  European  collections,  but, 
excepting  "The  Last  Judgment  ,  none  is  known  to  be 
authentic.  "The  Last  Judgment"  is  fine  in  compo- 
sition, noble  in  conception,  and  beautiful  and  har- 
monious in  colour,  stron^y  suggesting  Correggio. 
For  a  long  time  this  masterpiece,  which  won  him  the 
name  of  the  "French  Michelangelo",  lay  neglected  in 
the  sacristy  of  the  chureh  of  the  Minims,  \lnceimes, 
until  it  was  rescued  by  a  priest  and  became  one  of  the 
important  works  in  the  Louvre.  It  is  also  celebrated 
for  being  the  first  French  picture  to  be  engraved. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  Cousin's  renown  came 
from  his  historical  and  glass-paintings;  to-day  he  is 
best  known  as  an  illustrator  of  books.  He  made 
many  fine  designs  for  woodcuts  and  often  executed 
them  himself.  The  "Bible",  published  in  1596  bv 
Le  Clerc,  and  the  "Metamorphoses"  and  "Epistles" 
of  Ovid  (1566  and  1571  respectively)  contain  his  most 
celebrated  work  as  an  illustrator.  Cousin  etched  and 
eiuraved  many  plates  after  the  manner  of  Mazsuola 
of  rarma,  to  whom  the  invention  of  etching  has  been 
ascribed;  but  he  excels  all  his  contemporaries  in 
facility  of  execution  and  clawrical  breadtn  and  sim- 
plicity of  idea  and  feeling.  His  etched  work 
approaches  in  excellence  the  ou-paintings  of  the  great 
masters.  Cousin's  sculptures  are  full  of  strenjgth  and 
dignity.  The  mausoleum  of  Admiral  Philippe  de 
C&bot  is  the  best  piece  of  French  sculpture  of  the 
sixteenth  century;  the  strikingly  beautiful  tomb  of 
Louis  de  Brez^  (Kouen)  is  another  celebrated  achieve- 
ment. In  addition  to  his  early  writings  on  mathe- 
matics, he  published,  in  1560,  a  learned  treatise  on 
perspective^  and,  in  1571,  an  excellent  work  on 
portrait-painting.  During  his  life  Cousin  success- 
fully pursued  every  branch  of  the  fine  arts,  lind 
enjoyed  the  favour  of,  and  worked  for  four  kings  of 
France:  Henry  II,  Francis  II,  Charles  IX,  and 
Henry  III.  Among  his  paintings,  in  addition  to  the 
"Last  Jud^ent",  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
miniatures  in  the  prayer  book  of  Henry  II  now  in  the 
Biblioth^ue  Nationale;  among  his  etchings  and 
engravings,  the  "Annunciation"  and  the  "Conversion 
of  St.  Paul";  among  his  woodcuts,  the  "Entrfe  de 
Henry  II  et  Catherine  de  MMicis  k  Rouen"  (1551). 

EunaN-Dnxyr,  Etude  aur  Jean  Couain  (Puis,  1872):  PAm- 
80N,  The  Worida  PainUra  ainoe  Leonardo  (New  York.  1906). 

Leiqh  Uunt. 

0ou886mak6r,CRARLss-EDMONi>-HENRiDB,  Frendi 
historian  of  music,  b.  at  Bailleul,  department  of 
Nord,  France,  19  April,  1805;  d.  at  Lille,  10  January, 
1876.  Coussemaker  rendered  great  service  to  musi- 
cal science  by  bringing  to  the  notice  of  students 
the  early  development  and  history  of  harmony  and 
counterpoint,  as  shown  by  the  treatment  of  these  divi- 
sions of  music  in  that  section  of  the  "Mustca  Enchi- 


OOUSTAHT 


454 


oatrsTAiTi 


riadis"  in  which  diaphony  is  treated.  This  he  did  in  a 
work  on  Hucbald,  wno  lived  from  about  840  to  930,  was 
a  monk  of  the  monastery  of  Saint-Amand,  and  wrote 
the  '*  EnchiriadiB  "  as  well  as  other  works  on  music. 
While  pursuing  his  law  studies  in  Paris,  Cousse- 
maker  studied  singing  under  Pellegrini  and  Payer  and 
harmony  under  Keicha.  Even  after  entering  upon 
his  career  as  a  lawyer  at  Douai,  he  took  a  course  in 
counterpoint  under  Victor  Lefebvre.  His  early  ambi- 
tion to  become  a  composer,  especially  of  church  music, 
did  not  produce  permanent  results,  as  most  of  his  pro- 
ductions in  that  field  remain  in  manuscript.  While 
acting  as  judge  at  Bergues,  Hazebrouck,  Gambrai, 
Dunkerque,  and  Lille  successlvelv,  he  piursued  studies 
and  made  researches  which  resulted  in  works  of  the 
hiphest  historical  importance  and  of  permanent  value. 
His  writings  have  had  an  important  part  in  the  revival 
of  true  church  music  that  began  some  sixty  years  a^, 
and  in  the  restoration,  which  has  not  yet  reached  its 
culmination,  of  the  chant.  The  pioneer  nature  of 
Coussemaker's  labours  in  many  fields  explains  and 
condones  to  some  extent  the  fact  that  he  was  not 
always  correct  in  his  deductions.  Thus  his  assertion 
(Histoire  de  ITiarmonie,  c.  ii,  pp.  15^159)  that  the 
neimis  "  have  their  origin  in  the  accents  of  the  Latin 
language",  an  assumption  which  became  the  basis  for 
the  so-called  oratorical  rhythm  in  plain  chant,  was  dis- 
proved long  ago  by  the  mensuralist  school  of  chant 
rhythm  and,  more  recently,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Thibaut  in 
his  work  "Origine  byzantine  de  la  notation  neu- 
matique  de  T^glise  latine"  (Paris,  1907).  Cousse- 
maker's  most  noted  musico-historical  works  are: 
"Mtooires  sur  Hucbald"  (1841);  "  Histoire  de  lliar- 
monie  au  moyen  fige"  (1852);  "Les  harmonistes  des 
XIPet  XIIP sidles"  (1864);  "(Euvres completes du 
trouv^re  Adam  de  la  Halle'*  (1872);  "Joannis  Tinc- 
toris  TractatusdeMusic&'',  and  his  collection  in  four 
volumes,  intended  to  be  a  continuation  of  Gerbert's 
"Scriptores",  of  writings  by  medieval  authors  enti- 
tled: "Scriptorum  de  musicA  medii  SBvi  nova  series  a 
Gerbertino  altera"  (1866-76).  Besides  these,  Cousse- 
maker  published  numerous  essays  and  magazine 
articles  on  historical,  technical,  and  sesthetic  ques- 
tions in  regard  to  music. 

Waaldrxdob,  The  Oxford  History  of  Muaic  (Oxford,  1901- 
1905):  RiEMANN,  Handbuck  der  Munkgtachichte  (Leipiig, 
1906). 

JoaBPH  Otten. 

Ooustant,  Pierre,  a  learned  Benedictine  of  the 
Gongregation  of  Saint-Maur,  b.  at  Compi^gne,  France, 
30  Aprfl,  1654;  d.  at  the  Abbey  of  Saint-(jennain-des- 
P^  near  Paris,  18  October,  1721.  After  receiving 
his  classical  education  in  the  Jesuit  Gollege  at  Gom- 
pidgne,  he  entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of 
Saint-R^mi  at  Reims  as  novice  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen, and  took  vows  on  12  August,  1672.  He  made 
his  philosophical  and  theological  studies  partly  at 
Saint-R^mi,  partly  at  the  monastery  of  Saint-M^dard 
in  Soissons  whither  he  was  sent  to  study  philosophy 
under  FranQois  Lamy.  In  1681  his  superiors  sent 
him  to  the  Abbey  of  Saint-Germain-des-Pr^  to  assist 
his  confrere  Thomas  Blampin  in  editing  the  works  of 
St.  Augustine.  Goustant's  chief  contribution  to  this 
publication,  which  still  remains  the  best  edition  of  St. 
Augustine's  works,  consisted  in  the  separating  of  the 
spurious  from  the  genuine  writings.  He  also  aided 
his  fellow  Benedictines  Edmond  Mart^ne  and  Robert 
Mord  in  making  the  indexes  for  the  fourth  volume 
containing  the  commentaries  on  the  Psalms.  In  an 
appendix  to  the  fifth  volume  he  collected  all  the  spuri- 
ous homilies  and  traced  them  to  their  true  sources. 

The  learning  and  acumen  which  Goustant  displayed 
in  his  share  of  the  edition  of  St.  Augustine's  works  did 
not  remain  unnoticed  by  the  AbGot  General  of  the 
Maurist  Gongregation.  Wlien  Mabillon  suggested  a 
new  edition  of  tne  works  of  St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  it 
was  Coustant  whom  the  abbot  general  selected  for 


this  difficult  imdertakin^.  There  was  before  this  tnne 
practically  only  one  edition  of  this  ^reat  Gallic  Doctor 
of  the  Ghuroh,  namely  the  defective  and  uncritical 
one  published  by  Erasmus  (Basle,  1523).  llie  subse- 
quent editions  of  Mirseus  (Paris,  1544),  lipsiuB  (Baale, 
1550),  Grynseus  (Basle,  1570),  Gfliotius  (Pans,  1572), 
and  the  one  issued  by  the  Paris  Typographical  Soci- 
ety in  1605  were  little  more  than  reprints  of  the  Eras- 
mian  text.  After  making  himself  thorou^^y  con- 
versant with  St.  Hflary's  t^minology  ana  train  of 
thought,  Goustant  compared  numerous  manuscripts 
with  a  view  to  restoring  the  original  text.  In  an  ex- 
tensive general  preface  he  proved  the  Gathdicity  of 
Hilaiy's  doctrine  concerning  the  birth  of  Ghrist  from 
the  Virgin  Mary,  the  Holy  Eucharist,  Grace,  the  Lasl; 
Judgment,  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  other  Gatholic  dog- 
mas. The  preface  is  followed  by  two  bio^i&phical 
sketches  of  the  saint,  the  former  of  which  was  com- 
posed by  Goustant  himself  from  the  writings  of  Hilary, 
while  the  latter  is  a  reproduction  of  the  life  writt^ 
by  Fortunatus  of  Poitiers.  Each  treatise  is  preceded 
by  a  special  preface  stating  its  occasion  and  purpose, 
and  the  time  when  it  was  written.  Difficult  and  ob- 
scure passages  are  explained  in  foot-notes.  This  edi- 
tion of  St.  Hilary  is  a  model  work  of  its  kind  and  ranks 
as  one  of  the  most  esteemed  literary  productions  of  the 
Maurist  0)ngregation.  It  was  published  in  one  folio 
volume  at  Paris  in  1693  and  bears  the  title:  ''Sancti 
Hflarii  Pictavorum  episcopi  opera  ad  manuscriptos 
codices  gallicanos,  romanos,  belgicoe,  nee  non  ad 
veteres  ^itiones  castigata,  aliquot  aucta  opusculis", 
etc.  The  work  was  republishea  with  a  few  additions 
by  Scipio  Maffei  (Verona,  1730)  and  by  Migne,  P.  L., 
I A  and  X. 

Goustant's  love  for  study  did  not  prevent  him  from 
being  an  exemplary  monk.  Though  often  over- 
whelmed with  work,  he  was  ptmctual  m  attending  the 
common  religious  exercises  and  found  time  for  private 
works  of  piety.  After  completing  the  edition  of  St. 
Hilary's  works  he  requested  his  superiors  to  release 
him  temporarily  from  literary  labours  and  to  allow 
him  to  devote  more  of  his  time  to  prayer  and  medita- 
tion. The  wish  was  ^nted,  thou^  not  as  he  ex- 
pected. He  was  appointed  prior  of  the  monastery  oi 
Nogentr-sous-Goucy.  After  three  years  he  was,  upon 
his  own  urgent  request,  relieved  from  the  priorate  and 
returned  to  Saint-Germain-des-Pr^.  For  some  time 
he  worked  on  the  new  edition  of  the  Maurist  Breviary; 
then  he  assisted  his  confrere  Glaude  Guesni^  in  mak- 
ing the  elaborate  general  index  to  the  works  of  St. 
Augustine. 

immediately  upon  the  publication  of  St.  Augus- 
tine's works  in  1700,  Oustant  was  entrusted  by  his 
superiors  with  the  editing  of  a  coniplete  collection  d 
the  letters  of  the  popes  from  St.  Glement  I  to  Innocent 
III  (c.  88-1216).  To  understand  the  colossal  labour 
which  such  an  undertaking  entailed,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  very  little  had  been  done  in  this  direction 
before.  There  were,  indeed,  the  papal  decretals  from 
Glement  I  to  Gregory  VII,  collectea  by  Gardinal  An- 
tonio Garaffa  and  published  by  Antomo  d'Aquino  in 
1591,  but  they  were  incomplete  and  their  chronological 
order  was  frequently  incorrect.  There  were  also  the 
''Annales"  of  Baronius  and  the  "Goncilia  antioua 
Gallise"  of  the  Jesuit  Jacques  Sirmond,  and  otner 
works  containing  scattered  letters  of  the  popes;  but 
no  one  had  ever  attempted  to  make  a  complete  collec- 
tion of  papal  letters,  much  less  to  sift  tne  spurious 
from  the  authentic,  to  restore  the  original  texts  and 
to  order  the  letters  chronologically. 

After  devoting  more  than  twenty  years  to  this 
gigantic  undertaking,  Coustant  was  able  to  publish 
the  first  volume  in  1721.  It  contains  the  lctt<*rs  from 
the  year  67  to  the  year  440,  and  ib  entitled  "  Epistohe 
Ronianorum  Pontificum  et  quae  ad  eos  scripts  sunt  a 
S.  Clemente  I  uscjue  ad  Iimocentium  III,  quotquot 
reiwriri  iK)tueruiit.  .  .  ."  (Paris,  1721V     In  the  ex- 


GOUSTOU 


455 


OOUTANOBS 


tensive  preface  of  150  pages  Coustant  explains  the 
origin;  meaning  and  extent  of  the  papal  pnmacy  and 
critically  examines  the  existing  collections  of  canons 
and  papal  letters.  The  letters  of  each  pope  are  pre- 
ceded by  a  historical  introduction  and  furnished  with 
copious  notes,  while  the  spurious  letters  are  collected 
in  the  appendix.  Coustant  had  gathered  a  large 
amount  of  material  for  succeeding  volumes,  but  he 
died  the  same  year  in  which  the  first  vdume  was  pub- 
lished. Simon  Mopinot,  who  had  assisted  (Constant 
in  the  preparation  of  the  first  volume,  was  entrusted 
with  the  continuation  of  the  work,  but  he  also  died 
(11  October,  1724)  before  another  volume  was  ready 
for  publication.  About  twelve  years  later,  Ursin 
Durand  undertook  to  continue  the  work;  in  his  case 
the  Jansenistic  disorders  in  which  he  became  involved 
prevented  the  publication  of  the  material  he  had  pre- 
pared. Finally  the  French  Revolution  and  the  disso- 
lution of  the  Maurist  Congregation  gave  the  death- 
blow to  the  great  undertaking.  A  new  edition  of 
Constant's  volume  was  brought  out  by  SchCnemann 
(Gdttingen,  1796);  a  continuation,  based  chiefly  on 
Uoustant's  manuscripts  and  containingthe  papal  let- 
ters from  461-521,  was  published  by  Thiel  (Brauns- 
berg,  1867).  There  are  extant  in  the  Bibliothdque 
Nationale  at  Paris  fourteen  larce  folio  volumes  con- 
taining the  material  gathered  by  Coustant  and  his 
Benedictine  continuators.  Coustant  also  took  part 
in  the  controversy  occasioned  by  Mabillon's  "  De  Re 
Diplomatic^''  between  the  Jesuit  Germon  and  the 
Maurist  Benedictines.  In  two  able  treatises  he  de- 
fends himself  and  his  confreres  against  Germon  who 
disputed  the  genuineness  of  some  sources  used  in  the 
Benedictine  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Hilary  and  St. 
Augustine. 

Tabsin,  Histoire  KtUraire  de  la  eongrSgaiion  de  SairU-Maur 

Sirussela,  1770).  417  sqq.;  Fez,  Bibliotheca  Benedictine 
auriana  (Augsburg,  1716),  345  sqq.;  Le  Ckbf,  Bibliath^que 
hiatorigue  et  critique  dee  axUeur%  de  la  congr.  de  Saint-Maur 
(The  Hague.  1726),  62  sqq.;  Mopinot  in  Journal  dea  aavants 
(Paris,  Jaouary.  1722);  Herbst  in  Theologieche  QuartaUchrifi 
(Tubingen.  1833).  438  sqq.;  Sdralek.  ibid,  (1880).  222  sqq.; 
Kerker  in  KirchenUx.,  s.  v.-  Kukdla  in  Wiener  Silzimoa- 
berichte  (1890.  1893,  1898);  Valenti.  Loe  Benedictinos  de  8. 
Mauro  (Palma  de  Mallorca.  1899),  199;  Hurteb.  Nomendator, 
II,  1103  sqq. 

Michael  Ott. 


Ooustou,  Nicolas,  French  sculptor,  b.  at  Lyons, 
9  January,  1658;  d.  at  Paris,  1  May,  1733.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  wood-carver,  from  whom  he  received  his 
first  instruction  in  art.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
went  to  Paris,  and  studied  under  the  tutorship  of  his 
uncle,  the  sculptor  Coysevox.  On  the  occasion  of 
Colbert's  last  visit  to  the  Royal  Academy,  Coustou 
received  from  his  hands  the  gold  medal  for  sculpture 
(CJolbert  prize),  which  enabled  him  to  go  to  Rome  as 
a  pensioner  from  1683  to  1686.  Here  he  applied  him- 
self especially  to  the  study  of  Michelangelo  and 
Algardi,  hoping  to  unite  in  his  own  work  the  strength 
of  the  one  and  the  grace  of  the  other.  On  his  return 
he  settled  in  Paris,  and  showed  his  independence  by 
declining  to  submit  to  the  decrees  of  the  ruling  school 
of  sculpture.  The  design  made  by  him  for  a  public 
inonument  being  refused,  he  appealed  directly  to  the 
king,  who  decided  in  his  favour  and  awarded  him  the 
commission.  Nicolas  was  joined  by  his  younger 
brother  Guillaume,  also  a  sculptor,  whom  he  admitted 
to  a  share  in  his  labours,  so  that  it  is  not  always  easy 
to  ascribe  particular  works  definitely  to  one  or  the 
other.  In  1720  Nicolas  was  appointed  rector  of  the 
acadeiny  of  painting  and  sculpture  and  held  his  post 
until  his  death,  shortly  before  which  he  was  also  made 
chancellor  of  the  "academy.  Coysevox  and  the  Cous- 
tous  formed  a  school  in  French  sculpture  and  were 
distinguished  by  grace,  naturalness  and  truth  to  life. 
Many  of  the  works  of  Nicolas  were  destrojred  in  the 
fury  of  the  Revolution,  hut  a  number  still  remain. 
Chief  among  them  are  the  "Union  of  the  Seine  and 
Mame"*  the  "Ilunteraan  Resting"  (called  in  French 


"Berger  Chaaseur");  "D^hne  Pursued  by  Apdlo". 
All  of  these  are  now  in  the  garden  of  the  Tuileries; 
further,  the  statues  of  Julius  Csssar  and  Louis  XV  in 
the  Louvre,  and  the  "  Descent  From  the  Cross"  in  the 
choir  of  Notre-Dame,  Paris,  one  of  his  best  efforts. 
There  are  also  statues  by  Coustou  at  Versailles  and 
Marly.  A  pood  terrar-cotta  bust  of  him  by  his  brother 
Guillaume  is  in  the  Louvre. 

LObkjb.  History  of  Sculpture^  tr.  Bunnett  (London.  1878); 
Marquand  and  FROTHiNOHAif.  History  of  Sculpture  (New 
York.  1886);  Dilkb.  French  Architects  and  Sculpton  of  ths 
XVltl  Century  (Ixmdon.  1900). 

M.  L.  Handlkt. 

Ooutancas,  Diocese  of  (Constantiensis),  com- 
prises the  entire  department  of  La  Manche  and  is  a 
suffragan  of  the  Archbbhopric  of  Rouen.  It  was 
enlarged  in  1802  by  the  addition  of  the  former 
Diocese  of  Avranches  and  of  two  archdeaconries  from 
the  Diocese  of  Bayeux;  since  1854  its  bishops  have 
held  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Coutances  and  Avranches. 


Cathedral  and  Town.  CouTA.NCEa 

Diocese  of  Coutances. — ^The  catalogue  of  the 
bishops  of  Coutances,  as  it  was  made  out  about  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century,  gives  as  the  first  bishops 
St.  Ereptiolus  and  St.  Exuperatus  (fourth  century). 
Leontianus,  the  first  bishop  historically  known, 
attended  the  Council  of  Orl^ns  in  511.  Coutances 
counted  among  its  prelates  Saint  L6  (Lauto).  promi- 
nent in  the  great  councils  of  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century;  St.  Rumpharius,  apostle  of  Barfleur  (d. 
about  586);  St.  Fr^mond  (Frodomundus),  who, 
assisted  by  Thierry  III,  founded  a  monastery  and  a 
church  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  679  at  Ham, 
near  Valognes;  Blessed  Geoff roy  de  Montbray  (1049- 
1093),  friend  of  William  the  Conqueror,  whose 
episcopate  was  signalized  by  the  building  of  the 
cathectal  of  Coutances,  to  which  purpose  he  devoted 
laree  sums  of  money  that  he  had  gathered  in  Apulia, 
and  also  by  the  founding  of  the  Benedictine  Abbeys 
of  Lessay,  Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte,  andMonteboure, 
and  of  the  canonries  <rf  Cherbourg;  Hugues  dfe 
Morville  (1202-1238),  organizer  of  charities  in  the 
diocese  and  founder  in  1209  of  the  celebrated  Hdtel- 
Dieu  of  Coutances;  Philibert  de  Montjeu  (1424-1439), 
who  presided  over  the  deputation  of  theologians  sent 
by  the  Council  of  Basle  to  the  Bohemians  and  Morar 
vians  in  order  to  reconcile  them  to  the  CJhurch,  and 
Giuliano  della  Rovere  (H76-1478),  afterwards  pope 
under  the  name  of  Julius  IT.  The  account  book  of 
Thomas  Marest,  cur6  of  Saint-Nicolas  of  Coutances 
(1397-1433).  is  very  interesting  for  the  historyof 
social  life  auring  tne  Hundred  Years'^  War.  The 
Huguenots  took  possesion  of  the  city  in  1562,  but 
were  banished  in  1575.  Through  the  efforts  of  the 
Venerable  P^re  Eudes  the  cathedral  of  Coutances 
was  the  first  church  in  the  world  to  have  an  altai 
dtNlirated  to  the  Sacred  Heart. 


OOUTURIEB 


456 


OOUTUBISB 


Diocese  of  Avranchbs. — Nepos,  the  first  bishop 
known  to  history,  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Orleans 
in  511.  Among  its  bishops  Avranches  included: 
St.  Pair,  or  Paternus  (d.  565),  a  great  founder  of 
monasteries,  notably  that  of  Sessiacum,  near  Gran- 
ville, which  took  the  name  of  Saint-Pair;  St.  Leodo- 
valdus  (second  half  of  sixth  century);  St.  Bagert- 
rannus,  Abbot  of  Jumi^ges  (about  682) ;  St.  Aubert, 
who  in  708  founded  the  Abbey  of  Mont  Saint-Michel; 
Robert  Ceneau  (1533-1560),  author  of  numerous 
works  against  the  Calvinists;  and  Pierre-Daniel  Huet 
(1689-1699),  a  celebrated  savant  who  assisted 
Bossuet  in  educating  the  son  of  Louis  XIV  and 
directed  the  publication  of  the  Delphin  edition  of  the 
classics.  Between  875  and  990.  in  the  troubled 
period  caused  by  the  victories  of  the  Bretons  and  the 
incursions  of  the  Normans,  the  archbishops  of  Rouen 
were  titulars  of  the  See  of  Avranches.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  bishops  of  Avranches  were  at  the 
same  time  barons,  of  Avranches,  barons  of  Saint- 
Philbert-suivRilles,'  and  proprietors  of  numerous 
domains  in  England  ana  Jersey.  The  school  of 
Avranches,  in  which  Lanfranc  taught  and  Anselm 
studied,  was  famous  in  the  eleventh  century.  The 
cathedral  where,  ip  September,  1171,  Henry  II  of 
England  swore  before  the  legates  of  Alexander  III 
that  he  was  entirely  innocent  of  the  murder  of  St. 
Thomas  Becket  was  a  beautiful  monument  of  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  It  collapsed  during 
the  Revolution.    rSee  Mont  Saint-Michel.) 

The' Diocese  of  Coutances  and  Avranches  honours 
in  a  spedal  way  St.  Pientia  (Pience),  put  to  death 
in  the  third  centuiy  for  having  facilitated  the  burial 
of  St.  Nicasius,  the  apostle  of  Vexin,  and  conspicuouslv 
honoured  in  the  litun^  of  Avranches;  St.  Floxel, 
bom  in  the  district  of  Cotentin,  and  martyred  at  the 
beguming  of  the  fourth  century;  St.  Scubilio,  com- 
panion of  the  bishop  St.  Pair,  and  founder  of  the 
monastery  of  Manoane  on  Mont  Tombe  (subse- 
quently Mont  Saint-Michel);  Sts.  S^nier,  Gaud,  and 
Fragaise,  monks  of  Sessiacum;  St.  Germanus  of  Scot- 
hatd,  who,  in  the  fifth  centuiy,  evangelized  the 
Saxon  colonies  of  the  district  of  fiessin;  St.  Severus, 
the  shepherd  (sixth  centurv),  who  was  perhaps  Bishop 
of  Avranches;  the  monk  St.  Marcouf  (sixth  century), 
founder  of  an  abbey  called  after  him,  and  whose 
name  is  borne  by  an  island  to  which  he  retired 
each  Lent  for  extraordinarv  mortification;  St.  Holier, 
disciple  of  St.  Marcouf,  beheaded  in  a  grotto  at 
Jersey;  St.  Ortaire,  Abbot  of  Landelles  (end  of  sixth 
century);  St.  Paternus  of  Goutances,monk  at  Sessiac- 
um, then  at  Sena,  and  finally  assassinated  (eighth  cen- 
tury); St.  Leo  of  Carentan,  Dom  about  810,  a  prot4g6 
of  Louis  the  Debonair  and  martyred  at  Bayonne; 
the  English  hermit  St.  Clair  (mnth  centuiy);  St. 
Guillaume  Firmat  (eleventh  centuiy),  hermit,  pil- 
grim to  the  Orient,  and  patron  of  the  collegiate  church 
of  Mortain;  Bleased  Thomas  H41ie  of  Biville,  chaplain 
to  St.  Louis  (thirteenth  oentuir);  Julie  Postel,  known 
in  religion  as  Soeur  Marie-Madeleine  (1756-1846), 
a  native  of  Barfleur,  declared  Veneiable  in  1897. 

Many  men  worthy  of  mention  in  ecclesiaatical 
history  were  natives  of  this  diocese:  Alexandre  de 
ViUedieu  (thirteenth  centuiy),  canon  of  Avranches 
and  author  of  a  Latin  grammar  universally  studied 
during  the  Middle  Ages;  the  learned  but  visionary 
QuiUaume  Postel  (d.  1581),  professor  of  mathematics 
and  Oriental  languages  in  the  Collie  de  France; 
the  Franciscan  fnar  Feuardent  (1539-^1610),  promi- 
nent  in  the  Wars  of  the  League;  Cardinal  du  Perron 
(156&-1618),  who  converted  Henry  IV;  the  Calvin- 
islio  jpublicist  Benjamin  Basnage  (1580-1652);  the 
phymoian  Hamon  (101^1^7),  well  known  in  the 
hirtoiy  of  Janaenismj  Jean  de  Launoy  (1603-1678), 
oriebrated  for  his  cntieal  work  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory; Marie  des  Vall^es^  the  demoniac  (d.  1656),  who 
made  a  great  sensation  in  her  day  and  whose  sayings 


were  gathered  into  four  volumes  by  the  YenerablB 
Pdre  Eudes,  who  had  exorcised  her;  the  Abh6  de 
Beauvais  (1731-1790)  and  the  Jesuit  Neuville  (lfl»- 
1774),  both  great  preachers;  the  Abb6  de  Saint- 
Pierre  (1658-1743),  author  of  the  "  Paix  pexp4tuelle'% 
and  the  Eudist  Le  Franc,  superior  of  tne  Coutances 
seminary  in  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  first 
Catholic  publicist  to  write  against  Freemasonry. 

Before  the  enforcement  of  the  law  of  1901  there 
were  in  the  diocese  Oratorians,  Siilpicians,  Eudists, 
and  a  local  congregation  of  Brothers  of  Mercy  of 
the  Christian  Schools,  founded  in  1842  (mother- 
house  at  Montebourg),  and  there  are  Trappists  still 
at  Bricquebec.  The  diocese  includes  several  congre- 
gations of  women:  the  Tertiary  Sisters  of  Our  I^y 
of  Mount  Carmel, 
founded  in  1686; 
the  Sisters  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus,  founded  in 
the  seventeenth 
century  by  P^re 
du  Pont,  a  ^feudist, 
and  in  1783  placed 
under  the  patron- 
age of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  being  the 
oldest  French  con- 
gregation known 
by  that  title;  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy 
of  the  Christian 
Schools,  founded 
in  1802  at  Saint- 
Sauveur-le-Vi- 
c  o  m  t  e  by  the 
Venerable  Soeur 
Postel.  Diocesan 
missionaries  are 
installed  at  Biville, 
near     the     tomb 


Cathkdral,  Coutakcbb 


of  Blessed  Thomas  H41ie,  a  much  frequented  place 

f         ilfvrnmo 

In  1900  the  diocese  included  in  religious  in- 
stitutions, 28  infant  schools,  1  orphanage  for  boys 
and  girls,  3  boys'  orphanages,  24  girls'  orphanages, 
6  industrial  schools,  35  hospitals,  hospices,  and 
asylums,  30  houses  of  nursing  sisters,  ana  3  insane 
asylums.  The  statistics  for  the  end  of  1905  (close 
of  the  Concordat  period)  indicate  a  population 
of  491,372,  with  61  pastorates,  612  succursal  parishes 
(mission  churches),  and  284  curacies,  then  remu- 
nerated by  the  State. 

OaUia  Christiana  {ed.  twva,  1750),  XI.  466-509,  662^ 
863-911,  983.  and  Inatrumenia,  105-24,  217-82,  UHiAtoire 
thrtmalogique  des  Svfques  d* Avranches  de  mattre  JiUien  NicoU 
(1669)  and  L'Histoire  ecdfsiaslique  du  diocese  de  Coxdanoes, 
also  written  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  Rbnj:  Toubtain  dc 
BiLLiT  (1643-1709),  cur^  of  Mesnil-Opac.  are  works  of  safficient 
historic  value  to  have  been  republished  in  our  day.  the  first  by 
Beaurepaire,  the  second  by  Heron  (Rouen,  1884-^).  Lscanv, 
HisUrin  du  diocese  de  Coutances  et  Avranches  (Ooutances, 
1877);  PloBON,  Le  dioche  d'Avranches  (Coutances,  1890); 
Idem,  Vies  des  saints  du  diocese  de  CotUances  et  Atfranchet 
(Avranches,  1892,  1898);  Ls  CACitBUX,  Essai  historique  eur 
VH&td-Dieu  de  Coutances  (Paris,  1896);  Ducbssnb.  Faate» 
Ma^paux,  II,  221-4,  236-40;  Chbyaubh,  Topo-bibi,,  816-818» 

Gboboeb  Qotau. 

Ooutnriar,  Louis-Charlss,  Abbot  of  the  Benedic- 
tine monastery  of  Saint-Pierre  at  Solesmes  and  Presi- 
dent of  the  French  Congregation  of  Benedictines;  b. 
12  May,  1817,  at  Chemill^sur-Ddme  in  the  Diooeae 
of  Tours;  d.  29  October,  1890,  at  Solesmes.  He  was 
educated  at  the  petit  siminavre  of  Combr^  in  A^jou 
and  at  the  grand  siminaire  of  Angers,  and  was  or- 
dained priest  12  March,  1842.  After  teaching  history 
at  Gombr^  from  1836  to  1854,  he  entered,  in  the 
latter  year,  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Saint-Pierre 
at  Solesmes,  then  newly  restored  by  Dom  Gu^ranger. 


OOVARRUVUS 


457 


00YKNANTEB8 


His  lelkiouB  zeal  and  asoetical  learning  endeared  him 
to  the  liktter,  who  appointed  him  master  of  novices 
one  month  alter  his  profession,  and  towards  the  end 
of  1861  made  him  prior  of  the  monasterv.  As  prior, 
Couturier  was  so  esteemed  that  on  the  death  of 
Gu^ranger  he  was  imanimousiy  elected  Abbot  of 
Saint-Pierre  (11  February,  1876).  Pius  IX  appointed 
him  oonsultor  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  In- 
dex, and  granted  him  and  his  successors  the  privilege 
of  wearing  the  cappa  maena. 

Couturier  was  a  wortny  successor  of  the  great 
Gu^ranger.  Despite  the  persecutions  of  the  French 
Government,  which  turned  the  reign  of  Couturier  into 
a  veritable  martyrdom  for  the  aobot  and  his  com- 
munity, the  monks  of  Solesmes  not  only  upheld  but 
even  enhanced  the  hi^  presti^  for  piety  and  learn- 
ing which  they  had  gamed  during  the  rule  of  Gu^ran- 
ger.  Couturier  and  nis  monks  were  forcibly  expelled 
m>m  their  monastejry  by  the  French  Government  on 
6  November,  1880,  and,  having  attempted  to  reoocupy 
it,  they  were  driven  out  a  second  time  on  29  March, 
1882.  Dining  the  remainder  of  Couturier's  life  the 
community  lived  in  three  separate  houses  in  the  town 
of  Solesmes,  using  the  parochial  church  as  their  abbey 
church.  Nevertheless  the  commimity  continued  to 
flourish.  By  word  and  example  ^bot  Couturier 
encouraged  the  numerous  learned  writers  among  his 
monks,  and  contributed  to  the  spread  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Order  by  restoring  old  and  deserted  monas- 
teries and  by  fostering  the  foundations  made  by 
Gu^ranger.  On  28  Maroh,  1876,  he  raised  the  priory 
of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  at  Marseilles  to  the  dignity  of 
an  abbey;  in  1880  he  restored  and  repeopled  the 
monastery  of  Silos  in  Spain;  in  July,  1889,  he  estab- 
lished the  priory  of  Saint-Paul  at  Wisques,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Arras;  and  on  15  September,  1890,  shortly 
before  his  death,  he  reopened  the  ancient  monastery 
of  Glanfeuil  in  the  Diocese  of  Angers,  deserted  since 
the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution  in  1789.  His 
literary  labours  are  confined  chiefly  to  his  collabora- 
tion in  the  publication  of  **  Les  Actes  des  Martyrs'',  a 
French  translation  of  the  Acts  of  the  martyrs  from 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era  to  our  times.  The 
third  ^tion  of  the  work  appeared  in  four  volumes 
(Paris,  1900). 

HouTiif,  Dam  Couturier,  cibhi  de  Solesmes  (Angers,  1809); 
Babxn  in  Revue  BhUdxctine  (Maredsoua,  1800),  VII,  578-588; 
BiUiographie  dee  BivUdictina  ae  la  eonorigation  de  France  (Paris, 
1906).  ^  V.  ^,  r^_ 

Michael.  Qtt. 

OovaiTUYiaa  (or  Covarrubias  y  Leyva),  Diego, 
b.  in  Toledo,  Spain,  25  July,  1512;  d.  in  Madrid,  27 
Sept..  1577.  According  to  his  biography  by  Schott 
(in  tne  Geneva,  1679,  edition  of  Covamivias),  his 
maternal  grandfather  was  the  architect  of  the  Toledo 
cathedral.  His  master  in  law,  both  canonical  and 
civil,  was  the  famous  Martin  Aspilcueta  (q.  v.),  who 
was  wont  to  ^ory  in  having  such  a  disciple.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-one,  Covamivias  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  canon  law  in  the  University  of  Salamanca. 
Later  on  he  was  entrusted  with  the  work  of  reforming 
that  institution,  already  venerable  for  its  ag|e,  and  the 
legislation  whidi  he  drew  up  looking  to  this  end  re- 
mained in  effect  long  after  nis  time.  Such  was  the 
recognized  eminence  of  his  legal  Science  that  he  was 
stylM  the  Bartholo  of  Spain.  His  vast  legsd  learning 
was  always  set  forth  with  a  peculiar  beauty  of  diction 
and  lucidity  of  style,  says  Von  Scherer  (see  below). 
His  genius  was  universal,  and  embraced  all  the  sci- 
ences subsidiary  to,  and  illustrative  of,  the  science  of 
law.  If  report  be  true,  the  larce  library  erf  Oviedo, 
where  at  the  age  of  twenty-six  ne  became  professor, 
did  not  contain  a  single  volume  which  he  had  not 
richly  annotated.  In  1549  Covarriivias  was  desig- 
nated by  Charles  V  for  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  San 
Domingo  in  the  New  Worid,  whither,  however,  he 
never  went.    Eleven  years  later  he  was  made  Bishop 


of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  in  Spain.  In  this  capacity  he  at- 
tended the  Council  of  Trent,  where,  according  to  the 
statement  of  his  nephew,  conjointly  with  UEudinal 
Ugo  Buonoompagni  (afterwards  Qregorv  XIII),  he 
was  authorized  to  formulate  the  famous  reform-decrees 
(De  Reformatione)  of  the  council.  Pressure  of  other 
duties  having  prevented  Cardinal  Buoncompagni 
from  doing  his  part  of  the  work,  the  task  devolved 
upon  Covamivias  alone.  The  text  of  these  far-reach- 
ing decrees,  therefore,  formallv  approved  by  the  coun- 
cil, we  apparently  owe  to  him.  (Von  Scherer,  in 
Kirchenlexikon,  III,  1170,  doubts  the  accuracy  of  this 
tradition.)  Having  returned  to  Spain,  Covamivias 
was  in  1565  transferred  to  the  See  of  Segovia.  Up  to 
this  time  his  extraordinary  talents  had  been  discov- 
ered in  matters  more  or  less  scholastic  only;  they  were 
hereafter  to  reveal  themselves  also  in  practical  affairs 
of  state.  Appointed  in  1572  a  member  di  the  Council 
of  Castile,  he  was  two  years  later  raised  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Council  of  State.  In  the  discharge  of  this 
office  he  was  eminently  successful.  While  president 
of  the  Council  of  State  he  was  nominated  by  JPhilip  II 
for  the  Bishopric  of  Cuenca,  but  death  prevented  nim 
from  assuming  the  duties  of  this  new  see.  The  prin- 
cipal work  of  Covamivias  is  his  ''Variarum  resolu- 
tionum  ex  jure  pontificio  regio  et  csosareo  libri 
IV".  He  wrote  also  on  testaments,  betrothal  and 
marriage,  oaths,  excommunication,  prescription, 
restitution,  etc.  Quite  distinct  in  character  from  his 
other  proauctions  is  his  numismatic  treatise,  ''Vet- 
erum  numismatum  collatio  cum  his  qu»  modo  ex- 
penduntur'',  etc.  (1594).  His  complete  works  have 
been  several  times  edited,  the  Antwerp  edition  (5 
vols.,  1762)  being  the  best.  Among  his  manuscripts 
have  been  found  notes  on  the  Coimcil  of  Trent,  a 
treatise  on  punishments  (De  poenis)  and  an  historical 
tract,  ''Catalogo  de  los  reyes  de  Espafia  y  de  otras 
cosas'',etc. 

HuRTER,  Nomendator,  I,  38;  Antonio,  BM.  Hisp.  nova 
(Madrid,  1783),  I.  27^70;  Schulte.  Geach.  d.  Quellen  u.  Lit, 
dee  can.  Rechte  (1880),  III,  721. 

John  Webster  Mblodt. 

Oovonanters,  the  name  given  to  the  subscribers 
(practically  the  whole  Scottish  nation)  of  the  two 
Covenants,  the  National  Covenant  of  1638  and  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant  of  1643.  Though  the 
Covenants  as  national  bonds  ceased  with  the  conquest 
of  Scotland  by  Cromwell,  a  number  continued  to  up- 
hold them  right  through  the  period  following  tne 
Restoration,  and  these  too  are  known  as  Covenanters. 
The  object  of  the  Covenants  was  to  band  the  whole  na- 
tion together  in  defence  of  its  religion  against  the  at- 
tempts of  the  king  to  impose  upon  it  an  episcopal  system 
of  church  flovemment  and  a  new  and  less  anti-Roman 
liturgy.  The  struggle  that  ensued  was  a  stru^le  for 
supremacy,  viz. :  as  to  who  should  have  the  last  word, 
the  King  or  the  Kirk,  in  deciding  the  religion  of  the 
country.  How  this  struggle  arose  must  first  be  briefly 
explained. 

The  causes  of  this  Protestant  conflict  between 
Church  and  State  must  be  sought  in  the  circumstances 
of  the  Scottish  Reformation.  (For  a  summary  of  the 
history  of  the  Scottish  Reformation  down  to  1601  see 
ch.  ii  of  Gardiner's  "  History  of  England ".)  Owing  to 
the  fact  that  Scotland,  irnuke  England,  had  accepted 
Protestantism,  not  at  the  dictates  of  her  rulers,  but  in 
opposition  to  them,  the  Reformation  was  not  merely 
an  ecclesiastical  revolution,  but  a  rebellion.  It  was, 
therefore,  perhaps  no  mere  chance  that  made  the  Scot- 
tish nation,  under  the  gtiidance  of  John  Knox  and  later 
of  Andrew  Melville,  adopt  Ihat  form  of  Protestantism 
which  was,  in  its  doctrine,  farthest  removed  from 
Rome,  to  which  their  French  regents  adhered,  and 
which  in  its  theory  of  church  ^vemment  was  the 
most  democratic.  Presbyterianism  meant  the  sub- 
ordination of  the  State  to  the  Kirk,  as  Melville  plainly 
told  Jcunes  VI  at  Cupar  in  1596,  on  the  famous  occa- 


OOVENAHTERS 


458 


COVENANTERS 


non  when  he  scixcd  his  sovorcign  by  tho  sleeve  and 
called  him  **  God's  silly  vassal ' '.  In  the  Church,  king 
and  bc^ggar  were  on  an  equal  footing  and  of  equal  im- 
portance; king  or  beggar  might  eaually  and  without 
disi^otion  be  excommimicat^,  ana  be  submitted  to  a 
degrading  ceremonial  if  he  wished  to  be  released  from 
the  censtire;  in  this  system  the  preacher  was  supreme. 
The  civil  power  was  to  be  the  secular  arm,  the  mstru- 
ment,  of  toe  Kirk,  and  was  required  to  inflict  the  pen- 
alties which  the  preachers  imposed  upon  such  as  con- 
temned the  censure  and  discipline  of  the  Church.  The 
Kirk,  therefore,  believing  that  the  Presbyterian  sys- 
tem, with  its  preachers,  lay  elders,  and  deacons,  kirk 
sessions,  synoos,  and  general  ass^nblies,  was  the  one, 
Divinely  appointed  means  to  salvation,  claimed  to  be 
absolute  and  supreme.  Such  a  theory  of  the  Divine 
right  of  Presbytery  was  not  likely  to  meet  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Idnffl  of  the  Stuart  line  with  their  exag- 
gerated ideas  of  their  own  right  Divine  and  preroga- 
tive. Nor  could  a  Church  where  the  ministers  and 
elders  in  their  kirk  sessions  and  assemblies  judeed, 
censured,  and  punished  all  offenders  high^  or  low, 
craftsman  or  nobleman,  be  pleasing  to  an  aristocracy 
that  looked  with  feudal  contempt  on  all  forms  of  la- 
bour. Botii  noble  and  king  were  therefore  anxious  to 
humble  the  ministers  and  deprive  them  of  some  of 
their  influence.  James  VI  was  soon  taught  the  spirit 
of  the  Presbyterian  clergy;  in  1592  he  was  compelled 
formally  to  sanction  the  establishment  of  Presbytery; 
he  was  threatened  with  rebellion  if  he  failed  to  rule  ao- 
oording  to  the  Gospel  as  interpreted  by  the  ministers. 
If  his  Bngiy  authority  was  to  endure,  James  saw  that 
he  must  seek  for  some  means  by  which  he  could  check 
their  excessive  claims.  He  first  tried  to  draw  together 
the  two  separate  representative  institutions  in  Scotland 
—the  Parliament,  representing  the  king  and  the  no- 
bility, and  the  General  Assembly,  representing  the 
Kirk  and  the  majority  of  the  nation — ^by  granting  to 
the  clergr  a  vote  in  Parliament.  Owing,  however,  to 
the  hostility  of  clergy  and  nobility,  the  scheme  fell 
through.  James  now  adopted  that  policy  which  was 
to  be  so  fruitful  of  disaster ;  he  determined  to  re-intro- 
duce episcopacy  in  Scotland  as  the  only  possible  means 
of  bringing  the  clergy  to  submit  to  his  own  authority. 
He  hadalready  gone  some  way  towards  accomplishing 
his  object  when  his  accession  to  the  English  throne 
still  further  strengthened  his  resolve.  For  he  consid- 
ered the  assimilation  of  the  two  Churches  both  in  their 
form  of  government  and  in  doctrine  essential  to  the 
furtherance  of  his  great  design,  the  union  of  the  two 
kingdoms. 

By  1612  James  had  succeeded  in  carrying  out  the 
first  part  of  his  policy,  the  re-establishment  ofdiocessm 
episcopacy.  Before  his  death  he  had  also  gone  a  long 
way  towMtis  effecting  changes  in  the  ritual  and  doc- 
trine of  Presbyterianism.  On  Black  Saturday,  4 
Aug.,  1621,  the  Five  Articles  of  Perth  were  ratified  by 
the  Estates.  Imposed  as  these  were  upon  an  unwill- 
ing nation  by  means  of  a  packed  Assembly  and  Parlia- 
ment, they  were  to  be  the  source  of  much  trouble  and 
bloodshed  in^ Scotland.  Distrust  of  their  rulers,  hatred 
of  bishops,  and  hatred  of  all  ecclesiastical  changes  was 
the  legacy  bequeathed  by  James  to  his  son.  James 
had  sowed  the  wind  and  Charles  I  was  soon  to  reap  the 
whirlwind.  Charles'  veiy  first  action,  his  "matching 
himself  with  the  daughter  of  Heth'',  i.  e.  France  (see 
Lei^ton,  "Sion's  Plea  against  Prelacy",  quoted  by 
Gardiner,  ''Hist,  of  England,  ed.  1884,  VII,  146), 
aroused  suspicion  as  to  his  orthodoxy,  and  in  the  light 
of  that  suspicion  every  act  of  his  religious  policy  was 
interpreted,  wrongly  we  know,  as  some  subtle  means 
of  favouring  popery.  His  wisest  course  would  have 
been  to  annul  the  liated  Five  Articles  of  Perth,  which 
to  Scotchmen  were  but  so  many  injimctions  to  com- 
mit idolatry.  In  spite  of  concessions,  however,  he  let 
it  be  known  that  tne  Articles  were  to  remain  (Row, 
Historie  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland,  p.  340;  Balfour,  An- 


nals, II,  142;  Privy  Council  Ilegi«ter,  N.  S.,  1, 01-^3). 
Further,  he  took  the  unwise  step  of  increastiq;  the 
powers  of  the  bishops;  five  were  given  a  place  in  the 
Privy  Coimcil;  and  Archbishop  Spottiswoode  was 
made  President  of  the  Exchequer  and  ordered  as  pri- 
mate to  take  precedence  of  every  other  subject.  This 
proceeding  not  merely  rouosed  the  indignation  of  Prot- 
estants, who  in  the  words  of  Row  considered  bii^ops 
"bellie-gods",  but  it  further  offended  the  aristocracy, 
who  felt  themselves  thus  slighted.  But  a  persecution 
of  the  Kirk  and  the  preachers  would  not  have  broueht 
about  a  rebellion.  Charles  could  always  count  on  nia 
subservient  bishops,  and  on  the  nobles  ever  ¥rilling  to 
humble  the  ministers.  But  he  now  took  a  step  whidi 
alienated  his  only  allies.  James  had  always  been  care- 
ful to  keep  the  nobles  on  his  side  by  lavish  grants  of 
the  old  oiurch  lands.  By  the  Act  of  Revocation, 
which  passed  the  Privy  Seal,  12  October,  1625  (Privy 
Council  Register,  1, 193),  Charles  I  touched  thepockets 
of  the  nobility,  raised  at  once  a  serious  opposition,  and 
led  the  barons  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  Kirk  against 
the  common  enemy,  the  king.    It  was  a  fatal  step  and 

f)roved  "the  groimd-stone  of  all  the  mischief  that  fol- 
owed  after,  both  to  this  king's  government  and  fam- 
ily" (Balfour,  Annals,  II,  128).  Thus,  before  he  had 
set  foot  in  Scotland,  Charles  had  offended  every  class 
of  his  people.  His  visit  to  Scotland  made  matters 
worse ;  Scotchmen  were  horrified  to  see  at  the  corona- 
tion service  such  "  popish  rags"  as  "white  rochets  and 
whit«  sleeves  and  copes  of  gold  having  blue  silk  to  their 
foot"  worn  by  the  officiating  bishops,  whidi  "bred 
great  fear  of  inbringing  of  popery"  (Spaldine,  Hist,  of 
the  Troubles  in  England  and  Scotland,  1624-45,  I, 


36).  Acts,  too,  were  passed  through  Parliament 
which  plainly  showed  the  king's  determination  to 
change  the  ecclesiastical  system  of  Scotland.  Scot- 
land was  therefore  ready  for  an  explosion. 

The  spark  was  the  New  Service  Book.  Both 
CJharles  and  Laud  had  been  shocked  at  the  bare  walls 
and  pillars  of  the  churches,  all  clad  with  dust,  sweep- 
ings, and  cobwebs;  at  the  trafficking  that  went  on  m 
the  Scottish  churches;  at  the  lengthy  "conceived 
prayers"  often  spoken  by  ignorant  men  and  not  infre- 
quently as  seditious  as  the  sermons  (BaHlie,  O.  S.  B., 
writing  in  1627,  cited  by  Wm.  Kintoch,  "Studies  in 
Scottisn  Ecclesiastical  History",  pp.  23,  24;  also, 
"Large  Declaration",  p.  16).  The  king  desired  to 
have  decency,  orderliness,  uniformity.  Hence  he  or- 
dered a  new  service  book,  prepared,  by  himself  and 
Laud,  to  be  adopted  by  Scotland.  The  imposition  of 
the  New  Service  Book  was  a  piece  of  sheer  despotism 
on  the  part  of  the  king;  it  had  no  ecclesiastical  sanc- 
tion whatever,  for  the  General  Assembly,  and  even  the 
bishops  as  a  Dody,  had  not  been  consulted;  neither 
had  it  any  lay  autnority,  for  it  had  not  tiie  approval  of 
Parliament;  it  went  counter  to  all  the  religious  fec^g 
of  the  majority  of  the  Scottish  people;  it  offended 
their  national  sentiment,  for  it  was  En^ish.  Row 
summed  up  the  objections  to  it  by  calling  it  a  "  Pop- 
ish-Enriish-Scottish-Mass-Service-Book"  (op.  cit.,  p. 
398).  There  could,  therefore,  be  very  little  doubt  as 
to  how  Scotland  would  receive  the  new  lituiigy.  The 
famous  riot  in  St.  Giles',  Edmburgh,  23  July,  1637 
(account  of  it  in  the  King's  "Large  Declaration"  and 
Gordon's  "Hist,  of  Scots  Affairs^,  I,  7),  when  at  the 
solemn  inauguration  of  the  new  service  somebody, 
probably  some  woman,  threw  the  stool  at  the  dean's 
head,  was  but  an  indication  of  the  general  feeling  of 
the  country.  From  all  classes  and  ranks  and  from 
every  part  of  the  country  except  the  north-east,  the 
petitions  came  pouring  into  the  Council  for  the  with- 
drawal of  the  liturgy.  Every  attempt  to  enforce  tlie 
prayer  book  led  to  a  riot.  In  a  word,  the  resistance 
was  general.  The  Council  was  powerless.  It  was 
su^ested  therefore,  that  each  of  the  four  orders — 
nc^es,  lairds,  burghers,  and  ministers— should  choose 
four  commissionerB  to  represent  th^n  and  transact 


OOVEKAHTBRS 


459 


OOVENANTSaS 


business  tnth  the  Council,  and  that  then  the  crowd  of 
petitioners  should  return  to  their  homes.  Accord- 
ingly four  committees  or  "Tables'*  (Row,  pp.  485,  6) 
were  chosen,  the  petitioners  dispersed,  and  the  riots  in 
Edinburgh  ceased.  But  this  arrangement  also  gave 
the  opposition  the  one  thing  necessary  for  a  successful 
action,  a  government.  TTne  sixteen  could,  if  only- 
united,  direct  the  mobs  effectively.  The  effect  of  hav- 
ing a  guiding  hand  was  at  once  seen.  The  demands  of 
the  supplicants  became  more  definite  and  peremptorjr 
and  on  21  December  the  Tables  presented  the  Council 
a  collective  "Supplication"  whidi  not  only  demanded 
the  recall  of  ^e  liturgy,  but,  further,  the  removal  of 
the  bishops  from  the  Council  on  the  ground  that,  as 
they  were  parties  in  the  case,  they  should  not  be 
judges  (Balfour,  Annals,  11,244-5;  Rothes,  Relation, 
etc.,  pp.  26  sqq.,  gives  an  accoimt  of  the  formation  of 
the  "Tables").  The  supplicants^  in  other  words, 
looked  upon  the  quarrel  between  kmg  and  subjects  as 
a  lawsuit. 

Charles'  answer  to  the  "Supplication"  was  read  at 
Sterling  on  19  February,  1638.    He  defended  the 
prayer  Dook  and  declared  all  protesting  meetings  il- 
legal and  treasonable.    A  coimter  proclamation  had 
been  deliberately  prepared  by  the  supplicants  and  no 
sooner  had  the  kmg  s  answer  been  read  than  Lords 
Home  and  Lindsay,  in  the  name  of  the  four  orders, 
lodged  a  formal  protestation.    The  same  form  was 
gone  througih  in  Lmlithgow  and  Edinburgh.    By  these 
K>rmal  protestations  the  petitioners  were  virtually  set- 
ting up  a  government  against  a  government,  and  as 
there  was  no  middle  part^  to  appeal  to,  it  became  nec- 
essary to  prove  to  the  king  that  the  supplicants,  and 
tiot  he,  had  the  nation  behind  them.    The  means  was 
ready  to  hand.    The  nobility  and  ^ntry  of  Scotland 
had  been  in  the  habit  of  entering  into  "band^"  for 
mutual  protection.    Archibald  Johnston  of  Warris- 
toun  is  said  to  have  suggested  that  such  a  band  or 
covenant  should  now  be  adopted,  but  not  as  heretofore 
by  nobles  and  lairds  only^  but  by  the  whole  Scottish 
people;  it  was  to  be  a  national  covenant,  taking  as  its 
basis  the  Negative  (Confession  of  Faith  which  had  been 
drawn  up  by  order  of  James  VI  in  1581.    The  great 
document  was  composed.    After  reciting  the  reason 
of  the  band,  that  the  innovations  and  evils  contained 
in  the  supplications  have  no  warrant  in  the  word  of 
God,  they  promise  and  swear  "to  continue  in  the  pro- 
fession ana  obedience  of  the  aforesaid  religion,  that 
we  shall  defend  the  same  and  resist  all  those  contrary 
errors  and  corruptions,  according  to  our  vocation,  and 
to  the  uttermost  of  that  power  that  God  hath  put  in 
our  hands  all  the  days  of  our  life ' '.    Yet,  whilst  utter- 
ing oaths  that  seem  scarcely  compatible  with  loyalty 
to  the  king,  they  likewise  promised  and  swore  "that 
we  ^all,  to  the  uttermost  of  our  power  with  our 
means  and  lives,  stand  to  the  defence  of  our  dread 
sovereign,  his  person  and  authority,  in  the  defence  of 
the  foresaid  true  religion,  liberties  and  laws  of  the 
kingdom  "  (Large  Declaration,  p.  57),  and  they  further 
swore  to  mutualdefence  and  assistance.    In  these  pro- 
fessions of  loyalty  the  Covenanters,  for  so  we  must 
now  call  the  supplicants,  were  probably  sincere;  dur- 
ing the  whole  course  of  the  struggle  the  great  majority 
never  wished  to  touch  the  throne,  they  only  wished  to 
carry  out  their  own  idea  of  the  strictly  limited  nature 
of  the  king's  authority.    Charles  was  to  be  king  and 
they  Would  obey,  if  he  did  as  they  commanded. 

The  success  of  the  Covenant  was  great  and  imme- 
diate. It  was  completed  on  28  February  and  carried 
for  signature  to  Greyfriars  chureh.  Tradition  tells 
how  me  parchment  was  unrolled  on  a  tombstone  in 
the  churdiyard  and  how  the  people  came  in  crowds 
weeping  with  emotion  to  si|^  the  band.  This  strange 
scene  was  soon  witnessed  in  almost  every  parish  of 
Scotland,  if  we  except  the  Highlands  and  the  North- 
East.  Several  copies  of  the  Covenant  were  distributed 
for  signature.    ''Gentlemen  and  noblemen  carried 


copies  of  it  in  iwrtniuiitlcs  and  pockets  requiring  sub- 
scriptions thereunto,  and  using  their  utmost  endeav- 
ours with  their  friends  in  private  for  to  subscribe." 
"And  such  was  the  zeal  of  many  subscribers,  that  for 
a  while  many  subscribed  with  tears  on  their  cheeks"; 
and  it  is  even  said  "  that  some  did  draw  their  blood, 
and  used  it  in  place  of  ink  to  underwrite  their  name" 
(Gordon,  Scots  Affairs,  I,  46).  Not  all,  however,  were 
willing  subscribers  to  the  Covenant.  For  many  per- 
suasion was  sufficient  to  make  them  join  the  cause; 
others  rec^uired  rougher  treatment.  All  those  who  re- 
fused to  sign  were  not  merely  looked  upon  as  imgodly, 
but  as  traitors  to  their  country,  as  ready  to  help  the 
foreign  invader.  And  "as  the  greater  tnat  the  num- 
ber of  subscribents  grew,  the  more  imperious  they  were 
in  exacting  subscriptions  from  others  who  refused  to 
subscribe,  so  that  by  degrees  they  proceeded  to  con- 
tumelies and  reproaches,  and  some  were  threatened 
and  beaten  who  durst  refuse,  especially  in  the  greatest 
cities"  (ibid.,  p.  45).  No  blood,  however,  was  shed 
till  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  Ministeis  who  had  re- 
fused to  sign  were  silenced,  ill-treated,  and  driven  from 
their  homes.  Toleration  and  freedom  of  conscience 
was  hated  by  both  parties  and  by  none  more  fanati- 
cally than  by  the  Scottish  Presbyterians.  Scotland 
was  in  truth  a  covenanted  nation.  A  few  sreat  land- 
owners, a  few  of  the  clergy,  especially  the  Doctors  of 
Aberdeen  who  feared  that  their  quiet  studies  and  intel- 
lectual freedom  would  be  overwhelmed,  stood  aloof 
from  the  movement.  Many,  no  doubt,  s^ed  in  imo- 
ranee  of  what  they  were  doing,  some  because  tney 
were  frightened,  but  more  still  because  they  were 
swayed  by  an  overpowering  excitement  and  frenay. 
Neither  side  could  now  retreat,  but  Charles  was  not 
ready  for  war.  So  to  gain  time  he  made  a  show  of 
concession  and  promii^  a  General  Assembly.  The 
Assembly  met  at  Glai^w  21  Nov.,  and  at  once  broug^ 
matters  to  a  head,  it  attacked  the  bishops  accusing 
them  of  all  manner  of  crimes;  in  conseauence  Hamif 
ton,  as  commissioner,  dissolved  it.  Nottiing  daunted, 
the  Assembly  then  resolved  that  it  was  entitled  to  re- 
main in  session  and  competent  to  judge  the  bishops, 
and  it  proceeded  to  pull  down  the  whole  ecclesiastical 
edifice  built  up  by  James  and  Charles.  The  Service 
Book,  Book  of  OBuions,  the  Articles  of  Perth  were 
swept  away;  episcopacy  was  declared  forever  abol- 
ished and  ail  assemblies  neld  under  episcopal  jurisdic- 
tion were  null  and  void;  the  bii^ops  were  all  ejected 
and  some  excommunicated ;  Presbyterian  government 
was  again  established. 

War  was  now  inevitable.  In  spite  of  their  protestar 
tions  of  loyalty  the  Covenanters  had  practicaUy  set  up 
a  theory  in  opposition  to  the  monarchy.  The  ques- 
tion at  issue,  as  Charles  pointed  out  in  his  proclama- 
tion, was  whether  he  was  to  be  king  or  not.  Was  he 
supreme  head  of  the  Church  or  was  he  not?  Tolera- 
tion was  the  only  basis  of  compromise  possible;  but 
toleration  was  deemed  a  heresy  by  both  parties,  and 
hence  there  was  no  other  course  but  to  fight  it  out. 
In  two  shoii;  wars,  known  as  the  Bishops'  Wars,  the 
Covenanters  in  arms  brought  the  king  to  his  knees, 
and  for  the  next  ten  years  Charles  was  only  nominaJly 
sovereign  of  Scotland.  A  united  nation  could  not  be 
made  to  change  its  religion  at  the  command  of  a  king. 
The  triumph  of  the  Covenants,  however,  was  destinM 
to  be  shori;-lived.  The  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in 
England  was  soon  to  split  the  Covenanting  party  in 
twain.  Men  were  to  be  divided  between  their  alle- 
giance to  monarchy  and  their  allegiance  to  the  Cove- 
nant. Scotchmen  in  spite  of  their  past  actions  still 
firmly  adhered  to  the  monarchical  form  of  government, 
and  there  cannot  be  much  doubt  that  they  would 
much  rather  have  acted  as  mediators  between  the  king 
and  his  Parliament  than  have  interiered  actively. 
But  the  royalist  successes  of  1643  alarmed  them. 
Presbyterianism  would  not  endure  long  in  Sootland 
if  Chsuies  won.    For  this  reason  the  majority  of  the 


OOTEMAMTSBS 


460 


0OVSNAHTEB8 


nation  sided  with  the  Parliament,  but  it  was  with 
reluctance  that  the  Covenanters  agreed  to  give  the 
F.nglJRh  brotherly  assistance.  This  assistance  they 
were  determined  to  give  only  on  one  condition,  name- 
fy,  that  England  should  reform  its  religion  according 
to  Uie  Scottish  pattern.  To  this  «nd  England  and 
Scotland  enterea  into  the  Solemn  League  and  Cov- 
enant (17  Aug.,  1643).  It  would  have  oeen  well  for 
Scotland  if  she  had  never  entered  the  League  to  en- 
force her  own  church  system  upon  England.  If  she 
had  been  satisfied  with  a  simple  alliance  and  assist- 
ance, all  would  have  been  well.  But  by  materially 
helpine  the  English  Parliament  to  win  at  Marston 
Moor  3ie  had  hefped  to  place  the  decision  of  affairs  of 
state  in  the  hancu  of  the  army,  which  was  predomi- 
nantly Independent  and  hated  presbyters  as  much  as 
bishops.  It  the  Scotch  had  recrossed  the  Tweed  in 
1646  and  left  the  Parliament  and  the  army  to  fight 
out  for  themselves  the  Question  of  ecclesiastical  gov- 
ernment, Eng^d  would  not  have  interfered  with 
their  religion;  but  the  Covenanters  thought  it  their 
duty  to  extirpate  idolatry  and  Baal-worship  and  estab- 
lish the  true  religion  in  England,  and  so  came  in  con- 
flict with  those  who  wielded  the  sword.  The  result 
wafl  that  England  not  only  did  not  become  Presby- 
terian, but  Scotland  herself  became  a  conquered 
country.  In  militarv  matters  the  Covenanters  were 
successful  in  England,  but  in  their  own  country  they 
were  sorelv  tried  for  a  year  (1644)  by  the  brilliant 
career  of  Montrose  (an  account  of  the  year  of  Montrose 
is  given  in  A.  Lang,  Hist,  of  Scot.,  Ill,  v).  On  ac- 
count of  tiie  nature  of  the  troops  engaged,  the  encoun- 
ters were  fought  with  a  vindictive  ferocity  unknown 
in  the  English  part  of  the  Civil  War.  Not  merely  was 
the  numTOr  of  slain  very  great,  but  both  sides  slaked 
their  thirst  for  vengeance  in  plunder,  murder,  and 
wholesale  massacres.  In  this  respect  the  Covenanters 
must  bear  the  greater  share  of  blame.  The  Catholic 
Celts  whom  A&ntrose  led  undoubtedly  conunitted 
outrages,  especially  against  their  personal  enemies  the 
CampbeUs,  during  the  winter  campaign  of  Inveriochy 
(Patrick  (Gordon,  Britane's  Distemper,  pp.  95  sqq.), 
but  restrained  by  Montrose  they  never  perpetrated 
such  pei^dy  as  the  Covenanters  after  Pnihphau^, 
and  the  slauriiter  of  three  hundred  women,  '^mamed 
wives  of  the  Irish".  Montrose's  success  and  the  fact 
that  he  was  a  leader  of  Scoto-Irish  lashed  the  hatred 
of  the  preachers  into  fury.  They  raved  for  the  blood 
of  the  Malignants.  The  preachers,  with  a  fanaticism 
revoltineiy  blasphemous  and  as  ferocious  as  that  of 
Islam,  believed  that  more  blood  must  be  shed  to 
propitiate  the  Deity  (Balfour,  Annals,  III,  311). 

lie  victory  of  Philiphaugh  (13  Sept.,  1645)  removed 
the  inmiediate  danger  to  the  Covenanters  and  likewise 
extinguished  the  last  glinmier  of  hope  for  the  Royalist 
cause,  which  had  suffered  irreparable  defeat  a  few  weeks 
earlier  at  Naseby .  But  the  very  triumph  of  the  Parlia- 
mentary forces  m  England  was  fatal  to  the  cause  of  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  The  victory  had  been 
sained  by  the  army  which  was  not  Presbyterian  but 
indepenaent,  and  capable  now  of  resisting  the  inflic- 
tion of  an  intolerant  and  tyrannical  chiirch  government 
upon  itself  and  upon  En^and.  When,  therefore,  the 
Scottish  army  recrossed  the  Tweed,  February,  1647,  it 
was  with  its  main  purpose  unfulfilled.  En^and  had 
not  been  thoroughly  retormed ;  heresy,  especially  in  the 
army,  was  still  rampant.  The  Solemn  Leaeue  and 
Covenant  had  been  a  failure,  and  the  Scots  had  fought 
in  vain.  Worse  than  this,  the  Covenanters  themselves 
were  divided.  The  success  of  the  Covenant  had  been 
due  to  the  alliance  between  the  Kirk  and  the  nobility. 
The  latter  had  joined  the  cause  from  jealousy  of  the  au- 
thority of  the  bishops  and  from  fear  of  the  loss  of  their 
estates  by  the  Act  of  Revocation.  But  now,  bishops 
there  were  none,  and  the  nobility  were  still  in  pos- 
session of  their  estates.  Since  the  causes  for  further 
co-operation  were  thus  wanting,  the  feudal  instincts  of 


the  nobility,  love  of  monarchical  eovemmeat, 

tempt  for  tne  lower  orders  to  which  we  nu^onty  of  the 
Kirk  belonged,  naturally  reasserted  ^emselves.  To 
this  must  be  added  their  intense  jealousy  of  Axarll, 
who  owed  his  influence  to  the  support  he  gave  the  Kn« 
A  Royalist  party  began  thus  to  be  formed  amons  the 
Covenanters.  The  cleavage  in  their  ranks  wasahown 
in  the  dispute  over  the  question  of  the  surrender  of 
Charles  I  to  the  Parliament  (1646).  Hamilton  had 
pressed  the  Estates  to  give  the  king  honour  and  shelter 
m  Scotland,  but  Argyll,  backed  by  the  preachers,  op- 
posed him.  There  must  be  no  imcovenanted  king  m 
Scotland.  The  breach  was  widened  when  Charles  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  heretical  army.  To  many  it  now 
seemed  best  to  support  the  kinjB;,  for  if  the  army  should 
prove  successful  rresbyterianism  would  be  lost.  Ao- 
cordingly  Scottish  commissioners,  Loudoun,  Isnaxk^ 
and  Lauderdale  visited  Charles  at  Carisbrooke  and 
signed  the  hopeless  and  foolish  ''Engagement"  (27 
Dec,  1647).  In  Scotland  the  Engagers  had  a  large 
following,  and  a  majority  in  the  Estates.  In  the  Par- 
liament tne  Hamiitonian  party  could  carry  all  before 
it  and  was  ready  to  take  immeaiate  action  for  the  king. 
But  the  Kirk,  with  An;yll  and  some  ten  nobles,  re- 
mained immovably  on  the  other  side.  They  would  not 
defile  themselves  by  making  conmion  cause  with  the 
uncovenanted.  The  preachers  cursed  and  thundered 
a^inst  the  Engagers  and  the  levies  that  were  bein^ 
raised  for  an  invasion  of  England.  Scotland  thus  di- 
vided against  itself  had  not  much  chance  against  the 
veterans  of  Cromwell  and  Lambert.  After  Preston, 
Wigan,  and  Warrington  (17-19  Aug.,  1648)  the  Scot- 
tish Royalist  forces  were  no  more.  The  destruction  of 
Hamilton's  force  was  a  triumph  for  the  Kirk  and  the 
anti-E^n^a^rs.  But  an  event  now  occurred  that  onoe 
more  divided  the  nation.  On  30  January,  1649, 
Charies  I  was  executed.  Scotchmen  of  whatever  party 
looked  upon  the  deed  as  a  crime  and  as  a  national  in- 
sult. Tne  day  after  the  news  reached  Scotland,  they 
prodaimed  Charles  II  King,  not  only  of  Scotland,  out  of 
England  and  Ireland.  Tne  acceptance  of  Charles  11, 
however,  had  been  saddled  with  the  condition  that  he 
should  pled^  himself  to  the  two  Covenants.  After 
some  hesitation  and  after  the  failure  of  all  his  hopes  to 
use  Ireland  as  a  basis  of  an  invasion  of  England 
Charles  II  swore  to  the  Covenants,  11  Jime,  1650. 

To  the  more  extreme  portion  of  the  dovenanten 
this  agreement  with  the  kuig  seemed  hypocrisy,  an  in- 
sult to  Heaven.  They  knew  that  he  was  no  true  con- 
vert to  the  Covenants,  that  he  had  no  intention  of 
keeping  them,  that  he  nad  perjured  himself,  and  they 
refused  to  have  dealings  with  the  king.  Aj^U  witn 
the  more  moderate  wing,  still  anxious  to  avoH  a  defi- 
nite rupture  with  the  extremists,  had  perforce  to  make 
concessions  to  these  feelings ;  he  made  the  unfortunate 
prince  walk  through  the  very  depths  of  humiliation 
(Peterkin,  Records,  p.  599).  This  split  was  to  prove 
fatal.  Only  a  united  Scotland  could  have  defeated 
Cromwell.  Instead,  to  propitiate  the  Deity,  Chsjrles 
was  kept  apart  from  the  army,  and  while  every  avail- 
able man  was  wanted  to  meet  the  soldiers  of  Cromwell, 
the  fanatics  were  "purging"  the  army  of  all  Royalists 
and  Malisnants  (op.  cit.,  p.  623).  To  allow  them  to 
fi^ht  would  be  to  court  disaster.  How  could  Jehovah 
eive  victory  to  the  children  of  Israel,  if  they  fought  side 
by  side  witn  the  idolatrous  Amalekites?  The  purgingi 
of  the  army  went  merrily  on  daily,  and  the  preachers 
promised  in  Gkxi's  name  a  victoiy  over  the  erroneous 
and  blasphemous  sectaries.  Like  the  Scots  Cromwdl 
also  looked  upon  war  as  an  appeal  to  the  god  of  bat- 
tles, and  the  judgment  was  delivered  at  Dunbar,  3 
Sept.,  1650.  ^'Surely  it's  probable  the  Kirk  has  done 
their  do.  I  believe  tJaeir  king  will  set  up  upon  his  own 
score  now. "  This  was  Cromwell's  comment  upon  his 
victory  and  he  was  right.  The  rout  of  Dunbar  de- 
stroyed the  ascendancy  of  the  Covenanters.  The 
preachers  had  promised  victory,  but  Jehovah  had  sent 


OOVENANTSRS 


461 


OOVENANTEBS 


them  defeat.  The  ejEtremists,  under  such  leaders  as 
Johnston  of  Warristoun,  James  Guthrie,  and  Patrick 
Gillespie,  attributing  their  defeat  to  the  unholy  alli- 
ance with  the  Malignants  grew  in  vehemence  and  pre- 
sented to  the  Committee  of  Estates  (30  Oct.,  1650)  a 
"Remonstrance''  arraigning  the  whole  policy  of  Ar- 
gyll's ^vemment  and  refusing  to  accept  Charles  as 
their  km^  "  till  he  should  give  satisfactoiy  evidence  of 
his  real  diange"  (ibid.).  Seeing  his  power  gone  with 
the  "Remonstrants"  or  "Protesters",  Argyll  deter- 
mined definitely  to  go  over  to  the  king;  Malignant  and 
Covenanter  had  joined  hands.  In  answer  to  the  Re- 
monstrance the  Committee  of  Estates  passed,  25  No- 
vember, a  resolution  condemning  it  and  resolved  to 
crown  Charles  at  Scone.  On  1  January,  1651  the  coro- 
nation took  place.  Cromwell's  answer  was  the  battle 
of  Worcester,  3  September,  1651.  For  nine  years 
Scotland  was  a  conquered  country  kept  under  by  the 
militarysaints.  It  was  a  sad  time  for  the  Presbyter- 
ians. The  En^ish  soldiers  allowed  all  Protestants,  as 
lon^  as  they  did  not  distiirb  the  peace,  to  worship  in 
their  own  wa^.  In  October,  1651,  Monk  forbade  the 
preachers  to  impose  oaths  and  covenants  on  the  lie^, 
and  prohibited  the  civil  magistrates  from  molesting 
excommimicated  persons,  or  seizing  their  goods,  or 
boy oottins  them .  Lest  the  Remonstrants  and  Re volu- 
tioners,  who  all  the  while  with  ever  increasing  bitter- 
ness quarrelled  as  to  which  was  the  true  inheritor  of 
the  Covenants,  should  cause  trouble  to  the  common- 
wealth, the  (jeneral  Assembly  was  broken  up  (July, 
1653),  and  all  such  assemblies  forbidden  for  the  future 
(Kirkton,  Secret  and  True  History  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  p.  54). 

Dunbar,  Worcester,  and  the  Cromwellian  domi- 
nation destroyed  the  ascendancv  of  the  Covenantera 
But  not  on  uiat  accoimt  did  the  extreme  wing,  the 
Remonstrants,  abate  a  jot  of  their  pretensions;  they 
still  believed  in  the  eternally  binding  force  of  the  two 
Covenants.  On  the  other  hand  neither  had  the  king 
fully  learnt  the  lesson  from  his  father's  fate.  Like 
him  he  considered  it  his  nght  to  force  his  ecclesiastical 
viewL  upon  his  people.  Episcopacy  was  restored,  but 
without  the  prayer  book,  and  the  meetings  of  synods 
were  forbidden.  Partly  because  he  had  the  support  of 
the  nobility  and  gentry,  partly  because  even  many 
Presbyterians  had  weaned  of  the  strife,  and  partly  be- 
cause of  his  dishonesty  Charles  succeeded  m  gaininjg 
his  ends,  but  at  the  cost  of  straining  to  the  utmost  his 
relations  with  his  subjects.  It  only  required  the  at- 
tempt of  James  II  to  introduce  hated  Catholicism  into 
the  country  to  sweep  the  Stuarts  forever  from  the 
throne  of  Scotland.  The  history  of  the  Covenanters 
from  the  Restoration  to  the  Revolution  is  the  history 
of  a  fierce  persecution  varied  with  occasional  milder 
treatment  to  win  the  weaker  members  to  the  moderate 
side.  As  the  Covenanters  would  no  longer  meet  in  the 
chuitshes  they  now  began  to  meet  in  their  own  homes 
and  have  private  conventicles.  Agamst  these  pro- 
ceedings an  Act  was  passed  (1663)  declaring  preaching 
by  "ousted"  ministers  seditious,  and  it  was  rigoi^ 
ously  enforced  by  quartering  soldiers  under  Sir  James 
Turner  in  the  houses  of  recusants.  (For  Turner's 
methods  see  Lauderdale  Papers,  II,  82.)  Driven 
from  their  homes  the  Covenanters  took  to  holding 
their  gatherings  in  the  open  air,  in  distant  glens,  known 
as  fieM-meetings  or  conventicles.  The  Pentland  Ris- 
ing (1666)  was  the  result  of  these  measures  and  proved 
to  the  Government  that  its  severities  had  been  unsuc- 
cessful. On  the  advice  of  Lauderdale  Charles  issued 
Letters  of  Indulgence,  Jime,  1669,  and  again  in  Au- 
gust, 1672,  allowing  such  "ousted"  ministers  as  had 
lived  peaceably  and  orderly  to  return  to  their  livings 
(Wodrow,  Hist,  of  the  Sufferings,  etc.,  II,  130).  These 
indulgences  were  disastrous  to  the  Conventiclers,  for 
many  of  the  ministers  3rielded  and  conformed.  Stung 
by  the  secessions  the  remnant  became  more  irreconcil- 
able; their  sermons  were  simply  poUtical  party  ora- 


tions denunciatory  of  king  and  bishops.  They  were 
especially  wroth  against  the  indulged  ministers;  they 
broke  into  their  houses,  bullied  and  tortured  them  to 
force  them  to  swear  that  they  would  cease  from  tJieir 
ministrations.  These  Lauderdale  determined  to  crush 
by  a  persecution  of  the  utmost  severity.  Soldiers 
were  quartered  in  the  disaffected  districts  (me  West  and 
South- West),  ministers  were  imprisoned,  and  finally, 
as  conventicles  still  increased,  a  band  of  half-savage 
Highlanders,  "The  Highland  Host"  (Lauderdale  Par 
pers.  III,  938qq.),  was  let  loose  on  the  wretched  inhab- 
itants of  the  Western  Lowlands,  where  they  marauded 
and  plundered  at  will. 

The  Covenanters  now  became  reckless  and  wild,  for 
again  torn  asunder  by  the  "cess"  controversy  (a  dis- 
pute arose  as  to  whetner  it  was  lawful  to  pay  the  tax 
or  ''oess"  raised  for  an  unlawful  object,  the  carrying  on 
of  a  Government  persecuting  the  true  Kirk)  they  were 
but  a  remnant  of  the  once  powerful  Kirk,  and  every 
year  became  less  capable  of  effectual  resistance.  They 
patrolled  the  county  in  arms  protecting  conventicles; 
and  their  leaders,  Welsh,  Cameron,  and  others,  went 
about  as  ^soldiers  of  Christ",  organizing  rebellion, 
even  murdering  the  soldiers  of  Claverhouse,  who  was 
engaged  in  dispersing  the  conventicles.  The  murder 
of  Archbishop  Sharpe  (2  May,  1679),  rejgarded  by 
them  as  a  glorious  action  and  inspired  by  the  spirit  of 
Ciod,  was  tne  signal  for  a  general  rising  in  the  Western 
Lowlands.  At  Rutheiglen  they  publicly  burnt  the 
Acts  of  the  Crovemment  which  had  overthrown  the 
Covenants,  and  at  Loudoun  Hill,  or  Drumclog,  de- 
feated the  troops  under  Claverhouse.  It  was  there- 
fore deemed  necessary  to  send  a  strong  force  under 
Monmouth  to  suppress  the  rebellion.  At  Bothwell 
Bridge  (22  June,  1679)  the  insiireents  were  utterly  de- 
feat^. There  followed  a  third  Act  of  Indulgence 
which  again  cut  deep  into  the  ranks  of  the  Covenant- 
ers. But  in  spite  of  persecution  and  secessions  a  mi- 
nority continued  faithful  to  the  Covenant  and  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  Presbyterianism.  Under  the 
leadership  of  Ricnard  Cameron  and  Donald  Cargill,  and 
styline  tnemselves  the  "Society  People",  they  con- 
tinued to  defy  the  royal  authority.  At  Sanquhar  they 
published  a  declaration,  22  Jime,  1680  (Wodrow,  III, 
213)  disowning  the  king  on  the  ground  of  "his  perjury 
and  breach  of  covenant  to  Qod  and  his  Kirk".  At  a 
conventicle  held  at  Torwood  (1680)  Cargill  solemnly 
excommunicated  the  king,  the  Duke  of  York,  Mon- 
mouth, and  others  (ibid.,  Ill,  219).  These  proceed- 
ings served  no  further  purpose  than  to  embitter  par- 
ties and  make  the  Government  all  the  more  detennmed- 
to  extirpate  the  sect.  But  what  roused  the  (Sovemn 
ment  more  than  anything  else  was  the  "Apologetical 
Declaration"  (ibid.,  IV,  148)  of  October,  1684,  in- 
spired by  Renwick  who  nad  taken  up  the  standard  of 
CameroiL  The  document  threatened  that  anyone 
connected  with  the  Government,  if  caught,  would  be 
judged  and  punished  according  to  his  offences.  These 
threats  were  carried  out  by  the  Cameronians  or  Ren- 
wickites;  they'  attacked  and  slew  dragoons,  and  pun- 
ished such  of  the  conformist  ministers  as  thev  could 
get  hold  of.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  "killing 
time"  properiy  be^.  Courts  of  justice  were  dis- 
pensed witn  and  officers  having  commissions  from  the 
Council  were  empowered  to  execute  anyone  who  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  abjuration  of  the  Declaration. 
With  the  accession  of  James  II  to  the  English  throne 
the  persecution  waxed  fiercer.  An  Act  was  passed 
whicn  made  attendance  at  field-conventicles  a  capital 
offence.  Claverhouse  carried  out  his  instructions 
faithfully,  many  were  summarily  executed,  while 
many  more  were  shipped  off  to  the  American  planta- 
tions. The  last  victim  for  the  Covenant  was  James 
Renwick  (Jan.,  1688).  His  followers  kept  to  their 
principles  and  even  at  the  Revolution  the^  refused  to 
accept  an  uncovenanted  king;  one  last  brief  day  of 
triumph  and  of  vengeance  they  had,  when  they  "rab- 


OOVETOUSHESS 


462 


OOVINOTOir 


bled"  the  oonformist  curates.  The  day  of  the  Cove- 
nants had  long  since  passed.  How  much  the  ancient 
spirit  of  Presbyterianism  was  broken  was  clearly  seen 
by  the  subservient  letter  in  which  James  was  thanked 
for  the  Indulgence  of  1687,  for  allowing  aU  ''toserve 
God  after  their  own  way  and  manner"  (Wodrow,  IV, 
428,  note).  The  majority  had  learned  to  submit  to 
compromise,  and  thus  at  the  Revolution  the  Scottish 
nation  forgot  the  Covenants  and  was  allowed  to  retain 
Ptesbyterianism.  The  strife  of  a  century  between 
Kirk  and  State  had  come  to  an  end.  Both  sides  in  the 
struggle  had  in  fact  lost  and  won.  The  king  had  been 
defeated  in  his  attempt  to  dictate  the  religion  of  his 
subjects;  Presbyterianism  became  the  established  re- 
ligion. But  it  had  been  equally  proved  that  the  sub- 
jection of  the  State  to  the  Church,  the  supremacy, 
political  as  well  as  ecclesiastical,  of  the  Kirk,  was  an 
mipoesibility.     In  this  the  Covenants  had  failed. 

LA.Na,  A  History  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh  and  London,  1004), 
vol.  Ill;  Hums  Brown,  History  of  Scotland  (Cambridge,  1905), 
vol.  II;  Burton,  History  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh  and  London, 
1870),  vols.  VI  and  VII:  Matiueson,  Politics  mid  Religion  in 
Scotland  (Glasgow,  1902);  Stephen,  History  of  Scottish  Church 
(Edinburgh,  1894-96).— Contemporary  authorities:  Row,  His- 
tory qf  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  (1558-1637)  (Wodrow  Society. 
1841);  Balfour,  Annals  of  ScoUand  (to  1652)  (Edinburgh, 
1824);  Baillxe,  Lett^s  and  JoumaU  (1637-1662)  (Bannatyne 
aub,  Edinburgh,  1841-42);  Spalding, //wton/  of  the  Troubles 
in  England  and  Scotland  (1624-45)  (Bannatj-ne  Club,  Edin- 
burgh, 1828-29;  Gordon,  History  of  Scots  Affairs  from  1637 
to  16U1  (Spalding  Club,  Aberdeen,  1841);  Peterkin,  Records 
of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  (from  1638)  (Edinburgh,  1837);  Wod- 
row, The  History  of  the  Sufferings  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
from  the  Restoration  to  the  Revolution  (Glasgow,  1830);  Kirk- 
TON,  The  Secret  and  True  History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
(Edinburgh.  1817);  LaudfirdaU  Papers  (1639-79)  (Cauuleji 
Society,  London,  1884-85). 

Noel  J.  Campbell. 

Ooyetousness,  generally,  an  unreasonable  desire 
for  what  we  do  not  possess.  In  this  sense,  it  differs 
from  concupiscence  only  in  the  implied  notion  of  non- 
possession,  and  thus  may  cover  all  things  which  are 
sought  after  inordinately.  Classified  under  this  gen- 
eral head,  we  may  have  covetousnees  of  honours,  or 
pride;  of  the  flesh,  or  concupiscence  properly  so  called; 
ofriches,  or  covetousness  proper  (Lat.  avarUta)^  or  ava- 
rice. When  covetousness  ot  the  flesh  or  of  wealth  has 
for  its  object  that  which  is  already  the  lawful  posses- 
sion of  aiiother,  it  falls  under  the  ban  of  the  Nmth  or 
Tenth  Commandment  of  God ;  and  such  desires,  wil- 
fully indulged,  partake,  as  we  are  told  by  the  Lord 
(Matt.,  v),  m  their  malice,  of  the  nature  of  the  external 
acts  themselves.  For  he  who  deliberately  desires  the 
possession  of  another  man's  lawful  wife  or  goods  has 
already  in  his  heart  committed  the  sin  of  adultery  or 
theft.  In  its  specific  meaning,  covetousness  Iooks  to 
riches  in  themselves,  whether  of  money  or  of  property, 
whether  possessed  or  not,  and  pertains  less  to  their 
acquisition  than  to  their  possession  or  accumulation. 
"Hius  defined,  it  is  numbered  among  the  sins  which  are 
called  capital,  because  it  is,  as  St.  Paul  says  (Tim., 
vi),  a  radix  omnium  peccatonmu 

The  capital  sin  of  covetousness  is  in  reality  rather 
a  vice  or  inclination  to  sin,  which  is  sinful  only  in 
that  it  i)roceeds  from  the  unholy  condition  of  origi- 
nal sin  in  which  we  are  bom,  and  because  it  les^ 
us  into  sin.  And  so  far  is  the  desire — ^natural  in  us 
all — to  acquire  and  hold  possessions  from  being  re- 
proved as  offensive  bv  God,  that,  if  kept  within  the 
Dounds  of  reason  and  justice  and  resisted  triumph- 
antly in  its  inordinate  cravings,  it  is  positively  meri- 
torious. Even  when  indulged,  covetousness  is  not 
a  grievous  sin,  except  in  certain  conditions  which  in- 
volve offence  of  God  or  the  neighbour,  e.  g.  when  one  is 
prepared  to  employ,  or  does  actually  employ,  illicit  or 
unjust  means  to  satisfy  the  desire  of  riches,  holds  to 
them  in  defiance  of  the  strict  demands  of  justice  or 
charity,  makes  them  the  end  rather  than  the  means  of 
happiness,  or  suffers  them  to  interfere  seriously  with 
one  8  bounden  duty  to  God  or  man.  Nourished  and 
developed  into  an  unrestricted  habit,  it  becomes  the 


fruitful  mother  of  all  manner  of  perfidy,  heartloBsziflH 
and  unrest. 

SLA.TBB,  Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908),  I; 
Lehmkuhi.,  Theologia  Moralia  (Freiburg,  1808),  I. 

John  H.  Stapleton. 

Oovington,  Diocese  of  (Covingtonensis),  com- 
prises that  part  of  Kentucky.  U.  S.  A.,  lyin^  east  oi 
the  Kentucky  River,  and  ot  the  western  limits  of 
Carroll,  Owen,  Franklin,  Woodford,  Jessamine,  Gar- 
rard, Rockcastle,  Laurel,  and  Whitley  Counties,  an 
area  of  17,286  square  miles.  It  was  established  29 
July,  1853,  by  the  division  of  the  Diocese  of  Louis- 
ville, then  embracing  the  whole  State  of  Kentucky. 
This  portion  of  the  State  had  been  mmistered  to  by  a 
body  of  clergy  conspicuous  for  ability,  learning,  and 
devotion  to  duty.  White  Sulphiu",  the  first  organ- 
ized congregation  in  this  jurisdiction,  rejoiced  in  the 
zealous  administration  of  a  Kenrick,  who  in  later 


Cathedral,  Covington,  KbnYuckt 

years  graced  the  metropolitan  See  of  Baltimore,  and  of 
a  Reynolds,  destined  to  become  successor  of  the  great 
Bishop  En^and  of  Charieston.  Lexington  was  grow- 
ing into  an  important  parish  under  the  watchful  guid' 
ance  of  Rev.  John  McGill.  afterwards  Bishop  of  Kich- 
mond,  Virginia.  All  of  the  clergy  manifested  in  their 
lives  the  ^orious  traditions  of  fiaget,  Badin,  David, 
and  Nerinckx,  whose  successors  they  were.  Oatholk 
immigration  has  been  almost  exclusively  confined  to 
two  nationalities:  German  and  Irish.  The  former 
compose  a  large  majority  of  the  Catholic  population 
of  the  cities  and  towns  along  the  Ohio  River,  while  the 
latter  have  sought  the  interior  of  the  diocese.  In 
Covington  and  Newport  German  Catholics  predomi- 
nate, while  in  Lexington,  Frankfort,  and  raris,  the 
Irish  are  in  the  majority.^  Lying  south  of  Mason  and 
Dixon's  Line,  although  rich  m  raw  material,  the  dio- 
cese has  been  handicapped  by  a  lack  of  industrial  and 
mineral  development.  Within  its  confines  there  is  a 
total  population  of  about  9(X),(X)0,  of  whom  54,423  are 
Catholic.  The  attitude  of  non-Catholics  is  uniformly 
respectful,  considerate,  and  kind. 

Bishops. — (1)  The  choice  of  the  Holy  See  for  the 
first  bishop  of  the  new  diocese  fell  upon  the  Rev. 
George  Aloysius  Carrbljl,  S.  J.,  rector  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier's  Church,  Cincinnati.  He  was  bom 
in  Philadelphia,  13  June,  1803,  ordained  priest  20  De- 
cember, 1827,  and  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  19 
August,  1835.  He  was  consecrated  1  November, 
1853,  at  Cincinnati.  The  burden  resting  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  new  bishop  of  a  diocese  sparsely  settled  by 
8000  Catholics,  without  influence  or  matoial  re- 
sources, was  a  heavy  one;  but  at  his  death  (25  Sept., 
1868),  after  foiui^en  years  of  zealous  labours,  he  loft 
it  thoroughly  organized  with  a  Catholic  population 
three  times  as  great  as  he  found  there,  a  self-sacrifio- 


OOWQILL 


463 


OOTSXTOZ 


mg  clergy,  a  devoted  people,  and  many  educational 
and  eleemosynary  infititutions. 

(2)  The  seccmd  bishop)  Augustus  Marie  Toebbe, 
was  born  15  January,  1829,  at  Meppen,  Hanover, 
Germany,  and  ordained  priest  14  September,  1854,  at 
CinoinnatL  He  was  consecrated  9  January,  1870, 
and  died  2  May,  1884.  He  contributed  largely  to  the 
increase  of  the  parishes  of  the  diocese  and  tne  growth 
of  Gathoticism. 

(3)  Camillub  Paul  Maes,  his  successor,  was  bom 
in  Bdigium,  13  March,  1846,  studied  at  the  American 
College,  Louvain,  for  the  Diocese  of  Detroit,  where  he 
was  dianceUor  when  appointed  to  the  See  of  Coving- 
ton. He  was  consecrated  25  January,  1885,  and  soon 
cleared  off  a  diocesan  debt  of  $150,000.  He  next 
undertook  to  replace  the  old  cathedral,  rapidly  tot- 
tering to  de»Eky,  with  a  magnificent  Gothic  pile  m  the 
most  prominent  part  of  the  city.  Bishop  Maes  also 
found  time  to  care  for  the  remote  population  dwelling 
in  the  moimtainous  parts  of  the  diocese.  Few  people 
of  the  diocese  were  blessed  with  an  abundance  of 
wealth.  James  Walsh,  a  conspicuous  benefactor, 
made  possible  the  first  free  parochial  school,  and  later 
enablcMd  Bishop  Maes  to  begin  the  erection  of  the 
cathedral.  His  son,  Nicholas  Walsh,  followed  sen- 
erously  in  the  footsteps  of  his  father.  Mrs.  Mary 
Howard  Preston,  a  zealous  convert,  gave  the  neces- 
sary funds  to  start  the  great  work  of  the  missions  to 
non-Catholies  in  Eastern  Kentucky. 

Statistics. — ^The  Catholic  popiilation  (1908)  is 
54,423  {10,162  families).  The  clergy  number  77  (68 
secular,  9  regular).  There  are  74  churches,  38  sta- 
tions, and  9  chapels;  3  (nrphan  asylums  (204  inmates); 
2  hospitals  (2962  patients) ;  2  homes  for  aged  poor  (351 
inmates)  ;7  female  academies(1491  pupils)  ;37  parochial 
schools  (7782  pupils,  of  these  3744  are  in  Covington). 

The  religious  communities  in  the  diocese  include: 
Men — ^Benedictine  Fathers,  five  charges,  and  the 
Marist  Brothers.  Women — Sisters  of  St.  Benedict, 
Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the 
Poor,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of  Notre 
Dame,  Sisters  of  Providence,  Loretto  Sisters,  Visita- 
tion Nuns. 

Mais.  Lt/«  of  Rev.  ChaHea  Nerindex  (Cincinnati,  1880);  Inmi, 
Golden  Jvhuee  of  the  Diocese  of  Covington  (Pastoral  Letter.  Nov., 
1003);  Wkbb.  The  Centenary  of  Catholicity  in  Kentucky  (Louis- 
ville, 1884);  Spalding,  Life  of  Benedict-Joseph  Flaget  (Louis- 
ville, 1852);  Idem,  Sketches  of  Eaiiy  Caih.  Missions  in  Kentucky 
(Louisville,  1844).  JaMEB  L.  GoRBY, 

Oowgill»  J.  B.    See  Lseds,  Diocese  of. 

Oowl  (kovko0uop^  cucuUuSf  cucuUa,  cucuUio,-^ 
Ducange,  "Gloss.",  s.  v.),  a  hood  worn  in  many 
religious  orders.  The  name  was  ori^ally  used  for 
a  kmd  of  bag  in  which  grocers  sold  their  wares  (ibid.)i 
then  for  an  article  of  dress  that  was  like  it  in  shape. 
The  lacema  or  byrrhua  (our  cope),  the  usual  cloak  for 
outdoor  wear  until  far  into  the  Middle  Ages,  had  a 
cowl  fixed  behind,  that  could  be  drawn  over  the  head. 
So  also  had  the  pcemdn  (chasuble — Wilpert,  ''Gewan- 
dung  der  Christen",  pp.  13,  45,  etc.;  Braun,  "Liturg. 
Gewandu^",  pp.  240,  348).  Juvenal  (VI,  118)  and 
Martial  (Xl,  98)  refer  to  the  cucxdLus  of  the  laicema, 
Sozomen  says  tnat  monks  covered  their  heads  with 
a  hood  called  cucuiLus  (H.  E.,  Ill,  xiii),  and  Palladius 
tells  us  the  same  fact  about  St.  Ephrsem  and  the 
disciples  of  Pa^homius  (Hist.  Laus.,  XlII).  Both  St. 
Jerome  (Ep.  xxii,  ad  Eustochium)  and  Cassian  (De 
habitu  mon.,  I,  iv)  refer  to  it  as  part  of  a  monk's 
dress.  St.  Benedict  ordered  two  kinds  of  cowls  for 
his  monks,  a  warm  one  for  winter  and  a  light  one  for 
summer  (Re^la  S.  Ben.,  Iv).  The  cowl  became  a 
great  cloak  with  a  hood.  Benedict  of  Anagni  forbade 
his  monks  to  wear  one  that  came  below  the  knees 
(Ardo,  Vita  Ben.  Anian.,  xl).  The  Benedictines, 
Cistercians,  and  all  the  old  monastic  orders  now  use 
the  cowl,  a  great  mantle  with  a  hood  that  can  be 
thrown  back  over  the  shoulders,  as  a  ceremonial  dress 


for  choir;  the  Franciscans  have  a  smailer  hood  fixed 
to  their  habit;  canons  wear  it  on  their  mossetta,  and 
bishops  and  cardinab  on  the  cappa.  With  the  Au- 
gustinians  and  Servites  it  is  still  a  separate  hood  not 
attached  to  anything.  Ducax^ge  (s.  v.)  says  the  name 
is  a  diminutive  of  camda — ^''qiiasi  minor  cella".  A 
cowl  fixed  to  a  cloak  is  still  commonly  worn  iniyrol, 
parts  of  Austria  and  Hungary,  etc.  CucuUaUi  con-^ 
gregatto  occurs  occasionally  as  a  general  name  for 
monastic  orders  (Ducanee).  The  colour  of  the  cowl 
is  that  of  the  habit,  blacK  among  Benedictines,  white 
with  the  Cistercians,  etc. 

Ddcanqk,  Glossarium  medics  ei  in/ifmB  LaimitalUs^  m.  v. 
CucuUus;  Wilpert,  Die  Oewanduna  der  Christen  in  den  ersten 
Jahrhunderten  (O)logne,  1898).  13,  45,  etc.;  Braun,  Die 
liturmsche  Gewandwng  im  Occident  und  Orient  (Freiburg  im  Dr., 
1907),  240.  348.  ADRIAN  FORTESCUE. 

Oozcie,  MiCHiEL,  Flemish  painter,  imitator  of 
Raphael,  known  as  the  Finnish  Kaphael;  b.  at  Mech- 
lin, 1409;  d.  there  1592.  There  are  several  spellings 
for  his  name:  Cocxi^,  Coxcie,  Coxis,  Coxcien,  Coxcuen, 
He  was  a  puoil  of  his  father,  and  afterwards  stuoied 
under  Van  Orley,  with  whom  he  visited  Rome  in 
1532,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Vasari. 
There  he  married  his  first  wife,  Ida  van  Hasselt,  with 
whom  he  returned  to  Mechlin,  in  1539,  and  the  same 
year  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  that  place. 
In  1561  he  was  in  Brussels,  and  after  that  back  in 
Mechlin,  where,  at  the  age  of  seventy,  in  1569,  he 
married  his  second  wife,  Jeanne  van  Schelle.  By  his 
first  wife  he  had  three  children,  Anne,  a  sculptor, 
William,  and  Raphael,  painters;  by  his  second,  two 
sons,  Michiel,  a  painter,  and  Conrad.  Coxcie  painted 
several  large  works  for  the  Emperor  Charles  V  and 
for  Philip  II,  King  of  Spain,  to  whom  he  was  court 
painter.  He  designed  thirty-two  subjects  from  the 
fable  of  Cupid  and  Psvche,  which  were  engraved, 
and,  in  conjunction  with  Van  Orley,  he  directed  the 
execution  of  some  tapestry  made  from  the  designs  of 
Raphael.  He  copied  part  of  the  great  Van  Eyck 
altar-piece  for  Philip  II  of  Spain,  and  portions  of  his 
copy  are  in  Berlin  and  Munich  and  the  remainder  in 
Ghent.  Several  of  his  paintinjgs  are  to  be  seen  at 
Brussels,  Antwerp,  Bruees,  Berlm,  Madrid,  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  Vienna.  In  nis  paintings  he  bestowed  spe- 
cial care  on  the  figures  of  women,  and  they  are  well 
modelled  and  invariably  graceful.  In  male  figures 
he  too  often  exaggerated  the  anatomy  and  selected 
awkward  and  unreasonable  attitudes.  His  composi- 
tion is  very  Italian  in  character,  sometimes  too 
academic  in  line  and  grouping,  but  agreeable  in  effect. 
His  best  works  are  signed  and  dated  and  are  remarka- 
ble for  their  splendid  colouring  and  harmonious  result. 
Georqe  Charles  Williamson. 

Ooysevoz,  Charles-A^ttoine,  a  distinguished 
French  sculptor,  b.  at  Lyons,  29  Sept.,  1640;  d.  at 
Paris,  10  Oct.,  1720 ;  he  belonged  to  a  family  originally 
from  Spain.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  executed 
a  much  admired  Madonna.  In  1671  he  was  employed 
by  Louis  XIV  on  various  sculptures  at  Versailles  and 
at  Marly. '  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
in  1676,  and  had  among  his  pupils  his  two  nephews, 
Nicolas  and  Guillaume  Coustou.  Coysevox  made  two 
bronze  statues  of  Louis  XIV,  the  "  Charlemagne '' 
at  Saint-Louis  des  Invalides,  and  other  famous 
works,  but  his  most  famous  is  probably  '*  La  Renom- 
m6e"  at  the  entrance  of  the  Tuileries — two  winged 
horses  bearing  Mercury  and  Fame.  Napoleon  is  said 
to  have  delighted  in  the  sculptor's  fancy  that  the 
horse  of  Mercury  should  have  a  bridle,  but  not  that 
of  Fame.  Coysevox  also  produced  some  fine  sepulchral 
monuments  for  the  churches  of  Paris.  We  owe  him 
a  special  debt  for  his  contemporary  portraits. 

LCbkb.  History  of  Sculpture,  tr.  Bknnstt  (London,  1878); 
DxLKB,  French  Architects  and  Sculptors  of  the  XVIII  Century 
(London,  1900). 

M.  L.  Handlet. 


002ZA 


464 


OEAOOW 


wvwMii  liOBBNZOy  Fxiar  Mmor,  cardinal,  and 
theologian,  b.  at  San  Lorenzo  near  Bolsena,  31  March, 
1654;  d.  at  Rome,  18  January,  1729.  He  filled  the 
position  of  lector  at  Naples  and  Viterbo,  where  he 
became  guardian  of  the  convent.  Gatdinu  Sacchetti 
chose  CozESk  as  his  confessor  and  adviser,  thus  giving 
rise  to  a  friendship  that  lasted  through  life.  While 
in  the  Orient^  whither  he  had  been  sent  as  superior 
of  the  Franciscan  monastery  in  Jerusalem,  Ckizza 
found  leisure  to  compose  several  important  works, 
and  as  legate  of  the  supreme  pontiff  he  recon- 
ciled the  Maronites  and  the  Patriarch  Jacobus 
Petrus  of  Antioch,  who  had  long  been  at  variance 
with  the  Holy  See.  In  1715  he  returned  to  Rome, 
in  1723  was  elected  minister  general,  and  on  9  Decem- 
ber, 1726,  was  made  cardinal  by  Benedict  XIII. 
The  remaining  years  of  his  life  were  passed  at  Rome 
in  quiet  and  studv  in  the  little  convent  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew on  the  Island.  His  writings  include  "  Hi»- 
toriapolemicade  Grsecorum  schismate''  (Rome,  1719- 
20);  "Commentarii  historico-dogmatici"  (Rome, 
1707);  and  ''Terra  Sancta  vindicata  a  calumniis'', 
the  last  still  unpublished. 

Mabceluno  da  Civkzza,  Saggio  di  Biblioorafia  Sanfran- 
069ama  (Pmto.  1879),  129-130,  n.  166;  Qolubovich,  Serie 
dei  Superiori  di  Terra  Santa  (Jerusalem,  1808),  98,  n.  168; 
HuBTER,  NamendatoTt  II,  1001:  GabdeUiA,  Memorie  atoriche 
deieardituUi  deOa  8,  Romana  ChUaa  (Rome,  1792),  VIII,  223. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

OoBsa-Liud,  Giuseppe,  Italian  savant,  Abbot  of  the 
Basilian  monastery  of  Qrottaf errata  near  Rome;  b.  24 
Dec.,  1837,  at  Bolsena  in  the  Province  of  Rome:  d. 
there  1  Jime,  1905.  In  early  youth  he  entered  the 
ancient  monastery  of  which  he  became  abbot  in  1882. 
Pius  IX  was  attract^  by  his  scholarship,  as  was  later 
Leo  XIII.  In  1898  he  was  freed  from  all  official 
cares  and  devoted  himself  thenceforth  to  his  be- 
loved studies.  He  won  distinction  by  his  edition  of 
several  ancient  Vatican  MSS..  and  was  also  learned  in 
the  history  of  art  and  in  arcnseology.  Under  his  di- 
rection was  executed  the  phototype  edition  of  the 
Oodex  Vaticanus,  (q.  v.)  (Vetus  et  Novum  Testamen- 
tum  e  Cod.  Vatican©  1209  phototyp.,  5  vols,  fol.,  Rome, 
1889),  also  a  Vatican  codex  of  the  Prophets  (ibid., 
1889),  and  from  a  Vatican  MS.  the  miniatures  of 
Giulio  aovio  to  Dante's  "  Paradiso".  Nearly  all  the 
copies  of  these  artistic  publications  I3eri8hed  at  the 
burning  of  the  Danesi  establishment  in  Rome.  To- 
gether with  the  well-known  Scriptural  scholar.  Carlo 
Vercellone  (q.  v.),  he  supervised  the  printing  of  the 
Greek  text  or  the  Codex  Vaticanus  (see  Codex  Vati- 
canus), in  five  volimies  (Rome,  1868-81) ;  he  also  edited 
other  Scriptural  MSS.,  e.  g.  the  Greek  codex  of  Daniel  in 
the  C!higi  Library  at  Riome.  His  most  important  scien- 
tific work  was  the  publication  of  some  fragments  of 
the  "Geography"  of  Strabo  (Rome,  1884),  originally 
discovered  by  Cfardinal  Mai  (q.  v.),  who  was,  however, 
imaware  of  tneir  importance.  We  owe  also  to  Cozza- 
Luzi  the  publication  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  volumes 
of  Mai's  "Nova  Bibliotheca  Fatrum",  and  a  part  of 
the  cardinal's  correspondence. 

Among  the  theological  treatises  of  Cozza-Luzi  is  an 
important  study  on  the  evidence  of  the  Greek  litur- 
gies to  the  papal  supremacy  (De  Rom.  Pont,  auc- 
torit.  doctrinah  testim.  liturg.  ecclesise  grsecs,  Rome, 
1870).  He  wrote  also  on  the  antiquities  of  his  native 
Bolsena,  on  the  cathedral  of  Grvieto,  the  Vatican  col- 
lection of  Assyrian  antiquities,  etc.  Among  his  more 
interesting  publications  is  an  edition  of  the  Greek 
vcreion  of  St.  Gregoiy  the  Great's  account  of  St.  Bene- 
dict (Historia  S.  P.  N.  Benedict!  a  Pontif .  Gregorio  I 
descripta  et  a  Zacharia  grsece  reddita,  Tivoli,  1880). 
Many  of  his  writinps  are  scattered  in  various  Italian 
periodicals,  ecclesiastical  and  historical,  Hioueh 
possessed  of  a  strong  intellect  and  a  broad  culture  he 
often  lacked  scientific  accuracy  and  it  is  regrettable 
that  DO  organic  plan  dominated  his  numerous  studious 


researches.    As  yet  there  exists  no  biogra^y  of  him. 

a  list  of  faia  prinaipal  writiDss. 

n.  Benigni. 


Cfaracow  (Pol.  Krak&w),  the  Princb-Bibhopric  or 

glraooviensis))  comprises  the  western  portion  of 
alicia  in  Austria,  and  borders  on  the  Diocese  of 
Kielce  in  Russian  Poland,  Breslau  in  Pnissiay  Tar- 
now  in  Galicia,  and  Zips  in  Hun^uy. 

It  has  long  been  disputed  at  what  time  the  Diooeee 
of  Cracow  was  created.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  was 
already  in  existence  in  the  year  1000;  for  at  that  time 
Poppo,  its  bishop,  was  nuuie  a  suffragan  to  Radzym 
(the  Latin  SL  Oaudentiua)  the  first  Archbishop  of 
Gnesen  (Thietmar  Chronicon,  IV,  in  P.  L.,  CXXXIX, 
1226).  Father  Augustine  Amdt,  S.  J.  (Zeitschrif t  for 
kath.  Theologie,  XIV,  45-47,  Innsbruck,  1890)  ad- 
duces some  reasons  in  support  of  the  opinion  tiiat  the 
Diocese  of  Cracow  was  lounded  by  the  Polish  King 
Mieceslaw  I  as  early  as  984,  and  that  Poppo,  who  had 
been  tutor  of  Duke  Henry  of  Bavaria  until  983,  be- 
came its  first  bishop;  but  most  authorities  asree 
that  it  was  not  created  until  1000  or  shortly  before. 
There  are  extant  five  lists  of  the  bishops  of  Cracow. 
The  oldest  was  compiled  about  1266  (Mon.  Genn.  Hist.: 
Script..  XIX,  608),  the  second,  shortly  before  1347 
(Mon.  hist.  Polon.  Ill,  801);  the  others  are  of  a  later 
date.  During  the  invasion  of  the  Bohemians  in  1039, 
and  the  succ^ding  period  of  anarchy,  all  ecclesiastical 
documents  were  lost,  and  the  names  and  dates  of  the 
bishops  of  Cracow  up  to  Bishop  Aaron  (1046-1059) 
are  very  unreliable,  rrochorus  and  Proculphus,  who 
are  mentioned  in  the  lists  as  predecessors  of  Poppo,  are 
entirely  legendary.  Three  of  the  bishops  of  Cracow 
are  publicly  venerated:  St.  Stanislaus  Szczepanowski 
(1072-1079),  who  suffered  martyrdom  at  the  hands  of 
King  Boleslaw,  canonized  in  1253,  patron  of  Poland 
and  of  the  Dioceses  of  Cracow  ana  Posen;  Blessed 
Vincent  Kadlubek  (1208-1218),  the  earliest  Polish 
historian  of  Poljmd,  resigned  his  see  and  entered  the 
Cistercian  monastery  of  Jedrzejow  in  1218,  died  8 
March,  1223,  beatified  in  1764;  John  Prandotha 
(1242-1266),  who  drove  the  heretical  Flagellants  from 
his  diocese,  and  was  venerated  until  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  his  veneration  ceased,  owing  to  a  mis- 
interpretation of  the  Bull  "De  cultu  servorum  Dd'* 
issued  by  Pope  Urban  VHl,  5  July,  1634.  Other 
renowned  bisnops  were:  Mattlueus  (1143-1165)  a 
historian;  Zbigniew  Olesnicki  (1423-1455),  a  great 
statesman  and  fearless  opponent  of  the  Hussites, 
created  cardinal  in  1439;  and  Georae  Radziwill 
(1591-1600),  founder  of  seminaries  ana  hospitals. 

Originally  the  Diocese  of  Oacow  seems  to  have 
comprised  the  towns  and  districts  of  Sandomir,  Cra- 
cow, and  Lublin,  and  the  castellanies  of  Sieradz,  Spici- 
mir,  Rozpoza,  Lenczyc,  and  Wolbore;  but  its  area 
underwent  various  changes.  From  the  year  1443  to 
1795  the  Bishops  of  Cracow  were  at  the  same  time 
sovereign  dukes  of  Severia,  a  territory  situated  be- 
tween Silesia  and  Cracow.  Before  the  first  partition 
of  Poland  in  1772  the  Diocese  of  Cracow  comprised  the 
whole  of  Little  Poland,  Sieradz,  a  laige  portion  of 
Silesia,  and  part  of  the  present  Diocese  of  Zips  (Scep- 
usium).  In  1772  it  lost  ite  territory  south  of  the 
Vistula  (DicecesiB  Cisvistulana),  which  in  1783  consti- 
tuted the  new  Diocese  of  Tamow.  In  1790  the  new 
Diocese  of  Lublin  and  in  1805  tJie  new  Diocese  of 
Kielce  were  severed  from  its  remaining  territory. 
Pope  Pius  VII  made  Cracow  an  exempt  diocese  in 
1815  and  restored  to  it  a  portion  of  the  Diocese  of 
Kielce  in  1817,  which  portion,  however,  was  returned 
to  Kielce  in  1846,  so  that  then  the  Diocese  of  Cracow 
was  confined  to  the  city  Cracow  and  two  deaneries 
south  of  the  Vistula.  From  1851  to  1879  tiiediooese  was 
ruled  by  administrators.  Under  Albin  Dunajewski, 
who  became  bishop  in  1879.  it  was  somewhat  anlatsed 


ORAOOW 


465 


OBliOOW 


towards  the  soiitli,  in  1880  and  a^ain  in  1886.  In  1889 
it  was  made  a  prinoe-biahopnc,  and  a  year  later 
Prinoe-Biflhop  Dunajewaki  was  nuaed  to  the  cardinal- 
ate.  John  Puzyna  ae  Koziel  was  made  Prinee-Biahop 
of  Craoow  in  1895,  and  Anatole  Nowak  auxiiiaiy 
bishop  in  1900.  The  diocese  numben  197  pariahes, 
181  vicariates.  457  diocesan  and  223  regular  priests, 
850,000  Catholics,  4000  Protestants,  and  60,000  Jews. 
The  £mperor  of  Austria  has  the  privily  m  appoint- 
ing  the  prince-bishop,  after  consulting  with  the 
bishops  of  Galioia.  Tne  cathedral  chapter  includes  3 
prelates  (dean,  scholasticus,  and  custos)  and  6  canons. 
The  most  important  educational  institution  in  the 
diocese  IS  the  Cracow  University(UniWei8itet  Jagiellon- 
ski),  foimded  by  Casimir  the  Great  in  1364  and  ap- 
proved by  Pope  Urban  V  the  same  year.  The  dio- 
cese has  also  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  various 
colleges,  and  minor  institutions  of  learning.  The  cathe- 
dral of  Cracow  is  one  of  the  most  venerable  struo> 
tures  in  Europe.  Here  lie  buried  most  of  the  Polish 
kings,  the  two  national  heroes,  Kosciusko  and  Ponia- 
towski,  the  greatest  Polish  poet,  Mickiewicz,  and 
of  Poland;  here  also  are 
It 


many  other  noble  sons  of  Poland;  here  also 
preserved  the  relics  of  St.  Stanislaus  (see  above) 


is  of  Gothic  architecture,  originally  built  probably  bv 
Mieceslaw  I  about  966,  where  now  stands  the  church 
of  St.  Michael  and  where  St.  Stanislaus  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom ;  rebuilt  on  its  present  site  by  Ladislaus  Her' 
man,  King  of  Poland  (1083-1102);  restored  by  Nan- 
ker  Oksza,  Bishop  of  Cracow  (1320-132^);  rebuilt  in 
the  e^teenth  centuiy  in  barocco  style:  and  renov- 
ated from  1886-1901.  It  contains  the  beautiful 
chapel  of  Sigmund,  the  best  specimen  of  the  Renais- 
sance style  in  Eastern  Europe,  built  by  Bartolommeo 
da  Firenze  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  renovated  in 
1894.  The  Church  of  St.  Mary,  a  Gothic  structure 
built  1226-1397  and  restored  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, has  on  its  high  altar  a  large  Gothic  wood-carving 
representing  the  death  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the 
masterpiece  of  Veit  Stoss. 

The  chief  charitable  institution  is  the  Archconfra- 
temity  of  Mercv,  founded  by  the  Jesuit  Peter  Skaigo 
(d.  1618),  whicn  distributes  alms  to  the  poor  and  is 
the  owner  of  a  motU-de-pUte,  There  are  also:  another 
mont-de-pUU;  an  asylum  for  old  men  and  women, 
three  orphan  asylums,  an  insane  asylum,  various  hos- 
pitals and  workhouses.  All  these  establishments  are 
subject  to  the  diocesan  authorities.  The  Catholic 
press  ia  represented  by  two  dailies,  two  weeklies  ed- 
ited by  priests,  three  monthlies  published  by  religious, 
and  two  monthly  magazines  of  nigh  literary  standard. 
Thgr  are  all  in  Polish. 

Tne  following  religious  orders  and  congr^tions  of 
men  are  engaged  in  parish,  educational,  or  charitable 
work:  Augustinians,  Brothers  of  Mercy,  Camaldolese, 
Canons  R^lar  of  the  Lateran,  Canons  Regular  of  the 
Holy  Sepmchre,  Carmelites,  Discalced  Carmelites  (2 
houses),  Capuchins,  Cistercians  (Abbey  of  Mogila), 
Conventual  Franciscans,  Observant  Franciscans  (hei% 
called  Bemardines  (3  houses),  Reformed  Franciscans 
(3  houses^,  Dominicans,  Hermits  of  St.  Paul,  Jesuits  (2 
houses)^  Lazarists  (3  houses),  Piarists,  Resurrectionists. 
Hie  religious  orders  and  congregations  of  women  are 
represented  by  the  following:  Augustinians,  Benedic- 
tines, Bemaraines,  Canonesses  of  the  Holy  Ghost  de 
Saxia,  Discalced  Carmelites,  Clarisses,  Daughters  of 
Divine  Love,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Premonstrar 
tensians.  Resurrectionists,  Salesians,  Servite  Ter- 
tiaries,  Ursullnes,  Sisters  of  St.  Albert,  Sisters  of  St. 
Charles  Borromeo,  Sisters  of  St.  Felix,  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Family,  Sisters  of  the  Mother  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of 
Nazareth,  Sisters  of  the  Presentation,  Vincentian  Sis- 
ters, Servants  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus. 

Monumenia  Pclonim  hiat.  vetusti^nma  (Ijemhen,  1872),  TI. 
180  and  (Orooow,  1878),  HI,  313-376;  Mai^kcki.  The  Onginal 
BedeaimtHeal  Conditums  of  Poland  (Lemberff,  1875),  in  Polish; 
0TABOWOL8KI.  VtttB  ontiatitum  Cracoviennutn  (Cracow.  lfW>): 
BoBPBLL,  GeaehidUe  Polena  (Haraburc,  1840);  CHOTKOnnBRi  in 
IV.— 30 


Die  ktUholuk€  Kink$  umenr  ZtU  und  ihn  Diener  (Umi^ 
1000).  II.  fi27HS88;  Nbbbb  in  Kirdienlex.  a.  v.  KrakauT^^ 

Michael  Ott. 

Thb  UNmBRBiTT  OF  Craoow.— The  first  document- 
ajy  evidence  regarding  the  scheme  that  King  Casimir 
the  Great  conceived  of  establishing  a  university  dates 
from  1362.  Urban  V  favoured  Sie  plan,  and  King 
Casimir  issued  the  charter  of  the  university,  12  May, 
1364.  It  was  modelled  after  the  schools  of  Fadua  and 
Bologna^  oonsequentlv  the  faculty  of  law  and  the 
study  of  Roman  law  held  the  first  place.  The  pope 
gpave  his  approval,  1  September,  1364,  but  excluded 
tlieology.  Cssimir's  school,  however,  was  refounded 
during  the  reign  of  Jagiello  and  Hedwig  of  the  house 
of  Anjou.  The  consent  of  Boniface  IX  was  given,  11 
February,  1397,  and  King  Jagiello  signed  the  charter, 
26  July,  1400.  The  university  now  included  all  four 
faculties  and  was,  therefore,  patterned  on  that  of 
Paris.  The  first  chancellor  was  Bishop  Peter  Wyss  of 
Cracow,  who  also  cave  the  opening  lecture.  The  first 
professors  were  Bcmemians,  Germans,  and  Poles,  most 
of  whom  had  been  trained  at  Prague.  In  the  first 
year  the  number  of  matriculated  students  was  206;  in 
the  course  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  rose  to  500. 

The  university  took  an  active  part  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical controversies  of  the  fifteenth  century  and  showed 
itself  a  strong  supporter  of  the  conciuar  doctrine: 
ctmcUium  aupra  papam  (i.  e.  a  council  is  above  the 
po|>e).  It  maintained  nevertheless  a  strictly  Catholic 
position  during  the  Hussite  troubles.  In  the  struggle 
between  the  Nominalists  and  Realists  it  took  but 
little  part.  Realism  having  almost  exclusive  swa^  at 
the  school.  Still  the  effect  on  the  university  of  the 
active  intercourse  with  the  West  was,  at  the  tune,  but 
slight  and  transient.  King  Jagiello  died  in  1434:  in 
the  period  following,  the  university  was  controlleci  by 
its  powerful  chancellor.  Zbigniew  Olesnicki,  who  was 
also  Bishop  of  Cracow  irom  1423  to  1455.  A  circle  of 
learned  men  who  followed  the  new  tendencies  gath- 
ered aroimd  him.  Among  these  scholars  was  Po- 
land's great  historian^  Dlugoas.  At  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Basle  the  imiversity  and  its  chancellor  were 
partisans  of  the  council,  and  Olesnicki  even  accepted 
the  cardinalate  from  Felix  V.  After  the  Union  of  Flor- 
ence Olesnicki  went  over  to  the  side  of  Nicholas  Y.  but 
the  university  did  not  submit  to  tiie  control  of  the 
Church  until  1449.  The  age  of  Olesnicki  was  one  of 
great  scholars,  among  whom  were:  the  physician  and 
astronomer,  Martin  Krol;  the  decretalist.  Johann 
Elgot;  the  theologians,  Benedict  Hesse  ana  Jacobus 
of  Paradyi.  St.  John  Cantius,  student  and  later  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  was  distinguished  for  virtue  even 
more  than  for  learning.  He  was  bom  at  Kenty,  1397 ; 
died,  1473;  was  canonised  bv  Clement  XIII,  1767: 
his  feast  is  observed  20  October.  Olesnicki  showed 
favour  to  men  who  were  not  Poles,  suppressed  the 
Hussite  tendencies  with  a  firm  hand,  and  was  very 
generous  to  the  university.    He  died  in  1455. 

The  causes  which  finally  brought  the  university  into 
line  with  the  new  tendencies  were  various.  Poland 
was  then  the  great  power  of  Eastern  Europe,  the  court 
of  Casimir  of  the  Jagellon  dvnasty  wais  a  brilliant  one, 
and  Cracow  was  a  very  rich  city.  It  was,  therefore, 
not  surprising  that  many  famous  men  were  drawn  to 
this  centre.  From  1470  to  1496  Callimachus  was 
preceptor  in  the  royal  household.  Attracted  by  the 
fame  of  Callimachus,  Conrad  Celtes,  the  celebrated 
Humanist,  made  his  appearance  at  Cracow  before  the 
end  of  the  century.  Printing  idso  soon  had  its  repre- 
sentatives here;  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury Hailer  established  his  press  in  Cracow  and  began 
his  patronage  of  art  and  letters.  In  this  way  the  num- 
ber of  those  who  followed  the  new  humanistic  tenden- 
cies of  the  West  continually  incresused,  but  unfortu- 
nately there  was  also  an  increase  in  profliga^.  In 
1492,  John  I  Albert,  the  pupil  and  fnend  of  Callim- 
achus, ascended  the  throne  of  Poland;  he  did  not 


OSAOOW 


466 


cnuiois 


however,  ftilfil  the  expectations  excited  by  him. 
Callimacnus  died  in  1496;  as  time  went  on  the  seed 
which  he  and  Celtes  had  sown  produced  its  fruit,  as  is 
shown  in  Rhagius  Sommerfeld,  also  called  .£sticam- 
pianusi  and  in  Heinrich  Bebel.  Thus,  at  the  opening 
of  the  sixteenth  century^  the  classic  writers  were 
more  and  more  read,  at  first  outside  of  the  lecture- 
rooms  of  the  universitv,  in  the  students'  halls.  In 
1520  the  study  of  Greek  was  introduced  into  the  urn- 
versit^,  the  professors  beins  Constanzo  Claretti,  Wen- 
zel  of  HirscnberR,  and  Libanus.  Hebrew  was  also 
taught  in  spite  of  the  opposition  to  the  ''Judaizers". 
and  the  notorious  Italian,  Francesco  Stancari,  arrived 
at  Cracow  in  1546. 

Decune  of  the  UNivBRsmr. — In  the  midst  of  this 
progress  signs  of  decay  were  visible,  though  the  de- 
cline did  not  originate  in  the  univereity  itself.  The 
national  policy  of  Poland,  the  foundinjg  of  the  uni* 
versities  of  Wittenberg  and  Frankfortk)n-.the-Oder, 
and  a  strong  anti-German  tendenc}r,  caused  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cracow  to  lose  its  original  cosmopolitan 
character  and  to  become  rather  a  national  Polish  uni- 
versity; thus  a  gradual  decline  ensued.  Neverthe- 
less it  maintained  during  this  period  a  remarkably 
high  standing.  Such  scholars  as  Martin  Krol,  Martin 
Bylica,  and  finally  Adalbert  Brudzewski  made  the 
school  famous  as  a  seat  of  astronomical  studies  whUe 
the  name  of  Nicholas  Copernicus,  the  pupil  of  Brud- 
zewski, sheds  upon  it  undying  lustre.  Elementary 
studies  were  taught,  consequently  students  of  from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  years  ot  age  entered  from  Hun- 
gary, Moravia,  Silesia^  Prussia,  and  the  provinces 
of  the  Polish  crown.  At  first  the  students  lived  in 
private  houses,  but  gradually  halls  were  established  in 
which  ''commons"  were  provided,  and  a  clerical  dress 
was  worn.  The  expenses  of  these  halls  were  covered 
by  the  fees  which  the  studentspaid  for  board,  matricu- 
lation, room  rent,  and  fuel.  Tne  rector  of  the  univer- 
sity was  chosen  by  a  committee  of  doctors  and  mas- 
ters. Up  to  1419  a  rector  was  chosen  for  the  whole 
year,  but  from  this  date  tmtil  1778  one  was  selected 
for  each  semester.  Other  officers  were:  the  curators 
who  watched  over  the  rights  and  i)rivileges  of  the  uni- 
versity, the  procurator  and  notarius,  and  the  cansU- 
iarii  wno  had  to  decide  in  case  of  an  appeal.  From 
the  start  the  professors  lived  together  in  coUeees,  and 
were  divided  according  to  faculties.  They  had  a  com- 
mon table,  decided  as  to  the  reception  of  members, 
and  bestowed  the  positions  of  canon  and  prebend,  of 
which  each  faculty,  with  the  exception  of  the  medical, 
had  often  as  many  as  twelve  at  its  disposal.  During 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  oentunee  the  fortunes 
of  the  imiversity  sank  to  a  very  low  ebb.  J.  Gerald,  in 
his  "Apology"  (1581),  and  Petrycy  give  as  the  chief 
reasons  for  this  the  utter  insubordination  of  the  stu- 
dents, complete  indifference  of  the  professors  to  the 
advances  of  learning  in  the  West,  and  lack  of  means 
for  the  support  of  the  university.  Above  all,  there 
arose  after  the  (^ning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  a 
bitter  conflict  on  the  part  of  the  imiversity  against  tbe 
Jesuits,  who,  on  the  strength  of  their  constitutional 

grivileges,  had  opened  schools  in  Cracow,  Posen,  Lem- 
erg,  and  other  places,  to  protect  Polish  youth  against 
the  advances  of  Protestantism.  Tlie  university,  how- 
ever, appealed  to  a  privil^e,  the  jus  exdxmonis,  and 
demanded  the  closing  of  the  Jesuit  institutions.  For 
nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  this  conflict  was 
carried  on  with  incredible  tenacity.  The  conmion 
people,  nobility,  clergy,  kin^s,  bi&ope,  and  popes 
were  drawn  into  it,  and  the  strugjrie  ended  in  the  ais- 
comfiture  of  the  Jesuits  (cf .  Zafeski,  Jezuici  ev  Polsic, 
II,  III).  When,  towardis  the  dose  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  national  misfortunes  overtook  the  country, 
and  the  three  Partitions  of  Poland  put  an  end  to  Po- 
lish freedom,  the  life  of  the  univerity  came  to  a  com- 
ploto  standstill.  It  is  true  that  Bishop  Sottyk,  and 
after  him  the  energetic  Koltataj,  undertook  a  thor- 


ou^  reform  by  breaking  with  the  medieval  routine 
and  giving  prominence  to  the  natural  sciences.  But 
the  political  conditions  in  the  decades  following  tiiese 
efforts  were  unfavourable  to  quiet  and  serious  study. 

Modern  Times. — ^Af  tor  Cracow  had  become,  in  1846, 
a  part  of  the  Austrian  Empire,  the  central  Govern- 
ment at  Vienna  endeavoured  to  make  the  university 
more  German,  but  did  nothing  to  improve  it.  A  new 
era  did  not  open  for  the  school  until  1861,  when  Francis 
Joseph  I  permitted  Polish  to  be  a^ain  used  as  the  lan- 
guage of  mstruction  and  official  hfe,  and  the  Ctovem- 
ment  allowed  a  new  building  to  be  erected  for  the 
university.  The  nimiber  of  professors  and  students 
now  increased  each  year.  Wnile,  in  1853  there  were 
only  47  professors,  of  whom  87  were  r^lar  professors, 
2  assistant  professors,  and  8  docents,  in  1900,  the  fifth 
centennial  of  the  university,  there  were  103  professors; 
of  this  number  48  were  regular,  36  assistant  professois, 
and  19  docents  and  lecturers.  In  1907  the  professors 
numbered  115.  In  1853  there  were  175  students;  in 
1893, 1320 ;  in  1907,  over  2700.  The  university  library 
contains  250,000  works  in  330,000  volumes;  5500 
manuscripts  in  7000  volumes  (some  of  them  very  val- 
uable and  as  yet  impublished);  about  10,000  coins, 
and  1200  atlases.  The  university  has  a  college  of  the 
physical  sciences,  and  a  medical  college  for  anatomical 
and  physiological  lectures;  the  medical  school  is  en- 
tirely modem  in  its  equipment  and  possesses  very  fine 
collections.  There  are  also  surgical,  gymeoological. 
and  ophthalmic  clinics,  besides  one  for  internal  and 
nervous  diseases:  an  agricultural  institute  is  in  pro- 
cess of  construction.  Among  the  distinguished  scholars 
connected  with  the  university  (1908)  are:  Professor 
Obszewski,  the  discoverer  of  a  new  method  for  liauify- 
ing  gases,  the  suiveon  Professor  Kader,  and  Professor 
Wicherkiewics,  the  oculist. 

Codex  diplomatieus  Vniv.  Craeoo.  (Cmoow,  1870-84);  Liber 
dilioenttarum  (Cracow,  1886):  Album  atudiaaorum  Univ.  Cracov. 
(Cracow,  1887);  Aetareatoralia  (Cracow,  1803-07).  I,  II:  Rapt- 
M1N8KX,  Fasti  Vniv.  Cracov.  1658,  in  M».  Cod.  JoffeiL,  225; 
Idem,  Annates  usque  ad  ann.  1660  in  Ma,  Cod.  Jaaell.,  226; 
SoLTTKOwicz,  O  Stanie  Akademii  KrakowkieJ  (on  the  Condition 
of  the  Cracow  Academy)  (Cracow,  1810);  MircEKOwsKZ,  Mieaa- 
kania  %  poatepowania  uamidw  Krakowakieh  (Restdenoes  and 
Customs  ol  the  Cracow  Students)  (Cracow.  1842);  Lukauzo 
wica,  Hifforya  azkc*  w  Koronie  i  W.  As.  Litewakiem  (History  of 
the  Schools  m  the  Kinicdom  of  Poland  and  the  Qcana  Docfay  of 
Lithuania)  (Posen,  1849-61);  Branpowbki,  Zmotienie  C/nue. 
Krakowakiego  (Founding  of  the  Cracow  Univennty)  (Cracow, 
1873);  FiJALEK,  Studya  do  dziej&to  Vniw.  Krak.  (Studies  in  the 
Histonr  of  the  University  of  CJraoow)  (Cmoow,  1808);  Mokaw* 
SKI  Kaum,  Hi*torva  Vniw.  Jaai«Uon*akia0o.  Sradnut  wieki  i 
Odrodaente  -\Ki>\.i)rY  i»f  tue  Ja^eUon  University  in  the  Middle 
Ages  and  the  Ilcnais»a:ice  Period  (CracoW,  1900>. 

Oscar  Rudski. 

Oraigie,  Pearl  Mart  Teresa,  better  known,  under 
the  pseudonym  which  first  won  her  fame,  as  John 
OuvER  HoBBES,  English  novdist,  dramatist,  and  oon- 
vert;  b.  3  November,  1867-  d.  13  August,  1906.  She 
was  the  eldest  daughter  of  John  Morgan  Richards,  a 
successful  man  of  business  in  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
U.  S.  A.,  and  of  Laura  Hortense  Arnold,  a  lady  of  dis- 
tinguished colonial  descent.  Her  father  came  of  an 
intensely  Calvinistic  stock  long  settled  In  and  about 
New  York  and  New  Jersey;  and  her  grandfather,  the 
Rev.  James  Richards,  D.D.,  was  a  prefer  and  Uieo- 
logical  writer  of  some  distinction  in  his  time.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1887,  before  she  had  completed  her  twentieth 
year,  Miss  Richards  was  married  to  Mr.  Reginald  Wal- 
pole  Craigie,  an  Enslish  gentleman  of  good  -connex- 
ions. The  uuion,  however,  proved  an  uncongenial 
one.  and  Mrs.  Oraigie  soon  sought  and  obtained  a 
legal  separation  with  the  right  to  the  custody  of  her 
child.  In  1892,  as  the  result,  it  would  seem,  of  much 
private  and  independent  reflection,  she  was  reoeived 
into  the  Oliurch.  She  had  begun  to  turn  her  thoughts 
seriously  to  literature  some  time  before  this  event;  for 
already  in  1891  she  had  ventured  before  the  public 
under  the  pseudonym  which  she  insisted  on  retaining 
long  after  her  identity  was  known,  and  challenged  the 
puxzled  critics  by  a  book  to  which  she  gave  the  imcoii 


ORAHOAIIOB 


467 


OftASBAW 


v^irtkiDAl  titla  of  ''Some  Emotions  and  a  Moral''. 
Suooess  waited  upon  her  from  the  start:  "The  Sin- 
ner's Comedy''  (1892);  ''A  Study  in  Temptations" 
(1893);  "A  Bundle  of  Life"  (1894);  "TheGods,Some 
Mortals,  and  Lord  Wickenham"  (1895);  ''The  Herb 
Moon"  (1896);  "The  School  for  Saints"  (1897); 
•'Robert  Orange"  (1900);  "A  Serious  Wooing" 
(1901);  "Love  and  the  Soul  Hunters"  (1902);  "Tales 
About  Tempeiamente"  (1902);  "The  Vineyard" 
( 1904) ;  "  The  Flute  of  Pan^'  (1906) ;  "  The  Dream  and 
the  Business"  (published  after  her  death  in  1906), — 
these  with  plays  like  "Joiumeys  End  in  Lovers 
Meeti^:  Provorb,"  in  one  act,  written  for  Miss 
Ellen  '^nry  (1894);  "The  Ambassador",  produced  at 
the  St.  Jameses  theatre  in  London  (1898);  "Osbem 
and  Ursyne",  a  tragedy  in  three  acts,  published  in  the 
"Anglo-Saxon  Review"  (1899);  "A  Repentance",  a 
drama  in  one  act,  produced  at  the  St.  James's  Theatre 
and  afterwards  at  Carisbrooke  Castle  (1899);  "The 
Wisdom  of  the  Wise",  produced  at  the  St.  James's 
Theatre  (1900);  and  "The  Bishop's  Move"  (1902), 
of  which  she  was  author  only  in  part,  represent  the 
sum  of  her  considered  work,  the  output  she  preferred 
to  be  judged  by.  As  she  ^w  older  in  the  wisdom  of 
her  art,  the  rehgious  quality  which  seems  to  lie  inevi- 
tably b^iind  allher theory  of  life  emerged  more  and 
more  into  prominence.  It  reached  its  height  in  "The 
School  for  Saints"  and  its  sequel  "Robert  Orange". 
Whether  in  literary  form  or  in  artistic  intention  she 
never  rose  beyond  the  achievement  of  these  two 
books.  They  are  intensely  serious,  intensely  human, 
and  sJmost  too  religious;  yet  they  are  modem  and 
alive.  Mrs.  ()raigie  was  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  a  well 
deserved  fame,  yet  hardly  at  the  acme  of  her  powers, 
when  death  came  to  her  suddenly  from  heart  disease. 
Cornelius  C^ufford. 

Oraniranor.    See  Damao. 

Oraniotoxxiy.    See  Abortion;  Embryotomy. 

Orashaw»  Richard,  poet,  Cambridge  scholar  and 
convert;  d.  1649.  Tlie  date  of  his  birth  is  uncertain. 
All  that  can  be  affirmed  positively  is  that  he  was  the 
only  child  of  a  one-time  famous  Puritan  divine,  William 
Crashaw,  by  a  first  marria^,  and  that  he  was  bom  in 
London,  probably  not  earlier  than  the  year  1613.  Of 
the  mother  nothmg  is  known  except  thiat  she  died  in 
her  child's  infancy,  while  his  father  was  one  of  the 
preachers  in  the  Temple ;  and  not  even  her  family  name 
has  been  preserved  to  us.  William  Oashaw,  the 
father,  was  bom  in  Yorkshire  of  a  prosperous  stock, 
which  had  b^n  settled  for  some  generations  in  or 
about  Handsworth,  a  place  some  few  miles  to  the  east 
of  the  present  town  of  Sheffield.  He  was  a  man  of  un- 
challenged repute  for  learning  in  his  day,  an  amunen- 
tative  but  eloquent  preacher,  stronp  m  his  Protes- 
tantism, and  fierce  in  his  denunciation  of  "Romish 
falsifications"  and  "besotted  Jesuitries".  He  mar- 
ried a  second  time  in  1619,  and  was  once  more  made  a 
widower  in  the  following  year.  Richard,  the  future 
poet,  could  scarcely  have  been  more  than  a  child  of  six 
when  this  event  took  place;  but  the  relations  between 
the  boy  and  his  step-mother,  brief  as  they  must  have 
been,  were  affectionate  to  an  imusual  degree.  She 
was  but  four  and  twenty  when  she  died  in  child-birth 
early  in  October,  1620,  and  she  was  bmied  in  White- 
chapel.  No  o^er  details  of  this  period  of  Crashaw 's 
life  nave  oome  down  to  us,  but  the  few  to  which  refer- 
ence has  been  made  make  it  abundantly  evident  that 
neither  his  poetic  gifts  nor  the  strange  bias  which  he 
afterwards  displa]^  for  the  more  mystical  side  of 
Christianity  can  be  explained  altogether  by  heredity 
or  even  by  early  environment. 

Owing  to  the  elder  Crashaw 's  fame  as  a  Temple 
pieacher  and  the  scarcely  less  notable  distinction 
which  must  have  attached  to  him  as  a  hard-hitting 
Piotestant  pamphleteer,  it  was  only  natural  that,  in 


the  then  state  of  public  o^pwioni  a  oareer  should  in 
time  be  opened  to  his  promising  son.  On  the  nomina- 
tion of  Sir  Randolph  Crewe  and  Sir  Henry  Yelverton, 
the  latter  one  of  the  judges  of  the  King's  Bench,  the 
boy  was  placed  on  a  foundation  in  the  Charterhouse 
School  wnere  he  was  brought  imder  the  influence  of 
Robert  Brooke,  a  master  of  nig^  ideals  and  mat  prac- 
tical success.  The  elder  Crashaw  died  in  1626,  leaving 
his  son  unprovided  for ;  but  the  influence  of  his  friends 
was  exerted  in  the  boy's  behalf,  and  on  6  July,  1631, 
some  five  years  after  his  father's  death,  Richard  en- 
tered Pembroke  Hall  in  Cambridge.  He  did  not  form- 
ally matriculate  as  a  scholar  untu  26  March  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  when  he  succeeded  in  getting  elected  to  a 
pensionership.  That  he  had  lived  for  some  time  at 
Pembroke  previous  to  his  actual  election  on  one  of  the 
foundations  there  seems  to  be  proved  by  the  poems 
composed  on  the  death  of  WiUiam  Herrys  (or  Harris) 
which  took  place  in  October,  163 1 .  Life  at  Cambridj^ 
was  not  ni^ardly  to  Crashaw  in  spite  of  the  improvi- 
dence whicn  led  him  to  deplete  his  uncertain  resources 
by  spending  his  little  all  on  books.  From  this  time 
forth  books  and  friends  and  religion  were  to  make  up 
the  staple  of  existence  for  him. 

It  is  significant  of  the  essential  aloofness  of  his  spirit, 
during  even  the  chief  formative  years  of  his  life,  that 
his  poems  contain  no  reference  to  his  early  London 
house  or  to  his  family.  Brooke,his  kindly  Charterhouse 
master,  however,  he  conmiemorates  more  than  once  in 
affectionate  terms  both  in  Latin  and  in  Enriish;  and 
the  ties  of  university  friendship  seem  ever  to  have  been 
strong  with  him.  Benjamin  Laney,  the  Master  of 
Pembrooke,  a  man  of  Laudian  views,  who  came  into  his 
own,  after  the  Cromwellian  troubles  were  over,  by 
being  appointed  successively  to  the  Sees  of  Peter- 
borough, Lincoln,  and  Ely;  John  Toumay,  the  High 
Churchman,  tutor  of  his  college,  who  was  refused  a 
divinity  degree  because  of  his  temerity  in  attacking 
the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone; 
Nicholas  Ferrer,  the  enthusiast  who  dreamed  of  reviv- 
ing the  oenobitical  idea  in  the  Anglican  Church  in  his 
home  at  Little  Gidding;  Cosin,  the  Royalist  master  of 
Peterhouse;  John  Beaumont,  the  author  of  "Psyche"; 
and  most  characteristic  of  all,  perhaps  tenderest  of  all, 
and  certainly  not  the  least  notable  of  the  ''Metaphysi- 
cians", the  poet,  Abraham  Cowley; — ^these  were  the 
intimates  who  watched  the  ripenmg  of  those  Cam- 
bridge years  during  which  Crasnaw  achievad  his  titles 
to  permanent  fame.  His  feeling  for  the.  remote  and 
more  icamed  sense  of  words,  which  accounts  in  part 
for  the  defects  as  well  as  for  the  felicities  of  his  poetic 
style,  had  manifested  itself  early  in  his  academic  ca- 
reer; and  he  had  been  but  a  short  while  at  the  imiver- 
sity  before  he  was  known  as  an  adept  in  five  lan- 
guages. His  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin  was  above 
the  average,  even  for  a  generation  distinguished  in  no 
small  degree  for  its  classical  scholarship,  and  one  fa- 
mous line  on  the  Miracle  of  the  Marriage  Feast  of  Cana 
in  his  "  Epi^mmatum  Sacrorum  Lil^r".  issued  from 
the  University  Press  in  1634,  will  probably  be  quoted 
as  long  as  the  Latin  tongue  retains  its  spell  over  West- 
era  Christianity: "  Nympha  pudica  DeUm  vidit,  et  eru- 
buit".  (The  conscious  water  saw  its  Loid,  and 
blushed.)  Cf.  Aaron  Hill's  translation,  1688-1750. 
The  year  in  which  the  "  Epi^ranunatum  Sacrorum 
Liber^'  appeared  was  the  year  m  which  Crashaw  took 
his  bachelor's  degree.  He  could  scarcely  have  been 
more  than  twenty-one  at  the  time,  and  two  years  later, 
possibly  on  the  promise  of  a  more  lucrative  fellowship, 
ne  joined  his  friend  Dr.  Cosin  at  Peterhouse  ana 
proceeded  M.A.  in  1638. 

For  the  details  of  his  life  during  the  next  ten  or  eleven 
years  we  are  indebted  largely  to  the  conjectures  of  the 
late  Dr.  Grosart,  based  upon  the  chance  statements  of 
his  friends  and  an  entry  here  and  there  in  roisters  and 
diplomatic  correspondence;  that  it  was  a  lite  sincerely 
devoted  to  religious  meditation  is  proved  by  the  pre- 


468 


(nULVEV 


vailinff  note  of  his  poetry  and  by  a  quaintly  signifioant 
remarK  or  two  of  the  unknown  friend  who  wrote  the 
ori^al  preface  to  the  ** Steps  to  the  Temple".  That 
wnter  calls  him  ''Herbert's  second,  but  ecjuall,  who 
hath  retriv'd  Poetry  of  late,  and  returned  it  up  to  its 
Primitive  use;  Let  it  bound  back  to  heaven  gates, 
whence  it  came".  And  he  goes  on  to  tell  us  how  the 
"divine  poet"  had  passed  his  life  "in  St.  Maries 
Church  neere  St.  Peter's  CoUedge;  there  he  lodged 
under  Tertullian's  roofe  of  Angels;  there  he  made  nis 
nest  more  gladly  than  David's  Swallow  neere  the  house 
of  God,  where,  like  a  primitive  Saint,  he  offered  more 

Srayers  in  the  night  than  others  usiially  offer  in  the 
ay;  there  he  penned  these  Poems.  Steps  for  hapi^ 
soules  to  climbe  heaven  by".  Cambridge  was  at  this 
time  the  home,  not  only  of  "thorou^"  or  Royalist 
principles  in  politics,  but  of  Laudian  ventures  in  An> 
^canism ;  and  it  was  only  to  be  expected,  that,  when 
uie  Puritan  storm  broke  at  last  in  the  guise  of  civil 
war,  Crashaw  and  his  friends  should  be  among  the 
first  to  suffer  from  its  fury.  The  poet  joined  the  king 
at  Oxford  sometime  after  March,  1643;  there  he  re- 
mained but  a  short  while.  When  next  we  hear  from 
him  it  is  as  an  impecunious  scholar  in  great  distress  in 
Paris  where  his  friend  Cowley  unexpectedly  discovered 
him  and  obtained  for  him  an  introduction  to  Queen 
Henrietta  Maria.  Cowley  went  to  Paris  as  secretary 
to  Lord  Jerm3m  in  1646;  but  some  time  before  this — 
the  date  and  immediate  circumstances  of  the  event  are 
entirelv  unknown— <];ra^aw  had  become  dissatisfied 
with  Anglican  Christianity  and  had  made  his  sub- 
mission to  the  Roman  See. 

Through  the  intervention  of  Queen  Henrietta  he  ob- 
tained an  honourable  post  in  the  great  household  of 
Cardinal  Palotta.  It  is  pathetic  to  have  to  note  that 
the  conscience  of  the  man  who  had  suffered  so  much  to 
win  for  himself  the  grace  of  a  consistent  creed  was 
scandalized  at  the  spectacle  of  inconsbtency  afforded 
by  the  curious  lives  of  some  of  his  new-found  Italian 
fellow-believers.  Difficulties  multiplied  for  him,  and 
it  was  said  that  his  life  was  threatened.  ("  Pope  Alex- 
ander the  Seventh  and  the  College  of  Ca^inals".  ed- 
ited for  the  Camden  Society,  1867,  and  quoted  by 
Canon  Beeching  in  Tutin's  edition  of  the  "Poems", 
Introduction,  pp.  XXX-XXXI).  The  kindly  cardi- 
nal, however,  mterested  himself  in  his  behalf  and  ob- 
tained for  him  a  more  congenial  post  in  the  shape  of  a 
minor  benefice  at  the  shrine  of  Loretto.  He  was 
"inducted"  on  the  24th  of  April,  1649,  and  there 
some  four  weeks  later  he  died,  suddenly  it  would 
seem,  from  heat-apoplexy  brought  on  by  his  exer- 
tions during  a  pilgrimage. 

His  place  in  English  literature  may  be  said  to  be 
fixed  now  for  all  time.  If  he  is  not  the  most  impor- 
tant, he  is  at  any  rate  not  the  least  distinguished  of 
that  remarkable  group  of  Caroline  lyrists  described  so 
unsym  pathetically,  it  might  even  be  said  so  ineptly,  by 
Dr.  Johnson,  as  belonging  to  the  Metaphysical  Scnool. 
Like  Herbert  and  Donne  and  Cowley,  he  is  in  love 
with  the  smaller  graces  of  life  and  the  profounder 
truths  of  religion,  while  he  seems  forever  preoccupied 
with  the  secret  architecture  of  things.  He  has,  in 
his  better  moments  of  inspiration,  a  rare  and  singularly 
felicitous  gift  of  epithet  and  phrase,  as  when  ne  ad- 
dresses St.  Teresa  in  the  famous  outburst  of  religious 
enthusiasm  that  marks  the  close  of  the  "Apology": — 

O  thou  undaunted  daughter  of  desires  I 

By  all  thy  dower  of  lights  and  fires; 

By  all  the  eagle  in  thee,  all  the  dove; 

By  all  thy  lives  and  deaths  of  love; 

By  thy  large  draughts  of  intellectual  day. 

And  by  thy  thirsts  of  love  more  large  than  they; 

By  all  thy  brim-filled  bowls  of  fierce  desire. 

And  by  tny  last  morning's  draughts  of  liquid  fire; 

By  the  full  kingdom  of  that  final  kiss 

That  seized  thy  parting  soul,  and  seal'd  thee  His, — 


or  when  he  bespeaki  for  the  ideal  wife  in  the  justly 
famed  "Wishes  to  his  (supposed)  Mistress.'' 

Whate'er  delight, 

Can  make  Day's  forehead  bright. 

Or  give  down  to  the  wings  of  Night. 

If  his  predilection  is  for  those  wanton  arabesquee  of 
ihythm  m  which  fancy  seems  suddenly  to  beootne 
crystallized  as  wit,  on  the  other  hand  his  lyric  gift  too 
often  becomes  merely  elaborate  and  flaes  because  he 
is  forever  in  quest  of  a  surprise.  In  aodition  to  the 
collections  of  his  verse  referred  to  above,  he  wrote  a 
sroup  of  sacred  sonps  under  the  title  of  "Carmen  Deo 
Nostro"  which  he  dedicated  to  his  friend  and  patran. 
Lady  Denbigh,  but  which  was  not  published  until 
three  yeais  after  his  death,  and  another  noup  ol 
occasional  pieces  which  he  called  "The  Deughts  of 
the  Muses^  (1648). 

GlLFiLLAN,  The  Life  and  Poetry  of  Hkhard  Cnukdno,  a  faio- 
— >hi<»ftl  essay  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  the  poems  (Edinbunli, 


_85V);  Fuller.  Worthiea*  Libraru,  ed.  Grosart.  fiwt  printedin 
1872-1873.  and  supplemented  in  1887-1888  by  collation  with 
the  British  Museum  MS.  (Addit.  MS.  83319):  Diet.  Nat.  Bios. 
s.  v.;  Bbbcrxno,  Introduction,  prefixed  to  the  edition  of  the 
poems  edited  by  J.  R.  Tutin  (London,  The  Muses  library;  no 
date);  Steps  to  the  Temple,  DeUOUeofthe  Muaea  a$»d  other  Poema, 
ed.  Wallsr  (Cambridge.  1904} ;  Wooo.  Fatli  Onm..  ii,  4;  CoLr 
BBUX2K,  Literary  RecoUectione  (1836). 

CORNBLIUB  ClIFFOBD. 

Oraflset,  Jean,  asoetical  writer,  b.  at  Dieppe, 
France,  3  January,  1618;  d.  at  Paris,  4  January,  1692. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1638,  became  pro- 
fessor of  humanities  and  philosophy,  was  director  far 
twentv-three  years  of  a  famous  sodality  of  men  con- 
nected with  the  professed  house  of  tne  Jesuits  in 
Paris,  an(i  was  also  a  successful  preacher.  Crasset  is 
the  author  of  many  ascetical  worKs,  among  wfaidi  are: 
"M^thode  d'oraison"*  "Considerations  dirdtienneB 
pour  tous  les  jours  de  rannde";  "  Le  chr^tien  en  soli- 
tude"; ''Dissertation  sur  les  oracles  des  Sibjdles", 
which  was  vigorously  attacked;  "Entretiens  pour  la 
jeunesse  ".  He  also  i>ublished  in  1689  a  "  Histoire  de 
r^lise  du  Japon"  which  has  been  translated  into  sev* 
er^  languages  but  which  is  considered  inferior  to  that 
of  Chanevoix.  Crasset's  history  was  scarody  origi- 
nal; for  it  was  drawn  in  great  part  from  the  work 
which  Father  Solier  had  issued  in  1627;  he  merdv  re- 
touched the  style  and  continued  the  narrative  nom 
1624  to  1658.  The  objection  is  made  that  the  work 
lacks  precision,  is  heavy,  and  is  crowded  with  details. 
The  author  attributed  the  origin  of  the  persecution  of 
1597  to  the  imprudence  of  the  friars  in  making  their 
religious  ceremonies  too  public.  There  is  a  posthu- 
mous work  of  his  entitled:  "La  foy  victorieuse  de 
rinfid^lite  et  du  libertini^".  On  9  September, 
1656,  the  Bisho{>  of  Orleans  issued  an  interdict  against 
him  for  having  in  one  of  his  sermons  chained  several 
ecclesiastics  with  sustaining  the  propositions  con- 
demned by  the  Bull  of  Innocent  X,  *'Cum  occasione  " 
(31  May,  1653).  The  interdict  was  removed  in  the 
following  February. 

Fxllbb,  Bioa.  univ,  (Paris,  1837):  Db  Bacxbb,  Bibliolhiqite 
delacde  J.  (Ist  series,  Liw.  1853). 

T.  J.  Campbell. 
Oraven,   Mrs.    Axtoustcts    (Pattlinb-Maris-Ar- 

MANnE-AOLAE-PBRRON    DB   LA   FeRRONNATB),    b.    12 

April,  1808,  in  London;  d.  in  Paris,  1  April,  1891. 
Her  parents,  Comte  Auguste-Marie  de  la  Ferronnays, 
of  old  Breton  stock,  and  Marie-Chariotte-Albertine  de 
Sourches  de  Montsoreau,  likewise  of  ancient  fam£l]r» 
had  undergone  all  the  miseries  attendant  on  the  emi- 
gration during  the  French  Revolution,  including  the 
loss  of  estates.  Their  attachment  to  the  Due  de 
Berri  brought  about  their  return  to  France,  followed 
shortly  afterwards  by  the  appointment  of  M.  de  la 
Ferronnays  as  amba^ador  to  St.  Petersburg,  where 
he  continued  for  eight  years.  In  1827  he  returned  to 
France  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  to  (Charles  Xi 


OBATXB 


ORIAOa 


and  Pauline  was  introduced  into  the  brilliant  society 
of  the  Restoration.  In  1830  her  father  was  given  the 
post  of  ambassador  to  Rome,  where  he  was  accom- 
panied by  his  family.  It  was  probably  in  Naples  that 
she  met  Augustus  Craven,  son  of  Keppel  Craven  and 
grandson  of  the  Margravine  of  Anspach.  who  in  1830  had 
been  appointed  attache  to  the  Bntish  Legation  at  Nsr 
pies.  Their  marriage  was  celebrated,  24  August,  1834, 
m  the  chapel  of  the  Acton  Palace,  Naples,  and  a  few 
days  afterwards  Augustus  Craven  was  received  into  the 
Church.  In  1836  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Craven  returned  to 
England,  whence  they  went  successively  to  Lisbon, 
Brussels  (1838),  and  Stuttgart  (1843),  where  Mr. 
Craven  held  diplomatic  appointments.  Up  to  this 
time  Mrs.  Craven's  life  had  been  intimately  bound  up 
with  those  of  her  immediate  family,  whom  the  world 
has  come  to  know  and  love  in  the  pages  of  "Le  R^cit 
d'une  SoBur".  She  took  a  keen  interest  in  English 
politics,  and  in  1851  wrote  a  protest  against  an  attack 
in  the  House  of  Commons  on  conventual  life  as  it 
was  beinff  revived  in  England. 

In  1851  Mr.  Craven  made  an  unsuccessful  stand  for 
Parliament,  which  caused  him  severe  financial  losses. 
In  1853  the  Cravens  took  up  their  residence  at  Naples 
in  the  Palazzino  Chiatamone,  or  as  it  came  to  be 
called,  the  Casa  Craven,  formerly  occupied  by  Mr. 
Craven's  father,  who  had  died  in  1851.  During 
the  years  that  followed,  this  became  the  centre  of  the 
brilliant  Neapolitan  society  depicted  in  Mrs.  Craven's 
**  Le  mot  de  1  ^nigme ' '.  By  1864  she  had  arranged  the 
mass  of  materials  for ''  Le  R^it  d'une  Soeur '',  and  had 
b^gun  ''Anne  Severin".  ''Le  R6cit"  appeared  in 
January,  1866.  In  March,  1868,  the  first  part  of 
"Anne  Severin"  began  in  "Le  Correspondant",  and 
Lady  Fullerton  commenced  the  translation. 

lie  winters  of  1868-69  and  1869-70  were  spent  in 
Rome,  and  at  the  Craven  apartments  numbers  of  dis- 
tinguished people  met,  among  them  many  of  the  prel- 
ates present  at  the  Vatican  Council.  Mrs.  Craven's 
best  known  novel,  "Fleurange",  appeared  in  1872 
simultaneously  at  Paris  in  "Le  Correspondant"  and 
at  New  York  m  EDglish  through  the  efforts  of  Father 
Hecker  in  "The  Catholic  World".  This  work  was 
crowned  by  the  Academy.  It  was  followed  in  1874  bv 
"  Le  mot  de  1  '^nigme '  *.  In  the  same  year  Mrs.  Craven  s 
answer  to  Gladstone's  article  in  the  "Contemporary 
Review",  entitled  "Ritualism  and  Ritual",  and  his 
subsequent  pamphlet,  appeared  in  "Le  Cbrrespon- 
dant '^on  the  same  day  as  Cardinal  Newman's  "  Letter 
to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk". 

After  1870  Mrs.  Craven's  life  was  spent  chiefly  in 
Paris,  varied  by  lengthy  visits  to  English  friends,  and 
more  particularly  to  Alonabri,  the  beautiful  chalet  of 
Princess  Sayn  Wittgenstein,  between  Lausanne  and 
Ouchy,  where  the  Empress  Aususta  was  also  a 
frequent  guest.  The  life  of  Natalie  Narischkin,  on 
which  Mrs.  Craven  had  long  been  at  work,  appeared  in 
1876.  Mr.  Craven  died  at  Monabri,  4  October,  1884, 
and  was  buried  at  Boury.  During  the  remaining 
seven  years  of  Mrs.  Craven's  life  she  was  busy  with 
various  articles  for  reviews,  but  chiefly  with  her  last 
novel,  "Le  Valbriant",  and  the  life  of  her  friend. 
Lady  G€K>i^ana  Fullerton,  published  in  1888,  and 
adapted  by  Father  Coleridge  in  his  life.  On  5  June, 
1890,  she  was  attacked  by  a  species  of  paralysis, 
which  after  ten  months,  during  which  she  was  de- 
prived of  speech,  resulted  in  her  death. 

Bishop.  A  Memoir  of  Mra.  Augualua  Craven  (2nd  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1895);   Le«,  in  Dxd.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v.  in  Supplemmt. 

F.  M.  RuDOE. 

Orayer,  Caspar  de,  Flemish  painter,  b.  at  Ant- 
werp, 1582;  d.  at  Ghent,  1669.  Me  was  a  pupil  of 
Raphael  van  Coxcie,  but  speedily  surpassed  his 
master,  and  was  appointed  painter  to  the  Governor 
of  the  Low  Countries  at  Brussels,  was  eiven  a  con* 
riderable  pension,  and  employed  in  tne  churches 


and  publlo  edifices  of  that  place.  He  resigned  his 
position,  however,  and  removed  to  Ghent,  where  he 
painted  his  most  celebrated  works.  Of  his  picture 
of  the  "Centurion  and  Christ",  painted  for  the 
refectory  of  the  abbey  at  Afflighem^  Rubens  is  said 
to  have  declared:  "Crayer,  nobody  will  surpass  jou". 
He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  Flemish  pamters, 
and,  although  not  a  man  of  profound  genius,  was  a 
perfect  draughtsman  and  an  admirable  colourist. 
IHs  compositions  are  simple,  correct,  and  pleasing, 
his  colouring  clear  and  fresh,  comparable  only  in 
his  own  school  to  that  of  Van  Uyck.  In  many  of  his 
important  works  he  emploved  De  Vadder  and 
Actitschellinck  to  paint  the  landscapes,  he  himself 
being  responsible  tor  the  composition  and  figures. 
His  chief  work  is  the  "  Death  of  the  Virgin  "  in  Madrid, 
and  his  principal  portrait  is  that  of  the  Cardinal  In- 
fant Don  Ferdinand,  brother  of  the  Kixig  of  Spain, 
on  horseback.  There  are  several  of  his  paintings 
at  Brussels,  three  in  Ghent,  one  at  Antwerp,  and 
others  at  Amsterdam,  Munich,  Nancy,  PanSy  St. 
Petersburg,  and  Rotterdam.  His  portrait  was 
painted  by  Van  Djrck  and  engraved  by  Pontius, 
and  he  liimself  is  said  to  have  been  responsible  for 
more  than  one  woodcut. 

CoNWAT.  Eartu  FlenvUK  ArtiaU  (London.  1887) ;  PAMArAirr. 
Lea  peintrea  de  Ifccle  fiamande  (Ghent,  1842) ;  Kugleb,  Hond- 
btich  der  Oeaehichte  der  Maierei  (Berlin,  1837) ;  Waaoen,  Hand- 
fwok  of  Flamiak  Paintinff  (Ix>ndon.  1860) ;  Houbsatb,  L'tiiatoir^ 
de  la  peifUvrejfamttfuie  (Paris,  1848) ;  Crows  and  Cavalga- 
8£LLE,  Early  Flemish  PairUera  (London,  1857). 

George  Chables  Williambon. 

Oreaf^hi  Richard,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  Ireland, 
b.  at  Limerick  earlv  in  the  sixteenth  century;  d.  in 
the  Tower  of  Lonoon,  in  1585.  The  son  of  a  mer- 
chant, he  followed  the  same  calling  in  his  youth  and 
made  many  vovages  to  Spain.  A  providential  escape 
from  shipwreck  led  him  to  embrace  a  religious  lite, 
and  after  some  ^^ears  of  study  abroad  he  was  ordained 
priest.  Returning  to  Ireland,  he  taught  school  for  a 
time  at  Limerick.  He  refused  nominations  for  the 
Sees  of  Limerick  and  Cashel,  but  the  papal  nuncio, 
David  Wolfe,  determined  to  conq^uer  nis  humility, 
named  him  for  ihe  primacy  when  it  became  vacant, 
and  would  accept  no  refusal.  Creagh  was  consecrated 
at  Rome,  and  in  1564  returned  to  Ireland  as  Aroh- 
bishop  of  Arma^.  Shane  O'Neill  was  then  the  most 
potent  of  the  Ulster  chiefs.  From  the  first  he  and 
Creagh  disa9:eed.  O'Neill  hated  England;  Creagh 
preaSied  loyalty  to  England  in  the  cathedral  of 
Armagh,  even  in  his  presence.  O'Neill  retorted  by 
burning  down  the  cathedral  Creagh  then  cursed 
him  and  refused  to  absolve  him  because  he  had  put 
a  priest  to  death.  Shane  retaliated  by  threatemng 
the  life  of  the  primate,  and  by  declaring  publicly  that 
there  was  no  one  on  earth  he  hated  so  much,  except 
the  Queen  of  England,  whom  he  confessed  he  hated 
more.  In  spite  of  all  this,  Creagh  was  arrested  and 
imprisoned  oy  the  English.  Twice  he  escaped,  but 
he  was  retaken  and  in  1567  lodged  in  the  Tower  of 
London,  and  kept  there  till  his  death.  From  his  re- 
peated examinations  before  the  English  Privy  Coun- 
cil his  enmity  to  Shane  O'Neill  and  his  unwavering 
loytdty  to  England  were  made  plain.  But  his  stead- 
fastness in  the  Faith  and  his  great  popularity  in  Ire 
land  were  considered  crimes,  and  in  consequence  the 
Council  refused  to  set  him  free.  Not  content  with 
this  his  moral  character  was  assailed.  The  daughter 
of  his  jaUer  was  urged  to  charge  him  with  having 
assaulted  her.  Tlie  charge  wus  investijgated  in  public 
court,  where  the  girl  retracted,  declaring  her  accusa- 
tion absolutely  false.  It  has  been  said  that  Creagh 
was  poisoned  in  prison,  and  this,  whether  true  or  false, 
was  oelieved  at  the  time  of  his  death.  His  grand- 
nephew,  Peter  Crea^,  was  Bishop  of  Cork  about 
1676.  He  was  imprisoned  for  two  years  in  conse- 
quence of  the  false  accusations  of  Titus  Gates,  but 


OREATION 


470 


CBEATIOK 


aoquitted  (1682),  was  transfezred  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  TUam  in  1686.  He  followed  James  II  to  the  Con- 
tinent, was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1693, 
but  was  never  able  to  return  and  take  possession.  He 
became  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Strasburg,  where  he  died 
(July,  1705). 

Brady,  Epiacopal  Sueeeasumin  Irtland  (Rome,  1876);  Beg- 
LRT,  History  of  the  DiooeM  of  Limerick  (Dublin.  IQOd);  Waws- 
HAnma.Bishope  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1764);  RenehaV},  CoUee- 
tions  of  Irish  Church  Hist<try  (Dublin,  1881):  Stuakt,  Historiad 
Memoirs  of  Armagh,  ed.  Colkiian  (Dublin,  1900);  Moran, 
Spicile^um  Ossoriense  (Dublin,  1874),  I;  0'Sul.uvan  Bxarb, 
Catholic  History  of  Ireland  (partly  translated  from  the  Latin 
by  M.  J.  Btrnb,  Dublin,  1903);  HAMXi;roN  and  Carew,  Calen- 
dars of  State  Papers  (1509-85);  O'Reilly,  Memoriala  of  those 
who  suffered  for  the  Catholic  Faith  in  Irdand  (London,  1868). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Creation  (Lat.  creaiio). — ^I.  Definition. — ^Like 
other  words  of  the  same  ending,  the  term  creatum  sig- 
nifies both  an  action  and  the  object  or  effect  thereof. 
Thus,  in  the  latter  sense,  we  speak  of  the  "  kingdoms  of 
creation",  "the  whole  creation'',  and  so  on.  In  the 
former  sense  the  word  sometimes  stands  for  produc- 
tive activity  generally  (e.  g.  to  create  joy,  trouble,  etc.), 
but  more  especially  for  a  hi^er  order  of  such  efficiency 
(e.  g.  artistic  creation).  In  technically  theological 
and  philosophical  use  it  expresses  the  act  whereby 
God  brings  the  entire  substance  of  a  thing  into  exist- 
ence from  a  state  of  non-existence — praaudio  totius 
aubstantUB  ex  nihUo  8u%  et  tvbjecti.  In  every  kind  of 
production  the  specific  effect  had  as  such  no  previous 
existence,  and  may  therefore  be  said  to  have  been 
educed  ex  nihUo  9u% — ^from  a  state  of  non-existence — 
so  far  as  its  specific  character  is  concerned  (e.  g.  a 
statue  out  of  crude  marble);  but  what  is  peculiar  to 
creation  is  the  entire  absence  of  any  prior  suoject-mat- 
ter — ex  nihih  subjecti.  It  is  therefore  likewise  the 
production  Mitts  iubistantUB-^  the  entire  substance. 
The  preposition  ex,  ''out  of",  in  the  above  definition 
does  not,  of  course,  imply  that  nihiL  "nothing",  is  to 
be  conceived  as  the  material  out  of  which  a  thine  is 
made — materia  ex  qud — a  misconception  which  has 
^ven  rise  to  the  puerile  objection  against  the  possibil- 
ity of  creation  conveyed  by  the  phrase,  ex  nihUo  rvthU 
fil — "nothing  comes  of  nothing  .  Hie  ex  means  (a) 
the  negation  of  prejacent  material,  out  of  which  the 
product  might  otherwise  be  conceived  to  proceed,  and 
(b)  the  order  of  succession,  viz.,  existence  after  non- 
existence. It  follows,  therefore,  that  (1)  creation  is 
not  a  change  or  trauERformation,  since  the  latter  pro- 
cess includes  an  actual  imderlying  pre-existent  subject 
that  passes  from  one  real  state  to  another  real  state, 
whidi  subject  creation  positively  excludes*  (2)  it  is 
not  a  procession  within  the  Deity,  like  tne  inward 
emission  of  the  Divine  Persons,  since  its  term  is  ex- 
trinsic to  God;  (3)  it  is  not  an  emanation  from  the 
Divine  Substance,  since  the  latter  is  utterly  indivisi- 
ble; (4)  it  is  an  act  which,  while  it  abides  within  its 
cause  (God),  has  its  term  or  effect  distinct  therefrom; 
formally  immanent,  it  is  virtually  transitive;  (5)  in- 
cluding, as  it  does,  no  motion,  and  hence  no  successive- 
ness, it  is  an  instantaneous  operation;  (6)  its  immedi- 
ate term  is  the  substance  of  tne  effect,  the  "  accidents  " 
(q.  V.)  being  "con-created";  (7)  since  the  word  crea- 
tion in  its  passive  sense  expresses  the  term  or  object  of 
the  creative  act,  or,  more  strictly,  the  obiect  in  its  en- 
titative  dependence  on  the  Creator,  it  follows  that,  as 
this  dependence  is  essential,  and  hence  inamissible, 
the  creative  act  once  placed  is  coextensive  in  duration 
with  the  creature's  existence.  However,  as  thus  con- 
tinuous, it  is  called  conservation,  an  act,  therefore, 
which  is  nothing  else  thin  the  unceasing  influx  of  the 
creative  cause  upon  the  existence  of  the  creature.  In- 
asmuch as  that  influx  is  felt  immediately  on  the  crear 
ture's  activity,  it  is  called  concurrence.  Creation, 
conservation,  and  concurrence  are,  therefore,  really 
identical  and  only  notionally  distinguished.  Other 
characteristics  there  are,  the  more  important  of  which 
will  come  out  in  what  follows. 


II.  History  OF  THE  Idea. — 1.  The  idea  of  creation 
thus  outlined  is  intrinsically  consistent.  Given  a  per- 
sonal First  Cause  possessing  infinite  power  and 
wisdom,  creative  productivity  would  a  priori  be  nec- 
essarily one  of  His  perfections,  i.  e.  absolute  independ- 
ence of  the  external  limitations  imposed  by  a  material 
subject  whereon  to  exert  His  efficiency,  besides,  the 
fecundity  which  organic  creatures  possess,  and  which, 
in  the  present  supposition,  would  be  derived  from  that 
First  Cause,  must  oe  foimd  typically  and  eminently  in 
its  somrce.  But  creative  productivity  is  j  ust  the  trans- 
cendent exemplar  of  organic  fecundity.  Therefore,  a 
priori,  we  should  look  for  it  in  the  First  Cause.  How 
the  creature  is  produced,  how  somethix^  comes  from 
nothing,  is  of  course  quite  unimaginable  by  us,  and  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  conceive.  But  this  is  scarcely  less 
true  of  any  other  mode  of  production.  The  tntunat« 
nexus  between  cause  and  effect  is  in  everr  case  hard 
to  understand.  The  fact,  however,  of  such  a  connex- 
ion is  not  denied  except  b;^  a  few  theorists;  and  even 
they  continually  admit  it  in  practice.  Consequently 
the  indistinctness  of  the  notion  of  creation  is  no  valid 
reason  for  doubting  its  inner  coherence.  Moreover, 
though  the  idea  of  creation  is  not,  of  course,  based  upon 
immediate  experience,  it  is  the  product  of  the  mind's 
endeavour,  aided  by  the  principle  of  sufficient  leaaon, 
to  interpret  experience.  Creation,  as  will  presently 
appear,  is  the  only  consistent  solution  that  nas  ever 
been  dven  to  the  problem  of  the  worid's  origin. 

2.  On  the  other  hand,  though  the  idea  of  creation  is 
self-consistent  and  naturally  attainable  by  the  mind 
interpreting  the  world  in  the  light  of  the  principle  of 
causality,  nevertheless  such  is  not  its  actual  Bource. 
The  conception  has  a  distinctly  theological  origin. 
The  early  Christian  writers,  learning  from  Revelation 
that  the  world  was  produced  from  nothing,  and  seeing 
the  necessity  of  having  a  term  to  designate  such  an  act. 
chose  the  word  create ^  which  theretofore  had  been  used 
to  express  any  form  of  production,  e.  g.  creare  conn 
sulem  (Cicero).  The  theological  usage  afterwards 
passed  into  modem  language.  Probably  the  idea  of 
creation  never  entered  the  iiuman  mind  apart  from 
Revelation.  Though  some  of  the  pa^an  philosophers 
attained  to  a  rpJatively  hich  conception  of  God  as  the 
supreme  ruler  of  the  world,  they  seem  never  to  have 
drawn  the  next  logical  inference  of  His  bein^the  abso- 
lute cause  of  all  finite  existence.  The  truu  of  crea- 
tion, while  not  a  mystery — ^not  supernatural  in  its 
very  nature  (quoad  esaenium) — ^is  supernatural  in  the 
mode  of  its  manifestation  (quoad  moaum).  Implicitly 
natural,  it  is  explicitly  revealed.  The  distinct  con- 
ception of  his  created  origin  which  primitive  man,  as 
described  in  Genesis,  must  have  received  from  his 
Creator  was  g^radually  obscured  and  finally  lost  to  the 
majority  of  his  descendants  when  moral  corruption  had 
darkened  their  understanding;  and  they  substituted 
for  the  Creator  ihe  fantastic  agencies  conjured  up  by 
polytheism,  dualism,  and  pantheism.  The  overardi- 
mg  sky  was  conceived  of  as  divine,  and  the  heavenly 
b<3ies  and  natural  phenomena  as  its  chfldren.  In  the 
East  this  gradually  gave  rise  to  the  identification  of 
God  with  nature.  Whatever  exists  is  but  the  mani- 
festation of  the  One — ^i.  e.  Brahma.  In  the  West  the 
forces  of  the  universe  were  separately  deified,  and  a 
more  or  less  esoteric  conception  of  the  Supreme  Being 
as  the  father  of  the  gods  and  of  man  was  feebly  held  by 
some  of  the  Egyptians  and  probably  by  the  Greek  and 
Roman  sa^  and  priests.  The  Creator,  however,  did 
not  leave  Himself  without  witness  in  the  race  of  men. 
The  descendants  of  Sem  and  Abraham,  of  Isaac  and 
Jacob,  preserved  the  idea  of  creation  clear  and  pure; 
and  from  the  opening  verse  of  Genesis  to  the  closing 
book  of  the  Old  Testament  the  doctrine  of  creation 
runs  unmistakably  outlined  and  absolutely  undefiled 
by  any  extraneous  element.  "  In  the  banning  God 
created  the  heavens  and  the  earth. ' '  In  this,  the  first, 
sentence  of  the  Bible  we  see  the  fountain-head  of  the 


OBSATION 


471 


GEtATION 


stream  which  is  oarried  over  to  the  new  order  bv  the 
declaration  of  the  mother  of  the  Machabees:  ^Son, 
lookupon  heaven  and  earth,  and  all  that  is  in  them:  and 
eonsider  that  God  made  them  out  of  nothing  "(II  Mach., 
vii,  28) .  One  has  only  to  compare  the  Mosaic  account 
of  the  creative  work,  with  that  recently  discovered  on 
the  clay  tablets  imearthed  from  the  ruins  of  Babylon 
to  discern  the  immense  diiTerence  between  the  un- 
adulterated revealed  tradition  and  the  puerile  story 
of  the  oosmoeony  corrupted  bv  polytheistic  myths. 
Between  the  Hebrew  and  the  Chaldean  account  there 
is  just  sufficient  similarity  to  warrant  the  supposition 
that  both  are  versions  of  some  antecedent  record  or 
tradition;  but  no  one  can  avoid  the  conviction  that  the 
Biblical  account  represents  the  pure,  even  if  incom- 
plete, truth,  while  the  Babylonian  stonr  is  both  legend- 
ary and  f  rasmentary  (Smith,  ^*  Chaldean  Adcoimt  of 
Genesis",  New  York,  1875).  Throu^out  the  New 
Testament,  wherein  God's  creative  activity  is  seen  to 
merge  with  the  redemptive,  the  same  idea  is  continu- 
ous, now  reaffirmed  to  the  Greek  pagan  in  explicit 
forms,  now  recalled  to  the  Hebrew  believer  by  expres- 
sions that  presuppose  it  too  obvious  and  fully  admitted 
to  need  explicit  reiteration. 

3.  The  extra-canonical  books  of  the  Jews,  notably 
the  Book  of  Henoch  and  the  Fourth  Book  of  Esdras, 
repeat  and  expand  the  teaching  of  the  Old  Testament 
on  creation;  the  Fathers  and  Doctors  of  the  early 
Churdi  in  the  East  and  West  everywhere  proclaim  the 
same  doctrine,  confirming  it  by  philosophical  argu- 
ments in  their  controversies  with  Paganism,  Gnosti- 
cism and  Manicheism;  while  the  early  Koman  symbols, 
that  ci  Nicsea  and  those  of  Constantinople  repeat,  in 
practically  imvarying  phrase,  the  universal  Christian 
belief  "  in  God  the  Father  Almighty,  Creator  of  Heaven 
and  earth,  of  all  tilings  visible  and  invisible". 

4.  After  the  controversy  with  Paganism  and  the 
Oriental  heresies  had  waned,  and  with  the  awakening 
of  a  new  intellectual  life  through  the  introduction  of 
Aristotle  into  the  Western  schools,  the  doctrine  of 
creation  was  set  forth  in  greater  detail.  The  revival 
of  Manich»ism  by  the  Cathari  (q.  v.)  and  the  Albi- 
genses  (q.  v.)  called  for  a  more  explicit  expression  of 
ttie  contents  of  the  Church's  belief  regardmg  creation. 
This  was  formulated  by  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  in 
1216  [Denainger,  "Enchiridion",  428  (365)].  The 
council  teaches  the  unicity  of  the  creative  principle— 
wius  9olr*s  Deua;  the  fact  of  creation  out  of  nothing  (the 
nature  of  creation  is  here  for  the  first  time,  doubtless 
through  the  influence  of  the  schools,  designated  by  the 
fonnma,  amdidit  ex  nihilo) ;  its  object  (the  visible  and 
invisible,  the  spiritual  and  material  world,  and  man); 
its  temporal  character  (ah  initio  temporis) ;  the  origin 
of  evil  from  the  fact  of  free  will. 

6.  The  conflict  with  the  false  dualism  and  the  ema- 
nationism  introduced  into  the  schools  by  the  Arabian 
philosophers,  especially  Avicenna  (1036)  and  Aver- 
roes  (1198),  brought  out  the  more  phflosophically 
elaborated  doctrine  of  creation  found  m  the  works  of 
the  greater  Scholastics,  such  as  Blessed  Albert,  St. 
Thomas,  and  St.  Bonaventure.  The  Aristotelean 
theory  of  causes  is  here  made  use  of  as  a  defining  in- 
strument in  the  synthesis  which  is  suggested  by  the 
well-known  distich: — 

Efficiens  causa  Deus  est,  formalis  idea, 

Finalis  bonitas,  material  is  hyle 
(Albert.  Magn.,  Summa,  I,  Tr.  xiii ;  Q.  liv,  Vol.  XXXI, 
p.  651  of  Bosquet  ed.,  Paris,  1896).  On  these  lines  the 
Schoolmen  built  their  system,  embracing  the  relation 
of  the  world  to  God  as  its  efficient  cause,  the  continu- 
ance of  creation  in  God's  conservation  thereof  and  His 
concurrence  with  every  phase  of  the  creature's  activ- 
ity ;  the  conception  of  the  Divine  idea  as  the  archetypal 
cause  of  creation:  the  doctrine  that  God  is  moved  to 
create  (speaking  oy  anal(^  with  the  finite  will)  by 
His  own  goodness,  to  which  He  gives  expression  in 
creation  in  order  that  the  rational  creature  recognising 


it  may  be  led  to  love  it  and,  by  a  corresponding  mental 
and  moral  adjustment  thereto  in  the  present  me,  may 
attain  to  its  complete  fruition  in  the  life  to  come;  in 
other  words  that  the  Divine  goodness  and  love  is  the 
source  and  final  cause  of  creation  both  active  and  pas- 
sive. Thus  the  application,  by  a  constantly  sustamed 
analogy  of  the  three  cau8e8---emcient,  final,  and  formal 
(arclietypal)— results  in  the  Scholastic  philosophy  of 
creation.  There  being  no  previously  existing  material 
cause  (hyle)  of  creation,  the  application  of  the  fourth 
cause  appears  in  the  Scholastic  theory  on  potency  and 
materia  prima,  the  radical  and  undifferentiated  constit- 
uent of  nature. 

6.'  The  idea  of  creation  developed  by  the  Scholas- 
tics passed  without  substantial  change  along  that  cur- 
rent of  modem  thought  which  preserved  the  essential 
elements  of  the  Theistic-Ohristian  world-view — that  of 
Descartes,  Malebranche,  Leibniz — ^and  of  course  along 
the  continuous  stream  of  traditional  teaching  within 
the  Catholic  Church.  In  the  opposing  current  it  dis- 
appears with  Spinosa,  and  ^ves  way  to  realistic  Pan- 
theism; with  Fichte,  Schelhng,  and  Hegel,  its  place  is 
taken  by  some  phase  of  varying  idealistic  Pantheism; 
while  in  our  own  day  Agnosticism  (Spencer),  material- 
istic Monism  (H&ckel),  and  spiritualistic  Monism 
(Neo-Hegetianism  and  the  New  Theology)  have  been 
put  forward  as  substitutes.  Amongst  recent  Catholic 
theologians  there  is  a  practically  uniform  tendency  to 
interpret  the  traditional  and  Scriptural  data  as  postu- 
lating the  creative  act  to  account  for  the  ori^  of  un- 
embodied  spirits  (the  angels),  of  the  primordial  matter 
of  the  universe,  and  of  the  human  soul.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  imiverse,  the  introduction  of  plant  and 
animal  life,  the  formation  of  the  first  human  bodies 
can  be  explained  by  the  administrative  or  formative 
activity  oi  God,  an  activity  which  is  sometimes  called 
second  creation  (secunda  ereatio),  and  does  not  demand 
the  creative  act  as  such.  Catholic  philosophers  de- 
velop the  purely  rational  arguments  for  these  same 
positions,  except  for  the  origin  of  the  angelic  worid, 
which  of  eourae  lies  beyond  the  sphere  of  philosophy. 
The  remainder  of  this  article  will  offer  a  summary  of 
the  aforesaid  theological  and  philosophical  positions 
and  their  bases. 

III.  Arguments  for  Creation, — 1.  For  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Church  on  the  origin  of  the  spiritual  world 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  Anqel. 

2.  That  the  material  of  which  the  universe  is  com- 
posed was  created  out  of  nothing  is  the  implicit,  rather 
than  specifically  explicit,  statement  of  the  Bible. 
The  Scriptural  teaching  on  God  and  the  relation  of  the 
universe  to  Him  unmistakably  affirms  creation.  God 
alone  is  declared  to  be  underived,  self-existent  (Ex., 
iii,  14),  and  in  comparison  with  Him  all  things  else  are 
as  nothing  (Wisdom,  xi,  23;  Is.,  xl,  17).  God  is  said 
to  be  the  beginning  and  end  of  all  thin^  (Is.,  xlviii,  12 ; 
Apoc,  i,  8);  all  things  else  are  from  Him,  and  by  Hhn, 
and  in  Him  (Rom.,  xi,  36;  I  Cor.,  viii,  6;  Coloss.,  i, 
16).  God  is  the  absolute  and  independent  sovereign 
(Ps.xlix,  12,  andls.,xliv,24;  Heb.,  i,  10).  That  these 
texts  equivalently  assert  that  God  is  the  Creator  of  all 
things  finite  is  too  obvious  to  call  for  further  com- 
ment. The  most  explicit  Scriptural  statement  re^ 
specting  the  created  origin  of  the  universe  is  found  in 
tne  first  verse  of  Genesis:  '*  In  the  beginning  God  ere* 
ated  heaven  and  earth  ".  The  obj  ects  here  desimated 
evidently  comprise  the  material  universe;  whether 
the  originative  act  is  to  be  understood  as  specifically 
creative,  depends  upon  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew 
verb  bora.  On  this  point  the  following  interpre- 
tations by  unimpeacnable  authority  may  be  ad- 
duced. Gesenius  says:  "  The  use  of  this  verb  [6ara|  in 
Kalf  the  conjugation  here  employed,  is  entirely  differ- 
ent from  its  primary  signification  (to  cut,  shape, 
fashion);  it  signifies  rather  the  new  production  of  a 
thing  than  the  shaping  or  elaborating  of  the  pre-exist- 
ing material.    That  the  first  verse  of  Genesis  teaches 


cuunoN 


472 


CUBATIOH 


that  the  origiiial  creation  of  the  worid  in  its  rude  and 
chaotic  state  was  from  nothing  while  the  remaining 
part  of  the  chapter  teaches  the  elaboration  and  distri- 
bution of  the  matter  thus  created,  the  connection  of 
the  whole  section  shows  sufficiently  clearly"  (The- 
saurus, p.  357  b).  Miihlan  and  Volck  in  the  new  edi- 
tion of  Gesenius'  "Handwdrterbuch"  say:  "Bora  is 
used  only  of  Divine  creation  and  never  with  an  aJ^cusa- 
tive  of  the  material".  Dillmann  (Gen.,  c.  i)  notes: 
"The  Hebrews  use  only  the  conjugation  Pid  (inten- 
sative)  in  speaking  of  human 'forming'  or  'shapixig', 
while  on  the  other  nand  they  use  only  Kal  in  speaking 
of  creation  of  God".  Delitzsch  says:  (Gen.,  p.  91)  "  The 
word  bora  in  its  etvmology  does  not  exclude  a  previ- 
ous material.  It  nas,  as  the  use  of  Kal  shows,  the 
fundamental  idea  of  cutting  or  hewing.  But  as  in 
other  languages  words  which  define  creation  by  God 
have  the  same  etymological  idea  at  their  root,  so  bara 
has  acquired  the  idiomatic  meaning  of  a  divine  creat- 
ing, which,  whether  in  the  kingdom  of  nature,  or  of 
history,  or  of  the  spirit,  calls  into  being  that  which 
hitherto  had  no  existence.  Bara  never  appears  as  the 
word  for  hiunan  creation,  differine  in  tins  from  the 
synonyms  asahf  yalzar,  yalad,  which  are  used  both  of 
men  and  of  God;  it  is  never  used  with  an  accusative 
of  the  material,  and  even  from  this  it  follows  that  it 
defines  the  divine  creative  act  as  one  without  any  lim- 
itations, and  its  result,  as  to  its  proper  material,  as  en- 
tirely new;  and,  as  to  its  first  cause,  entirely  the  crea- 
tion of  divine  power."  Again  Kalisch  observes 
(Gen.,  p.  1):  "Goa  called  the  universe  into  being  out 
of  nothing;  not  out  of  formless  matter  coeval  with 
Himself"  (Geikie,  Hours  with  the  Bible,  1, 16). 

3.  The  patristic  teaching  as  to  the  created  ori^  of 
the  world  is  too  explicit  and  well  known  to  require  ci- 
tation here.  The  few  ambiguous  expressions  occur- 
ring in  tiie  works  of  Origen  and  Tertullian  are  more 
than  counterbalanced  by  other  unmistakable  declarar 
tions  of  these  same  writere,  while  their  at  most  excep- 
tional divergencies  are  as  nothing  in  comparison  with 
the  unanimous  and  continuous  teaching  of  the  other 
Fathers  and  Doctors  of  the  Church. 

4.  Approaching  the  problem  of  origin  from  the  pure- 
ly rational  side,  we  find  the  field  preoccupied  ahnoBt 
from  the  beginning  of  the  history  ot  philosophy  by  two 
directly  opposite  solutions:  one  maintaining  that  the 
world-matter  is  self-existent,  underived  from  anv  ex- 
traneous source,  and  hence  eternal;,  the  world  has 
therefore  attained  its  present  complex  condition  by  a 
gradual  evolutionary  process  from  an  original,  simple, 
undifferentiated  state  (materialistic  Monism);  the 
other  asserting  that  the  world  is  derived  from  an  ex- 
traneous cause,  either  by  emanation  from  or  evolution 
of  the  Divine  being  (Pantheism)  or  by  creation  (Cre- 
ationism).  Creationism,  though  an  essentially  philo- 
sophical solution,  is  never  found  divorced  from  Keve- 
lation.  Materialistic  Monism  includes  a  varying 
number  of  philosophies;  but  all  agree  in  maintaining 
that  the  world-matter  is  eternal,  unproduced,  and  abso- 
lutely indestructible.  They  differ  m  that  some  attrib- 
ute the  formation  of  the  universe  to  chance  (the 
ancient  Atomists),  others  to  a  sort  of  ubiquitous  oos- 
mical  life  or  worldnsoul  (Anaxagoras,  Hato,  Pan- 
peychists,  Fechner,  Lotze,  Paulsen),  others  to  forces 
essentially  inherent  in  matter  (Feuerbach,  BOchner, 
H&ckel).  Against  materialistic  Monism  Cathplic 
philosophers  (Creationists)  argue  thus:  The  world- 
matter  is  not  self-existent;  for  what  is  self-existent  is 
essentially  necessary,  immutable,  absolute,  infinite. 
But  the  worid-matter  is  not  necessary;  its  essence  as 
such  funushes  no  reason  why  it  should  exist  rather 
than  not  exist,  nor  why  it  is  definitely  determined  as 
to  number,  extension,  and  space.  It  is  not  immutar 
ble,  for  it  undergoes  incessant  change;  not  absolute, 
since  it  depends  upon  the  natural  forces  which  condi- 
tion its  states;  not  infinite  as  to  extent,  since,  being 
extended,  it  is  numerable,  and  hence  finite;  nor  in- 


finite in  active  power,  since  it  is  inert  and  esa^itially 
limited  by  external  stimulation.  The  aggregate  of 
natural  forces  must  also  be  finite,  otherwise  there 
could  be  no  change,  no  laws  of  inertia,  no  con- 
stancy and  equivalence  of  energy.  The  woild-siib- 
stance  is  not  etemaL  For  that  substance  must  be 
conceived  either  as  possessing  eternal  motion  or  not. 
If  eternally  active  it  would  have  passed  through  an 
infinite  number  of  changes,  which  is  self-contradictorir. 
Moreover,  the  supposed  evolutionary  process  would 
not  have  begun  so  late  as  geology  teaches  that  it  did, 
and  would  long  since  have  come  to  an  end,  L  e.  to  a 
static  equilibrium  of  forces  according  to  the  law  of  en- 
tropy. If  the  primal  matter  was  not  endowed  with 
an  eternal  activity,  evolution  could  not  have  begun — 
not  from  within,  the  law  of  inertia  forbidding;  nor 
from  without,  since  the  materialistic  hypothms  ad- 
mits no  extraneous  cause.  Moreover,  smce  chance  is 
no  cause,  but  the  negation  thereof,  some  reason  must 
be  assigned  for  the  differentiation  of  the  original 
material  into  the  various  chemical  elements  and  com- 
pounds. That  reason  may  be  supposed  either  in- 
trinsic or  extrinsic  to  the  primary  matter.  If  in- 
trinsic, it  does  not  explain  why  just  these  elements  (or 
compounds)  in  kind  and  number  become  differenti- 
ated ;  if  extrinsic,  the  supposition  contradicts  the  v^ 
basis  of  materialism  wnich  negates  transmateiial 
agency. 

A  similar  line  of  argument  mav  be  used  to  prove  die 
impossibility  of  explaining,  on  the  materialistic  hypo- 
thesis, the  order  prevailing  everywh^^e  throughout  the 
universe.  To  the  counter  argument  that,  given  an 
infinite  series  of  atomic  arrangements,  the  present 
order  must  needs  result,  it  may  be  answered:  (a)  the 
ori^  of  both  atoms  and  motion  still  remains  unex- 
plamed;  (b)  an  infinite  series  of  combinations  would 
demand  infinite  time,  while  geology  indicates  a  limited 
time  for  the  earth's  formation;  (c)  some  sort  of  order 
might  result  from  a  chance  concurrence  of  atoms,  but 
no  constant  and  universal  order;  (d)  the  present  order 
presupposes  some  disposition  of  tiie  elements  for  this 
rather  than  another  order.  Now  the  auestioii  still  re- 
mains: Whence  came  precisely  this  disposition,  and 
why  did  not  the  atoms  concur  in  a  way  \inf avourable 
to  a  continuous  evolution,  since  the  number  of  possible 
arrangements  of  an  infinite  number  of  atoms  must  be 
infinite? 

The  hypothesis  of  a  world-soul  exhibits  another 
eroup  of  moonsistencies.  If  the  universe  were  "in- 
formed "  by  a  principle  of  life,  there  would  not  be  that 
essential  difference  oetween  inanimate  and  animate 
bodies  which  both  science  and  philosophy  establish; 
inanimate  bodies  would  manifest  signs  of  life,  sudi  as 
spontaneous  and  immanent  activity,  organs,  etc.  The 
materialistic  principle,  **  No  matter  wiwout  force,  no 
force  without  matter"  (BQchner),  though,  with  some 
obvious  qualification,  true  as  to  its  first  part,  is  untrue 
as  to  its  second.  Force  is  the  proximate  principle  of 
action,  and  may  be  or  not  be,  but  it  is  not  of  necessity 
conjoined  with  matter.  The  principle  of  action  in 
man  is  not  intrinsically  dependent  on  matter. — For 
the  development  of  these  and  more  serious  arguments 
against  materialistic  Monism  see  *'  Institutiones  Phil- 
osophiaa  Naturalis",  by  Willems  or  Pesch. 

Pantheistic  differs  from  materialistic  Monism  in  as- 
serting a  being,  in  some  sense  unitary,  which  unfolds 
itself  in  the  material  universe  and  in  human  conscious- 
ness. That  such  a  being  is  called  "  God  "  is  an  obvious 
misuse  of  language.  Moreover,  God  is  indivisible, 
spiritual,  eternal,  necessary,  immutable,  omn^)re8ent, 
absolute,  and  caimot,  therefore^  "evolve"  into  a  uni- 
verse of  matter  which  possesses  just  the  contrary  attri- 
butes. For  a  like  reason  bodies  cannot  be  modes, 
either  real  (Spinoxa)  or  logical  (Heeel),  of  the  divine 
substance.  Since,  then,  the  world-material  is  not 
self-existenty  but  produced,  and  that  not  from  srme 
antecedent  material  (for  such  a  suppositk>n  wo  *Vi 


ORBATIOM 


473 


CEEATIOK 


only  defer  and  not  solve  the  problem) ;  since,  moreover, 
the  ^erorld>substance  has  not  emanated  from  the  divine 
nature,  it  follows  that  it  must  have  been  produced  bv 
some  extraneous  cause,  from  no  pre-tixistmg  materiiJ, 
i.  e.  it  must  have  been  created.  That  that  extraneous 
cause  is  God,  the  self-existent,  necessary,  absolute,  in- 
finite, and  consequently  personal  Deity,  is  proved 
from  the  finalit v  and  order  manifest  in  the  cosmos  that 
has  developed  from  the  original  material,  which  order 
demands  an  efficient  and  a  directive  cause  of  supreme 
if  not  infinite  intelligence;  and  from  the  further  fact 
tiiat  the  creative  act  can  proceed  only  from  a  truly 
infinite  and  therefore  personal  agent,  as  will  be  shown 
towards  the  end  of  this  article. 

To  the  question:  In  what  condition  was  the  world- 
matter  created,  whether  homogeneous  or  differenti- 
ated into  various  specific  substances?  neither  Reve- 
lation nor  science  gives  answer.  Until  lately  the 
practically  universal  opinion  of  Catholic  philosophers 
favoured  an  original  essential  differentiation  of  the 
elements.  Since,  however,  the  tendency  of  physico- 
chemical  experimentation  and  inference  now  points 
with  some  probability  to  a  radical  homoeeneit  v  of  mat- 
ter, and  since  philosophy  is  bound  to  reduce  the  world 
to  its  fewest  and  simplest  principles,  the  opinion  seems 
justified  that  the  original  mattOT  was  created  actually 
undifferentiated,  but  with  inherent  potency  toward 
riemental  and,  subsequently,  compound  diversifica- 
tion through  the  action,  reaction,  and  grouping  of  the 
ultimate  particles. 

When — probably  through  some  such  processes  as 
are  suggested  by  the  well-Icnown  nebular  hypothesis 
(Kant,  jLaplace)  and  by  the  inductions  of  geology — 
the  material  universe  was  disposed  for  the  simplest 
forms  of  life,  then  God  said:  "  Let  the  earth  bring  forth 
the  green  herb,  and  such  as  may  seed,  and  the  fruit 
tree  yielding  fruit  after  its  kind,  which  may  have 
seed  m  itself  upon  the  earth.  And  it  was  so  done" 
(Gen.,  i,  11) — the  work  of  the  third  creative  day. 
At  a  subsequent,  "  God  created  the  great  whales  and 
every  living  and  moving  creature,  which  the  waters 
brought  forth,  according  to  their  kinds,  and  every 
winged  fowl  according  to  its  kind"  (ib.,  21) — the 
work  of  the  fifth  day.  And  again,  "God  said:  Let 
the  earth  bring  forth  the  living  creature  in  its  kind, 
cattle  and  creeping  things,  and  beasts  of  the  earth, 
accordine  to  their  kinds.  And  it  was  so  done.  And 
God  made  the  beasts  of  the  earth  according  to  their 
kinds,  and  cattle,  and  every  thing  that  creepeth  on 
the  earth  after  its  kind*'  (ib.,  24,  25)— part  of  the 
work  of  the  sixth  day.  In  these  simple  words  the  in- 
spired author  of  Genesis  describes  the  advent  of  life, 
plant  and  animal,  on  our  earth.  It  does  not  fall  within 
the  scope  of  the  present  article  to  discuss  the  various 
meanings  that  have  been  assigned  to  "the  days  of 
creation ' '.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  Catholic  exegetes  are 
allowed  the  widest  liberty  of  interpretation  compati- 
ble with  the  obvious  substance  and  purport  ot  the 
sacred  narrative,  viz.,  that  God  is  "the  creator  of 
heaven  and  earth '  *.  Accordingly,  we  find  some  theo- 
logians following  St.  Augustine  (In  Gen.  ad  litt.,  I), 
that  the  six  days  signify  only  a  logical  (not  a  real)  suc- 
cession, i.  e.  in  the  order  in  which  the  creative  works 
were  manifested  to  the  angels.  Others  interpret  the 
days  as  indefinite  cosmical  periods.  Others,  though 
these  are  at  present  a  vanishing  number,  still  follow 
the  literal  interpretation.  An  immense  amount  of 
time,  patient  research,  and  ingenuity  has  been  spent  in 
the  task  of  harmonizing  the  successive  stages  of  ter- 
restrial evolution,  as  deciphered  by  geologists  from  the 
records  of  the  rocks,  with  the  Mosaic  narrative ;  but  the 
highest  tribute  to  the  success  of  these  efforts  is  that 
they  more  or  less  graphically  corroborate  what  must  be 
already  a  priori  certain  and  evident,  at  least  to  the 
believer,  that  between  the  truth  of  Revelation  and  the 
truth  of  science  there  is,  and  can  be,  no  discord.  But 
whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  effort  to  vindicate  in 


detail  the  parallelism  claimed  to  exist  between  the 
geological  succession  of  living  forms  and  the  order  de- 
scribe in  the  Bible,  it  is  certam  that  some  general  par- 
allelism exists;  that  the  testimony  of  the  strata  cor- 
roborates the  story  of  the  Book,  according  to  which 
the  lowliest  forms  of  plant  life,  "the  green  herb", 
appeared  first,  then  the  higher, "  the  seed-bearing  tree ' ', 
followed  in  turn  by  the  simpler  animal  types,  the  water 
creature  and  the  winged  fowl,  and  finally  by  the  highest 
organisms,  "the  beasts  of  the  earth  and  the  cattle". 

IV.  Creation  and  Evolot-ion. — If  now,  from  the 
general  interpretation  of  the  Biblical  account  of  crea- 
tion, we  turn  to  the  biologico-philosophical  problems 
which  it  suggests,  and  which  revert  to  it  for  what  solu- 
tion it  may  have  to  offer,  we  find  Catholic  thinkers 
exercising  an  equally  large  liberty  of  speculation. 
"Considered  in  connection  with  the  entire  account  of 
creation'',  says  a  recent  eminent  Jesuit  ex^ete,  "the 
words  of  Genesis  cited  above  proximatdy  maintain 
nothing  else  than  that  the  earth  with  all  that  it  con- 
tains and  bears,  together  with  the  plant  and  animal 
kingdoms,  has  not  produced  itself  nor  is  the  work  of 
chance;  but  owes  its  existence  to  the  power  of  Grod. 
However,  in  what  particular  manner  the  plant  and 
animal  kingdoms  received  their  existence:  wnether  all 
species  were  created  simultaneously  or  only  a  few  which 
were  destined  to  give  life  to  others:  whetner  only  one 
fruitful  seed  was  placed  on  mother  earth,  which  under 
the  influence  of  natural  causes  developed  into  the  first 
plants,  and  another  infused  into  the  waters  gave  birth 
to  the  first  animals — all  this  the  Book  of  Genesis  leaves 
to  our  own  investigation  and  to  the  revelations  of 
science,  if  indeed  science  is  able  at  all  to  give  a  final  and 
unauestionable  decision.  In  other  words,  the  article 
of  faith  contained  in  Genesis  remains  firm  and  intact 
even  if  one  explains  the  manner  in  which  the  different 
species  originated  according  to  the  principle  of  the 
tneory  of  evolution''  (Knabenbauer,  "Stimmen  aua 
Maria-Laach",  XIII,  74;  cf.  Muckermann,  "Attitude 
of  Catholics  towards  Darwinism  and  Evolution",  78.) 
Tlie  two  general  biological  problems  connected  with 
the  Biblical  cosmo^ny  are  the  origin  of  life  and  the 
succession  of  organisms.  Concerning  both  these  prob- 
lems all  that  Catholic  Faith  teaches  is  that  the  begin- 
nings of  plant  and  animal  life  are  due  in  some  way  to 
the  proauctive  power  of  God.  Whether,  with  St. 
Augustine  and  St.  Thomas,  one  hold  that  only  the 
primordial  elements,  endowed  with  dispositions  and 
powers  (ratione8  teminales)  for  development,  were 
created  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  and  the  rest  of 
nature — ^plant  and  animal  life — was  gradually  evolved 
according  to  a  fixed  order  of  natural  operation  under 
the  supreme  guidance  of  the  Divine  Administration 
(Harper,  "Metaphysics  of  the  School",  II,  746);  cw 
whetner,  with  other  Fathers  and  Doctors  of  the  School, 
one  hold  that  life  and  the  classes  of  living  beinc»— 
orders,  families,  genera,  species — ^were  each  and  all,  or 
only  some  few,  strictly  and  immediately  created  by 
Goa — whichever  of  these  extreme  views  he  may  deem 
more  rational  and  better  motived,  the  Catholic  thinker 
is  left  perfectly  free  by  his  faith  to  select.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  theory  of  spontaneous  generation  of 
certain  animalcule,  worms,  insects,  etc.  was  h^  by 
theologians  and  philosophers  alike  until  compara- 
tively recent  times,  until,  indeed,  experimental  evi- 
dence demonstrated  the  opposite  thesis.  The  estab- 
lishment of  the  universal  truth  of  biogenesis  (q.  v.), 
omne  vivutn  ex  vivo,  was  tiien  seen  to  corroborate  the 
teaching  of  the  Bible,  that  life,  plant  and  animal,  is  due 
to  the  Divine  productive  agency.  Since  the  charae- 
teristics  of  living  substance  are  contrary  to  those  of  the 
non-living  substance,  the  characteristics  of  life  bein^ 
spontaneity  and  immanent  activity,  those  of  inani- 
mate matter  being  inertia  and  transitive  activity,  the 
Divine  efficiency,  to  which  the  origin  and  differentia- 
tion of  life  are  ascribed,  has  received  the  distinctive 
name  of  administration.    The  idea  conveyed  by  the 


ORBATION 


474 


OBEATIOli 


latter  term  is  thus  explained  by  a  philosopher  who  has 
drawn  it  out  from  the  suggestion  supplied  by  St. 
Thomas.  (De  PotentiA,  Q.  iv.)  Though  God  can 
operate  as  He  does  in  the  creative  act,  without  the  co- 
operation of  the  creature,  it  is  absolutely  impossible  for 
the  creature  to  elicit  even  the  smallest  act  without  the 
co-operation  of  the  Creator.  Now  the  Divine  Admin- 
istration includes  this  and  more,  two  thin^,  namely, 
as  regards  the  present  subject.  The  one  is  the  con- 
stant order,  the  natural  laws,  of  the  universe.  Thus, 
e.  g.,  that  all  living  things  should  be  ordinately  prop- 
agated by  seed  belongs  to  the  Divine  Administration. 
The  second,  which  may  be  called  exceptional,  relates 
to  the  initial  organisms,  the  first  plant,  fish,  bird,  and 
beast,  upon  which  hereditary  propagation  must  have 
bubseauently  succeeded.  That  these  original  pairs 
should  have  been  evolved  out  of  the  potency  of  matter 
without  parentage — that  the  matter,  otherwise  in- 
capable of  the  ta^,  should  have  been  proximateljr  dia- 
.  posed  for  such  evolution — ^belongs  to  a  special  Divine 
Administration.  In  other  words,  God  must  have  been 
the  sole  efficient  cause — utilizing,  of  course,  the  ma- 
terial cause — of  the  organization  requisite,  and  hence 
may  strictly  be  said  to  have  formed  such  pairs,  and  in 
particular  the  human  body,  out  of  the  pre-existent 
matter  (Harper,  op.  cit.,  743).  It  need  ha^y  be  said 
that  the  distinctions  between  creation  and  co-opera- 
tion, administration  and  formation,  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  subjectively  realized  in  God .  They  are  only 
so  many  aspects  which  the  analytical  mind  must  take 
note  of  in  the  fundamental  and  essential  relation  of  de- 
pendence— contingency — in  which  the  creature  stands 
to  the  First  Cause.  For  a  sympathetic  account  of  the 
relation  of  Evolutionism  to  Creationism,  the  reader 
may  be  referred  to  Muckermann  (who  has  popularized 
Wasmann^  technical  illustrations  of  specific  trans- 
formations among  the  ant-guests).  Harper,  Mivart, 
Guibert,  Didiot,  Farges,  etc.,  mentioned  in  the  bibli- 
ography below.  A  more  vigorous  criticism  of  Evolu- 
tionism is  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  Gerard,  Gutbeiv 
let,  Pesoh,  WiUems,  Hunter,  Thein,  and  Hughes. 

V.  Final  Causb  op  CREATiON.--Since  the  produc- 
tion of  something  from  nothing,  the  bridging  of  the 
chasm  between  non-existence  and  existence  demands 
infinite  power,  and  since  the  reason  for  the  action  of 
an  infinite  being  must  Ue  within  that  being  Himself, 
the  primary  subjective  motive  of  creation  must  be  the 
Creator's  love  of  His  own  intrinsic  eoodness.  The 
love  of  that  absolute  good  is  conceived  by  us  as  "in- 
ducing" the  Creator  to  give  it  an  extrinsic  embodi- 
ment (creation  in  its  passive  sense,  the  universe). 
The  type-idea  according  to  which  this  embodiment  is 
constructed  must  exist  within  the  Creator's  intelli- 
gence and  as  such  is  called  the  "exemplary"  or  arche- 
typal cause  of  creation  (passive).  The  objective 
realization  hereof  is  the  absolutely  final  objective  end, 
or  final  cause,  of  creation.  In  the  matenal  universe 
tills  reaUzation,  exhibited  in  the  purposiveness  of  each 
individual  part  conspiring  to  the  purposiveness  of  the 
whole,  remains  imperfect  and  is  out  a  vestige  of  the 
original  design.  In  the  rational  creature  it  reaches  a 
certain  completeness,  inasmuch  as  man's  personality, 
with  its  intellectual  and  volitional  endowments,  is  a 
sort  of  (analogous)  "image"  of  the  Creator,  and,  as 
such,  a  more  perfect  realization  of  the  creative  plan. 
Moreover,  in  man's  consciousness  the  creative  purpose 
comes  to  explicit  manifestation  and  reflective  recogni- 
tion. His  intelligent  reaction  thereon  by  reverential 
attitude  and  orderiy  conduct  realizes  the  absolutely 
final  purpose  of  creation,  the  actual  "formal  glorify- 
ing" of  the  Creator,  so  far  as  that  is  possible  in  the 
present  life.  But  even  as  the  orderly  or  normal  activ- 
ity of  the  individual  organisms  and  subordinate  parts 
of  the  universe  develop  and  complete  those  organisms 
and  parts,  so  man's  rational  conduct  perfects  him  and, 
as  a  consequence,  results  in  a  state  of  happiness,  the 
full  oomplement  whereof  is  attainable,  however,  only 


in  a  life  beyond  the  present.  This  com].)letion  and 
happiness  of  man  are  said  to  be  the  relatively  ultimate 
end  of  creation,  and  thereby  the  creative  plan  is  ab- 
solutely completed,  the  (Creator  finally  explicitly 
formally  glorined  by  the  return  of  the  creation,  carried 
up  by  and  in  man  to  conscious  inter-communion  with 
the  Source  and  End  of  the  creative  act.  Lactantius 
thus  sums  up  the  hierarchy  of  finahty  in  creation: 
"The  world  was  made  that  we  misht  be  bom.  We 
were  bom  that  we  might  know  God.  We  know  Him 
that  we  may  worship  Him.  We  worship  Him  that  we 
may  earn  immortality.  We  are  rewarded  with  im- 
mortality that,  being  like  unto  the  angels,  we  may 
serve  Our  Father  ana  Lord  forever,  and  he  the  eternal 
kingdom  of  God  * '  (Instit. ,  VII,  vi).  When  man  is  said 
to  be  the  (relatively)  ultimate  end  of  creation,  Hub 
obviously  does  not  exclude  other  coexistent  and  sub- 
ordinate purposes. 

VI.  Creation  the  Prerooativb  of  God  Ajlonk. — 
The  Fourth  Lateran  Coimcil  defined  that  "God  is  the 
sole  principle  of  all  things  visible  and  invisible,  the 
creator  of  all"  [Denzin^r,  op.  cit.-,  428  (355)];  and  the 
Bible  throughout  ascribes  the  creative  act  to  Him 
alone:  "I  am  the  Lord,  that  make  all  things  .  .  .  and 
there  is  none  with  me"  (Is.,  jdiv,  24 ;  cf.  xl,  25;  Ps 
cxxxv,  4).  As  to  the  question,  whether  it  is  intrin- 
sically possible  for  a  creature  to  be  endowed  with  crea- 
tive power,  theologians  answer  with  a  distinction.  (1) 
No  creature  can  possibly  be  a  principal  cause  of  crea- 
tion. This  is  the  unanimous  teaching  of  the  Fathers. 
The  philosophical  reasons  are:  (a)  tne  creative  act, 
being  absolutely  independent  of  material  and  instru- 
ment, supposes  an  absolutely  independent  subject 
(agent);  (b)  the  term  of  the  creative  act  is  the  com- 
plete substance  of  the  effect  (spiritual  or  material^,  and 
the  act  can  extend  indefinitely  to  whatever  is  intrinsic- 
ally possible,  while  the  act  of  the  created  agent  reaches 
only  to  the  accidents,  or  partial  constituents,  of  bod- 
ies, and  is  definitely  limited  in  range;  (c)  the  creative 
act  produces  its  effects  by  will  alone;  it  is  immanent, 
while  its  term  is  extraneous;  it  is  as  unlimited  as 
is  the  extent  of  will  power;  it  is  instantaneous.  No 
finite  cause  can  thus  operate.  (2)  Some  theologians 
(Peter  the  Lombard  and  Suarez)  have  thought  that  a 
creature  might  be  used  by  God  as  an  instrumental 
cause  of  creation.  The  general  opinion,  however,  is 
to  the  contraiy,  on  the  ground  that  since  creation  ex- 
cludes materia  ex  qud  there  is  no  subject  whereon  the 
dispositive  influence  of  an  instrument  could  be  ex- 
erted. 

Oad  was  absolutely  free  to  create  or  not  to  create,  and  to 
create  the  present  or  any  possible  world.  This  is 
an  article  of  Catholic  Faith  defined  by  the  Vatican 
Coimcil  (Can.,  De  Deo  Creante,  v).  It  is  the  explicit 
teaching  of  Scripture,  God  "  worketh  all  things  accord- 
ing to  the  counsel  of  his  will"  (Eph.,  i,  11),  and  of  the 
Fathers  generally.  It  is  an  obvious  rational  deduc- 
tion from  the  infinitude  and  absolute  self-sufficiency  of 
God.  The  creative  act,  as  a  subjective  aspect  of  the 
Divine  Will,  is  necessary,  but  the  external  positing  of 
a  term  is  free.  This  doctrine  of  creative  freedom  ex- 
cludes the  exa^erated  optimism  of  Leibniz  and  others, 
who  held  that  God  was  bound  to  create  the  best  possi- 
ble world.  The  Divine  act  must  be  perfect,  but  the 
effect  need  not,  and  indeed  cannot,  be  absolutely  per- 
fect; the  creature  being  necessarily  finite,  a  more  per- 
fect creature  is  always  possible  and  creatable  by  in- 
finite power.  The  world  is  the  very  best  possible  for 
the  Creator's  purpose;  it  is  relatively,  not  absolutely, 
perfect.     (See  Optimism.) 

VII,  The  Worij)  was  Created  in  Time,  not  from 
Eternity. — The  Vatican  Council  defined  that  God 
created  ab  initio  iemporis.  The  openine  words  of 
GenesLs,  "In  the  beginning  God  created",  are  re- 
echoed in  similar  phrases  throughout  the  Bible.  Tbe 
Fathers  reiterate  the  same  teaching.  As  to  the 
question,  whether  eternal  creation  is  intrinsically  j 


aRBATIOmSM 


475 


GBSATIOmSM 


Bible,  8t.  Hiomas,  in  his  soKcitude  that  infidels  misht 
have  no  ground  to  cavil  with  the  alignments  which  be- 
lievers assign  for  the  temporal  origin  of  creation  (pas- 
Bive),  says:  ''That  the  worid  has  not  always  existed  is 
held  by  faith  alone,  and  cannot  be  demonstrated'' 
(Summa,  I,  Q.  xlvi,  a.  2).  St.  Bona  venture  and  many 
others  maintain  tnat  the  inherent  impossibility  of 
eternal  creation  is  demonstrable.  Areuments  too 
subtle  for  discussion  here  are  adduced  by  both  sides 
of  the  controversy. 

VIII.    SPECm-ATIVB   AND   PRACTICAL  PosrnON   OF 

THB  Doctrine  of  Creation. — ^From  what  has  been 
said  it  follows  that  belief  "in  God  the  Creator  of 
heaven  and  earth"  is  the  theoretical  basis  of  all  relig- 
ious and  theological  truth,  the  real  foimdation  under- 
lying ail  other  truths  concerning  Qod,  and  the  objec- 
tive principle  whence  all  other  truths  proceed.  The 
Incarnation  completes  in  the  supematiunl  order  the 
creative  purpose  and  plan  by  the  Divine  Personal 
Idea,  the  Word,  assummg  to  Himself  man's  nature, 
wherein  the  natural  order  of  creation  is  synthesized, 
and  thus  carrying  back  completely  the  whole  creation 
to  its  origin' and  end.  The  Redemption,  the  Church, 
and  the  sacramental  system  are  obviously  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Incarnation,  and  so,  through  the  medium 
of  the  latter  mystery,  follow  from  creation/  The 
proposition  that  the  Infinite  is  the  absolutely  primary 
source  of  aJ^  other  reality  is  also  the  first  phUosophicid 
truth,  not  of  course  in  our  order  of  attainment  but  in 
itself.  All  created  being,  truth,  goodness,  beauty, 
perfection  are  eminently  contained  in  the  Creator's 
essence,  conceptually  in  His  creative  intelligence,  po- 
tentially in  His  creative  omnipotence,  and  are  deter- 
mined to  their  measure  of  actual  objective  existence 
by  the  creative  will.  The  real  distinction  of  the  finite 
from  the  Infimte  opposes  every  form  of  exaggerated 
monism,  while  the  entitative  contingency  and  aepend- 
ence  of  the  creature  on  the  Creator  refutes  an  ex- 
aggerated dualism.  A  rational  mediating  dualistic 
monism  is  based  on  the  truth  of  creation.  Lastly,  the 
end  and  purpose  of  creation  sets  before  man  the  first 
ideal  and  norm  of  life ;  and  thus  the  final  reason  of  the 
distinction  between  right  and  wrong  conduct  is  found 
in  the  conformity  of  the  one  and  the  difformity  of  the 
other  with  the  orginal  exemplar  in  the  Creator's  mind. 
Acting  up  to  his  complete  nature,  man  is  at  once  self- 
consistent  and  accoraant  proximately  with  the  cre- 
ated copy  and  hence  mediately  accordant  with  the 
original  pattern  in  the  eternal  design  of  his  Creator. 

(See  Cosmology,  Cosmooont,  Evolution,  God, 
Life,  Man,  Soul,  World,  Materialism,  Pantheism.) 

HiOffBR,  Metaphynct  of  the  School  (New  York.  1881),  II; 
MxvAATt  Lnaona  pwn  Nature  (New  York,  1876);  Id.,  Omens 
of  Speetes  (New  York,  1871);  Guibebt.  L««  orioiaea^T.  In  the 
Beginning  (New  York,  1901);  Gerard.  Evclutionary  PhUoeophy 
and  Common  Sense  (London,  1902);  Muckebmann,  Attitude  of 
the  Catholioa  towards  Darmnism  and  Evolution  (St.  Louis,  1906); 
Huohes,  ^rindpUs  of  Anthropology  and  Biology  (New  York, 
1890);  Clerke,  Modem  Cosmogonies  (London.  1905);  Thein, 
Christian  Anlhro>pology  (New  York,  1881);  Vauohan,  Faith 
and  Folly  (London.  1901);  Hunter,  Outlines  of  Dogmatic 
Theology  (New  York.  1906),  II;  Wilhelm  and  Scanneix, 
Manua[  ofCatholic  Theology  (New  York,  1890).  I;  McCobh, 
Realiaie  Philosophy  (New  York,  1881);  Wallace,  Darwin- 
ism (New  York,  1681);  Shxeldb,  VUimate  Philosophy  (New 
York.  1906),  III;  Cboll.  Basis  of  Evolution  (London,  1890); 
WiLLEiis.  Institutiones  Philosophia  (Treves.  1906),  II:  PEsai, 
WeUrAtsei  (Freibun?,  1907);  Pralectiones  PhUosovhicB  Naturulis 
(FreiboiK,  1897):  0n>xoT,  ContrilnUion  phUosophique  h  VHude 
ass  sciences  (Lilie.  1902);  Gutbeblbt,  ApoiogetOc  (Manster, 
1895);  Der  Menseh  (MQnster,  1905);  Mercier,  La  psyehologie, 
(Loaviun,  1905):  Fabobb,  Laviett  I'ivolutiondesespiees  (Paris, 
1804);  Fbscb,  Prtdetidones  Dogmatica;  De  Deo  Creante  (Frei- 
bore,  1895):  Van  Noort,  De  Deo  Creante  (Amsterdam,  1903): 
FXNARD  in  Did,  de  tfiM.  eath.,  s.  v. — the  most  thorough  and 
best  documented  monognph  on  the  subject. 

F.  P.  Siegfried. 

OreationiBm  (Lat.  creaiio). — (1)  In  the  widest 
sense,  the  doctrine  that  the  material  of  the  universe 
WM  created  by  God  out  of  no  pre-existing  subject. 
It  18  thus  opposed  to  all  forms  of  Pantheism.  (2) 
Less  widely,  tlie  doctrine  that  the  various  species  of 


living  beings  were  immediately  and  directly  created 
or  produced  by  God,  and  are  not  therrfore  the  outcome 
of  an  evolutionary  process.  It  is  thus  opposed  to 
TninsfonniBm. 

(3)  In  a  restricted  but  more  usual  sense,  the  doc- 
trine that  the  individual  human  soul  is  the  immediate 
effect  of  God's  creative  act.  It  is  thus  opposed  to 
Tradudaiilsm.  Tte  first  two  acceptations  of  the 
term  are  treated  in  the  article  Creation;  the  third 
alone  is  here  considered.  The  proposition  that  the 
human  soul  is  immediately  created  by  God  is  a 
corollary  of  the  soul's  spirituality.  Certain  psychical 
phenomena,  viz.  intellectual  and  volitional — espe- 
cially when  these  regard  immaterial  objects — vindicate 
that  their  radical  principle  subsists  essentially  and 
intrinsically  independent  of  the  purely  corporeal 
organism.  This  transmaterial  subsistence  supposes  a 
corresponding  mode  of  origin;  for  that  l^e  soiil  must 
have  nad  a  beginning  follows  obviously  from  its 
finitude  and  contingency.    That  origin  cannot  be: 

(a)  by  way  of  emanation  from  God,  as  Pantheists 
declare,  since  the  Divine  substance,  being  absolutely 
simple,  cannot  be  subject  to  any  emissional  process; 

(b)  nor  by  spiritual  generation  from  the  souls  of  par- 
ents— as  the  German  theologian  Frohschammer  (1821- 
1893)  maintained — because  human  souls,  being  essen- 
tially and  integrally  simple  and  indivisible,  can  give 
forth  no  spiritual  germs  or  reproductive  dements: 

(c)  still  less  by  physical  generation  (as  corporeal 
Traducianists  suppose),  since  such  a  mode  of  produc- 
tion plainly  conflicts  both  with  the  essential  simplicity 
and  the  spirituaUtv  of  the  soul.  The  only  other 
intelligible  source  of  the  soul's  existence  is  God;  and 
since  the  characteristic  and  exclusive  act  of  the 
Divine  C&vae  is  creation  (q.  v.),  the  soul  must  owe  its 
origin  to  that  operation. 

As  regards  tne  tiine  when  the  individual  soul  is 
created,  philosophical  speculation  varies.  The  an- 
cient Platonic  doctrine  of  the  pre-natal  existence  of 
souls  and  their  subsequent  incarceration  in  bodies 
may  be  passed  over  as  poetic  fiction  and  not  scientific 
theory.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  ancient  hy- 
pothesis of  transmigration,  which,  however,  still 
survives  in  Buddhism  and  is  revived  by  recent  Theos- 
ophy.  Besides  being  entirely  gratuitous,  met^npenr- 
chosis  rests  on  a  false  view  which  conceives  of  body 
and  soul  as  only  accidentally,  not  essentially,  com- 
bined in  the  unit^  of  the  human  person.  The 
traditional  philosopny  of  the  Church  holds  that  the 
rational  soul  is  created  at  the  moment  when  it  is 
infused  into  the  new  oiganism.  St.  Thomas,  follow- 
ing Aristotle's  embryomgy,  taught  that  the  hunian 
foetus  passes  through  progressive  stages  of  formation 
wherein  it  is  successively  animated  by  the  vegetative, 
sensitive,  and  rational  principles,  each  succeeding 
form  summing  up  virtually  the  potencies  of  its  prede- 
cessor. Accordingly,  the  rational  soul  is  createa  when 
the  antecedent  principles  of  life  have  rendered  the 
foetus  an  appropriate  organism  for  rational  life, 
though  some  time  is  required  after  birth  before  the 
sensory  organs  are  sufficiently  developed  to  assist 
in  the  functions  of  intelligence.  In  this  view  the 
embryonic  history  of  man  is  an  epitome  of  the  stages 
through  which  the  upward  maroh  of  life  on  our  globe 
is  now  held  by  palseontologists  to  have  passed.  On 
the  other  hand,  most  neo-Scholastics  hold  that  the 
rational  soul  is  created  and  infused  into  the  incipient 
human  being  at  the  moment  of  conception.  It  should 
be  noted  that  the  doctrine  of  Creationism  is  not  an 
appeal  to  the  supernatural  or  the  '' miraculous"  to 
account  for  a  natural  effect.  The  creation  of  the 
soul  by  the  First  Cause,  when  second  causes  have 
posited  the  pertinent  conditions,  falls  within  the 
order  of  nature;  it  is  a  so-called  "law  of  nature",  not 
an  interference  therewith,  as  is  the  case  in  a  miracle. 

So  much  for  the  philosophical  or  purely  rational 
aspect  of  Creationism;  as  regards  the  theological,  it 


OBCDXirOK 


476 


should  be  noted  that  while  none  of  the  Fathers  main-  IX  (1050),  in  the  eymbol  presented  to  the  Bishop 

tained  Traducianism — the  parental  generation  of  the  Peter  for  subscription,  lays  down:    ''I  be^ye  and 

soul — as  a  certainty,  some  of  them,  notably  St.  Augus-  profess  Uiat  the  soul  is  not  a  part  of  God«  but  is 

tine,  at  the  outbreak  of  Pelagianism,  began  to  doubt  created  out  of  noUiing,  and  that,  without  baptisiii,  it 

the  creation  by  God  of  the  individusi  soul  (there  was  is  in  ordinal  sin"  (Denzinger,  Enchir.,  a.  296).     That 


never  any  doubt  as  to  the  created  origin  of  the  souls 
of  Adam  and  Eve),  and  to  incline  to  the  opposite 
opinion,  which  seemed  to  facilitate  the  explanation 
of  the  transmission  of  original  sin. 
Thus,  writing  to  St.  Jerome,  St. 
Augustine  says:  ''If  that  opinion  of 
the  creation  of  new  souls  is  not  op- 
posed to  this  established  article  of 
faith  [sc.  original  sin]  let  it  be  also 
mine;  if  it  is,  let  it  not  be  thine" 
(Ep.  clxvi,  n.  25).  Theodorus  Abucara 
(Opusc.  xxxv),  Macarius  (Hom.xxx), 
and  St.  Gr^ory  of  Nyssa  (De  Opif., 
Hom.,  c.  xxix)  favoured  this  view. 
Amongst  the  Scholastics  there  were 
no  defenders  of  Traducianism.  Hugh 
of  St.  Victor  (De  Sacr.,  VII,  c.  xu) 
and  Alexander  of  Hales  (Summa, 
I,  Q.  Ix,  mem.  2,  a.  3)  alone  char- 
acterize Creationism  as  the  more 
probable  opinion;  all  the  other 
Schoolmen  hold  it  as  certain  and 
differ  only  in  regard  to  the  censure 
that  should  be  attached  to  the  op- 
posite error.  Thus  Peter  Lom bard  simply  says :  *'  The 
Catholic  Church  teaches  thet  souls  are  created  at 
their  infusion  into  the  bodv"  (Sent.  II,  d.  xviii);  while 
St.  Thomas  is  more  emphatic:  '' It  is  heretical  to  say 
that  the  intellectual  soul  is  transmitted  by  process 
of  generation"   (I,  Q.  oxviii,  a.  2).     For  the  rest, 


LoasNzo  Di  Cbedi  (By  himself) 


the  soul  sinned  in  its  pre-exist«it  state,  and  oo  that 
account  was  incarcerated  in  the  bodv,  is  a  fiction 
which  has  been  repeatedly  condemned  by  the  Church. 
Divested  of  this  fiction,  tiie  theory 
that  the  soul  exists  prior  to  its  in- 
fusion into  the  organism,  while  not 
exphcitly  reprobated,  is  obviouflly 
opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Churdiy 
according  to  which  souls  are  multi- 
plied correspondingly  with  the  multi- 
pUcation  of  ouman  oi^ganisms  (Cone. 
Lat.  V,  in  Denzinger,  op.  cit.,  621). 
But  whether  the  rational  soul  ia 
infused  into  the  oiganism  at  concep- 
tion, as  the  modem  opinion  holds,  or 
some  weeks  subseouenUy,  as  the 
Scholastics  suppose  (St.  Thomas,  Q.  i 
a.  2,  ad  2),  is  an  open  question  with 
theologians  (Kleutgen,  l%il.  d.  Vor- 
zeit,II,657).  (See£UsoMAN;MirrBic- 
FSTCHOsis;  Soul;  Traducianism.) 

Mahkr,  Psveholom  (New  York,  1908); 
MiVART,  Orioin  of  Human  Rtaton  (Lon« 
don,    1880):    Driscoll.    7^  Soul  (Ncrvr 
York,  1808):     Mbrcibr.    La  PtyeMogia 
(Lou vain,  1005);  Gotbeblbt,  Ptytholoqi^  (Munich,  ISiM). 

F.   P.   SlEOFRIXD. 


Oredence  (or  Credence-Table). — ^A  small  table  of 
wood,  marble,  or  other  suitable  material  placed  within 
the  sanctuary  of  a  church  and  near  the  wall  at  the 


the  following  citation  from  the  Angelic  Doctor  sums  Epistle  side,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  eruets, 
up  the  diverse  opinions:  ''Regarding  this  question  acolytes'  candles,  and  other  utensib  required  for  the 
various  opinions  were  expressed  in  antiquity.    Some     celebration  of   the  Holy  Sacrifice.    The  credence. 


held  that  the  soul  of  the 
child  is  produced  by  the 
soul  of  the  parent  just 
as  the  body  is  generated 
by  the  parent-body. 
Others  maintained  that 
aU  souls  are  created  apart, 
moreover  that  they  are 
united  with  their  respec- 
tive bodies,  either  by 
their  own  voUtion  or  by 
the  conunand  and  action 
of  God.  Others,  again, 
declared  that  the  soul  in 
the  moment  of  its  crea- 
tion is  infused  into  the 
body.  Though  for  a  time 
these  several  views  were 
upheld,  and  though  it 
was  doubtful  which  came 
nearest  the  truth  (as  ap- 
pears from  Augustine's 
commentary  on  Gen.,  x, 
and  from  his  books  on 
the  origin  of  the  soul), 
the  Church  subsequently 
condemned  the  first  two 
and  approved  the  third" 
(De  Potentid,  Q.  iii,  a. 
9).  Others  (e.  g.  Greg- 
ory of  Valencia)  speak  of  Generationism  as  "cer- 
tainly erroneous",  or  (e.  g.  Estius)  as  maxime 
temerarius.  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that  while 
there  are  no  such  explicit  definitions  authoritatively 
put  forth  by  the  Church  as  would  warrant  our  calling 
the  doctrine  of  Creationism  de  fidCf  nevertheless,  as  a 
recent  eminent  theologian  observes,  "there  can  be  no 
doubt  as  to  which  view  is  favoured  by  ecclesiosticfd 
authority"  (Peech,  Pnel.  Dogm.,  V,  3,  p.  66).    Leo 


properly  so  called^  is  con- 
templated only  m  con- 
nexion with  solemn 
Masses;  on  it  the  chalice, 
paten,  coiporal,  and  veil 
are  placed  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Mass  until 
the  Offertory.  When  a 
bishop  celebrates,  it 
should  be  of  larger  dimen- 
sions than  usual,  the  ordi- 
nary size  being  about 
forty  inches  long,  twenty 
broad,  and  &irtv-six 
high.  On  verv  solemn 
festivals  it  should  be 
covered  with  a  linen 
cloth  extending  to  the 
ground  on  all  sides,  on 
less  solemn  occasions  the 
doth  should  not  extend 
so  far,  while  on  days  of 
simple  rite  it  should  mere- 
ly cover  the  superficies. 
For  low  Masses  the  ru- 
bricscontemplatc  a  niche 
or  bracket  in  the  wall,  or 
some  small  arrangement 
for  holding  the  cruets, 
fingei^bowi,  and  towd, 
but  custom  now  favours  the  use  of  a  credence-table. 

Cctremoniale  Epitcoporum,  I,  xii  sq.;  Ruhr.  Oen.  Miu.,  XX; 
Van  deb  Stappen,  De  Misaa  CeMtrtUione  (Mechlin,  1902). 

Patrick  Morrisrob. 

Oredi,  Lorenzo  di,  Florentine  j^ainter,  b.  at  Flor- 
ence, 1459;  d.  there^  1537.  Vasan  eives  his  family 
name  as  Sciarpelloni,  but  his  original  name  seems  to 
have  been  Barducci.    He  was  a  pupil  first  of  the 


The  Holt  FAMiiiT — Lorenso  di  Oedi 


OBSDITOB 


477 


ffoldsmith  Credi,  from  whom  be  took  his  name,  and 
then  of  the  sculptor  Verrocchio.  having  as  fellow- 
pupils  Pemgino  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  To  the  latter 
pamter  Lorenzo  attached  himself  in  terms  of  friendship, 
and  he  copied  the  manner  of  Leonardo  with  great  suo- 
oeas.  Wnen  Verrocchio  went  to  Venice  to  cast  the 
bronze  equestrian  statue  of  CoUeoni,  he  left  to  L<»^nzo 
the  entire  administration  of  all  his  affairs,  and  in  his 
will  charged  him  to  complete  the  statue,  which  he 
had  been  unable  to  finish,  adding  the  following  re- 
mark: ''Because  he  has  the  ability  to  finish  it  prop- 
erly". Leonardo  was,  however,  instructed  by  the  Vene- 
tians to  complete  the  figure.  Di  Credi  was  a  devout 
follower  of  Savonarola  and  a  man  of  deepl^r  religious 
character.  He  was  an  eminent  portrait-painter,  and 
his  religious  pictures  were  in  great  demand  for  the 
churches  and  convents  of  Florence  and  the  neighbour- 
hood. One  of  the  finest  is  at  Pistoja,  ori^nallv  painted 
for  the  hospital  of  the  Ceppo.  The  portrait  of  Verrocchio 
is  at  Florence.  Other  examples  are  at  Berlin,  Dresden, 
London,  Paris,  Ilome,^and  Turin.  They  are  all  remark- 
able for  their  magnificence  of  colour,  exquisite  compo- 
sition, but  extraordinary  rigidity  of  drapery,  the  folds 
having  the  appearance  of  metal  work  m  many  cases 
and  revealing  the  ori^nal  training  as  a  goldsmith 
which  the  artist  received.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
seventy-ei^t  in  his  own  house  in  Florence,  near 
Santa  Mana  Nuova,  and  was  buried  in  San  Pietro 
Maggiore.  A  little  while  before  his  death  he  be- 
queathed to  the  hospital  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  a 
farm  which  he  had  purchased  at  Casciano.  He  was 
said  to  have  been  a  very  slow  painter,  but  took 
immense  pains  in  the  execution  of  all  hie  did,  pre- 
pared and  ^und  all  his  own  colours,  and  finishecl  his 
paintings  with  exquisite  refinement  and  care. 

Vasari,  ViU  del  piUori  (1550) ;  Bottari,  Note  alls  vile  deipit- 
tori  (Rome,  1767-72) ;  Idem.  LeUere  PiUoHch^  (Rome,  1754-59) ; 
Idkii ,  Diawghi  (Lucca,  1754);  unpublished  mss.  of  Oretti  at 
Bologna;  Bbtan,  Diet,  of  Paintera  and  Engraven  (New  York, 
London,  19()3);    Burlington  Fxnb  Arts  Club,  Catalogues. 

Georob  Charles  Williamson. 
Cfareditor,    See  Debt. 

Oree  fa  contraction  of  Gristing  or  Kenisteno, 
their  Ojibwa  name,  of  uncertain  meaning;  they  com- 
monly call  themselves  simply  Eythinyuwuk,  men\ 
the  largest  and  most  important  Indian  tribe  of  Can- 
ada, and  one  of  the  largest  north  of  Mexico.  They 
are  a  part  of  the  great  Algonquian  stock  and  closelv 
related  to  their  southern  nei^ibours,  the  Ojibwa,  al- 
though only  remotel V  cognate  to  the  Blackf eet,  farther 
to  the  west.  Until  confined  to  reservations  their 
various  bands  held  most  of  the  extensive  territory 
about  Lakes  WinnipNeg  and  Manitoba,  the  lower  Red 
and  Saskatchewan  rivers,  and  eastward  to  the  coun- 
try of  the  Maskegon  about  Hudson  Bay.  from  whom 
they  are  hardly  to  be  distinguished.  Most  of  their 
former  territonr  is  now  included  in  the  Canadian 
provinces  of  Manitoba,  Assiniboia.  and  Saskatche- 
wan. Their  chief  alliance  was  with  the  Assiniboin; 
their  wars  were  with  the  Sioux.  Blackfeet,  and  north- 
em  Tinneh  tribes.  With  both  French  and  English 
they  have  generally  been  on  friendly  terms.  When 
first  known  to  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  about  the  year 
1650,  the  Cree  lived  farther  to  the  south-east,  but, 
on  obtaining  fire-arms  from  the  English  trading-posts 
established  on  Hudson  Bay  some  twenty  years  later, 
they  push.ed  out  into  the  ooen  plains  in  pursuit  of  the 
bimalo.  They  drove  the  Blackfeet  before  them,  and 
at  the  same  time  began  a  war  of  invasion  and  extermi- 
nation against  the  weaker  Tinneh  tribes,  as  far  even 
as  the  iSeickenzie  River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
A  great  small-pox  epidemic  in  1781  so  far  reduced 
theur  numbers  that  they  retired  south  of  Churchill 
River,  which  has  since  remained  the  extreme  limit  of 
their  claims  in  that  direction. 

In  physique  and  intelligence  the  Cree  do  not  differ 
markedly  from  the  general  Indian  type,  but  are  per- 


haps slightly  below  the  general  "plains''  standaid 
Mackensie,  who  knew  them  before  they  had  been 
greatly  modified  by  contact  with  the  whites,  describes 
them  (1790)  as  naturalljr  generous,  good-tempered, 
and  honest.  Their  primitive  weapons  and  utensils 
were  fashioned  from  stone,  bone,  and  horn.  They 
used  the  canoe  of  birch-bark  and  the  tipi  of  buffalo 
skins.  They  had  no  agriculture  or  pottery  art,  but 
their  women  were  expert  skin-dressers  and  workers 
in  porcupine  quills.  For  their  food  they  depended 
upon  fishing,  hunting,  and  the  gathering  of  wild  roots 
and  fruits.  Wild  plums  and  cherries  were  poimded, 
dried,  and  preserved  in  rawhide  bags  or  boxes.  Buf- 
falo meat  was  cut  into  strips,  and  dried  in  the  sun  for 
immediate  use,  or  was  pounded,  covered  with  melted 
o^ase,  and  kept  in  skin  bags  as  pemmican  for  winter. 
Two  pounds  of  this  was  a  sufficient  day's  ration  for  a 
man.  Their  clothing  was  of  dressed  skins  ;^  their  orna- 
mentation and  style  of  hair-cut  varied  in  different 
bands.  Their  dead  were  buried  in  the  ground  under 
a  mound  of  stones,  instead  of  being  plarod  upon  scaf- 
folds or  in  the  branches  of  trees,  as  was  done  by  the 
Sioux  and  others.  In  accord  with  general  Indian 
custom,  the  personal  belongings  of  the  deceased  were 
buried  with  nim  or  destroyed  near  the  grave.  Polyg- 
amy was  common,  and  a  man  might  marry  two 
sisters  at  once  from  the  same  family.  There  was  no 
trace  of  the  clan  system,  as  known  among  the  eastern 
and  southern  tribes.  They  sacrificed  to  a  number  of 
gods,  their  principal  myths  centring  about  a  super- 
natural hero  called  Wisukatcak.  They  were  also  great 
believers  in  conjurations  and  witchcraft,  and  had  an 
influential  order  of  priesthood  in  four  degrees.  Their 
great  reUgioiis  ceremony  was  the  annual  Sun  Dance. 
Their  two  main  divisions  were  distinguished  as  Wood 
and  Plain  Cree,  each  of  which  was  again  subdivided 
into  bands  differentiated  by  slight  peculiarities  of 
dialect  and  custom.  With  these  were  sometimes  in- 
cluded the  Maskegon,  under  the  name  of  Swampy 
Cree,  On  account  of  the  wide  extent  of  their  formel 
range  the  early  estimates  of  Cree  population  vary 
greatly.  They  number  now  about  15,000,  of  whom 
nearly  two-thirds  are  located  upon  reservations  in 
Manitoba. 

The  earliest  missionaries  in  the  Cree  country  were 
the  French  Jesuits,  who  accompanied  the  commander 
Verendrye  in  his  explorations  of  the  Saskatchewan 
and  Missouri  River  region  from  1731  to  1742.  Chief 
among  these  were  Fatners  Nicholas  Connor,  Charles 
Mesaiger,  and  Jean  Aulneau.  No  attempt  was  made 
at  this  time  to  found  permanent  mission  settlements, 
and  the  work  thus  begun  was  allowed  to  lapse  in  con- 
sequence of  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  from  Can- 
ada until  after  the  establishment  of  the  Red  River 
colony  by  Lord  Selkurk.  In  1818  Fathers  Joseph 
Norbert  Provencher  and  S^vdre  Dumoulin  established 
the  first  regular  mission  station  at  Saint  Boniface, 
opposite  the  present  city  of  Winnipeg.  In  1822  Father 
Provencher  was  made  bishop,  with  jurisdiction  over  all 
of  Rupert's  Land  and  the  Northwest  Territories,  and 
at  once  proceeded  to  organise  a  systematic  mission 
work  throughout  the  whole  vast  region.  Upon  his 
death  in  1853  he  was  succeeded  by  the  noted  Oblate 
Father  Alexander  Tach^,  who  had  come  out  eight  years 
before.  Among  other  distinguished  workers  in  the 
same  field,  all  Oblates,  may  to  noted  Father  Albert 
Lacombe,  author  of  a  monumentrJ  grammar  and  dic- 
tionary of  the  Cree  language,  besides  a  number  of  re- 
ligious and  other  translations;  Father  Valentin  V^gr6- 
vule,  founder  of  five  missions,  and  author  of  a  manu- 
script grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  language; 
Father  Jean  Thibault;  and  Father  Emile  Petitot, 
better  known  for  his  great  work  among  the  remote 
Tinneh  and  Eskimo  tribes.  The  Fathers  were  assisted 
by  sisters  of  the  Order  of  Gray  Nuns.  Protestant  work 
was  begun  by  the  Episcopalian  Rev.  John  West,  as 
chaplain  for  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  1820,  th« 


ORSSD 


478 


ORBBD 


Wesleyan  Meiho<ii8t«  and  Prcsbyterisinfl  coming  later. 
Phe  most  distinguished  Protestant  worker  was  the 
Wesleyan  Rev.  James  Evans  (1840-1861),  inventor 
of  the  Cree  syllabary,  which  for  half  a  century  has 
been  in  successful  use  in  the  tribe  for  literary  pur- 
poses by  all  denominations.  Of  the  whole  number 
of  Cree  officially  reported  as  Christian  the  majority 
are  Catholic  and  rank  high  ui  morality. 

Bbtce.  Hudaon'a  Bay  Co.  (1900);  Canadian  Indian  Reporle; 
Thwaites,  JeauU  Relations  (aeveland,  1896-1901);  LA.ooifBK, 
Diet,  dea  Cria  (1874):  Mackenzie,  Vcyages  (1802);  MacLban, 
Canadian  Savage  Fdk  (1896);  Pbtitot,  in  Journal  Roy.  Geog, 
Soc  (1883);  Pxluno,  BOA.  of  the  Aloon^ian  Lanouaoea  (1891); 
RlCHABDSON,  Arctic  Expedition  (1851). 

James  Moonet. 

Oreed  (Lat.  credo,  I  believe),  in  ^neral,  a  form  of 
belief.  Tlie  word,  however,  as  applied  to  religious  be- 
lief has  received  a  variety  of  meanings,  two  of  which 
are  specially  important.  (1)  It  signifies  the  entire 
body  of  beliefs  held  by  the  adherents  of  a  given  religr 
ion ;  and  in  this  sense  it  is  equivalent  to  doctrine  or  to 
faith  where  the  latter  is  used  in  its  objective  meaning. 
Such  is  its  signification  in  expressions  like  "the  con- 
flict of  creeds",  ''charitable  work  irrespective  of 
creed ' ',  "  the  ethics  of  conformity  to  creed  * ',  etc.  (2) 
In  a  somewhat  narrower  sense,  a  creed  is  a  summarv 
of  the  principal  articles  of  faithprofessed  by  a  church 
or  a  commimity  of  believers.  Tnus  by  the  "  creeds  of 
Christendom"  are  understood  those  formulations  of 
the  Christian  faith  which  at  various  times  have  been 
drawn  up  and  accepted  by  one  or  the  other  of  the 
Christian  churches.  The  Latins  designate  the  creed 
in  this  sense  by  the  name  symbolum,  which  means 
either  a  sign  {a^f/^\op)  or  a  collection  (vvfifioMj),  A 
creed,  then,  would  be  the  distinctive  mark  of  those 
who  hold  a  given  belief,  or  a  formula  made  up  of  the 
principal  articles  of  that  belief.  A  "profession  of 
faith"  is  enjoined  by  the  Church  on  special  occasions, 
as  at  the  consecration  of  a  bishop;  while  the  phrase 
"confession  of  faith"  is  commonly  applied  to  Protes- 
tant formularies,  such  as  the  "Augsburg Confession", 
the  "Confession  of  Basle",  etc.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  Rule  of  Faith  is  not  identical  with 
creed,  but,  in  its  formal  signification,  means  the  norm 
or  standard  by  which  one  ascertains  what  doctrines 
are  to  be  believed. 

The  principal  creeds  of  the  Catholic  Church,  the 
Apostles',  Athanasian,  and  Nicene,  are  treated  in  spe- 
cial articles  which  enter  into  the  historical  details  and 
the  content  of  each.  The  liturgical  use  of  the  Creed  is 
also  explained  in  a  separate  article.  For  the  present 
purpose  it  is  chiefly  important  to  indicate  the  function 
of  tne  creed  in  the  life  of  religion  and  especially  in  the 
work  of  the  Catholic  Church.  That  the  teachings  of 
Christianity  were  to  be  cast  in  some  definite  form  is 
evidently  implied  in  the  commieeion  given  the  Apos- 
tles (Math,  xxviii,  19-20).  Since  thgr  were  to  teach 
all  nations  to  observe  whatsoever  Cnrist  had  com- 
manded, and  since  this  teaching  was  to  carry  the 
weight  of  authority,  not  merely  of  opinion,  it  was 
necessary  to  formulate  at  least  the  essential  doctrines. 
Such  formulation  was  the  more  needful  because  Chris- 
tianity was  destined  for  all  men  and  for  all  ages.  To 
preserve  unitv  of  belief,  the  first  requisite  was  to  have 
the  belief  itself  quite  clearly  stated.  The  creed,  there- 
fore, is  ftmdamentally  an  authoritative  declaration  of 
the  truths  that  are  to  be  believed. 

The  Church,  moreover,  was  organized  as  a  visible 
society  (see  CnimcH).  Its  members  were  called  on  not 
only  to  hold  fast  the  teaching  they  had  received,  but 
also  to  express  their  beliefs.  As  St.  Paul  says:  "  With 
the  heart  we  believe  unto  justice ;  but,  with  the  mouth, 
confession  is  made  unto  salvation"  (Romans,  x,  10). 
Nor  is  the  Apostle  content  with  vague  or  indefinite 
statements;  he  insists  that  his  followers  shall  "hold 
the  form  of  sound  words  which  thou  hast  heard  of  me 
in  faith"  (11,  Tim.  i,  13),  "*  embracing  that  faithful  word 
which  is  according  to  doctrine,  that  he  [the  bishop] 


may  be  able  to  exliort  in  sound  doctrine  and  to  < 
vince  the  gainsayers"  (Titus  i,  0).  Hence  we  can 
understand  that  a  profession  of  faith  was  reqinred  of 
those  who  were  to  oe  baptized,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
eunuch  (Acts  viii,  37);  in  fact,  the  baptismal  formula 
prescribed  by  Christ  himself  is  an  expression  of  faith 
m  the  Blessed  Trinity.  Apart  then  from  the  questioii 
regarding  the  composition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  it  is 
clear  that  from  the  b^inning,  and  even  before  the 
New  Testament  had  been  written,  some  doctrinal  for- 
mula, however  concise,  would  have  been  ^nplqyed 
both  to  secure  uniformity  in  teaching  and  to  place  oe- 
yond  doubt  the  belief  of  those  who  were  admitted  into 
the  Church. 

Along  with  the  diffusion  of  Christianitv  there  sprazug 
up  in  the  course  of  time  various  heretical  views  regarf 
ing  the  doctrines  of  faith.  It  thus  became  necessanrto 
define  the  truth  of  revelation  more  cleariy.  The 
creed,  in  consequence,  underwent  modification,  not  by 
the  introduction  of  new  doctines,  but  by  an  expression 
of  the  traditional  belief  in  terms  that  left  no  room  for 
error  or  misunderstanding.  In  this  way  the  **F11io- 
c^ue"  was  added  to  the  Nicene  Creed  and  the  Triden- 
tme  Profession  set  forti  in  full  and  definite  statements 
the  Catholic  Faith  on  those  points  especially  whidi  the 
Reformers  of  the  sixteenth  centtiry  nad  assailed.  At 
other  times  the  circumstances  required  that  special 
formulas  should  be  drawn  up  in  order  to  have  the 
teaching  of  the  Cliurch  explicit^  stated  and  accepted; 
such  was  the  profession  of  faith  prescribed  for  the 
Greeks  by  Gregory  XIII  and  that  which  Uxi>an  VIII 
and  Benedict  Al  V  prescribed  for  the  Orientals  (ct 
Denzinger,  Enchiridion).  The  creed  therefore,  is  to  be 
regardra  not  as  a  lifeless  formula,  but  rather  as  a  mani- 
festation of  the  Church's  vitality.  As  these  formulas 
preserve  intact  the  faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints, 
they  are  also  an  effectual  means  of  warding  off  the  in- 
cessant attacks  of  error. 

On  the  other  hand  it  should  be  remarked  that  the 
authoritative  promulgation  of  a  creed  and  its  accept- 
ance imply  no  infringement  of  the  rights  of  reason. 
The  mind  tends  naturally  to  express  itself  and  espe- 
cially to  utter  its  thought  in  the  form  of  language.  Such 
expression,  a^in,  results  in  greater  clearness  and  a 
firmer  possession  of  the  mental  content.  Whoever, 
then,  really  believes  in  the  truths  of  Christianity  can- 
not consistently  object  to  such  manifestation  of  nis  be- 
lief as  the  use  of  the  creed  implies.  It  is  also  obvious^ 
illogical  to  condemn  this  use  on  the  ground  that  it 
makes  religion  simply  an  affair  of  repeating  or  sub- 
scribing empty  formulas.  The  Church  insists  that  the 
internal  belief  is  the  essential  element,  but  thn  must 
find  its  outwafd  expression.  While  the  duly  of  be- 
lieving rests  on  each  individual,  there  are  further  ob- 
ligations resulting  from  the  social  organization  of  the 
Cfiurch.  Not  oiuy  is  each  member  obliged  to  reindn 
from  what  would  weaken  the  faith  of  ms  fellow-be- 
lievers; he  is  also  bound,  so  far  as  he  is  able,  to  uphold 
and  quicken  their  belief.  The  profession  of  his  faith 
as  set  forth  in  the  creed  is  at  once  an  object-lesson  in 
loyalty  and  a  means  of  strengthening  the  bonds  Tdiich 
unite  the  followers  of  Christ  in  "one  Lord,  one  faith, 
one  baptism." 

Such  motives  are  plainly  of  no  avail  where  the  selec- 
tion of  his  beliefs  is  left  to  the  individual.  He  may,  of 
course,  adopt  a  series  of  articles  or  propositions  and 
call  it  his  creed ;  but  it  remains  his  private  possession, 
and  any  attempt  on  his  part  to  demonstrate  its  cor- 
rectness can  only  result  in  disagreement.  But  the  at- 
tempt itself  woiud  be  inconsistent,  since  he  must  con- 
cede to  every  one  else  tiie  same  right  in  the  matter  of 
framing  a  creed.  Tlie  final  consequence  must  be, 
therefore,  that  faith  is  reduced  to  the  level  of  views, 
opinions,  or  theories  such  as  are  entertained  on  i>urely 
scientific  matters.  Hence  it  is  not  easy  to  explain,  on 
the  basis  of  consistency,  the  action  of  the  PR>testant 
Reformers.    Had  the  principle  of  private  judgment 


OBXED 


m 


(ttSBXft 


been  fully  and  strictly  carried  out,  the  formulation  of 
creeds  would  have  been  unnecessary  and,  logically, 
impossible.  The  subsequent  course  of  events  has 
shown  how  little  was  to  be  accomplished  by  confession 
of  faith,  once  the  essential  element  of  authority  was 
rejectedf.  From  the  inevitable  multiplication  of  creeds 
hafi  developed,  in  large  measure,  that  demand  for  a 
"creedless  Gospel"  which  contrasts  so  strongly  with 
the  claim  that  the  Bible  is  the  sole  rule  and  the  only 
source  of  faith.    (See  Dogbca,  Faith,  Protestantism.) 

Dbnzinobr,  Enchiridion  (FVeiburg.  lOOQ));  M6Hixn,  Symbol- 
inn,  XT.  (New  York.  1804) ;  Dunlop.  Account  of  All  the  End9 
and  Umb  of  Creeds  and  Confeaeiona  of  Faiths  etc.  (London, 
1724);  Btttler,  An  Historical  and  Literary  Account  of  the 
Formutariea,  ete.  (London,  1816) ;  Schapf,  A  History  of  the 
Creeds  of  Christendom  (London,  1878);  Grandiiaison, 
VElastictti  des  formtdes  ds  Foi  in  Etudes  1898;  Cjllxinb, 
Creeds  and  Tests  of  Church  Membership  in  Andover  Review 
p890),  13;  Stbrrbtt,  The  Ethics  of  Creed  Cenfomity  (1800), 

Georob  J.  Lucas. 

Oreed,  Liturgical  Use  of. — ^The  public  use  of 
creeds  began  in  connexion  with  baptism,  in  the  Trti- 
ditio  and  Redditio  symbolic  as  a  preparation  for  that 
sacrament,  and  in  the  preliminary  interrogations. 
This  use  is  found  as  early  as  the  "Canons"  of  Hippoly- 
tus  and  the  "  Catecheses  "  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and 
is  so  universal  as  to  be  probably  of  still  earlier  date.  (Cf . 
Acts,  viii,  37.)  The  recitation  of  the  NicsBO-Constanti- 
nopolitan  Creed  at  the  Eucharist  seems  to  have  begun, 
according  to  Theodore  the  Reader,  at  Antioch  under 
Peter  the  Fuller  in  471  (though  James  of  Edessa  says 
that  it  was  adopted  as  soon  as  it  was  composed),  and 
to  have  been  adopted  at  Constantinople  by  the  Patri- 
arch Timotheus  in  51 1 .  Both  intencled  to  protest,  as 
Monophysites,  apainst  Chalcedonian  "innovations", 
but  in  spite  of  this  heretical  origin  the  practice  spread, 
though  Rome  did  not  finally  ^opt  it  until  the  elev- 
enth century.  The  Nicene  Creed  is  the  only  one  in 
use  in  the  Eastern  Churches,  whether  Orthodox,  Mono- 
physite,  or  Nestorian,  or  in  the  corresponding  Uniat 
bodies,  though  the  East  Syrians,  both  Nestorian  and 
Uniat,  have  a  variant  of  their  own  (see  East  Syrian 
Rite)  which  may  have  been  originally  understood  in  a 
Nestorian  sense,  and  the  Copts  and  Abyssinians  have 
also  a  shortened  fortn  for  use  at  baptism.  The  Roman 
Rite,  besides  the  Nicene  Creed,  which  it  recites  only  at 
Mass,  uses  also  the  Apostles'  Creed  and  the  so-called 
Athanasian.  These  wiree  creeds  have  been  retained 
in  the  Anglican  Rite.  The  following  is  the  use  of 
Creeds  in  various  rites: — 

Baptism. — Roman:  Apostles'  Creed  in  full,  followed 
by  a  shortened  creed  in  interrogative  form. — Am- 
brosian,  GaJlicanf  and  Mozarabic:  nearly  the  same. — 
CdUc:  either  the  Apostles'  Creed  in  full  or  a  shortened 
form,  both  as  interrogatives. — Ariglicanf  complete 
Apostles'  Creed  in  interrogative  form. — Orthodox 
Eastern:  Nicene  Creed  in  fSl  in  the  preliminary 
e^xdl  «'t  tA  woi^ai  Karrixo^fJi^yoF. — West  Syrian  (Jaco- 
bite, Syrian  Uniat,  and  Maronite)  and  Armenian: 
Nicene  Creed  in  full. — EaM  Syrian:  variant  of 
Nicene  Creed  in  a  similar  position  to  that  which  it 
holds  in  the  Cucharist,  on  the  model  of  which  the  bap- 
tismal service  is  constructed. — Coptic  and  Mihiopic: 
a  short  confession  of  faith  in  the  Trmity,  the  Resurrec- 
tion, and  the  Church. 

Eucharist. — All  rites  use  the  Nicene  Creed,  though 
in  dififerent  positions,  as  part  of  the  declaration  of  fel- 
lowship (of  which  the  Kiss  of  Peace  is  another  part) 
with  wnich  the  Missa  Fidelium  begins.  This  aspect  is 
less  evident  in  Western  than  in  Eastern  rites,  owing  to 
removal  of  the  Paz  to  another  position.  The  positions 
are: — (1)  Immediately  after  the  Gospel:  Roman,  CeU 
tict  Anglican,  Armenian,  (2)  After  the  Offertory,  but 
quite  unconnected  with  the  Pax:  Amhrosian.  There 
is  good  reason  to  think  that  the  Ambrosian  Pax  origi- 
DaUy  came,  not  as  now  in  the  Roman  position,  but  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Offertory.  (3)  After  dismissal 
o'  catechumens  and  Offertoiy,  but  before  the  Pax: 


Coptic,  Greek  St.  James,  West  Syrian,  East  Syrian,  (4) 
After  dismissal.  Offertory  and  Pax:  Orthodox  Eastern 
(Byzantine),  Greek  St,  Mark,  (5)  After  the  Consecra- 
tion, during  the  Fraction:  Mozarabic.  This  last 
seems  to  follow  the  use  ordered  bv  the  Emperor  Justin 
at  Constantinople,  that  the  Creed  should  be  said  before 
the  Pater  Noster  at  Mass,  but  it  is  probably  of  much 
later  introduction. 

The  Divine  Office. — Roman:  Apostles'  Creed  at 
the  beginning  of  Matins  and  Prime,  ferially  with 
freces  in  the  course  of  Prime  and  Compline,  and  at  the 
end  of  Compline.  Athanasian  on  Sundays  at  Prime. 
The  eariiest  mention  of  this  is  in  the  "Capitulare''  of 
Hayto,  Bishop  of  Basle,  c.  820.  Many  Roman  deriva- 
tives (e.  g.  the  Sarum)  said  the  Athanasian  daily  at 
Prime.  The  monastic  rites  and  the  French  breviaries 
of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  mostly 
follow  the  Roman  practice. — Ambrosian:  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed  in  the  course  of  Prime  and  Compline,  the 
Athanasian  daily  at  Prime. — Mozardbic:  The  Nicene 
Creed  at  Prime  on  Sundays  and  festivals.  This  was 
ordered  by  the  Council  of  Toledo  of  689. — Celtic:  The 
Apostles'  Creed  is  given  with  the  Pater  Noster  in  the 
"Bangor  Antiphoner",  and  at  the  end  of  the  sketch 
service  in  the  "Book  of  Mulling",  but  there  is  no  evi- 
dence how  it  was  used. — Anglican:  The  Apostles' 
Creed  is  said  with  preoes  at  morning  and  evening 
prayer,  daily,  except  that  on  thirteen  fast-days 
(roughly,  once  a  month,  and  on  Trinity  Sunday) 
the  Athanasian  takes  its  place  at  morning  prayer. — 
Byzantine:  Nicene  Creed  at  the  Midnight  (Office 
{fut^ovuKTuchv)  after  the  Psalms,  except  on  Sundays, 
and  at  the  Little  Compline  {A,ir6leiirvop  fuKp6v)  after 
the  Great  Doxology. — East  Syrian:  Nicene  Creed  at 
the  end  of  the  mommg  and  evening  services. — Coptic: 
At  the  "Offering  of  the  Morning  Incense",  at  Lauds, 
Compline,  and  the  "Prayer  of  tne  Curtain", 

Other  uses  of  creeds  are:  The  Ambrosian  uses  either 
the  Apostles'  or  Athanasian  Oeed  in  the  "Ordo  Com- 
mendationis  Animae". — ^The  CeUic  used  either  the  fuU 
Apostles'  Creed  or  a  shortened  confession  of  faith  in 
the  Trinity,  eternal  life,  and  the  Resurrection  (both 
forms  are  found)  before  the  unction  of  the  sick. — ^The 
Anglican  uses  the  Apostles'  Creed  in  an  interrogative 
form  (as  at  baptism;  in  the  visitation  of  the  sick. — 
The  Mozarabic  introduces  a  threefold  repetition  of  a 
Spanish  variant  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  into  a  "Sermo 
ad  populum"  before  the  Epistle  at  Mass  on  Palm  Sun- 
day, which  is  the  ancient  Traditio  Symboli, — ^The  By- 
zantine  has  a  recitation,  fieya\o^i&ytJtf  of  the  Nicene 
Creed  in  answer  to  the  question,  jcaZ  rl  irurrc^cf;  at 
the  consecration  of  bishops.  This  is  followed  by  two 
more  elaborate  confessions  of  faith,  resembling  the 
"Interrogatio"  at  the  same  service  in  the  Roman 
Pontifical. — In  the  Roman  ordination  of  priests  the 
Apostles'  Creed  is  recited  just  before  the  Acdpe  Spiri- 
tum  Sanctum, — ^At  the  beginning  of  the  coronation  of 
the  Russian  emperor  he  is  required  to  recite  the  Nicene 
Creed  in  token  of  orthodoxy. 

Zaccaria^  BMiotheea  Ritualis  (Rome,  1776-81);  Swain- 
son,  The  Ntcens  and  Athanasian  Creeds  (London,  1805):  Mob- 
TXMBB,  The  Creeds  (London,  1002);   Denzingkr.  Ritus  Orienta- 


ft  urn,  Coptorutn,  Syrorum  et  Armenorum  in  administrandis 
Sacramentis  (Wtinburs,  1863-4);  Duchesne,  Orunnes  du  ctdte 
chritien  (Paris,  1002);  Briohtman,  Eastern  and  Western  Litur- 


gies  (Oxford,  1806);  Bishop,  The  Genius  of  the  Roman  Rite 
(London,  1800):  Marquess  or  Bute,  7^  Coptic  Morning  Ser- 
vice for  the  Lotas  Day  (London,  1882);  also  the  Seroiee  Books  of 
the  various  rites  mentioned.  HeNRT  JenNBR* 

Greed,  Nicenb.    See  Nicene  Creed. 

Greeks,  an  important  confederacy  of  Indian  tribes 
and  tribal  remnants,  chiefly  of  Muskogian  stock, 
formerly  holding  the  greater  portion  of  Central  and 
Southern  Georgia  and  Alabama,  but  now  settled  in 
Eastern  Oklahoma.  The  name  by  which  they  are 
commonly  known  was  originally  app>lied  not  to  the 
Indians,  but  to  their  home  territory,  i.  e.  "the  Creek 
Country".    The  dominant  tribe  is  the  Maskoki  (Mus- 


OBIIOHTON 


480 


orhohton 


eo0Be)|  who  constitute  about  one-half  of  the  whole 
body.  Besides  these  there  are  Hichitee,  Koasati,  and 
Yuciii,  each  with  a  distinct  language;  there  are  also 
sev^nl  smaller  broken  tribes.  The  Seminole,  too, 
are  orieinally  a  separated  band  of  Creeks.  According 
to  traoitional  and  linguistic  evidence,  the  Muscogee 
and  their  cosnate  tribes  had  in  ancient  times  lived 
west  of  the  MiBsLssippi  River,  but  thev  were  foimd 
settled  in  Georgia  and  Alabama  as  earlv  as  1540  by 
De  Soto,  who  crossed  their  territory  from  east  to 
west.  In  the  colonial  period  they  held  the  balance 
of  power  between  the  English  of  Carolina  on  the  one 
side  and  the  Spaniards  and  French  of  Florida  and 
Louisiana  on  the  other.  Their  most  constant  alliance 
was  with  the  English,  whose  traders  supplied  them 
with  guns,  and  it  was  chiefly  by  this  means  that  the 
English  accomplished  the  utter  destruction  of  the 
flourishing  Franciscan  missions  of  upper  Florida  in 
1702-^.  In  the  final  mroad,  1400  of  the  Christian- 
iced  mission  Indians  were  carried  ofif  and  distributed 
as  slaves  among  the  English  of  Carolina  and  their 
savage  allies.  This  unfortunate  outcome  of  more 
than  a  century  of  devoted  missionary  effort  was  due 
to  the  short-sighted  policy  of  the  Spaniards,  who  re- 
fused guns  to  their  own  Indians,  even  in  the  face 
of  threatened  invasion.  The  Creeks  adhered  to  the 
English  side  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  but  made 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  United  States  in  1790. 
English  instigation  in  the  War  of  1812  led  to  another 
war  with  the  Creeks  in  1813-14,  in  which  they  suf- 
fered such  heavy  losses  that  thev  were  obliged  to 
purchase  peace  by  the  surrender  of  half  their  remain- 
ing territory.  Other  land-cessions  followed  in  quick 
succession  until,  in  1832,  they  sold  their  last  acre  east 
of  the  Mississippi  and  were  removed  to  a  new  home 
in  the  Indian  Territory,  where  they  were  permitted 
to  organize  an  autonomous  government  under  the 
name  of  the  Creek  Nation.  In  1.906,  by  previous 
treaty  agreement,  this  Indian  ^vernment  wss  for- 
mall^r  dissolved,  the  Indians  being  admitted  to  citi- 
zen-rights and  their  country  incorporated  into  the 
new  State  of  Oklahoma.  They  number  now  about 
10,000  souls,  besides  half  as  many  more  "freedmen", 
descendants  .of  their  former  negro  slaves. 

In  their  old  homes  the  Creeks  were  a  sedentary 
and  agricultural,  but  brave  and  warlike,  people. 
Their  houses  were  well  constructed  of  logs,  and  their 
villages  were  regularly  built  around  a  central  sc^uare 
devoted  to  public  games  and  ceremonies,  chief  of 
which  was  the  great  annual  Buskita,  or  Creek  Com 
Dance,  when  every  fire  in  the  settlement  was  extin- 
guished and  solemnly  relisted  from  a  new  sacred 
fire  kindled  by  means  of  friction.  There  was  no  rec- 
ognized central  authority,  but  neighbouring  or  closely 
oomate  villages  commonly  acted  together.  They 
had  the  clan  system,  intermarriage  within  the  clan 
being  strictly  prohibited.  No  systematic  mission  work 
was  attempted  among  them  until  after  their  removal 
to  the  Territory,  when  a  beginning  was  made  by  the 
Presbyterians.  A  few  of  their  children  are  now 
attending  the  neighbouring  Catholic  mission  schools. 

Adair,  History  of  the  American  Indiana  (Loodon,  1776); 
Babcia,  Enaayo  chronolqgico  para  la  fUstoria  general  de  la 
Florida  (Madnd,  1723);  Bartram,  Travela  through  North  and 
South  Carolina  (Philadelphia,  1791);  Gatschet,  A  Migration 
Legend  of  the  Creek  Indiana  (2  vob..  Philadelphia,  1884;  St. 
Louis^  1888);  Hawkins.  A  Sketch  of  the  Creek  Country  (The 
Georgia  Hiatorical  Society,  Savannah,  1848);  Annual  Reporta 
cf  the  Commiaaioner  of  Indian  Affaira.     JamES  MooKET. 

O^elghton  Uniyersi^,  an  institution  located  at 
Omaha,  Nebraska,  U.  S.  A.,  and  conducted  by  the 
Jesuit  Fathers.  It  comprises  high  school  and  collie 
departments,  a  free  classical  day  colleee,  and  schods 
of  medicine,  dentistry,  pharmacy,  and  law.  The  fac- 
ulty numbered  104  members  in  1907-^.  There  is  no 
charge  for  tuition  in  the  high  school  and  college  de- 
partments. The  attendance  at  the  university  is 
about  800,  divided  among  the  different  departments 


as  follows:  Liberal  Arts.  360;  Medicine,  178;  Law,  51; 
Phannacy,  105;  Dentistry,  107.  The  Medical  Col- 
lege free  dispensary  treats  between  9000  and  4000 
annuallv;  the  Dental  College  Infirmary,  400  or  500. 
Creighton  Universitv  was  the  first  free  Cathc^ic  col- 
lege founded  in  the  United  States.  Edward  Creig^ 
ton,  after  whom  it  was  named,  had  proposed  during 
his  life  to  establish  a  free  school  for  higher  education, 
but  he  died  intestate,  before  making  provision  for 
carrying  out  his  project.  His  wife,  Mary  Lucietia 
Creighton,  inheriting  his  fortune,  determined  to  carry 
out  his  intention.  She  died  23  Jan.,  1876,  but  fa^ 
will  made  a  bequest,  which  in  the  settlement  <^  the 
estate  amounted  to  about  $200,000,  one-fourth  of 
which  was  devoted  to  the  groundis  and  building,  the 
balance  being  reserved  for  foundation.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  terms  of  this  will,  the  executors,  1  Juljr* 

1878,  conveyed  the  entire  property  and  securities  in 
trust  to  the  Rt.  Rev.  James  O'Connor,  Bishop  of 
Omaha.  On  27  February,  1879.  the  Le^gislature  of 
Nebraska  passed  an  act  to  provide  for  the  inooriwra- 
tion  of  universities  under  certain  circumstances.  The 
District  Court  then  permitted  Bishop  OX)onnor  to 
turn  over  his  trust  to  a  corporation  called  the  Crvadi- 
ton  University,  and  he  appointed  five  members  of  tiie 
Society  of  Jesus  as  the  Board  of  Trustees,  14  August, 

1879.  Creighton  College  as  such  was  not  incorporated 
and  the  name  merely  represented  what  was  1^  in 
trust  by  Mrs.  Creighton.  When  the  Creighton  Uni- 
versity accepted  the  trust,  the  endowment  fuzxl 
amounted  to  about  $147,500.  Mrs.  Sarah  Ehiily 
Creighton,  who  died  3  Sept.,  1888,  wife  of  John  A. 
Creighton,  bequeathed  to  Creighton  University  a  bua- 
ness  olock,  according  to  the  saine  terms  and  conditions 
as  were  designated  m  the  beouest  of  her  sister,  Mrs. 
Mary  Lucretia  Creighton.  During  1900  John  A. 
Creighton,  desirous  of  making  the  university  an  insti- 
tution fully  equipped  for  its  educational  work,  gener- 
ously offered  means  for  the  completion  of  the  coU^ 
buildings.  The  School  of  Medicine  was  founded  §0 
May,  1892,  and  the  School  of  Law  in  October,  1904. 
The  Edward  Creighton  Institute,  erected  in  1905,  is 
now  the  home  of  the  Law  Department.  The  Dental 
School,  opened  in  1905,  is  located  with  the  Law 
School.  The  School  of  Pharma^v,  a  distinct  depart- 
ment of  the  university  since  1  February,  1905,  took 
possession  of  its  splendidly  equipped  new  addition  to 
the  Medical  Building  in  September.  1908. 

Edward  Creighton  was  bom  31  Aug.,  1820,  in  Bel- 
mont County,  Ohio,  near  the  present  town  of  Banies- 
ville;  and  died  5  Nov.,  1874.  John  A  Creighton  was 
bom  15  Oct.,  1831,  in  Licking  County,  Ohio,  and  died 
7  Feb.,  1907.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Josej^'s  Col- 
lege, Somerset,  Ohio,  under  the  Dominican  Fathers, 
and  for  these  teachers  he  always  retained  a  feeling  of 
gratitude.  Thou^  desirous  of  becoming  a  civil  en- 
gineer, he  was  obl^ed  to  shorten  his  course  of  study  by 
the  necessity  of  earning  a  Uvelihood.  He  married 
Sarah  Emily  Wareham  of  Dayton;  and  her  sister, 
Mary  Lucretia,  became  the  wife  of  Eidward  Creighton. 
Both  these  men  were  remarkable  for  courage,  enter- 
prise, and  a  strong  sense  of  justice.  Jonn  was  one  of 
the  first  members  of  the  "Vigilance  Committee" 
which  effectually  freed  Montana  of  the  desperadoes 
who  made  life  and  property  insecure  in  that  territory. 
Both  also  made  their  start  in  life  by  constructing 
roads  and  tel^raph  lines  in  the  West  and  South ;  John 
was  moreover  actively  engaged  in  mining,  stock-rais- 
ing, and  investments  in  land.  He  left  by  will  large 
bequests  to  Crei^ton  University,  the  Creighton 
Memorial  Hospital  and  other  Catholic  institutions 
in  which  he  was  interested  during  life.  Though  these 
sums  were  somewhat  lessened  by  litigation  and  com- 
promise with  contestants,  the  university  received 
nearly  a  million  and  a  ouarter  dollars,  the  Hospital 
nearly  a  ouarter  of  a  million,  and  the  other  institu- 
tions smaller  amounts.    The  entire  rev^nue-produ^ 


fttlKtifiit 


481 


OUMATION 


hig  property  of  the  univereity  approximates  two  mil- 
lions and  a  quarter,  exclusive  of  its  buildings,  erounds 
and  equipment  The  hospital  takes  care  of  about 
2400  patients  a  year,  of  whom  more  than  half  are  non- 
Catholics,  and  one-third  absolutely  free.  John 
Creighton  was  honoured  by  Leo  XIII  with  die  order 
of  St.  Gregory  and  later  with  the  title  of  Count  of 
the  Papal  States.  In  1900  he  received  the  Lstare 
Medal  from  the  University  of  Notre  Dame. 

Reminiaeeneea  of  Crtiahtan  Univenitu;  CrtighUm  (biographi- 
cal sketches  of  the  family) — both  published  by  the  Univennty; 
Morton,  History  of  Nebraaka:  Savaox  and  j3bll»  History  cf 
Omaha:  Sorbnbbn,  History  of  Omaha:  the  annual  Catalogues 
and  other  publications  of  Creighton  University  and  the  annual 
niports  of  the  Creighton  Memorial  Hospital. 

M.   P.   DOWLINO. 

OreUer,  Hbnri-Josepr,  Swiss  Catholic  priest,  He- 
brew scholar  and  Biblical  exegete;  b.  at  Bure,  16 
October,  1816;  d.  at  Bres- 
sancourt,  France,  22  April, 
1889.  From  1845  to  1855 
he  was  professor  at  the  col- 
lege of  Porrentniy  (Swit- 
zerland) ;  later  he  became 
chaplain  of  the  Religious 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  at 
Besanoon,  France,  and  de- 
voted his  leisure  hours  to 
the  study  of  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture. He  was  subse- 
quently appointed  pastor 
of  the  church  of  Rebeuve- 
lier,  and  finally  of  Bres- 
sancourt,  where  he  died. 
He  left  many  works  on 
Sacred  Scripture,  some  of 
which  have  a  special  value. 
Among  these  we  note: 
''Lespsaumes  traduits  tit- 
t^ralement  sur  le  texte 
L4breu  avec  un  oommen- 
taire"  (Paris,  1858):  "Le 
livre  de  Job  veng6  aes  in- 
terpretations fausses  et 
impies  de  M.  £.  Kenan" 
(Paris,  1860);  "LeCanti- 
Ciue  des  canticjues  veng6 
des  interpretations  fausses 
et  impies  de  M.  E.  Renan" 
(Paris,  1861)  ;"M.  Renan 
cmerroyant  eontre  le  sur- 
iiaturel"  (Paris,  1863); 
''M.  E.  Renan  trahissant 
le  Christ  par  un  roman,'* 
etc.  (Paris,  1864).  To  the 
Bible" 


Cathbdbal  of  8.  Maria  Maooiobe,  Cbkma 


»».  xv^x^/.     «w  v^^   ''Commentaries  on  the 
aujm  ,  puolished  by  Lethielleux.  he  contributed  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  (1883),  Exodus  (1886),  Leviticus 
(1886),  Cenesis  (1889). 
Lbvcsqub  in  Vib.,  DicL  de  la  Bihle,  s.  v. 

R.  BUTIN. 

Orema,   Diocesb  of  (Cremxnbis),  suffragan  to    i^tt^a^  tivr><. 
Mian.    Crema  is  a  city  of  the  province  of  Crmnona,    race  and  the 

Lombardy,  Northern    Italy,  situated  between  the    ''^" ^" 

Rivers  Adda  and  the  Oglio,  in  a  marshy  region.  It 
was  built  by  inhabitants  of  various  cities  of  the  Insu- 
bres,  who  fled  thither  during  the  Lombard  invasion  of 
Italy.  Crema  fell  eventually  under  Lombard  rule 
and  shared  the  vicissitudes  of  that  monarchy.  Crema 
wu  one  of  the  first  cities  to  organize  as  a  commune. 
It  joined  the  Lombard  League,  and  was  therefore  de- 
stroyed, first  by  Frederick  Barbarossa  and  later  bv 
the  inhabitants  of  Cremona  and  Lodi.  It  afterwards 
acknowledged  the  rule  of  the  Torriani  and  of  the  Vis- 
conti  of  Milan,  for  a  while  also  that  of  the  Bemsoni. 
Finally  it  became  subject  to  the  Republic  of  Venice. 
It  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Lodi  until  1580,  when  it 
IV.— 31 


was  made  a  see  and  a  sufifragan  of  Milan.  Among  the 
most  noted  of  its  bishops  was  the  sealous  Marcan- 
tonio  Zolli.  The  diocese  has  a  population  of  58^000> 
with  53  parishes,  65  churches  ana  cnapels,  174  secular 
and  4  regular  priests,  1  religious  house  of  meki  and  7 
of  women. 

Capfkllbtti,  Ls  t^ieae  eT Italia  (Venice,  1857),  XII.  241-75; 
Arm.  ecd.  (Rome,  1907),  432-33;  Bahbiebi,  Compendia  erono- 
logico  ddla  ttoria  ai  Crema  (Crema,  188S). 

U.  Benioni. 

Oremation. — I.  History. — The  custom  of  burning 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  dates  back  to  very  eariy  times. 
The  Pre-Canaanites  practised  it  until  the  introduction 
of  inhumation  among  them  along  with  the  civilization 
of  the  Semitic  people  about  2600  b.  c.  History  re- 
veids  no  trace  of  incmeration  among  the  Jewish  people, 
except  in  extraordinary  circumstances  of  war  and  pes- 
tilence. It  was  likewise  unknown,  in  practice  at  least, 
to  the  Egvptians,  PhoBni- 
cians,  Carthaginians;  or  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Asia 
Minor-— the  Carians,  Lv- 
dians,  and  Phrygians.  Tne 
Babylonians,  aocordinff  to 
Herodotus,  embalmed  their 
dead ,  and  the  Persians  ptm- 
ished  capitally  such  as  at- 
tempted cremation,  special 
regulations  being  followed 
in  the  purification  of  fire  so 
desecrated.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  varied  in  their 
practice  according  to  their 
views  of  the  after  lite; 
those  who  believed  in  a 
future  existence  anaiogous 
to  the  present  buried  uieir 
dead,  even  leaving  food  in 
the  tomb  for  the  nourish- 
ment and  enjoyment  of 
the  departed;  such  as,  on 
the  other  hand,  held  the 
opinion  that  on  the  decay 
of  the  body  life  was  con- 
tinued in  the  shade  or 
image,  practised  crema- 
tion, the  more  expedi- 
tiously to  speed  the  dead  to 
the  land  of  shadows.  But 
the  practice  of  cremating 
never  entirely  supensedea 
what  Cicero 'tells  us  (De 
Leg.,  II,  xxii)  was  the  older 
rite  among  the  Roman  peo- 


ple. Indeed  the  Cornelian  gens,  one  of  the  most  cul- 
tured in  Rome,  had,  with  the  single  exception  of 
8ulla,  hever  permitted  the  burning  of  their  dead. 
By  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  Era,  owing  in 
great  part  to  the  rapid  progress  of  Christianity,  the 
practice  pf  cremation  had  entirely  ceased. 

The  Christians  never  burned  their  dead,  but  fol- 
lowed from  earliest  days  the  practice  of  the  Semitic 
de  of  their  Divine  Founder. 


It  is  recorded  that  in  times  of  persecution  many  risked 
their  lives  to  recover  the  bodies  of  martyrs  for  the 
holv  rites  of  Christian  burial.  The  pagans,  to  destroy 
faitn  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  often  cast  the 
corpses  of  martyred  Christians  into  the  flames,  fondly 
believing  thus  to  render  impossible  the  resurrection  of 
the  body.  What  Christian  faith  has  ever  held  in  this 
regard  is  deariy  put  by  the  third-centuiy  writer  Minu- 
cius  Felix,  in  his  dialogue  "Octavius' ,  refuting  the 
assertion  that  cremation  made  this  resurrection  an 
impossibility:  "Nor  do  we  fear,  as  you  suppose, 
any  harm  from  the  [mode  of]  sepulture,  but  we  aahere 
to  the  old,  and  better,  custom"  ("Nee,  ut  creditis, 
ullum  damnum  sepulturse  timemus  sed  veterem  et 


OSEMATION 


482 


OREMATION 


meliorem  oonsuetiuiineui  huiiiauUi  f rcqutiiitamiiB  " — 
P.  L.,  Ill,  362). 

II.  Church  Legislation. — (1)  In  ike  Middle  Ages, 
— ^In  idl  the  l^islation  of  the  Church  the  pladBg  of 
the  body  in  the  earth  or  tomb  was  a  part  of  Christian 
burial.  In  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Braga  (Har- 
douin,  III.  352),  in  the  year  563,  while  we  read  that 
bodies  of  the  dead  are  by  no  means  to  be  buried  within 
the  basilicas  where  rest  the  renlains  of  Apostles  and 
martyrs,  we  are  told  that  thev  may  be  buried  without 
the  wall;  and  that  if  cities  nave  long  forbidden  the 
interment  of  the  dead  within  their  walls,  with  much 
greater  rij^t  should  the  reverence  due  the  holy  mar- 
tins claim  this  privilege.  The  same  may  be  seen  in 
tne  canons  of  other  cotmeils — e.  g.  of  Nantes,  between 
the  seventh  and  ninth  centuries;  of  Mainz,  in  the 
ninth  century;  of  Tribur,  in  the  ninth  centuiy.  This 
legislation  evidently  supposes  the  long-standing  cus- 
tom of  burial  such  as  tne  Church  practises  to-day, 
and  i^ows  that  in  the  sixth  century,  in  other  places 
than  Rome,  where  even  to-day  the  old  law  of  the 
Twelve  Tables  exerts  a  moral  influence,  the  Church 
h)Eul  so  far  conquered  the  prejudice  of  the  past  as  to 
have  gained  the  privilege  of  burying  her  dead  within 
the  city  walls  and  within  the  enclosure  of  the  church- 
yard. Once  in  the  course  of  the  Middle  Ages  did 
there  seem  to  be  on  the  part  of  some  a  retrogression 
to  the  pagan  ideals,  and  ^s  a  consequence  Boniface 
VIII,  on  21  February,  1300,  in  the  sixth  year  of  his 
pontificate,  promulgated  a  law  which  was  in  substance 
as  follows:  They  were  ipso  facto  excommunicated  who 
disembowelled  bodies  of  the  dead  or  inhumanly  boiled 
them  to  separate  the  flesh  from  the  bones,  with  a  view 
to  transportation  for  burial  in  their  native  land. 
"Detestandae  feritatis  abusum'',  he  calls  it,  and  it 
was  practised  in  case  of  those  of  noble  rank  who  had 
died  outside  of  their  own  territory  and  had  expressed 
a  \fHsh  to  be  buried  at  their  place  of  birth.  He  speaks 
of  it  as  an  abomination  in  tne  sight  of  God  and  horri- 
fying to  the  minds  of  the  faithful,  decreeing  that, 
thereafter,  such  bodies  are  either  to  be  conveyed  whole 
to  the  spot  chosen  or  buried  at  the  place  of  death  un- 
til, in  the  course  of  nature,  the  bones  can  be  removed 
for  burial  elsewhere.  Those  who  were  party  to  these 
enormities  either  as  the  cause  or  a^nt  of  their  occur- 
rence were  to  incur  excommunication  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See,  while  the  body  thus  inhumanly  treated 
could  not  afterward  be  given  ecclesiastical  burial 
("Extrav.  Comm.",  Lib.  Ill,  Tit.  vi,  c.  i.). 

(2)  Decrees  of  Roman  Congregations. — This  rigid  ad- 
herence to  the  principles  of  the  early  teaching  of  the 
Church  may  be  seen  in  the  later  decrees  of  the  Roman 
Congregations.  The  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Vizagapatam, 
in  the  year  1884,  proposed  the  following  difficulty  to 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Propaganda:  The  bodies 
of  two  neophytes  had  been  cremated,  the  parents  tes- 
tifying that  there  had  been  no  idolatrous  ceremonies. 
Should  the  miasioneis  in  such  cases  protest  against 
what  is  considered  a  privilege  of  caste,  or  may  the 
following  present  practice  be  tolerated? — If  a  pagan 
seeks  baptism  at  the  hour  of  death,  the  missioner 
^nts  it,  without  questioning  what  mode  of  sepulture 
IS  to  be  given  the  body  after  death,  persuaded  that 
the  pagan  parents  will  make  no  account  of  his  desire 
to  be  buried,  not  cremated.  The  answer  was:  "You 
must  not  approve  of  cremation,  but  remain  passive  in 
the  matter  and  confer  baptism;  be  careful  also  to  in- 
struct your  people  according  to  the  principles  which 
you  set  forth"  (Cremationem  approhare  non  debes, 
sed  passive  te  habeas,  oollato  semper  baptismate,  et 
populos  instruendos  cures  juxta  ea  qu»  a  te  exponun- 
tur).  This  was  given  on  27  September,  1884.  In 
1886  another  decree  forbade  membership  in  cremation 
societies  and  declared  the  unlawfulness  of  demanding 
cremation  for  one's  own  body  or  that  of  another.  On 
15  December  in  the. same  year  a  third  decree  was 
issued  of  more  or  less  the  same  tenor,  and  finally  on 


27  July,  1892,  the  Archbishop  of  Froiburc.  among 
other  questions,  asked  whether  it  was  lawful  to  oo* 
operate  in  the  cremation  of  bodies  either  by  command 
or  counsel,  or  to  take  part  as  doctor,  ofiScial,  or 
labourer  working  in  the  crematory.  It  was  answered 
that  formal  co-operation',  the  assent  of  the  will  to  the 
deed,  is  never  allowed,  either  by  command  or  counsel. 
Material  co-operation,  the  mere  aiding  in  the  phjrsical 
act,  may  be  tolerated  on  condition  (1)  that  crematicm 
be  not  looked  upon  as  a  distinctive  mark  of  a  Masonic 
sect;  (2)  that  there  be  nothing  in  it  which  of  itself, 
directly  and  solely,  expresses  reprobation  of  Catholic 
doctrine  and  approbation  of  a  sect;  (3)  if  it  be  not 
clear  that  the  officials  and  others  have  been  ass^ed 
or  invited  to  take  part  in  contempt  of  the  Cawolic 
Religion.  And  whereas,  under  the  above  restrictions, 
co-operators  are  to  be  left  in  good  faith,  they  must 
always  be  warned  not  to  intend  co-operation  in  the 
cremation.  (See  "Collectanea  S.  C.  P.  F. *',  nn.  1608, 
1609;  "Acta  S.  Sedis'',  XXV,  63;  "Am.  Eccl.  Rev/', 
XII,  499.) 

(3)  Motives  of  this  Legidation, — ^The  legislation  of 
the  Church  in  forbidding  cremation  rests  on  strong 
motives ;  for  cremation  in  the  majority  of  cases  to-da^ 
is  knit  up  with  circumstances  that  make  of  it  a  public 
profession  of  irreli^on  and  materialism.  It  was  the 
Freemasons  who  mat  obtained  official  reoomition  of 
this  practice  from  various  governments.  Tlie  cam- 
paifip  opened  in  Italy,  the  first  attempts  being  made 
by  Brunetti,  at  Padua,  in  1873.  Numerous  societies 
were  founded  after  this,  at  Dresden,  Zurich,  London, 
Paris.  In  the  last  city  a  crematory  was  established 
at  P^re  LAchaise,  on  the  passing  of  the  law  of  1889 
dealing  with  freedom  of  luneral  rites.  The  Church 
has  opposed  from  the  beginning  a  practice  which  has 
been  used  chiefly  by  the  enemies  of  the  Christian 
Faith.  Reasons  based  on  the  spirit  of  Christian 
charity  and  the  plain  interests  of  humanity  have  but 
strengthened  her  in  her  opposition.  She  holds  it  un- 
seem^  that  the  human  body,  once  the  living  temple 
of  God,  the  instrument  of  heavenly  virtue,  sanctined 
so  often  by  the  sacraments,  should  nnallv  be  subjected 
to  a  treatment  that  filial  piety,  conjugal  and  fraternal 
love,  or  even  mere  friendship  seems  to  revolt  against 
as  inhuman.  Another  argument  against  cremation, 
and  drawn  from  medico-le^  sources,  lies  in  this:  that 
cremation  destroys  all  signs  of  violence  or  traces  of 
poison,  and  makes  examination  impossible,  whereas 
a  judicial  autopsy  is  alwa3rs  possible  after  inhumation, 
even  of  some  months. 

Is  cremation  a  sign  of  culture? — ^The  report  of  the 
French  Cremation  Society  for  1905  has  the  following: 
"There  exist  in  Europe  90  crematories  .  .  .  and 
the  number  of  incinerations  is  above  125,000."  In 
France  there  are  3  crematories,  in  the  United  States 
29,  in  Great  Britain  12,  in  Italy  30,  in  Germany  9,  in 
Switzerland  4,  in  Sweden  2,  in  Denmark,  Canada,  the 
Argentine  Republic,  Australia,  one  each.  "  Let  us  not 
number  here  the  appliances  of  Tokio,  let  us  not  speak 
of  the  pyres  raised  in  the  Indies,  in  China,  in  Siam,  in 
Cambogia,  at  all  points  of  the  Asiatic  Continent,  from 
time  immemorial  Asia  has  burned  her  dead."  At 
first  sight  125,000  seems  a  large  number;  but  a  glaaoe 
at  the  Paris  statistics  will  help  us  to  realise  its  true 
value.  From  1889  to  1905  there  were  73,330  crema- 
tions in  Pari^  Only  3484  were  by  request;  37,082 
were  hospital  debris;  32,757  were  embryos.  Of  the 
requestea  cremations  there  were  216  in  1894,  354  in 
1904 — an  increase  in  ten  years  of  138 — ^not  a  large 
number,  and  it>  serves  to  prove  that  even  Paris  is 
progressing  in  the  use  of  cremation  very  slowly  indeed. 

The  arguments  in  favor  of  cremation  may  be  re- 
duced to  a  few  heads:  (1)  it  wUl  prevent  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  soil ;  (2)  drinking  water  will  be  saf^iuarded 
against  contamination;  (3)  corruption  of  the  air  will 
be  avoided  in  localities  bordering  on  cemeteries,  with 
a  consequent  lessening  of  the  danger  of  infection  in 


ORIMOHA 


483 


ORXMONA 


times  of  epidemic.  In  answer  it  has  been  nxved  that 
cemeteries  are  not  a  cause  of  the  infection  of  the  air. 
In  any  well-ordered  cemetery  putrefaction  takes  place 
six  or  seven  feet  below  the  surface.  In  the  open  air, 
with  abundance  of  oxygen,  corruption  proceeds  more 
quickly,  with  continuous  dischai^  of  noxious  gases 
in  large  quantities  hi^y  deleterious  to  health,  but 
it  is  not  so  in  the  grave.  Mantegazza,  a  celebrated 
bacteriologist,  Yiaa  shown  (''OivilSk  Cattolica",  Ser. 
IX,  Vols.  X-XII)  that,  where  there  is  but  a  small 
supply  of  oxygen,  bodies  will  decompose  without  the 
emanation  of  any  odour  whatever.  Often,  too,  the 
human  bo(^  is  so  rc^luced  before  death  that  in  the 
earth  it  suners  little  or  no  corruption  at  all,  but  is 
first  mummified  and  then  slowlv  reduced  to  dust. 
Again,  earth-pressure  prevents  chemical  decomposi- 
tion to  a  great  extent,  producing  in  the  place  of  gas  a 
liquid  which  enters  into  various  combinations  with 
the  materials  in  tlw  soil,  without  the  slightest  danger 
to  the  living.  Earth  is  a  powerful  agent  of  disinfec- 
tion. Even  were  noxious  gases  to  escape  in  any 
quantity,  t^ey  would  be  absorbed  on  theu-  way  up- 
wards, so  that  a  very  small  part  would  ever  reach  the 
surface,  or  were  the  soU  not  fit  for  absorption  (as  was 
said  to  be  the  case  at  Pdre-Lachatse,  Paris)  the  process 
would  be  tcdcen  up  by  the  vegetable  matter  on  the 
surface.  It  is  held,  smo,  that  it  is  no  more  true  to 
say  that  cemeteries  are  a  menace  to  water  wells. 
Chamock,  Delacroix,  and  Dalton  have  proved  that 
of  three  parts  of  rain  water  only  one  penetrates  the 
soil,  the  other  two  either  evaporating  or  flowing  into 
rivers.  Now  corpses  in  cemeteries  are  not  so  piaced 
as  to  form  continuous  strata,  but  a  moderate  distance 
intervenes  between  any  two  bodies  or  rows  of  bodies. 
Of  the  third  part  of  rain,  then,  which  penetrates  the 
soil  of  a  gravevard  a  very  little  will  touch  the  bodies 
at  all,  and  what  does  will  not  all  reach  the  water 
streams,  but  will  be  absorbed  by  the  earth,  so  that 
the  remaining  drops  that  would  ultimately  trickle  into 
the  stream  would  have  absolutely  no  effect,  were  the 
stream  lai^  or  small.  Two  experiments  have  proved 
this.  The  doctors  above  mentioned  selected  a  tank 
6i  feet  high,  filled  it  with  sand,  and  for  many  months 
filtered  through  it  sewer  water  taken  from  the  drain- 
age pipes  of  Paris.  The  water  received  at  the  bottom 
(rf  the  vessel  was  always  foimd  pure,  clear  and  drink- 
able. A  like  experiment  was  made  with  a  smaller 
vessel  with  like  results.  To  anticipate  the  difficulty, 
that  what  held  for  an  experiment  with  small  quanti- 
ties would  prove  untrue  were  the  amount  of  water 
very  great,  a  large  tract  of  ground  near  Genvillers  was 
inuncmted  for  many  months  with  the  same  putrid  and 
reekine  waters  of  the  Seine  after  they  had  passed 
throu^  the  sewers  of  Paris.  The  result  was  the  same. 
Wells  were  dug  in  the  inundated  portion,  and  the 
water  was  again  found  pure  and  clear,  purer,  as  it 
chanced,  than  that  of  other  wells  outside  the  boundary 
of  the  place  of  experiments.  In  like  manner,  the 
waters  in  the  cemeteries  of  Leipzig,  Hanover,  Dresden, 
and  Berlin  were  examined  and  foimd  purer  and  freer 
from  organic  matter  than  the  wells  of  the  town. 

In  conclusion,  it  must  be  remembered  that  there  is 
nothing  directly  opposed  to  any  dogma  of  the  Church 
in  the  practice  of  cremation,  and  that,  if  ever  the 
leaders  of  this  sinister  movement  so  far  control  the 
governments  of  the  world  as  to  make  this  custom  uni- 
versal, it  would  not  be  a  lapse  in  the  faith  confided  to 
her  were  she  obliged  to  conform. 

In  addition  to  the  aathoritiefl  cited  in  the  body  of  this  article, 
ooiunilt  Corptu  Jurit  Canonici;  Habdouin,  CoU,  Cone.,  VI,  443: 
Wbrnz.  Ju9  Decretalium,  III.  465;   Howa.  Studiet  in  the  Civd 

Law,  2012,  WiLUAM  Devlin. 

Oremoaa,  Diocese  of  (Cremonensis),  suffragan 
of  MUan.  Cremona  is  a  city  (31,661  in  1901^  in  the 
Province  of  Ix)mbardy,  Italy,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Po.  It  was  built  by  the  Cenomanni  Gauls,  but  later 
became  a  lioman  colony  and  a  frontier  fortress;   it 


8Ucou'>nbed,  however,  to  Hannibal.  After  the  vie- 
toiy  of  Octavian  over  Antony,  the  territory  was  di- 
vided among  the  veterans  of  the  concjueror.  Caius 
Vitellius  defended  it  unsuccessfully  against  Vespasian, 
by  whom  it  was  pillaged,  but  it  rose  again  from  its 
ruins.  About  a.  d.  600  Cremona,  until  then  B;^an- 
tine,  was  captured  by  the  Lombard  king,  Agilulf. 
Under  the  Emperors  Otto  (I-III)  its  bishops  ac- 
quired temporal  sovereignty,  but  in  990  the  people 
expelled  Bishop  Olderico  and  adopted  a  republican 
form  of  government.  The  Emperor  Henry  IV  (1056- 
1106),  however,  confirmed  Bisnop  Landulf  in  all  im- 
perial grants  made  to  his  predecessors.  On  the  other 
hand  Heniy  V  (1106-25)  restored  to  the  people  their 


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tn 

Cathedral  asd  Tobbazzo.  Cbxmona 

communal  rights.  Thenceforth  Cremona  became  » 
citadel  of  Ghibellinism  and  was  greatly  favoured  by 
Frederic  Barbarossa  and  Frederick  II,  though  for  the 
same  reason  frequently  at  war  with  the  neighbouring 
cities.  In  lat^r  medieval  times  it  had  many  lords  or 
"tyrants",  the  Pallavicini,  the  Bovara,  the  Caval- 
cab6,  the  Visconti,  the  Sforza,  until  it  became  part 
of  the  Duchy  of  Milan  (1328).  In  1702  it  was  taken 
by  imperial  troops,  and  in  1796  and  1800  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French. 

The  people  of  Cremona  venerate  St.  Sabinus  as 
their  first  missionary  and  first  bishop;  he  is  said  to 
have  lived  in  the  first  century  of  our  era.  Among 
the  better-known  early  bishops  are  St.  Syiinus  (c. 
340),  a  valiant  apologist  of  the  Faith  against  the 
Arians,  and  St.  Silvinus  (733);  the  latter  is  held  in 
great  veneration.  Liudprand  of  Cremona  was  sent 
(946)  as  ambassador  to  Constantinople  by  the  Em- 
peror Otto  II,  and  is  the  most  famous  nistorical  writer 
of  the  tenth  century.  Other  important  bishops  were 
Gualtiero  (1096),  in  whose  time  the  cathedral  was  be- 
gun; Sicardo  (1185),  author  of  a  chronicle;  Caccia- 
conte  da  Somma  (1261),  under  whom  was  erected  the  * 
belfry  of  the  cathedral;  Nicol6  Sfondrati  (1560),  later 
Pope  Gregory  XIV;  his  nephew  Paolo  (1607);  also 
the  zealous  and  charitable  Omobono  di  Offredi  (1791). 
The  cathedral  of  Cremona  is  a  splendid  specimen  of 


ORBMOHA 


484 


OBMBOBnm 


aue  architecture,  dates  from  the  beginning 
of  the  twelfth  century,  and  is  noted  for  its  facade  in 
alternate  courses  of  red  and  white  marble.  It  pos- 
sesses many  famous  paintings  and  sculptures.  Its 
two  marble  pulpits  were  brought  thither  from  the 
suppressed  cnurch  of  the  Olivetans.  Near  the  ca- 
thearal  is  the  baptisteiy  (1167),  surrounded  by  ranges 
of  narrow  Lomblard  arches,  and  bearing  aloft  an  oc- 
tagonal cupola.  The  famous  brick  campanile,  known 
as  the  Torrazso,  built  in  1283  as  a  peace  monument, 
is  396  feet  high  and  is  said  to  be  the  tallest  in  Italy. 
An  ancient  saying  runs:  Unus  Petrua  in  Romd,  una 
turris  in  CremanA  (One  Peter  in  Rome,  one  Tower  in 
Cremona).  Other  noteworthy  churches  are  those  of 
Sant'  Agata  and  Sant'  A^ostino,  the  latter  externally 
Gothic,  while  its  interior  is  Renaissance.  Saji  Hetro 
and  San  Michele  are  believed  to  date  from  the  time  of 
the  Lombard  Queen  Theodolinda  (c.  690).  There  are 
many  industries  at  Cremona,  especially  sUk  manufac- 
tures; in  the  history  of  music  it  is  known  as  the  birth- 
place of  four  famous  makers  of  violins:  Amati,tluar- 
neri,  Stradivari,  and  Malpighi. 

The  population  of  the  diocese  is  350,000;  it  has  345 
parishes,  530  churches  and  chapels,  536  secular  and 
38  regular  clergy,  9  houses  of  religious  men,  and  77 
of  women.    It  has  also  15  educational  institutions. 

CAPPBLLvrn,  ChieBs  d* Italia,  XII,  125-239;  Annuario 
BedenoMtioo  (Rome,  1007),  433-30;  Apoan,  Memarie  di  storia 
ecd,  Cremoneae  (Rome,  1835-37):  Chbtalrb,  Tovo4nblioffr. 
^    .  ^_.  -^    -         Cities  of  Northern  Italy  (Jjoa" 


(PariB,  180i-00),  824-26;  Baud, 
don.  1890).  U,  231-4a 


U.  Benigni. 


Oremona,  Quido  da*    See  Frbdbbigx  L 

Oripienl,  Fran(x>ib  db,  Jesuit  missionazy  in  Canada 
and  Yicar  Apostolic  for  the  Montagnais  Indians ;  b.  at 
Arras,  France,  16  March,  1638;  d.  at  Quebec  in  1702. 
As  a  youth  he  studied  in  the  Jesuit  college  of  his  native 
town  and  in  that  of  Douai,  becoming  a  member  of  the 
order  at  Toumay  in  1659.  He  continued  his  studies 
at  LDle  and  Douai,  taught  at  LiQe  and  Cambrai,  and 
in  1670  sailed  for  CansSa.  Upon  the  completion  of 
his  theolo^cal  studies  in  the  college  of  Quebec,  he  was 
assigned  in  October,  1671,  to  the  Tadousac  region, 
where,  with  untiring  devotion  and  great  success  he 
toiled  among  the  Montagnais  and  Aleonquin  tribes  for 
twenty-eight  years.  TVriting  to  hisl>rethren  he  tells 
them  that  the  life  of  a  Montagnais  missionary  is  a 
tedious  and  prolonged  martyrdom,  and  that  his  jour- 
neys and  the  cabins  of  the  savages  are  truly  scnools 
of  patience,  penance^  and  resic;nation.  For  the  bene- 
fit of  his  fellow  missionaries  (^pieul  wrote  a  series  of 
instructions  embodying  the  results  of  his  long  service 
among  the  Indians,  which  are  interesting  and  practi- 
cal. These  observations  are  given  in  the  sixty-third 
volume  of  Thwaites'  "Relations".  In  1696  or  1697 
he  was  appointed  vicar  Apostolic  for  the  Montagnais 
and,  on  tne  discontinuance  of  the  mission  a  few  years 
later,  repaired  to  Quebec,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life.  Dablon.  Superior  of  all  the  missions  in  Can- 
ada, styles  him  ''a  veritable  apostle*'. 

RocHEiiONTEix,  Lcs  JSauttes  el  la  NouveUe-France  au  XVTI* 
tiitsU  (Paris.  1805-00),  a  moot  interostinff  account  of  this  devoted 
and  sacoessful  mimoiiary;  Tbwaitbs.  Relaluma,  LVI,  301. 302; 
SomiEBvooEi^  Bibl,  delae.de  J.,  IL1662, 1;  Pilling,  Bibliog» 
raphy  of  the  Atoonqwan  Langwiaea  (Waahinfllpn,  1801),  08.  00. 

Edward  F.  Spillanb. 

Orescenfl,  a  companion  of  St.  Paul  durine  his  second 
Roman  captivity,  appears  but  once  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, when  he  is  mentioned  as  having  left  the  Apostle 
to  go  into  Galatia:  "Make  haste  to  come  to  me  quick- 
ly'^  St.  Paul  writes  to  Timothy,  "for  Demas  hath  left 
me,  loving  this  world,  and  is  gone  to  Thessalonicay 
Crescens  into  Galatia,  Titus  into  Dalmatia"  (II  Tim., 
»v,  8-10).  All  conunentators  agree  in  ranking  Oes- 
oens  with  Titus  rather  than  with  Demas,  and  in  seeing 
here,  therefore,  a  reference  to  a  missionary  journey 
Into  Galatia.    This  term,  in  New  Testament  times, 


might  mean  either  Gatil  or  the  Roman  provinoe  of 
Galatia  in  Asia  Minor,  where  St.  Paul  had  laboured 
so  much;  and  here  it  has  been  interpreted  in  either 
sense.  In  the  other  passages  where  it  ooours  in  the 
New  Testament^  however,  it  denotes  Galatia,  and 
most  probably  it  would  be  bo  understood  here  by 
Timothy,  especially  as  the  other  regions  mentioDcd 
are  likewise  to  the  east  of  Rome«  Moreover,  St.  Paul 
Qii^ht  easily  have  a  reason  for  aendins  a  cusciple  to 
visit  his  old  Churches  in  Galatia,  whOe  there  is  no 
proof  that  he  had  an  active  interest  in  Gaul.  Aooord- 
uigly»  the  earliest  tradition  (Apost.  Constit.,  VIL  46) 
represents  Crescens  as  bishop  of  the  Churches  in  Gala- 
tia. Later  traditions,  on  the  other  hand,  locate  him 
as  Bishop  of  Vienne  in  Gaul,  also  at  Mains  on  the 
Rhine.  But  the  earliest  traditions  of  Gaul  itself  know 
nothing  of  this  disciple  of  the  Apostle  as  a  founder 
of  their  Churches,  and  the  behef  seems  to  have 
arisen  later  from  the  desire  of  an  Apostolic  <mgin. 
The  claims  of  Vienne  have  been  most  strong 
urged;  but  they  are  based  upon  the  mistaken  identifi* 
cation  of  its  first  bishop,  Crescens,  who  lived  in  the 
third  century,  with  the  disciple  of  St.  Paul.  As  little 
can  be  said  for  Mainz.  The  readinja;  of  certain  manu- 
scripts (Sinaiticus,  Ephreemi),  which  have  Gallia  in- 
stead of  Galatia,  has  also  been  advanced  in  favour  of 
Gaul;  but  the  traditional  reading  is  supported  by  the 
^eat  mass  of  manuscript  evidence.  Crescens  is  moH 
tioned  as  one  of  the  Seventy  Disciples  of  Christ  by  the 
I^udo-Dorotheus,  which  has  no  authority.  His 
martyrdom  in  Galatia,  under  Trajan,  commemorated 
on  27  June  by  the  Roman  Martyroiojey,  lacks  the  con- 
firmation of  older  Martyrologies.  'xSa  Greek  Church 
honours  him  on  30  July. 

TiLLBMONT.  Mhnoirea  pour  aervir  h  Fhiaioire  eeeUeiaatique 
(PkriB,  1701),  1. 312, 684^587:  Ducre8NB,  Let  faetes  ipieeopaux 
de  Vaneierme  Cfmde  (Fktria.  1804),  1, 151-155. 

John  F.  FBNiiOK. 


Oreacentiiifl,  the  name  of  several  leaders  of  the 
Roman  aristocracy  in  the  tenth  centuiy,  during  their 
opposition  to  the  imperial  government  of  the  tune. 

Crescentius  the  Elder. — ^With  the  disappearance 
of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  the  papal  government  of 
Rome  lost  its  most  powerful  protector,  and  the  Ro- 
mans took  matters  into  their  own  hands.  Out  of  the 
local  aristocracy  there  arose  a  powerful  family,  which 
assumed  the  practical  charge  of  all  governmental  af- 
fairs in  Rome,  controlled  the  nominations  to  the  papal 
throne,  and  held  the  power  for  many  years.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  tenth  century  the  family  was  repre- 
sented by  Theophylactus,  vsstorartiM  or  hi^  dignitaiy 
of  the  papal  palace  and  &e  pontifical  government,  by 
his  wile  Theodora,  and  their  two  daij^ters  Marozia 
and  Theodora.  Theophylactus  had  the  titles  of  Consul 
and  Senator  of  the  Romans.  Crescentius  the  EHder 
was  a  descendant  of  this  family,  being  a  son  of  Theo- 
dora, the  daughter  of  Theophylactus.  According  to 
the  records,  he  took  a  hand  in  Roman  affains  for  the 
first  time  in  974.  At  the  death  of  Pope  John  XIII 
(965-72),  who  was  a  brother  of  Crescentius,  the  Em- 
peror Otto  I  (936>73)  designated  as  his  suooessor  the 
Cardinal-Deacon  Benedict,  who  took  the  name  Bene- 
dict VI  (972-74).  The  Romans  bore  the  constant  in- 
terference of  the  emperor  in  the  papal  elections  with 
ill-concealed  indignation.  About  a  year  ajfter  the 
death  of  Otto  I,  when  his  successor  Otto  n  (973-^83) 
was  engaged  in  wars  at  home,  they  rebelled  against 
the  imperial  regime  under  the  leadership  of  Crescen- 
tius. The  unfortimate  Pop)e  Benedict  VI  was  de- 
throned, thrown  into  the  Castle  of  Sant' Aneelo,  and 
strangled  there  in  July,  974.  Tlie  deaconFtanoo,  a 
Roman,  son  of  Femicius,  was  chosen  to  suooeed,  and 
took  the  name  of  Boniface  VII  (974).  Hie  protests 
of  the  imperial  envoy  Sicco  were  of  no  avail  against 
this  maniiestation  of  national  aspirations  on  the  part 
of  the  Romans.    SooHi  however,  the  imperial  partjy 


OBBSOKNTIUS 


485 


aExsoiMBm 


gained  the  upper  hand:  Pope  Boniface  VII  was  foroed 
to  flee  io  OoDstantinople :  Benedict  VII  (Q74-^)  was 
choeen  in  his  place,  and  Crescentius  disappeared  for  a 
thuB.  In  all  likelihood  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
restoration  of  Boniface  VU  in  984.  After  the  death 
of  the  Emperor  Otto  II  (December,  983)  the  anti- 
imperial  |)artv  believed  that  the  time  had  come  for  re- 
asserting itself.  In  April.  984,  Boniface  VII  returned 
from  Constantinople  ana  took  possession  of  Rome. 
Pope  John  XIV  (983-84),  who  had  been  appointed  by 
the  £mpei.t>r  Otto  II,  was  imprisoned  in  tne  Castle  of 
8ant'  Anselo,  where  he  perished  about  four  months 
afterwar£,  and  Boniface  VII  (984-85)  ruled  wun  as 
pope  up  to  the  time  of  his  death  in  July,  985.  His 
protector  Crescentius  towards  the  end  of  his  life, 
whether  before  or  after  the  restoration  of  Boniface  VII 
is  imcertain,  took  the  monastic  habit  in  the  monasteiy 
of  St.  Alexius  on  the  Aventine,  where  he  died,  7  July, 
984,  and  was  buried  within  the  cloister.  The  epitaph 
on  his  tomb  (Annellini,  Le  Chiese  di  Roma,  586)  is  stiU 
visible. 

CRBSCENTiua  THB  YouNQER. — ^The  sspirations  of 
the  Roman  aristocracy  did  not  vanish  with  the  death 
of  the  elder  Crescentius.  The  latter  left  a  son,  also 
called  Crescentius,  who  after  the  death  of  Boniface 
VII  took  the  reins  of  power  in  his  hands.  Circum- 
stances seemed  to  be  particularly  favourable.  The 
Emperor  Otto  III  (983-1002)  was  stiU  a  child,  and  the 
empress  mother.  Theophano,  althous^  an  energetic 
princess,  was  aosent  from  Rome.  C^rescentius  the 
Vounger  took  the  title  of  Patriciua  Rcnnanorum,  by 
which  ne  meant  to  express  that  he  was  ruler  in  Rome, 
though  not  altogether  independent  of  the  imperial 
authority ;  he  considered  himself  as  a  lieutenant  of  the 
emperor.  It  is  quite  likely  that  the  election  of  Pope 
John  XV  (985-96},  who  succeeded  Boniface  VII,  was 
accomplished  with  the  participation  of  Crescentius, 
although  the  particulars  of  that  election  are  unknown. 
In  some  of  the  official  documents  of  the  time,  issued  by 
the  pope,  the  name  of  Crescentius  and  his  title  of  Pc^ 
truniiB  appear  together  with  the  name  of  John  XV; 
and  for  a  number  of  years  Crescentius  exercised  his 
authority  apparently  without  opposition.  When  the 
Empress  Theophano  came  to  Home  in  989,  she  con- 
ducted herself  as  empress  and  sovereign,  while  leaving 
Crescentius  his  subordinate  position.  Meanwhile  the 
young  Emperor  Otto  III  assumed  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment and  in  996  made  his  first  journey  to  lUtly,  in- 
duced bv  various  considerations,  especially  by  the  ap- 
peals of  Pope  John  XV.  However,  death  overtook 
the  pope  at  the  beginning  of  April,  996,  before 
Otto  reisLched  Rome;  it  was  at  Pavia  that  the  em- 
peror was  apprised  of  the  fact.  As  the  Romans  and 
their  leader,  Crescentius,  did  not  care  at  this  time  to 
nominate  a  successor  to  the  dec^used  pope,  they  sent 
a  delegation  to  the  emperor  with  the  request  that  he 
provide  a  suitable  cancudate  for  the  Roman  See .  Otto 
III  was  at  Ravenna  when  the  dele^tes  from  Rome 
arrived.  After  a  consultation  with  nis  counsellors  he 
chose  his  own  cousin,  Bruno,  a  young  ecclesiastic,  only 
twenty-three  years  of  age,  who  seemed  to  have  tlie 
necessary  qualifications.  Early  in  May  he  was  conse- 
crated at  Rome  as  Grqe^ory  V  (996-99),  being  the  first 
pope  of  German  nationality.  A  few  weeks  after- 
ws^  Otto  in  himself  was  crowned  in  Rome  by  iiie 
new  pope  (21  May)  in  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter.  On  the 
25th  of  the  same  month  the  pope  and  the  emperor  held 
in  St.  Peter's  a  s^od,  which  was  at  the  same  time  a 
high  court  of  justice.  The  rebellious  Romans,  includ- 
ing Crescentius,  who  had  embittered  the  last  years  of 
the  pontificate  of  Poi>e  John  XV,  were  smnmoned  to 
give  an  account  of  their  doings.  The  result  was  that  a 
certain  numbe^  among  them  Crescentius,  were  sen* 
tenoed  to  banishment.  Pope  Gre^ry  V,  who  wished 
to  inaugurate  his  pontificate  with  acts  of  merc]^, 
pleaded  for  the  guilty,  and  the  emperor  withdrew  his 
Bentence  of  CTwle.    CrescentiMS  was  deprived  of  bis 


title  of  Patridus,  but  was  permitted  to  live  in  retire 
ment  at  Rome. 

The  clemency  shown  to  Crescentius  by  the  pope 
was  repaid  with  deeds  of  violence.  Only  a  lew  montns 
after  tne  departure  of  the  emperor  for  Germany  a  re- 
volt broke  out  in  Rome  under  the  leadership  of  Cres- 
centius. The  foreign  pope  and  the  many  foreign  offi- 
cers installed  throughout  the  Papal  States  were  offen- 
sive in  the  sight  of  the  Romans.  The  rebellion  sue* 
ceeded  so  well  that  in  September,  996,  the  pope  was 
foroed  to  flee  with  only  a  few  attendants.  At  Pavia 
he  held  a  synod  in  Februaiy,  997,  in  which  he 
pronounced  sentence  of  excommunication  against 
Crescentius,  the  usurper  and  invader  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  Crescentius,  far  from  being  moved  by  these 
proceedings  against  him,  completed  nis  work  of  rebel- 
lion by  appointine  an  antipope,  Philagathus,  Bishop 
of  Piaoenza,  who  nad  just  returned  from  an  embasenr 
to  Constantinople  on  behalf  of  Emperor  Otto  III. 
Bom  in  Calabria,  Philagathus  was  a  Crreek,  and  owed 
his  elevation  to  the  episcopacy  to  the  Empress  The- 
ophano and  her  son,  but  was  willing  to  betrav  his  mas- 
ter. In  April,  997,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Pope  John 
XVI  (997-^8).  In  Februaiy,  998,  Otto  III  returned 
to  Rome  with  Pope  Gregory  V  and  tookpossession  of 
the  city  without  much  difficulty.  The  antipope 
sou^t  safety  in  flight,  while  Crescentius  shut  himself 
up  m  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo.  The  unfortunate 
J(dm  XVI  was  soon  captured  by  the  emissaries  of  the 
emperor;  his  nose  and  ears  were  cut  off,  his  eyes  and 
toi^e  were  torn  out,  and  in  this  pitiable  condition  he 
was  made  to  ride  backwards  on  an  ass.  At  the  inter- 
cession of  St.  Nilus,  one  of  his  countrymen,  his  life  was 
spared,  and  he  lived  imtil  1013.  Towards  the  end  of 
April  the  Castle  of -Sant'  Angelo  was  taken:  Crescen- 
tius was  made  prisoner  and  executed  and  nis  corpse 
hung  on  a  gibbet  erected  on  Monte  Mario.  After- 
wards his  remains  were  interred  in  the  church  of  S. 
Pancrazio  on  the  Janiculum. 

John  Cribscentius,  son  of  Crescentius  the  Youn^r. 
— Early  in  1001  a  revolt  broke  out  in  Rome  agamst 
Otto  III,  who  now  permanently  resided  in  the  Eternal 
City.  The  emperor  and  Pope  Silvester  II  (999-1003), 
the  first  pope  of  French  nationality,  were  compelled  to 
flee;  it  is  quite  likely  that  John  Crescentius  was  the 
prime  mover  of  the  rebellion.  At  any  rate,  after  this 
ne  assumed  supreme  authority  in  Rome,  and  after  the 
death  of  the  Emperor  Otto  III  (24  Januaiy,  1002) 
took  the  title  of  Patridus  Rcmanorum,  Pope  Silvester 
II  was  permitted  to  return  to  Rome,  but  had  little  to 
do  with  the  temporal  government.  The  same  is  true 
of  his  three  immediate  successors :  John  XVII  (1003), 
John  XVIII  (1003-09),  and  Serous  IV  (1009-12),  all 
of  whom  were  api)ointed  through  the  influence  of  John 
Crescentius.  Tne  patriciua  himself  died  in  the  spring 
of  the  year  1012,  and  with  him  the  Crescentii  msap- 
peared  from  the  history  of  Rome. 

DucBESNS,  Lea  premien  tempa  de  VUat  wmtifUal  (Paris, 
1898):  GRBOOBoynTB,  Geaeft.  der  iSlmtt  itom.  (Stuttsart,  1800). 
Ill,  rV :  GixsBBRBCBT,  Oesch.  der  deiUadien  Kaiaeruit  (L«ipns. 
1881),  I;  Hefele,  ConcUiengeaeh,  (Fraburg,  1879),  IV;  Fbitx 
in  Kirenenlex,,  a,  v. 

Francis  J.  Schabfbr. 
Oreacentiiui  of  JesL    See  Francibcanb. 

Oresdmbeni,  GiovAifNi  Mario,  Italian  historian 
of  literature,  chronicler,  and  poet,  b.  in  Macerata,  9 
Oct.,  1663;  d.  8  March,  1728.  lie  was  educated  at 
Rome  for  the  law,  but  £^ve  most  of  his  time  to  poetry 
and  literature.  In  1679  he  was  made  doctor  of  laws, 
and  in  1705  Gement  XI  named  him  canon  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Coonedin.  A  few  years  later  (1719)  the 
same  pontiff  appointed  him  archpriest.  and  in  the 
eame  year  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood. 

Crescimbeni  composed  tragedies  and  rime  of  various 
kinds,  and  translated  into  Italian  verse  two  books  of 
Lucan's  ''Pharsalia".  His  prose  is  superior  to  his 
verse,  and  it  is  especially  as  a  literary  cntic  tliat  ho  is 


OBXSOONIUS 


486 


0RB8&T 


knowa.  His  special  studies  in  ItiUiaii  literature 
helped  to  pave  the  way  for  the  general  histories  <^ 
that  subject.  His  greatest  work,  ''Dell'  Istoria 
deUa  volgar  poesia"  (6  vols.,  Rome,  1698),  was  one  of 
the  best  productions  of  its  kind  and  is  still  of  consid* 
erable  value.  In  it  he  treats  of  the  origin  and 
development  of  Italian  poetry,  appreciates  the  works 
of  the  one  hundred  chief  Italian  poets,  arranges  the 
poets  in  chronological  order,  and  discusses  the  art  and 
kmds  of  poetiv.  This  hu^  work  was  followed  in 
1702  by  the  ''^Commentaru  intomo  alia  sua  Istoria 
della  volgar  poesia",  in  5  volumes,  which  was  at  first 
undertaken  to  supersede  the  "  Istoria  " ;  but  slnoe  this 
had  met  with  such  favoiu*,  the  new  work  became  a 
8um>lement  to  it. 

Cxescimbeni  will  also  be  remembered  as  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Academy  of  ''Arcadia,  oonversatione 
di  beUe  lettere",  over  which  he  presided  from  its 
foundation  in  1690  to  the  time  of  his  death.  "Arca- 
dia" ^as  a  kind  of  pastoral  republic,  whose  members 
included  the  leading  scholars  and  poets  of  Italy  who 
strove  to  root  out  the  perverted  taste  of  the  seven- 
teenth centiuy  in  matters  of  art  and  literature,  and 
to  introduce  a  simpler  and  more  natural  style  into 
Italian  prose  and  poetry.  The  society  grew  out  of  a 
somewhat  similar  society  which  had  been  patronized 
by  Queen  Christine  of  Sweden  (d.  1689),  who  had 
taken  up  her  residence  in  Rome.  "Arcadia"  grew 
in  importance  and  numbers;  "Colonies"  were  estab- 
lishea  in  the  principal  Italian  cities;  and  its  influence 
extended  even  beyond  the  borders  of  Italy.  The 
members  assumed  shepherds'  names,  and  took  as 
^ir  device  a  Pan's  pipes  surrounded  by  laurels.  (See 
AcADEMiBs,  Roman.) 

The  Life  of  Crescimbeni,  with  a  list  of  his  works 
edited  and  inedited,  written  by  a  contemporary, 
Eranoesco  Mancurti,  is  in  the  final  edition  of  the 
"Istoria"  (Venice,  1730-1731),  VI,  213  sq.  This 
biographical  article  also  gives  much  information  on 
the  history  of  the  "Arcadia".  The  rime  were  edited 
in  Rome  in  1695,  and  more  completely  in  1723. 

Joseph  Dunn. 

Oresconins  (or  Cribconius),  a  Latin  canonist  of  im- 
certain  date  and  place,  flourished  probably  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  seventh  century,  though  it  may  have 
been  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  or  even  in  the  eighth 
century.  He  was  probably  a  bishop  of  the  African 
Church.  Wa  owe  to  Cresconius  a  collection  of  canons, 
known  as  ''Concordia  canonum",  inclusive  of  the 
Apostolic  Canons  (see  Canons,  Apostolic),  nearly  all 
the  canons  of  ihe  fourth  and  fifth  century  councils,  and 
many  papal  decretals  from  the  end  of  the  fourth  to  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century.  The  content  is  taken  from 
the  collection  of  Dionysius  Exiguus,  but  the  division 
into  titles  (301)  is  copied  from  the  "Breviatio  can- 
onum" of  Fulgentius  Ferrandus,  a  sixth-century  dear- 
con  of  Carthage.  In  many  manuscripts  the  text  of 
Cresconius  is  preceded  by  an  index  or  table  of  contents 
{breviarium)  of  the  titles,  first  edited  in  1588  by  Pithou. 
In  its  entirety  the  work  was  first  published  by  Voellus 
and  Justellus  in  the  appendix  (33-1 12)  to  their  "  Bibli- 
otheca  Juris  canonici"  (Paris,  1661),  and  is  in  P.  L., 
LXXXVIII,  829  scrq.  One  of  its  best  manuscripts, 
the  tenth-century  "  Vallicellianus"  (Rome),  has  a  note 
in  which  Cresconius  is  declared  the  author  of  a  metrical 
account  of  the  "bella  et  victorias"  of  the  "Patricius" 
Johannes  in  Africa  over  the  Saracens.  ^  This  was  form- 
erly interpreted  to  mean  the  African  victory  of  the  By- 
zantine "Patricius  Johannes"  in  697,  hence  the  usual 
date  of  Cresconius,  Some,  however,  hold  that  the 
poem  in  question  is  the  "  Johannis"  of  Flavins  Cres- 
conius Corippus,  a  Latin  poet  of  about  550,  and  on  this 
basis  identify  him  with  our  canonist,  thus  placing  the 
latter  in  the  sixth  century.  Others  (with  Maassen,  p. 
810)  while  admitting  that  the  poem  in  question  can  be 
Done  other  than  the  "  Johamiia"  of  the  aforesaid  Latin 


poet  (unknown  to  Fabrioius,  and  first  edited  by  Ma»- 
suchdli,  Milan,  1820),  maintain  that  it  has  been 
wrongly  attributed  to  our  Cresconius,  and  that  it  can- 
not therefore  aid  in  fixins  his  date.  The  "Concordia 
canonum"  was  much  used  as  a  handy  manual  of  eode- 
siastioal  legislation  by  the  churches  of  Africa  and  Gaul 
as  late  as  the  tenth  century.  Few  of  its  manuscripta 
postdate  that  period.  - 

The  best  account  of  CreseoiUTu  and  his  work  is  in  ICajuwev. 
Oeteh,  der  Quellen  und  LiU.  de*.  can.  Reehia  m  Abendliknde.etc 
(Qru.  1870).  800-13.  840-47.  corrective  of  FABBxacs,  BM. 
Lot.,  L  400-01;  see  also  VxnableS  in  Diet,  of  CkriaL  Biogr.,  I, 
71^li>. 

John  Websteb  Mki/>dt. 

dressy,  Hugh  Paulinub  Serbnus,  Doctor  of  The- 
ology and  English  Benedictine  monk,  b.  at  Thorpe- 
Salvin,  Yorkshire,  about  1605;  d.  at  East  Grinstead, 
Sussex,  10  August,  1674«  He  was  the  son  ol  Hugh 
Cressy  by  Maijgerv,  daupihter  of  Thomas  d'Oylie,  a 
London  physician  belongmg  to  the  old  Oxford  fanuly 
of  that  name.  Educated  first  at  Wakefield  Grammar 
School,  when  fourteen  years  old  he  vrent  to  Ox- 
ford (1619)  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1623 
and  that  of  M.  A.  in  1627*  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
Merton  College  and  took  orden  in  the  Established 
Church.  Leaving  Oxford  he  became  chs^tain,  first  to 
Thomas,  Lord  Wentworth,  and  afterwards  to  Lucius 
Cary,  Lord  Falkland,  with  whom  he  went  to  Ireland 
in  1638.  Durine  his  sojourn  in  Ireland  he  was  ap- 
pointed Dean  of  Leighlin,  but  returned  to  England  the 
following  year  (1639).  A  canonry  in  the  collegiate' 
church  of  Windsor,  which  he  received  in  1642,  he  was 
never  able  to  enjoy,  owing  to  the  disturbed  state  of 
the  countiy;  the  following  year  (1643)  his  patron. 
Lord  Falkland,  was  killed  at  Newbury.  Cressy  then 
attached  himself  to  Charles  Berkeley,  afterwards  Lord 
Falmouth,  and  travelled  with  him  through  seyeral 
Catholic  countries  of  Europe;  this  experience  re-> 
suited  in  his  conversion  to  the  Catholic  Faith  at  Rome 
in  1646.  From  Rome  he  went  to  Paris  where  he  re- 
ceived further  instruction  from  Henry  Holden,  a  doc- 
tor of  the  Sorbonne*  He  then  wrote  his  "Elxomolo- 
gesis"  (Paris,  1647),  a  work  in  which  he  published  to 
the  world  the  motives  which  led  him  to  change  his 
religion. 

After  becoming  a  Catholic  Creesy's  first  inclination 
was  to  be  a  Carthusian  monk;  this  intention  was  set 
aside  and  he  joined  the  English  Concreeation  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Benedict  at  St.  Gregoiy^s,  Douai,  but  so 
poor  was  he  at  the  time  that  Queen  Henrietta  Maria 
provided  him  with  money  for  his  journey;  he  was  pro- 
fessed at  St.  Gregoiy's,  22  August,  1649.  From  1661 
to  1652  he  acted  as  chaplain  to  the  Benedictine  nuns 
in  Paris,  returned  to  Douai  (1653-60),  and  was  then 
sent  to  the  mission  in  En^and,  residing  at  Somerset 
House  as  one  of  the  chaplains  to  C^harles  the  Second's 
queen.  In  the  English  Benedictine  Congregation  he 
held  the  ofiice  of  dennitor  of  the  province  in  1666  and 
was  appointed  the  titular  cathedral  prior  of  Rochester 
in  1669.  His  last  years  were  spent  with  the  Cairll 
family  at  East  Grinstead,  Sussex,  where  he  died  in  his 
sixty-eighth  year.  The  moderate  party  in  the  Church 
of  England  respected  him  as  a  prudent  and  learned 
man,  and  when  Dr.  Stillingfleet  charged  him  with 
credulity  and  want  of  historical  judgment,  his  defence 
was  taken  up  by  Anthony  Wood  who  commended  him 
for  "his  grave  and  good  style,  proper  for  an  ecclesias- 
tical historian '^  and  spoke  of  him  as  one  who  "doth 
mostly  quote  his  author  and  leaves  what  he  says  to  the 
judgment  of  his  readers".  Cressy  Is  "Qiurch  History 
of  Brittany  or  England,  from  the  B<ynning  of  Chris- 
tianity to  the  Norman  Conauesf'  (Rouen,  1668) 
brings  the  narrative  down  to  aoout  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  A  second  part,  *'From  the 
Conquest  Downwards",  was  discovered  at  Douai  in 
1856,  but  is  yet  in  MS.  (Gillow).  His  other  works 
are:  Appendix  to  "Exomologesis"  (Paris-   1647); 


OftXSWSLL 


487 


ORSTm 


le 


''Afbor  virtutum,  a  MS.  preserved  at  Ugbrooke,  Dcvoa- 
Bhire";  "The  Scale  (or  Ladder)  of  Perfection"  by 
Walter  Hilton,  ed.  Cresey  (London,  1659);  ''Sancta 
Sophia"  by  Ven.  Fr.  Aug.  Baker,  ed.  CreMV  (Douai, 
1657);  ''Certain  Patterns  of  Devout  Ebrercises" 
(Douai,  1657) ;  "  Roman  Catholic  Doctrines  no  Novel- 
ties" (1633);  "A  Non  Est  Inventus"  (London,  1662); 
''A  Letter  to  an  Knglish  Gentleman  concerning 
Bishop  Morley"  (London,  1662);  "Sixteen  Revelar 
tions  of  Divine  Love",  from  an  ancient  copy  (1670); 
''Fanaticism  Fanatically  Imputed  to  the  Catholic 
Church  by  Dr.  Stillingfleet"  (1672);  "First  Question: 
Why  Are  You  a  Catholic?"  etc  (London,  1672);  "An 
Answer  to  Part  of  Dr.  Stillingfleet's  Book  intitul'd 
Idolalxv  practised  in  the  Church  of  Rome"  (1674): 
"An  Epistle  Apologetical  of  S.  C.  to  a  Person  of 
Honour"  (1674) ;  "  An  Abridgment  of  the  Book  called 
'Hie  Cloud  of  Unknowing'  by  Maiuice  Chauncey'' 

(MSO. 

Wqoh,  Athena  Oxon^  ed.  Buas  (London,  1883).  Ill,  1011; 
Snow,  rftcroloay  of  the  Snglish  Benediciinea  (lionrion,  1883), 
66;  AX1.ANBON,  Btoqraphiea  of  English  Benedielinee  (MS.  at 
Ainpl«fortb  Abbey,  York);  Dodd,  Church  Hieimy  (Bnisaela, 
1736).  VII,  307;  Weldon.  CAnmoJo^uxiZ  NoUe  of  Eng,  Cong, 
0. 8.  B.  (Stanbrook  Abbey,  Worcester,  1881),  209,  appen.  d.  10; 
QuiAW,  BihL  Diet,  Eng,  Cath.^  a.  v. 

G.  E.  Hind. 

Oreswell,  Joseph  (vere  Arthur),  controverRlalist, 
b,  1557  of  Yorkshire  stock  in  London;  d.  about  1623. 
His  widowed  mother  married  William  Lacey,  who. 
after  her  death,  was  ordained  priest  and  mart3rrea 
(22  August,  1582)  at  York.  Creswell  joined  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  Rome  11  Oct.,  1583,  having 
previously  studied  at  Reims  and  at  the  Roman  Col- 
lege. Having  been  rector  (1589-1592)  after  Father 
PezBons  of  the  English  College,  Rome,  he  also  suc- 
ceeded Persons  as  vice-prefect  for  English  Jesuit 
interests  in  Spain.  Creswell's  character  and  conduct 
in  connexion  with  his  difficulties  over  the  seminaries 
of  Seville  and  Valladolid,  and  his  controversy  about 
Benedictine  vocations  have  been  severely  criticized 
(cf .  Camm,  Life  of  Ven.  John  Roberts,  and  Pollen, 
The  Month,  London,  Sei>t.-Oct.,  1899).  Father  Cres- 
well had  considerable  intercourse  with  Sir  Charles 
Comwallis,  the  English  resident  at  Madrid,  till  the 
Powder  Plot,  when  Creswell  was  summoned  to  Rome. 
Sent  to  Belgium  in  1614,  he  was  at  St^Omer  in  1620, 
and  in  1621  was  made  rector  of  Ghent.  His  chief 
worksare:  A  Latin  treatise,  ''De  Vit&BeatA";  "Ex- 
emplar Laterarum  ad  Cecilium  (sive  Burlei^)",  1592. 
unaer  the  pseudonym  "John  Peme",  against  Eliza- 
beth's proclamation  of  29  Nov.,  1591;  "Vkia  y 
Martyrio  del  P.  Henrique  Valpolo/'  (Madrid,  1596); 
treatise  against  James  Fiist^  (1610)  proclamation 
(4to»  St-Omer,  1611);  "Meditations  upon  the 
Rosary"  (St-Qmer,  1620);  translation  into  Spanish, 
under  the  name  "  Peter  Manrique",  of  Father  William 
Bathe's  "Preparation  for  administering  Penance  and 
the  Eudiarist"  (Milan,  1614)j  translation  into  Eng- 
lish and  Spanish,  under  initials  N.  T.  of  Salvian's 
"Quis  dives  salvus?"  (S^Omer,  1618);  "Relacion 
de  Inglaterra*',  Ms  X,  14,  National  Library,  Madrid; 
memoir  for  Plulip  III  of  Spain  on  affairs  of  the  So- 
eiety;  "Responsio  ad  calumnias,"  Stonyhurst  Li- 
brary; Letters,  Vatican  Archives  (Lettere  di  parti- 
oolan,  I,  1). 

FoLBT,  Records t  VI  and  VU;  OiAYKsUCoaedaneaS,  J.;  Douay 
Diariee,  p.  xdx:  Butler,  Memoire,  II.  224:  Soumkrvooel, 
BtbHolhiqiie,  II.  1666.    Coopbr  in  DicL  Nat.  Biog.,  XIII,  73. 

Patrick  Ryan. 

Orete.    SeeCANDiA. 

Oretliif  Joseph,  first  Bishop  of  St.  Paul,  Minne- 
sota, U.  S.  A.,  b.,  at  Montluel,  department  of  Ain, 
France,  19  December,  1799;  d.  at  St.  Paul,  Minne* 
sota,^  22  February,  1857.  He  made  his  preparatory 
studies  in  the  petits  sdminaires  of  Meximieux  (Ain) 
and  L'Argentidre  (RhAne),  his  studies  of  philosophy 
at  AUx  (Sh6ne),  aiid  of  tneology  in  the  Seminary  A 


Saint-Sulpice,  Paris.  He  was  ordained  priest  20 
December,  1823,  and  soon  afterwards  was  appointed 
vicar  in  the  parish  of  Femey,  once  the  home  of  Vol- 
taire, and  eventually  became  its  parish  priest.  He 
built  there  a  new  and  beautiful  church  with  funds 
largely  gathered  by  himself  on  a  tour  through 
France^  lounded  a  college  for  boys,  and  revived  the 
Catholic  Faith  among  his  parishioners,  many  of 
whom  had  become  indfifferent  towards  it,  owing  to 
the  surviving  influence  of  ''the  philosopher'*  and  the 
close  proximity  of  the  Protestant  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land. But  Cretin'  longed  for  a  larger  field  of  ac- 
tivity; at  one  time  he  thought  earnestly  of  going  aa 
a  missionary  to  China.  His  perplexities  in  that  re- 
gard were  solved  by  the  advent  of  Bishop  Loras, 
first  Bishop  of  Dubuque,  Iowa,  who  arrived  in 
France  in  1838  in  quest  of  priests  for  his  Western 
diocese.  Cretin  was  one  of  the  few  who  volunteered, 
and  on  16  August,  1838,  he  secretly  left  his  parish, 
embarked  at  Le  Havre  with  Bianop  Loras,  ana 
landed  in  New  York  in  October  of  tne  same  year. 
The  winter  of  1838-39  was  spent  in  St.  Louis,  Mis* 
souri,  and  on  his  arrival  at  Dubuque,  18  April,  1839, 
he  was  at  once  appointed  vicar-general  of  the  new 
diocese.  For  over  eleven  years  he  exercised  his 
priestly  ministry  in  these  new  and  unopened  regions, 
dividing  his  time  chiefly  between  Dubuoue,  Iowa, 
Prairie  du  Chien,  Wisconsin,  and  the  Winnebago 
Indians  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Fort  Atkinson, 
Winneshiek  Co.,  Iowa.  Only  once,  in  1847,  did  he 
absent  himself,  when  he  made  a  journey  to  Europe 
in  the  interest  of  his  missions.  In  1850,  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota,  became  the  seat  of  a  new  diocese.  Cretin 
was  appointed  its  first  bishop,  and  went  to  France, 
to  be  consecrated,  26  January,  1851,  at  Belley  by 
.Bishop  Devie,  who  had  ordained  him  to  the  priest- 
hood. 

After  having  obtained  some  donations  and  several 
ecclesiastics  for  his  new  diocese,  he  returned  to  America 
and  arrived  in  St.  Paul  2  July,  1851.  The  same  evening 
he  made  his  first  appearance  in  the  log  chapel  of  St. 
Paul,  his  first  cathcKiral,  and  gave  the  first  episcopal 
blessing  to  his  flock.  Within  less  than  five  months 
a  large  brick  building  was  completed,  which  served 
as  a  school,  a  residence,  and  a  second  cathedral. 
Another  structure,  b^;un  in  1855,  was  finished  after 
his  death,  and  serves  as  the  cathedral  of  St.  PauL 
In  1853  a  hospital  was  built;  during  the  same  year, 
and  again  in  1856,  he  bought  land  for  cemeterjr  pur- 
poses. For  the  ixistruotion  of  the  children  he  intro- 
duced, in  1851,  a  community  of  tiie  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph,  and  in  1855  the  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Family. 
He  also  planned  the  erection  of  a  smninary,  and 
always  eagerly  fostered  vocations  for  the  priest- 
hood, keeping  at  his  residence  seminarians  in  their 
last  period  of  preparation.  He  supported  likewise 
the  cause  of  temperance  not  only  oy  personal  ex- 
ample, but  also  by  organizing  in  January,  1852,  the 
Catholic  Temperance  Society  of  St.  Paul,  the  first  of 
its  kind  in  Minnesota.  Another  work  to  which  he 
applied  himself  was  that  of  Catholic  colonisation. 
With  an  eye  to  the  future  he  endeavoured  to  pro- 
vide for  the  growth  of  his  diocese  by  bringing  Catholic 
immigrants  from  European  countries  to  tne  fertile 
plains  of  Minnesota.  Withal  he  did  not  neglect  his 
ministerial  and  pastoral  office.  He  was  oft^  alone 
in  St.  Paul  without  the  help  of  a  priest,  and  at  times 
travelled  through  the  vast  extent  of  his  diocese  be- 
stowing on  his  people  the  consolations  of  religion. 
Bishop  Cr6tin's  memory  is  held  in  esteem  and  ven- 
eration, especially  by  the  old  settlers  of  St.  Paul. 

Most  of  the  material  for  Bishop  Cr^tin'a  life  is  stUl  unpab- 
lished.  The  above  details  are  from  letters  written  by  him  and 
other  doouments  in  possession  of  the  St.  Paul  Catholic  Histo- 
rical Society.  A  few  doouments  and  references  on  the  subject 
are  found  in  Ada  et  Dicta  (St,  Paul,  1007),  I.  No.  1;  The  JHa- 
eeee  of  8t.  Paul  (St.  Paul,  1901):  Ravoux,  Mhnoirea  (St.  Paul, 
1892) ;  Db  Caillt,  Memoirs  of  Biahop  Lonu  (New  York,  1807) : 
O'QoRMAN.  Hietorv  of  the  Roman  Catholio  Chmtk  in  th$  XMited 


OBtTINEAU 


488 


OBIB 


StaUB  (New  York.  1896);    Thbbaud.  Forty  y«ir«  tn  tt«  ^.5. 

grew  York.  1904).  274-75;   Rkuss,  Biop.  Cyelo.  of  th4  Caih. 
imtoThy  of  thM  U,  3.  (MUwaukee.  1898);  Sbxa,  Hid,  of  th9 
Ca«*.  CA:tntt«  i;.  5.  (New  York,  1904).      ^   ^ 

Francis  J.  Schabfbr. 

Oretineau-Joly,  Jacques,  journalist  and  historian; 
b.  at  Fontenav-le-Comte,  Vendde,  France,  23  Sept., 
1803;  d.  at  Vincennes  near  Paris,  I  Jan.,  1876.  At 
first  he  studied  theology  at  the  seminary  of  Saint-Sul- 
pioe,  Paris,  but,  feeling  that  he  had  no  vocation,  he 
left  after  a  stay  of  three  years,  during  which  he  had 
received  the  tonsure.  He  was  now  in  his'  twentieth 
year;  he  auickly  obtained  the  professorship  of  philos- 
ophy at  tne  college  in  his  native  town,  but  soon  re- 
signed the  position  on  account  of  ill-health,  and  went 
in  1823  to  Rome,  as  companion  and  private  secretaiy 
to  the  fVench  ambasi^or,  the  Duke  of  Laval-Mont- 
morency. 

In  1826  he  published  at  Rome  "Chants  remains '% 
which  contained  poor  verses  of  an  irreligious  characten 
After  his  return  home  in  1828  he  issued  a  number  of 
volumes  of  poems  and  dramas,  as  "Les  Trappistes" 
(Angoul^e,   1828),  "Inspirations  po^ti<^ues"  (An- 

goullme,  1833),  and  other  poems,  all  of  which  proved, 
owever,  that  he  was  no  poet.  He  accomplished 
much  more  as  a  polemical  journalist  in  the  strusg^e 
against  the  liberalism,  which,  after  the  revolution  of 
July,  directed  the  State  during  the  reign  of  the  Duke 
of  (>rl^ans  as  Louis-Philippe.  Being  a  Vendean  he/ 
was  an  enthusiastic  adherent  of  the  hereditary  royal 
house,  and  with  fiery  zeal  defended  its  rights  in 
several  Legitimist  newspapers  of  which  he  was  editor. 
In  1837  he  went  to  reside  in  Paris  in  order  to  devote 
himself  to  historical  research  concerning  the  history  of 
Vend^,  but  in  1839  he  added  for  a  time  to  these 
labours  the  editing  of  "L'Europe  monarchique",  a  . 
newspaper  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  Bourbons. 
Before  this  he  had  published  two  writings  on  Vendfe: 
"Episodes  des  guerres  de  la  Vend^  (1834)  and  "His- 
toire  des  e^n^raux  et  chefs  venddens"  (1838).  He 
now  oombmed  the  two,  made  use  of  a  larae  number  of 
sources  until  then  unlaiown,  and  issued  nis  most  im- 
portant work:  "Histoire  de  la  Vendue  militaire" 
(Paris,  1840-41),  4  vols. ;  the  fifth  edition  appeared  in 
1865.  Althou^  he  did  not  lay  sufficient  weight  on 
the  religious  side  of  these  struggles,  the  work  brou^t 
him  reputation  on  account  ofthe  animated  descrip- 
tions, the  clear  arrangement  of  the  great  mass  of  mate- 
rial, the  correctness  and  painstaking  care  in  the  use  of 
authorities.  It  must  be  acknowled^  that  he  was  by 
no  means  scrupulous  how  he  obtained  his  materials, 
and  in  the  prosecution  of  the  narrative  he  was  con- 
stantly influenced  by  practical  considerations,  for  his- 
tory had  no  value  to  him  except  as  a  storehouse  of 
weapons  against  the  foe  of  the  moment. 

£|js  reputation  outside  of  France  was  gained  largely 
by  his  religious-political  writings.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  these  is  his  great  history  of  the  Societv  of  Jesus: 
"Histoire  religieuse,  politique  et  litt^raire  de  la  Com- 
pagnie  de  J^us ' '  issued  at  Paris,  1844-1846,  in  6  vols. ; 
tSorman  translation,  1845,  3d  ed.,  1851.  The  work 
was  written  imder  the  auspices  of  the  Society  and  was 
drawn  from  authentic  and  unpublished  sources;  it  is 
an  excellent  apology  for  the  much  abused  Society,  al- 
thou^  at  times  it  shows  a  lack  of  critical  judgment 
and  of  moderation  in  treating  the  subject.  A  com- 
panion volume  was  his  much  discussed  work:  "Cle- 
ment XIV  et  les  J&uites"  (Paris,  1847.  3d  ed.,  1848). 
To  this  Theiner  wrote  a  rejoinder  on  behalf  of  Pope 
Pius  IX,  and  Ravignon  one  on  behalf  of  the  Society, 
whereupon  Cr6tineau-Joly,  after  making  careful  re- 
■earch  and  in  agreement  with  the  pope,  published 
"L'^ise  romaine  en  face  de  la  Revolution''  (1859,  2 
vols.;  2d  ed.,  1863),  a  work  which  testifies  to  his  un- 
wavering fidelity  to  the  Catholic  Church.  His  other 
writings  generaUy  treat  some  burning  Question  of  the 
day  and  possess,  therefore*  less  genml  interest. 


€t  lUtirain  (PtSZ  1«75). 

PATBIdUS  SCBHAGER. 

Or^T^eosnr,  Hector  Br.  John  db,  a  French  agii' 
culturist,  b.  at  Caen,  France,  1731 ;  d.  at  Sarcelles,  near 
Paris,  1813.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  went  to  Eng^ 
land,  whence  in  1754  he  emigrated  to  America, 
and  for  many  years  resided  on  a  farm.  In  1780  be 
was  obliged  to  return  to  France  to  settle  some  of 
his  affairs,  and  when  he  went  to  New  York  to  take 
passage  he  was  arrested  by  the  English  on  suspidon 
of  being  a  spy.  After  being  in  confinement  for  sevnul 
months  he  was  released  and  permitted  to  fx-oceed  oa 
his  journey  unmolested.  During  his  stay  in  his 
native  land  he  succeeded  in  interesting  the  farmers 
of  Normandy  in  the  cultivation  of  the  potato,  and 
its  culture  was  taken  up  by  them.  After  a  sta^r  of 
about  three  years  he  once  more  came  to  America. 
It  was  largely  due  to  his  description  of  the  wonderful 

groductiveness  of  the  land  that  several  hundred  of 
is  countrymen  emimited  to  America.  They  es- 
tablished a  colony  in  Pennsylvania,  which  for  a  time 
flourished.  It  was  at  last  aestroyed  by  the  savages 
and  its  inhabitants  massacrecL  The  Americaa 
Revolution  having  come  to  a  dose,  Cr^veooeur  was 
appointed  consul  at  New  York  by  the  Fk^nch  Govern- 
ment, in  which  capacity  he  served  for  a  lon^  term. 
It  W8S  while  occupying  this  post  that  he  assisted  in 
the  founding  of  St.  Peter's,  the  first  Catholic  church 
in  the  city,  and  served  as  one  of  its  first  trustees. 
He  is  the  author  of  the  following  works:  "Lettren 
d'un  cultivateur  am^ricain"  (1784);  "Voyage  dans 
la  haute  Pennsylvanie  et  dans  T^tat  de  New  York" 
(1801).  These  works  have  been  translated  inUf 
Endish  and  German,  and  are  admhed  for  the  beauty 
of  weir  style.  They  were  very  popular  throughout 
France. 

Dm  GouRor  and  Shba,  Biat.  of  Calh,  Ch.  in  U.  8.  <N«« 
York,  1856);  FtNom,  Bib.  Caih,  Am.  (New  York.  lS72); 
Cyehp,  Am,  Biog,,  II,  8. 

Thoicas  Gaffxet  Taaffb. 

Orib  (Heb.  r\Y\H;  Gr.,  i^rvfi;  Lat.  prassepe, 
prcBaepium),  the  crib  or  manger  in  T^ch  the  infant 
Saviour  was  laid  after  his  birth  is  property  that  place 
in  the  stable  or  khan  where  food  for  domestic  animals 
is  put,  formed  probably  of  the  same  material  out  of 
which  the  grotto  itself  is  hewn.  A  very  ancient  tradi* 
tion  avers  that  an  ass  and  an  ox  were  in  the  stable 
when  Christ  was  bom.  The  tradition  bean  an  allu- 
sion to  Isaias  (i,  3):  ''The  ox  knoweth  his  owner  and 
the  ass  his  msster's  crib":  and  is  probably  founded  on 
the  words  of  the  Prophet  Habacuc  (iii,  2)  which  in  the 
Septuagint  version  read :  **  In  the  midst  of  two  animals 
thou  shalt  be  known",  instead  of  "In  the  midst  of 
years"  eta  as  St.  Jerome  rightly  translated  the  oiig- 
mal  Hebrew.  Be  this  as  it  may,  what  pertains  to  the 
crib  we  may  consider  in  thepresent  article  under  three 
separate  headinfls:  (I)  The  Basilica  of  the  Nativity  and 
the  Grotto  of  the  Nativity  at  Bethlehem:  (II)  The 
relics  of  the  crib  preserv^  at  St.  Maty  Major's  in 
Rome;  (III)  Devotion  to  the  crib. 

I.  Bethl^em  is  situated  on  two  hills  and  is  2361 
f oet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  western  hill  is  the 
Bethlehem  of  Scripture;  whilst  on  the  eastern  deva- 
tion  is  situated  the  Basilica  of  the  Nativity  erected 
over  the  j;rotto.  We  may  imagine,  then,  that  the 
Blessed  Vii^  and  St.  Joseph,  there  being  ''no  room 
for  them  in  the  inn",  left  the  town  and  came  to  the 
cave  or  stable  on  the  eastern  hill  which  served  as  a 
place  of  refuge  for  shepherds  and  their  flocks  against 
the  inclemency  of  the  weather.  We  are  not  concerned 
here  with  the  controversies  both  as  re^jards  the  his- 
toricity of  St.  Luke's  narrative  of  the  birth  of  Christ 
and  as  rozards  the  actual  site  of  the  Grotto  of  the  Na- 
tivity. Suffice  it  to  say  that  there  appeare  to  be  no 
sufficient  reason  for  abandoning  the  very  ancient  and 
unbipken  tradition  which  attests  the  authentici^  of 


OEIMI 


489 


the  place  of  the  orib  now  venerated.  From  the  earliest 
times,  moroover^eoelesiagtical  writers  bear  witness  to 
this  tradition,  xhua  St.  Justin,  who  died  a  martyr  in 
165,  savB  that  '^  Having  failed  to  find  anv  lodjgjng  in  the 
town,  Joseph  sou^t  shelter  in  a  neigiibouring  cavern 
of  Bethlehem"  (DiaL  c.  Tiyph.,  70).  About  half  a 
century  later,  Ongen  writes:  "If  any  one  desires  to 
satisfy  himself  without  appealing  either  to  the  proph- 
ecy Of  Micheas,  or  to  the  nistory  of  the  Christ  as  writ- 
ten by  his  didoles,  that  Jesus  was  bom  in  Bethlehem, 
let  him  know  that,  in  accordance  with  the  Gospel  nar- 
rative, at  Bethlehem  is  shown  the  grotto  where  he  first 
saw  the  light"  (C.  Cels.  I,  61). 

St.  Helena  first  converted  the  grotto  into  a  chapel 
and  adorned  it  with  costly  marble  and  other  precious 
ornaments.  The  first  basilica  erected  over  the  crypt 
is  due  most  probably  to  the  devotion  and  munificence 
of  her  son  Constantine,  of  whom  Eusebius  says  that 
^The  emi)eror  himself,  eclipsing  even  the  magnifi- 
cence of  nis  mother's  des^,  adorned  the  same  place 
in  a  truly  regal  style"  (ViU  Const.,  HI,  43).  Both 
the  grotto  itself  and  the  basilica  have  imdergone  nu- 
noerous  restorations  and  modifications  made  necessary 
ill  the  course  of  centuries  by  the  ravages  of  war  and  in- 
vasion; but,  at  the  present  time,  little  remains  of  the 
splendid  mosaics  and  paintings  described  in  detail  by 
C^uaresimus  and  other  writers.  The  Crvpt  of  the  Na- 
tivity is  reached  from  the  upper  church  by  a  double 
flight  of  stairs  leading  from  tne  north  side  of  the  choir 
<<f  the  basilica  to  the  grotto  below,  and  convermns  at 
the  place  where  according  to  tradition  the  Infapt 
Haviour  was  bom.  The  exact  spot  is  marked  by  a 
ctar  cut  out  of  stone,  surrounding  which  are  the 
words: 

RIC  DB  VIRQINE  MARIA  JE8T78  CHRIflTUS  NATU8  EST. 

A  short  distance  to  the  southwest  is  the  manger  itself 
where  Christ  was  laid  and  where,  as  tradition  asserts, 
be  was  adored  by  the  Magi.  In  1873  the  grotto  was 
plundered  by  the  Greeks  and  everything  of  value,  in- 
cluding two  paintings  by  Murillo  and  MaeUo  respec- 
lively,  was  carried  off.  No  restitution  of  the  stolen 
treasures  has  since  been  made. 

II.  The  relics  of  the  crib  that  are  preserved  at  St. 
Mary  Major's  in  Rome  were  probably  brought  there 
from  the  Holy  Land  during  the  pontificate  of  Pope 
Theodore  (64(>-049),  who  was  himself  a  native  of  Pales- 
tine, and  who  was  well  aware  of  the  dangers  of  plunder 
and  pillage  to  which  they  were  exposed  at  the  hands  of 
the  Musflulmans  and  other  marauders.  We  find  at 
all  events  that  the  basilica  erected  by  liberius  on  the 
Esquiline  first  received  the  name  of  Sancta  Maria  ad 
Pnesepe  under  Pope  Theodore.  During  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Hadrian  I  the  first  altar  was  erected  in  the  basil- 
ica, and  in  the  course  of  succeeding  centuries  the  place 
where  the  relics  are  preserved  came  to  be  visited  by 
the  devout  faithful  from  all  parts  of  the  Christian 
worid.  At  the  present  time  the  remains  of  the  crib 
preserved  at  St.  Mary  Major's  consist  of  five  pieces  of 
board  which,  as  a  result  of  the  investigation  conducted 
by  Father  Lais,  sub-director  of  the  Vatican  Observa- 
tory, during  the  restorations  of  1893  were  found  to  be 
taken  from  a  sycamore  tree  of  which  there  are  several 
varieties  in  the  Holy  Land.  Two  of  the  pieces,  which 
like  the  other  three,  must  have  been  originally  much 
longer  than  they  are  at  present,  stood  upright  in  the 
f(»rai  of  an  X,  upon  which  throe  other  pieces  rested, 
supported  by  a  sixth  piece,  which,  however,  is  missine, 
placed  across  the  base  of  the  upper  angle  of  the  X.  We 
may  conclude  from  this  that  these  pieces  of  wood  were 
properly  speaking  mere  supports  for  the  manger  itself , 
which  was  probsLoly  made  from  the  soft  limestone  of 
which  the  cave  was  formed.  The  rich  relkjuary, 
adorned  with  bas-reliefs  and  statuettes,  which  at  pres- 
ent contains  the  relics  of  the  crib  was  presented  by  the 
Duchess  of  Villa  Hermosa  in  1830.  Fins  IV  (1569-65) 
restored  the  high  altar  upon  which  the  relics  are 


solemnly  exposed  for  the  veneration  of  thd  fiaithful 
yearly  on  the  eve  of  Christmas. 

Hi.  Devotion  to  the  crib  is  no  doubt  of  very  ancient 
origin ;  but  it  remained  for  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  to  poi>- 
ukurise  it  and  to  give  it  the  tanmble  f orai  in  which  it  is 
known  at  the  present  time.  When  St.  Francis  visited 
Rome  in  1223,  he  made  known  to  Pope  Honorius  III 
the  plans  he  had  conceived  of  making  a  scenic  represen- 
tation of  the  place  of  the  Nativity.  The  pope  listened 
gladly  to  the  details  of  the  project  and  ^ ve  it  his  sanc- 
tion. Leaving  Rome,  St.  Francis  arrived  at  Greccio 
on  Christmas  Eve,  when,  throueh  the  aid  of  his  friend 
Giovanni  Velita,  he  eonstructea  a  crib  and  grouped 
around  it  figures  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  St.  Joseph, 
the  ass,  the  ox,  and  the  shepherds  who  camo  to  adore 
the  new-bom  Saviour.  He  acted  as  deacon  at  the 
midnight  Mass.  The  legend  relates  that  having  siing 
the  words  of  the  Gospel  ^and  they  laid  him  in  a  man- 
ger" he  knelt  down  to  meditate  briefly  on  the  sub- 
Rme  mystery  of  the  Incarnation,  and  there  appeared  in 
his  arms  a  child  surrounded  by  a  brilliant  li^t.  A 
painting  by  Giotto  representing  St.  Francis  celebrat- 
mg  Christmas  at  Greccio  is  preserved  in  the  Basilica  of 
St.  Francis  at  Assisi.  Devotion  to  the  crib  has  since 
spread  thro^zhout  the  Christian  world.  Yearly,  from 
the  eve  of  Christmas  untfl  the  day  of  the  octave  of 
Epiphany,  a  crib  representine  the  birthplace  of  Christ 
is  shown  m  all  Catholic  churches  in  or^.er  to  remind  the 
faithful  of  the  mystery  of  the  Incarnation  and  to  recall 
according  to  tradition  and  the  Gospel  narrative  the 
historical  events  connected  with  the  birth  of  the  Re- 
deemer. The  old  Franciscan  church  of  Ara  Coeli  p>os- 
sesses  perhaps  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
cribs  in  the  worid.  In  this  crib  the  famous  SatUo 
Bambino  di  Ara  Codi  is  exposed  from  the  eve  of  Christ- 
mas to  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany.  The  Sanio  Bam- 
bino is  a  figure  carved  out  of  wood  representing  the 
new-bom  Saviour.  It  is  said  to  have  come  from  the 
Holy  Land,  and  in  the  course  of  time  it  has  been  be- 
decked with  numerous  jewels  of  great  value.  It  is 
carried  in  procession  yearly  on  the  least  of  the  Epiph- 
any by  the  Minister  General  of  the  Friars  Minor  who 
solemnly  blesses  the  city  with  it  from  the  top  of  the 
high  fli^t  of  stairs  that  lead  to  the  main  entrance  of 
AraCo3i. 

MeiSTBiucANN,  A  New  Guide  to  (^  Hoht  Land,  tr.  (Loodon, 
1907),  221-234;  Chandi«e»t.  POorim  Walks  in  Rome  (New 
York  and  London.  1903),  107-108;  LesItiub  in  Did.  de  la  Bi- 
ble (Parifi,  1899),  All.  a.  v.  Cr^e^;  Analeda  Jurie  PcnHfUii, 
January.  1896,  II,  74.  76;  Mibun,  Die  HeUioen  Orte  (Vienna, 
1860)  U,  666  sq.;  Biancbini,  De  Tranekaione  Saerarwn  Ctm- 
abularum  ae  Pnuepii  Domint, 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Orime,  Ibipbdiubnt  of,  nolliCies  marriage  according 
to  ecclesiastical  law,  and  arises  from  adultery  ana 
homicide  separately  or  together.  The  Roman  civil 
law  prohibited  the  marriage  of  a  man  with  a  widow 
with  whom  he  had  committed  adulteiy  during  the  life- 
time of  her  husband.  There  is  serious  doubt  (Deere- 
tum,  Gratiani,  Pt.  II,  c.  xxxi,  q .  4 1)  whether  the  Church 
ever  accepted  this  law.  Ecclesiastical  law  since  the 
twdfth  century  certainly  supposes  other  circum- 
stances in  such  adultery  in  order  that  it  may  effect  a 
nullification  of  the  marriage. 

According  to  the  actual  law  (Decretal.  Gr^.  IX, 
Lib.  4  X  tit.  7:  De  eo  qui  duxit.  Cap.  i,  Propositimi 
--Cap.vi,  Significasti)  there  are  two  cases  in  which 
an  aoulterer  may  not  marrv  one  with  whom  the  crime 
was  committed:  (1)  When  the  adulterer  promises  to  the 
partner  in  guilt  marriaoe  after  the  death  of  the  other's 
legitimate  spouse;  (2)  When  the  two  attempted  mar- 
riage and  this  was  consummated  during  the  lifetime  of 
a  legitimate  spouse.  Hence  neither  adultery  alone 
without  promise  of  marriage  nor  the  promise  of  mar- 
riage witnout  adultery  forms  a  diriment,  or  nullifying, 
impediment.  The  promise  must  be  accepted,  and  if 
it  precede  the  adultery,  must  not  have  been  recalled 


ORIMOKT 


490 


OUSPZNA 


before  the  fiin.  Silence  alone  is  not  sufficient  evidence 
of  the  acceptance  of  the  promise.  The  adultery  to 
which  the  promise  ia  attached  must  be  formal  and 
known  by  both.  If  Titus  should  corrupt  a  woman 
who  believed  him  to  be  free,  he  could  marry  her  after 
his  wife's  death,  even  if  he  attempted  marriage  with 
her  during  his  wife's  life,  provided  she  were  unaware 
of  his  marriage. 

Affected  ignorance,  certainly,  and,  most  probably, 
crass  ignorance  does  not  excuse  from  the  sin  or  its 
penalties.  The  adultery  must  be  consummated,  but 
it  is  not  required  that  the  promise  imited  to  the  sin 
should  be  absolute,  nor,  most  probablv,  that  it  should 
be  sincere,  because  the  impeoiment  does  not  depend 
upon  the  value  of  the  promise,  which  is  essentially 
null,  and  because  a  fictitious  promise,  if  apparently 
true,  is  naturallv  inductive  to  the  sin;  and  this  the 
Church,  by  establishing  such  an  impediment,  strives 
to  prevent  as  far  as  possible.  In  regard  to  the  im- 
pemment,  it  is  indifferent  whether  the  promise  precede 
or  follow  the  adultery,  if  both  occur  during  tne  mar- 
riage. If  the  promise  were  made  during  the  life  of  a 
first  spouse,  and  the  adultery  were  committed  during 
the  lite  of  a  second,  the  impedimejit  would  be  doubt- 
ful. It  is  well  to  note  that  a  promise  of  two  persons  to 
marry  after  the  death  of  a  legitimate  spouse  is  recos- 
nised  as  criminal  and  null,  even  if  confirmed  by  oatn 
and  made  without  any  thought  of  adultery. 

One  murdering  a  spouse  to  marry  another  cannot 
contract  marriage  witn  this  other  (1)  when  there  was 
co-operation  in  the  murder  for  the  purpose  of  this 
marriage,  (2)  when,  without  co-operation  in  the  mur- 
der, adultery  was  committed  by  tnem,  and  the  murder 
committed  for  the  sole  purpose  of  their  contracting 
marriage.  Thus,  if  the  homicide  is  apart  from  adul- 
tery, both  must  concur  in  this  murder.  If  the  adultery 
occurs  with  the  homicide,  it  suffices  that  one  of  the 
guflty  should  take  part  in  the  murder.  In  both  cases, 
one  at  least  must  intend  to  many  the  other.  That  the 
adultery  and  homicide,  apart  or  joined,  form  a  diri- 
ment impediment  certain  conditions  are  necessary: 
(1)  the  homicide  must  take  place;  an  attempt  to  kill 
or  the  inffiction  of  a  woimd  cot  mortal  would  not 
entail  it ;  (2)  the  homicide  must  be  of  the  spouse  of  one 
of  those  who  wish  to  be  married :  so,  when  the  homi- 
cide is  apart  from  the  adultery,  both  must  be  accom- 
plices by  a  physical  or  moral  action  which  influences 
the  murder,  either  by  a  command  or  previous  ap- 
proval. Approval  of  the  event  after  its  occurrence 
does  not  STimce,  as  also  if  the  former  command  or  ap- 
proval had  beoi  recalled.  The  intention  of  marriage 
need  not  have  been  mentioned,  where  there  was  co- 
operation in  the  homicide.  ^  In  the  public  ecclesiasti- 
cal court  credence  is  not  given  to  uie  murderer  of  a 
spouse,  who  may  deny  the  intention  of  marrying  one 
with  whom  adulterous  intercourse  was  held.  This 
impediment  holds  if  only  one  of  the  parties  is  a  Chris- 
tian. The  Church  claims  the  ri^t  to  legislate  for  her 
children  in  their  relations  with  mfidels.  The  impedi- 
ment is  incurred  even  if  not  known.  The  Church  may 
dispense  from  it,  as  the  impediment  is  established  by 
her  authority.  In  the  case  of  public  homicide,  how- 
ever, whether  due  to  only  one  or  both  of  the  parties, 
the  pope  never  dispenses  (lAurentius,  no.  659). 

Crime,  from  a  canonical  standpoint,  at  times  carries 
with  it  its  own  legal  punishment,  at  others  it  awaits 
the  decision  of  a  court.  Thus  we  have  seen  its  effect 
in  causing  an  impediment  to  marriage.  For  certain 
crimes  determined  by  ecclesiastical  law,  the  "  right 
of  patronage"  may  lie  lost  to  the  guiltv  party  or,  in 
some  cases,  to  his  heirs;  ecclesiastical  benefices  may 
also  be  lost  to  the  holder  when  guilty  of  a  crime  deter- 
mined in  the  law.  Homicide,  fornication,  or  adul- 
teiy,  however,  would  not  necessarily  deprive  a  cleric 
of  his  benefice,  dignity,  or  office,  though  he  may  be 
deposed  by  his  superior  in  punishment  of  these  or  simi- 
lar crimes      Unleiss  the  law  is  explicit  in  determining 


Buch  privation  as  resulting  from  the  fact»  a  legfd  m« 
vestigation  is  required  for  the  punidmieatk  (See 
Impedimsntb;  Adultbrt;  Homicios;  Mubdbb.) 

Bbnedxct  XIV,  BuUarium,  I.  9.  eziu  (Pmto,  1839-46); 
Craxsson.  Manuote  Jur.  Can.  (8tb  ed..  Poitien,  1892).  Ill,  U, 
art.  xiv:  Waoneb,  Did.  de  droit  eanon.  (Paris,  1901),  a.  ▼.; 
FfilJB,  Be  imped,  et  diap,  matr,  (4th  ed.,  Loavain,  1803): 
BoflaiST.  De  McrametUo  matrimonii  (St.  J«an  de  MaiiiiaDiMi, 
1895),  III;  Heiner.  Grundriee  dee  kathoUuhtn  BktrethU 
(Mttneter.  1905),  151  sqq.— For  the  history  of  this  impedimeat 
see  Freisbiv,  OesehiehU  dea  kanoniechen  BhereekU  hia  turn 
Verfall  der  OloseenlitenUur  (Tabincen,  1888).  615  aaa.;  Euraiv. 
Le  mariage  en  droit  oanonique  (Paris,  1891),  I,  ^84  sqq.  uul 
passim. 

R.  L.  BUBtSBLL* 

Orimont,  Joseph  R.    See  Alaska. 

OriBiumy  DiocESB  of  (Grsoo-SIavonic  Rite),  in 
Croatia. — Crisium  is  the  Latin  name  of  a  little  town 
some  miles  north-east  of  Agram  (Zagreb),  on  the 
Glagovnitsa.  Its  Croatian  name  is  KrSetVtA  (pio» 
nomiced  KrizhevaU);  Slavic,  KriS;  Hungarian,  K5- 
rte ;  German,  Kreuz.  It  has  4,000  inhabitants ;  trade 
of  cattle,  wood,  and  wine. 

About  the  year  1600  numerous  Serfoa  emigrated 
from  Servia  and  Bosnia  to  Croatia,  where  they  found 
coreligionists,  known  to  historians  since  the  fouzw 
teenth  century  as  Wallachians.  The  emigrants  soon 
took  the  same  name.  Some  of  them  were  converted 
to  Catholicism  through  the  efforts  of  Dimitrovidi, 
Latin  Bishop  of  Agram,  who  granted  their  leader,  the 
monk  Simeon  Vratania,  the  monasteiv  of  St.  Micha^ 
on  Mount  Marsha,  near  Ivanits.  In  1611  Snnecm  y 
appointed  bishop  of  all  the  Catholic  SoiM;  he 
mained  a  staunch  friend  of  Rome,  as  did  his  succosa 
and  their  flock,  in  spite  of  defections  caused  bv  the 
schismatic  Servian  propaganda  and  conflicts  with  the 
Bishops  of  Agram.  Tney  bore  the  title  "  Episoopus 
Plateecensis ' '  from  Plat^ea  in  Boeotia,  while  the  govern- 
ment called  their  see  "Episoopatus  Svidnioensis",  a 
name  that  has  not  yet  been  explained  satisfactoi^y. 
In  1671  Bishop  Paul  Zorci6  accepted  for  himsdf  and 
his  successors  the  position  of  vicar-general  of  the 
Bishop  of  Agram  for  the  Catholics  of  the  Slavonio  Rite. 
It  was  not  until  16  June,  1777,  that  Pius  VI  le-estab- 
lished  the  Uniat  diocese  with  the  title  "Episoopatua 
Crisiensis".  Since  then  its  bishops  have  resided  at 
KriSevaS :  as  stated  above,  they  first  resided  at  Mount 
Marzha,  out  after  1690  had  no  settled  abode,  on  ao- 
oount  of  the  persecutions  caused  by  the  sdiismatto 
Serbs. 

The  list  of  the  bishops  is  given  by  Nilles  in  his 
"  Symbol®  ",  p.  liooriii  (index),  766-69.  The  Graeoo- 
Slavonic  Uniat  Diocese  of  KnsevaS,  suffragan  of  the 
Latin  Archbishop  of  Agram,  includes  to-£iy  20,700 
Catholics,  in  23  Servian  and  Ruthenian  parisheB  sit- 
uated in  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Dalmatia,  and  the  county 
of  Bdcs-Bodrog  in  Himgary.  The  languages  spoken 
are  Croatian,  Ruthenian,  and  Htm^arian;  we  bturgi- 
oal  language  is  of  course  Slavomc  There  are  2i 
secular  priests,  30  churches,  22  with  a  resident  priest, 
and  2  chapels.  The  schismatios  number  225,0GMD; 
there  are  also  in  this  territoiy  17,000  Calvinista^  4ff 
Lutherans,  and  7,(X)0  Jews. 

NiLLEB,  Symbelm  ad  iUuetramdam  hutorimm  ecdnim  ofienMiM 
(Innsbnicic,  1885).  703-775;  Lapaucxi,  Kariotae,  Povieat  i 
nijettopia  grada  i  okdice  (A^nm,  1879);  Mieeionea  CaOuiiem 
(Rome.  1907).  796. 

S.  Vailr^ 

Orispina,  Saint,  a  martyr  of  Africa  who  suffered 
during  the  Diocletian  persecution;  b.  at  Thagara  in 
the  Province  of  Africa;  d.  by  beheading  at  Thebeste 
in  Numidia,  5  December,  304.  Crispina  belonged  to 
a  distinguished  family  and  was  a  wealthy  matron  with 
children  At  the  time  of  the  persecution  she  was 
brought  before  the  proconsul  Anulinus;  on  being 
ordered  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods  she  declared  she  hon- 
oured only  one  God.  Her  head  was  i^ved  at  the 
command  of  the  judge,  and  she  was  exposed  to  public 
mockery,  but  she  reinained  steadfast  in  the  Faith  and 


OBZaFIN 


491 


fftntttSM 


ivaa  not  moved  even  by  the  teais  of  her  children. 
When  condemned  to  death,  she  thanked  God  and 
offered  her  head  with  joy  for  execution.  The  Acta  of 
her  martvrdom,  written  not  long  after  the  event,  form 
a  valuable  historical  document  of  the  period  of  the 
persecution.  The  day  of  St.  Crispina's  death  waa 
observed  in  the  time  of  8t.  Augustine;  in  his  sermons 
Augustine  repeatedly  mentions  her  name,  as  well 
known  in  Africa  and  worthy  to  be  held  in  the  same 
veneration  as  the  names  of  St.  Agnes  and  St.  Theda. 
Ruinart  in  his  collection  of  the  Acts  oi  the  martyrs 
gives  the  account  of  her  examination. 

BuTLBB,  Lives  of  the  SamtSt  5  Dec.:  Pxo  Fsanchi  db'  Cata- 
UERi,  in  Siudi  e  TesH  (Rome.  1002),  IX,  gives  a  new  edition  of 
th«  Acta;  Bonann,  MHanQee  (Farift,  1008).  383  sq.;  Auard, 
Hiatmn  dee  FenSeutume,  I V,  443  aq. 

Gabriil  Mbjsr. 

Orispin  and  Oiispfniaii,  Saints,  martvrs  of  the 
Earhr  Uhureh  who  were  beheaded  during  the  reign  of 
Diocletian;  the  date  of  their  execution  is  given  as  25 
October,  285  or  286.  It  is  stated  that  they  were 
brothers,  but  the  fact  has  not  been  positively  proved. 
The  lesend  relates  that  they  were  Romans  of  distin- 
guishea  descent  who  went  as  missionaries  of  the  Chris- 
tian Faith  to  Gaul  and  chose  Soissons  as  their  field  of 
li^our.  In  imitation  of  St.  Paul  they  worked  with 
their  haiulB,  miLlrmg  shoes,  and  earned  enough  by 
thenr  trade  to  suppMt  themselves  and  also  to  aid  the 
poor.  Durhig  ^e  Diocletian  persecution  th^  were 
broudbt  before  Maximianus  Herculius  whom  Diocle- 
tian Bad  appointed  oo-emporor.  At  first  Maximianus 
sought  to  turn  them  from  their  faith  by  alternate 
promises  and  threats.  But  they  replied:  ''Thy 
threats  do  not  terrify  us,  for  Ghnst  is  our  life,  and 
death  is  our  gain.  Thy  rank  and  possessions  are 
nous^  to  us.  tor  we  have  long  before  this  sacrificed 
thence  for  the  «ike  of  Christ  and  rejoice  in  what  we 
have  done.  If  thou  shouldst  acknowledge  and  love 
Christ  tiiou  wouldst  eive  not  only  all  the  treasures  of 
this  life,  but  even  the  ^ry  of  thy  crown  itself  in 
order  throiueh  ^e  exercise  of  compassion  to  win 
eternal  life.  When  Maximianus  saw  that  his  ef- 
forta  were  of  no  avafl,  he  gave  Crispin  and  Crispinian 
into  the  hands  of  the  governor  Riotiovams  (Kictius 
Varus),  a  most  crud  persecutor  of  the  Christians. 
Under  tiie  order  of  Rictiovarus  they  were  stretched 
on  the  rack,  thongs  were  cut  from  their  flesh,  and  awls 
were  driven  under  their  finger-nails.  A  millstone  was 
then  fastened  about  the  neck  of  each,  and  they  were 
thrown  hito  the  Aisne,  but  they  were  able  to  swim  to 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  river.  In  the  same  manner 
they  suif md  no  harm  from  a  mat  fire  in  which  Ric- 
tiovarus, in  despair,  sought  death  himself.  After- 
wards the  two  saints  were  beheaded  at  the  command 
ci  Maximianus. 

This  is  the  story  of  the  legend  winch  the  BoUandista 
have  incorporated  in  their  great  collection;  the  same 
account  is  found  in  various  Breviaries.  The  narrative 
says  that  a  large  church  was  built  over  the  graves  of 
the  two  saints,  consequently  the  legend  could  not  have 
arisen  until  a  later  age;  it  contains,  moreover,  manv 
details  that  have  little  probability  or  historical  worth 
and  seems  to  have  been  oompOea  from  various  fabu* 
loufl  sources.  In  the  sixth  century  a  stately  basilica 
was  erected  at  Soissons  over  the  graves  of  these  saints, 
and  St.  Eligius,  a  famous  goldsmith,  made  a  costly 
ihrine  for  the  head  of  St.  Crispinian.  Some  of  the 
lelics  of  Crispin  and  Crispinian  were  carried  to  Rome 
and  placed  m  the  churcn  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Pania- 
pema.  Other  relics  of  the  saints  were  given  by 
Charlemagne  to  ^e  cathedral,  dedicated  to  Crispin 
and  Crispinian,  which  he  founded  at  OsnabrQck. 
Crispin  and  Crispinian  are  the  patron  sainta  of  sho^ 
makers,  saddlers,  and  tanners.  Their  feast  falls  on 
25  October. 

Ada  33,,  Oet.,  XI,  405-640;  BASiNe^OouLD,  Lipee  4^  the 
3aiinU,  XII,  828;  Butxjbb.  lAvee  of  the  SaitUe,  25  Ootober;  BtO" 

9«u. «.  V,  Gabriel  Meibr. 


Oilapin  of  Vitarbo,  Blbsskd,  Friar  Minor  Cum' 
chin;  b.  at  Viterbo  in  1668;  d.  at  Home,  19  May, 
1750.  When  he  was  five  years  old,  his  pious  mother 
took  him  to  a  sanctuary  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  a  short 
distance  from  Viterbo,  where  she  consecrated  him  to 
the  Mother  of  God  and  placed  him  under  her  special 
protection.  The  child  grew  beyond  his  yean  in  virtue 
and  the  science  of  the  saints ;  so  that  the  townsiolk  of 
Viterbo  were  wont  to  call  him  il  SantareUOf  Ihe  Uttle 
saint.  As  Crispin  one  day  saw  the  Capuchin  novices 
walking  in  procession,  Ciod  inspired  him  with  the  de* 
aire  to  embrace  the  religious  life.  He  was  shortly 
afterwards  received  into  the  Franciscan  Carder  as  a 
simple  lay  brother.  Having  been  employed  for  some 
time  as  cook  in  the  convent  at  Viterbo,  he  was  sent  to 
Tolfa,  a  town  not  far  distant  from  Civitii  Vecdiia,  to 
fulfil  the  same  office.  Thence  he  was  sent  to  Rome 
and  finally  to  Albano.  Here  Crispin  was  visited  by 
men  of  the  world,  by  bishops  and  cardinals,  and  even 
by  the  pope  himself,  who  always  took  delight  in  con- 
versing with  the  humble  lay  brother.  It  was  Crispin's 
constant  endeavour  to  imitate  the  virtues  of  his  pa- 
tron, St.  Felix  of  Cantalice,  whom  he  had  chosen  as  his 
model  of  perfection  at  the  beginning  of  his  religious 
life.  like  St.  Felix,  he  used  to  call  himself  the  ass  or 
beast  of  burden  of  the  Capuchins,  and,  having  on  one 
occasion  been  asked  by  a  stranger  why  he  went  bare- 
headed, Crispin  answcaned  jocosely,  that  ''an  ass  doed 
not  wear  a  hat".  Enfeebled  by  old  age  and  by  his 
numerous  austerities,  he  was  sent  to  Rome  by  his  su- 
periors, there  to  end  his  holy  life.  His  body,  which 
even  at  the  present  time  is  still  in  a  remarkable  atate 
of  preservation,  rests  under  one  of  the  side  altars  in 
the  church  of  the  Capuchin  Fathers  in  Rome.  Blessed 
Crispin  was  solemnly  beatified  by  Pope  Pius  VII  in 
1806.    His  feast  is  celebrated  only  by  the  Capuchins. 

Lko,  Lives  of  the  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Ordenot  8L  . 
Francis  (Taunton.  1886),  II,  280-85. 

Stephen  M.  DoNoviJY. 

Oriterion  of  Truth*    See  Truth. 

Oriticism,  Biblical,  in  its  fullest  comprehension 
is  the  examination  of  the  literaiy  origins  ana  historical 
values  of  the  books  composing  the  Bible,  with  the 
state  in  which  these  exist  at  the  present  day.  Since 
the  sacred  Scriptures  have  come  down  in  a  great  vari- 
ety of  copies  and  ancient  vensions^  showing  more  or 
less  di  veigence  of  text,  it  is  the  provmce  of  that  depart- 
ment of  Biblical  criticism  which  is  called  textual,  or 
lower,  to  study  these  documents  with  a  view  to  arriv- 
ing at  the  purest  possible  text  of  the  sacred  books. 
The  name  higher  criticism  was  first  employed  by  the 
German  Biblical  scholar  Eichhom^  in  tne  second  edi- 
tion of  his  "Einleitung",  appearing  in  1787.  It  is 
not,  as  supposed  by  some,  an  arrogant  denomination, 
assuming  superior  wisdom,  but  it  has  come  into  use 
because  this  sort  of  criticism  deals  with  the  laiger 
aspects  of  Bible  study:  viz.,  with  the  authorship,  date, 
composition,  and  autnority  of  whole  books  or  large 
sections,  as  distinguished  from  the  discussion  of  tex- 
tual minutise,  which  is  the  sphere  of  the  lower,  or 
textual,  criticism.  The  subject  will,  therefore,  be 
treated  in  this  article  under  the  two  heads:  L  Highsr 
Criticism;  II.  Textual  Criticism. 

I,  Higher  Criticism. — ^Taken  in  this  limited  sense, 
Biblical  criticism,  in  the  light  of  modem  philologiGEd, 
historical,  and  archseological  science,  and  oy  mewods 
which  are  recent  In  their  development,  subjects  to 
severe  tests  the  previously  accepted  and  traditional 
views  on  the  human  authorship,  the  time  and  manner 
of  composition,  of  the  sacred  writings,  and  discrimi* 
nates  as  to  their  objective  historical  value.  In  reach- 
ing its  results  it  sets  more  store  on  evidences  internal 
to  the  books  than  on  external  traditions  or  attesta- 
tions, and  its  undeniable  effect  is  to  depreciate  tradi- 
tion m  a  great  measure,  so  that  there  exists  a  shari^y 


OlttTIOtSlt 


402 


dtanoiul 


drawn  line  between  the  exegetes  of  the  critical  and 
those  of  the  traditional  school.  In  the  process  by 
whidi  the  critics  arrive  at  th^ir  conclusions  there  is  a 
divergence  of  attitude  towards  the  supernatural  ele- 
ment in  Holy  Writ.  Those  of  the  rationalistic  wing 
ignore,  and  at  least  tacitly  deny,  inspiration  in  the 
theological  meaning  of  the  term,  and  without  any 
doctrinal  preoccupations,  except  some  hostile  to  the 
supernatural,  prci^eed  to  apply  critical  tests  to  the 
Scriptures,  in  tne  same  manner  as  if  they  were  merely 
himian  productions.  Moderate  critics  of  Protestant 
persuasion — a  school  that  predominates  in  Great 
Britain — ^hold  to  inspiration  and  revelation,  though 
with  a  freedom  incompatible  with  Catholic  orthodoxy. 
Catholic  Biblical  critics,  while  taking  as  postulates  the 
plenary  inspiration  and  the  inerrancy  of  the  sacred 
Writings,  admit  in  a  laxge  measure  the  literary  and 
historic  conclusions  reached  by  non-Catholic  work- 
ers in  this  field,  and  maintain  that  these  are  not  ex- 
cluded by  Catholic  faith.  With  the  exception  of 
Ahh6  Loisy  and  his  followers,  no  Catholic  scholar  has 
claimed  autonomy  or  complete  independence  for  criti- 
cism, all  proceedmg  on  the  principle  that'  it  cannot 
validly,  and  may  not  lawfully,  contradict  the  estab- 
liiE^ed  dogmatic  teaching  of  the  Church.  Its  Christian 
exponents  insist  that  a  reverent  criticism  is  quite 
within  its  rights  in  sifting  the  elements  which  enter 
mto  human  aspects  of  tne  Bible,  as  a  means  of  a 
better  understanding  of  the  written  word,  since  its 
component  parts  were  given  their  form  by  men  in 
certain  historical  environments  and  under  some  of 
the  limitations  of  their  age  and  place,  and  sinpe,  more- 
over, inspiration  does  not  dispense  with  ordinary  hu- 
man industry  and  methods  m  literary  composition. 
(See  Inspiration.) 
Higher  Criticism  may  be  called  a  science,  though 
•  its  processes  and  results  do  not  admit  of  nicety  of 
control  and  demonstration,  as  its  principles  are  of  the 
moral-psychological  order.  Hence  its  conclusions, 
even  in  tne  most  favourable  circumstances,  attain  to 
no  greater  force  than  what  arises  from  a  oonvei^nce 
of  probabilities,  begetting  a  moral  conviction.  While 
some  attempts  have  been  made  to  elaborate  a  system 
of  canons  for  the  higher  criticism,  it  has  not,  and 
probably  never  will  have,  a  strictly  defined  and  gen- 
erally accepted  code  of  principles  and  rules.  Some 
broad  principles,  however,  aro  universally  admitted 
by  critical  scholars.  A  fundamental  one  is  that  a 
literary  work  always  betrays  the  imprint  of  the  age 
and  environment  in  which  it  was  produced*  another 
is  that  a  plurality  of  authors  is  proved  by  weU-marked 
differences  of  diction  and  style,  at  least  when 
these  coincide  with  distinctions  m  view-point  or  dis- 
crepancies in  a  double  treatment  of  the  same  subject. 
A  tnird  received  canon  holds  to  a  radical  dissimilarity 
between  ancient  Semitic  and  modem  Occidental,  or 
Aryan^  methods  of  composition. 

History. — Before  the  eighteenth  century, — The  early 
ecclesiastical  wnters  wero  imconscious  of  nearly  all 
the  problems  to  which  criticism  has  ^ven  rise.  Their 
attention  was  concentrated  on  the  Divine  content  and 
authority  of  sacred  Scripture,  and,  looking  almost 
exclusively  at  the  Divine  side,  they  deemed  as  of 
trifling  account  questions  of  authorship,  date,  com- 
position, accepting  unreservedly  for  these  points  such 
traditions  as  the  Jewish  Church  had  handed  down, 
all  the  more  readily  that  Christ  Himself  seemed  to 
have  given  various  of  these  traditions  His  supreme 
confirmation.  As  for  the  N.  T.,  tradition  was  the 
deterininiiig  factor  here  too.  As  exceptions  we  may 
note  that  Origen  concluded  partly  from  internal  evi- 
dence that  St.  Paul  could  scarcely  have  written  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  and  his  disciple  Dionysius 
adduced  linguistic  erounds  for  rejecting  the  Apoca- 
lypse as  a  work  of  St.  John.  The  Fathers  saw  in 
every  sentence  of  the  Scripture  a  pregnant  oracle  of 
Cnrl.    Apparent  contradictions  and  other  difficulties 


were  solved  without  taking  possible  human  imperfec- 
tion into  view.    Only  in  a  few  isolated  passages  does 
St.  Jerome  seem  to  hint  at  such  in  connexion  with 
history.    Except  in  regard  to  the  preservation  of 
the  sacred  text  there  was  nothing  to  elicit  a  critical 
view  of  the  Bible  in  the  age  of  the  Fathers,  and 
this  applies  also  to  liie    Scholastic  period.    Even 
the  Humanist  movement  preceding  the  Reforma- 
tion ^ve  no  impulse  to  tne  critical  spirit  beyond 
fostering  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  in  their  original 
lauguages.    It  was  not  a  Humanist,  but  the  erratic 
Reformer  Carlstadt,  who  first  broke  with  tradition  on 
the  authorship  of  an  inspired  book  by  declaring  that 
Moses  could  not  have  written  the  Pentateuch,  because 
the  account  of  his  death  is  in  the  same  style  as  the 
rest  of  his  book.    But  though  Caristadt  adduced  a 
critical  argument  he  caimot  be  styled  a  critic.   Hobbea 
(1651),  Pereyre  (1655),  Spinosa  (1670)  attacked  the 
Mosaic  authorship,  but  merely  incidentally,  in  works 
in  which  anything  like  a  systematic  criticism  found 
no  place.    A  French  priest,  Richard  Simon  (163^ 
1712),  was  the  first  who  subjected  the  general  ques- 
tions concerning  the  Bible  to  a  treatment  whidi  was 
at  once  comprehensive  in  scope  and  scientific  in 
method.    Simon  is  the  forerunner  of  modem  BiWcal 
criticism.     The    broadening   opportunities  for   the 
study  of  Oriental  languages,  a  keen  and  methodical 
mind,  probably,  too,  a  reaction  against  the  rieid  view 
of  the  Bible  which  reigned  amongst  both  (^Um^cs 
and  Protestants  of  the  age  were  the  factors  which 
produced  Simon's  first  great  work,  the  "Histoire 
critique  du  Vieux  Testament",  whicn  was  published 
in  1678.    In  this  he  called  attention  to  the  douUe 
narratives  and  variation  of  style  in  the  Pentateuch, 
and  thence  deduced  that,  aside  from  the  legal  portion, 
which  Moses  himself  had  written  down,  much  of  the 
remaining  matter  was  the  work  of  several  inspired 
annalists,  a  class  to  whom  are  due  the  later  historical 
books,  and  who  in  subsequent  generations  added 
touches  to  the  inspired  histories  by  their  predecessors. 
This  theory  did  not  survive  its   author,  but  the  use 
of  internal  evidence  by  which  Simon  arrived  at  it 
entitles  him  to  be  called  the  father  of  Biblical  criti- 
cism.   His  novel  view  of  the  Mosaic  books  excited 
only  condemnation,  and  his  critical  work,  being  an 
isolated  effort  which  did  not  win  the  support  of  a 
school,  found  appreciation  only  in  recent  times.'   A 
continuously  developing  higher  criticism  was  not  to 
begin  till  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.    But 
a  capital  distinction  is  to  be  made  between  criticism 
as  applied  to  the  Old  and  as  applied  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment.  The  two  have  followed  (ufferent  courses.    O.-T. 
criticism  has  been  developed  along  the  lines  of  lingu- 
istic and  historic  research.  Philosophico-reliaous  prej- 
udices have  been  kept  in  the  background.    But  in  re- 
spect to  the  N.  T.,  criticism  be^an  as  the  outgrowth  of 
pnUoBophic  speculations  of  a  distinctly  anti-Christian 
character  ana,  as  exercised  by  rationuists  and  liberal 
Protestants,  has  not  yet  freed  itself  from  the  sway  of 
such  a  priori  principles,  though  it  has  tended  to  prow 
more  positive — that  is,  more  genuinely  critical — m  its 
methods. 

Since  the  eighteenth  century.  (1)  Old-Testament 
Criticism  outside  the  Church. — ^In  1753  Jean  Astruc, 
a  French  Catholic  physician  of  considerable  note,  pub- 
lished a  little  book,  "Conjectures  sur  les  m^moires 
originaux  dont  il  parait  que  Molse  s'est  sari  pour 
composer  le  livro  de  la  Gendse'',  in  which  he  conjec- 
tured, from  the  alternating  use  of  two  names  of  God 
in  the  Hebrew  Genesis,  that  Moses  had  inooiporated 
therein  two  me-existins  documents,  one  of  which 
employed  Elohxm  and  the  other  Jehovah.  The  idea 
attracted  little  attention  till  it  was  taken  up  by  a 
German  scholar,  who,  however,  claims  to  have  made 
the  discovery  independently.  This  was  Johaim  Gott- 
fried Eichhom,  the  author  of  an  Introduction  to  the 
0.  T.,  issued  1780-83,  and  distinguished  by  vigour 


OftlTlOtStt 


493 


OftinOIBM 


and  scientific  acumen.  Eichhom  was  indebted  not  a 
little  to  his  friend  Herder,  the  noted  Gennan  litUra- 
^euTj  and  the  two  conjointly  originated  the  critical 
habit  of  looking  upon  the  O.  T.  as  a  collection  of 
Oriental  literature  whose  severaj  parts  are  to  be  read 
and  interpreted  as  the  productions  of  the  Semitic 
genius.  Eichhom  greatly  developed  Astruc's  hypotii- 
esis  by  observing  that  the  Elohim  and  J&ovah 
sections  of  Genesis  bear  other  characteristics,  and  by 
extending  the  analysis  thus  derived  to  the  whole  Pen- 
tateuch. But  the  Gennan  savant  was  not  so  orthodox 
an  adherent  of  the  Mosaic  authorship  as  was  Astruc, 
since  he  left  to  the  Hebrew  l^islator  a  very  uncertain 
part  of  the  work.  When  Eichhom  composed  his 
''Introduction''  he  was  somewhat  influenced  by  free- 
thinking  views  which  later  became  very  pronounced. 
His  criticism,  therefore,  had  as  its  antecedents  not 
only  Astmc's  fmitful  conjecture  and  Herder's  poetic 
insight  into  Oriental  literature,  but  also  eighteenth- 
century  German  rationalism.  This  was  in  part  native 
to  the  soil,  but  it  drew  mudi  nurture  from  the  ideas 
of  the  English  Deists  and  Sceptics,  who  flourished  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  in  the 
first  part  of  the  eighteenth.  Such  authors  as  Blount 
(1654-93)  and  Collins  (1676-1729)  had  impugned 
miracles  and  prophecy  and  in  general  the  authority 
of  the  O.-T.  writings.  The  standpoint  of  the  German 
Orientalist  Reimarus  was  that  of  ^e  En^ish  Deists; 
the  whole  drift  of  his  "  WolfenbUttel  Fragments",  first 
appearing  1774-78,  is  one  of  antagonism  to  the  super- 
natural. Lessing  (1729-81),  his  literary  executor, 
without  departing  so  oflFensivelv  from  the  path  of 
orthodoxy,  defended  the  fullest  freedom  of  discussion 
in  theolomcal  matters.  Ck)ntemporaiy  with  Lessine 
waa  J.  S.  Semler,  who  rejected  inspiration,  attributed 
a  mythical  character  to  episodes  in  O.-T.  historical 
books,  and,  on  lines  parallel  to  Lc^ssing's  philosophy 
of  religion,  distinguished  in  Scripture  elements  of  per- 
manent and  others  of  transitory  and  negligible  value. 
Eichhom  is  the  first  typical  representative  of 
modem  Biblical  criticism,  the  especial  home  of  which 
has  been  Germany.  He  ^ave  the  first  impulse  to  the 
literary  analysis  of  the  Scriptures,  applyins;  it  not  only 
to  the  Pentateuch,  but  also  to  la&iQa  and  other  por- 
tions of  the  O.  T.  Outside  of  Germany  the  views  of 
Eichhom  and  his  school  found  little  currency.  Yet 
it  was  a  Catholic  priest  of  Scottish  origin,  Alexander 
Geddes  (1737-1802),  who  broached  a  theory  of  the 
origin  of  the  Five  Books  (to  which  he  attached  Josue) 
exceeding  in  boldness  either  Simon's  or  Eichhom's. 
This  was  the  well-known  "Fragment"  hypothesis, 
which  reduced  the  Pentateuch  to  a  collection  of  frag- 
mentaipr  sections  partlv  of  Mosaic  origin,  but  put  to- 
other m  the  reim  of  Solomon.  Geddes'  opinion  was 
mtroduced  into  Germany  in  1805  by  Vater.  For  the 
fuller  account  of  this  and  later  stages  of  the  criticism  of 
the  Pentateuch  the  reader  is  ref  errS  to  the  article  under 
that  heading.  With  some  essays  of  a  young  scholar, 
De  Wette,  which  were  published  1805-07,  properly 
bc^n  the  historical  criticism  of  the  Bible.  De  Wette 
joined  to  the  evidences  supplied  by  vocabulary  and 
style  (i.  e.  those  of  literary  cnticism)  arguments  drawn 
from  history,  as  contained  in  the  sacred  narratives 
themselves^  and  the  discoveries  of  antiauarian  re- 
search. He  refused  to  find  anything  but  legend  and 
poetry  in  the  Pentateuch,  though  ne  granted  it  a 
unity  of  plan,  and  a  development  in  accordance  with 
his  conception  of  Israel's  history,  thus  laying  the 
foundation  for  the  leading  hypothesis  of  the  present 
day.  De  Wette's  ideas  also  furnished  the  basis 
for  the  Supplement-theory,  ennstematized  later  by 
Bleek  and  others.  He  was  the  first  to  attack  the 
historical  character  of  the  books  of  Paralipomenon,  or 
Chronicles.  Bleek  (1793-1859),  Ewald  (1803-75), 
and  the  Catholic  Movere  (1806-56).  while  following 
critical  methods,  opposed  the  purely  n^ative  criti- 
dsm  of  De  Wette  and  his  School,  and  sought  to  save 


the  authenticity  of  some  Mosaic  books  and  Davidio 
psalms  by  sacrificing  that  of  others.  Bleek  revived, 
and  brought  into  prominence,  the  conclusion  of 
Geddes^  that  the  book  of  Josue  is  in  close  literary 
connexion  with  the  first  five  books  of  the  Bible,  and 
thenceforth  the  idea  of  a  Hexateuch,  or  sixfold  work, 
has  been  maintained  by  advanced  exegetes.  Hup- 
feld,  in  1853,  found  four  instead  of  three  documents 
in  the  Pentateuch,  vis.,  the  first  Elohist,  comprising 
the  priestly  law,  a  second  Elohist  (hiuerto  unsus- 
pected except  by  a  forgotten  investigator,  Ilgen),  the 
Jehovist,  and  the  Deuteronomist.  He  allowed  to 
none  of  these  a  Mosaic  origin.  With  Hupfeld's  view 
the  idea  of  one  laige  source,  or  Orundschrift,  supple- 
mented by  smaller  ones,  began  to  give  place  to  the 
'^  Document"  hypothesis.  Meanwhile  these  conclu- 
sions, so  subversive  of  ancient  traditions  regxuding  the 
Five  Books,  were  stoutly  contested  by  a  number  of 
German  scnolars.  prominent  among  whom  stood 
Hanke,  H&vemick,  Hengstenbem,  and  Keil,  among 
Protestants;  and  Jahn,  Hug,  Hemst,  and  Welte,  rep- 
resenting Catholic  learning.  These,  while  refusing  to 
allow  the  testimony  of  Jewish  tradition  to  be  mled  out 
of  court  as  invalid  against  internal  evidence,  were 
compelled  to  employ  the  methods  of  their  adversaries 
in  defending  the  time-honoured  views.  The  questions 
were  a^tated  only  in  countries  where  Protestantism 
predominated,  and,  among  these,  in  England  the  eon- 
^rvative  views  were  strongly  entrench^. 

The  critical  dissection  of  books  was  and  is  accom- 
plidhed  on  the  groUnd  of  diversity  of  vocabulary  and 
style,  the  phenomena  of  double  narratives  of  the  same 
event  varying  from  each  other,  it  is  jclaimed,  to  the 
extent  of  discrepancy,  and  differences  of  religious  con- 
ceptions. The  critics  appeal  for  confirmation  of  this 
literary  analysis  to  the  historical  books.  For  ex- 
ample, Moses  could  not  have  enacted  an  elaborate 
ritual  legislation  for  a  people  leading  a  nomad  life  in 
the  desert,  especially  since  we  find  (say  the  critics)  no 
trace  of  its  oDservance  in  the  earliest  periods  of  Is- 
rael's settled  existence.  These  and  like  tests  are  ap- 
plied to  nearly  every  book  of  the  O.  T.,  and  result  m 
conclusions  which,  if  allowed,  profoundly  modify  the 
traditional  beliefs  regarding  tne  authorship  and  in- 
tegrity of  these  Scriptures^  and  are  incompatible  with 
any  strict  notion  of  their  merrancy. 

The  Hegelian  principle  of  evolution  has  undoubt- 
edly influenced  German  criticism,  and  indirectly  Bibli- 
cal criticism  in  general.  Applied  to  religion,  it  has 
powerfully  helped  to  b^t  a  tendency  to  regard  the 
religion  of  Israel  as  evolved  by  processes  not  tran- 
scending nature,  from  a  polytiheistic  worship  of  the 
elements  to  a  spiritual  ana  etnical  monotheism.  This 
theoiy  was  finst  elaborated  by  Abram  Kuenen,  a 
Dutch  theologian,  in  his  "Religion  of  Isracr*  (1860- 
70).  Without  being  essential  to.  it  harmonises  with 
the  current  system  of  Pentateucnal  criticism,  some- 
times called  "  the  Development  Hypothesis",  but  better 
known  as  "  the  Grafian  .  This  hypothesis  is  accepted 
to-day  by  the  great  body  of  non-Catholic  Biblical 
scholarship.  It  makes  the  Pentateuch  a  growth  formed 
by  the  piecing  and  interlacing  together  of  documents 
representing  (Sstinct  epochs.  Of  these  the  oldest  is  the 
Jenovistic,  or  J,  dating  from  the  ninth  century  B.  c. ;  E, 
the  Elohistic  work,  was  composed  a  little  later.  These 
elements  are  prophetic  in  spirit  and  narrative  in  mat- 
ter. D,  the  Deuteronomic  Code,  was  the  organ  and 
instmment  of  the  prophetic  reform  imder  Joeias;  it 
appeared  621  b.  c.  P,  the  great  document  containing 
the  Priestly  Code,  was  drawn  up  after  the  Babylonian 
Exile,  and  is  the  outcome  of  the  sacerdotal  and  ritual 
formalism  distinjpuishing  the  restored  Jewish  com- 
munity; it  therefore  dates  from  the  fifth  centuir  b.  c. 
This  ingenious  and  coherent  hypothesis  was  formu- 
lated first  by  E.  Reuss  of  the  University  of  StrasbuiKi 
but  presented  to  the  public  many  years  later  (1866) 
by  hte  disciple  H.  K  Graf.    It  was  skilfully  elabomted 


OBmoisit 


401 


O&ITmiSM 


by  Julius  Wellhausen,  professor  (in  1008)  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  GOttingen,  in  workspubllshed  in  1883  and 
1880  (''Prolegomena  to  the  fi^toiy  of  Israel"  and 
^'Compoflition  of  the  Hexateuch  and  the  Historical 
Books  of  tie  O.  T.'O.  and  to-day  it  dominates  the 
critical  treatment  of  tne  Hexateuch.  The  shifting  of 
the  Priestly  Code  (formerly  called  the  First  Elohist) 
from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  in  time,  a  characteristic 
of  the  Grafian  system,  has  had  a  marked  influence  on 
the  drift  of  O.  T.  criticism  in  general,  notablv  with 
regard  to  the  books  of  Paralipomenon.  It  has  re- 
versed the  chronological  order  of  the  prophetical  and 
priestly  elements  running  through  the  greater  part  of 
the  0.  T. 

Only  within  the  last  two  decades  has  hi^er  criti- 
cism made  notable  progress  in  English-speakmg  lands, 
and  this  has  been  rendered  possible  Irv-  the  moderation 
of  its  leading  si)oke8man  there.  F'oremost  among 
these  semi-orthodox  critics  of  the  O.  T.  is  Professor 
Driver  of  Oxford,  whose  "Introduction  to  the  Ldtera- 
t\ire  of  the  Old  Testament"  first  appeared  in  1891. 
W.  Robertson  S^iith  m  ''The  Old  Testament  and  the 
Jewish  Church"  had  previously  (1880),  though  lees 
systematically,  presented  the  Grafian  hypothesis  to 
the  English-speaking  world.  The  results  of  British 
conservative  criticism  are  embodied  in  Hastingps' 
"Dictionary  of  the  Bible",  while  the  radical  wing  in 
y.ng|<»u^  is  represented  by  the  "Encycloppdia  Sib- 
lica"  edited  by  Professors  Cheyne  and  Black.  In 
America  most  of  the  conclusions-  of  German  criticism 
have  found  advocates  in  Professors  0.  H.  Br^gs 
("  The  Bible,  the  Church  and  Reason  ",  1892 ;  "  Higher 
Criticism  of  the  Hexateuch",  1893),  H.  P.  Smith,  and 
C.  H.  Toy. 

The  higher  criticism  claims  to  have  discerned  0'eat 
inequalities  in  the  value  of  those  portions  of  the  0.  T. 
which  are  historical  in  form.  In  the  same  book  we 
may  find,  it  asserts,  myth,  legend,  and  material  of 
real  historical  worth,  the  last  of  these  elements  being 
abundant  in  Judges  and  the  Books  of  Kings,  though 
even  here  a  careful  sifting  must  be  used.  In  parts  of 
the  Hexateuch,  especially  in  the  priestly  document 
and  the  cognate  Paralii>omenon  writing,  history  is 
freely  idealised,  and  existing  institutions  are  projected 
artificially  into  the  remote  past.  Esther.  Tobias, 
Judith,  Jonas,  and  portions  of  XL  Machabees  belong  to 
the  class  of  Jewish  Ha^idah,  or  moralizing  fictions. 
Tlie  Psalms  have  few  u  any  compositions  by  David; 
they  are  the  religious  poetry  of  Israel.  Isaias  is  a 
composite,  containing  messages  of  prophets  widely 
separated  in  time  and  drcmnstances.  The  prophets 
spoke  and  wrote  primarily  in  view  of  definite  contem- 
porary situatioDB.  Job  is  an  epic,  and  Canticles  a 
pastoral  drama.  The  book  of  Daniel  is  an  apocalypse 
of  the  Machabean  period,  describing  history  of  the 
past  and  present  under  tne  semblance  of  visions  of 
the  future.  To  conclude  this  outline  of  the  critical 
results,  the  human  element  in  Scripture  is  given 
prominence  and  represented  as  clothed  with  the  im- 
perfections, limitations,  and  errors  of  the  times  of  its 
origin;  many  books  are  exhibited  as  the  products  of 
successive  literary  accretions,  excluding  any  unity  of 
authorship;  in  fact,  for  most  of  the  histories,  the  un- 
known wntere  retire  into  the  shadow  to  give  place  to 
the  unifying  labours  of  the  equally  unknown  "redac- 
tor" or ''redactocs". 

(2)  The  Reaction  against  Criticism. — This  has  been 
aided  by  the  antithesis  between  the  conclusions  of 
certain  Assyriologists  of  note  (viz.,  A.  H.  Sayce  and 
F.  Hommd[)  and  the  prevailing  school  of  criticism. 
Recent  discoveries  in  fcypt,  Mesopotamia,  and  Per- 
sia prove  that  a  developed  civihzation  existed  in 
Western  Asia  in  times  contemporary  with  Abraham, 
and  eariier.  {See  Babylonia;  Assyria.)  The  in- 
ference drawn  oy  the  above  scientists  (Sayce,  ''Hi^er 
Criticism  and  the  Verdict  of  the  Monuments",  V8Q5; 
Hommel,  ''Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition",  tr.,  1897)  is 


that  the  elaborate  ritual  and  legal  code  of  the  Lsraeliieft 
could  well  have  been  framed  by  Moses.  They  chaijge 
the  critics  with  not  taking  Onental  discoveries  sum- 
eiently  into  account,  and  ai^^e  that,  since  the  monu- 
ments confirm  the  substantial  trutn  of  some  of  the 
historical  books,  a  presumption  is  raised  in  favour  of 
the  veracity  of  Hebrew  hterature  in  general.  Hie 
historical  character  of  the  narratives  is  upheld  bj 
other  considerations  of  a  more  minute  and  technical 
nature.  In  America  the  old  views  of  the  Bible  were 
defended  with  zeal  and  learmns  by  Dr.  William  IL 
Green,  of  Princeton,  author  of  a  series  of  Biblical 
works  extending  from  1863  to  1899;  also  by  E.  C. 
Bissel  and  W.  L.  Baxter.  In  Great  Britain  tne  con- 
servatives have  been  represented  in  rec^t  times  by 
Alfred  Cave,  J.  J.  Lias,  and  others.  In  Germany, 
J.  K.  F.  Keil,  who  died  in  1888,  was  the  last  ex^ete 
of  international  name  who  stood  without  compromise 
for  tradition.  But  a  contemporary  group  of  Protes- 
tant German  theologians  and  Orientafists  nave  cham- 
pioned the  claims  of  the  O.  T.  as  a  Divinely  inspired 
literature,  whose  narratives,  on  the  whole,  are  worthy 
of  belief.  Prominent  among  these  are  Dr.  F.  EL 
Kdnig  of  Bonn  (''Neue  Prinzipien  der  alttestament- 
lichen  Kritik",  1902.  ''Bibel-Babel  Frage  und  die 
wissenschaftlicne  Metnode",  1904);  Julius  B(ihm,  a 
pastor;  Dr.  Samuel  Oettli,  professor  at  Greifswald. 
llie  resistance  to  the  so-called  scientific  criticism  in 
Germany  has  been  greatly  stimulated  by  the  radical 
positions  recently  taken  by  some  Assynologists,  be- 
ginning  with  a  lecture  delivered  in  1902  before  the 
German  court  by  Friedrich  Delitzsch.  The  still- 
continuing  discussion  it  provoked  is  known  as  the 
Bibel-Babel  controversy.  Delitzsch.  Jensen,  and 
their  followers  contend  that  the  Bible  stories  of  the 
Creation,  the  Fall,  the  Delu^,  etc.  were  borrowed  by 
the  Hebrews  from  Babylonia,  where  they  existed  in 
their  pure  and  original  form.  This  school  relegates 
all  the  events  and  personages  of  Genesis  to  the  region 
of  myths  and  attributes  a  Chaldean  origin  to  the 
Jewish  conception  of  Paradise  and  Sheol,  angels  and 
devils.  Of  still  more  recent  beginning  and  extrav- 
agant character  is  the  theory  of  astral  myths  de* 
fended  by  Stucken,  Winckler,  and  Jeremias,  according 
to  which  the  narrations  not  only  of  the  Pentateuch, 
but  of  laige  portions  of  the  later  books  as  well,  repre- 
sent in  human  guise  merely  the  nature  and  movements 
of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

In  replying  to  the  critical  systems,  conservatives, 
both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  re-enforoe  the  argument 
from  Jewish  and  Christian  traditions  by  methods  bor- 
rowed from  their  opponents;  linguistic  distinctions 
are  coimtered  by  lin^iistic  aiguments,  and  the  tradi- 
tionists  also  employ  tne  process  of  comparing  the  data 
of  one  book  with  another,  in  an  endeavour  to  bring 
aU  into  harmony.  Not  the  methods  so  much  as  the 
conclusions  of  criticism  are  impugned.  The  difference 
is  largely  one  of  interpretation.  However,  the  con- 
servatives complain  tnat  the  critics  arbitrarily  rule 
out  as  interpolations  or  late  comments  passages  whidi 
are  unfavourable  to  their  hypotheses.  The  advocates 
of  tradition  also  chaige  the  opposite  school  with  being 
swayed  by  purely  subjective  lancies,  and  in  the  oase^ 
the  more  advanced  criticism,  by  philoaophico-reli^pous 
prejudices.  Moreover,  they  assert  that  sudi  a  piece- 
meal formation  of  a  book  by  successive  strata,  tis  is 
alleeed  for  many  parts  of  the  0.  T.  is  without  analogy 
in  the  history  ot  literature.  The  Catholic  criticism  of 
the  O.  T.  will  be  described  in  a  separate  section  of  this 
article. 

(3)  New-Testament  Criticism  Outside  the  Church. 
/—Before  the  ei^teenth  century  N.-T.  criticism  did 
not  go  beyond  uiat  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  texts,  if 
we  except  the  ancient  remarks  on  the  autiioiship  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  the  Apooalypse  al- 
ready noticed.  When  the  German  Rationalism  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  in  imitation  of  the  English  Deism 


0EITI0I8M 


495 


OBI7Z0ISM 


of  the  seventeenth,  had  discarded  the  supernatural, 
the  N.  T.  became  the  first  object  of  a  systematic  at- 
tack.  Reimanis  (1094-1768)  assailed  the  motives  of 
its  writers  and  cast  aspersions  on  the  honesty  of  Jesus 
Himself.  J.  S.  Semler  (1725-91)  used  the  greatest 
latitude  in  discussing  the  origin  and  credibility  of  the 
sacred  Scriptures,  arguing  that  these  subjects  should 
be  dealt  with  without  re^u^  to  any  Divine  content. 
Semler  was  the  first  to  question  the  authenticity  of 
N.-T.  books  from  a  criti<»il  standpoint.  His  exegeti- 
cal  principles,  if  admitted,  woulci  largely  destroy  the 
autnority  of  the  Gospels.  Paulus  (1761-1861),  pro- 
fessor at  Jena  and  Heidelberg,  granted  the  genuineness 
of  the  (jrospels,  and  their  au&ors'  honesty  of  purpose, 
but  taught  that  in  narratingthe  miraculous  and  super- 
natural the  Apostles  and  Evangelists  recorded  tneir 
delusions,  and  that  all  the  alleged  superhumsun  occur- 
rences are  to  be  explained  by  merely  natural  causes* 
£ichhom,  the  pioneer  of  modem  German  criticism, 
carried  his  inquiries  into  the  field  of  the  N.  T.  and, 
beginning  with  1794,  proposed  a  theory  to  explain 
the  similarities  and  differences  of  the  Synoptic 
Gospels,  i.  e.  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke.  Some 
phases  of  what  is  now  known  as  "the  Synoptic 
Problem '^  were  examined  bv  Griesbach  as  early  as 
1776,  and  again,  in  1781,  by  a  posthumous  essay 
of  Lessing  treating  of  the  Evangelists  ''considered 
simply  as  human  historians".  The  problem  was 
first  clearly  formulated  by  Lachmann  in  1835. 
The  dangerous  tendencies  of  the  rationalistic  writers 
were  ably  combated  by  J.  L.  Hug,  a  Catholic  exegete, 
whose  ''Introduction  to  the  N.  T."  was  completed  in 
1808.  Schleiermacher  (1768-1834)  was  the  earliest 
of  those  German  theologians  who  acknowledge  the 
religious  force  of  the  sacred  writings,  but  imperil  their 
authority  by  a  free  and  independent  treatment  of 
their  origin  and  historical  contents;  his  view  of  the 
N.  T.  was  influenced  by  Semler's  criticisms.  Some- 
what akin  to  Schleiermacher's  attitude  is  that  of  De 
Wette,  but  his  conclusions  are  often  negative  and 
doubtful.  The  Evangelistic  school  of  rrotestant 
German  commentators,  represented  earliest  b^r  Gue- 
ridce,  Olshausen,  Neander,  and  Bleek,  were  in  the 
main  adherents  to  the  genuineness  and  truthfulness 
of  the  Gospels,  though  influenced  by  the  mediaUng  or 
mystico-rationalistic  tendencies  of  Schleiermacher.  As 
N.-T.  scholars  they  bebng  between  1823  and  1859. 

The  "Life  of  Jesus"  by  David  Friedrich  Strauss, 
which  i^peared  in  1835,  marked  a  new  departure  of  view 
with  regard  to  the  N.  T.,  and  made  a  great  sensation. 
Strauss  was  an  Hegelian  and  one  for  whom  the  "  idea ' ' 
obscured  the  objective  facts,  while  it  rested  upon  them. 
He  held  that  the  orthodox  conception  of  Christ  was  the 
creature  of  the  ardent  Messianic  hopes  of  the  Jewish- 
Christians  of  the  primitive  Church,  who  imagined  that 
Jesus  fulfilled  the  O.-T.  prophecies,  and  who,  soon 
after  His  death,  investea  His  personality  and  the 
whole  tenor  of  His  life  with  mythical  quaUties,  in 
which  there  was  nothing  but  a  bare  kernel  of  objective 
truth,  vis.,  the  existence  of  a  rabbi  named  Jesus,  who 
was  a  man  of  extraordinary  spiritual  power  and  pene- 
tration, and  who  had  gathered  about  him  a  band  of 
disciples.  Echoes  of  these  Ideas  are  to  be  found  in 
Renan's  "  Vie  de  J^sus".  Strauss's  relatively'  refined 
philosophy  of  religion  was  more  in  the  spint  of  the 
age  than  the  moribund,  crude  naturalism  of  Paulus, 
though  it  only  substituted  one  form  of  rationalism  for 
another.  The  " Life  of  Jesus"  soon  called  forth  refu- 
tations, but  in  the  advanced  circles  of  German  thought 
the  finishing  stroke  was  not  given  to  it  until  Ferdinand 
Christian  Baur,  the  founder  of  the  Tubingen,  or  "Ten- 
dency'^  school  of  exegesis  and  criticism,  publie^ed  the 
mature  fruit  of  his  speculation  imder  the  title  "  Paulus 
der  Apostel  Jesu  Christi '',  in  1845.  Baur,  like  Strauss^ 
was  a  dicMsiple  of  Hegel,  but  had  taken  from  that  philos- 
opher a  different  key  to  the  si^ificance  of  the  N.  T., 
via.,  the  princifrfe  of  the  evolution  of  all  truth  Uirough 


the  conciliation  of  contradictions.  He  taufi;ht  that 
the  N.  T.  is  the  outcome  of  an  antagonism  oetween 
Jewish,  or  Petrine,  and  Pauline  tendencies  in  the 
primitive  Church.  The  Pauline  concept  of  Chris- 
tianity— one  of  a  philosophic  and  universal  order — • 
is  represented  by  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans, 
Corinthians,  and  Galatians,  which  alone  Baur  ad- 
mitted as  the  certainly  authentic  works  of  St. 
Paul.  The  Apocalypse  was  composed  in  direct  op- 
position to  the  spirit  of  the  Pauline  writings.  The 
above  works  were  written  before  a.  d.  70.  Between 
70  and  140  appeared  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  Petrine  in 
character;  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  Pauline,  thous^  re- 
touched in  a  conciliatory  spirit;  Acts,  adaptea  simi- 
larly to  St.  Luke;  and  latest  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark, 
also  of  an  irenic  type.  This  second  period  is  one  of 
transition  between  antagonism  and  complete  recon- 
ciliation. This  latter  is  the  note  of  the  ttiird  period, 
reachineto  about  a.  d.  170,  which  produced  the  Gos- 
pel and  rjpistles  bearing  the  name  oi  St.  John,  and  the 
pastoral  Epistles,  which  therefore  cannot  have  come 
trom  St.  Paul.  The  scheme  excluded  the  authenticity 
of  aU  the  (xoepels.  Baur^  theory  has  not  survived 
except  in  the  very  mitigated  form  seen  in  the  works 
oi  Hil^enfeld  and  Pfleiderer.  Nevertheless,  aside 
from  his  philosophic  assumptions,  the  principles  and 
methods  of  Baur  haVe  left  a  deep  impress  on  later 
N.-T,  criticism.  He  first  practised  on  a  consistent 
and  developed  plan  the  habit  of  scrutinizing  the 
sacred  documents  themselves  for  evidences  (h  the 
times  which  gave  them  bidh,  and  led  the  way  in  the 
present  critical  trend  towards  a  division  of  the  N.  T. 
into  Judaistic,  Pauline,  and  Johannlne  elements. 

The  Tubingen  ideas  evoked  a  reaction  against  their 
destructive  and  purely  rationalistic  conclusions.  This 
movement  has  been  twofold:  on  one  side  it  is  ortho-  • 
dox  Protestant,  though  critical  in  its  method;  this 
section  is  the  natural  continuation  of  the  earlier 
Evangelistic  exegesis,  and  counts  as  its  ablest  repre- 
sentatives Zahn,  B.  Weiss,  and  Godet ;  the  other  branch 
is  partly  the  outgrowth  of  the  Schleiermacher  school 
and  acluiowledges  as  its  founder  Albert  Ritschl,  whose 
defection  from  the  TQbingen  group  (1857)  proved  a 
serious  blow  to  Baur's  system.  The  Ritschlian  theol-' 
ogy  insists  on  the  religious  value  of  the  N.  T.,  espe- 
cially in  the  impression  its  picture  of  Christ  makes  on 
the  mdividual  soul,  and  on  the  other  hand  allows  a 
free  rein  to  the  boldest  and  most  searching  criticism 
of  the  orifijin  and  historical  worth  of  the  N.-T.  books, 
in  a  blinomystio  confidence  that  nothing  that  criti- 
cism can  do  will  impair  their  religious  value.  The 
indifference  of  the  Ritschlians  to  the  consequences  of 
criticism  is  also  shown  towards  the  miraculous  ele- 
ment in  our  Lord's  life  and  in  the  N.  T.  in  general. 
This  tendency  is.  very  manifest  among  other  contem- 
poraiy  German  critics,  who,  while  influenced  by 
Ritschlianism,  belong  rather  to  the  "scientific"  and 
evolutionary  school.  Holtzmann,  Bousset,  JQlicher, 
Hamack,  Schmiedd  by  critical  procedure  eliminate 
from  the  Gospels,  or  at  least  calf  into  doubt,  all  the 
miraculous  elements,  and  reduce  the  Divinity  of 
Christ  to  a  moral,  pre-eminent  sonahip  to  God,  and 
yet,  by  a  strange  inconse(^uence,  exalt  the  savins  and 
enlightening  power  of  His  personality.  This  latest 
school,  however,  admit  dates  which  approach  much 
nearer  to  the  traditional  ones  than  to  tnose  of  Baur. 
Hamack,  besides  affirming  the  genuineness  of  all  the 
Pauline  Epistles  except  the  pastoral  ones,  and  of 
Mark  and  Luke,  places  the  Synoptic  Gospels  between 
A.  D.  65  and  93,  and  fixes  the  year  110  as  the  latest 
limit  for  the  Gospel  and  Epistles  of  St.  John  and  the 
Apocalypse. 

In  Great  Britain,  N.-T.  criticism  with  few  excep- 
tions has  been  moderate  and,  on  the  whole,  conserva- 
tive. Excellent  service  has  been  done  in  the  defence 
of  contested  books  by  the  British  divines  J.  B.  Light- 
foot,  B.  F.  Westcott,  W.  H.  Sanday,  and  others. 


OBITXOISM 


496 


ORinozaK 


Holland  ha^  produced  a  small  group  of  radical  critics. 
Van  Manen,  Pierson,  Loman,  who,  with  Steck  in  Ger- 
many, have  revived  Bruno  Bauer's  total  denial  of 
authenticity'  to  St.  Paul's  Letters  In  France  and 
French  Switzerland  conservatism  has  been  the  key- 
note of  the  Protestant  scholars  Pressens^  and  Godet; 
a  rationalizing  evolutionism  that  of  Sabatier.  Abb6 
Loisy's  work  will  be  spoken  of  below. 

A  brief  summary  of  the  situation  of  particular  books 
in  contemporary  non-Catholic  criticism  follows: 

The  Synoptic  Gospels. — ^The  prevalent  critical  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  they  present  is  the  "  two-docu- 
ment'' hypothesis,  which  explains  what  is  common  to 
all  of  them  by  supposing  that  Matthew  and  Luke  drew 
from  the  very  early  Gospel  bearing  St.  Mark's  name 
or  an  anterior  Apostolic  document  on  which  Mark  is 
based,  and  refers  the  material  which  is  common  to 
Matthew  and  Luke  only  to  a  primitive  Aramaic 
source  compiled  by  one  or  more  immediate  disciples  of 
Christ,  possibly  St.  Matthew.  St.  Luke's  Gospel  is 
recognized  as  authentic;  our  canonical  Mark  as  at 
least  virtually  so. 

Acts. — The  integrity  and  entire  genuineness  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  have  been  assailed  by  a  few 
recent  critics:  Hilgenfeld,  Spitta,  Clemen.  They 
would  analyze  the  work  into  a  number  of  sections,  by 
different  authors,  including  8t.^  Luke,  rearranged  by 
successive  editors,  and  containing  materials  varying 
much  in  value.  No  conscious  falsification  was  used, 
but  legendary  narratives  ^rept  in.  These  critioB  are 
by  no  means  unanimous  as  to  particulars. 

Epistles  of  St,  Paul. — ^Romans,  Corinthians,  and 
Galatians  are  acknowledged  bv  all  serious  sdiolars  to 
be  authentic  writings  of  the  Apostle  of  ike  Gentiles. 
^  About  Ephesians,  Philippians,  Colossians,  Thessaloni- 
*  ans,andPhilemonthereisdiverBity  of  opinion.  I^rst 
Thessalonians  is  generally  admitted  to  be  genuine, 
but  the  Pauline  authorship  of  the  second  letter  of  that 
name  is  strongly  contested.  The  weight  of  non- 
Catholic  critical  opinion  is  against  the  authenticity  of 
the  pastoral  Epistles,  viz.,  the  two  to  Timothy  and  the 
one  to  Titus.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  assigned 
to  an  Alexandrian  Jewish  convert,  oontemporair^  or 
almost  so,  with  St.  PauL  and  a  disciple  of  his  teaching. 
This  is  also  the  view  of  Catholic  ex^etes  of  the  new 
school  First  Peter  is  generally  held  to  bo  the  work 
of  that  Apostle,  but  the  composition  of  Second  Peter 
IB  placed  m  the  second  century,  even  some  Catholics 
inclining  to  this  date.  The  question  whether  the 
l^istles  of  St.  James  and  St.  Jude  are  from  the  pens 
of  the  Anostles  of  those  names  is  variously  answWed 
outside  the  Church. 

The  Johannim  Writings, — ^The  authenticity  and 
authority  of  St.  John's  Gospel  form  the  great  battle- 
field of  present  N.-T.  criticism.  They  had  been  at- 
tacked as  early  as  1792  by  a  certain  Evanson.  The 
majority  of  contemporary  critics  incline  to  Hamack's 
view,  which  is  that  the  Fourth  Gospel  was  composed 
by  John  the  Presbyter  or  the  **  elder"  referred  to  in  a 
fragment  by  Papias,  and  asserted  by  the  Hamackians 
to  be  distinct  from  the  Apostle  and  a  disciple  of  the 
latter.  He  wrote  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. Loisy  attributes  it  to  an  imlmown  writer  of  the 
second  century  who  had  no  affiliations  with  St.  John. 
But  the  historical  value  of  this  Evangel  is  the  more 
vital  aspect  of  the  question.  The  German  school  of 
criticism  characterizes  the  Gospel  as  theology  and 

rbolism,  not  history;  Lois^  agrees  with  them.  The 
stolic  authorship  and  historicity  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel  have  been  vindicated  by  such  critical  scholars 
as  Sanday,  Stanton,  and  Drummond  in  England,  and 
Zahn  and  B.  Weiss  in  Germany.  Orthodox  Catholic 
ex^^tes,  while  always  holding  to  the  Catholic  tradi- 
tion of  the  Johannine  authorship  and  historical  qual- 
ity of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  admit  that  St.  John's  theol 
ogy  indicates  reflection  and  a  development  over  and 
beyond  ihat  of  the  Synootists.    The  first  Epistle  of 


St.  John  is  universally  admitted  to  be  t^  the  i 
hand  as  the  Gospel.  The  criticism  of  Apocalypse  is 
still  in  an  immature  stage.  There  is  much  diversity 
of  view  as  to  its  author,  the  Anglican  school  inclixk- 
ing  to  St.  John.  It  has  been  recently  proposed  that 
the  book  is  a  Jewish  apocal3rpse  retouched  by  a  Chris- 
tian; so  Vischer,  Hamack.  Neariy  all  critics  acknowl- 
edge that  there  is  much  apocalyptic  element  in  it, 
admitting  that  some  of  its  visions  in  a  veiled  manner 
depict  historical  situations  imder  the  guise  of  events  to 
come. 

(4)  The  Critical  Movement  Within  the  Church.— 
Old  TestamerU  Criticism. — ^France,  the  oountxv  of 
Richard  Simon  and  Astruc,  has  been  also  that  of  the 
beginning  of  the  present-day  Catholic  criticismu 
Francois  Lenormant,  a  distinguished  Catholic  Orien- 
talist, in  the  preface  to  his  ''Origines  de  llustoire 
d'apr^  la  Bible  et  les  traditions  Sos  peuples  Oiien- 
taux"  (1880-^),  declared  no  longer  tenable  the  tradi- 
tional unity  of  authorship  for  the  Pentateuch,  and 
admitted  as  demonstrated  that  the  fimdaniental 
sources  of  its  first  four  books  were  a  Jehovist  and 
Elohist  document,  each  inspired  and  united  by  a 
'^ final  redactor".  Minor  discordances  exist  between 
them.  The  earlier  diapters  of  Genesis  contain  myth^ 
ical  and  l^ndary  elements  common  to  Sonitie 
peoples,  which  in  the  hands  of  the  inspired  writen 
became  the  ''figured  vestments  of  eternal  truths". 
The  same  preface  bespeaks  entire  liberty  for  the  critia 
in  the  matter  of  dates  and  authors.  Lenonna&t's 
work  was  placed  on  the  Index,  19  December,  1887, 
The  basis  of  his  literaiy  analysis  was  supplied  by  the 
conclusions  of  higher  criticism,  up  to  that  time  unac- 
cepted, at  least  publicly,  by  any  Catholic  savant.  R 
Reuss,  a  liberal  Protestant  professor  at  the  vmvea^tf 
of  Strasbuxg,  had  published  at  Paris,  in  1879,  "L'Bis- 
toire  Sainte  et  la  Loi;  Pentateuque  et  Josu6".  In 
1883  appeared  Wellhausen's  influential  "Prol^omena 
to  the  History  of  Israel".  re>edited  in  1889  under  the 
title,  '^  Composition  of  the  Hexateuch  and  the  His- 
torical Books  of  the  O.  T/' 

Alfred  Loisy,  then  professor  of  Sacred  Scripture  at 
the  Institut  CJatholique  of  Paris,  in  his  inaugural  le^ 
ture  for  the  course  of  1892-93  made  a  deaivcut  plea 
for  the  exercise  of  criticism  in  the  study  of  the  human 
side  of  the  Bible  ("Enseignement  Biblique",  Nov.- 
Dec.,  1892;  reprinted  in  ''Les  etudes  bibuques'^ 
1894).  In  an  essay  which  appeared  in'1893,  Loisy 
discussed  the  '^ Biblical  Question"^  reasserted  the 
right  of  Catholic  science  to  treat  critically  the  general 
aspects  of  Holy  Scripture  and  also  its  interpretatiDns, 
and  rejected  its  absolute  inerrancy,  while  nolding  to 
its  total  inspiration.  The  historical  portions  offer 
data  which  have  only  a  ''relative  truth",  L  e.  with 
reference  to  the  age  in  which  they  were  written.  Tho 
author  enumerate  conclusions  of  ihe  criticism  which 
he  regarded  as  fixed;  these  included  the  non-Mosai^i 
authorship  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  unhistorical  char- 
acter of  the  first  chapters  of  Genesis,  the  development 
of  Biblical  doctrine.  Eariy  in  the  same  year  M^. 
d'HuLst,  rector  of  the  Institut  Catholique  of  Pans. 
had  drawn  acute  attention  to  the  progress  of  critical 
ideas  in  Catholic  scientific  circles  by  an  article  in  the 
"Correspondant"  of  25  January,  1893,  entitled  "La 
Question  Biblique",  in  which  he  ei^ressed  the  opinion 
dat  the  admission  of  inaccuracies  in  Scripture  Is  theo- 
logically tenable.  The  discussion  of  these  questtons 
was  the  occasion  of  the  en<nrclical  "Providentissimus 
Deus",  issued  by  Leo  Xlli,  18  November,  1893,  in 
which  the  total  inerrancy  of  the  Bible  was  declared 
to  be  the  necessary  consequence  of  its  iiuminttion 
(q.  v.).  The  unwarranted  concessions  of  Catholic 
writers  to  rationalistic  criticism  and  the  exclusive  lue 
of  intemiU  alignments  against  historical  authority 
were  condemned  as  oontraiy  to  correct  principles  of 
criticism.  Sound  Biblical  criticism  was  oonunended. 
Similar  oommendation  was  given  in  the  ApostoUo 


0&ITI0I8M 


497 


OBITIOIBM 


letter,  "Vigilaiitise",  establishing  the  Biblical  Com- 
mission, 30  October.  1902. 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  Catholic  Scientific  Con- 
gress of  rribouig.  1897  (Revue  Biblique.  January, 
1898),  Father  M.-J.  Lagrange,  superior  of  toe  Domin- 
ican school  of  Biblical  studies  at  Jerusalem,  defended 
a  literary  analysis  and  an  evolution  of  the  Pentateuch 
which  are  substantiall^r  identical  with  those  of  the  Graf- 
Weilhausen  hypothesis.  He  distinguished  between 
the  tradition  that  Moses  was  the  historical  author  or 
foimder  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  he  retained,  and  the 
tradition  of  the  Mosaic  literary  authorship,  which  he 
abandoned.  Like  Loisy,  the  learned  Dominican 
maintained  that  the  literary  methods  of  the  ancient 
Orient  are  sharply  differentiated  from  those  of  our 
civilisation.  During  the  last  decade  a  considerable 
number  of  Catholic  Biblical  scholars  have  coalesced 
into  what  has  been  called  the  "progressive"  school. 
Naturally  disagreeing  somewhat  in  details,  they  agree 
in  holding  (a)  the  composite  texture  and  progressive 
formation  of  a  number  of  sacred  books,  and  in  aban- 
doning therefore  their  traditional  unity  of  authonship; 
(b)  in  allowing  a  theological  and  moral  development 
in  the  O.  T.;  (c)  in  admitting  an  extensive  tacit  in- 
sertion of  popular  traditions  and  written  sources, 
which  contain  unhistoricsl  statements.  Nevertheless 
these  excretes  hold  firmly  to  the  objective  truth  of 
the  essential  and  larger  lines  of  the  historyof  the  Old 
Dispensation  as  embodied  in  the  Bible.  They  assert 
that  in  general  the  question  of  the  literary  procedure 
of  Biblical  writers  is  not  one  of  faith.  Their  position 
has  met  with  repeated  attacks  by  Catholic  adherents 
of  the  conservative  school,  who  have  combated  them 
with  ars^ments  drawn  chiefly  from  the  irreconcila- 
bility of  the  new  views  with  the  Catholic  dogmatic 
tradition  of  inspiration  and  inerrancy  as  witnessed,  it 
is  alleged,  in  the  N.  T.,  the  Fathers,  the  teachines  of 
the  councils  of  Trent  and  the  Vatican,  and  particularly 
the  encyclical  of  Leo  XIII.  (See  Inspiration).  The 
principal  adversaries  of  the  advanced  conclusions  are 
the  Jesuits  Delattre  (Autour  de  la  question  biblique, 
1904),  Brucker  (contributions  to  the  "Etudes"  be-, 
tween  1894  and  1905),  Fontaine,  Fonck,  Pesch,  (De 
Inspiratione  Sac.  Scrip..  1906),  Murillo,  Billot:  also 
Professor  Hoberg  and  Abb^  Mangenot  (L'Autnenti- 
cit^  du  Pentateuque,  1907). 

The  Biblical  Commission  (q.  v.),  whose  decisions 
have  now  the  force  of  acts  of  the  Roman  Congrega- 
tions, declared,  13  February,  1905,  that  the  fallibihtv 
of  implicit  citations  in  the  Bible  might  be  admitted, 
provided  solid  arguments  prove  that  they  are  really 
citations,  and  that  the  sacred  writer  does  not  adopt 
them  as  his  own.  The  Commission  conceded  on  23 
Jime,  1905,  that  some  passa^  may  be  historical  in 
i^pearance  only,  always  saving  the  sense  and  judjg- 
ment  of  the  Church.  On  27  June,  1906,  the  commis- 
sion declared  that  the  arguments  alleged  by  critics  do 
not  disprove  the  substantial  authorship  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch by  Moses.  This  decision  has  necessarily  modi- 
fied the  attitude  of  such  Catholic  writers  and  teachers 
as  favoured  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  the  conclusions 
of  tiie  Graf-Wellnausen  hypothesis.  The  decree  of 
the  Inciuisition  "LamentabiJi"  (3  July.  1907)  and  the 
encyclical  "Pascendi  Dominici  Gregis*'  (8  September, 
1907)  reasserted  against  the  Modernists  the  sound, 
Catholic  principles  to  be  followed  in  the  study  of 
Sacred  Scripture. 

New  TestamerU  Criticism, — Catholic  scholars  who 
were  willing  to  accept  some  of  the  critical  theories 
have  drawn  a  line  of  distinction  between  the  criticism 
of  the  Old  and  that  of  the  New  Testament,  not  only 
bec»au8e  of  the  greater  delicacy  of  the  latter  field,  but 
because  th^  recognise  that  the  documents  of  the  Old 
and  New  Dispensations  were  produced  under  ^uite 
different  conditions.  In  the  province  of  N.*  T.  higher 
criticism  Catholics  have  defended  Hie  traditional  au- 
thenticity, integrity,  and  veracity  oi  the  books  in 
IV.— 32 


Question.    Some  ex^fl^tes  admit  In  a  sUght  i 

divergencies  in  the  Evangelical  narratives,  uid  the 
employment  of  older  documents  by  at  least  two  of 
the  Synoptic  writers.  As  to  tiie  '^  Synoptic  problem  ", 
it  is  allowed  that  at  least  St.  Luke  utUused  St.  Marie's 
Gospel;  so  Batiffol,  Minocchi,  Lagrange,  Loisy,  Bo- 
naocorsi,  Gijgot.  Unduly  influenced  by  contemporary 
German  criticism,  Abb2  Lois^  has  m  recent  times 
broken  with  the  orthodox  traditions  of  N.-T.  ezc»esis. 
In  a  reply  to  Hamack's  ''What is  Christianit^r'  he 
defended  Catholic  dogma  as  an  evolution  with  its 
roots  in  the  Primitive  (Jhurch,  but  made  dangerous 
concessions  regarding  Christ's  claim  to  Divinity,  His 
Messianic  vocation,  knowledge,  miracles,  and 'Resur- 
rection ("L'Evangile  et  I'Efelise",  1902;  ''Autour 
d'un  petit  livre",  1903).  In  "Le  Quatridme  Evan- 
gile"  (1903)  Loic^  reiects  the  Johannine  authorship 
and  the  historicity  of  tne  Fourth  Gospel,  both  of  which 
were  affirmed  by  the  Biblical  Commission  (29  May, 
1907).  His  system  virtually  severs  the  Catholic  FaiUi 
from  its  historical  credentials  as  found  in  the  N.  T., 
and  the  above  works  have  been  condemned  by  the 
Congregation  of  the  Index.  They  have  drawn  out  a 
nuinber  of  refutations  from  Catholic  apologists,  such 
as  the  Ahh6  Lepin's  "J^us  Messie  etTils  de  Dieu" 
(1904).  More  recently  Loisy  published  a  work  on  the 
Synoptic  Gospels  (L«9  ^vangiles  synoptiques,  1908) 
in  which  he  follows  the  most  extravagant  rationalistic 
criticism.  Loisy  was  excommunicated  7  March,  1908. 
As  has  been  remarked,  the  Church  warmly  recom- 
mends the  exercise  of  criticism  according  to  sound 
Erinciples  unbiassed  by  rationalistic  presuppositions, 
ut  it  must  condemn  imdue  deference  to  heterodox 
writers  and  any  conclusions  at  variance  with  revealed 
truth.  When  doubt  arises  about  the  permissibility 
of  hypotheses,  it  is  for  ecclesiastical  authority  to  de- 
cide now  far  they  consist  with  the  deposit  of  faith 
or  are  expedient  to  the  welfare  of  religion. 

i'rom  a.  ctPTiber\'fltivc  Btu.ndT>oint;  VlGOTtjtoulC*,  Lejs  fivrvj 
Htii'nfff  ri  la  rritiquc  mlionalislc  (Pftris^  1886);  LiAft,  EterntvUs  of 
EitA<mt  CVi/i'mm  (Iioniion,  JS&3):  Bu)sir?iftn,  TU  Old  Tgata- 
mint  and  ihi'  Xeu}  Criiit-iwm  (Londunr  1303);  Beattie,  liadiiiSal 
Criticism  (Cbicaao;  1895)^  Anuehboiv.  The  Bibltf  and  Modem 
Vriticvtm  ajTudon,  1902);  HO  fix*,  Dtc  hiihen  Bibdkniik  (2ad 
eii.,  Padcrbom,  1905);  art.  Crilicitm  m  B-A^nmo,  DkL  ^fCkriti 
and  (Afl  Go^pfh^ 

From  &  i^ritical  atandpointJ  CtrnYWE,  Foiindef0  tif  0.  T.  Criti- 
cism  {New  York.  1893):  Zeno*.  Elemtnl*  of  ike  H^qK^  Ctitkitm 
(New  Yprk*  ISQS^;  Nash,  lIuL  of  tha  Hiaha-  Criticism  of  iKe  N. 
7\  (New  York»  1900):  Carpenter,  The  fiilEc  m  tluf  Ninetemih 
Cmtiiry  (Londgo,  1903);  DRlVEfi  ant>  KtBK  Fa  THICK,  Th«  Higher 
Criticiam  (IjJiidon.  lOOo);  Omonp*,  Higher  Criti^um  ^  th*  Bvbh 
in  Nop  York  Rf^viem,  Mafrlu  1906- April,  1907. 

li«i)ie;  Grannan*.  Hiehfr  Criti^isnt  pnd  the  B<bU,  m  Am. 
CtiUi.  Quart.  Itev,,  Jiily<  1S04;  McFatp?:n'  O.  T.  CriH  Jiim  and 
th/t  ChriMiian  Church  INpw  York.  1903);  PKTEim*  Die  ffrand* 
tat^icke  Si^img  der  katholitc/^^  Kirdie  lur  BibelforddiUtig  (P^- 
erbom,  1906).  ^ 

George  J.  Reid. 

Criticism  Textual. — ^The  object  of  textual  criti- 
cism is  to  restore  as  nearly  as  possible  the  original  text 
of  a  work  the  autograph  of  which  has  been  lost.  In 
this  textual  criticism  differs  from  higher  criticism 
whose  aim  is  to  investi^te  the  sources  of  a  literaiy 
work,  study  its  composition,  determine  its  date  and 
trace  its  influence  and  varioua  transformations 
throufihout  the  ages. 

A.  Necessity  and  processes  of  textual  crOtcism. — 
Textual  criticism  has  no  application  except  in  regard 
to  a  work  whose  original  does  not  exist;  for,  if  extant, 
it  could  easily  be  reproduced  in  photogravure,  or  pub- 
lished, once  it  had  been  correctly  deciphered.  But 
no  autograph  of  the  inspired  writmgs  has  been  trans- 
mitted to  us,  any  more  than  have  the  originals  of  pro- 
fane works  of  tne  same  era.  The  ancients  had  not 
that  superstitious  veneration  for  orieinal  manuscripts 
which  we  have  to-day.  In  very  eany  times  the  Jews 
were  wont  to  destroy  the  sacred  books  no  longer  in 
use,  either  by  burying  them  with  the  remains  of  holy 
personages  or  by  hiding  them  in  what  was  called  a 


OfttTIOIBM 


498 


cntmoisii 


ghentzah,  Thifi  explains  why  the  Hebrew  Bibles  are, 
comparatively  speaking,  not  very  ancient,  although 
the  Jews  always  made  a  practice  of  writing  the  Holy 
Books  on  skin  or  parchment.  In  the  first  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era  the  Greeks  and  Latins  generally  used 
papyrus,  a  material  that  quickly  wears  out  and  falls 
to  pieces.  It  was  not  until  the  fourth  century  that 
parchment  was  commonly  used,  and  it  is  also  from 
that  time  that  our  oldest  manuscripts  of  the  Septusr 
gint  and  the  New  Testament  date.  Nothing  short  of 
a  continuous  miracle  could  have  brought  the  text  of 
the  inspired  writers  down  to  us  without  alteration  or 
corruption,  and  Divine  Providence,  who  exercises,  as 
it  were,  an  economy  of  the  supernatural,  and  never 
needlessly  multiplies  prodigies,  did  not  will  such  a 
miracle.  Indeed  it  is  a  material  impossibility  to 
transcribe  absolutely  without  error  the  whole  of  a 
long  work;  and  a  priori  one  may  be  sure,  that  no  two 
copies  of  the  same  original  will  be  alike  in  every  de- 
tail. A  typical  example  of  this  is  furnished  by  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  presented  to  the  Emperor 
Charles  V  on  the  evening  of  26  June,  1530,  in  both 
Latin  and  German.  It  was  printed  in  September  of 
the  same  year  and  published  two  months  later  by  its 
author,  Melanchthon;  thirty-five  copies  of  it  are 
known  to  have  been  made  in  the  second  half  of  the 
year  1630,  nine  of  them  by  signers  of  the  Confession. 
But,  as  the  two  originals  are  lost,  and  the  copies  do 
not  agree  either  with  one  another  or  with  the  first 
editions,  we  are  not  sure  of  having  the  authentic  text 
in  its  minutest  details.  From  which  example  it  is 
easy  to  appreciate  the  necessity  of  textual  criticism 
in  the  case  of  works  so  ancient  and  so  often  tran- 
scribed as  the  books  of  the  Bible. 

Corruptions  introduced  by  copyists  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes:  involuntary  errors,  and  those  which 
are  either  wholly  or  partly  intentional.  To  these  dif- 
ferent causes  are  due  the  observed  variations  between 
maunscripts. 

(a)  Involuntary  Errors  may  be  distinguished  as 
those  of  sight,  hearine,  and  memory,  respectively. 
Sight  readily  confounds  similar  letters  and  words. 
Thus  it  is  that  the  n  and  the  1  are  easily  interchanged 
in  saUare  Hebrew  writing,  £  and  2  and  6  and  0  in 
Greek  uncial  writing,  ana  y  and  v  in  Greek  cursives, 
etc.  When  the  exemplar  is  written  stichometrically, 
the  eye  of  the  copyist  is  apt  to  skip  one  or  seveial 
lines.  To  this  class  of  errors  belongs  the  very  frequent 
phenomenon  of  homceoteleuion  ^fiotoriXevrov),  i.  e. 
omission  of  a  passage  which  has  an  ending  exactly 
like  another  passage  which  comes  next  before  or  after 
it.  A  similar  thing  happens  when  several  phrases 
beginning  with  the  same  words  come  together.  Sec- 
ondly, errors  of  hearina  are  of  common  occurrence 
when  one  writes  from  dictation.  But  even  with  the 
exemplar  before  him,  a  copyist  gets  into  the  habit  of 
pronouncing  in  a  low  tone,  or  to  himself,  the  phrase 
ne  is  transcribing,  and  thus  is  likely  to  mistake  one 
word  for  another  which  sounds  like  it.  This  explains 
numberless  cases  of  "itacism"  met  with  in  Ureek 
manuscripts,  especially  the  continual  interchange  of 
itfuit  and  ij/ietf.  Lastly,  an  error  of  memory  oc- 
curs when,  instead  of  writing  down  the  passage  just 
read  to  him,  the  copyist  unconsciously  substitutes 
some  other,  familiar,  text  which  he  knows  by  heart, 
or  when  he  is  influenced  bv  the  remembrance  of  a 
parallel  passage.  Errors  of  this  kind  are  most  fre- 
quent in  the  transcription  of  the  Gospels. 

(b)  Errors  Wholly  or  Partly  Intentional. — Delibei^ 
ate  corruption  of  the  Sacred  Text  has  always  been 
rather  rare,  Marcion's  case  being  exceptional,  Hort 
rintroduction  (1896),  p.  282]  is  of  the  opinion  that 
"even  among  the  imquestionably  spurious  readings 
of  the  New  Testament  there  are  no  signs  of  deliberate 
falsification  of  the  text  for  dogmatic  purposes.'* 
Nevortlu'loKs  it  is  true  that  the  soribe  often  selects 
from  variolic  readings  that  which  favours  either  his 


own  individual  opinion  or  the  doctrine  that  Is  jtaA 
then  more  generally  accepted.  It  also  happens  toat, 
in  perfectly  good  faith,  ne  changes  passages  which 
seem  to  hun  corrupt  because  he  lails  to  understand 
them,  that  he  adds  a  word  which  he  deems  neoessary 
for  the  elucidation  of  the  meaning,  that  he  aubstitutes 
a  more  correct  grammatical  form,  or  what  he  con- 
siders a  more  exact  expression,  and  that  he  harmon- 
izes parallel  passages.  Thus  it  is  that  the  shorter 
form  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Luke,  xi,  2-4,  is  in  al- 
most all  Greek  manuscnpts  lengthened  out  in  aooord- 
ance  with  Matthew,  vi,  9-13.  Most  errors  of  this 
kind  proceed  from  inserting  in  the  text  maiginal  notes 
which,  in  the  copy  to  be  transcribed,  were  but  irari- 
ants,  explanations,  parallel  passages,  simple  remarks, 
or  perhaps  the  conjectures  of  some  stuoious  readv. 
All  critics  have  observed  the  predilection  of  oopjrists 
for  the  most  verbofie  texts  and  their  tendency  to  ^om- 
plete  citations  that  are  too  brief;  hence  it  is  that  an 
mterpolation  stands  a  far  better  chance  of  being  per- 
petuated than  an  omission. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  easy  to  understand  how 
numerous  would  oe  the  readings  of  a  text  transcribed 
as  often  as  the  Bible,  and,  as  only  one  reading  of  any 
given  passage  can  represent  the  original,  it  follows 
that  aU  the  others  are  necessarily  faulty.  MiU  esti- 
mated the  variants  of  the  New  Testament  at  30,000, 
and  since  the  discovery  of  so  many  manuscripts  un- 
known to  Mill  this  number  has  greatly  increased.  Of 
course  by  far  the  greater  number  of  these  variants 
are  in  unimportant  details,  as,  for  instance,  oriho- 

Sphic  peculiarities,  inverted  words,  and  the  like, 
sun,  many  othere  are  totally  improbable,  or  else 
have  such  slight  warrant  as  not  to  deserve  even  cur- 
sory notice.  Hort  (Introduction,  2)  estimates  that  a 
reasonable  doubt  does  not  affect  more  than  the  six- 
tieth part  of  the  words:  ''  In  this  second  estimate  the 
proportion  of  comparatively  trivial  variations  is  be- 
yond measure  larger  than  in  the  former;  so  that  the 
amount  of  what  can  in  any  sense  be  called  substantial 
variation  is  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  whole  residuary 
variation,  and  can  hardly  form  more  than  a  thou- 
sandth part  of  the  entire  text."  Perfaaixs  the  same 
thing  might  be  said  of  the  Vulgate :  but  in  regard  to 
the  primitive  Hebrew  text  and  the  Septuagint  version 
there  is  a  great  deal  more  doubt. 

We  have  said  that  the  object  of  textual  criticism 
is  to  restore  a  work  to  what  it  was  upon  leaving  the 
hands  of  its  author.  But  it  is,  absolutely  speaiking, 
possible  that  the  author  himself  may  have  issued  more 
than  one  edition  of  his  work.  This  hypothesis  was 
piade  for  Jeremias,  in  order  to  explain  the  differences 
between  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  texts;  for  St.  Luke, 
so  as  to  account  for  the  variations  between  the  **  Codex 
Bezse"  and  other  Greek  manuscripte  in  the  third 
Gospel  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles;  and  for  other 
writers.  These  hypotheses  may  be  insufficiently 
founded,  but,  as  they  are  neither  absurd  nor  impos- 
sible, they  are  not  to  be  rejected  a  priori. 

B.  Oeneral  principUa  of  textual  enticignu — ^In  order 
to  re-establish  a  text  in  all  its  purity,  or  at  least  to 
eliminate  as  far  as  possible,  its  sucoesnve  falsifioa- 
tions,  it  is  necessary  to  consult  and  wei^  all  the  evi- 
dence. And  this  may  be  divided  into:  external,  or 
that  furnished  by  documents  reproducing  the  text  in 
whole  or  in  part,  in  the  original  or  in  a  translation — 
diplomatic  evidence — ^and  tntemalf  or  that  resulting 
from  the  examination  of  the  text  itself  independently 
of  its  extrinsic  attestetion — paradiplomattc  evidence. 
We  shall  consider  them  separately. 

1.  External  (Diplomatic)  Evidence. — ^The  evidence 
for  a  work  of  which  the  original  manuscript  is  lost 
is  furnished  by  (a)  copies,  (b)  versions,  and  (c)  quo- 
tations. These  three  do  not  always  exist  simultane- 
ously, and  the  order  in  which  they  arehere  enumerated 
do(^  not  indicate  their  relative  authority. 

(a)  Manu8cript8,'-ln  regard  to  the  copies  of  an- 


dRmdis&t 


400 


twmmm 


ctent  works  three  thing?  are  to  be  considered,  namely: 
(a)  age,  (fl)  vainer  and  (7)  genealogy;  and  we  shall  add 
a  wofd  on  (3)  erilical  nomencUduref  or  notation. 

(a)  Age  is  sometimeB  indicated  by  a  note  in  the 
manuscript  itself;  but  the  date,  when  not  suspected 
of  falsifieationy  may  simply  be  transcribed  from  the 
exemplar.  However,  as  dated  manuscripts  are  usu- 
allv  not  veiy  old,  recourse  must  be  had  to  various 
paueographic  indications  which  generallv  determine 
with  sufficient  accuracy  the  age  of  Greek  and  Latin 
manuscripts.  Hebrew  paliBO«;aphy,  though  more  un- 
certain, presents  fewer  difficuItieB,  inasmuch  as  He- 
brew msmuscripts  are  not  so  old.  Besides,  the  exact 
age  of  a  copy  is,  after  all,  only  of  nunor  importance, 
as  it  is  quite  possible  that  an  anoi^it  manuscript  may 
be  very  corrupt  while  a  later  one,  copied  from  a  better 
exemplu*,  may  come  nearer  to  me  primitive  text. 
However,  other  things  being  equal,  the  presumption 
is  naturally  in  favour  of  the  more  ancient  document, 
since  it  is  connected  with  the  original  by  fewer  inter- 
vening links  and  consequently  has  be^  exposed  to 
fewer  poesiblities  of  error,  (fl)  It  is  more  important 
to  ascertain  the  relative  value  than  the  age  of  a  manu- 
script. Some  evidences  inspire  but  little  confidence, 
beeause^tiiey  have  frequently  been  found  to  be  defee- 
tive,  while  others  are  readily  accepted  because  critical 
examination  has  in  every  instance  shown  them  to  be 
veracious  and  exact.  But  how  is  the  critic  to  dis- 
criminate? Prior  to  examination,  the  readings  of  a 
text  are  divided  into  three  or  four  classes:  the  cer- 
tainly or  probably  true,  the  doubtful,  and  the  ce]>- 
tainly  or  probably  false.  A  manuscript  is  rated  good 
or  excellent  when  it  presents  in  general  true  readings 
and  contains  few  or  none  that  are  certainly  fabe; 
under  contrary  conditions  it  is  considered  ix^iocre 
or  worthless.  Needless  to  add,  the  intrinsic  excellence 
of  a  manuscript  is  not  measured  according  to  the 
greater  or  less  care  exercised  by  the  scribes;  a  manu- 
script may  teem  with  copyist  s  errors,  though  it  be 
made  from  a  veiy  correct  exemplar;  and  one  tran- 
scribed from  a  defective  exemplar  may,  considered 
merely  as  a  copy,  be  quite  faultless.  (7)  The  geneal- 
ogy of  documents,  from  a  critical  view-point,  is  most 
interesting  and  important.  As  soon  as  it  is  proved 
that  a  manuscript,  no  matter  what  its  anti(]|uity,  is 
simply  a  copy  of  another  existing  manuscnpt,  the 
former  e^oula  evidently  disappear  from  the  list  of 
authorities,  since  its  particular  testimony  is  of  no 
value  in  establishing  the  primitive  text.  This,  for 
instance,  is  what  happened  to  the  "Codex  Sanger- 
manensis"  (£  of  the  rauline  Epistles)  when  it  was 
proved  to  be  a  defective  copy  ca  the  "Codex  Claro- 
montanus"  (D  of  the  Pauline  Epistles).  Now,  if  a 
text  were  preserved  in  ten  manuscripts,  nine  of  which 
bad  sprung  from  a  common  ancestor,  we  would  not 
therefore  h&ye  ten  independent  testimonies  but  two, 
as  the  first  nine  would  count  for  only  one,  and  could 
not,  therefore,  outweight  the  tenth,  imless  it  were 
shown  ti^at  the  common  exemplar  of  the  nine  was  a 
better  one  than  that  from  whicn  the  tenth  was  taken « 
The  consequences  of  this  principle  are  obvious,  and 
the  advantage  and  necessity  of  grouping  the  testi- 
monies for  a  text  into  families  is  readily  understood. 
It  might  be  supposed  that  the  critic  would  be  mainly 
guided  in  his  researches  by  the  birthplace  of  a  manu- 
script; but  the  ancient  manuscripts  often  travelled 
a  great  deal,  and  their  nationality  is  rarely  known 
wth  certainty.  Thus,  man^  are  of  the  opinion  that 
the  Vaticanus  and  tiie  Sinaiticus  emanated  from 
Csesarea  in  Palestine,  while  others  maintain  that  they 
were  written  in  Egypt,  and  Hort  inclines  to  the  belid 
that  they  were  copied  in  the  West,  probably  in  Rome 
(see  CoDBx  Vatic  anus;  Cod&x  SiNAincua).  Henee 
the  critics'  chief  guide  in  this  matter  should  be  the 
careful  comparison  of  manuscripts,  upon  the  principle 
that  identical  readings  point  to  a  common  source, 
and  when  the  identity  between  two  or  more  manu- 


scripts is  constant— especially  in  exceptional  and  eo- 
centric  variants— the  identity  of  the  exemplar  is  es* 
tabhshed.  But  this  investigation  encountere  two 
difficulties.  A  first,  and  a  very  embarrassine,  com- 
plication arises  from  the  mixture  oi  texts.  There  are 
out  few  texts  that  axe  piue;  that  is  to  say,  that  are 
taken  from  a  single  exemplar.  The  ancient  scribes 
were  nearly  all  to  a  certain  extent  editors,  and  made 
their  choice  from  among  the  variants  of  toe  different 
exemplars.  Moreover,  the  correctoite  or  the  readers 
often  introduced,  either  on  the  margin  or  between 
the  lines,  new  readings  which  were  subsequently  em- 
bodied in  the  text  of  the  manuscript  thus  corr^ted. 
In  such  a  case  the  genealogy  of  a  manuscript  is  liable 
to  become  very  complicated.  It  also  sometimes 
hi^pens  that  two  manuscripts  which  are  closely  re- 
lated in  certain  books  are  totally^  unrelated  in  others. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  separate  books  of  the  Bible, 
in  ancient  times,  used  to  be  copied  each  upon  its  own 
roll  of  papyrus,  and  when  they  came  to  be  copied  from 
these  sepamte  rolls  upon  sheets  of  parchment,  and 
boimd  together  in  one  enormous  ''codex",  texts  be- 
longing to  quite  different  families  might  very  possibly 
be  placed  together.  All  these  facts  explain  why 
critics  frequently  disagree  in  determining  genealogical 
groupings.  (On  this  subject  consult  Hort,  "Intro- 
duction,^' pp.  S9-69:  "Genealogical  Evidence".) 

(9)  Critical  NamenckUure,  or  Notation, — When  the 
copies  of  a  text  are  not  numerous  each  editor  assigns 
them  whatever  conventional  symbols  he  may  choose : 
this  was  for  a  long  time  the  case  with  the  editions  02 
the  original  Greek  and  Hebrew,  of  the  Septuagint  and 
the  Vulgate,  not  to  mention  other  versions.  But 
when,  as  nowadays,  the  number  of  manuscripts  be- 
comes greatly  incr^bsed,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  a 
uniform  notation  in  order  to  avoid  confusion. 

Hebrew  manuscripts  are  usually  designated  hy  the 
figures  assigned  them  by  Kennicott  and  De  ftossi. 
But  this  system  has  the  disadvanta^  of  not  being 
continuous,  the  series  of  figures  recommencing  three 
times:  Kennicott  MSS.,  De  BxNssi  MSS..  ana  other 
MSS.  catalogued  by  De  Ilossi,  but  not  belonging  to 
his  collection.  Another  serious  inconvenience  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  manuscripts  not  included  in  the 
three  preceding  lists  have  remained  without  ^rmbol, 
and  can  only  be  indicated  by  mentioning  the  number 
of  the  catalojgue  in  which  they  are  described. 

The  notation  of  Greek  manuscripts  of  the  Septua- 
gint is  almost  the  same  as  that  adopted  by  Holmes 
and  Parsons  in  their  Oxford  edition  1708-1827.  These 
two  scholars  designated  the  uncials  by  Roman  figures 
(from  I  to  XIII)  and  the  cursives  by  Arabic  figures 
(from  14  to  311).  But  their  list  was  very  defective, 
as  certain  manuscripts  were  counted  twice,  while 
others  which  were  numbered  among  the  cursives  were 
uncials  either  wholly  or  in  part,  etc.  For  cursives 
the  Holmes-Parsons  notation  is  still  retained;  the 
uncials,  including  those  found  since,  are  designated 
by  Latin  capitals ;  but  no  symbols  have  been  assigned 
to  recently  discovered  cursives.  (See  the  complete 
list  in  Swete.  ''An  Introduction  to  £he  Old  Testament 
in  Greek*',  (Cambridge,  1902,  p.  120-170.) 

The  nomenclature  of  the  Greek  manuscripts  of  the 
New  Testament  also  leaves  much  to  be,  desired. 
Wetstein,  the  author  oi  the  usual  notation^  designates 
uncials  by  letters  and  cursives  by  Arabic  figures.  His 
list  was  continued  b^  Birch  and  by  Scbols,  and  after- 
wards by  Scrivener,  independently,  by  Gr^ory.  The 
same  letters  answer  for  many  manuscripts,  hence  the 
necessity  of  distinguishing  indices,  thus  D'^^'^Oxlex 
Bezfls'',  D'^^'rjCodex.  Claromontanus,  etc.  More- 
over, the  aeries  of  figures  recommences  four  times 
(Grospels,  Acts  and  Cawolic  Epistles,  Epistles  of  Paul, 
Apocalypse),  so  that  a  cursive  containing  all  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament  must  be  designated  by  four 
different  numbers  accompanied  by  their  index.  Thus 
tlie  MS.  of  the  British  Museum  "Addit.  17469''  is  for 


dltiTioi^ 


600 


dBXftCttltIt 


Scrivener  684*»,  228«^ ,  269P««  ,97«J»«'  (i.e.  the  684th 
MS.  of  the  Gospel  on  his  list,  the  228th  of  Acts, 
etc.),  and  for  Gregory  498«,  WS***  266>««^  97*»^. 
To  remedy  this  confusion  Von  Soden  lays  down 
as  a  principle  that  uncials  should  not  have  a  different 
notation  from  the  cursives  and  that  each  manuscript 
should  be  designated  by  a  single  abbreviation.  Hence 
he  assigns  to  each  manuscript  an  Arabic  figure  pre- 
ceded by  one  of  the  three  Greek  initial  letters,  e,  a,  or 
d,  according  as  A  contains  the  Gospels  only  (tdayyi- 
Xioi'),  or  does  not  contain  the  Gospels  (AriirrdXos), 
or  contains  both  the  Gospels  and  some  ouier  part  of 
the  New  Testament  (iiaBijini).  The  number  is 
chosen  so  as  to  indicate  the  approximate  aee  of  the 
manuscript.  This  notation  is  unquestionably  better 
thim  the  other;  the  main  point  is  to  secure  its  uni- 
versal acceptance,  without  which  endless  confusion 
^1  arise. 

For  the  Vulgate  the  most  famous  manuscripts  are 
designated  either  by  a  conventional  name  or  its  ab- 
breviation (am="  Amiatinus",  /ttW="Fuldensi8"); 
the  other  manuscripts  have  no  generally  admitted 
symbol.  (The  present  nomenclature  is  altogether 
imperfect  and  deficient.  Critics  should  come  to 
terms  and  settle  upon  special  symbols  for  the  geneal- 
ogical groupings  for  manuscripts  which  are  as  yet  al- 
most entirely  deprived  of  them.  On  this  subject  see 
the  present  writer's  article,  ** ManuBcrUs  biblimtea*'  in 
Vigouroux,  "Diet,  de  la  Bible",  IV.  660-608). 

(b)  Vernons, — ^The  importance  of  the  ancient  ver^ 
sions  in  the  textual  criticism  of  the  Sacred  Books 
arises  from  the  fact  ih&t  the  versions  are  often  far 
anterior  to  the  most  ancient  manuscripts.  Thus  the 
translation  of  the  Septua^t  antedated  by  ten  or  tvralve 
centuries  the  oldest  copies  of  the  Hebrew  text  that 
have  come  down  to  us.  And  for  the  New  Testament 
the  Italic  and  the  Peshito  versions  are  of  the  second 
century,  and  the  Coptic  of  the  third,  while  the  "  Vat- 
icanus''  and  the  "Hinaiticus",  which  are  our  oldest 
manuscripts,  date  only  from  the  fourth.  These  trans- 
lations, moreover,  made  on  the  initiative  and  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities, 
or  at  least  approved  and  sanctioned  by  the  Churehes 
that  made  puolic  use  of  them,  have  undoubtedly  fol- 
lowed the  exemplars  which  were  esteemed  the  best 
and  most  correct;  and  this  is  a  guarantee  in  favour 
of  the  purity  of  the  text  they  represent.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  use  of  versions  in  textual  criticism  offers 
numerous  and  sometimes  insurmountable  difficulties. 
First  of  all,  unless  the  version  be  quite  literal  and 
scrupulously  faitiiful,  one  is  often  at  a  loss  to  deter- 
mine with  certainty  which  reading  it  represents.  And 
besides,  we  have  few  or  no  ancient  versions  edited 
according  to  ibe  exigencies  of  rigorous  criticism;  the 
manuscnpts  of  these  versions  differ  from  one  another 
consideraoly,  and  it  is  often  hard  to  trace  the  primi- 
tive reading.  When  there  have  been  several  versions 
in  the  same  langua^,  as  is  the  case,  for  example,  in 
Latin,  Syriac,  and  Ck»ptic,  it  is  seldom  that  one  version 
has  not  m  the  long  run  reacted  on  the  other.  A^ain, 
the  different  copies  of  a  version  have  frequently  been 
retouched  or  corrected  according  to  the  original,  and 
at  various  epochs  some  sort  of  recensions  have  been 
made.  The  case  of  the  Septuagint  is  well  enough 
known  by  what  St.  Jerome  tells  of  it,  and  by  the  ex- 
amination of  the  manuscripts  themselves,  which  offer 
a  striking  diversit;^.  For  these  various  reasons  the 
use  of  the  versions  in  textual  criticism  is  rather  a  deli- 
cate matter,  and  many  critics  try  to  evade  the  diffi- 
culty by  not  taking  them  into  account.  But  in  this 
they  are  decidedly  wronjg,  and  later  it  will  be  shown 
to  what  use  the  Septua^t  version  may  be  put  in  the 
reconstruction  of  the  primitive  text  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

(c)  QuoiatioM. — ^That  the  textual  criticism  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament,  the  Septuagint  and  the  Vul- 
gate has  profited  by  quotations  from  the  Fathers  is 


beyond  question;  but  in  using  this  authority  there 
is  need  of  caution  and  reserve.  Very  often  BiUical 
texts  are  quoted  from  memory,  and  many  wiitecs 
have  the  habit  of  (quoting  inaccurateljr.  In  hia.  Pro- 
legomena to  the  eighth  edition  of  Tischendorf  (pp. 
1141-1142),  Gregory  gives  three  very  instructive  ex- 
amples on  tills  siiDJect.  Charles  Hoqge,  the  author  of 
highly  esteemed  commentaries,  when  informed  that 
his  quotation  from  Genesis,  iii,  15,  ''The  seed  of  tlie 
woman  shall  bruise  the  serpent's  head'',  was  a  serious 
inaccuracy,  refused  to  phange  it  on  the  ground  that 
this  translation  had  passed  mto  use.  In  his  histoty 
of  the  Vulgate  the  learned  Kaulen  twice  quoted  tlie 
well-known  saying  of  St.  Augustine,  once  accurately: 
''verborum  tenacior  cum  perspicuitate  sentientis'^ 
and  once  inaccurately:  '' verborum  tenacior  cum  sei^ 
monis  perspicuitate  .  Finally,  out  of  nine  quotai- 
tions  from  John,  iii,  3-5,  made  by  Jeremy  Tayloiv 
the  celebrated  theologian,  only  two  agree,  and  not  one 
of  the  nine  gives  the  words  of  the  Anglican  versioo 
which  the  author  meant  to  follow.  Surely  we  should 
not  look  for  greater  rigour  or  accuracy  from  the 
Fathers,  many  of  whom  lacked  the  critical  spirit. 
Furthermore,  it  should  be  noted  that  ihe  text  of  our 
editions  is  not  always  to  be  depended  upon.  We 
know  that  copyists,  when  transcribing  the  works  of 
the  Fathers,  whether  Greek  or  Latin,  fiequently  sub- 
stitute for  Biblical  quotations  that  form  of  text  with 
which  they  are  most  familiar,  and  even  the  editors  of 
former  times  were  not  very  scrupulous  in  this  respect. 
Would  anyone  have  suspected  that  in  the  edition  of 
the  commentaiy  of  St.  Cyril  of  Aklxandria  on  the 
fourth  Gospel,  published  by  Pusey  in  1672,  the  text 
of  St.  John,  instead  of  being  reproduced  from  Stb 
Cyril's  manuscript,  is  borrowed  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment printed  at  Oxford?  From  this  standpoint  the 
edition  of  the  Latin  Fathers  undertaken  in  Austria 
and  that  of  the  ante-Nicene  Greek  Fathers  pubUshecl 
at  Beriin,  are  worthy  of  entire  confidence.  Quotar 
tations  have  a  greater  value  in  the  eyes  of  the  critic 
when  a  commentary  fully  guarantees  the  text;  ami 
the  authority  of  a  quotation  is  highest  when  a  writar 
whose  reputation  for  critical  habits  is  well  established, 
such  as  Origen  or  St.  Jerome,  formally  attests  that  a 
given  reading  was  to  be  found  in  the  best  or  most 
ancient  manuscripts  of  his  time.  It  is  obvious  that 
such  evidence  overrules  that  furnished  by  a  simpla 
manuscript  of  the  same  epoch. 

(2)  Internal  or  Paradiplomatic  Evidence. — ^It  fre- 
quently happens  that  the  testimony  of  documents  iii 
uncertain  because  it  is  discordant,  but  even  when  it 
is  unanimous,  it  may  be  open  to  suspicion  because  it 
leads  to  improbable  or  impossible  results.  It  is  then 
that  internal  evidence  must  be  resorted  to,  and,  al* 
though  of  itself  it  seldom  suffices  for  a  firm  decisicm, 
it  nevertheless  corroborates,  and  sometimes  modifies, 
the  verdict  of  the  documents.  The  rules  of  internal 
criticism  are  simply  the  axioms  of  good  sense,  whose 
application  calls  tor  larse  experience  and  consummate 
jua^ent  to  ward  ofif  me  danger  of  arbitrariness  and 
subjectivism.  We  shall  briefly  formulate  and  ex- 
poimd  the  most  important  of  these  rules. 

Rule  1.  Among  several  varianta  that  iatohe  preferred 
which  beet  agrees  toith  the  context  and  moet  doady  oonr 
fopns  to  the  style  and  menUd  habits  of  the  author.-^ 
This  rule  is  thus  «q>lained  by  Hort  ("The  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  Ori^xud  Greek'',  Introduction,  London, 
1896,  p.  20):  "The  decision  may  be  made  either  by 
an  immediate  and  as  it  were  intuitive  judgment,  or 
by  wei^iing  cautiously  various  elements  which  go  te 
niake  up  what  is  called  sense,  such  as  conformity  to 
mumnar  and  congruity  to  the  purport  of  the  rest  oi 
uie  sentence  and  of  the  larger  context;  to  which  may 
rightly  be  added  congruity  to  the  usual  style  of  the 
author  and  to  his  matter  in  other  passages.  The 
process  may  tekc  the  form  either  of  simply  comparine 
two  or  more  rival  readings  under  these  headsi  ana 


dkxTidisM 


501 


okmoiM 


giving  the  preferenoe  to  that  which  appears  to  have 
the  advantagei  or  of  rejecting  a  reading  absolutely  for 
violation  of  one  or  more  of  the  congniities,  or  of 
adopting  a  readlnfi^  absolutely  for  nenection  of  con- 
gruity.'"  The  application  of  this  nue  rarely  produces 
certainty;  it  usually  leads  only  to  a  presumption, 
more  or  less  strong,  which  the  documentaxy  evidence 
confirms  or  annuls  as  the  case  may  be.  It  would  be 
sophistical  to  suppose  that  the  ancient  authore  aje 
always  consLstent  with  themselvesi  always  correct  in 
their  language  and  happy  in  their  expressions.  The 
i^eader  is  all  too  liable  to  imaeine  that  he  penetrates 
their  thou^t,  and  to  make  them  talk  as  ne  himself 
would  have  talked  on  a  like  occasion.  It  is  but  a 
step  from  this  to  conjectural  criticism  which  has  been 
BO  much  abused. 

Rule  2.  Among  several  readinge  that  is  preferable 
UDhich  explaine  all  others  and  is  explained  by  none, — 
Greeoiy,  in  his  "Prolegomena'*  (8th  critical  ed.  of 
the  New  Testament  by  Tischendoif,  p.  63),  says  apro- 
pos of  this  rule:  ''Hoc  si  latiore  vei  latissimo  senmi 
accipietur,  onmium  re^^la^um  principium  haberi 
poterit;  sed  est  ejusmodi  quod  alius  aliter  jure  quidem 
suo.  ut  cuic^ue  videtur,  definiat  sequaturque.''  It  is, 
in  fact,  subject  to  arbitrary  applications,  whibh  only 
proves  that  it  must  be  employed  with  prudence  and 
circumroection. 

Rule  3.  The  more  difpcvU  reading  is  also  the  more  prob" 
able, — "Prodivi  scriptioni  proestat  ardua  "  (Bengel). 
— ^Although  it  may  seem  entirely  paradoxical,  this 
rule  is,  in  a  certain  measure,  found^  on  reason,  and 
those  who  have  contested  it  most  vi^rously,  like 
Wetstein,  have  been  obliged  to  replace  it  with  fK>me- 
thing  sunilar.  But  it  is  true  only  on  condition  that 
the  clause  be  added,  all  other  things  being  eauol;  else 
we  should  have  to  prefer  the  barbarisms  and  absurdi- 
ties of  copyists  solely  because  they  are  more  difficult 
to  understand  than  the  correct  expression  or  the  in- 
telligently turned  phrase.  Indeed  copyists  never 
change  their  text  mereljr  for  the  pleasure  of  rendering 
it  obscure  or  of  corrupting  it;  on  '^e  contrary,  thev 
rather  try  to  explain  or  correct  it.  Hence  a  harsn 
expression,  an  irregular  phrase,  and  an  unlooked-for 
thought  are  possibly  primitive,  but  always,  as  we  have 
said,  on  this  condition:  ceteris  paribus.  Nor  must  it 
be  forgotten  that  the  difficulty  of  the  reading  may 
arise  from  other  causes,  such  as  the  ignorance  of  the 
scribe  or  the  defects  of  the  exemplar  which  he  copies. 

Rule  4.  The  shortest  reading  is,  in  general,  the  best. — 
"Brevier  lectio,  nisi  testium  vetustorum  et  gravium 
auctoritate  penitus  destituatur,  prseferenda  est  ver- 
bosiori.  Idbrarii  enim  multo  proniores  ad  addendum 
fuerunt,  quam  ad  omittendum  (Griesbach)."  The 
reason  siven  by  Griesbach,  author  of  this  rule,  is  con- 
firmed by  experience.  But  it  should  not  be  too  gen- 
erally applied;  if  certain  copyists  are  inclined  to  put 
in  an  insufficiently  authorized  interpolation,  othens, 
in  their  haste  to  finish  the  task,  are  either  deliberately 
or  unknowingly  guilty  of  omissions  or  abbreviations. 

We  see  that  the  rules  of  internal  criticism,  in  so  far 
as  they  can  be  of  any  use,  are  suggested  by  common 
sense.  Other  norms  formulatedHby  certain  critics 
are  based  on  nothing  but  their  own  imaginations. 
Such  is  the  following  proposed  by  Griesbach:  "Inter 
plures  unius  loci  lectiones  ea  pro  suspects  merito  habe- 
tur  ciuffi  orthodoxorum  dogmatibus  manifeste  prse 
ceteris  favet.''  It  would  then  follow  that  the  variants 
suspected  of  heresv  have  all  the  probabilities  in  their 
favour,  and  that  neretics  were  more  careful  of  the 
integrity  of  the  sacred  text  than  were  the  orthodox. 
Histoxy  and  reason  combined  protest  against  this 
paradox. 

C.  Conjectural  Criticism. — ^As  a  principle,  conjec- 
tural criticism  is  not  inadmissible.  In  fact  it  is  pos- 
sible that  in  all  existing  documents,  manuscripts,  ver- 
tions,  and  quotations,  there  are  primitive  errors  which 
can  only  be  corrected  by  conjecture.    The  phrase 


primitive  errors  is  here  used  to  denote  those  that  were 
committed  by  the  scribe  himself  in  dictated  works  or 
that  crept  into  one  of  the  first  copies  on  which  de- 
pend all  the  documents  that  have  come  down  to  us. 
Scrivener,  therefore,  seems  too  positive  when  he 
writes  ("Introduction",  1894,  Vol.  II,  p.  244):  "It 
is  now  agreed  among  competent  judges  that  Conjee^ 
tural  Emendation  must  never  be  resorted  to  even  in 
passages  of  acknowledged  difficultv;  the  absence  of 
proof  that  a  reading  proposed  to  be  substituted  for 
the  common  one  is  actuallv  supported  by  some  trust- 
worthy document  being  of  itself  a  fatal  objection  to 
our  receiving  it."  Many  critics  would  not  go  thus 
far,  as  there  are  passages  that  remain  doubtful  even 
after  the  efforts  of  documentary  criticism  have  been 
exhausted,  and  we  cannot  see  wh^  it  should  be  for- 
bidden to  seek  a  remedy  in  conjectural  criticism. 
Thus  Hort  justly  remarks  ("Introduction",  1896,  p. 
71) :  "The  evidence  for  corruption  is  often  irresistible, 
imposing  on  an  editor  the  duty  of  indicating  the  pre- 
sumed unsoundness  of  the  text,  although  he  may  be 
wholly  unable  to  propose  any  endurable  way  of  cor- 
recting it,  or  have  to  offer  only  su^estions  m  which 
he  caimot  place  fuU  confidence."  But  he  adds  that, 
in  the  New  Testament,  the  r61e  of  conjectural  emen- 
dation is  extremely  weak,  because  of  the  abundance 
and  variety  of  documentary  evidence,  and  he  agrees 
with  Scrivener  in  admitting  that  the  conjectures  pre- 
sented are  often  entirely  arbitrary,  almost  always  un- 
fortunate, and  of  such  a  nature  as  to  satisfy  only  their 
own  inventor.  To  sum  up,  'conjectural  criticism 
should  only  be  applied  as  a  last  resort,  after  every 
other  means  has  been  exhausted,  and  then  only  witn 
prudent  scepticism. 

D.  Apjihcation  of  (he  principles  and  processes  of 
textual  criticism, — It  remains  briefly  to  explain  the 
modifications  which  the  principles  of  textual  criti- 
cism undergo  in  their  application  to  Biblical  texts, 
to  enumerate  the  chief  critical  editions,,  and  to  indi- 
cate the  methods  followed  by  the  editors.  We  shall 
here  speak  only  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  New. 

1.  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  (a)  The 
critical  apparatus, — ^The  number  of  Hebrew  manu- 
scripts is  very  great.  Kennicott  ("Dissertatio  gene- 
ralis  in  Vet.  Test,  hebraicum",  Oxford,  1780)  and  De 
Rossi  ("VarisB  lectiones  Vet.  Testamenti",  Parma, 
1784-88)  have  catalogued  over  1300.  Since  their  day 
this  figure  has  greatly  increased,  thanks  to  discoveries 
made  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  and  above  all 
in  the  Crimea.  Unfortunately,  for  the  reason  eiven 
above  under  A.  Necessity  and  Processes,  the  Hebrew 
manuscripts  are  comparatively  recent;  none  is  an- 
terior to  the  tenth  century  or  at  any  rate  the  ninth. 
The  "0)dex  Babylonicus^'  of  the  Prophets,  now  at 
St.  Petersburg  and  bearing  the  date  916.  generally 
passes  for  the  oldest.  According  to  Ginsouig,  how- 
ever, the  manuscript  numbered  "Oriental  4446"  of 
the  British  Museum  dates  back  to  the  middle  of  the 
ninth  century.  But  the  dates  inscribed  on  certain 
manuscripts  are  not  to  be  trusted.  (See  on  this  sub- 
ject, Neubauer,  "  Earliest  MSS.  of  the  Old  Testament" 
in  "Studia  Biblica",  III,  Oxford,  1891,  pp.  22-36.) 
When  the  Hebrew  manuscripts  are  compared  with 
one  another,  it  is  amazing  to  find  how  strong  a  re- 
semblance exists.  Kennicott  and  De  Rossi,  wno  col- 
lected the  variants,  found  hardly  any  of  importance. 
This  fact  produces  at  first  a  favourable  impression, 
and  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  it  is  very  easy  to 
restore  the  primitive  text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  so 
carefully  have  the  copyists  performed  their  task.  But 
this  impression  is  modified  when  we  consider  that  the 
manuscripts  agree  even  in  material  imperfections  and 
in  the  most  conspicuous  errors.  Thus  tney  all  present, 
in  the  same  places,  letters  that  are  larger  or  smaller 
than  usual,  tnat  are  placed  above  or  below  the  line, 
that  are  inverted,  and  sometimes  unfinished  or  broken. 


OBITIOISM 


502 


OUTIOIUI 


Again,  here  and  there,  and  precisely  in  the  same  places, 
may  he  noticed  spaces  indicatixig  a  hiatus ;  finally,  on 
certain  words  or  letters  are  points  intended  to  annul 
them.  (See  Comill,  "Einleitung  in  die  Kanon. 
BQcher  des  A.  T.",  5th  ed.,  Tubingen,  1905,  p.  310.) 
All  these  phenomena  led  Spinoza  to  suspect,  and  en- 
abled Paul  de  Lagarde  to  prove  (Anmerkimgen  zur 
griechischen  Uebersetzimg  der  Proverbien,  1863,  pp. 
1,  2)  that  all  the  Hebrew  manuscripts  ]piown  come 
down  from  a  single  copy  of  which  they  reproduce  even 
the  faults  and  imperfections.  This  theory  is  now 
generally  accepted,  and  the  opposition  it  has  met  has 
only  served  to  msike  its  trutn  clearer.  It  has  even 
been  made  more  specific  and  has  been  proved  to  the 
extent  of  showing  that  the  actual  text  of  our  manu- 
scripts was  established  and,  so  to  speak,  canonized 
between  the  first  and  second  century  of  our  era,  in 
an  epoch,  that  is,  when,  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  and  the  downfall  of  the  Jewish  nation,  all 
Judaism  was  reduced  to  one  school.  In  fact,  this 
text  does  not  differ  from  that  which  St.  Jerome  used 
for  the  Vulgate,  Origen  for  his  Hexapla,  and  Aquila, 
Svmmachus,  and  Theodotus  for  their  versions  of  the 
old  Testament,  although  it  is  far  removed  from  the 
text  followed  in  the  Septuagint. 

As  centuries  elapsed  oetween  the  composition  of  the 
various  books  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  deter- 
mining of  the  Massoretic  text,  it  is  but  likely  that 
more  or  less  serious  modifications  were  introduced,  the 
more  so  as,  in  the  interval,  there  had  occurred  two 
events  particular^  favourable  to  textual  corruption, 
namely  a  change  m  writing — ^the  old  Phoenician  hav- 
ing given  way  to  the  square  Hebrew — ^and  a  change 
in  spelling,  consisting,  for  example,  of  the  separation 
of  words  formerly  united  and  in  the  frequent  imd 
rather  irregular  use  of  matres  lectionis.  The  variants 
that  supervened  may  be  accounted  for  by  comparing 
parallel  parts  of  Samuel  and  Kings  with  the  Paralipo- 
mena.  ^and  above  all  by  collating  passages  twice  repro- 
ducea  in  the  Bible,  such  as  Ps.  xvii  (xviii)  with  II 
Sam.,  xxii,  or  Is.,  xxxvi-xxxix.  with  II  Kings,  xviii, 
17-xx,  19.  [See  Touzard,  "De  la  conservation  du 
texteh^breu'^in  "Revue  biblique",  VI  (1897),  31-i7, 
185-206;  VII  (1898),  511-524;  VIIJ  (1899),  83-108.1 

An  evident  consequence  of  what  has  just  been  said 
is  that  the  comparison  of  extant  manuscripts  en- 
lightens us  on  the  Massoretic,  but  not  on  the  primitive 
text.  On  l^e  latter  subject  the  Mishna  and,  for  still 
stronger  reasons,  the  remainder  of  the  Talmud  cannot 
teach  us  anything,  as  they  were  subsequent  to  the 
constitution  of  the  Massoretic  text;  nor  can  the  Tar- 
gums,  for  the  same  reason  and  because  they  may  have 
since  been  retouched.  Therefore,  outside  of  the  Mas- 
soretic text,  our  only  guides  are  the  Samaritan  Pen- 
tateudi  and  the  Septuagint  version.  The  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  offers  us  an  independent  recension  of  the 
Hebrew  text,  dating  from  the  fourth  century  before 
our  era,  that  is,  from  an  epoch  in  which  the  Samari- 
tans, under  their  hi^-priest  Manasseh,  separated 
from  the  Jews;  and  this  recension  is  not  suspected  of 
any  important  modifications  except  the  rather  inof- 
fensive, harmless  one  of  substituting  Mount  Gerizim 
for  Mount  Hebal  in  Deut.,  xxvii,  4.  As  to  the  Sep- 
tuagint version,  we  know  that  it  was  b^n,  if  not 
completed,  about  280  b.  c.  To  Paul  de  Lagarde  es- 
pecially belongs  the  credit  of  drawing  the  attention 
of  scholars  to  the  value  of  the  Septuagint  for  a  critical 
edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 

(b)  Critical  editions  of  the  Hebrew  text. — After  the 
publication  of  the  Psalms  at  Bologna  in  1477,  of  the 
Pentateuch  at  Bologna  in  1482,  of  the  Prophets  at 
Soncuio  in  1485,  anoof  the  Hagiographa  at  Naples  in 
1487,  the  entire  Old  Testament  appeared  at  Soncino 
(1488),  at  Naples  (1491-93),  at  Brescia  (1494),  at 
Pesaro  (1511-17),  and  at  Alcala  (1514-17).  Then, 
between  1516  and  1568,  came  the  four  Rabbinic  Bibles 
of  Venice.    It  i.s  the  second,  edited  by  Jacob  ben 


Chayim  and  printed  by  Bombeig  in  1524-1525,  thai 
is  generally  looked  upon  as  containing  the  texttu 
receptua  (received  text).  The  list  of  the  innumerable 
editions  which  followed  is  ^ven  by  Pick  in  his  "His- 
toiy  of  the  Printed  Editions  of  the  Old  Testamrat" 
in  ^  Hebraica"  (1892-1893),  IX,  pp.  47-116.  For  the 
most  important  editions  see  Ginabuig,  ''Introduction 
to  the  Maseoretic-critical  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible '  * 
(London,  1897),  779-976.  The  editions  most  fre- 
quently reprinted  are  probablv  those  of  Van  der 
Hoogt,  Hahn,  and  Theile;  but  all  these  older  editioDS 
are  now  supplanted  by  those  of  Baer  and  Delitxsch, 
Ginsbun',  and  KitteL  which  are  considered  more  oor- 
rect.  Tne  Baer  and  Delitzsch  Bible  appeared  in 
fascicles  at  Leipzig,  between  1869  and  1895,  and  is 
not  yet  complete;  the  entire  Pentateuch  except 
Genesis  is  wanting.  Ginsburg,  author  of  the  ''Intro- 
duction'' mentioned  above,  has  published  an  edition 
in  two  volumes  (London,  1894).  Finally,  Kittd.  who 
had  called  attention  to  the  necessity  of  a  new  edition 
(Ueber  die  Notwendigkeit  und  MdgUchkeit  einei 
neuen  Ausgabe  der  hebralschen  Bibel,  Leipzig,  1902) 
has  just  published  one  (Leipzig,  1905-06)  with  the 
assistance  of  several  collaborators,  Ryssel,  Driver,  and 
others.  •  Almost  all  the  editions  thus  far  mentioned 
reproduce  the  textus  rece^tis  by  correcting  the  typo- 
graphical errors  and  indicating  the  interesting  vari- 
ants; all  adhere  to  the  Massoretic  text,  that  is,  to  the 
text  adopted  by  the  rabbis  between  the  first  and  sec- 
ond centuries  of  our  era,  and  found  in  all  the  Hebrew 
manuscripts.  A  group  of  German,  English,  and 
American  scholars,  imder  the  direction  of  Haupt,  have 
undertaken  an  edition  which  claims  to  go  back  to  the 
primitive  text  of  the  sacred  authors.  Of  the  twenty 
parts  of  this  Bible,  appearing  in  Leipzie,  Baltimore, 
and  London,  and  generally  known  under  the  name 
of  the  ''Polychrome  Bible",  sixteen  have  already  been 
published:  Genesis  (Ball,  1896),  Leviticus  (Driver, 
1894),  Numbers  (Paterson,  1900),  Joshua  (Bennett, 
1895),  Judges  (Moore,  1900),  Samuel  (Budde,  1894), 
KingB  (Stade,  1904),  Isaiah  ((^heyne,  1899),  Jeremish 
(Comill,  1895),  Ezekiel  (Toy,  1899),  Pbalins  (Well- 
hausen,  1895),  Proverbs  (Kautzsch,  1901),  Job  (Sieg- 
fried, 1893),  Daniel  (Kamphausen,  1896),  Ezra- 
Nehemiah  (Guthe,  1901),  and  Chronicles  (Kittel, 
1895) ;  Deuteronomv  (Smith)  is  in  press.  It  is  need- 
less to  state  that,  lite  all  who  have  thus  far  endeav- 
oured to  restore  the  primitive  text  of  certain  books, 
the  editors  of  the  "Polychrome  Bible"  allow  a  broaa 
margin  for  subjective  and  conjectural  criticism. 

2.  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament,  (a)  Uae  of 
the  critical  apparatus. — The  greatest  diflSculty  con- 
fronting the  editor  of  the  New  Testament  is  tfa^  end- 
less variety  of  the  documents  at  his  disposal.  The 
number  of  manuscripts  increases  so  rapidly  that  no 
list  is  absolutely  complete.  The  latest.  "Die  Schriften 
des  N.  T."  (Beriin,  1902),  by  Von  Soden,  enumerates 
2328  distinct  manuscripts  outside  of  lectionaries 
(Gospels  and  Epistles),  and  excliisive  of  about  30 
numoerB  added  in  an  appendix,  30  October,  1902.  It 
must  be  acknowledged  that  many  of  these  texts  are 
but  fragments  of  chapters  or  even  of  verses.  This 
enormous  mass  of  manuscripts  is  still  but  imperfectly 
studied,  and  some  copies  are  scarcely  known  except 
as  figuring  in  the  catalogues.  The  great  uncials  them- 
selves are  not  yet  all  couated,  and  many  of  them  have 
but  lately  been  rendered  accessible  to  critics.  The 
genealogical  classification,  above  all,  is  far  from  com- 
plete, and  many  fundamental  points  are  still  under 
discussion.^  The  text  of  the  principal  versions  and 
of  the  patristic  quotations  is  far  from  being  satiafao- 
torily  edited,  and  the  genealo^cal  relationSiip  of  all 
these  sources  of  information  is  not  yet  determined. 
These  varied  difficulties  explain  the  lack  of  agreement 
on  the  part  of  editors  and  the  want  of  conformity  in 
the  critical  editions  published  down  to  the  present 
day. 


OaZTZOZSM 


503 


GBITZ0I8M 


(b)  Brief  hMfory  of  the  criHoalediiianaawi  pnnisij^ 
followed  by  editors. — ^The  first  New  Testament  pub* 
lished  in  Greek  is  that  which  forms  the  fifth  vomme 
of  the  Polydot  of  Alcala,  the  printing  of  which  was 
finished  10  January,  1514>  but  which  was  not  delivered 
to  the  public  until  1520.  Meanwhile,  early  in  1516» 
Craamus  had  published  his  rapidly  completed  edition 
at  Basle.  The  edition  that  issued  from  the  press  of 
Aldus  at  Venice  in  1518  is  simply  a  reproduction  of 
that  of  Erasmus,  but  Robert  Estienne's  editions  pub- 
lished in  1546, 1549, 1550,  and  1551,  the  first  three  at 
Paris  aiKl  the  fourth  at  Geneva,  although  founded  on 
the  text  of  the  Poly^ot  of  Alcala,  presented  variants 
from  about  fifteen  manuscripts,  ana  into  the  last,  that 
of  1561,  was  introduced  the  division  of  verMs  now  in 
use.  Tlieodore  Beaa's  ten  editions  which  appeared 
between  1565  and  1611  differ  but  little  from  the  last 
of  Robert  Estieime's.  The  Elsevir  brothers,  Bona- 
venture  and  Abraham,  printers  at  Leyden.  followed 
Estienne  and  Besa  very  doady;  their  small  editions 
of  1624  and  1633,  so  convenient  and  so  highly  appre- 
ciated by  booldoven,  furnish  what  has  been  agreed 
upon  as  the  textus  receptue, — ''Textum  ergo  habes 
nunc  ab  onmibus  reoeptum,  in  quo  nihil  immutatum 
aut  comiptum  damns"  (Edition  oi  1633>«  It  must 
suffice  to  mention  here  the  editions  of  Couroelles 
(Amsterdam,  1658)  and  of  FeU  (Oxford,  1675),  both 
of  which  adhere  pretty  closely  to  the  textile  recepius 
of  Elsevir,  and  those  of  Walton  (London,  1657)  and 
of  Mill  (Oxford,  1707),  whidi  rej^roduce  in  substance 
the  text  of  Estienne.  but  enrich  it  by  the  addition  of 
variants  resulting  from  the  collation  of  numerous 
manuscripts.  The  principal  editors  who  followed — 
Wetstein  (Amsterdam,  1751-1752),  Matthiei  (Moscow, 
1782-1788),  Birch  (Copenhagen,  1788),  and  the  two 
Catholics,  Alter  (Vienna,  1786-1787),  and  Schols 
(Leipsig,  1830-1836)  are  noted  duefly  for  the  abun- 
dance m  new  manuscripts  which  they  discovered  and 
collated.  But  we  must  here  limit  ourselves  to  an 
appreciation  of  the  latest  and  best-known  editors, 
Gnesbach,  Tiftchmann,  Tregelles,  Tischendorf,  West- 
oott  and  Hort. 

In  his  second  edition  (1796-1806)  Gnesbach,  ap- 
plying the  theory  that  had  previously  been  suggested 
b^  Ben^  and  subsequently  developed  by  Semler, 
distinguished  three  great  faxnilies  of  texte:  the  Alex- 
andrian &mily  represented  by  tiie  codices  A,  B,  C,  by 
the  Coptic  versions  and  the  quotations  of  Origen;  the 
Western  familv,  represented  by  D  of  the  Gospels  and 
the  Acte,  by  tne  bilingual  codices,  the  Latin  versions, 
and  the  Latin  Fathers ;  and  lastly  the  Byzantine  f  am* 
ily,  represented  by  the  mass  of  other  manuscripte 
and  by  the  Greek  Fathers  from  the  fourth  centiuy 
onward.  Agreement  between  two  of  these  families 
would  have  been  decisive;  but,  unfortunately,  Gries- 
bach's  classification  is  questioned  by  many,  and  it  has 
beea  proved  that  the  agreement  between  Orig^  and 
the  s(M»lIed  Alexandrian  family  is  largely  imaginary, 
liftchmann  (Berlin,  1842-1850)  endeavoured  to  reoon<- 
struct  his  text  on  too  narrow  a  basis.  He  took  ac- 
count of  only  the  great  uncials,  many  of  which  were 
then  either  entirely  unknown  or  imperfectly  known, 
and  of  the  ancient  Latin  versions.  In  his  choice  of 
readings  ihe  editor  adopted  the  majority  opinion,  but 
reserv^  to  himself  the  conjectural  amendment  of  the 
text  thus  established — ^a  defective  method  which  his 
successor  Tregelles  has  not  sufficiently  avoided.  The 
Litter's  edition  (1867-1872),  the  work  of  a  lifetime, 
was  completed  by  his  friends.  Tischendorf  contrib- 
uted no  less  than  eic^t  editions  of  tfaeNewTestetm^nt 
in  Greek,  but  the  differences  among  them  are  decid- 
edly marked.  According  to  Scrivener  (Introduc- 
tion, II,  283)  the  seventh  edition  differs  from  the 
third  in  1296  places,  and  in  595  it  goes  back  to  the 
received  text.  After  the  disoovenr  of  the  '*8inaiti- 
cus",  which  he  had  the  honour  of  finding  and  pub- 
lishing, his  ei^th  edition  disagreed  with  the  preceding 


one  in  3369  places.  Such  an  amount  of  variation  eaii 
only  inspire  distrust.  Nor  did  the  edition  contributed 
by  Westcott  and  Hort  (The  New  Testament  in  the 
Original  Greek,  Cambridge  and  London,  1881)  win 
universal  approval,  because,  after  eliminating  in  turn 
each  of  the  great  families  of  documente  which  they 
designate  respectively  as  Syrian,  Western,  and  Alex- 
andrian, the  editors  rely  almost  exclusivelv  on  the 
''Neutral"  text,  which  is  only  r^resented  by  the 
''Vaticanus''  and  the  "Sinaiticus' ,  and,  in  case  of 
disagreement  between  the  two  great  codices,  by  the 
**  Vaticanus"  alone.  Theexcessi  ve  preponderance  thus 
given  to  a  sngle  manuaciu>t  was  criticised  in  a  special 
manner  by  Scrivener  (Introduction,  II,  284-297). 
Finally,  the  edition  announced  by  Von  Soden  (Die 
Schriften  des  N.  T.  in  ihrer  filtesten  erreichbaren 
Textgestalt)  gave  rise  to  lively  oontroversies  even 
before  it  appeared.  (See  "Zeitsdirift  fur  neutest. 
WiBsensch^t^',  1907,  VIII,  34-47,  110-124,  234- 
237.)  All  this  would  seem  to  indicate  that,  for  some 
time  to  come,  we  shall  not  have  a  definite  edition  c^ 
the  Greek  New  Testament. 

The  encyelopediM  and  diotionariM  of  the  Bible  have  no 
special  article  on  textual  criticism  which  deals  in  a  partieular 
mannec  with  Biblical  texts,  but  most  of  the  Introductions  to 
Scripture  dedicate  one  or  several  chapteTs  to  this  subject;  e.  g., 
TJbaloz,  IfUrodudio  (5th  ed.,  Rome.  1901).  II.  484-615  (De 
crUicd  verbali  taerantm  texhium);  Cobmxlt.  Introduclio  (Paris, 
1885).  I,  496-500  (Z>s  uau  critico  textuum  pritnigeniorum  et  ver- 
tumum  antiouarum);  Qreoort.  Prolegomena  to  8th  ed.  of  Txs- 
GHKin>OBF  (Ldpsie,  1884-1894);  ScnvmsutLMtt^duOion  (4th 
ed..  London,  1894).  11,  175-301;  Nsstlb,  EinfliJurunQ  in  daa 
ariUh,  N.  T.  (2nd  <xL  1899)  and  Boltzmann,  EinleUung  in  daa 
N.  T.  (Freiburg-im-Breiagau,  1892). 

The  following  may  be  mentioned  as  monocra]^:  Pobtsb, 
Princi^  of  Textual  Criiioitm  (Belfast,  1848);  Bavidbom,  A 
T\reatia«  of  Biblical  CriUeiam  (1853);  Hammond.  OuUinea  of 
Textual  Criticiam  (2nd  ed..  1878):  Millsr.  Textual  Ouide  (Lon- 
don. 1885);  Hort.  The  N,T.intha  Original  Greek:  htirodueHon 
(2nd  ed..  London,  1896).  Although,  like  several  of  the  preced- 
ing, this  last  work  aims  chiefly  at  the  criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  entire  second  part  (pp.  19-72.  The  Metkoda  of  Textual 
Criticiam)  discusses  general  questions.  On  (b)  Veraiana  and  (c) 
Qu^ationa,  under  B.  General  Prineiplea,  cf .  Brbb.  The  Evidenea 
of  Early  Veraiona  and  Patriatic  Quotationa  on  the  Text  of  the 
Booka  of  the  New  Teatament  in  II  «  the  Oxford  Siudia  Bibhea  et 
Bedeaiaatiea. 

F.  Prat. 

Oriticisiii,  Historical,  is  the  art  of  diBtinguiahinj; 
ihe  true  from  the  false  oonceming  facte  of  the  past.  It 
has  for  ito  ooject  both  the  jdocumento  which  have  been 
handed  down  to  us  and  the  facte  themselves.  We 
may  distinguish  three  kinds  of  historical  sources: 
written  documents,  unwritten  evidence,  and  tradition. 
As  further  means  of  reachixig  a  knowledge  of  the  facts 
there  are  three  processes  of  indirect  research,  vis.:  neg- 
ative aiigument,  conjecture,  and  a  priori  ai%:ument. 

It  may  be  said  at  once  that  the  study  of  sources  and 
the  use  of  indirect  processes  will  avail  little  for  proper 
criticism  if  one  is  not  guided  chiefly  by  an  ardent  love 
of  truth  such  as  will  prevent  him  from  turning  aside 
from  the  object  in  view  throus^  any  prejudice,  relig- 
ious, nationfJ,  or  domestic,  that  mjoht  trouble  his 
judgment.  Tne  rdle  of  the  critic  diners  much  from 
liiat  of  an  advocate.  He  must,  moreover,  conskler 
that  he  has  to  fulfil  at  once  the  duties  of  an  examining 
magistrate  and  an  expert  juiyman,  for  whom  elemen- 
tary probity,  to  say  nothing  of  their  oath,  mi^es  it  a 
conscientbus  duty  to  decide  only  on  the  fullest  possi- 
ble knowledge  of  the  details  of  the  matter  submitted 
to  their  examination,  and  in  keeping  with  the  conclu- 
sion which  theyhave  drawn  from  these  details;  guard* 
ing  themselves  at  the  same  time  against  all  personal 
feeling  either  of  affection  or  of  hatred  respecting  w 
litigants.  But  inexorable  impartiality  is  not  enough : 
the  critic  should  also  possess  a  fund  of  that  natural 
logic  known  as  common  sense,  which  enables  us  to  es- 
timate correctly,  neither  more  nor  less,  the  value  of  a 
conclusion  in  strict  keeping  with  given  premise.  If  > 
moreover,  the  investigator  be  acute  and  shrewd,  so 
that  he  discerns  at  a  glance  the  elements  of  evidenea 
offered  by  the  various  kinds  of  information  before  himii 


ORinOISM 


504 


CaiTIOZSM 


which  elements  often  appear  quite  meaninglefis  to  the 
untrained  obierver,  we  may  consider  him  thorou^y 
fitted  for  the  task  of  critic.  He  must  now  proceed  to 
familiarise  himself  with  the  historical  method,  i.  e. 
with  the  rules  of  the  art  of  historical  criticism.  In  the 
remainder  of  this  article  we  shall  present  a  brief  r6- 
8um6  ot  these  rules  apropos  of  the  various  kinds  of 
documents  and  processes  which  the  historian  employs 
in  determining  the  relative  degree  of  certainty  which 
attaches 'to  the  facts  that  enjrage  his  attention. 

Wrttten  Documsnts. — ^There  are  two  kinds  of 
written  documents.  Some  are  drawn  up  by  ecclesi- 
astical or  civil  authority,  and  are  known  as  public 
documents;  others,  emanating  from  private  individ- 
uals and  possessing  no  official  guarantee,  are  known  as 
private  aocuments.  Public  or  private,  however,  aU 
such  documents  raise  at  once  three  preliminary  ques* 
tions:  (1)  authenticity  and  integrity;  (2)  meaning; 
(3)  authority. 

AtUhenHcUy  and  Integrity. — ^Does  the  docimient 
which  confronts  us  as  a  source  of  information  really 
belong  to  the  time  and  the  author  claimed  for  it,  and 
do  we  possess  it  in  the  shape  in  which  it  left  that  au- 
thor's hand?  There  is  little  or  no  difficulty  in  the  case 
of  a  document  printed  during  the  author's  lifetime, 
and  given  at  once  a  wide  distribution.  It  is  otherwise 
when,  as  often  happens,  the  dociunent  is  both  ancient 
and  in  manuscript.  Tne  so-called  auxiliary  sciences 
of  history,  i.  e.  palsography,  diplomatics,  epigraphy, 
numismatics,  sigiUograpny,  or  sphragistics,  furnish 
practical  rules  that  generally  suffice  to  determine  ap- 
proximately the  age  of  a  manuscript.  In  this  orelim- 
mary  stagp  of  re^urch  we  are  greatly  aided  oy  the 
nature  of  the  material  on  which  the  manuscript  is 
written,  e.  g.  papyrus,  parchment,  cotton  or  rag  paper; 
by  the  system  of  abbreviations  employed,  character  of 
the  hand-writing,  ornamentation,  and  other  details 
that  vary  according  to  countries  and  epochs.  It  is 
rare  that  a  document  claiming  to  be  an  original  or  an 
autograph,  when  submitted  to  such  a  series  of  tests, 
leaves  room  for  reasonable  doubt  regarding  its  authen- 
ticity or  non-authenticity.  More  frequently,  how- 
ever, ancient  documents  survive  only  in  the  form  of 
copies,  or  copies  of  copies,  and  their  verification  thus 
becomes  more  complicated.  We  must  pass  judgment 
on  each  manuscript  and  compare  the  manuscripts  with 
one  another.  This  comparison  enables  us,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  fix  their  ace  (approximately)  by  the  rules  of 
paleography ;  on  the  other,  it  reveals  a  number  of 
variant  readings.  In  this  way  it  becomes  possible  to 
designate  some  as  belon^g  to  one  "family",  i.  e.  as 
transcribed  from  one  original  model,  and  thus  eventu- 
ally to  reconstruct,  more  or  less  perfectly,  the  primi- 
tive text  as  it  left  the  author's  hand.  Such  labour 
(merely  preliminary,  after  all,  to  the  question  of  au- 
thenticity), were  every  one  forced  to  perform  it,  would 
deter  most  students  of  historical  science  at  the  very 
outset.  It  becomes,  however,  daily  less  necessary. 
Men  specially  devoted  to  this  important  and  arduous 
branch  of  criticism,  and  of  a  literary  probity  beyond 
suspicion,  havepublished  and  continue  to  publish,  with 
the  generous  aid  of  their  governments  and  of  learned 
societies,  more  or  less  extensive  editions  of  ancient 
historical  sources  which  place  at  our  disposal,  one 
mi^ht  almost  say  more  sbdvantageously,  the  manu- 
scripts themselves.  In  the  prefaces  of  these  scholarly 
puluieations  all  the  known  manuscripts  of  each  docu- 
ment are  carefully  described,  classified,  and  often  par- 
tially represented  in  fao-simile,  thereby  enabling  us  to 
verify  the  pslsc^^phio  features  of  the  manuscript  in 
question.  The  edition  itself  is  usually  made  after  one 
of  the  principal  manuscripts;  moreover,  on  each  page 
we  fina  an  exact  summary  (sometimes  in  apparently 
excessive  detail)  of  all  tiie  variant  readings  found  in 
the  «ither  manujBoipts  of  the  text.  With  such  helps 
tiie  authenticity  of  a  work  or  of  a  text  m^  be  dis- 
1  without  searohing  all  the  libraries  of  Europe  or 


tirinff  one's  eyes  in  deciphering  the  more  or  less  legible 
handwriting  of  the  Middle  A^. 

The  manuscripts  once  counted  and  classified*  we 
must  examine  whether  aU,  even  the  most  ancient,  bear 
the  name  of  the  author  to  whom  the  work  is  flenmllT 
attributed.  If  it  be  lacking  in  the  okiest,  and  be  found 
only  in  those  of  a  later  date,  especially  if  the  name  of- 
fered by  the  eariier  manuscripts  differ  from  that  ^vien 
by  later  copyists,  we  may  rightly  doubt  the  fiddaty  oi 
the  transcription.  Such  doubt  will  often  occur  apro- 
pos of  a  passage  not  met  in  the  oldest  manuscripts,  out 
only  in  tne  more  recent,  or  vice  versa.  Unless  we  can 
otherwise  explain  this  divergency,  we  are  natundly 
justified  in  suspecting  an  int^polation  or  a  mutilation 
m  the  later  manuscripts.  While  tiie  authenticity  oi  a 
work  may  be  proved  oy  the  agreement  of  all  its  manu- 
scripts, it  is  possible  further  to  confirm  it  by  the  testi- 
mony of  ancient  writers  who  quote  the  work  under  the 
same  title,  andasa  work  of  thesame  author;  such  quota- 
tions are  especially  helpful  if  they  are  rather  exteodve 
and  correspond  well  to  the  text  as  found  in  the  manu- 
scripts. On  the  other  hand,  if  one  or  several  of  such 
3 noted  passages  are  not  met  with  in  the  manuscript,  or 
they  be  not  reproduced  in  identical  terms,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  we  have  not  before  us  the  docu- 
ment quoted  by  ancient  writers  or  at  least  that  our 
copy  has  suffered  notably  from  the  negligence  or  bad 
faith  of  those  who  transcribed  it.  To  these  signs  of 
authenticity,  called  extrinsic  because  they  are  based 
on  testimony  foreign  to  the  author's  own  work,  may 
be  added  certain  intrinsic  signs  based  on  an  examina- 
tion of  the  work  itself.  When  dealing  with  official  and 
public  acts  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  not  only  the 
handwriting,  but  also  the  opening  and  closing  formu- 
Ise,  the  titles  of  persons,  the  maimer  of  notii]«  dates, 
and  other  similar  corroborative  indications  conform  to 
the  known  customs  of  the  age  to  which  the  document  is 
attributed.*  Amid  so  many  means  of  verification  it  is 
extremely  difficult  for  a  forgery  to  esci^  detection. 
Words  and  phraseology  furnish  another  test  Each 
century  possesses  its  own  peculiar  diction,  and  amid  so 
many  pitfalls  of  this  nature  it  is  scarcely  possible  for 
the  forger  to  cloak  successfully  his  misdeed.  This  is 
also  true  for  the  st3de  of  each  particular  author.  In 
general,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  great  writers,  eadi 
one  has  his  own  peculiar  stamp  l^  which  he  is  easily 
recognised,  or  which  at  least  prevents  us  from  attribu- 
ting to  the  same  pen  compositions  quite  unequal  in 
style.  In  the  application  of  this  rule,  no  doubt,  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  exaggerate.  A  writw  varies 
his  tone  and  his  language  according  to  the  subject  of 
which  he  treats,  the  nature  of  his  literaiy  composition, 
and  the  class  of  readers  whom  he  addresses.  Never* 
theless  an  acute  and  practised  mind  will  have  little  dif- 
ficulty in  recognizing  among  the  various  works  of  a 
given  author  certain  qualities  which  betray  at  once  the 
character  of  the  writer  and  his  style  or  habitual  man- 
ner of  writing.  Another  and  a  surer  means  for  the  de- 
tection of  positive  for^eiy  or  the  alteration  of  a  dooi- 
ment  is  the  commission  of  anachronisms  in  facts  or 
dates,  the  mention  in  a  work  of  persons,  institutions, 
or  customs  that  are  certainly  of  a  later  date  than  the 
period  to  which  it  claims  to  belong;  akin  to  this  are 
plagiarism  and  the  servile  imitation  of  more  recent 
writers. 

^  Meaning. — ^The  critic  must  now  make  the  best  pos- 
sible use  of  the  written  sources  at  his  disposal,  i.  e.  he 
must  understand  them  well,  which  is  not  always  an 
easy  matter.  His  difficulty  may  arise  from  the  ob- 
scurity of  certain  words,  from  their  grammatical  form, 
or  from  their  grouping  in  the  phrase  he  seeks  to  inter- 
pret. As  to  the  sense  of  the  individual  words  it  is  su- 
premely important  that  the  critic  should  be  able  to 
read  the  documente  in  the  language  in  which  tiiey  woe 
written  rather  than  in  translations.  Doubtless  there 
are  excellent  translations,  and  they  may  be  very  hdp- 
ful;  but  it  is  always  dangerous  to  trust  them  Mindly. 


0SITI0I8M 


505 


(miTioistt 


The  scholar  who  enters  conscientiously  upon  the  work 
of  critic  wiH  alwavs  feel  it  a  strict  duty  to  warn  his 
readers  whenever  he  quotes  a  text  from  a  translation. 
It  is  well  known  that  to  interpret  a  term  correctly  it  is 
not  enough  to  know  its  meanmg  at  a  particular  epoch, 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  r^uxl  as  classic,  in  the 
language  to  which  it  belongs.  We  need  only  open  any 
large  I^tin  lexicon,  e.  g.  Forcellini's  or  Freund's  (es- 
pecially if  we  keep  in  view  the  corresponding  page  of 
the  Latin  "Glossarium"  of  Du  Cange),  to  appreciate 
at  once  the  veiy  remarkable  modifications  of  meaning 
undergone  by  Latin  terms  in  different  periods  of  the 
language,  either  from  the  substitution  of  new  meanings 
for  older  ones  or  by  the  concurrent  use  of  both  old  and 
new.  In  his  efforts  to  fix  the  age  of  a  text  the  critic 
wiU,  therefore,  be  occasionally  obliged  to  exclude  a 
meaning  that  had  not  yet  arisen,  or  had  ceased  to  be  in 
use  when  the  text  in  question  was  composed;  some- 
times he  wUl  be  left  in  a  condition  of  imcertainty  or 
suspense,  and  obl^ed  to  abstain  from  conclusions 
agreeiUble  enough  but  unsafe.  Again,  in  order  to 
grasp  correctly  tae  sense  of  a  text  it  becomes  necessary 
to  understand  the  political  or  reli^ous  opinions  of  the 
author,  the  peculiar  institutions  ofnis  age  and  coimtry, 
the  general  character  of  his  style,  the  matters  which  he 
treats,  and  the  circumstances  under  which  he  speaks. 
Hiese  things  considered  a  general  expression  may  take 
on  quite  a  particular  sense  which  it  would  be  di8a»- 
trous  for  the  critic  to  overlook.  Often  these  details 
can  only  be  imderstood  from  the  context  of  the  pas- 
sage under  discussion.  In  general,  whenever  there  is 
occasion  to  verify  the  exactness  of  a  quotation  made  in 
support  of  a  thesis,  it  is  prudent  to  read  the  entire 
chapter  whence  it  is  taken,  sometimes  even  to  read  the 
whole  work.  An  individtial  testimony,  isolated  from 
all  its  surroundings  in  an  author's  work,  seems  often 
ouite  decisive,  yet  when  we  read  the  work  itself  our 
faith  in  the  value  of  the  alignment  based  on  such  par- 
tial quotation  is  either  very  much  shaken  or  else  dis- 
appears entirely- 

AtUhorUu. — ^What  is  now  the  value  of  a  text  rightly 
understood?  Every  historical  statement  or  testimony 
naturally  suggests  two  questions:  Has  the  witness  in 
question  a  proper  knowledge  of  the  fact  concerning 
which  he  is  called  to  testify?  And  if  so,  is  he  altogether 
sincere  in  his  deposition?  On  an  impartial  answer  to 
these  questions  depends  the  degree  of  confidence  to  be 
accoroed  to  his  testimony. 

Concerning  the  knowledge  of  the  witness  we  may 
ask:  Did  he  live  at  the  time  when,  and  in  the  place 
wheie,  the  fact  occurred,  and  was  he  so  circumstanced 
that  he  could  know  it?  Or,  at  least,  are  we  sure  that  he 
obtained  his  information  from  a  good  source?  The 
more  guarantees  he  gives  in  this  respect  the  more,  all 
else  being  equal,  does  he  prove  himself  trustworthy. 
As  to  the  question  of  sincerity  it  is  not  enough  to  be 
satisfied  that  the  witness  did  not  wish  to  utter  a  delib- 
erate lie ;  if  it  could  be  reasonably  shown  that  he  had  a 
personal  interest  in  warping  the  truth,  grave  suspi- 
cions would  be  raised  as  to  the  veracity  of  all  his  state- 
ments. Cases  of  formal  and  wilful  mendacity  in  his- 
torical sources  may  be  regarded  as  rare.  Much  more 
frequently  prejudice  or  passion  secretly  pervert  the 
natural  smcerity  of  a  man  whp  really  respects  himself 
and  esteems  the  respect  of  others.  It  is  possible,  and 
that  with  a  certain  good  faith,  to  deceive  both  one's 
self  and  others.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  critic  to  enumer- 
ate and  weigh  all  the  influences  which  may  have  altered 
more  or  less  the  sincerity  of  a  witness — personal  likes 
or  dislikes,  social  or  oratorical  proprieties,  self-esteem 
or  vanity,  as  we0  as  the  influences  which  may  affect 
the  clearness  of  a  writer's  memory  or  the  uprightness 
of  his  will.  It  by  no  means  follows  that  the  authority 
of  a  witness  is  always  weakened  by  the  process  de- 
scribed above;  often  quite  the  contrary  happens. 
'When  a  witness  has  overcome  influences  that  usually 
powerfully  affect  a  man's  mind  and  dissuade  him  from 


yielding  to  the  natural  tove  of  truth,  there  is  no  lon^ 
any  reason  to  doubt  his  veracity.  Moreover,  whenL. 
asserts  a  fact  unfavourable  to  the  relieious  or  political 
cause  which  he  otherwise  defends  with  ardour:  when 
he  thus  gains  no  particular  advantage,  but  on  tne  con- 
trary subjects  himself  to  serious  disadvantage;  in  a 
word,  whenever  his  statements  or  avowals  are  m  mani- 
fest opposition  to  his  interests,  his  prejudices,  and  his 
inclinations,  it  is  clear  that  his  evidence  is  far  weis^tier 
than  that  of  a  perfectly  disinterested  man.  Again, 
the  preceding  considerations  apply  not  only  to  l^e  im- 
memate  witnesses  of  the  fact  m  question,  but  sdso  to 
all  the  intermediaries  through  whom  their  evidence  is 
transmitted  to  us.  The  trustworthiness  of  the  latter 
must  be  established  as  well  as  that  of  the  authorities  to 
which  they  appeal. 

Given  tne  necessity  of  observing  so  much  caution  in 
the  use  of  historical  texts,  it  may  appeat  very  difficult 
to  readi  complete  certainty  regarding  the  facts  of  his- 
tory. How  may  we  be  sure,  especially  in  dealing 
with  ancient  times,  that  our  witness  presents  every  de- 
sirable guarantee?  Often  he  is  scarcely  known  to  us, 
or  quite  anonymous.  How  many  facts,  once  held  to 
be  established,  have  been  eliminated  from  the  pages  of 
history.  And  for  how  many  more  must  we  indefi^ 
nitely  suspend  our  judgment  for  lack  of  sufficiently  con- 
vincing authority.  Historical  certitude  would  indeed 
be  diflicult  to  reach  if  for  each  fact  we  had  but  one  iso- 
lated piece  of  evidence.  Full  certainty  would  tien  be 
possible  only  when  it  could  be  shown  that  the  charac- 
ter and  position  of  a  witness  were  such  as  to  preclude 
any  reasonable  doubt  as  to  the  exactness  of  his  stat^ 
ments.  But  if  the  veracity  of  the  witness  is  guaran- 
teed only  by  ne^tive  data,  L  e.  if  we  are  merely  aware 
that  no  known  circumstances  warrant  us  in  suspecting 
carelessness  or  bad  faith,  there  arises  in  us  a  more  or 
less  vague  belief,  such  as  we  easily  accord  to  any  ouite 
unknown  person  who  seriously  relates  an  event  vmidx 
he  says  he  has  seen,  while  on  our  part  we  have  no  rea- 
son to  suppose  either  that  he  himseJf  is  deceived  or 
that  he  is  deceiving  us.  Strictly  speaking,  our  belief  in 
such  a  witness  cannot  be  called  a  halting  faith.  On 
the  other  hand  it  differs  considerably  from  a  belief  that 
is  based  on  more  solid  foundations.  We  shall  not, 
therefore,  be  much  surprised  if  the  occurrence  be  later 
described  in  an  entirely  different  manner,  nor  shall  we 
object  to  abandoning  our  former  belief  when  better  in- 
formed by  more  reliable  witnesses.  Were  it  otherwise, 
our  passions  would  be  to  blame  for  causing  us  to  hold 
to  a  belief,  flattering  perhaps,  but  unsupported  by  suif- 
ficient  evidence.  We  frankly  admit,  therefore,  the 
possibility  of  a  more  or  less  wavering  mental  adhesion 
to  facts  that  rest  on  a  single  testimony  and  whose 
value  we  are  unable  properly  to  appreciate.  It  is 
otherwise  in  the  case  off  acts  confirmed  by  several  wit- 
nesses placed  in  entirely  different  conditions.  It  is 
very  difficult,  nay  generally  speaking  morally  impossi- 
ble, that  three,  four,  or  even  more  persons,  not  subject 
to  any  common  influence,  should  be  deceived  in  the 
same  manner,  or  should  be  parties  to  the  same  decep- 
tion. When,  therefore,  we  find  a  fact  established  by 
several  statements  or  narratives  taken  from  different 
sources,  yet  all  concordant,  there  is  scarcely  any  fur- 
ther room  for  reasonable  doubt  as  to  tiie  entire  truth 
of  the  fact.  At  this  stage,  however,  we  must  be  very 
certain  that  the  historical  sources  are  truly  different. 
Ten  or  twenty  writera  who  copy  ther  narrative  of  an 
ancient  author,  without  any  new  source  of  knowledge 
at  their  disposal,  in  general  add  nothing  to  the  author- 
ity of  him  from  whom  they  have  cleaned  their  infor- 
mation. They  are  but  echoes  of  an  original  testi- 
mony, already  well  known.  It  may  happen,  however, 
and  the  case  is  by  no  means  rare,  that  narratives  based 
on  different  sources  exhibit  more  or  less  disagreement. 
How  then  shall  we  form  our  judgment? 

Right  here  an  important  distinction  is  necessary. 
The  various  narratives  of  a  fact  often  exhibit  a  perfect 


oftinoisM 


506 


oftinciiM 


harmony  as  to  substance,  their  divergence  apf)earing 
onlv  in  matters  of  detail  upon  which  mformation  was 
had  with  greater  difficulty.  In  such  cases  the  partial 
disagreement  of  the  witnesses,  far  from  lessening  their 
authority  regarding  the  principal  fact  serves  to  con- 
firm it;  diss^eement  of  this  kind  shows  on  the  one 
hand  an  absence  of  collusion,  and  on  the  other  a  reli- 
ance of  witnesses  on  certain  sources  of  information 
common  to  all.  There  is.  however,  an  exception.  It 
may  happen  that  several  writers,  whose  veracity  we 
are  otherwise  justified  in  suspecting,  agree  in  narrating 
with  much  precision  of  detail  a  fact  favourable  to  their 
common  likes  and  dislikes.  They  either  report  it  as 
eye-witnesses  or  they  declare  that  they  reproduce 
faithfully  the  narrative  of  such  witnesses.  In  dealing 
with  writers  of  this  character  the  critic  must  examine 
carefully  all  their  statements,  down  to  the  minutest 
detidl;  often  a  very  insignificant  circumstance  will  re- 
veal the  deception.  We  may  recall  here  the  ingenious 
questioning  by  which  Daniel  saved  the  life  and  reputar 
tion  of  Susanna  (Dan.,  xiu,  52-60).  Similar  means  are 
often  employed  with  success  in  the  law  courts  to  over- 
throw clever  systems  of  defence  built  up  by  culprits, 
or  to  convict  a  party  who  has  suborned  false  witnesses 
in  the  interest  of  a  bad  cause.  Occasionallv  such 
measures  migiht  be  advantageously  applied  in  the  con- 
duct of  historical  examinations.  Let  us  suppose  that 
there  exists  a  conflict  of  opinion  about  the  substance  of 
a  fact,  and  ti^at  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  recour 
cile  the  witnesses.  It  is  clear  that  they  disagree.  At 
this  point,  evidently,  we  must  cease  to  insist  on  their 
absolute  value  and  weigh  them  one  against  the  other. 
Keeping  always  in  view  the  circumstances  of  time, 
place,  and  personal  position  of  the  different  witnesses, 
we  must  seek  to  ascertain  in  which  of  them  the  condi- 
tions of  Imowledge  and  veracity  appear  to  predomi- 
nate; this  examination  will  determme  the  measure  of 
confidence  to  be  reposed  in  them,  and.  consequently, 
the  degree  of  certainty  or  probability  tnat  attaches  to 
the  fact  they  narrate.  Frequently,  though  no  indis- 
pensable preliminary  of  mental  conviction,  a  careful 
comparison  of  more  or  less  discordant  versions  of  a 
fact  or  an  event  will  reveal  in  the  rejected  witnesses 
the  very  sources  or  causes  of  their  errors,,  and  thereby 
exhibit  in  much  clearer  light  the  complete  solution  of 
problems  whose  data  seemed  at  first  sight  confused 
and  contradictory. 

UNWRnTBN  Testmony. — To  hang  a  man,  a  clever 
ATftmining  majzjstrate  does  not  always  need  one  line  of 
his  writing.  SUent  witnesses  have  often  convicted  a 
criminal  more  efficaciously  than  positive  accusers. 
The  most  insignificant  object  left  by  him  on  the  scene 
of  his  crime,  another  found  in  his  possession,  an  un- 
common de^-ee  of  prodigality,  a  hundred  other  equally 
trifling  tokens,  lay  bare  very  often  the  most  ingen- 
iously planned  schemes  for  avoiding  detection  by  the 
law.  £ven  so  in  the  science  of  history.  Here  noth- 
ing is  neglij^ble  or  unimportant.  Monuments  of  arch- 
itecture, objects  of  plastic  art,  coins,  weapons,  imple- 
ments of  labour,  household  utensils,  material  objects 
of  every  kind  ma^  in  one  wa^  or  another  furnish  us 
precious  information.  Certam  classes  of  historical 
sources  have  long  since  attained  the  dignity  of  special 
auxiliary  sciences.  Such  are  heraldry,  or  armorial 
science;  glyptics,  which  deals  with  en^ved  stones; 
ceramics,  or  the  study  of  pottery  in  all  its  epochs.  To 
these  we  may  add  numismatics,  sigillography,  and  es- 
pecially linguistics,  not  so  much  for  a  surer  interpreta- 
tion of  the  texts  as  for  procuring  data  from  whicn  may 
be  conclusively  established  the  origins  of  peoples  and 
their  migrations.  Archseology,  in  its  broadest  sense, 
comprises  all  these  sciences;  in  its  most  restricted 
sense  it  is  confined  to  objects  which  are  beyond  their 
scope.  Truly  it  is  a  vast  province  that  here  ^reads 
out  before  the  historical  pioneer,  and  he  needs  much 
erudition,  acumen,  and  tact  to  venture  therein.  For- 
tunately, as  with  manuscripts  and  inscriptbns,  it  is  no 


longer  necessary  for  the  historical  student  to  possess  ft 
thorough  knowled^  of  all  these  auxiliary  sciences  be- 
fore entering  on  his  proper  task.  For  jpaoet  of  them 
there  exist  excellent  special  works  in  which  we  may 
easiljr  find  any  archaeological  details  needful  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  an  nistorical  question.  It  is  to  these  works 
and  to  the  advice  of  men  learned  in  such  matters  that 
we  must  have  recourse  in  order  to  solve  the  two  pre- 
liminary questions  regarding  all  evidence,  written  and 
imwritten:  that  of  authenticity  or  provenance,  and 
that  of  meanine,  i.  e.,  in  arclueological  remains,  the 
use  to  which  the  objects  discovert  were  onoe  put. 
In  dealing  with  imwritten  evidence  these  questions 
are  more  delicatej  similarly  the  rules  for  our  guidance 
are  much  more  difficult,  both  to  fonnulate  and  to  ap- 
ply. It  is  here,  particularly,  that  shrewdness  and 
acumen,  and  the  prophetic  insight  that  comes  of  long 
practice,  offer  help  more  important  by  far  than  the 
most  exact  rules.  It  is  only  by  dint  of  observation 
and  comparison  that  we  learn  eventually  to  distin- 
Ruish  with  accuracy.  These  preliminaries  once  satia- 
ned,  we  enter  on  the  task  of  historical  criticism  prop- 
erly speaking.  Through  it  these  precious  relics  of  tne 
past  are  called  to  shed  tight  on  certain  writings,  to  con- 
firm their  evidence,  to  reveal  a  fact  not  committed  to 
them;  more  frequently  they  furnish  a  sure  basis  of 
conjecture  whence  eventually  follow  discoveries  of 
great  importance.  Here,  however,  and  it  cannot  be 
repeated  too  often,  the  path  of  the  historical  student 
is  perilous  indeed.  The  misadventures  of  amateur 
arcn^eologists,  whether  in  the  matter  of  pretended  dis- 
coveries or  in  dissertations  based  on  them,  have  pro- 
voked no  little  raillery,  not  only  among  severely  just 
professional  critics,  but  also  among  romancers  and 
dramatic  writers.  As  already  stated,  it  is  especially 
by  the  judicious  use  of  conjecture  that  we  obtam  from 
these  silent  witnesses  such  information  as  it  is  in  their 
power  to  furnish.  For  more  specific  treatment  of  this 
powerful  but  delicate  instrument  of  historical  criti- 
cism we  refer  the  reader  to  a  subsequent  section  of  Uds 
article:  Conjecture  in  History. 

Tradition. — Every  student  of  history  must  eventu- 
ally face  a  problem  very  embarrassing  for  a  conscien- 
tious scholar.  Facts  appear  which  have  left  no  trace 
in  any  writing  or  contemporary  monument.  Buried 
in  obscurity  for  centuries  they  suddenly  appear  in  full 
publicity  and  are  accepted  as  incontrovertible.  Every 
one  repeats  the  story,  often  with  minute  detail,  thoum 
no  one  is  able  to  offer  any  credible  evidence  of  the 
trustworthiness  of  the  current  statement  or  narrative. 
It  is  then  said  that  such  facts  rest  on  the  evidence 
known  as  oral  or  popular  tradition.  What  d^;ree  of 
confidence  is  due  to  this  popular  tradition?  Its  orig- 
inators are  ^uite  unknown  to  us  as  are  also  the  many 
intermediaries  who  have  passed  it  down  to  the  time 
when  we  are  first  cognizant  of  it.  How  may  we  ob- 
tain a  guarantee  of  the  veracity  of  the  original  wit- 
nesses and  then  of  their  successors?  Perhaps  a  rather 
natural  comparison  will  help  us  to  a  dear  solution  of 
this  question.  We  may  note  at  once  a  striking  anal- 
ogy between  tradition  concerning  the  past  and  public 
rumour  about  present  events.  There  are  in  both 
cases  numberless  intermediary  and  anonymous  wit- 
nesses, concordant  as  to  the  substance  of  the  facts,  but 
as  to  the  detaib  often -quite  contradictory  of  one  an- 
other; in  both  cases  also  there  is  an  identical  ignorance 
concerning  the  original  witnesses;  in  both  cases,  fi- 
naUy,  many  instances  in  which  the  cunent  informal 
tion  was  verified  and  many  others  in  which  it  was 
found  to  be  altogether  false.  Let  us  suppose  the  case 
of  a  prudent  man  deeply  interested  in  knowing  pre- 
cisely what  is  happenmg  in  a  distant  country;  one 
who,  moreover,  takes  much  pains  to  be  well  imormed. 
What  does  he  ao  when  he  learns  by  public  rumour  of 
an  important  event  said  to  have  occurred  in  the  place 
in  which  he  is  interested?  Does  he  accept  blindly  every 
detail  thus  bruited  abroad?    On  the  other  hand,  does 


aamoisx 


507 


cainoisM 


he  pay  no  attention  whatever  to  rumour?  He  does 
naithiir.  He  gatheis  e^erly  the  various  narratives 
cnne&t  and  oompares  them  with  one  another,  notes 
their  points  of  agreement,  and  their  elemente  of  diver- 
eeaoe.  Nor  does  he  oondude  in  haste.  He  suspends 
his  judgawnty  seeks  to  procure  official  reports,  writes 
to  his  friends  who  are  on  the  spot  to  learn  from  them 
reliable  news,  I.  e.  confirmation  of  the  facts  on  which 
men  agree,  solutions  of  the  difficulties  which  arise  from 
discordant  versions  of  the  event.  Possibly  he  has  no 
confidence  in  the  persons  charged  with  drawing  up 
the  official  reports;  possibly,  too,  he  cannot  corre- 
spond with  his  friends,  owing  to  the  interruption  of 
communications  by  reason  of  war  or  other  causes.  In 
a  word,  if  sudi  a  man  found  himself  dependent  on  pub- 
lic rumour  alone  he  would  remain  mdefinitely  in  a 
state  of  doubt,  content  with  a  more  or  less  probable 
knowledge  mitfl  some  more  certain  source  of  mforma* 
tion  offered. 

Why  should  we  not  deal  similarly  with  popular  tra- 
ditionT  It  appeals  in  just  this  way  to  our  attention  and 
we  have  the  same  motives  for  mistrusting  it.  More 
than  once  it  has  been  helpful  to  judicious  critics  and 
pointed  tiie  way  to  important  discoveries  which  they 
would  never  have  made  with  the  sole  aid  of  written 
documents  or  monuments.  Let  us  look  at  the  matter 
in  another  way.  Have  not  all  students  of  historical 
documents  come  freqjuently  across  tiie  same  peculiar, 
one  mi^^  say  capricious  admixture  of  true  and  false 
which  meets  us  at  every  siep  in  the  case  of  popular  tra- 
ditions? It  would  be  equally  rash  on  the  one  hand  to 
reject  all  tradition  and  place  faith  only  in  written  testi- 
mony or  contemporary  monuments,  and  on  the  other 
to  adecnxl  to  tradition  an  implicit  confidence  merely  be- 
cause it  was  not  formally  contradicted  byother  histori- 
cal data,  though  it  received  from  them  no  confirmation. 
The  historian  should  collect  with  care  the  popular  tra- 
ditions of  the  countries  and  epochs  he  is  treatm^,  com- 
pare them  with  one  another,  and  determine  their  value 
m  the  l^t  of  oihier  information  scientifically  acquired. 
Should  ttiis  light,  too.  eventually  fail  him,  he  must  wait 
patiently  unw  fresh  cuscoveries  renew  it,  content  in  the 
meantime  with  su<di  measure  of  problability  as  tradi- 
tion affords.  In  this  way  the  already  acquired  histori- 
od  wMlih  will  be  retained,  yet  no  danger  run  of  exag- 
j;erating  its  value,  or,  finally,  of  casting  suspicion  on 
its  trustworthiness  by  incorporating  with  it  false  or 
doubtful  statements. 

The  Negativb  Argumbnt. — The  negative  argu- 
ment in  history  is  that  which  is  drawn  from  the  silence 
of  contempcnnary  or  quasi-contemporary  documents 
concerning  a  given  fact.  The  ^at  masters  of  histori- 
cal science  have  often  used  it  with  success  in  their  refu- 
tation of  historical  errors,  sometimes  long  intrenched 
in  popular  belief.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  on  such  occa- 
sions they  have  always  held  firmly  to  two  principles: 
firot,  that  the  author  whose  silence  is  invoked  as  a 
proof  €»f  the  falsity  of  a  given  fact,  could  not  have  been 
isnorant  of  it  haa  it  really  occurred  as  related ;  second, 
that  if  he  were  not  ignorant  of  the  fact,  he  would  not 
have  failed  to  speak  of  it  in  the  work  before  us.  The 
ms^ker  the  certainty  of  these  two  points,  the  stronger 
IS  the  negative  aigument.  Whenever  all  doubt  in  re- 
mrd  to  tnem  is  removed,  we  are  quite  ri^t  in  holdinjg 
^t  a  writer^  silence  concerning  a  fact  m  question  is 
equivalent  to  a  formal  denial  of  its  truth.  There  is 
nothing  more  rational  than  this  process  of  reasoning ;  it 
is  daily  employed  in  our  courts  of  justice.  How  often 
is  a  \egpX  line  of  attack  or  defence  Imkenbypurely  neg- 
ative evidence.  Honourable  men  are  brought  before 
a  judicial  tribunal  who  would  certainly,  in  the  h3rpo- 
t^esis  of  their  truth,  have  knowledge  of  the  facts  al- 
leged by  one  of  the  contending  parties.  If  they  affirm 
that  they  have  no  knowledge  of  them,  their  depositions 
are  ridhUy  considered  positive  proofs  of  the  falsity  of 
the  allegations.  Now,  evidence  of  this  kind  does  not 
differ  simtantially  from  the  negative  argument  in  the 


above  oonditionB.  In  one  case,  it  is  true,  the  witnesses 
formally  state  that  they  know  nothing,  while  in  tiie 
other  we  leam  as  much  from  their  silmice.  Neverthe- 
less this  silence,  in  the  given  circumstances,  is  as  signifi- 
cant as  a  positive  assertion. 

There  are,  nevertheless,  some  who  claim  that  a  nega- 
tive argument  can  never  prevail  against  a  formal  text. 
But  this  assertion  is  not  even  admissible  respecting  a 
contemporary  text.  If  the  writer  to  whom  it  belongs 
does  not  offer  an  absolute  and  incontestable  guarantee 
of  knowledge  and  veracity,  his  authority  may  be  very 
mudi  weakened  or  even  destroyed  by  tne  silence  of  a 
more  reliable  and  more  prudent  writer.  It  often  hap- 
pens in  courts  of  law  that  the  deposition  of  an  eye  or 
ear-witness  is  questioned,  or  even  rejected,  in  view  of 
the  deposition  of  some  other  witness,  equally  well- 
placed  to  see  and  hear  all  that  occurred,  but  who  yet 
declares  that  he  neither  saw  anything  nor  heard  any- 
thing. Mabillon  was  certainly  wrong  in  maintaining 
that  the  negative  argument  could  never  be  used  unless 
one  had  berore  him  all  the  works  of  all  the  authors  of 
the  time  when  the  event  happened.  On  the  contrary, 
a  single  work  of  a  single  author  may  in  certain  cases  fur- 
nish a  very  soimd  neeative  argument.  lAunoy.  on  the 
other  hand,  is  equally  wrons  in  maintaining  that  the 
universal  silence  of  writers  for  a  period  of  about  two 
centuries  furnishes  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  falsity  of 
facts  not  mentioned  by  them;  it  is  quite  possible  that 
no  author  of  this  period  was  morally  bound  by  the  na- 
ture of  his  subject-matter  to  state  such  facts.  In  this 
case  the  silence  of  such  authors  is  by  no  means  equivi^ 
lent  to  a  denial.  But,  it  is  objected,  in  order  to  raise  a 
doubt  as  to  a  fact  related  by  later  writers,  have  not  the 
best  critics  often  relied  on  wis  universal  silence  of  his- 
torians for  some  considerable  time?  lliis  is  true,  but 
the  epoch  in  question  was  one  already  carefully  studied 
and  conscientiously  described  by  several  historians. 
Moreover,  the  disputed  fact,  if  true,  would  necessarily 
have  been  so  public,  and  such,  in  kind  and  importance, 
that  neither  ignorance  nor  wilful  omission  could  be 
posited  for  all  these  historians.  We  have  here,  there- 
fore, the  two  conditions  needed  to  make  inexplicable 
the  silence  of  these  authors ;  conseo  uently^  the  negative 
argument  loses  none  of  its  strength,  and  is  powerful  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  silent  witnesses.  Of 
course,  this  line  of  argument  does  not  apply  in  the  case 
of  some  obscine  detau,  which  may  easily  nave  been  uih 
known  to,  or  little  remarked  by  some  contemporary 
authors  and  quite  neglected  by  othere;  nor,  more  par- 
ticularly, does  it  apply  to  an  epoch  of  which  few  monu- 
ments are  extant,  especially  few  historical  writings.  In 
the  latter  case,  the  fact  of  a  imiversal  silence  on  the 
part  of  all  writere  for  a  considerable  period,  may,  in- 
deed, weaken  the  certainty  of  a  fact;  in  reality  we  do 
no  more  than  ascertain  thereby  the  absence  of  all  posi- 
tive evidence  in  its  favour,  other  than  a  tradition  of  un- 
certain oriffin.  However,  once  the  lack  of  information 
is  admittea,  it  is  not  permissible  to  advance  a  step  f  ui^ 
ther  and  present  the  silence  of  documents  as  proof  of 
the  falsity  of  the  fact.  Their  silence  in  this  case  is  not 
the  negative  areument  as  described  above. 

The  rule  laia  down  in  the  preceding  paragraphs 
seems  to  lack  no  element  of  precision  and  practical  ad- 
vantage. But  in  applying  it  to  ancient  times  some 
caution  is  necessary.  In  an  age  of  widespread  public- 
ity IDce  our  own,  no  important  event  can  occur  in  any 
part  of  the  civilized  worid  without  being  immediately 
known  everywhere  and  to  all.  Its  principal  details, 
indeed,  are  at  once  so  fixed  in  the  memory  of  all  inter* 
ested  parties  that  th^  will  not  easily  be  effaced  with* 
in  a  long  period.  It  is  astonishing  to  see  how  easily 
some  modem  writera  f or^t  that  the  former  conditions 
of  mankind  were  very  different.  They  seek  to  estab- 
lish an  irrefutable  neoative  argument  on  the  hjrpothesis 
that  a  given  public  met  of  importance  could  not  have 
been  unknown  to  a  certain  person  of  education  and  re- 
finement who  lived  shortly  afterwards.    Such  writers 


oainozsH 


508 


OEinOXSM 


mi^t  learoL  to  be  more  cautious  by  recalling  a  aeries  of 
ounous  historical  facts.  It  is  enough  to  remind  our 
readers  that  when  St.  Augustine  was  created  auxiliary 
Bishop  of  Hippo  (391)  he  did  not  know,  on  his  own 
avowal,  that  tne  sixth  canon  of  the  Council  of  Nice 
(325)  forbade  any  consecration  of  this  kind* 

CoraBcraRE  in  History. — Conjecture  or  hypothe- 
sis occurs  in  history  when  the  stud^rof  documents  leads 
us  to  suspect,  beyond  the  facts  which  they  directly  re- 
veal, other  facts,  so  closely  related  to  them  that  from  a 
knowledge  of  the  former  we  may  proceed  to  that  of  the 
latter.  Such  facts  are  most  frequently  related  as  cause 
and  efiFect.  Let  an  important  event  happen.  How 
shall  we  explain  it?  How  was  it  brought  about?  Evi- 
dently by  another  fact  or  a  group  of  other  facts  which 
constitute  its  cause  or  sufficient  reason.  These  new 
facts  are  revealed  in  no  historical  documents,  or  at 
least  no  one  has  hitherto  perceived  them.  At  once  the 
investigator  sees  that  here  it  is  possible  to  discover  more 
l^ian  is  Known  from  the  extant  documents.  With  this 
hope  he  begins  to  read  extensively,  to  set  afoot  various 
researches,  to  interrogate  in  every  sense  a  great  many 
works  and  all  the  monuments  relating  to  the  fact  with 
which  he  has  been  keenly  impressed,  to  study  the  per- 
sons concerned  in  it,  or  the  £^  in  which  it  took  f>lace; 
all  this  in  order  to  recover  the  often  almost  invisible 
thread  which  connects  this  fact  with  details  that  were 
orieinally  unnoticed  or  set  aside  as  unimportant.  Ab- 
soroed  in  intense  meditation,  sometimes  made  needless 
throuffh  a  sudden  illuminating  insight  which  reveals  at 
once  uie  right  path,  he  seeks  with  earnestness  the  truth 
that  the  positive  evidence  before  him  still  withholds; 
he  passes  from  one  hypothesis  to  another;  he  calls  to 
his  aid  all  the  treasures  of  his  memory;  thus  reinforced 
he  turns  again  to  the  study  of  the  documents,  and  col- 
lects with  minute  care  every  hint  or  indication  that 
may  avaU  to  demonstrate  their  accuracy  or  falsity. 
From  such  close  verification  it  sometimes  appears  that 
the  path  first  struck  out  was  misleadine  and  must  be 
abandoned :  often  the  investigator  is  led  by  this  hard 
toil  to  modify  more  or  less  his  original  ideas;  on  the 
other  hand,  he  sometimes  meets  with  striking  confir- 
mation of  them.  Feeble  rays  which  seemed  at  first 
quite  uncertain  grow  in  power  and  number  until  thev 
seem  a  torch  that  pours  a  flood  of  lip;ht  before  which  aU 
uncertainty  must  vanish.  In  this  way,  also,  many 
new  aspects  are  revealed  to  the  enraptured  eyes  of  the 
investigator  and  make  known  to  him  a  vast  field  of 
knowlMge  of  the  hi^est  interest. 

As  alr^y  statedconjecture  enables  us  to  conclude 
from  effect  to  cause,  but  it  may  also  follow  an  inverse 
method  and  help  us  to  conclude  from  cause  to  effect. 
This  process,  however,  is  generally  less  reliable  in  his- 
torical research,  and  caUs  for  more  caution  and  reserve 
than  when  it  is  applied  to  physical  facts.  In  the  latter 
case  the  agents  are  necessary  causes ;  once  their  mode 
of  operation  is  known  it  is  possible  to  predict  with 
almost  absolute  certainty  their  results  in  given  condi- 
tions, and  conjecture  avails  us  merely  to  arouse  the 
idea  of  an  effect  certain  to  follow,  but  which  we  have 
not  yet  seen  produced.  Moreover,  generally  speak- 
ing, in  the  physical  sciences  it  is  easy  to  ima^e  a 
variety  of  metnods  by  which  an  hypothesis  may  be 
tried  and  its  accuracy  verified.  In  historical  science 
the  situation  is  not  quite  the  same.  It  d^ds  largely 
with  the  moral  laws  that  regulate  the  actions  of  tree 
beings,  and  these  are  far  from  being  as  invariable  in 
their  application  as  physical  laws.  Much  caution  is 
therefore  requisite  before  risking  any  judgment  as  to 
what  a  man  must  have  done  in  given  circumstances, 
all  the  more  as  his  acts  may  have  been  influenced  by 
the  free  acts  of  others,  or  by  a  number  of  accidental 
circumstances  now  unknown  to  us,  but  which  may 
have  notably  modified  in  a  given  case  the  ideas  and 
ordinary  sentiments  of  the  person  in  question.  Pru- 
dence is  not  less  necessary  when  ^e  hypothesis  is 
principally  based  on  analogy;  i.  e.  when,  to  complete 


our  knowledge  concerning  a  fact,  certain  details  ck 
which  are  not  known  to  us  from  historical  documeota, 
we  have  recourse  to  another  fact  strildn^y  aimilar  to 
the  one  under  consideration  and  conoiuoe  thence,  in 
favour  of  the  first,  to  a  similarity  of  detaib  that  mxe 
known  to  us  with  certainty  only  m  respo:^  of  the  sec- 
ond fact.  Nevertheless  we  must  not  reject  abeolutdy 
this  method  of  investigation;  skilfully  treated  it  may 
render  valuable  service.  A  conjecture  appeals  to  toe 
mind  all  the  more  convincingly  when  it  solves  at  onoa 
a  number  of  problems  hitherto  obscure  and  lackiii^ 
correlation.  Frequently  enoud^,  a  given  hypotfaeBiB, 
taken  separately,  yields  only  slight  probabihty.  On 
the  other  hand,  full  certitude  ouen  results  from  the 
moral  converg^ce  of  several  plausible  solutions,  all 
of  which  point  in  the  same  direction.  Let  it  be  added 
that  in  historical  research  we  sha41  not  easily  obtain 
too  many  hints  nor  exceed  the  limit  in  vmfication; 
also  that  we  must  be  ever  watchful  against  our  own 
preconceptions  that  easily  tempt  us  to  exaggemte  the 
strength  of  a  conclusion  favourable  to  our  ^pothesia* 
Nor  must  we  refuse  to  consider  the  arguments  that 
tend  to  weaken  or  eliminate  the  latter.  On  the  oon- 
tnrVf  it  is  precisely  these  ar^^uments  that  we  must 
study  with  most  care  and  sift  in  eveiy  sense  so  that, 
given  their  truth,  we  may  abandon  oppoortmu^  our 
too  seductive  conjecture,  or  at  least  modify  it,  again 
and  again  if  needful,  until  eventual^y  it  acquire  su^h 
accuracy  and  precision  as  to  satisfy  tne  most  exacting, 
and  be  admitted  by  all  as  a  acienufic  acquisition  bow 
new  and  solid.  A  final  recommendation,  meant  to 
forewarn  against  the  seductions  of  historical  conjeo- 
ture  certain  adventurous  and  inexperienced  writers, 
will  not  be  out  of  place  here.  Let  them  not  yidd  to 
an  illusion  only  too  common  among  tiieir  kind,  namely 
that  by  l^eir  imaginative  power  and  their  genius  they 
are  destined  to  aovanoe  notably  the  cause  of  historictd 
science  without  aoauirinp  by  hard  and  painful  school- 
injg  that  larse  ana  varied  and  accurate  knowledge 
wmch  men  call  erudition.  Not  every  learned  historian 
makes  brilliant  discoveries  on  the  basis  of  lucky  hypaQjt- 
eses;  but  learning  is  generally  requisite  for  such  dis- 
coveries. In  historical  scholarsnip,  as  in  all  other  waUcs 
of  life,  toil  and  patience  are  the  usual  price  of  success. 
The  a  Priori  Argumbnt. — Histoncal  criticism  has 
at  its  disposition  one  other  source  of  truth,  tiie  a  priori 
argument,  a  delicate  weapon,  indeed,  but  very  useful 
when  confided  to  a  well-trained  hand.  As  used  in  his- 
tory, this  argument  is  based  on  the  intrinsic  nature  of 
a  fact,  leaving  aside  for  the  time  being  all  evidence  for 
or  a^inst  it.  In  presence  of  the  fact  thus  bared  of  all 
extrinsic  relations  the  a  priori  process  undertakes  to 
show  that  it  does  or  does  not  conform  to  the  general 
laws  which  regulate  the  world.  These  laws  ful  into 
three  principal  classes.  The  first  comprises  funda- 
mental or  metaphysical  laws,  e.  g.  the  principle  of  con- 
tradiction, according  to  which  there  cannot  oo-exist 
in  the  same  subject  elements  absolutely  contradictoiv 
of  one  another,  also  the  principle  of  causality,  accorci- 
ing  to  which  no  being  exists  without  a  cause  or  suffi- 
cient reason  for  its  existence.  Tlie  second  class  in- 
cludes phvsical  laws  which  govern  the  phenomena  of 
the  world  of  nature  and  the  activity  of  the  beings 
which  compose  it.  To  this  class  also  oelong  the  laws 
which  govern  spiritual  natures  and  faculties  that  are 
independent,  or  in  as  far  as  they  are  independent,  of 
the  action  of  free  will.  The  third  class,  finally,  oom- 
prises  the  moral  laws  that  govern  the  activity  of  free 
beings,  considered  as  such.  No  one  who  has  acquired, 
imder  good  guidance,  a  little  experioice  of  the  human 
heart,  will  deny  the  existence  of  this  class  of  laws,  i  e. 
that  in  eiven  conditions  and  under  certain  influences 
we  can  forecast  in  free  beings  certain  habitual  activi- 
ties. Thus,  one  well-ascertained  moral  law  is  that  no 
man  will  love  and  follow  evil  for  itself,  save  oidy  ^en 
it  appears  to  him  in  the  guise  of  good;  another  such 
law  is  tliat  a  man,  qqless  he  be  a  monster  of  perversity, 


OBmLU 


509 


OEOAOH 


will  natuiall^r  tell  the  truth  if  he  have  absolutely  no 
interest  in  lying. 

In  what  way,  now,  can  these  three  classes  of  laws, 
rightly  considered,  help  us  to  pronounce  on  the  truth  of 
an  historic  fact?  First,  if  the  fact  in  question  present 
absolutely  contradictory  and  irreconcilable  details  it 
must  evidently  be  rejected  without  fiu-ther  examina- 
tion. However,  it  must  be  clearly  proved  that  there 
really  is  such  absolute  and  irreconcilable  contradiction 
between  details  presented  for  simultaneous  acceptance. 
It  is  important,  moreover,  to  ascertain  with  certainty 
whether  the  contradiction  affects  the  substemoe  of  the 
fact,  or  only  accidental  circumstances  wrongly  con- 
nected with  it  in  the  imagination  of  the  witness,  as 
frequently  happens  with  popular  traditions.  In  such 
cases  it  is  only  details  that  need  to  be  rejected,  pre- 
cisely as  is  done  whto  dealing  with  more  or  less  con- 
flicting testimonies.  Physical  impossibility,  L  e. 
manifest  opposition  between  well  known  laws  of  nature 
and  an  historical  statement,  is  also  a  conclusive  argu- 
ment against  the  acceptance  of  such  a  statement. 
Non-behevers  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding,  the 
possibility  of  miraculous  intervention  never  senously 
troubles  at  this  point  the  judgment  of  Catholic  critics. 
They  know  quite  well  when  to  admit,  in  a  particular 
case,  such  a  possibility.  Nor  are  these  cases  very  fre- 
quent. They  are  also  aware  that  for  the  acceptance 
of  miracles  they  must  require  a  far  greater  amount  of 
evidence  than  when  it  is  question,  of  purely  natural 
facts.  We  have  in  the  Catholic  process  of  canoniza- 
tion (see  Beatification  and  Canonization)  an  excel- 
lent example  of  the  manner  in  which  the  proof  of 
miracles  is  handled  by  the  tribunal  which  Catholics 
most  respect.  It  may  not  be  superfluous  to  add  that 
prudence  sus^ests  a  certain  hesitation  or  reserve  when 
the  phyBicaTimpossibility  of  a  fact  is  in  question. 
The  laws  of  nature  are  not  all  so  thoroughly  under- 
stood that  we  run  no  danger  of  confoundinga  strange 
or  new  fact  with  one  utterly  impossible.  The  treat- 
ment of  moral  laws  is  something  more  delicate,  since 
they  are  less  absolute  in  application  than  physical 
laws.  The  mysteries  of  liberty  are  even  more  hidden 
than  those  of  material  nature.  Consequently,  before 
asserting  the  moral  impossibilitv  of  a  fact  it  is  well  to 
consider  attentively  wnether  there  be  not  some  cir- 
cumstance, however  trivial,  which  may  have  acci- 
dentally exercised  on  a  given  person  an  influence 
capable  of  making  him  act  in  a  manner  opposed  to 
the  habitual  current  of  his  ideas  and  sentiments.  Such 
exceptions  to  moral  laws,  very  rare  in  the  multitude, 
appear  more  frequently  among  individuals.  Care 
must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  admit  them  without 
grave  reason.  It  is  in  Bup|>ort  of,  or  in  opposition  to 
a  conjecture  that  the  a  ^rwri  arp:ument  is  mostly  used ; 
frequently  enough  conjecture  is  confounded  with  it. 
Indeed,  it  is  often  through  the  effort  to  reproduce 
mentally  what  certain  persons  in  given  conditions 
must,  have  done,  that  we  finally  hit  on  what  they  did 
do;  the  next  step  is  the  collection  of  more  precise  evi- 
dence such  as  may  confirm  and  establish  quite  satis- 
factorily the  truth  that  we  first  saw  with  the  eye  of  the 
imagination.  We  should  always  remember,  however, 
that  mere  possibility  or  non-repu^ance  must  not  be 
considered  the  equivalent  of  positive  probability,  any 
more  than  mere  ij^orance  of  the  causes  of  a  fact  is 
equivalent  to  its  improbability,  still  less  its  impossi- 
bility, when  it  is  sufficiently  attested  by  direct  evi- 
dence. Superficial  or  passionate  minds  are  very  much 
exposed  to  this  kind  of  confusion. 

In  formulating,  as  has  been  done  above,  the  proper 
1 1  lies  for  the  guidance  of  the  mind  in  its  search  after 
historical  truth,  it  should  be  repeated  that  the  mind 
must  bring  to  this  pursuit  certain  prelimihaiy  qualities 
and  dispositions  mdicated  at  the  beginning  of  this 
article,  the  first  and  most  essential  of  which  is  a  sin- 
cere and  constant  love  of  truth.  Nothing  can  take 
the  place  of  this  sentiment.    It  is  the  rule  ct  rules,  th^ 


vital  and  efficient  principle  in  all  the  processes  of 
criticism.    Without  it  they  are  quite  sterile. 

Da  Shkdt,  PrindpeM  d$  la  critiqw  hiaUrrme  (li^ae,  Pkuii. 
1884);  Bbbkbezm.  LehHnuh  der  hittorucken  MethodeJLwmK, 
1894);  Lanolois  et  Sbionobos,  IrUroduction  tntx  ihtde$  ki9- 
toviffuet  (Fktris,  1899).  Bittlbb,  The  Modem  Critical  and  HtM- 
tortMZ  SduHd.  %U   mdkode  and  tendenoiee,    Dublin   Revi^ 

Ch.  De  SlOBDT. 

OriveUi,  Carlo,  an  Italian  painter.  Little  is  known 
of  his  life,  and  his  b.  and  d.  are  usually  reckoned  by  his 
earliest  and  latest  signed  pictures,  146^-03.  He  may 
have  been  a  pupil  of  Antonio  and  Bartolommeo 
Murano.  Crivelli  worked  entirely  in  tempora,  of 
which  he  was  a  master.  He  early  attained  a  style  of 
his  own  and  his  pictures,  though  sometimes  stiff,  are 
decorative  and  beautiful  in  colouring.  He  could  not 
compose,  in  the  modem  sense,  but  was  lavidi  in  his 
treatment  of  single  figures.  Architectural  features 
were  often  introduced  by  him  and  life-like  fruits  and 
flowers  are  placed  in  vivid  relief  against  beautifully 
finished  maroles.  Crivelli,  it  would  seem,  worked  for 
twenty-two  years  in  cities  lying  within  the  Marches  of 
Ancona,  especially  near  Ascou.  He  signed  himself 
"Crivellus''  and  uter  1490,  when  he  was  knighted  by 
Ferdinand  II  of  Naples,  added  ''miles"  to  his  signa- 
ture. The  cathedral  of  Ascoli  has  a  "Virsin  and 
Child"  dated  1493.  Among  his  earliest  work  is  the 
altar-piece  of  San  Silvestro,  Massa,  signed  and  dated 
1468,  while  the  "Coronation  of  the  Virain"  (1493)  in 
the  Oegione  Collection,  Milan,  is  probably  the  latest. 
The  National  Gallery.  London,  has  a  number  of  Cri- 
velli's  paintings  and  the  galleries  of  the  Continent  are 
also  well  supplied.  His  work  is  best  seen  in  a  half 
li^t  and  at  a  little  distance.  His  more  celebrated 
pictures  are:  ''Madonna  and  Child",  1476,  altar-piece 
for  San  Domenico,  Ascoli  (National  Gallery,  Lonaon): 
"The  Dead  Christ"  (National  Gallenr);  "Pietll'* 
(Cathedral,  Ascoli);  "Madonna  and  Saints",  1401 
(Berlin);  "St.  Francis  of  Assisi"  rBrussels);  "PietA" 
(Vatican) ;  "Virgin  and  Saints"  (Lateran). 

RvBHFORTH,  Corlo  CrivtUi  (London,  1900) ;  Blanc,  HuUrir§ 
dea  peinirea  de  tone  lea  6eolea  (Paris,  1877). 

Lbioh  Hunt. 

Oroagh  Patrick,  a  mountain  looking  out  on  the 
Atlantic  ocean  from  the  southern  shore  of  Clew  Bay, 
in  the  County  Mayo,  and  called  "the  Sinai  of  Ire- 
land." In  pagan  times  it  was  known  as  Cruachan 
Aigli.  It  rises  in  a  perfect  cone  to  a  height  of  2510 
feet.  The  accoimt  given  below  is  taken  from  sources 
that  post-date,  the  saint's  death  by  three  to  four 
hundred  years.  There  are,  however,  good  reasons 
to  believe   that   the  traditions   thev  embody  are 

genuine.  St.  Patrick  was  careworn  ana  fatigued  when 
e  came  to  this  remote  part  of  the  ooimtr^.  He 
lonsed  to  retire  for  a  while  to  refresh  his  soul  m  soli- 
tuoe,  and  for  that  purpose,  on  the  Saturday  before 
Ash  Wednesday  in  the  year  441,  he  betook  himself  to 
the  mountain  top.  Here  he  spent  the  davs  of  Lent, 
chastising  his  boay  with  fasts,  pouring  out  his  heart  to 
God,  andentreating  Him  with  prolonged  importunity 
and  with  tears  that  the  Faith  might  never  tail  in  the 
land  of  Erin.  The  "  Book  of  Arm^ ' '  mentions  that 
God  summoned  all  the  saints  of  Erin,  past,  present 
and  f  utiure,  to  appear  before  their  Father  in  the  Faith 
to  comfort  him  with  a  vision  of  the  teeming  harvest 
his  labours  would  produce,  and  to  join  him  in  blessing 
their  kinsmen  and  their  coimtry.  The  "Tripartite 
Life"  relates  that  when  Patrick  was  on  Cnuichan 
Aigli  in  441,  word  was  brought  to  him  that  a  new 

gope  ruled  the  Church  in  Rome.  The  new  pope  was 
t.  Leo  the  Great,  who  was  consecrated  on  the  29th  of 
Sept.,  440.  Patrick,  as  soon  as  he  heard  it,  dispatched 
one  of  his  disciples  named  Mimus  to  bear  his  filial 
hoxnage  to  the  Vicar  of  Christ,  to  render  an  account 
of  his  labours  and  his  teaching,  and  to  b^  a  blessing 
for  the  infant  church  in  Ireland.    ThQ  "Annal#  91 


(mOAtIA 


510 


OEOATXA 


Clonznacnoise''  relate  that  Munis  came  back  from 
Rome  bearing  sacred  relics  which  the  pope  had  given 
him  for  the  altars  that  Patrick  was  erecting  every- 
where thioujgh  the  country.  The  same  event  is  briefly 
referred  to  in  the  '' Annals  of  Ulster '\  under  date  of 
441:  "Leo  ordained  forty-second  Bishop  of  the 
Church  of  Rome;  and  Patrick  the  Bishop  was  ap- 
proved in  the  Catholic  Faith".  It  adds  a  special 
glory  to  Croagh  Patrick  that  the  first  tribute  of  hom- 
age from  the  Irish  Church  to  the  Chair  of  Peter  was 
sent  from  its  hoary  sununit.  From  that  sacred  spot, 
on  Holy  Saturday,  Patrick  with  outstretched  hands 
solemnly  blessed  the  men  of  Erin  that  they  niight 
cling  to  the  Faith,  and  the  Land  of  Erin  that  no  poison- 
ous reptile  might  infest  it.  Then,  refreshed  with  Di- 
vine grace  and  comforted  with  the  assurance  that  his 
labours  would  fructify  forever,  he  came  down  from 
the  mountain  to  celebrate  Easter  with  the  little  flock 
he  had  left  at  Aughagower, 

From  the  days  of  the  saint  himself  pilgrims  began 
to  do  penance  on  hjus  holy  mountain.  References  to 
them  are  found  in  many  pages  of  the  annals  of  the 
country.  It  is  recorded,  that  in  the  year  1113,  on  the 
night  of  the  17th  of  March,  during  a  thunderstorm, 
thirty  of  the  pilgrims  perished  on  the  summit.  The 
"Annals  of  Boyle"  relate  that  Hugh  O'Connor,  King 
of  Connau^t,  who  came  to  the  tnrone  in  the  year 
1225,  cut  off  the  hands  and  feet  of  an  outlaw 
who  dared  to  molest  a  pilgrim  on  his  way  to 
Croagh  Patrick,  The  following  document  of  Pope 
Eugene  IV,  dated  28  September,  1432,  shows  how 
this  ancient  pilgrimage  was  recognized  and  hon- 
oured in  Rome.  "  A  relaxation  of  two  years  and  two 
Suarantines  of  enjoined  penance,  under  the  usual  con- 
itions,  to  those  penitents  who  visit  and  give  alms  for 
the  repair  of  the  chapel  of  St.  Patrick,  on  the  moun- 
tain which  IS  called  Croagh  Patrick  whither  resorts  a 
ffreeut  multitude  of  persons  to  venerate  St.  Patrick  the 
Sunday  before  the  feast  of  St.  Peter's  Chains"  (Calen- 
dar, etc.,  of  Papal  Registers,  Vol.  IV).  From  St. 
Patrick's  own  time  there  had  been  some  sort  of  a  little 
chapel  on  the  summit. 

Tlie  "Tripartite  Life"  relates  that  the  apostle  him- 
self celebrated  Mass  on  the  moimtain,  from  which  we 
infer  that  he  had  an  altar  and  a  place  to  shelter  it. 
For  several  centuries  the  Archbishops  of  Armagh  laid 
claim  to  this  chapel  on  the  grounds  that  it  was  founded 
by  St.  Patrick  and  that  they  were  his  successors;  but 
the  Archbishops  of  Tuam  contended  that  it  belonged 
to  their  jurisdiction.  Finally,  Pope  Honorius  III  on 
the  30th  of  July,  1216,  assigned  it  to  the  Archbishop 
of  Tuam  (Calendar  Pap.  R^.,  Vol.  1).  But  in  penal 
times  when  Murrisk  Abbey  at  the  mountain's  base  was 
dismantled,  the  venerable  relic  on  the  summit  was  de- 
molished. Still  the  pilgrims  never  ceased  to  go  there. 
It  was  not,  however,  tul  1906  that  the  chapel  on  the 
heights  was  rebuUt,  and  then  on  the  30th  of  July, 
Archbishop  Healy  dedicated  it  to  St.  Patrick  in  the 
presence  of  many  pilgrims.  The  day  of  aimual  pil- 
grimage from  time  immemorial  has  been  the  last  Sun- 
day in  July.  On  that  day  about  twenty  Masses  are 
celebrated  within  the  little  chapel  while  often  there 
have  been  more  than  20,000  persons  kneeling  without. 
Hbalt.  The  Lif^  and  Writin^M  of  SU  Patrick  (Dublin.  1905); 
BimT,  Si.  Patrick,  Uia  Place  in  Ht^ery  (Xx>ndon,  1905) :  Moa- 


1907). 


Michael  MacDonald. 


Croatia,  with  Slavonia,  an  autonomous  state.  It 
tt  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Danube  and  the  Drave : 
on  the  east  by  Servia;  on  the  south  by  the  Save;  and 
on  the  west  by  Styria,  the  River  Kupa,  and  the  Adri- 
atic Sea  from  Fiurae  (Ricka)  in  the  north-west  to 
Obrovac  on  the  Dalmatian  frontier. 

History. — ^The  name  (Croatia  is  dmved  from  that 
of  a  people  called  Croats  {Hrvatj  X/jo/Sdrofj,  i.  e.  "the 


nation  ready  to  defend  its  home  and  rigfita",  y^o&e 
migration  from  South-western  Russia  and  Galicia  of 
to-day— then  known  as  ''White  Croatia"  or  "Great 
Croatia"  ( Vetika  HroaUka) — ^towards  the  old  Illyrieum 
and  Dalmatia  began  in  the  earl^r  part  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. There  were  several  migrationB  at  different  times. 
The  people  settled  during  the  first  half  of  the  aiztli  cen- 
tury m  Pannonia  Inferior,  now  Lower  Hungary,  and  on 
the  eastern  banks  of  the  Danube.  Here  they  atnig- 
gl^  for  their  veiy  aziBtenoe  against  the  AvazB,  a 
bloodthirsty  people,  and  then  crossed  the  Drave  to 
Pannonia  Superior  and  Dalmatia,  provinces  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  to  which  they  ^ve  the  name  of 
Croatia.  From  610  to  641  the  Croats  established 
their  settlements  on  a  firm  basis.  From  that  time 
forward  they  suffered  various  viciasitudes  owing  to 
the  constantly  changing  political  lifa  The  provinces 
occupied  by  the  Croats  were  already  peopled  by 
niyrian  and  Celtic  tribes  as  Roman  domains.  Friendly 
terms  were  maintained,  however,  and  together  they 
made  war  against  the  common  enemy,  the  Avan, 
conquered  them,  and  finally  established  their  own 
state.  The  executive  head  of  the  Croats  was  the  ban, 
a  title  still  in  use,  and  he  had  unlimited  power  as 
leader  and  governor  of  the  people.  Heraclius,  the 
Byzantine  emperor,  was  compelled  to  abandon  his 
provinces  in  the  western  part  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula. 
At  that  time  the  Croats  occupied  the  following  prov- 
inces: Illyncum,  libumia^  Pannonia,  Dalmatia,  and 
a  part  of  Histria,  now  known  respectively  as  Croatia, 
Slavonia,  Dalmatia,  Istria,  Bosma,  and  fieraegovina. 
Their  kinsmen,  the  Serbs,  aettled  in  Montenegro, 
Northern  Albania,  Old  Servia,  and  the  western  part 
of  the  Servian  Kingdom.  Hie  cities  Zara  (Zadar  or 
Jadera),  Trau  (Trogir  or  Tn^rion),  Spalato  (Spljet), 
and  Ragusa  (Dubrovnik),  on  the  Dalmatian  coaat, 
and  the  islands  Veglia  (Krk)  and  Arfoe  (Rab  or  Ab- 
sorus),  in  the  Adriatic,  remained  Latin  in  character. 
Elsewhere,  however,  ihe  assimilative  power  of  the 
Croats  was  stronger  and  the  Latin  race  disappeared. 
Christianity  flourished  in  Illyria,  Dalmatia,  and  the 
other  provinces  before  the  coming  of  the  Croats.  At 
the  time  of  migration  the  Croats  were  heathens;  they 
did  not  accept  Christianity  until  the  seventh  century, 
inHhen  they  and  the  Serbs  were  baptised  by  priests  of 
the  Roman  Church.  The  Croats  promised  the  pope 
to  live  in  peace  with  other  nations  and  he,  in  turn,  to 
help  them  in  case  an  enemy  invaded  their  territoiy. 
Pope  John  IV  (640-42)  sent  the  Abbot  Martin  to  the 
Croatians,  and  St.  Martin  I  commissioned  John  of 
Ravexma  to  evangelise  this  vigorous  and  adventurous 
nation.  He  created  John  Archbishop  of  Salona 
(Solin),  a  city  of  Roman  culture,  whence,  owin^  to 
the  invaaion  of  the  Croats,  many  moved  to  the  n«gh- 
bouring  Spalato.  Here  John  laboured  also,  and  the 
iroperiu  mausoleum  in  the  palace  of  Diocletian  was 
converted  by  the  people  into  a  Christian  temple. 
CSrril  and  Methodius  came  In  863,  devised  a  special 
alphabet  (the  Glagolitic  for  the  translation  of  the 
Gospels  and  liturgical  books  into  the  Old  Slavonic 
tongue,  and  spread  Christianity  through  the  western 

Cart  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  Even  before  this  time 
ishops  resided  at  Salona  (Solin),  Nona  (Nin),  Narona 
(Mostar),  Epidaurus  (Ragusa  Vecchia),  Siscia  (Sisak), 
Mursia  (Osiek),  and  Syrmium  (Mitrovica). 

During  the  eighth  century  Croatia  was  divided  into 
several  provinces,  the  principal  of  which  were  the 
indepenaent  territories  of  White  and  Red  Croatia  and 
the  Banatus  Sisciensis  et  Syrmiensis.  The  progress  of 
the  people  attracted  the  attention  of  Charlemi^e, 
who  occupied  Histria  in  788  and  Northern  Ooatia  in 
792.  In  the  year  800,  when  he  was  crowned  in  Rome, 
the  Croats  sent  a  representative.  The  rule  <^  Louis 
the  Pious  (814-40),  whose  government  was  in  the 
hands  of  favourites,  was  untortunate  in  its  oonse- 
quonoes  for  the  C'roats.  Their  struggle  for  freedom 
lastcii  from  879  until  925,  when  the  people  elected 


CROATIA 


511 


OBOATIA 


their  own  king,  Thomislav^  on  the  field  of  Duvno 
before  the  cathedral.  He  was  crowned  by  the  legate 
of  John  X.  The  boundaries  of  the  kingdom  were,  on 
the  north,  the  Danube  and  the  Drave;  on  the  east, 
the  Riyer  Drina;  on  the  west  and  south,  the  Adriatic. 
The  rei^QS  of  Zvonimir  and  peter  Kreshimir,  succes- 
sors of  Thomislav,  are  glorious  in  the  records  of  Croa- 
tian history,  and  both  Church  and  State  became 
firmly  established.  Native  rulers  reijgned  untU  1102, 
when  the  last,  Peter  Svachioh,  died  in  defence  of  his 
countiy,  and  Croatia  offered  the  crown  to  King  Colo- 
man  of  Hungaiy.  The  Croats,  represented  by  twelve 
deputies,  administered  the  oath  and  stipulated  that 
the  new  monarch  should  observe  the  Constitution  and 
rights  of  the  Croats,  exercise  the  judicial  power  only 
when  on  Croatian  soil,  and  allow  no  Hungarian  to 
settle  upon  Croatian  territory.  This  agreement  was 
only  partially  kept.  Croatia  was  ruled  by  the  Aipdd 
dvnasty  from  1102  to  1301,  but  was  not  made  a  part 
of  Hungary.  The  mcmarchs  never  resided  permar 
nently  in  Qroatia,  but  Were  represented  by  bans,  who. 
as  supreme  administrators  of  the  kingdom,  convened 
the  legjbslature.  exercised  the  highest  judicial  power  in 
the  State,  and  commanded  the  army.  The  national 
sabor  r^ulated  the  coinage  of  gold  and  silver.  Ilie 
Arpdd  rulers  introduced  the  feudal  system  in  opposi- 
tion to  public  opinion,  reorganized  the  nobility,  and 
gave  the  lands  taken  from  the  peasants  {kmet)  to  the 
olders  of  titles.  During  the  reign  of  Croatian  rulers 
the  Chiurch  flourished.  The  primaa  (primate)  held 
the  oflSoe  of  chancellor  of  State  and  the  bishops  were 
the  principal  advisers,  spiritual  and  temporal,  of  the 
kings.  There  were  nine  bishoprics.  Under  the  Ar- 
pdd  rulers,  a  change  was  maae,  and  new  sees  were 
erected  suffragan  to  the  ecclesiastical  province  of 
Hungary.  The  following  religious  orders  were  repre- 
sented in  the  kingdom:  the  Benedictines,  favoured  by 
Croatian  rulers,  Cistercians,  Dominicans,  Franciscans, 
Templars,  Hermits  of  St.  Paul,  or  White  Friars.  Lit- 
erature, both  secular  and  ecclesiastical,  made  much 
progress  and  the  arts  were  cultivated. 

Andrew,  the  last  of  the  Arp^ds,  died  while  making 
preparations  for  war  against  the  Croats  and  their  ban, 
raul  Shubich,  who  had  declared  for  Charles  Robert  of 
Anjou,  nephew  of  the  Kin^  of  Naples,  as  King  of 
Croatia,  Bosnia,  and  Dalmatia.  Charles  was  crowned 
in  the  church  of  St.  Stephen  in  Agram  (Zagreb),  the 
capital  of  the  state,  by  Archbishop  Gregorjr.  The 
family  of  Anjou  occupied  the  throne  of  Croatia  from 
1301  to  1386,  mainly  through  the  support  of  Pope 
Boniface  Vlll.  Charles  as  a  ruler  was  an  absolutist 
and  adopted  French  methods  in  conducting  the  army 
and  the  judiciary,  and  in  raising  monev.  His  son« 
Louis  the  Great  (d.  11  Nov.,  1382),  waged  war  against 
Venice.  He  became  King  of  Poland  17  November, 
1370.  Upon  the  reconmiendation  of  Urban  V,  Louis 
appointed  his  relative,  Charles  Drachki,  Ban  of  Croar 
tia,  and  then  set  out  to  capture  Naples  from  Queen 
Joanna.  At  his  death  he  was  succeeded  on  the  throne 
of  Croatia  by  his  daughter  Mary,  who  reigned  con* 
jointlv  with  ner  consort  Sigismund  of  Brandenburg, 
son  of  Emperor  Charles  IV,  and  later  emperor.  Dur* 
ing  Mary's  reign  there  was  great  hostility  among  the 
people  both  towards  her  and  Elizabeth,  her  mother. 
Foremost  in  the  opposition  were  John  Palizna,  prior 
of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  Paul  Horvat,  the  saintly 
and  patriotic  Bishop  of  Agram  (Zagreb),  and  the 
bishop's  brother  John.  Declaring  that  a  woman  had 
no  right  to  the  Croatian  throne.  Bishop  Horvat  offered 
the  crown  to  Charles  III  Dratchki,  King  of  Naples. 
Charles  accepted,  was  crowned  by  Bishop  Horvat  at 
Stuhlweiasenourg  in  the  presence  of  Mary  and  Elixa- 
beth,  but  was  miuxiered  at  Buda,  Hungary,  thirty- 
seven  days  later  (24  Feb..  1386),  by  Elizabeth's  hired 
assassin.  Civil  war  followed.  Sigismund  (1387- 
1409)  was  taken  captive  bv  Ivan  Horvat,  and  fresh 
difficulties  arose  witn  the  Turks  in  the  eastern  part  of 


the  Balkan  Peninsula.  The  coronation  of  Ladislaub, 
King  of  Naples,  at  Zara,  5  August,  1393,  did  not  re^ 
suit  in  peace.  Internal  discord  ejdsted  among  the 
Frankopani,  Zrinski,  Gorjanski,  Biaeaji,  Kurjakovici, 
etc.  Gregory  XII  or^anissed  a  crusade  m  Siena  to  help 
Sigismund,  and  Ladjslaus,  seeing  that  he  coi^  not 
hold  his  ground  on  the  Bastem  Adriatic,  sold  Dal- 
matia to  Venice  for  100,000  ducats,  the  agre^nent 
being  signed  in  the  church  of  S.  Silvestro,  9  July,  1409. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  there  were  in  Croatia 
three  arohbishoprios  and  seventeen  dioceses,  subdi- 
vided into  archdeaconries  and  parishes.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  centuiy  the  See  of  Bosnia  was  trans- 
ferred to  Djakovo.  Each  diocese  had  an  average  of 
four  or  five  nundred  parishes  in  addition  to  chapters 
and  collegiate  churches.    Blessed  Augustine  of  (^azo- 


COLLEOIATB   ChUBCH    (X    C^KTURT)    AND    BXLL  ToW£R 
(1377),    FlUMB 

tich  was  Bishop  of  Agram.  Marc'  Antonio  de  Donoi- 
nis,  famed  for  his  learning,  was  Bishop  of  Zene^  (Senj.) 
Hie  religious  orders  were  in  a  flourishing  condition,  es- 
pecially the  Knights  of  St.  John  (Crudfen)  who  ex- 
erted great  influence  upon  the  people.  St.  John  Cap- 
istran,  defender  of  Belgrade,  died  at  the  monastery  of 
nok,  Croatia,  23  October,  1456,  and  was  canonizea  in 
1600.  The  missal  was  translated  into  Croatian,  and 
copies  are  preserved  to-day  in  some  of  the  libraries. 

In  Sigismund's  time  Croatia  was  severely  tried  by 
the  wars  with  Venice,  and  those  against  the  Turks, 
who  invaded  Croatian  territory  in  1414-15.  From 
that  imtil  1838,  when  the  Turks  were  finally  repulsed 
at  Cetin,  the  struggle  was  continuous  The  Bans 
Nicholas  and  JohnFrankopani  and  Matko  Talovao 
were  the  first  in  the  field  against  the  Sultan  Murad  II. 
Sigismund  was  succeeded  b^  his  son-in-law  Archduke 
Albert  of  Austria,  who  died  m  1439  at  a  critical  period. 
His  wife,  though  civil  war  was  raging,  took  control  of 
the  Government  in  1439,  and  her  son,  Ladislaus  Pos- 
thumus  was  nominal  ruler  until  1457.  After  the  fall 
of  Constantinople  (1453)  and  the  occupation  of  Bosnia 
ten  years  later  by  the  Turks,  the  Turks  were  repulsed 
on  the  Croatian^  frontier  and  Western  culture  was 
saved  to  posterity.  The  following  centuries  show 
bloodv  records  of  constant  struggles  against  the  Turks. 
YakuD,  Pasha  of  Bosnia,  eager  to  enslave  Catholic 


OSOATIA 


512 


CROATIA 


Balkan,  invaded  Croatia  in  1 493.  He  was  met  by  the 
Croatian  forces  under  Ban  Derenchin  on  the  field  of 
Krbava.  T^e  Croats  were  defeated  and  l^t  the 
flower  of  their  nobility  on  the  field.  In  1513|  how- 
ever, the  TuikiBh  armv  was  defeated  by  the  Ban 
Bishop  Peter  Berislavicn,  and  Leo  X,  upon  receiving 
the  news  of  victoxy,  sent  the  warrior-bisnop  a  blessed 
saber.  Bishop  Berisiavich's  appeal  to  Charles  V  was 
unheeded,  and  the  former  was  killed  in  the  battle  of 
Korenica  (1520).  His  death  was  a  terrible  blow  to  the 
Antemiarcie  Christtanitatis,  as  the  pope  and  emperor 
styled  the  Croats  in  their  letters.  Then  followed  the 
conflicts  of  Jajce  (1521,  1525).  Klis  (1524),  Mohacs 
(1626),  and  Vienna  (1529),  which  Solyman  II  at- 
tempted to  take.  He  was  badly  defeated,  however, 
and  returned  to  Constantinople  with  thousands  of 
Christians^ho  became  either  slaves  or  soldiers  (Jani- 
saries).  The  pashas  in  Bosnia  in  retaliation  for  the 
defeat,  pillagea  the  country  and  slew  the  Christians. 

After  ihe  defeat  at  Mohacs  where  King  Louis  and  so 
many  of  his  warriors  were  slain,  the  Croatians  elected, 
at  Cetin,  New  Year's  Day,  1527,  Ferdinand  of  Aus- 
tria as  king.  The  Hapsburg  rule  was  thus  b^un, 
Croatia  subsequently  having  the  same  rulers  as  Aus- 
tria. The  king  took  an  oath  to  defend  the  ru^ts  and 
boundaries  of  his  new  kingdom,  a  promise  which  was 
never  fully  observed,  and  the  hopes  of  the  national 
heroes  Simeon  Bakatch,  Bishop  of  Zagreb  and  Krsto 
Fnmkopan  failed  of  fulfilment.  The  latter  fell  at 
Varazdm  while  the  former  died  of  grief.  Profiting  by 
tlie  indifference  of  Ferdinand,  the  Turks  took  the  for- 
tress of  Jajce  and  Klis  in  1536  as  well  as  a  large  part  of 
Eastern  Croatia.  With  ReHquia  reliquiarum  regni 
CroaJtUel  for  a  battle-ciy,  the  climax  of  the  stru^e 
was  reached  at  Siget,  where  Niklas  Zrinski  met  the 
Turks,  under  Solyman,  with  700  picked  men.  Having 
fired  tne  oity  behind  them/they  made  an  onslaught  in 
which  they  all  perished.  The  Turks  left  20,000  on  the 
field.  Solyman  died  two  days  later  and  a  shameful 
peace  was  concluded  by  Maximilian.  N^ected  and 
misruled,  the  people  rose  imder  Mathias  Gubec.  They 
failed  and  Gubec  was  put  to  death  with  a  red  hot 
erown  of  iron.  Ever  ready  to  take  advantage  of  in- 
ternal strife,  Ferhad  Pasha  defeated  General  Auers- 
perg  at  the  River  Radonja,  in  1575.  Rudolf,  who  suo- 
oeeded  Maximilian  (1576),  had  little  interest  in  the  wel- 
fare of  the  State.  Hassan  Pasha  Predojevich  crossed 
the  Kupa,  took  the  fortr^  of  Bihac,  and  planned  an 
attack  on  Sisak.  He  was  met  by  Jurak  and  Fintich, 
canons  of  Agram,  and  Ban  Bakatch,  with  an  army. 
The  Turks  were  defeated  and  lost  18,000  men. 

Amons  the  apostles  of  the  Reformation  in  Croatia 
were  the  Ungnad  family  and  George  Zrinski  who  estab- 
lii^ed  a  printing  plant  for  the  purpose  of  spreading 
their  teaching.  The  Croats,  however,  were  not  won 
over  to  Luther's  doctrine.  Catholicity  was  too  firmly 
rooted  and  Anthony  Dalmatin  and  Stephen  Istranin 
preached  the  new  creed  in  vain.  When  asked,  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Sabers  to  erant  toleration  to  Protes- 
tantism, Ban  Bakatch  maoe  answer:  ''I  prefer  rather 
to  break  off  relations  with  the  Hungarian  Crown  than 
allow  this  pest  to  spread."  Conflicts  occurred  with 
the  Turks  at  Novi  Zrinj  (1664),  and  at  St.  Gothard. 
The  miseries  and  oppression  of  the  people  led  to  an 
uprising  under  Peter  Zrinski  and  Krsto  Frankopani 
against  the  German  military  rule.  Leopold^  however, 
beheaded  the  leaders,  30  April,  1671,  at  Wiener  Neu- 
stadt,  imprisoned  their  children,  and  confiscated  their 
possessions.  Despite  the  injustices  done  the  people 
the  strusgie  a^inst  the  Turks  was  heroically  contin- 
ued under  Stojan  Jankovich  and  Elias  Smiljanich  in 
Dalmatia,  Friar  Luke  Imbrisimovich  in  Slavonia,  and 
Father  Mark  Mesich  in  Lika-Krhava.  A  division  of 
Turkey  and  the  esroulsion  of  the  Turics  from  the  Bid- 
kan  Peninsula  ana  Constantinople  was  prevented  in 
1688  by  Louis  XIV.  The  council  of  war  in  Vienna 
established  the  Militaiy  Frontier  between  Turkey  and 


Croatia;  eveiy  male  Croat  was  oblieed  to  serve  in  the 
army  at  his  own  expense  and  to  oe  ready  at  any 
moment.    This  organisation  was  dissolved  in  1873. 

In  1712  the  Croatian  Sabor  accepted  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  by  which  Charles  VI  secured  the  succession 
to  his  daugnter  Maria  Theresa.  In  the  Tldrty  Years 
War  and  the  Seven  Years  War  between  Maria  Theresa 
and  Frederick  the  Great  the  Croats  took  a  promineat 
part.  During  the  reign  of  Leopold  I  (165^1705) 
hundreds  of  families  of  the  Schismatic  Greek  Church 
had  entered  Croatia  as  refugees  from  Turkish  rule. 
Jealousy  existed  between  the  Catholics  of  the  country 
and  the  newcomers  because  the  rulers  did  not  favour 
any  but  the  Catholic  religion.  In  1777  Maria  Theresa 
secured  the  erection  of  a  diocese  for  the  Uniat  Greeks, 
with  the  Eastern  Bite  and  the  Old  Slavonic  Litur^. 
She  hoped  in  this  way  to  bring  about  a  union  with 
Rome,  but  the  breach  was  only  widened.  Eklucation 
reached  a  high  standard  in  the  sixteenth  century  under 
the  Hermits  of  St.  Paul.  Later  on  the  Jesuits  oecame 
their  co-workers  in  the  field.  Hiey  established  an  ex- 
cellent institution  in  Zagreb.  Hie  Croatian  youth  also 
attended  the  universities  at  Rome,  Padua,  and  Bologna. 

The  absolutist,  Joseph  II  (1780-90),  who  succeeded 
Maria  Theresa,  f aOed  in  his  reforms,  though  he  stopped 
at  nothing  in  -his  attempts  to  carry  them  out.    In 
Croatia  he  suppressed  religious  orders,  confiscated 
monasteries  anci  seminaries,  and  hampered  the  pro- 
gress of  education.    To  save  the  mother-tongue  a  re- 
action against  Latin  began  in  1835,  and  the  native 
speech  was  revived  in  church,  university,  and  street. 
In  1809  Napoleon,  having  conquered  Croatia,  set  up 
the  Kingdom  of  Illyria,  a  union  of  all  the  Croatian 
provinces,  under  French  control.    In  tlie  first  half  of 
the  nineteenth  centuiy,  as  an  out^wth  of  the  revival 
of  the  language,  a  vi^rous  nationalizing  movement 
began  under  Louis  Gai.    Representatives  of  the  peo- 
ple, 300  in  number,  demanaed  of  the  king  the  same 
rights  for  Croatia  as  those  possessed  by  Hungaiy :  inde- 
pendence imder  the  king;  the  election  of  uie  ban  by 
the  people  and  his  presentation  for  tiie  kinsi's  ap- 
proval: the  ban  was  to  be  ex-officio  president  of  Croa- 
tian cabinet  and  responsible  to  the  ^So&or,  at  its  annual 
meeting;  the  Croatian  army  with  its  head  was  to  take 
an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  king;  the  Military  Frontier  to 
be  abolished;  and  Croatian  made  the  official  tongue. 
The  only  point  gained  was  the  appointment,  as  ban, 
of  Joseph  Jellachich.    In  1848  the  revolution  broke 
out.    Jellachich  saved  the  throne  for  the  Hapsbuig 
family,  but  further  enslaved  his  country  in  domg  so. 
The  Croatian  Generals  Davidovich  and  Vukasovich 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  war  against  Italy  in 
1866.    In  1878  Generals  Francis  and  Ivan  Phuop- 
povich  occupied  Bosnia  with  Croatian  regiments. 

On  21  July,  1868,  a  compromise  was  effected  be- 
tween Croatia  and  Hungaxy.  Croatia,  Slavonia,  the 
Military  Frontier,  and  Dalmatia  constitute  a  separate 
political  body;  Fiume  (Rieka)  and  its  district  were 
left  coTidcminiumf  with  two  representatives  in  the 
Croatian  Saber,  The  military  Frontier  had  been  sup- 
pressed and  part  was  annexed  to  Transylvania  in  1851 
part  to  Hungary  in  1872;  and  part  to  (^oatia-Slavonia 
m  1881.  Dalmatia  remained  separate,  with  eleven 
representatives  in  the  Austrian  parliament  {Reic^ 
r(Uh),  Croatia  has  autonomy  in  administrative,  edu- 
cational, and  judicial  affairs.  Hie  national  l^jslar 
tive  body  is  the  Sabor;  the  executive  body,  ihe  iSoytl 
Croatian -Slavonian -Dalmatian  Government.  The 
head  of  Croatia-SIavonia  is  the  ban,  appointed  by  the 
king  upon  the  recommendation  of  tne  Hungarian 
prime  minister,  responsible  to  the  Sabor,  All  State 
business  in  common  with  Hungary  is  regulated  in  the 
Hungarian-Croatian  Parliament  at  Budapest.  There 
are  also  executive  ministries  for  the  administratioa  of 
national  affairs,  with  separate  departments  for  Croa* 
tian  interests.  The  Croatian  Minister  stands  as  a 
mediator  between  the  King  of  Croatia  and  the  QoatUa 


GBOOE 


513 


OBOIA 


(Government.  He  t&  a  member  of  the  Hungarian 
cabinet  and  is  responsible  to  the  Hungarian  Parliar 
ment.  Croatia  is  represented  in  the  House  of  Magnates 
by  three  delegates;  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
by  for^  delegates.  On  Delegattions  for  National 
Affairs  Croatia-Slavonia  is  represented  by  one  member 
from  the  Upper  House  and  four  from  the  Lower. 

Education  anp  Religion. — ^There  is  a  university 
at  Zagreb  with  three  faculties:  philosophy,  the(4ogy, 
and  law;  an  agricultural  academy;  and  an  academy 
founded  and  endowed  by  Bishop  Strossmayer.  There 
are  twenty-five  high  schools  and  gymnsflia  each  with 
eight  grades,  and  over  a  thousand  public  schools  of 
five  grades,  all  supported  by  the  Government,  witii 
the  exception  of  some  private  institutions. 

Ecclesiastically  Croatia  constitutes  one  province, 
erected  by  the  Bull  "Auctorem  omniiun^'  of  Pius  IX, 
11  Dec..  1852.  The  archiepiscopal  see  is  at  Agram 
(Zagreb),  and  there  are  tnree  suffragan  dioceses: 
DjaKovo,  Senj-Modrus,  and  Kreus  (Knzevci)  (Uniat 
Greek).  Theoretically  the  relations  between  Church 
and  State  are  regulated  by  a  concordat  of  18  Aug., 
1852;  but  this  is  practically  disregarded.  Civil  mar- 
riage is  not  recognised  and  ecclesiastical  regulations 
are  in  force.  Of  the  population  of  2,186,410,  71 
per  cent,  is  Catholic;  26  per  cent.  Schismatic  Greek; 
1.6  per  cent.  Protestant;  and  1  per  cent.  Jewish.  Free- 
dom of  worship  is  guaranteed  by  State  law.  Religious 
instruction  is  given  in  the  schools  under  Government 
supervision,  the  State  paying  such  teachers  and  sup- 
plying textbooks  out  of  the  public  revenues.  Churches 
are  incorporated  under  the  name  of  the  parish  or  com- 
munity to  which  they  belong,  subject  to  the  require- 
ments of  canon  law.  Church  property  is  taxed,  but 
the  clergy  are  exempt  from  military  and  jury  ser- 
vice. They  are  also  subject  to  the  civil  penal  law, 
have  the  power  to  make  wills  but  not  witness  to  them, 
and  can  cuspose  of  their  personal  property  according  to 
canon  law.  Cemeteries  are  regulated  by  ecclesiastical 
and  civil  law,  each  denomination  having  it^  own.  Re- 
ligioua  orders  may  be  established  with  the  consent  of 
the  Church  and  state;  the  Franciscans,  Capuchins, 
Jesuits,  and  Ssdvatorians  are  represented.  Bishops 
are  nominated  by  the  king,  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  Government,  and  appointed  by  the  pope.  Canons 
are  appointed  by  the  kine  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  Government,  and  the  latter  appoints  the  irremov- 
able rectors  from  the  tema,  i.  e.  from  three  names 
proposed,  or  regardless  of  the  Uma.  Each  diocese  has 
Its  own  seminary,  llie  Catholic  press  has  a  number 
(rf  weekly,  and  a  few  daily,  papers. 

Causes  of  Emigration. — ^The  people  are  over- 
taxed. Industry  and  commerce  are  handicapped  by 
the  oentraliaation  of  common  carriers  and  by  a  trans- 
portation tariff  upon  export  goods.  The  import  and 
export  tariffs  are  imjustly  apportioned,  and  agricul- 
ture and  stock-raising  are  unprofitable  except  for 
domestic  purposes.  State  monopolies  prevent  free 
commerce,  and  bureaucracy  hampers  the  development 
of  trade  and  the  comfort  of  the  people.  The  land  is 
generally  cultivated  and  is  rich  in  forests.  Quicksil- 
ver, gold,  copper,  iron,  coal,  coal  oil  and  sulphur  are 
found,  but  tne  production  is  small.  The  nvers  are 
navigable,  and  there  are  excellent  roads,  but  the  rail- 
toads  have  not  kept  pace  with  the  needs  of  the  people. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  over  200,000  Croats 
distributed  in  all  sections,  working  in  mines,  factories, 
and  upon  farms.  Many  of  these  are  well-to-do.  The 
immigration  began  in  tne  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
eentury  and  numbers  fought  in  the  Civil  War.  There 
are  about  260  Croatian  societies  under  the  patronage 
of  various  saints.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  native 
priests  the  number  of  parShes  is  small,  only  twelve  in 
number  (1908)  and  four  parochial  schools.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  the  first  Croatian  priest 
came  to  the  United  States  only  ten  years  ago,  while 
the  people  had  been  coming  in  large  numbera  for 


thirty  years,  with  no  one  to  look  after  their  spiritual 
needs.  The  Croatian  parishes  which  have  been  or- 
flnnized  are: — Visitation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Maiy, 
Kankin,  Pennsylvania;  St.  Nicholas,  Allegheny,  Penn- 
slyvania;  St.  Rock,  Johnstown,  Pennsylvania;  St. 
Paul,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  St.  Joseph,  St.  Louis,  Missouri; 
St.  John,  Calumet,  Michigan;  St.  John,  Kansas  City, 
Kansafi;  Assumption  of  B.  V.  M.,  Chicago,  Illinois; 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  (Greek  Uniat),  Chicago,  lib.;  Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul,  Great  Falls,  Montana;  St.  Mary  of 
Grace,  §teelton,  Pennsylvania;  Church  of  the  Nativ- 
ity, San  Frandsoo,  Cahfomia. 

Aeademia  acieatiarum  el  artium:  DocumenUi  hiHorux  croatica, 
periodum  arUiquatn  lUustrontia  (A«ram,  1877):  Kuxux^evich, 
Codex  diplomatictu  regni  Croatia,  DalnuUicB  et  SlawmuB  (AKram, 
1S74, 1876);  Lu6icb,  De  reono  Dalmatxa  et  CroaH<B,  lUm  sex  (St. 
Mark's  Libraxy,  Venioe):  Tmeiner.  Vetera  numumenta  Slavorum 
meridumalium  (Rome,  Agram,  1883,  1875);  Tkal6ich.  Monu- 
merUa  hietorioiB  (Asram,  1896);  FBBiiENDizN,  Ada  Boenim 
(A«ram«  1882);  Kbcbucb,  De  ramie  Dalmatia,  Croatue  et  Sla-- 
voniw  (Agram,  1770);  Farz.ati.  lUyrieum  Sacrum  (Venice,  1761. 
1801);  SvEAB.  Ogledalo  Ittiriuma  (Agram,  1839,  1842):Tka- 
l6xc!H,  Hrvateka  povjeelniea  (Agram,  1861);  Ljubicb,  PretM 
hrvatake  poviesti  (Fiume,  1864);  Smx^iklas,  Hrvanka  povieet 
(Agram,  1879,  1882);  Klaich.  Povisl  Hrvata  (Agzam,  1890. 
sq.;;  RaSki,  u  rodovima  akademije  (Agram);  Horn,  La  Hon- 
grie  et  la  Croatie  (Pann,  1907);  Puverich,  Beitr&Qe  (Agram, 
1886):  Macaulat,  Edinburgh  Review  (April,  1842);  SUiieaman*e 
Year  Book  il908). 

M.  D.  Krmpohc. 

broce,  GiovANm,  composer,  b.  at  Chioggia  near 
Venice  in  1557;  d.  15  May,  1609.  Under  the  tutelage 
at  Venice  of  Gioseffo  Zarlino,  Croce  became  one  of^the 
most  noted  composers  of  the  Venetian  School.  Alfter 
entering  the  priesthood  he  was  attached  to  the  church 
of  Santa  Mana  Formosa.  In  1593  he  was  given  charge 
of  the  choir  boys  at  San  Marco  with  the  title  of  vice- 
director.  On  the  death  of  Baltazzaro  Donati,  13  July, 
1603,  Croce  became  his  successor  as  choirmaster.  He 
wtote  a  great  deal  of  secular  music  in  the  forms  par- 
ticularly cultivated  in  his  time,  such  as  the  madrigal 
and  the  cantonetta,  but  his  chief  productions  are  those 
destined  for  the  Church.  Their  characteristics  are 
clarity  of  form  and  a  devotional  spirit.  Many  of  his 
compositions  form  part  of  Proske's  ''Musica  Divina" 
and  Lueck's  collection  contains  three  motets;  "O 
sacrum  convivium ' ', "  Cantate  Domino ' ',  and  "  Exaudi 
Deus". 

Ambros,  Geschtchte  der  Mr^iik  (LeSpsig,  1881);  KornuClleb, 
Lexihon  der  kirchliehen  Tonkxmat  (RatUbon.  1895),  Pt.  II,  p.  66. 
Caffi,  Staria  deUa  Mueica  Sacra  (Venice.  1854-65),  L  200,  206. 

Joseph  Otten. 

Oroia,  a  titular  see  of  Albania.  Croia  (pronounced 
Kruya,  Albanian,  ''Spring")  stands  on  the  site  of 
Eriba?a,  a  town  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  (III,  xiii,  13, 
41).  Georgius  Acropolites  (Ixix)  mentions  it  as  a 
fortress  in  1251.  A  decree  of  the  Venetian  senate 
gave  it  in  1343  to  Marco  Barbarigo  and  his  wife.  In 
1395  it  was  held  by  the  Castriots  (Mas-Latrie,  Tr^sor 
de  chronologie,  1773),  and  it  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
Lion  of  Albania,  the  national  hero,  George  Castnota 
or  Scanderbeg  (d.  17  Jan.,  1468).  It  was  captured 
by  Mohammed  II  14  June,  1478,  and  the  wbole  popu- 
lation waa  slaughtered  together  with  the  Venetian 
^rrison,  except  the  few  who  embraced  Mohammedsji- 
isra.  Since  the  thirteenth  century  Croia  has  been  a 
Latin  suffragan  of  Dyrrachium  (Durazzo).  Farlati 
(lUyricum  sacrum,  VII,  411-432)  mentions  fourteen 
bishops  from  1286  to  1694  (Gams,  404;  Lequien,  III, 
955,  incomplete);  Eubel  (I,  224;  II,  156)  adds  four 
namos  and  corrects  some  data.  Croia  is  to-day  the 
chief  town  of  a  kaimakamlik  in  the  vilayet  of  Scutari, 
with  about  10.000  inhabitants,  all  Mussulmans.  The 
Venetian  citaael,  1500  feet  above  the  sea,  is  still  pre- 
served together  with  Turkish  guns  and  bells  dating 
from  the  days  of  Skanderbeg.  Croia  is  renownea 
amon^  the  Bektashi  dervishes  for  the  tombs  of  many 
of  their  saints. 

HopF,  Chnmiquee  grieo^romanee:  DsoaAND,  Souvenire  de  la 
"        iCParia 


Uaute-Albanie  (Paria,  1901),  215-227. 


S.  PirraiD^ 


d&OtSBT 


614 


OBOttAtt 


Croiset,  Jean,  ascetical  writer,  b.  at  Marseilles. 
1656:  d.  at  Avignon,  31  January,  1738.  He  entered 
the  Societv  of  Jesus  in  1677^  and  was  for  a  long  time 
rector  of  tne  novitiate  at  Avignon,  which  he  governed 
with  great  wisdom.  He  became  famous  as  a  director 
of  consciences,  and  as  a  writer  of  many  spiritual  books 
which  have  been  translated  into  several  languages. 
His ''  Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart''  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  of  his  publications.  He  wrote  also: 
"Retreats  for  Each  Day  of  the  Month";  "The  Lives 
of  the  Saints  for  Each  Day  of*  the  Year",  in  eighteen 
volumes,  in  the  last  of  which  is  "The  Life  of  Our 
Lord"  and  "The  Life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin";  "The 
Model  of  Youth";  "Spiritual  Illusions";  "Dialogues 
on  Worldly  Dangers  " ;  "  ParaUel  of  the  Morals  of  Our 
Age,  with  the  Morality  of  Christ ",  etc.  He  also  pub- 
lished collections  of  pra^jers.  De  Backer  accuses 
Lamennais  of  having  plagiarized  from  Croiset  in  his 
little  work  called  "Guide  du  jeune  ^".  Feller 
attributes  a  book  of  meditations  also  to  Croiset.  He 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  great  masters  of  the  spiritual 
life. 

Db  Backsb,  BiU,  de  la  c.  de  J.  (Li^,  1853  and  1861); 
FxLLBB,  Biog,  Univ.  (Paris,  1813). 

T.  J.  Campbbix. 

Oroke,  Thomas  William,  Archbishop  of  Caidiel, 
Ireland,  b.  near  Mallow,  Co.  Cork,  24  Ma;y,  1824 ;  d.  at 
ThurleSp  22  Julv,  1902.  His  early  studies  were  made 
at  the  Irish  CoUege,  Paris,  and  his  theological  course 
was  completed  at  Kome.  Returning  to  Ireland  he 
was  made  one  of  the  professors  at  St.  Patrick's  Col- 
lege, Carlow,  and  then  did  mission  work  at  CharleviUe 
in  his  native  diocese  from  1849  to  1858.  They  were 
the  years  of  misery  following  the  great  famine,  and  the 
suffering  of  the  people  from  their  economic  and  politi- 
cal mis&rtunes  intensified  the  national  leanings  that 
were  a  marked  characteristic  of  his  whole  career  and 
which  made  him  to  his  fellow-oountrymen  the  ideal  of 
the  patriot  priest.  He  was  a  zealous  follower  of 
O'Connell  in  uie  Repeal  Era,  and  when  the  prestige  of 
The  Liberator  waned,  sided  with  the  Young  Ireland 
party. 

Ap^inted  president  of  St.  Colman's  College,  Fer- 
moy,  m  1858,  Dr.  Croke  administered  this  office  satis- 
factorily for  seven  years,  followed  by  five  equally  suc- 
cessful years  as  pastor  of  Doneraile,  and  was  then  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Auckland,  Australia.  He  was  con- 
secrated in  Rome  by  Cardinal  Cullen  and  took  part  in 
the  concluding  sessions  of  the  Vatican  Council.  Re- 
turning to  Ireland  for  a  brief  visit,  he  went  by  way  of 
the  United  States  to  take  possession  of  his  See  of 
Auckland.  During  the  succeeding  four  years  his  ^v- 
emment  of  the  diocese  was  marked  bv  greeA  spiritual 
and  material  progress.  In  1874  Archbi^op  Leahy  of 
Cashel  died,  and  at  the  request  of  the  Irish  hierarchy 
Bishop  Croke  was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacancy.  His 
return  to  Ireland  gave  the  greatest  satisfaction  to  the 
people,  who  immediately  haQed  him  as  the  unques- 
tioned and  safe  ecclesiastical  leader  in  national  poli- 
tics that  Archbishop  MacHale  of  Tuam  had  been  for 
the  previous  generation.  He  at  once  resumed  his 
former  active  interest  in  political  affairs  and  became  a 
strong  supporter  of  the  Home  Rule  movement  under 
the  leadersnip  of  Isaac  Butt.  In  the  more  advanced 
agrarian  projects  of  the  Land  League  days  he  was  side 
by  side  with  C^iarles  Stewart  Pamell  in  popular  lead- 
ership, and  was  the  main  restraining  influence  when 
the  ultra-radical  element,  infuriated  by  the  new  co- 
ercion laws  of  British  officialism,  broke  out  with  the 
"No  Rent"  and  other  revolutionary  manifestos.  He 
made  several  visits  to  Rome  in  defence  of  the  popular 
cause  and  to  oppose  the  attempts  of  British  diplomacy 
to  enlist  the  du^t  intervention  of  the  influence  of  the 
Vatican  against  the  Iridh  Nationalists,  the  justice  of 
whose  efforts  he  vigorously  championed.  After  the 
fall  of  Pamell  and  uie  oomusion  and  factional  strife 


that  followed  he  withdrew  in  a  measure  from  active 
participation  in  politics,  but  never  lost  his  enthusiaaoi 
for  the  cause  of  Irish  national  regeneration. 

Freeman**  Journal  (Dublin);  The  TMet  (London);  Thm 
Catholic  New$  (New  York),  oontemporary  files:  Uoman,  His- 
tory of  the  Catholie  Church  in  Atutrakuia  (Sydney,  a.  d.), 
917,  918. 

Thoicas  F.  Meehan. 

Otolbr,  William,  Arehbishop  of  Arma^,  b.  at 
Ballykifbee,  near  Downpatrick,  8  June,  1780;   d.  6 
April,  1849.    At  fourteen  he  was  sent  to  a  clasrical 
school  in  Downpatrick,  conducted  by  Rev.  Bfr.  Nel- 
son, a  Unitarian  minister,  as  there  were  no  Catholie 
schools  in  the  north  of  Ireland.    In  Novemb^,  1801, 
he  went  to  Maynooth,  and  obtained  first  place  in  do^ 
matic  theology  in  1806.    At  Pentecost  of  the  aame 
year  he  was  ordained  priest  \yv  Dr.  Troy,  Archbishop 
of  DubUn,  and  for  six  years  lectured  in  logic,  metA- 
phjrsics,  and  ethics.    In  1812  he  took  cham  cd  the 
parish  of  Belfast,  which  comprised  not  only  toe  entire 
town  but  also  a  district  more  than"  thirty  miles  in  ex- 
tent.   On  being  appointed  Bishop  of  Down  and  Con- 
nor in  1825,  he  induced  the  Hol^  See  to  change  the 
episcopal  parish  from  Downpatrick  to  Belfast,  the 
real  centre  of  the  diocese.    During  the  ten  vears  he 
spent  as  bishop  of  this  see  he  built  a  large  church  in 
almost  every  parish,  and  founded  St.  Malachy's  Semi- 
nary.   Owing  to  the  dearth  of  Catholic  schools,  Dr. 
Crolly  was  obUged  to  allow  Catholic  children  to  attend 
Protestant  schools,  a  course  of  action  which  ciuised  a 
fierce  controversy  after  his  death.     In  1835  he  was 
appointed  to  the  arehdioeese  of  Armagh.    Up  to  his 
time  no  primate  had  been  allowed  to  reside  in  that 
town,  but  he  lived  alternately  there  and  in  Drogbeda, 
where  most  of  the  primates  had  dwelt  in  penal  times. 
His  first  care  was  to  found  St.  Patrick's  Seminary  in 
Armagh,  which  was  opened  in  1838.    His  great  work 
however,  was  the  foundation  of  the  cathedSral,  which 
was  not  completed  till  twenty-four  years  after  his 
death.    Having^  with  ereat  dimculty  acquired  a  site 
on  an  historic  hill  by  tne  side  of  the  town,  he  laid  the 
foundation  stone  on  St.  Patrick's  Day,  1840,  amid  a 
vast  assemblage  of  clergy  and  laity.    The  woric  of 
construction  went  steadi^  on  until  the  famine  years, 
and  the  primate  visited  several  cities  in  Irehmd,  mak- 
ing an  appeal  in  person.    The  famine,   however, 
stopped  the  progress  of  the  work.    When  the  question 
of  the  Queen's  colleges  arose,  the  primate  was  one  of 
those  bishops  who  looked  favourably  on  the  project. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  if  he  had  lived  till  the 
Synod  of  Thurles,  in  which  these  colleges  were  for- 
mally condemned  as  pernicious  to  the  Faith,  he  would 
have  laid  aside  his  own  private  opinions  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  submitted  to  tne  decision  of  the  Holv^  See. 
He  died  in  Drogheda  of  the  cholera,  on  Good  Friday 
(6  April),  1849,  and  was  buried  on  Easter  Sunday  in 
the  centre  of  the  choir  of  the  still  unfinished  cathedral 
of  Arma^.    A  collection  of  the  '^  Select  Serrnxms"  ol 
the  primate  was  published  shortly  after  his  death. 

Gbollt.  Life  of  Dr.  CroUy  (Dublin.  1851);  Stuast.  Hiato- 
rical  Memoira  of  Armagh,  Ck>LBBiAN  ed.  (Dundalk,  1900),  XX, 
299  sqq. 

A.  COLKICAN. 

Oromer,  Martin.    See  Kromer. 

Oronan,  name  of  several  Irish  saints. — ^L  Saint 
Cronan  Mochua,  founder  of  the  See  of  Balla,  sub- 
sequently meiged  into  that  of  Tuam,  Ireland,  flour- 
ished in  the  period  696-637,  d.  30  Mareh,  637,  but 
his  Acts  are  more  or  less  of  a  legendary  charact«'. 
However,  it  would  appear  that  he  was  educated 
at  Bangor,  under  St.  Comgall^  and  founded  a  mon- 
astery at  Gael,  among  the  Feara  Rois  of  Louth  and 
Monaghan,  whence  he  migrated  to  Fore  and  Te- 
hilly.  Passing  through  Hy  Many,  he  journeyed  to 
Connacht,  in  616,  and  founded  the  church  and  Abbey 
of  Balla,  of  which  he  was  first  abbot-bishop.  Num^«- 
ous  miracles  are  recorded  of  St.  Cronan  Mochua,  and 


OROSTIR 


515 


0B08ISE 


are  minutely  described  in  his  Iriah  life.  His  feast  is 
celebrated  on  30  Marchy  though,  through  a  miscon- 
ception, his  Acts  are  given  by  the  Bollandists  under 
date  of  1  January. 

CoiiOAN.  Ada  SS.  Hib.  (Louvain,  1645):  Butlbb.  Liom  of 
the  SairUs;  Acta  Sanctorum,  Jan.  I  and  III:  Todd  and  Reeves, 
Martyroloov  of  Donegal  (Dublin.  1864);  0'HANU>if ,  Livea  of  the 
Irieh  Sainta  (Dublin,  1875).  Ill;  Knox.  Noiee  on  the  Dioouee  <4 
Tuam  (1904);  Whitlbt  Stokeb,  Anecdota  Oxonien,  (1890). 

II.  Saint  Cronan,  Abbot-Bishop  and  Patron  of 
RoBcrea,  a  see  afterwards  incorporated  in  that  of  Kil- 
laloe,  Ireland;  b.  in  the  territory  of  Ely  O'Carroll; 
d.  28  April,  &40.  After  spending  lus  ^routh  in  Con- 
nacht,  he  returned  to  his  native  district  about  the 
year  610  and  founded  the  Abbey  of  Roscrea,  where  he 
established  a  famous  school.  Previously  he  settled 
at  a  place  known  as  Sean  ros  or  Loch  Cre,  a  wooded 
morass  far  from  the  haimts  of  men;  in  fact,  it  was 
utterly  wild,  so  much  so,  that  St.  Cronan  abandoned 
it  ana  moved  to  the  wood  of  Cre,  that  is  Ros  ere. 
County  Tipperaiy.  Like  those  of  so  many  other 
Irish  saints  tne  Acts  of  St.  Cronan  abound  in  miracles. 
The  most  surprising,  perhaps,  m  the  legend  as  to  the 
transcribing  of  the  Pour  Gospels  by  one  of  his  monks, 
named  Diinma.  It  appears  that  Dimma  could  only 
undertake  one  day's  tasK,  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  St. 
Cronan,  however,  bade  him  write,  and  then  Dimma 
set  to  work,  never  ceasing  till  he  had  finished  the 
Four  Gospels,  the  sun  continuing  to  shine  for  the 
space  of  forty  days  and  forty  nights — the  scribe  him- 
self being  unconscious  that  the  work  had  occupied 
more  than  a  day.  Whatever  may  be  thou^t  of  this 
legend,  it  is  certain  that  a  ma^ificent  Evangelis- 
tarium,  known  as  the  ''Book  of  Dmuna'',  was  for  cen- 
turies preserved  in  St.  Cronan's  Abbey  at  Roscrea, 
and  is  now  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
The  scribe,  Dimma  MacNathi,  signs  his  name  at  the 
conclusion  of  each  of  the  Gospels,  and  he  has  been 
identified  with  Dimma,  subsequently  Bishop  of  Con- 
nor, who  is  mentioned  with  St.  Cronan  in  the  letter  of 
Pope  John  IV  in  640,  in  r^ard  to  Pelagianism  in  Ire- 
land, but  this  identification  cannot  be  sustained.  The 
case  containing  the  ''Book  of  Dimma''  was  richly  gilt 
by  order  of  O'Uarroll,  Lord  of  Ely,  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tur^r.  Notwithstanding  the  conflicting  statements 
arising  from  the  number  of  contemporary  Irish  saints 
bearing  the  name  of  Cronan,  it  is  more  tnan  probable 
that  St.  Cronan  of  Roscrea,  as  les  Petits  Bollandistes 
say,  lived  as  late  as  the  year  640,  and  his  death  oc- 
curred on  28  April  of  that  year.  His  feast  is  cele- 
brated on  28  April  and  as  such  is  included  in  all  the 
Irish  calendars,  as  also  in  the  Kalendar  of  Drummond. 

Ada  SS,,  III,  28  Jipril;  Butleb.  Lives  of  the  Saints,  IV; 
0*Hanu>n,  Lives  of  Oie  hish  Saints  (Dublin.  1876),  IV;  Gii^ 
BXBT.  National  Manuscripts  of  Ireland  (1884);  Les  Petits  Bol- 
landistes  j^ns,  1880),  V:  Lanigan,  Eedesiastical  History  of 
Ireland  (Dublin.  1829),  III:  Healt,  Ireland's  Ancient  S<^ools 
and  Scholars  (4th  ed.,  Dublin.  1902). 

A  number  of  other  saints  of  this  name  find  a  place 
in  Irish  calendars.  The  three  most  important  are 
St.  Cronan  Mochua,  of  Clashmore  (10  February);  St. 
Cronan,  Abbot  of  Clonmacnoise  (18  July);  and  St. 
Cronan,  Abbot  of  Moville  (7  Sept.).  Another  saint 
frequently  quoted  as  of  this  name  is  really  St.  Cuaran 
(Cuaranus  Sapiens),  whose  feast  occurs  on  9  February. 
There  is  also  a  St.  Cronan  Mochua  of  Sliabh  Eibhlem 
(4  May). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Oroaier  (or  Pastoral  Staff),  The,  is  an  ecclesi- 
astical ornament  which  is  conferred  on  bishops  at  their 
consecration  and  on  mitred  abbots  at  their  investiture, 
and  which  is  used  by  these  prelates  in  performing  cer- 
tain solemn  functions.  It  is  sometimes  stated  that 
archbishops  do  not  use  the  crosier.  This  is  not  so,  the 
truth  being  that  in  additicm  to  the  pastoral  staff  they 
have  also  the  right  to  have  the  archiepiscopal  cross 
borne  before  them  within  the  territory  of  their  juris- 


diction. According  to  present-day  usase  the  Roman 
p<mtiff  does  not  use  the  crosier.  That  wis  practice  is 
a  departure  from  primitive  discipline  is  now  thor- 
oughly established,  for  in  the  early  representations  of 
the  popes  found  on  tablets,  coins,  and  other  monu- 
ments, the  crosier  is  to  be  seen  (Kraus,  Geschichte  der 
christUchen  Kunst, 
II,  500).  But  in 
the  eleventh  cen- 
tury this  cutsom 
must  have  disap- 
peared, since  Inno- 
cent III  (d.  1216) 
intimates  that  it  no 
longer  prevailed 
(Epistola  ad  Patr. 
Const.).  As  a  rea- 
son why  the  pope 
does  not  use  a 
crosier  symbolists 
all^  the  giving  by 
St.  Peter  of  his  staff 
to  one  of  his  dis- 
ciples in  order  to 
raise  a  dead  com- 
panion to  life.  The 
pastoral  staff  will 
here  be  treated  un- 
der: (y  the  symbo- 
lism or  the  crosier* 
(2)  its  origin  ana 
antiquity;  (3)  early 
forms  and  subse- 
quent artistic  de- 
velopment. 

(1;  Symbolism. — 
The  erosier  is  a 
symbol  of  author- 
ity and  j  urisdiction. 
Tnis  idea  is  clearly 
expressed  in  the 
words  of  the  Roman 
Pontifical  with 
which  the  staff  is 
presented  to  the 
pishop  elect:  *'Ao- 
cipe  oaculum  pas- 


Croucr  of  Giuuo  db'  Msoia 

(AFTEBWARD6   ClXMKNT   VII) 

(Pitti  Palace.  Florence) 


toralis  officii;  et  sis  in  corrigendis  vitiis  pie  sffiviens, 
judicium  sine  ird,  tenens,  in  fovendis  virtutibus 
auditorum  animos  mulcens,  in  tranquilUtate  sev- 
eritatis  censuram  non  deserens''  (Pont.  Rom.,  77). 
It  is  then,  as  Durandus  (Rationale  Divin.  Off.,  Ill, 
xv)  says,  borne  by  prelates  to  signifv  their  authority 
to  correct  vices,  stunulate  piety,  administer  punish- 
ment, and  thus  rule  anci  govern  with  a  gentle- 
ness that  is  tempered  with  severity.  The  same 
author  goes  on  to  sav  that,  as  the  rod  of  Moees 
was  the  seal  and  emblem  of  his  Divine  commis- 
sion as  well  as  the  instnunent  of  the  miracles  he 
wrou^t,  so  is  the  episcopal  staff  the  s^pabol  of  that 
doctrmal  and  disciplinary  power  of  bishops  in  vir- 
tue of  which  Uiey  may  sustam  the  weak  and  faltering, 
confirm  the  waverinff  in  faith,  and  lead  back  the  erring 
ones  into  the  true  fold.  Barbosa  (Pastoralis  Solhcitu- 
dinis,  etc.,  Tit.  I,  ch.  v)  alluding  to  the  prevalent  form 
of  the  staff,  says  that  the  end  is  sharp  and  pointed 
wherewith  to  prick  and  goad  the  slothlul,  the  middle 
is  straight  to  signify  righteous  rule,  while  the  h^  is 
bent  or  crooked  in  order  to  draw  in  and  attract  souls 
to  the  ways  of  God.  Bona  (Rerum  liturgic,  I,  xxiv) 
says  the  crosier  is  to  bishops  what  the  sceptre  is  to 
kings.  In  deference  to  this  symbolism  bishops  alwavB 
can^  the  crosier  with  the  crook  turned  outwardsii 
while  inferior  prelates  hold  it  with  the  head  reversed. 
Moreover,  the  crosiers  of  abbots  are  not  so  large  aa 
episcopal  crosiers,  and  are  covered  with  a  voil  when  the 
bishop  is  present. 


0aO8IIE8 


516 


OBosmui 


(2)  Origin, — The  or^in  of  the  nagtoral  staff  is  at 
times  associated  with  tne  shepherd's  crook.  Whether 
the  usage  was  borrowed  from  this  source  is  doubtful. 
Some  writers  trace  an  affinity  with  the  lituttSy  or  rod 
used  by  the  Roman  augurs  in  their  divinations,  while 
others  again  see  in  the  crosier  an  adaptatioii  of  the 
ordinary  walking-sticks  which  were  used  for  support 
on  journeys  and  m  churches  before  the  introduction  of 
seats  (Catalani,  Pont.  Rom.,  Proleg.,  xx).  At  all 
events,  it  came  at  a  very  early  date  to  be  one  of  the 
principsd  insignia  of  the  episcopal  office.  Just  how 
soon  is  not  easilv  determined,  since  in  the  early  pas- 
sages of  the  Fathers  in  which  the  word  occurs  it  can- 
not be  ascertained  whether  it  is  to  be  taken  literally  or 
metaphorically  (see  I  Cor.,  iv,  21),  or  whether  it  desig- 
nates an  ecclesiastical  ornament  at  all.  In  liturgical 
usage  it  probably  goes  back  to  the  fifth  century 
(Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.  Hirtenstab).  Mention  of  it  is  made 
in  a  letter  of  Pope 
Celestine  I  (d.  432) 
to  the  Bishops  of 
Vienne  and  Nar- 
bonne.  Staffs  have 
indeed  been  found 
in  the  catacombs 
that  date  from  the 
fourth  century  but 
their  ceremonial 
character  has  not 
been  established. 
The  first  imequiv- 
ocal  reference  to  the 
crosier  as  a  liturgical  iustrviment 
occurs  in  the  twenty-seven  th  cantjn 
of  the  Ck)uncil  of  Toledo  {VilU), 
At  present  it  is  employi^d  by  bish- 
ops whenever  they  perform  solemn 
pontifical  functions,  by  right  in 
their  own  dioceses  and  by  iirivileitc 
outside,  and  by  inferior  prelato^t 
whenever  they  are  privilog^  to  ex- 
ercise pontifical  functiotiH, 

(3)  Form  and  Dei^Iopneni.— 
The  evolution  of  the  htufT  is  <*f 
interest.  Ecclesiologist^  <  1  is  t  i  n  ^^u  i  s  h 
three  early  forms.  The  first  wiis 
a  rod  of  wood  bent  or  orookecl  at 
the  top  and  pointed  at  the  1(i>i*ct 
end.  This  is  the  oldest  form  a! id 
was  known  as  the  mdum.  Tim 
second  had,  instead  of  th*:'  crook,  ti 
knob  which  was  often  Hiimioimt*Nl 
by  a  cross,  and  waw  trailed  the 
ferula  or  carrdnUa.  It  wils  sonie- 
times  borne  by  popes.  In  the 
third  form  the  top  conj^iRtml  nf  a 
crux  decusmta,  or  Gri'-'.  T,  r' 
arms  of  the  cross  being  often  so 
twisted  as  to  represent  two  ser- 
pents opposed.  This,  known  as 
the  crociaf  was  borne  by  abbots 
and  bishops  of  the  Eastern  Rite. 
The  original  material  was  generally  cypress-wood, 
often  cased  or  inlaid  with  gold  or  silver.  Later  on 
the  staffs  were  made  of  solid  ivory,  gold,  silver, 
and  enamelled  metal.  From  the  many  specimens 
preserved  in  churches  as  well  as  from  the  representa- 
tions in  old  sculptures,  paintings,  and  miniatures, 
some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  artistic  development 
of  the  staff  and  of  the  perfection  it  attained.  In  the 
cathedra!  of  Bruges  is  preserved  the  crosier  of  St. 
ICalo,  a  bishop  of  the  sixth  century.  The  staff  con- 
gists  of  several  pieces  of  ivory  jointed  together  by 
twelve  copper  strips;  but  the  volute  is  modem 
(Reusens,  E16m.  d'  arch,  chr^t.,  I,  504).  The  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries  witness  an  elaborate  display  of 
most  exc|uisite  ornamentation  bestowod  on  the  head 


Cbosikr  of  an  Ab- 
bot— Cellini 
(Abbey  of  Monte 
Cassino,  Italy) 


of  the  staff.  The  volute  often  terminated  in  a  dragon 
impaled  by  a  cross,  or  in  some  other  allegorical  figure. 
whi]at  a  wealth  of  fioral  decoration  filled  up  the  curve. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  tibe  spaces  between  the 
spirals  of  the  c^rocketed  volute  were  filled  with  reli- 
gious subjects,  statues  of  saints,  and  scenes  from  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  while  in  those  of  the 
Gothic  form  the  knob  was  set  in  precious  stones  and 
embellished  with  a  wreath  of  allegorical  ornamenta- 
tion. Quite  a  number  of  these  rich  and  valuable 
efforts  of  artistic  skill  have  come  down  to  us,  and  one 
or  more  may  be  seen  in  almost  every  old  catJiedral  of 
England  and  the  Continent.  Oxford  possesses  three 
very  old  and  interesting  patterns,  that  preserved  at 
New  College  having  belonged  to  William  of  Wykeham. 
St.  Peter's  staff  is  said  to  be  preserved  in  the  cathedral 
of  Trier.  The  legend  may  be  seen  in  Barbosa  (Pas- 
toralis  Sollicitudinis,  etc..  Tit.  I,  ch.  v).  As  to  the 
crosier  of  an  abbess  see  article  Abbess. 

Bona,  Rerum  lUurgicarum  K&rt  dtw  (Turin,  1745),  I,  xxiv, 
Catalani,  Ponlifioale  Romanum  (Borne,  1850),  I.  I^roUffomata, 
xx:  Mart^nb,  De  arUiquis  eccUsia  ntibua  (Antwerp,  1784).  I, 
viii;  Reubens,  EUments  dearth,  chrit.  (DubUn,  1885),  I,  502; 
II,  453;  Lerobet,  Manud  Hturgiqus  (Paris,  1800),  I.  258; 
Macaxjster,  BcdeHa»tictd  VeatmenU  (London,  1806),  56,  124; 
PuGiN,  GloMory  of  EccUsiaalical  Ornament  (Loudon,  1868); 
KiiAUS,  Oesch.  der  christl.  Kunat  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1807),  I,  522. 
II,  50O,  DB  Fledrt,  La  Meaw  (iParis,  1880),  VIII,  75-110; 
Bock,  Qeach.  der  Itturg.  OewOnder  (Bonn,  1856-62),  II,  218  sq.; 
Cahieb.  Milangea  darchiol.  (Paris.  1856),  IV,  139. 

Patrick  Morribrob. 

Crosiers  (or  Canons  Regular  op  the  Holt 
Cross),  The,  a  religious  order,  fotmded  by  Theodore 
de  CJelles,  who,  after  following  the  Emperor  Frederick 
Barbarossa  on  the  Crusade,  obtained  a  canoniy  in 
the  Cathedral  of  St.  Lambert  at  Li^.  On  the  feast 
of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross  (14  Sept.,  1211), 
Theodore  ^ith  four  of  liis  fellow-canons  pronounced 
his  religious  vows  before  the  Bishop  of  Li^.  Hav- 
ing received  from  him  the  church  of  St.  Theobald  at 
Clair-Lieu,  near  Huy,  de  Celles  founded  there  the  first 
convent  of  the  order.  Pope  Innocent  HI  verbally 
approved  the  new  order  in  1215,  and  Pope  Honorius 
III  Kive  his  written  approbation,  which  was  confirmed 
by  Innocent  IV  on  tne  feast  of  the  Finding  of  the 
Holy  Cross  (3  May,  1248).  The  new  institution  soon 
extended  to  France,  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  and 
jUso  to  England.    The  Canons  of  the  Holy  Cross 

g reached  to  the  Albigenses  with  St.  Dominic.  Albert , 
lishop  of  Prague,  took  several  Crosiers  and  other 
monks  with  him  to  Livonia,  where  a  great  many  of 
them  gained  the  glory  of  martyrdom  (1246).  Some 
other  Fathers  accompanied  St.  Louis  on  his  journey 
to  the  Holy  Land  in  1248.  After  returning,  he  en- 
abled them  to  build  the  main  convent  of  the  order  in 
Paris.  The  Canons  of  the  Hohr  Cross  practise  both 
interior  and  exterior  self-denial,  in  order  to  imitate 
the  Saviour  crucified.  Contemplating  Christ's  Pas- 
sion they  try  to  sanctify  themselves,  and,  preaching 
the  mysteries  of  the  Cross,  they  endeavour  to  save 
others,  inducing  them  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  the 
Man  of  Sorrows. 

The  order  formerly  possessed  about  ninety  con- 
vents, nineteen  of  which  were  in  England.  These 
latter  were  destroyed  during  the  troublesome  times  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  Dutch  houses  were  de- 
spoiled at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  Only  two  of 
tnem  were  spared.  Finally,  the  French  Revolution 
expelled  the  Crosiers  from  France  and  Bd^um.  The 
two  remaining  convents  in  Holland  (at  St.  Agatha 
and  Uden  in  North  Brabant)  were  likewise  doomed  to 
extinction  by  King  William,  who  ordered  tiiem  not 
to  admit  novices.  His  successor,  however,  retracted 
this  interdict  (14  Sept.,  1840),  and,  from  that  time, 
the  order  commenced  to  flounish  a^ain.  From  these 
convents  three  large  branches  were  founded  in  Bel* 
gium,  at  Diest  (1845);  at  Maese^ek  (1854);  at  Hannut 
(1904) ;  while  the  convent  of  Uden  has  been  totally  re- 
newed (1905),  and  the  mother-house  at  St.  Agatha 


517 


0R088 


restored  (1907).  In  1857  the  master  general  of  the 
order  e^it  some  miasionariee  to  Bay  Settlement,  Wie* 
coDsin,  U.  8.  A.,  but  the  undertaJdng  failed  on  ac- 
count of  inmipemble  difficulties.  Pope  Urban  VIU 
gave  to  the  nuMter  general,  August  Neerius,  and  his 
succesaon,  the  privileaes  of  purple,  crosier-staff,  mitre, 
and  pontificalia,  together  with  some  other  exc^>tional 
favours  (1630).  Pope  Leo  X  added  the  special  fac- 
ulty of  blessing  rosaries  or  chaplets,  so  that  on  a 
rosary  indulgence  by  CrosienB  500  days  of  indul- 
gence are  to  be  gained  each  time  a  Pater  or  Ave  is 
said.  Tht  Indul^oe  is  iJso  apphoable  to  the  souls  in 
puigatoiy  (Gregory  XVI,  decrees  of  15  Sept.,  1842: 
13  July,  1845:  Pius  IX,  9  Jan.,  1848).  Pope  Pius  X 
decreed  that  both  the  Crosier  and  the  Dominican  In- 
dulflenoes  may  be  gained  together  on  condition  that 
a  whole  ohaplet  is  said. 

After  one  vear  of  probation  the  Crosier  novice 
enters  into  tne  order  by  a  ean^le  but  perpetual. 
I»t>feeBion;  the  solemn  profession  follows  three 
yean  thereafter.  The  i)riests  and  the  professed 
clerics  wear  a  white  tunic,  over  which  is  a  black 
scapular;  a  short  black  manUe  {moteUa)  and  a  hood  of 
the  same  colour  complete  their  costume.  Upon  the 
breast  of  the  scapular  a  cross  is  sewed,  the  upnght  bar 
of  which  is  red,  and  the  cross-bar  white.  A  prior 
presides  over  each  convent  and  the  order  is  governed 
by  a  master  general,  elected  for  life,  fifty-two  having 
ruled  from  the  foundation  to  1908.  As  their  particular 
patroneas  the  Crosiere  venerate  St.  Odilia,  a  compan- 
ion of  St.  Ursula,  who  is  said  to  have  appeared  in  Paris 
to  a  lay  brother  of  the  order,  named  Jean  de  Novelian 
(1387),  after  which  her  reUcs  were  fotmd  at  Cologne 
and  brought  to  the  mother>house  at  Huv.  A  great 
manv  pilgrims  visit  the  churches  of  the  Crosiers  dur- 
ing the  octave  of  St.  Odilia's  Feast  (18  July),  in  order 
to  obtain  her  protection,  and  to  be  cured  from  oph- 
thalmy,  and  water  blessed  in  honour  of  St.  Odilia  is 
sent  on  request  by  the  Crosiers  all  over  the  world. 
The  life  of  the  Crosier  Fathers  is  both  contemplative 
and  active.  They  give  missions,  retreats,  and  assist 
the  secular  cleii^  when  asked.  They  also  educate 
young  men  aspiring  to  the  priesthood  in  their  colleges. 

jAifBSN  in  K%rchm&x,,B.y.;YWBi>nc,Vie  du  Phre  TModon 
de  CdUa  (P^rini«ux,  1632);  Godefb.  a  Lit.,  ExpUmatio  constt- 
tutionum  O.  fratrum  Cruciferarum  (Cologne,  1032);  Hbrmanb. 
AfinaUt  eammieorufnretpdariuma.Aug.  Ord.  t.  entei$  (Hviiogm- 
"  1858);  Amute  el  tmulUutionea  Fr.  Ordinia  ea$umici 
'  (St.  Miofiael'8,  1868);  Russel,  Chronicon  Ordini$  8. 
k>)oKne.  1(»35). 

H.   YZERMANS. 

Orosa,  Apparition  of  the.    See  (^onstantine. 
OroMy  Sign  of  the.    See  Sign  of  the  Cross. 
Oross,  Way  of  the.    See  Way  of  the  Cross. 

Gross  and  Omcifix,  The. — For  greater  clearness 
and  convenience  the  article  under  this  general  heading 
will  be  divided,  to  correspond  as  nearly  as  possible 
with  tiiree  broad  aspects  of  the  subject,  into  three 
principaT  sections,  each  of  which  will  again  be  divided 
mto  subsections,  as  follows: — 

I.  Archjsology  of  the  Cross:  (1)  Primitive  Crvci- 
form  Signs;  (2)  The  Cross  as  an  In^rument  of  Punishr 
ment  in  the  Ancient  World;  (3)  The  Crucifixitm  of  Jesus 
Christ;  (4)  Gradtud  Devdopmeni  of  the  Cross  in  Chris- 
Han  Art;  (6)  Later  Development  of  the  Crucifix. 

n.  The  True  Cross  and  Representations  of  it  as 
Objects  of  Devotion:  (1)  Growth  of  the  Christian 
CvU;  (2)  Catholic  Doctrine  on  the  Veneration  of  the 
Cross;  (3)  Relics  of  the  True  Cross;  (4)  Principal 
Feasts  of  the  Cross. 

III.  Cross  and  Crucifix  in  Liturgy:  (1)  Material 
Objects  in  IMwrgical  Use;  (2)  LUwrgical  Farms  Con- 
nected wUh  Them;  (3)  Festivals  Commemorative  of  the 
IMy  Cross;  (4)  Rite  of  the  **  Adoration")  (5)  The  Cross 
as  a  Manual  Sign  of  Blessing;  (6)  Dedications  of 
Churches^  etc,  to  the  Holy  Cross;  (7)  The  Cross  in  Re- 


eruda  (Cole 


liaious  Orders  and  in  the  Crusades;  (8)  The  Cross  out- 
side of  the  Catholic  Church, 

I.  AncHAOiiOOY  of  the  Cross. — (1)  Primitive  Cru- 
ciform  Signs. — ^The  sign  of  the  cross,  represented  in  its 
simplest  form  by  a  crossing  of  two  lines  at  right  angles, 
^reaUv  antedates,  in  both  the  East  and  the  West,  the 
mtroduction  of  Christianity.  It  ^oes  back  to  a  very 
remote  period  of  human  civilization.  In  fact,  some 
have  sought  to  attach  to  the  widespread  use  of  this 
sign,  a  real  ethnographic  importance.  It  is  true  that 
in  the  sign  of  the  cross  the  decorative  and  geometriod 
concept,  obtained  by  a  juxtaposition  of  lines  pleasing 
to  the  sight,  is  remarkably  prominent;  nevertheless, 
the  cross  was  originally  not  a  mere  means  or  object  of 
ornament,  and  from  the  earliest  times  had  certsdnly 
another — ^i.  e.  a  symboUco-religious — significance. 
The  primitive  form  of  the  cross  seems  to  have  been 
that  of  the  so-called  "gamma"  cross  (crtix  gammata), 
better  knpwn  to  Orientalists  and  students  of  pre- 
historic arehAology  by  its  Sanskrit  name,  l  p 
swastika.    The  commonest  form  of  this  sign  is     jjTl 

At  successive  periods  this  was  modified,  becoming 
curved  at  the  extremities,  or  adding  to  them  more 
complex  lines  or  ornamental  points,  which  latter  also 
meet  at  the  central  intersection.  The  swastika  is  a 
sacred  sign  in  India,  and  is  very  ancient  and  wide- 
spread throughout  the  East.  It  has  a  solemn  mean- 
ing among  both  Brahmins  and  Buddhists,  though  the 
elder  Bumouf  ("Le  lotus  de  la  bonne  loi,  traduit  du 
Sanscrit",  p.  625;  Joum.  Asiatic  Soc.  of  Great  Britain, 
VI,  454)  believes  it  more  common  among  the  latter 
than  among  the  former.  It  seems  to  have  represented 
the  apparatus  used  at  one  time  by  the  fathers  of  the 
human  race  in  kindling  fire ;  and  for  this  reason  it  was  the 
symbol  of  Uving  flame,  oi  sacred  fire,  whose  mother  is 
Maia,  the  personification  of  productive  power  (Bur- 
nouf ,  La  science  des  religions) .  It  is  also,  accordmg  to 
Milani,  a  symbol  of  the  sun  (Bertrand,  La  relision  des 
Gaulois,  p.  159),  and  seems  to  denote  its  dauy  rotar 
tion.  Others  have  seen  in  it  the  mystic  r^resentation 
of  lightning  or  of  the  god  of  the  tempest,  and  even  the 
emblem  of  the  Aryan  pantheon  and  the  primitive. 
Ar^an  civilisation.  Emile  Bumouf  (op.  cit.,  p.  625), 
taking  the  Sanskrit  word  literally,  divided  it  mto  the 
partides  stA-astv-ka,  equivalents  of  the  Greek  «44ar/. 
jcif.  In  this  way,  especially  throu^  the  adverbial  par- 
ticle, it  would  mean  **  sign  of  benediction  ",  or  '*  of  good 
omen"  (svastt),  also  "of  health"  or  ''life".  The  pai^ 
tide  ka  seems  to  have  been  used  in  a  causative  sense 
(Bumouf,  Dictionnaire  sanscrit-fran9ais,  1866).  The 
swastika  sign  was  very  widespread  throughout  the 
Orient,  the  seat  of  tne  oldest  civilisations.  The 
Buddhist  inscriptions  carved  in  certain  caves  of  West- 
em  India  are  usually  preceded  or  closed  by  this  sacred 
s^  (Thomas  Edward,  "The  Indian  Swastika",  1880; 
PhiUp  Greg,  "  On  the  Meaning  and  Origin  of  the  lyif ot 
and  Swastika").  The  cdebrated  excavations  of 
Schliemann  at  Hissarlik  on  the  site  of  ancient  Troy 
brought  to  light  numerous  examples  of  the  swastika: 
on  spindle-racks,  on  a  cube,  sometimes  attached  to  an 
anixnal,  and  even  cut  upon  the  womb  of  a  female  idol, 
a  detail  also  noticeable  on  a  small  statue  of  the  goddess 
Athis.  The  swastika  sign  is  seen  on  Hittite  monu- 
ments, e.  g.  on  a  cylinder  ("The  monuments  of  the 
Hittites"  in  "Transactions  of  the  Soc.  of  Bibl.  ArebiB* 
ology ",  VII,  2,  p.  260.  For  its  presence  on  Galatian 
anoBithynian monuments,  see  Uuillaume and Perrot, 
"Exploration  areh^ologique  de  la  Galatie  et  de  la 
Bithynie",  Atlas,  PI.  IX).  We  find  it  also  on  the 
coins  of  Lycia  and  of  Gasa  in  Palestine.  In  the  Island 
of  Cyprus  it  is  found  on  earthenware  vessels.  It  orig- 
inally represents,  as  again  at  Athens  and  Myoeiue,  a 
flying  bird.  In  Greece  we  have  specimens  of  it  on 
urns  and  vases  of  Bceotia,  on  an  Attic  vase  represent- 
ing a  Gorgon,  on  coins  of  Corinth  (Raoul-Rochette, 
"Mto.  de Tacad.  des  inscr.",  XVJ,  pt.  II,  302  fjqn.; 
♦*IIerculc  as-syrieu",  377-380;  Minoivini  in  **  Bull. 


CROSS 


518 


0B088 


arch.  Napolit.",  Scr.  2,  II,  178-179),  and  in  the  treaa- 
ury  of  Orchomenus.  It  seems  to  have  been  unknown 
in  Assyria,  in  Phosnicia,  and  in  Eg^t.  In  the  West  it 
is  most  frequently  found  in  Etruna.  It  appears  on  a 
cinerary  urn  of  Chiusi,  and  on  the  fibula  found  in  the 
famous  Etruscan  tomb  at  Cere  (Grifi,  Mon.  di  Cere, 
PL  VI,  no.  1).  There  are  many  such  emblems  on  the 
urns  found  at  Capanna  di  Cometo,  Bolsena,  and  Vetu- 
lonia;  also  in  a  Samnite  tomb  at  Capua,  where  it  ap- 
pears in  the  centre  of  the  tunic  of  the  person  there  de- 
picted (Minervini,  Bull.  arch.  Napolit.,  ser.  2,  PI. 
II,  178-179).  This  sipn  is  also  found  in  Pompeian 
mosaics,  on  Italo-Grecian  vases,  on  coins  of  Syracuse 
in  Sicily  (Raoul-Rochette,  ''M^m.  de  Pacad.  des 
inscr."  PI.  XVI,  pt.  II,  302  sqq.;  Minervini,  "Bull, 
arch.  Nap.",  ser.  2,  PI.  II,  p.  178-179);  finally,  among 
the  ancient  Germans,  on  a  rock-carving  in  Sweden,  on 
a  few  Celtic  stones  in  Scotland,  and  on  a  Celtic  stone 
discovered  in  the  County  of  Norfolk,  England,  and  now 
in  the  British  Museum.  The  swastika  appears  in  an 
epitaph  on  a  pagan  tombstone  of  Tebessa  in  Roman 
Africa  (Annuaire  de  la  Soci^td  de  Constantine,  1858- 
59,  205,  87),  on  a  mosaic  of  the  tgnispicium  (Ennio 
Quirino  Visoonti,  Opere  vane,  ed.  iSiilan,  I,  141, 
Bq(i.),  and  in  a  Greek  votive  inscription  at  Porto.  In 
this  last  monument  the  swastika  is  imperfect  in.form, 
and  resembles  a  Phoenician  letter.  We  shall  explain 
below  the  value  and  symbolical  meaning  of  this  crux 
gammata  when  found  on  Christian  monuments.  But 
the  swastika  is  not  the  only  sign  of  this  kind  known  to 
antiquity.  Cruciform  objects  have  been  found  in  As- 
syria. The  statues  of  Kmgs  Asumazirpal  and  San- 
su^uman,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  have  cruciform 
jewels  about  the  neck  (Layard,  Moniunents  of  Nine- 
veh. II,  pi.  IV).  Cruciform  earrixigi  were  found  by 
Father  Delattre  in  Punic  tombs  at  Carthage. 

Another  svmbol  which  has  been  connected  with 
the  cross  is  the  ansated  cross  (cnix  ansata)  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptians  JCL  wrongly  called  the  "ansated 
key  of  the  Nile".  I  It  often  appears  as  a  symbolic 
sign  in  the  hands  of  the  goddess  Sekhet.  From  the 
earliest  times  also  it  appears  among  the  hieroglyphic 
signs  symbolic  of  life  or  of  the  living,  and  was  trans- 
literated into  Greek  as  'Am^  (Ansa).  But  the 
meaning  of  this  sign  is  very  obscure  (De  Morgan, 
Recherohes  sur  les  origines  de  TEgypte,  1896-98); 
pertiaps  it  was  originally,  like  the  swastika,  an  astro- 
nomical sign.  The  ansated  cross  is  found  on  many 
and  various  monuments  of  Egypt  (Prisse  d'Avennes, 
L'art  E^yptien,  404).  In  later  times  the  Egyptian 
Christians  (Copts),  attracted  by  its  form,  and  perhaps 
by  its  svmbolism,  adopted  it  as  the  emblem  of  tne 
cross  (Gayet,  ''Les  monimients  coptes  du  Musde  de 
Boulaq"  m  ''M^moires  de  la  mission  frangaise  du 
Caire*^,  VIII,  fasc.  Ill,  1889,  p.  18,  pi.  XXXI-XXXII 
and  LXX-LXXI) .  (For  further  information  regarding 
the  resemblance  between  the  cross  and  the  oldest  sym- 
bolic signs  see  G.  de  Mortillet,  **  Le  siene  de  la  croix 
avant  le  christianisme",  Paris,  1866;  Letronne,  "La 
croix  ans^  6gyptienne"  in  "  M^moires  de  I'acad^mie 
desinscriptions^  XVI,  pt.  II,  1846, p. 236^84;  L.MGl- 
ler,  "Ueber  Sterne,  Kreuze  und  Kr&nze  als  religiose 
&^bole  der  alten  Kulturv6lker",  Copenhagen,  1865; 
W.  W.  Blake,  '*The  Cross,  Ancient  and  Modem", 
New  York,  1^;  Ansault,  "Memoirs  sur  le  culte  de 
la  croix  avant  J^sus-Christ",  Paris,  1891.)  We  may 
add  tiiat  some  have  claimed  to  find  the  cross  on 
Grecian  monuments  in  the  letter  X  (chi),  which,  some- 
times in  conjunction  with  P  (rAo),  represented  on 
coins  the  initial  letters  of  the  Greek  word  xP^^^^j 
"gjold",  or  other  words  indicative  of  the  value  of  the 
com,  or  the  name  of  the  coiner  (Madden,  "  History  of 
Jewish  Coinage",  London,  1864,  83>87;  Eckhel, 
"Doctrina  nummorum",  VIII,  89;  F.  X.  Kraus, 
"  Real-Encyklopadiederchristlichen  AlterthUmer",  II, 
224-226).    We  shall  return,  later  on,  to  these  letters. 

In  the  bronze  age  we  meet  in  di£fcreat  parts  of 


Europe  a  more  accurate  rapresentation  of  the  erosB. 
as  conceived  in  Christian  art,  and  in  this  shape  it  was 
soon  widely  diffused.  This  more  precise  diaracterisap- 
tion  coincides  with  a  corresponding  general  dianfle  in 
customs  and  beliefs.  The  cross  is  now  met  witF,  in 
various  forms,  on  many  objects:  fibulas,  cinctures, 
earthenware  fragments,  and  on  the  bottom  of  drinking 
vessels.  De  Mortillet  is  of  opinion  that  such  use  of 
the  sign  was  not  merely  ornamental,  but  rather  a  sym" 
bol  ofconsecration,  especially  in  the  case  of  objects 
pertaining  to  burial.  In  the  proto-Etruscan  cemeteiy 
of  Golase«ca  every  tomb  has  a  vase  with  a  cross  ea- 
graved  on  it.  True  crosses  of  more  or  less  artistic 
design  have  been  found  in  Tiiyns,  at  Mycenie,  in 
Crete,  and  on  a  fibula  from  Vulci.  These  pre-Chris- 
tian figures  of  the  cross  have  misled  many  writers  to 
see  in  them  tn>cs  and  symbols  of  the  manner  in 
which  Jesus  CJhrist  was  to  expiate  our  sins.  Such 
inferences  are  unwarranted,  being  contrary  to  the 
just  rules  of  criticism  and  to  the  exact  interpretation 
of  ancient  monuments. 

(2)  The  Cross  as  an  Instrument  of  Punishmeni  in 
the  Ancient  World, — The  crucifixion  of  living  penione 
was  not  practised  among  the  Hebrews;  capital  pun- 
ishment among  them  consisted  in  being  stoned  to 
death,  e.  g.  the  protomartyr  Stephen  (Acts,  vii,  57, 
58).  But  when  Palestine  became  Roman  territory 
the  cross  was  introduced  as  a  form  of  punishmeikt, 
more  particularlv  for  those  who  could  not  prove  their 
Roman  citizenship;  later  on  it  was  reserved  for 
thieves  and  malefactors  (Josephus,  Antiq.,  XX,  vi, 
2;  Bell.  Jud.,  II,  xii,  6;  XIV,  9;  V,  xi,  1).  Though 
not  infrequent  in  the  E^ast,  it  was  but  rarely  that  uie 
Gre^  made  use  of  it.  It  is  mentioned  by  Donos- 
thenes  (c.  Mid.)  and  by  Plato  (Rep.,  II,  5;  also 
Gorgias).  The  stake  and  the  gibbet  were  more  com- 
mon, the  criminal  being  suspended  on  them  or  bound 
to  them,  but  not  nailed.  Certain  (jreeks  who  had 
befriended  the  Carthaginians  were  crucified  ^  near 
Motya  by  order  of  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  (Diodor. 
Sic,  XIV,  53).  Both  in  Greece  and  in  the  East  the 
cross  was  a  customary  punishment  of  brigands  (Her- 
mann, Gnmds&tse  und  Anwendimg  des  Straf- 
rechts,  Cidttingen,  1885,  83).  It  was  at  Rome,  how- 
ever, that  from  early  republican  times  the  cross  was 
most  freauently  used  as  an  instrument  of  punishment^ 
and  amid  circumstances  of  sreat  severity  and  evisn 
cruelty.  It  was  particular^  the  |)uniahment  for 
slaves  found  guil^  of  any  serious  crime.  Hence  in 
two  places  (Pro  Cluent.,  66;  I  Philipp.,  ii),  Cicero 
calls  it  simply  ''servile  supplicitun'' — ^tne  punishment 
of  slaves — ^more  explicitly  (In  Verr.,  66),  "servi- 
tutis  extremum  summumque  suppHcium'' — ^the  final 
and  most  terrible  punishment  of  slaves.  HOschke, 
however  (Die  Multa),  does  not  admit  that  it  was 
originally  a  servile  punishment.  It  was  inflicted  also, 
as  Cicero  tells  us  (XIII  Phil.,  xii:  Verr.,  V,  xxvii),  on 

Erovincials  convicted  of  brigandage.  It  is  certain, 
owever,  that  it  was  absolutely  forbidden  to  inflict 
this  degrading  and  infamous  punishment  on  a  Roman 
citizen  (Cic,  Verr.  Act.,  I,  5;  II,  3,  5;  III,  2,  24.  26: 
IV,  10  sqq.;  V,  28,  52,  61,  66);  moreover,  an  illegal 
application  of  this  punishment  would  have  constituted 
a  violation  of  the  leges  sacrata.  Concerning  a  slavci, 
the  master  might  act  in  one  of  two  ways;  ne  mi^t 
condemn  the  slave  arbitrarily  (Horace,  Sat.  lii; 
Juvenal,  Sat.  vi,  219),  or  he  might  turn  him  over  tf» 
the  triumvir  capiUUis,  a  magistrate  whose  duty  it  was 
to  look  after  capital  punishment. 

The  legal  immunity  of  the  Roman  ditixen  was  scmie- 
what  modified  when  the  poorer  citizens  (fwmCUores) 
were  declared  subject  to  the  punishment  of  the  cross 
(Paul., "  Sent.",  V,  xxii,  1 ;  Sueton.,  "Qalba",  ix;  Quin- 
til.,  Vlir,  iv).  The  punishment  of  the  cross  was  regu- 
larlv  inflicted  for  such  grave  crimes  as  hi^way  robbei]y 
ancf  piracy  (Petron.,  Ixxii;  Flor.,  Ill,  xix),  for  publio 
accusation  of  his  master  by  a  slave  {delatio  dbnt»m)« 


OEOSS 


519 


CROSS 


or  for  a  vow  made  against  his  master's  prosperity 
■  (de  salute  dominorum.  See  Capitolin.,  Pertinax,  ix; 
Herodian,  V,  ii:  Paul.,  ''Sent.  ,  V,  xxi,  4),  forsedi* 
tion  and  tumult  (Paul.,  Fr.  xxxviii;  Digest.  "De 
poBnifi",  xlviii,  19,  and  "Sent.",  V,  221:  Dion.,  V,  52; 
Josephus,  "  Antiq.",  XIII,  xxii,  and  "Bell.  Jud.",  II, 
lii),  tor  false  witness,  in  which  case  the  guilty  par^  was 
sometimes  condemned  to  wild  beasts  (ad  beslias,  Paul., 
"  Sent. ",  V.  xxiii,  1),  and  on  fugitive  slaves,  who  were 
sometimes  Dumed  alive  (Fr.  xxxviii,  S.  1 ;  Digest.  "De 
poenis ' ',  XLVIII,  xix) .  According  to  Roman  custom, 
the  penalty  of  crucifixion  was  always  preceded  by 
scoui^^  Ivirais  ccedere,  Prud.,  "Enchind.",  xli,  1); 
after  this  preliminaiy  punishment,  the  condemned 
person  had  to  carry  the  cross,  or  at  least  the  trans- 
verse beam  of  it.  to  the  place  of  execution  (Plut., 
"Tard.  dei  vind.'%  ix, "  Artemid.",  II,  xli),  exposed  to 
the  gibes  and  insults  of  the  people  (Joseph.,  "  Antiq.". 
Xl^^iii;  Plant.,  "Most.",  I,  1,  62;  Dion.,  VII,  69). 
On  anival  at  the  place  of  execution  the  cross  was 
uplifted  (Cic,  Verr.,  V,  Ixvi).  Soon  the  sufferer,  en- 
tirely naked,  was  bound  to  it  with  cords  (Plin.,  "Hist. 
Nat.",  XXVIII,  iv:  Auson..  "Id.",  VI,  60;  Lucan,  VI, 
543,  547),  indicated  in  Latin  by  the  expressions  agere, 
dare,  ferre,  or  toUere  in  erucem.  He  was  then,  as 
Plautus  tells  us,  fastened  with  four  nails  to  the  wood 
of  the  cross  ("  Lact.",  IV,  13 ;  Senec., "  Vita  beat.",  19 ; 
Tert.,  "Adv.  Jud.",  x;  Justus  Lipsius  "De  Cruce", 
II,  vii;  xli-ii).  Finally,  a  placard  called  the  titulusy 
b^mng  the  name  of  the  condemned  man  and  his  sen- 
tence, was  placed  at  the  top  of  the  cross  (Euseb., 
"Hist.  EccL",  V,  1;  Suet.,  ^Caligula",  xxxviii  and 
"  Domit."^  X ;  Matt.,  xxvii,  37 ;  John,  xix,  19).  Slaves 
were  crucified  outside  of  Rome  in  a  place  called  Se9~ 
9orium,  beyond  the  Esquiline  Gate;  their  execution 
was  entrusted  to  the  camifex  servorum  (Tacit., "  Ann.", 
II,  32;  XV.  60;  XIV,  33;  Plut.,  "Galba",  ix;  Plant., 
"Pseudol.'^  13,  V,  98).  Eventually  this  wretched 
locality  be<»me  a  forest  of  crosses  (Loiseleur,  Des 
peines).  while  the  bodies  of  the  victims  were  the 
prey  ot  vultures  and  other  rapacious  birds  (Horace, 
**  Epod. "  V,  99,  and  thescholia of  Crusius ;  Plin., "  Hist. 
Nat.",  X:XXVI,  cvii).  It  often  happened  that  the 
condemned  man  did  not  die  of  hunger  or  thirst,  but 
lingered  on  the  cross  for  several  days  (Isid.,  V,  27; 
Senec.,  Epist.  ci).  To  shorten  his  punishment,  there- 
fore, and  lessen  his  terrible  suffenngs,  his  legs  were 
sometimes  broken  (crurifragiumf  crura  frangere;  Cic, 
XIII  Philipp.,  xii).  This  custom,  exceptional  among 
the  Romans,  was  common  with  the  Jews.  In  this 
way  it  was  possible  to  take  down  the  corpse  on  the 
yerv  evening  of  the  execution  (Tert.,  "Adv.  Jud.",  x; 
Isid.,  V,  xxvii;  Lactant.,  IV,  xvi).  Among  the  Ro- 
mans, on  the  contrary,  the  corpse  could  not  be  taken 
down,  unless  such  removal  had  been  specialljr  author- 
ized in  the  sentence  of  death.  The  corpse  mieht  also 
be  buried  if  the  sentence  permitted  (Valer.  Max.,  vi, 
2;  Senec.,  "Gontrov.",  VIII,  iv:  Cic,  "Tusc",  I,  43; 
Catull.,  cvi,  1;  Horace,  "Epod.",  I,  16-48;  Prudent., 
"Peristephanon",  I,  65;  Petron.,  Ixi  sqjj.). 

The  punishment  of  the  cross  remained  in  force 
througihout  the  Roman  Empire  imtil  the  first  half  of 
the  fourth  oentuiy.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign 
(Donstantine  continued  to  inflict  the  penalty  of  the 
cross  (apigere  paHbulo)  on  slaves  guiltv  of  delatio 
damini,  i.  e.  of  denouncing  their  masters  (Cod.  Th.  ad 
leg.  Jul.  magist.).  Later  on  he  abolished  this  infa- 
mous pumiahment,  in  memory  and  in  honour  of  the  Pas- 
sion of  Jesus  Christ  (Eus.,  "Hist.  EccL",  I,  viii;  Schol. 
Juvenal.,  XIV,  78;  Niceph.,  VII, 46;  Cassiod.,  "Hist. 
Trip.",  I,  9;  Codex  Theod.,  IX,  5, 18).  Thereafter, 
this  punishment  was  veiy  rarely  inflicted  (Eus., "  Hist. 
Eccl.",  IV,  XXXV ;  Pacat.,  "Paneg.",  xliv).  Towaids 
the  fifth  century  the  /urea,  or  gibbet,  was  substituted 
for  the  cross  (Pio  Fianohi  de'Cavalieri,  "Delia  forca 
sostituita  alia  croce''  in  ''Nuovo  bulletino  di  archeo- 
k)gia  cri8tiana'^  1907,  nos.  1-3,  63  sqq.). 


The  penalty  of  the  cross  goes  back  probably  to  the 
arbor  infelix,  or  unhappy  tree,  spoken  of  by  Cicero 
(Pro  Rabir.,  iii  sqq.)  and  by  Livy,  imropos  of  the 
condemnation  of  Horatius  after  the  murder  of  his  sister. 
According  to  HOschke  (Die  Multa^  190)  the  ma^iB- 
trates  known  as  duoviri  perdueUionia  pronounced  wis 
penalty  (cf.  Liv.,  I,  266),  styled  also  infdix  Ugwam 
(Senec,  Ep.  ci;  Plin.,  XVI,  xxvi;  XXIV,  ix;  Macrob., 
II,  xvi).  This  primitive  form  of  crucifixion  on  trees 
was  long  in  use,  as  Justus  Lipsius  notes  ("De  cruce'^ 
I,  ii,  5;  cf.  Tert.,  "ApoL",  VIII,  xvi;  and  "MartyioL 
Paphnut.",  25  Sept.).  Such  a  tree  was  known  as  a 
cross  (crux).  On  an  ancient  vase  we  see  F^metheus 
bound  to  a  beam  which  serves  the  purpose  of  a  cross. 
A  somewhat  different  form  is  seen  on  an  ancient  cist 
at  PrsBneste  (Palestrina),  upon  which  Andromeda  is 
represented  nude,  and  bouna  by  the  feet  to  an  instru* 
ment  of  punishment  like  a  military  yoke.  i.  e.  two 
parallel,  perpendicular  stakes,  surmounted  by  a  trans- 
verse bar.  Certain  it  is,  at  any  rate,  that  the  cross 
originally  consisted  of  a  simple  vertical  pole,  sharpened 
at  its  upper  end.  Msecenas  (Seneca,  Epist.  xvii,  1, 
10)  calls  it  acvJta  crux;  it  could  also  be  csiled  crux  aim* 
Tplex.  To  this  upright  pole  a  transverse  bar  was  after- 
wards added  to  which  the  sufferer  was  fastened  with 
nails  or  cords,  and  thus  remained  until  he  died,  whence 
the  expression  cruei  figere  or  affigere  (Tac,  "Ann.", 
XV,  xliv;  Petron., " Satyr.",  iii).  The  cross,  especially 
in  the  earlier  timas,  was  generally  low.  It  was  ele- 
vated only  in  exceptional  cases,  particularly  when  it 
was  desir^  to  make  the  punishment  more  exemplary. 
or  when  the  crime  was  exceptionally  serious.  Sue- 
tonius (Galba,  ix)  tells  us  that  Galba  did  this  in  the 
case  of  a  certain  criminal  for  whom  he  caused  to  be 
made  a  very  high  cross  painted  white — "  multo  pr»ter 
cseteras  altiorem  et  dealbatam  statui  erucem  iussit". 

Lastly,  we  may  note,  in  regard  to  ^e  material  form 
of  the  cross,  that  somewhat  different  ideas  prevailed 
in  Greece  and  Italy.  The  cross,  mentioned  even  in 
the  Old  Testament,  is  called  in  Hebrew,  'ic,  !.  e. 
"wood",  a  word  often  translated  crux  by  St.  Jerome 
(Gen.,  xl,  19;  Jos.,  viii,  29;  Esther,  v,  14;  viii,  7;  ix. 
25).  In  Greek  it  is  called  rravpSs,  which  Bumouf 
would  derive  from  the  Sanskrit  stdvora.  The  word 
was,  however,  frequently  used  in  a  broad  sense. 
Speaking  of  Prometheus  nailed  to  Mount  Caucasus, 
Lucian  uses  the  substantive  cravp6s  and  the  verbs 
duaaraup6u  and  dnur/coXor/jta,  the  latter  bdng  derived 
from  vKb^mffj  which  also  signifies  a  cross.  In  the 
same  way  the  rock  to  which  Andromeda  was  fastened 
is  called  crux,  or  cross.  The  Latin  word  crux  was 
applied  to  the  simple  pole,  and  indicated  directly  the 
nature  and  purpose  or  this  instrument,  bdng  derived 
from  the  verb  crucio,  "to  torment",  "to  torture" 
(Isid.,  Or.,  V,  xvii,  33;  Forcellini,  s.  vv.  Crucio,  Oux). 
It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the  word  furca  must  have 
been  at  least  partiallv  equivalent  to  crux.  In  fact 
the  identification  of  these  two  words  is  constant  in 
the  Ic^l  diction  of  Justinian  (Fr.  xxviii,  15;  Fr. 
xxxviii,  S.  2;  Di^^.  "De  poenis",  xlviii,  19). 

(3)  The  Crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ, — ^Among  the 
Romans  the  cross  never  had  the  symbolical  meaning 
which  it  had  in  the  ancient  Orient;  they  regarded  it 
solely  as  a  material  instrument  of  punishment.  There 
are  in  the  Old  Testament  clear  allusions  to  ^e  Cross 
and  Crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ.  Thus  the  Greek  letter 
T  (tau  or  thau)  appears  in  Ezechiel  (ix,  4),  according  to 
St.  Jerome  and  other  Fathers,  as  a  solemn  symbcM  of 
the  Cross  of  CJhrist — "Mark  lliau  upon  the  foreheads 
of  the  men  that  sigh".  The  only  other  symbol  of 
crucifixion  indicated  in  the  Old  Testament  is  the 
brassen  serpent  in  the  Book  of  Numbers  (xxi,  8-9). 
Christ  Himself  thus  interpreted  the  passage:  "As 
Moses  lifted  up  the  serpent  in  the  desert,  so  must 
the  Son  of  man  be  lifted  up"  TJohn,  iii,  14).  The 
P&almist  predicts  the  piercing  ot  Hie  hands  and  the 
feet  (Pb.  xxi,  17).    This  was  a  true  prophecy,  inasmuch 


o&oss 


520 


0RO88 


as  it  could  not  be  conceived  from  any  custom  then 
existing;  the  practice  of  nailing  the  condemned  to  a 
T-shaped  cross  being,  as  we  have  seen,  at  that  time 
exclusively  Western. 

The  cross  on  which  Jesus  Christ  was  nailed  was  of 
the  kind  known  as  immissaf  which  means  that  the  ver^ 
tical  trunk  extended  a  certain  height  above  the  trans- 
verse beam;  it  was  thus  higher  than  the  crosses  of  the 
two  thieves,  his  crime  being  judged  a  ^ver  one,  ac- 
cording to  St.  John  Chrysostom  (Homil.  v,  c.  i.,  on  I 
Corinth.).  The  earliest  Christian  Fathers  who  speak 
of  the  Cross  describe  it  as  thus  constructed.  We 
gather  as  much  from  St.  Matthew  (xxvii,  37),  where  he 
tells  us  that  the  tiivluSf  or  inscription  containing  the 
cause  of  His  death,  was  placed  ^4w,  "over",  the 
head  of  Jesus  Christ  (cf .  Luke,  xxiii,  38 ;  John,  xix,  19). 
St.  Irenffius  (Adv.  Haer.,  II,  xxiv)  says  that  the  Cross 
had  five  extremities:  two  in  its  length,  two  in  its 
breadth,  and  the  fifth  a  projection  (hainius)  in  the 
middle — "Fines  et  summitatee  habet  q[mnque,  duas  in 
longitudine,  duas  in  latitudine,  unam  m  medio".  St. 
Augustine  agrees  with  him:  "Erat  latitudo  in  qua 
porrectffi  sunt  manus ;  longitude  a  terr4  surgens,  in  qu& 
erat  corpus  infixum;  altitudo  ab  illo  divexo  ligno  sur- 
Bum  quod  imminet"  (Enarr.  in  Ps.  dii;  Serm.  i,  44) 
and  in  other  passages  quoted  by  Zdckler  (Das  Kreuz, 
1875,  pp.  430,  431). 

Nonnus  confirms  the  statement  that  Jesus  Christ 
was  crucified  on  a  quadrilateral  cross  (eit  iSpv  rtrpdr- 
rXcvpor).  St.  Irensus,  in  the  passage  cited  above 
says  that  the  Cross  had  a  fifth  extremity,  on  which 
the  Crucified  One  was  seated.  St.  Justin  calls  it  a 
horn,  and  compares  it  to  tlie  horn  of  a  rhinoceros 
(Dialogus  cum  Tryphone,  xci).  Tertullian  calls  it 
»Bd\U9  eocoMsuSy  a  projecting  seat,  or  shelf  (Ad.  Nat.,  I, 
xii).  This  little  seat  {etrnvleus)  prevented  the  weight 
of  the  bodv  from  completdy  tearing  the  nail-pierced 
hands,  and  it  helped  to  support  the  sufferer.  It  has 
never  been  indicated,  however,  in  representations  of 
the  Crucifixion.  On  the  Cross  of  Christ  was  placed  the 
tihdua,  as  to  the  wording  of  which  the  Four  Evange- 
lists do  not  agree.  St.  Matthew  (xxvii,  37)  gives, 
"This  is  Jesus  the  King  of  the  Jews";  St.  Mark  (xv, 
26),  "The  King  of  the  Jews'';  St.  Luke  (xxiii,  38), 
"This  is  the  Kmg  of  the  Jews";  St.  John,  an  eyewit- 
ness (xix,  19),  .Tesus  of  Nazareth,  the  King  of  the 
Jews".  In  representations  of  the  Crucifixion  there 
often  appears  beneath  the  feet  a  wooden  support 
(^M-Mtoy,  8uppedaneufn)\  that  it  ever  existed  is  very 
doubtful.  Tne  first  express  mention  of  it  occurs  in 
Gregorv  of  Tours  (De  GloriA  Martyrum,  vi).  St.  Cyp- 
rian, Tneodoret,  and  Rufinus  hint  at  it. 

A  microscopic  examination  of  the  fragments  of  the. 
Cross  scattered  through  the  world  in  the  form  of  relics 
reveals  the  fact  that  it  was  made  from  a  pine-tree 
(Rohault  de  Fleury,  "Mtooire  sur  les  instruments  de 
la  Passion",  Paris,  1870,  63).  According  to  an  an- 
cient, but  somewhat  dubious,  tradition  the  Cross  of 
Jesus  Christ  measured  in  length  very  neariy  189  inches 
(4.80  metres),  from  90^  to  102^  inches  (2.30  to  2.60 
metres).  As  noted  by  the  Evangelists,  two  thieves 
were  crucified,  one  on  either  side  of  Christ.  Their 
d-osses  must  have  resembled  the  one  on  which  He  suf- 
fered:  in  Christian  art  and  tradition  they  ^nerally  ap- 
pear lower  (St.  John  Chrysostom,  Hom.  i,  xxvi,  on  I 
Cor.;  on  Rom.,  v,  5).  A  large  portion  of  the  cross  of 
the  good  thief  (traditionally  known  as  Dismas)  is  pre- 
served at  Rome  in  the  altar  of  the  Chapel  of  the  Relics 
at  Santa  Croce  in  Gerusalemme. 

The  historical  narrative  of  the  Passion  and  Crucifix- 
ion of  Jesus  Christ,  as  found  in  the  Four  Gospels,  agrees 
exactly  with  all  we  have  set  down  above  concerning 
this  form  of  punishment.  Jes\is  Christ  was  con- 
demned for  the  crime  of  sedition  and  tumult,  as  were 
also  some  of  the  Apostles  (MalsJas,  "Chronocr.",  X,  p. 
2M).  His  Crucifixion  was  preceded  by  the  Scourging. 
He  then  bore  His  Cross  to  the  place  of  punishment,  fi- 


nally tlie  legs  of  Jesus  would  have  been  broken,  acoord- 
ing  to  the  custom  of  Palestine,  in  order  to  permit  of 
burial  that  very  evening,  had  not  the  soldiers,  oq  s^ 
preaching  Him,  seen  that  He  was  already  dead  (John, 
xix,  32,  33).  Besides,  in  ancient  Christian  art  and 
tradition,  the  Crucifixion  of  Christ  appears  as  done 
with  four  nails,  not  with  three,  accordmg  to  the  usage 
of  the  more  recent  Christian  art  (see  below). 

(4)  Qradwd  Develojmerd  of  the  Cross  in  Christian 
Art, — Since  by  His  noly  sacrificial  death  upon  the 
Cross  Christ  sanctified  this  fonuer  instrament  of 
shame  and  ienominy,  it  must  have  very  soon  become 
in  the  eyes  of  the  faithful  a  sacred  sjrmbol  of  the  Pas- 
sion, consequently  a  sign  of  protection  and  defence 
(St.  Paulinus  of  Nola,^Carm.  in  Natal.  S.  Fdicis'% 
XI,  612 ;  Prudent..  "  Adv.  Symm.",  1, 486).  It  ib  not, 
therefore,  altogether  strange  or  inconceivable  that, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  new  religion,  the  cross 
should  have  appeared  in  Christian  homes  as  an  object 
of  religious  veneration,  aithoueh  no  such  monument  of 
the  earliest  Christian  art  has  been  preserved.  Early 
in  the  third  century  Clement  of  Alexandria  ("  Strom.  , 
VI,  in  P.  G.,  IX,  306)  speaks  of  the  Cross  as  roOKw/jiajtoS 
triftulov  r6woWf  i.  e.  signwn  Christi,  ''the  symbol  of 
the  Lord"  (St.  Augustine,  Tract,  cxvii,  "In  Joan."; 
De  Rossi,  "Bull,  d'arch.  crist.",  1863,  35,  and  "De 
titulis  christianis  Carthaginiensibus''  in  Pitra,  "Spici- 
legium  Solesmense",  IV,  503).  The  cross,  therefore, 
appears  at  an  eariv  date  as  an  element  of  the  liturgi<^ 
life  of  the  faithful,  and  to  such  an  extent  that  in  the 
first  half  of  the  third  century  Tertullian  could  publicly 
designate  the  Christian  body  as  "crucis  religiosi",  i.  e. 
devotees  of  the  Cross  (ApoL,  c.  xvi,  P.  G.,  1,  365-66). 
St.  Gregory  of  Tours  tells  us  (De  Miraculis  S.  Martini, 
I,  80)  that  in  his  time  Christians  habitually  had  re- 
course to  the  sign  of  the  cross.  St.  Augustine  savB 
that  by  the  sign  of  the  cross  and  the  invocation  of  the 
Name  of  Jesus  all  things  are  sanctified  and  conse- 
crated to  God.  IntheeaiiiestC3iristianiife,ascanbe 
seen  from  the  metaphorical  language  of  the  primitive 
faithful,  the  cross  was  the  symbol  of  the  principal 
Christian  virtue,  i.  e.  mortification  or  victoiy  over  the 
passions,  and  suffering  for  Christ's  sake  and  in  union 
with  Him  (Matt.,  x,  38;  xvi,  24;  Mark,  viii,  34;  Luke, 
ix,  23;  xiv,  27;  Gal.,  ii,  19;  vi,  12,  14;  v,  24).  In  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul  the  cross  is  synonymous  with  the 
Passion  <rf  Christ  (Ephes.,  ii,  16;  Heb.,  xii,  2)  even 
with  the  Gospel,  and  with  religion  its^  (I  Cor.,  i,  18; 
Phil.,  iii,  18).  Very  soon  the  sign  of  the  cross  was  the 
sign  of  the  Christian.  It  is,  moreover,  very  probable 
that  r^erence  to  this  sign  is  made  in  the  Apocalypee 
(vii,  2) :  "  And  I  saw  another  angel  ascending  from  the 
rising  of  the  sun,  having  the  si^  of  the  living  God.'' 

It  IS  from  this  original  Christian  worship  of  the  cross 
that  arose  the  custom  of  making  on  one's  fordiead  the 
sign  of  the  cross.  Tertullian  says:  "Frontem  cnicis 
signaculo  terimus"  (De  Cor.  mil.,  iii),  i.  e.  "We  Chris- 
tians wear  out  our  foreheads  with  the  sign  of  the 
cross.''  The  practice  was  so  general  about  the  year 
200,  according  to  the  same  writer,  that  the  Christians 
of  his  time  were  wont  to  sign  themselves  with  the  cross 
before  undertaking  any  action.  He  says  that  it  is  not 
commanded  in  Holy  Scripture,  but  is  a  matter  of 
Christian  tradition,  like  certain  other  practices  that 
are  confirmed  bv  long  usage  and  the  spirit  of  faith  in 
which  they  are  kept.  A  certain  Scriptural  authority 
for  the  sign  of  the  cross  has  been  sought  hj  some  in  a 
few  texts  rather  freely  interpreted,  eepeciBSfy  in  the 
above-mentioned  words  of  Esechiel  (ix,  4),  "Mark 
Thau  upon  the  foreheads  of  the  men  that  si^,  and 
mourn  for  all  the  abominations  that  are  committed  in 
the  midst  thereof",  also  in  several  expressions  of  the 
Apocalypse  (vii,  3;  ix,  4;  xiv,  1).  It  would  seem  that 
in  very  early  Christian  times  the  sign  of  the  cross  was 
made  with  the  t^umb  of  the  ri^t  hand  (St.  -John 
Chiys.,  Hom.  ad  pop.  Antioch.  xi;  St.  Jerome,  Ep.  aii 
Eustochium;  a  practice  still  in  use  among  the  faithful 


OBOiS 


621 


0B088 


during  Mass,  e.  g.  at  the  reading  of  the  Qospel),  and 
generally  on  the  forehead;  gradually,  by  reason  of  ita 
symbolism,  this  den  was  made  on  other  parts  of  the 
body,  with  particularized  intention  (St.  Ambrose,  De 
Iaaacetamm&,Migne,  P.  L.,  XIV,  501-34).  Afterwards 
these  different  signs  of  the  cross  were  united  in  one 
large  sign  such  as  we  now  make.  In  the  Western 
Church  the  hand  was  carried  from  the  left  to  the  right 
shoulder;  in  the  Eastern  Church,  on  the  contrary,  it 
'WBS  brou^t  from  the  right  shoulder  to  the  left,  the 
si^  ^1^  made  with  three  fingers.  This  apparently 
slight  difference  was  one  of  the  (remote)  causes  of  the 
fatal  Eastern  Schism. 

It  is  probable,  though  we  have  no  historical  evi- 
dence for  it,  that  the  primitive  Christians  used  the 
CTOBS  to  distinguish  one  another  from  the  pagans  in 
ordinary  sociiJ  intercourse.  The  latter  called  the 
Christians  ''cross-worshippers",  andironicallvudded, 
''id  oolunt  quod  merentur",  i.  e.  they  worship  that 
which  they  deserve.  The  Christian  apologists,  such 
as  Tertuman  (Apol.,  xvi;  Ad.  Nationes,  xii)  and 
Minucius  Felix  (Octavius,  Ix,  xii,  xxviii),  felicitously 
replied  to  the  pagan  taunt  by  showing  that  their 
persecutors  themselves  adorea  cruciform  objects. 
»uch  observations  throw  light  on  a  peculiar  fact  of 
primitive  Christian  life,  i.  e.  the  almost  total  absence 
from  Christian  monuments  of  the  period  of  persecu- 
tions of  the  pl&in,  unadorned  cross  (E.  Reusens,  "  Ele- 
ments d'arch^logie  chr^tienne",  1st  ed.,  110).  The 
truculent  sarcasms  of  the  heathens  prevented  the 
faithful  from  openly  displaying  this  sign  of  salvation. 
When  t^e  eariy  Christians  did  represent  the  sign  of  the 
cross  on  tiieir  monuments,  nearly  all  sepulchral  in 
character,  they  felt  obliged  to  disguise  it  in  some  artis- 
tic and  e^bdical  way. 

One  of  the  oldest  of  these  symbols  of  the  cross  is  the 
anchor,  sometimes  carved  thus  JQ.  and  sometimes^ 
thus  jQl  The  latter  is  found  most  >v  generally  on 
the  M>  stone  slabs  of  the  oldest  sections  of  the 
Roman  catacombs,  especially  in  the  cemeteries  of  Cal- 
listus,  DomitiUa,  Priscilla,  and  others.  The  anchor, 
originally  a  symbol  of  hope  in  general,  takes  on  in  this 
way  a  much  higher  meanms :  that  of  hope  based  on  the 
Cross  of  Christ.  The  similarity  of  the  anchor  to  the 
cross  made  the  former  an  admirable  Christian  s^bol. 
Another  cruciform  symbol  of  the  eariy  Christians, 
though  not  very  conmion,  and  of  a  somewhat  later 
date,  is  the  trident  M-J  some  examples  of  which  are 
seen  on  sepulchral  I  slabsinthecemeteiyof  Callis- 
tus.  In  one  inscription  from  that  cemetery  the  sym- 
bolism of  the  trident  is  even  more  subtle  and  evident, 
the  instrument  standing  erect  as  the  mainmast  of  a 
ship  entering  port,  symbolical  of  the  Christian  soul 
saved  bv  the  Cross  of  Christ.  We  must  note,  too,  the 
use  of  tEdspeculiar  symbol  in  the  third  century  in  the 
region  of  Tauric  Chersonesus  (the  Crimea)  on  coins  of 
Totorses,  King  of  the  Bosporus,  dated  270,  296,  and 
303  (De  Hocmie,  ''Description  du  mus^  Kotschon- 
bey,  II,  348,  360,  416;  Cavedoni,  "Appendice  alle 
ricerche  critiche  intomo  alle  med.  Costantiniane,  18, 
19 — an  extract  from  the  "Opuscoli  litterari  e  religiosi 
di  Modena"  in  "Bull.  arch.  Napolit.",  ser.  2,  anno 
VII,  32).  We  shall  speak  again  of  this  sign  ^ropos 
of  the  dolphin.  On  a  picture  in  the  Crypts  of  Lu- 
dna,  artistically  unique  and  very  ancient,  there 
seems  to  be  an  allusion  to  the  Cross.  Turned  to- 
wards the  altar  are  two  doves  gazing  at  a  small  tree. 
The  scene  appears  to  represent  an  image  of  souls  loosed 
from  the  bonds  of  the  body  and  saved  by  the  power 
of  the  Cross  (De  Rossi,  Roma  Sotterranea  Cristiana, 
I,  PI.  XII). 

Before  passing  to  the  study  of  other,  more  or  less 
disguised,  forms  of  the  cross,  e.  g.  various  monograms 
of  the  name  of  Christ,  it  may  be  well  to  say  a  word  of 
various  known  forms  oi  the  cross  on  primitive  monu- 
ments of  Christian  art,  some  of  whi(ui  we  shall  meet 
with  in  our  early  study  of  the  said  monograms. — The 


crux  decuMota  V*  er  decussated  cross,  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  Jx  to  the  Roman  decusns.  or  sym- 
bol for  the  numeral  10,  is  in  shape  like  the  Greek 
letter  chi;  it  is  also  known  as  St.  Andrew's  Cross, 
because  that  Apostle  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyr- 
dom on  such  a  cross,  his  hands  and  feet  bound  to 
its  four  arms  (Sandini,  Hist.  ApostoL,  130).  The 
cmx  comndsM,  or  gaUows-shi^ped  cross,  is,  according 
to  some,  the  one  on  which  Jesus  Christ  dUed.  In  order 
to  explain  the  traditional  longitudinal  ^ctension  of 
the  Cross,  which  makes  it  resemble  the  crux  immtMa,  it 
is  asserted  that  this  extension  is  onl^  apparent,  and 
is  really  only  the  titulua  crucia,  the  mscnption  men- 
tioned in  the  Gospels.  This  form  of  the  cross  {crux 
commissa)  is  probably  represented  by  the  Greek  letter 
iau  (T),  and  is  identical  with  the  "sign"  mentioned  in 
the  text  of  Ezechiel  (ix,  4)  already  quoted.  Tertul- 
lian  comments  (Contra  Marc.,  Ill,  xxii)  as  follows  on 
this  text:  "The  Greek  letter  T  and  our  Latin  letter 
T  are  the  true  form  of  the  cross,  which,  according  to 
the  Prophet,  will  be  imprinted  on  our  foreheads  in  the 
true  Jerusalem."  Specimens  of  this  veiled  form  of 
the  cross  are  met  with  on  the  monuments  of  the  Ro- 
man catacombs,  a  very  fine  one,  e.  g.,  in  an  epitaph  of 
the  third  century  found  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Cfallis- 
tus,  which  reads  ire  T  ne  (De  Rossi,  "Bulletino  d' 
archeologia  cristiana",  1863,  35).  In  the  same  ceme- 
tery a  sarcophajgus  exhibits  clearly  the  gallows-cross 
formed  by  tne  intersection  of  the  letters  T  and  V  in 
the  monogram  of  a  proper  name  carved  in  the  centre 
of  the  airtella,  or  label.  This  second  letter  (V)  was 
also  figurative  of  the  cross,  as  is  evident  from  the  in- 
scriptions scratched  on  rock-surfaces  at  Mount  Sinai 
(Lenormant,  "Sur  Torimne  chr^tienne  des  inscriptions 
sinaltiques",  26,  27;  De  Rossi,  loc.  cit.).  A  mono- 
gram of  a  proper  name  (perhaps  Marturius),  discov- 
ered by  AnneUini  on  the  Via  Latina,  shows  the  crux 
commissa  above  the  intersection  of  the  letters.  Other 
monograms  show  similar  forms,  such  as  TT  and 
nF  (De  Rossi,  "Bulletino  d'archeologia  I  cris- 
^  tiana",  1867,  page  13,  fig.  10,  and  page  14).  It 
has  been  attempt^  to  establish  a  connexion  between 
this  form  and  tne  crux  ansata  of  the  E^ptians,  men- 
tioned above;  but  we  see  no  reason  for  this  (cf.  Le- 
tronne,  Mat^riaux  pour  lliistoire  du  christianisme  en 
Egypte,  en  Nubie,  et  en  Abyssinie).  It  would  seem, 
that  St.  Anthony  bore  a  cross  in  the  form  of  tau  on  his 
cloak,  and  that  it  was  Egyptian  in  origin.  Such  a 
cross  is  still  used  by  the  Antonine  monks  of  Vienne  in 
Dauphiny,  and  appears  on  their  churches  and  on  the 
monuments  of  art  belonging  to  the  order.  St.  Zeno 
of  Verona,  who  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury was  bishop  of  that  city,  relates  that  he  caused  a 
cross  in  form  of  a  tau  to  be  placed  on  the  highest  point 
of  a  basilica.  There  was  also  another  motive  for 
choosing  the  letter  T  as  mnbolical  of  the  cross.  As,  in 
Greek,  uiis  letter  stands  for  300,  that  number  in  Apos- 
tolic times  was  taken  as  a  symbol  of  the  instrument 
of  our  salvation.  The  symbolism  was  carried  farther, 
and  the  number  318  became  a  symbol  of  Christ  and 
His  Cross:  the  letter  I  (iota)  being  equal  to  10,  and  H 
(da)  to  8  in  Greek  (Allard,  "  Le  symbolisme  chr^tien 
d'apr^  Prudence"  in  "Revue  de  I'art  chr^tien'*, 
1885;  Hefele,  Ed.  Ep.  St.  Bamab®,  ix). 

The  cross  most  commonly  referred  to  and  most 
usually  depicted  on  Christian  monuments  of  all  ages 
is  that  called  the  crux  immissa,  or  crux  capUata  (i.  e. 
the  vertical  trunk  extending  beyond  the  transverse 
beam).  It  was  on  a  cross  such  as  this  that  Christ 
actually  died,  and  not,  as  some  would  maintain,  on  a 
crux  commisaa.  And  this  opinion  is  largely  supported 
by  the  testimony  of  the  writers  we  have  quoted.  The 
crux  immissa  is  that  which  is  usuallv  known  as  the 
Latin  cross,  in  which  the  transverse  beam  is  usually 
set  two-thirds  of  the  way  up  the  vertical.  The  equi- 
lateral, or  Greek  cross,  adopted  by  the  East  and  by 
Russia,  has  the  transverse  set  half-way  up  the  vertical. 


CROSS 


522 


0K0S8 


Both  the  Latin  and  Greek  orosBes  play  an  important 
part  in  the  architectural  and  decorative  s^les  of 
church  buildings  during  the  fourth  and  subsequent 
centuries.  The  church  of  Santa  Croce  at  Ravenna 
is  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross;  and  on  the  pillars  of 
a  (^urch  bmlt  by  Bishop  Paulinus  at  Tyre  in  the 
fourth  century  the  cross  is  carved  in  the  Latin 
way.  The  f agade  of  the  CaihoUcon  at  Athens  shows 
a  large  Latin  cross.  And  this  style  of  cross  was 
adopted  by  West  and  East  until  the  schism  occurred 
between  the  two  churches.  Indeed,  at  Constanti- 
nople the  church  of  the  Apostles,  the  first  church  of 
S.  Sophia,  consecrated  by  Constantine,  those  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  John  at  Studium,  of  St.  Demetrius 
at  Salonica,  of  St.  Catherine  on  Mount  Sinai,  as  well 
as  many  churches  at  Athens,  are  in  the  form  of  the 
Latin  cross;  and  it  appears  in  the  decorations  of 
capitals,  balustrades,  and  mosaics.  In  the  far-ofif 
lands  of  the  Picts,  the  Bretons,  and  the  Saxons,  it 
was  carved  on  stones  and  rocks,  with  elaborate  and 
complex  Runic  decorations.  And  even  in  the  Cathol- 
icon  at  Athens,  crosses  no  less  lavishly  ornamented 
are  to  be  found.  In  out-of-the-way  places  in  Scot- 
land, too,  it  has  been  discovered  (cf .  Dictionnaire  de 
I'Acadtoie  des  Beaux-Arts,  V,  38). 

The  Greek  cross  appears  at  intervals  and  rarely  on 
monuments  during  the  early  Christian  centuries.  The 
Crypts  of  Lucina,  in  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Callistus, 
yield  an  inscription  which  had  been  placed  on  a 
double  grave  or  sepulchre,  with  the  names  POT*INA: 
EIPHNH.    Beneath  this  is  seen  the  equilateral  cross 

7  — a  disguised  image  of  the  gibbet  on  which  the 
•+•  Redeemer  died  (De  Rossi,  Rom.  Sott.,I,  p.  333, 
PI.  XVIII).  It  is  to  be  found  also  painted  into  the 
mantle  of  Moses  in  a  fresco  from  the  Catacomb  of  St. 
Satuminus  on  the  Via  Salaria  Nuova  (Perret,  Cat. 
de  Rome,  III,  PI.  VI).  In  later  times  it  is  to  be  seen 
in  a  mosaic  of  a  church  at  Paris  built  in  the  days  of 
King  Childebert  (Lenoir.  Statistique  monumentale  de 
Paris)  and  carved  on  the  pedestals  of  the  columns 
in  the  basilica  of  Constantine  in  the  Agro  Verano; 
sdso  on  the  roofs  and  pillars  of  churches,  to  denote 
their  consecration.  More  often,  as  we  might  expect, 
we  find  it  on  the  facades  of  the  Byzantine  basilicas 
and  in  their  adornments,  such  as  altars,  iconastases, 
-sacred  curtains  for  the  enclosure,  thrones,  ambones 
and  sacerdotal  vestments.  When  the  Emperor  Jus- 
tinian erected  the  church  of  Santa  Sophia  at  Constan- 
tinople, with  the  aid  of  the  architects  Artemius  of 
Tnules,  and  Isidore  of  Miletus,  a  new  architectural 
type'  was  created  which  became  the  model  for  all 
churches  subsequently  built  within  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  and  the  Greek  cross  inscribed  in  a  square  thus 
became  their  typical  ground-plan.  Perhaps,  too.  the 
church  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  may  have  been  built 
upon  this  plan,  as  a  famous  epigram-  of  St.  Gregory 
Nazianzen  woi^d  seem  to  indicate.  There  are  other 
forms  of  cross,  such  as  the  crux  gammcUa,  the  crux 
floridaf  or  flowering  cross,  the  pectoral  cross,  and  the 
patriarchal  cross.  But  these  are  noteworthy  rather 
for  their  various  uses  in  art  and  liturgy  than  for  any 
peculiarity  of  style. 

The  complete  and  characteristic  form  ^  of  (prist's 
monogram  is  obtained  by  the  super  <y  position  of 
the  two  initial  Greek  letters,  cht  and  rho,  of  the 
name  XPI2T02.  This  is  inexactly  called  the  Con- 
stantinian  monogram,  although  it  was  in  use  before 
the  days  of  Constantine.  It  gained  this  name,  how- 
ever, because  in  his  day  it  came  much  into  fashion, 
and  derived  a  triumphal  si^iification  from  the  fact 
that  the  emperor  placed  it  on  nis  new  standard,  i.  e.  the 
Labarum  (Marucchi,  "Di  una  precevole  ed  inedita 
inscrizione  cristiana"  in  ''Studi  in  Italia",  anno  VI, 
II,  1883).  Older,  but  less  complete,  forms  of  this 
monogram  are  made  up  of  the  crux  decusaata  aocom* 
panied  by  a  defpotive  letter  T,  differing  only  slightly 
tern  the  letter  I,  or  encircled  by  a  crown.    These 


forms,  which  were  used  principally  in  the  thiid  l„ 
tuiy,  present  a  striking  reeemblaaoe  to  a  cross,  but 
all  of  them  are  manifest  allusions  or  symbols. 

Another  symbol  iaigely  employed  during  the  third 
and  fourth  centuries,  the  swatHka  already  spoken  of 
at  some  length,  still  more  closelv  resembles  tne  croea. 
On  monuments  dating  within  the  Christian  Era  it  m 
known  as  the  cnuc  gammaUif  because  it  is  made  by 
joining  four  gammas  at  their  bases.  Many  fantastic 
significations  have  been  attached  to  the  use  of  this  sign 
on  Christian  monuments,  and  some  have  even  gone  ao 
far  as  to  conclude  from  it  that  Christianity  is  nothing 
but  a  descendant  of  the  ancient  reli^ons  and  myths  en 
the  people  of  India,  Persia,  and  Asia  generally;  then 
these  theorists  go  on  to  point  out  the  close  raation* 
ship  that  exists  between  Christianitv,  on  the  one  hand, 
ana  Buddhism  and  other  Oriental  religions,  on  the 
other.  At  the  very  least  they  insist  upon  seeing  some 
relation  between  Uie  symbolical  concepts  of  the  an- 
cient religions  and  those  of  Christianitv.  Such  was  the 
opinion  Held  by  Emile  Bumouf  (cf .  Kevue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  15  August,  1868,  p.  874).  De  Rossi  ably 
refuted  this  opinion,  and  showed  the  real  value  of  this 
symbol  on  Christian  monuments  (Bull,  d'  arch,  crist., 
1868,  8^-91).  It  is  fairly  common  on  the  Christian 
monuments  of  Rome,  being  found  on  some  sepulchral 
inscriptions,  besides  occurring  twice,  painted,  on  the 
Good  Shepherd's  tunic  in  an  arcosoUum  in  the  Cata> 
comb  of  St.  Generosa  in  the  Via  Portuensis,  and  again 
on  the  tunic  of  the  fosmir  Diogenes  (the  original  epi- 
taph is  no  longer  extant)  in  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Domi- 
tilla  in  the  Via  Ardeatina.  Outside  of  Rome  it  is 
less  frequent.  There  is  one  example  in  an  inscription 
found  at  C^hiusi  (see  Cavedoni,  Ragggui^lio  di  due 
antichi  cimiteri  di  Chiusi).  A  stone  in  the  museum 
at  Bemimo  bears  the  monocram  joined  to  the  gamma 
'cross,  but  it  would  seem  to  oe  of  Roman  origin.  An- 
other in  the  Mannheim  Museum,  with  the  name  of  a 
certain  Hugdulfus,  belongiB  to  the  fifth  or  sixth  cen- 
tuiy.  In  a  sarcophagus  at  Milan  belonging  to  the 
fourth  century  it  is  repeated  over  and  over  again,  but 
evidentlv  as  a  mere  ornamental  motive  (see  Alle- 
granza,  Mon.  di  Milano,  74). 

De  Rossi  (Rom.  Sott.  Crist.,  11,  318)  made  re- 
searches into  the  chronology  of  this  symbol,  and  the 
examples  of  it  l  be  found  in  the  catacombs  at  Rome, 
and  he  observed  that  it  was  seldom  or  never  used  until 
it  took  the  place  of  the  anchor,  i.  e.  about  the  firat  half 
of  the  third  centuiy,  whence  he  inferred  that,  not  be- 
ing of  ancient  tradition,  it  came  into  fashion  as  the  re- 
smt  of  studied  choice  rather  than  as  a  primitive  sjrm- 
bol  linking  the  beginnings  of  Christianity  with  Asiatic 
traditions.  Its  genesis  is  reflex  and  studied,  not  primi- 
tive and  spontaneous.  It  is  well  known  how  anx- 
iously the  eariy  Christians  sought  out  means  wh^eby 
they  could  at  once  portray  and  conceal  the  Cross  of 
(Christ.  That  in  this  way  they  should  have  discovered 
and  adopted  the  crux  gammataj  is  easUv  intelligible, 
and  it  is  explained  not  merely  by  what  has  alieadv 
been  said,  but  also  by  the  similarity  between  the  Greek 
character  gamma  (F)  and  the  Phcenidan  character 
tan.  The  latter  has  been  famous  since  Apostolic 
times  as  a  symbol  of  the  Cross  of  Christ  and  of  the  Re- 
demption (cf.  BamabiB  Epist.,  ix,  9). 

On  the  crux  gammaia  (swastika)  on  Christian  monumeDta 
and  its  relation  to  similar  signa  on  pre^Suistlan  numumenUi  in 
the  East:  MCnter,  Sifuibudtr  der  aUen  ChriaUn,  73*85;  Ls- 
TRONNR,  Annali  deW  htit.  di  Corr,  Arch.  (1843),  122;  RocEirrns, 
MSm.  del*  acadhnU  dm  inBcri-plumM,  pi.  II,  302  sq.;  Minertdvi. 
Bull,  Arch.  Nap.,  8er.  2,  II.  178, 179:  Cavibdoni.  Ramagtio  d% 
due  aniichi  cimtUri  di  Chtusi,  70:  Gabruccx,  Vetn  (2d  ed.). 
242.  243;  MOnz,  ArdUioloffische  Bemerkungen  liber  ctos  Kteui, 
25.26. 

The  so-calledConstantinian  monogram  prevailed  diu^ 
ing  the  whole  of  the  fourth  century,  assuming  various 
forms,  and  combining  with  the  apocalyptic  letters  A 
and  0  (sec  Alpha  and  Omega),  but  ever  approaching 
more  and  more  closely  to  the  form  of  the  cross  pure 


O    2 


CROSS 


523 


o&oss 


aiid  simple*  In  Uie  latter  part  of  tbat  oentunr  what  is 
known  as  the  ''mono^rammatio  croaa"  t^  makes 
it8  appearance:* 'it  elosdy  resembles  the  ^  plain 
cross,  and  foreuiadows  its  complete  triumph  in  Chris- 
tian art.  The  early  years  of  the  fifth  oentmy  are  of 
the  highest  importance  in  this  development,  because 
it  was  then  that  the  undiseuised  cross  first  appears. 
As  we  have  seen,  sudii  was  the  diffidence  induoea,  and 
the  habit  of  caution  enforced,  by  three  centuries  of 
pexBCCution,  that  the  faithful  had  hesitated  all  that 
time  to  display  the  ngn  of  Redemption  openly  and 
publicly.  Ck)nstantine  by  the  Edict  of  Milan  had  given 
definitive  peace  to  theChurch ;  yet,  for  another  century 
the  faithful  did  not  judge  it  opportune  to  abandon  the 
use  of  the  Constantinian  monogram  in  one  or  other  of 
its  many  forms  But  the  fifth  century  marks  the 
period  when  Christian  art  broke  awav  from  old  fears, 
and,  secure  in  its  triumph,  displaced  before  the  world, 
now  become  Christian  also,  the  sign  of  its  redemption. 
To  bring  about  so  profound  a  change  in  the  artistic 
traditions  of  Christianity,  besides  the  altered  condition 
of  the  Church  in  the  eyes  of  the  Roman  State,  two 
facts  of  great  importance  played  a  part:  the  miracu- 
lous apparition  of  the  Cross  to  Constantine  and  the 
finding  of  the  Holy  Wood. 

Constantine  having  declared  war  on  Maxentius  had 
invaded  Italy.  Dunng  the  campaign  which  ensued 
he  is  said  to  have  seen  in  the  heavens  one  day  a  lu- 
minous cross  together  with  the  words  EN*  TOTTOI* 
NIKA  (In  this  conquer.)  DurinjB;  the  night  that 
followed  that  day,  he  saw  again,  m  sleep,  tiie  same 
cross,  and  Christ,  appearing  with  it,  admonished  him 
to  place  it  on  his  standards.  Thus  the  Labarum  took 
its  origin,  and  tmder  this  glorious  banner  Constantine 
overcame  his  adversary  near  the  Milvian  Bridge,  on 
28  October,  312  (see  Constantine  the  Great).  The 
second  event  was  of  even  greater  importance.  In  the 
year  326  the  mother  of  Constantine,  Helena,  then 
about  80  years  old,  having  journeyed  to  Jerusalem, 
undertook  to  rid  the  Holy  Sepulchre  of  the  mound  of 
earth  heiqped  upon  and  around  it,  and  to  destroy  the 
pagan  buildings  that  profaned  its  site.  Some  revela- 
tions whidi  she  had  received  gave  her  confidence  that 
she  would  discover  the  Saviour's  Tomb  and  His  Cross. 
•Rie  work  was  carried  on  diligently,  with  the  co-opera^ 
tion  of  St.  Macarius,  bishop  of  the  city.  The  Jews  had 
ijdden  the  Cross  in  a  ditdi  or  well,  and  covered  it  over 
with  stones,  so  that  the  faithful  might  not  come  and 
venerate  it.  Onhr  a  chosen  few  among  the  Jews  knew 
the  exact  spot  where  it  had  been  hidden,  and  one  of 
them,  named  Judas,  totiched  by  Divine  inspiration, 
pointed  it  out  to  the  excavators,  for  which  act  he  was 
highly  praised  by  St.  Helena.  Judas  afterwards  be- 
came a  Christian  saint,  and  is  honoured  under  the 
name  of  Cyriacus.  During  the  excavation  three 
crosses  were  found,  but  beoiuse  the  titulua  was  de- 
tached from  the  Cross  of  Christ,  there  was  no  means  of 
identifying  it  Following  an  inspiration  from  on  high, 
Macarius  caused  the  three  crosses  to  be  carried,  one 
after  the  other,  to  the  bedside  of  a  worthy  woman  who 
was  at  the  point  of  death.  The  touch  of  the  other 
two  was  of  no  avail ;  but  on  touching  that  upon  which 
Christ  had  died  the  woman  got  suddenly  well  again. 
From  a  letter  of  St.  Paulinus  to  Severus  inserted  in  the 
Breviary  of  Paris  it  would  appear  that  St.  Helena  her- 
self had  sou^t  by  means  of  a  miracle  to  discover 
which  was  the  True  Cross;  and  that  she  caused  a  man 
already  dead  and  buried  to  be  carried  to  the  spot, 
whereupon,  by  contact  with  the  third  cross,  he  came 
to  Itfe.  From  yet  another  tradition,  related  by  St. 
Ambrose,  it  would  seem  that  the  titulua,  or  inscrip- 
tion, had  remained  fastened  to  the  Cross. 

After  the  happy  discovery,  St.  Helena  and  Constan- 
tine erected  a  magnificent  basilicaover  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, and  that  is  the  reason  why  the  church  bore  the 
name  <d  St.  Constantinus.  The  precise  spot  of  the 
finding  was  covered  by  the  atrium  of  the  basilica,  and 


there  the  Cross  was  set  up  in  an  oratory,  as  abpears  in 
the  restoration  executed  by  de  VogU^.  When  this  noble 
basilica  had  been  destroyed  by  the  infidels,  Arculfus,  in 
the  seventh  century,  enumerated  four  buildings  upon 
the  Holy  Places  around  Golgotha,  and  one  of  them  was 
the  "Church  of  the  Invention*'  or ''of  the  Finding*'. 
This  churchwas  attributed  by  him  and  by  topographers 
of  later  times  to  Constantine.  The  Frankisn  monks  of 
Mount  Olivet,  writing  to  Leo  III,  style  it  St.  Constan- 
tinus. Perhaps  the  oratorv  built  by  Constantine  suf- 
fered less  at  the  hands  of  the  Persians  than  ^e  other 
bxiildingB,  and  so  could  still  retain  the  name  and  style 
of  Mariyrtuin  CanstantirUanum,  (See  De  Rossi, 
Bull,  d'  arch,  crist.,  1865,  88.) 

A  portion  of  the  True  Cross  remained  at  Jerusalem 
enclosed  in  a  silver  reliquary;  the  remainder,  with  the 
nails,  must  have  been  sent  to  Constantine,  and  it  must 
have  been  this  second  portion  that  he  ca\ised  to  be  en- 
closed in  the  statue  of  himself  which  was  set  on  a 
porphyry  column  in  ihe  Forum  at  Constantinople; 
Socrates,  the  historian,  relates  that  this  statue  was  to 
make  the  city  impregnable.  One  of  the  ntuls  was  fast- 
ened to  the  emperoPs  helmet,  and  one  to  his  horse's 
bridle,  bringing  to  pass,  according  to  many  of  the 
Fathers,  what  had  been  written  oy  Zacharias  the 
Prophet:  ''In  that  dav  that  which  is  upon  Ihe  bridle 
of  the  horse  shall  be  holy  to  the  Lord"  (Zach.,  xiv,  20). 
Another  of  the  nails  was  used  later  in  the  Iron  Crown 
of  Lombardy,  preserved  in  the  treasury  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Momsa.  Eusebius  in  his  life  of  Constantine,  de- 
scribing the  work  of  excavating  and  building  on  the 
site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  does  not  speak  of  the  True 
Cross.  In  the  story  of  a  journey  to  Jerusalem  made 
in  333  (Itinerarium  Burdigalense)  the  various  tombs 
and  the  basilica  of  Constantine  are  referred  to,  but  no 
mention  is  made  of  the  Thie  Cross.  The  earliest  rder^ 
ence  to  it  is  in  the  "Catecheses"  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusa- 
lem (P.  G.,  XXXIII,  468,  686,  776),  written  in  the 
year  348,  or  at  least  twenty  years  after  the  supposed 
discovery. 

In  this  tradition  of  ihe  "Invention",  or  discovery, 
of  the  True  Cross,  not  a  word  is  said  as  to  the  smaller 
portions  of  it  scattered  up  and  down  the  world.  The 
storv,  as  it  has  reached  us,  has  been  admitted,  since 
the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  by  all  ecclesiastical 
writers,  with,  however,  many  more  or  less  important 
variations.  By  many  critics  the  tradition  of  tne  find- 
ing of  the  Cross  through  the  work  of  St.  Helena  in  the 
vicinity  of  Calvary  has  been  held  to  be  a  mere  legend, 
without  any  historical  reality,  these  critics  raying 
chiefly  upon  the  sOence  of  Eusebius,  who  tells  of  au 
else  that  St.  Helena  did  in  Jerusalem,  but  says  nothing 
about  her  finding  the  Cross.  Still,  however  difficult  it 
majr  be  to  explain  this  silence,  it  would  be  unsound  to 
annihilate  with  a  negative  argument  a  universal  tradi- 
tion dating  from  the  fifth  century.  The  wonders  re- 
lated in  the  Syriac  book  *'  Doctrina  Addai"  (sixth  cen- 
tury) and  in  the  legend  of  the  Jew  Cjrriacus,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  inspired  to  reveal  to  St.  Helena  the 

{>laoe  where  the  Cross  was  buried,  are  responsible  at 
east  in  part  for  the  common  beliefs  of  tiie  faithful  on 
this  matter.  These  beliefs  are  universally  held  to  be 
apocryphal.  (See  Duchesne,  Lib.  Pont.,  I,  p.  cviU.) 
However  that  may  be,  the  testimony  of  Cyril)  Bishop 
of  Jerusalem  from  350  or  351,  who  was  on  the  spot  a 
very  few  years  after  the  event  took  place,  and  was  a 
contemporarv  of  Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  is  explicit  and 
formal  as  to  the  finding  of  the  Cross  at  Jerusalem  during . 
the  reign  of  Constantme;  this  testimony  is  contained 
in  a  letter  to  the  Emperor  Constantius  (P.  G.,  XXXIII, 
52, 1 167 ;  and  cf .  686,  687).  It  is  true  that  the  authen- 
ticity of  this  letter  is  questioned,  but  without  solid 
runds.  St.  Ambrose  (De  obit.  Theod.,  45-48  in  P. 
XVI,  401)  and  Rufinus  (Hist,  eccl.,  I,  viii  in  P.  L., 
XJQ,  476)  bear  witness  to  the  fact  of  the  finduis. 
Silvia  of  Aouitaine  (Peregrinatio  ad  loca  sancta,  ed. 
Gamurrini,  Rome  1888,  p.  76)  asaurea  us  that  in  her  time 


6&0SS 


624 


OftOM 


the  feast -of  the  Finding  was  commemoratod  on  Cal* 
vary,  that  event  having  naturally  become  the  occasion 
of  a  special  feast  under  the  name  of  "The  Invention 
of  the  Hoh^  Cross".  The  feast  dates  from  veiy  early 
times  at  .Jerusalem,  and  it  was  gradually  introduced 
into  other  Churches.  Papebroch  (Acta  SS.,  3  May)  tells 
us  that  it  did  not  become  ^neral  until  about  the  year 
720.  In  the  Latin  Church  it  is  kept  on  the  3rd  of  May ; 
the  Greek  Oiurch  keeps  it  on  the  14th  of  September, 
the  same  day  as  the  Exaltation,  another  feast  of  very 
remote  origm,  supposed  to  have  been  instituted  at 
Jerusalem  to  commemorate  the  dedication  of  the  basil- 
ica of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  (335)  and  thence  introduced 
at  Rome. 

Constantine's  vision  of  the  Cross,  and  perh{^>s  an- 
other apparition  which  took  place  in  Jerusalem  in  346, 
would  seem  to  have  been  commemorated  in  this  same 
feast.  But  its  chief  ^ory  is  its  connexion  with  the  res- 
toration of  the  True  Cross  to  the  Church  of  Jerusalem, 
after  it  had  been  carried  away  by  the  Persian  king, 
Chosroes  (Khusrau)  II,  the  conqueror  of  Phocas,  when 
he  captured  and  sacked  the  Holy  Citv.  This  Chosroes 
was  afterwards  vanquished  by  the  JB^peror  Heraclius 
U  and  in  628  was  assassinated  by  his  own  son  Siroes 
(Shirva),  who  restored  the  Cross  to  Heraclius.  It  was 
then  carried  in  trimnph  to  Constantinople  and  thence, 
in  the  spring  of  the  year  629,  to  Jerusalem.  Herao- 
tius,  who  wi^ed  to  carry  the  tloly  Cross  upon  his  own 
i^oulders  on  this  occasion,  found  it  extremely  heavy, 
but  when,  upon  the  advice  of  the  Patriarch  Zachariaa, 
he  laid  aside  his  crown  and  imperial  robes  of  state,  the 
saoied  burden  became  light,  and  he  was  able  to  carry 
it  to  the  church.  In  the  following  year  Heraclius  was 
conquered  by  the  Mahommedans,  and  in  647  Jerusar 
lem  was  taken  by  them. 

In  reference  to  this  feast  the  Paris  Breviary  aasoci- 
ates  with  the  memoiy  of  Heraclius  that  of  St.  Louis  of 
France,  who^  on  14  September,  1241.  barefoot  and 
diverted  of  his  royal  robes,  carried  the  fragment  of  the 
Holy  Cross  sent  to  him  by  the  Templars,  who  had  re- 
ceived it  as  a  pledge  from  Baldwin.  This  fra^ent 
eseaped  destruction  during  the  Revolution  and  is  still 
preserved  at  Paris.  There,  also,  is  preserved  the  in- 
combustible cross  left  to  the  abbey  of  Saint-Germain- 
des-Prte  by  the  Princess  Anna  Gonsaga,  together  with 
two  portions  of  the  Nails.  Very  soon  after  the  disoov- 
erv  of  the  True  Cross  its  wood  was  cut  up  into  small 
vencB  and  quickly  scattered  throughout  tne  Christian 
World.  We  know  this  from  the  writing  of  St.  Am- 
brose, of  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola,  of  Sulpicius  Severus,  of 
Rufinus,  and,  among  the  Greeks,  of  Socrates,  Soxo- 
men,  and  Theodoret  (cf.  Duchesne,  ''Lib.  Pont.",  I, 
p.  ovii;  Marucchi,  ''Basiliques  de  Rome'',  1902,  348 
sq. ;  Pennacchi,  "De  Invents  lerosolymis  Constantino 
magnd  Imp.  Cruce  D.  N.  I.  C.'^  Rome,  1892 ;  Baronius, 
"Amiales  EocL",  ad  an.  336,  Lucca,  1739,  IV,  178). 
Many  portions  of  it  are  preserved  in  Santa  Croce  in 
Gerusalemme  at  Rome,  and  in  Notre-Dame  at  Paris 
(cf.  Rohault  de  Fleury,  "Mtooire",  45-163;  Gosselm, 
"Notice  historique  but  la  Sainte  Couronne  et  les  au- 
trcs  Instruments  de  la  Passion  de  Notre-Dame  de 
Paris  ",  Paris,  1828 ;  Sauvage,  "  Documents  sur  les  reli- 
ques  de  la  Vraie  Croix",  Rouen,  1893).  St.  Paulmus 
in  one  of  his  letters  refers  to  the  redintegration  of  the 
Cross,  i.  6.  that  it  never  grew  smaller  in  size,  no  matter 
how  many  pieces  were  detached  from  it.  And^  the 
same  St.  Paulinus  received  from  Jerusalem  a  relic  of 
the  Cross  enclosed  in  a  ^iden  tube,  but  so  small  that 
it  was  almost  an  atom,  ^*  in  segmento  pene  atomo  has- 
tulie  brevis  munimentum  pnescntis  et  pignus  setemse 
salutb''  (Epist.  xxxi  ad  {ijverum). 

The  histoncal  detail  we  have  been  considering  sufSr 
ciently  accounts  for  the  appearance  of  the  cross  <m 
monuments  dating  from  the  end  of  the  foiuth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  In  an  aroosolium  in 
the  Catacomb  of  St.  Callistus  a  cross  composed  of 
flowers  and  foliage  with  two  doves  at  its  base  is  still 


partially  disguised,  but  begins  to  be  more  easily  reoog- 
nisable  (cf .  De  Rossi,  Rom.  Sott.,  III.  PL  XII).  Eb- 
pedaily  in  Africa,  where  Christianity  Tiad  made  more 
rapid  progress,  the  cross  began  to  appear  openly  dur- 
ing the  course  of  the  fourth  century.  The  most  an- 
cient text  we  have  relating  to  a  carved  oross  dates  from 
later  than  a.d.  362.  The  cross  was  used  on  ttie  coin- 
age of  Christian  princes  and  poonples  with  the  soper- 
scription,  Salua  Mundi,  The  ^adoration"  of  the 
Cross,  which  up  to  this  time  had  been  rastrieted  to  pri- 
vate cult,  now  began  to  assume  a  public  and  solonn 
character.  At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  Christiaa 
poets  were  already  writing,  "Flecte  genu  lignumque 
Crucis  venerabile  adora  .  The  second  Council  of 
Nicsea,  among  other  precepts  that  deal  with  iraay, 
lays  down  that  the  Croes  uiould  receive  an  adoration 
of  honour,  "  honorariam  adorationem '  '•  (See  Section 
II  of  this  article.)  To  the  pagans  who  taunted  them 
with  being  as  much  idolaters  as  they  accused  the  pa- 
geans  of  being  towards  their  gods,  th^  rq>lied  tnat 
•Qxey  took  their  stand  on  the  natiure  of  the  cult  they 
gave:  that  it  was  not  latriaj  but  a  relative  worship,  and 
that  the  material  symbol  only  served  to  raise  thor 
minds  to  the  Divine  l^pe,  Jesus  Christ  Crucified  (cf • 
Tert.,  "Apol.",  xvi;  Mmucius  Feliac,  '*Octav.",  ix- 
xii).  Wherefore  St.  Ambrose,  speaking  on  the  vener- 
ation of  the  Cross,  thought  it  opportune  to  expUin  the 
idea:  "  Let  us  adore  Christ,  our  King,  who  hung  upon 
the  wood,  and  not  the  wood"  (Regem  Chruhum  qui 
pepepdit  in  ligno  .  .  .  non  lignum, — ''In  obit.  Theo- 
dosii",  xlvi).  The  Western  Church  obaerves  the 
solemn  public  veneration  (called  the  '^  Adoration '0  on 
Good  Friday.  In  the  Gr^orian  Saeramentaiy  we 
read:  ''VenitPontifexetadoratamdeosculatur".  In 
the  Eastern  Church  the  special  veneration  of  the  Cross 
is  performed  on  the  Thurd  Sundav  in  Lent  (Kii^inr% 
r^f  aravpowpoaKvi^«*9f  "Sunday  of  the-Ooss-venen^ 
tion '  0  and  during  the  week  that  follows  U.  The  grad- 
ual spread  of  the  devotion  to  the  Cross  incidentally 
occaaiorsed  abuses  in  the  pietv  of  the  faithful.  Ii^ 
deed,  we  learn  from  the  edicts  of  Valentinian  and  Theo- 
dosius  that  the  cross  was  at  times  set  up  in  very  un- 
seemly places.  The  evil-miiKied,  the  ignorant,  and  aO 
those  who  practised  spells,  ehanns,  and  other  audi 
superstitions  perverted  the  widespread  devotion  to 
their  own  corrupt  uses.  To  deceive  the  faitiiful  and 
turn  their  piety  mto  lucre,  these  people  associated  the 
sign  of  the  cross  with  their  superstitious  and  magical 
avn^ls,  wiiming  thereby  the  confidence  and  trust  of 
their  dupes.  To  all  this  corruption  of  the  reiigiouB 
idea  the  teachers  of  the  Church  opposed  themsdvesu 
exhorting  the  faithful  to  true  piety,  and  to  beware  ot 
superstitious  talismans  (cf.  St.  John  Chiysostom, 
Hom.  vii  in  Epist.  ad  Coloss.,  vii,  and  elaewhae; 
De  Rossi,  "BulL  d'aicheol.  crist.",  1869,  62-64). 

The  distribution  of  portions  of  the  wood  of  the  Croas 
led  to  the  making  of  a  renuukaUe  number  of  oroases 
from  the  fourth  century  onwards,  many  of  which  have 
come  down  to  us.  Known  under  the  names  of  eneol' 
pia  and  pectoral  crosses  they  often  served  to  endose 
fragments  of  the  True  Cross;  they  were  merely  crosses 
worn  on  the  breaat  out  of  devotion — ^"To  wear  upon 
the  breast  a  cross,  hung  from  the  neck,  with  the  Samred 
Wood,  or  with  relics  of  saints,  which  is  what  they  call 
an  encolpium"  (Anastasius  BibUothecarius  on  Actb  V 
of  VIII  Dec.  Counc).  Gn  the  origin  and  use  of  peo- 
toral  crosses  see  Giovanni  ScandeUa,  ''Conaiderasioni 
sopra  un  encdpio  eneo  rinvenuto  in  Corfu"  (Trieste, 
1854).  St.  John  Chrysoetom.  in  hia  polemic  against 
Jews  and  Gentiles,  wherein  ne  panegyrises  the  tri- 
uihph  of  the  Cross,  testifies  that  whosoever,  man  or 
woman,  possessed  a  relic  of  it  had  it  enclosed  in  gold 
and  wore  it  around  the  neck  (St.  John  Chrysostom,  ed. 
Montfaucon,  I,  571).  St.  Maorina  (d.  379X  s»ter  of 
St.  Gregorr  Naaiaruen,  wore  an  iron  aoai  on  her 
breast ;  we  do  not  really  know  its  shape;  peifaape  it  wat 
the  monc^rammatio  one  taken  by  her  brother  ftom 


esoas 


555 


e&osB 


her  dead  b<xh^.  Among  the  beionging?  of  Maria,  the 
dau^t^  of  Stilidio  and  wife  of  MonoriuB,  laid  away- 
together  with  her  body  in  the  Vatiean  bajsilioa,  and 
foxind  there  in  1544,  there  were  counted  no  fewer  than 
ten  small  croeses  in  gold  adorned  with  emeralds  and 
KBXDBf  as  may  be  seen  in^  the  illustrations  preserved  by 
laicio  Fauno  (Antich.  Rom.,  V,  x).  In  the  Kircher- 
ian  Museum  there  is  a  small  gold  cress,  hollowed  for 
n^cs,  and  dating  from  the  fifth  centurv .  It  has  a  rins 
attached  to  it  K»r  securing  it  around  the  neck,  and 
seems  to  have  had  grapevine  ornamentation  at  the 
extremities.  A  very  beautiful  cross,  described  by  De 
Roflsi  and  by  him  attributed  to  the  uxth  century,  was 
found  in  a  tomb  in  the  Agro  Verano  at  Rome  (Bull, 
d'aich.  Grist,,  1863,  33-38).  The  general  charao« 
teristic  of  thsse  more  ancient  crosses  is  their  simplicity 
and  lack  of  inscription,  in  contrast  to  those  of  tne  By- 
zantine era  and  times  later  than  the  sixth  century. 
Among  the  most  noteworthy  is  the  ataurotheca  of  St. 
Gregoiv  the  Great  (590-604),  preserved  at  Monza, 
which  IS  really  a  pectoral  cross  («.  Bugatti,  "  Memorie 
di  S.  Celso",  174  sq.;  Borma,  ''De  Cruce  VelitemA", 
pp.  cxxdii  sqq.).  Scandella  (op.  cit.)  points  out  that 
St.  Gregorv  is  the  first  to  mention  the  cruciform  shape 
given  to  tnese  golden  reliquaries.  But,  as  we  have 
seen,  they  date  from  much  earlier  times,  as  is  proved 
by  the  one  found  in  the  Agro  Verano,  amcmg  others. 
Some  writers  go  too  far  in  wishix^  to  push  their  an- 
tiquity back  to  the  beginnii^  of  the  fourth  century* 
They  base  their  opinion  on  documents  in  the  acts  of 
tiie  martyrs  imder  Diocletian-  In  those  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  St.  Procopius  we  read  that  he  caused  a  gold 
pectoral  cross  to  be  made,  and  iiiat  there  appeared  on 
it  miraculously  in  Hebrow  letters  the  names  Em- 
manuel, Michael,  Gabriel.  The  BoUandists,  however, 
reject  these  acts,  which  they  demonstrate  to  be  of  lit- 
tle authority  (Acta  SS.,  July.  II,  p.  554).  In  the  hi». 
tory  of  St.  Eustratius  and  otner  martyrs  of  Lesser  Ar- 
menia, it  is  related  that  a  soldier  named  Orestes  was 
recognLeed  to  be  a  Christian  because,  during  some 
military  manceuvres,  a  certain  movement  of  his  bod^ 
displayed  the  fact  that  he  wore  a  golden  cross  on  his 
breast  (cf .  Aringhi,  Rom.  Subt.,  R,  545) ;  but  even 
this  history  is  far  from  being  entirely  accurate. 

The  recent  opening  of  the  famous  treasury  of  the 
Sancta  Sanctorum  near  the  Lateran  has  restored  to 
our  possession  some  objects  of  the  highest  value  in  con- 
nexion with  iJie  wood  of  the  Hol;^  Cross,  and  bearing 
on  our  knowledge  of  crosses  containing  particles  of  the 
Holy  Wood,  and  of  churches  built  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries  in  its  honour.  Among  the  objects  found  in 
this  treasury  was  a  votive  cross  of  about  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, inlaicl  with  laree  gems,  a  cruciform  wooden 
box  with  a  sliding  Ud  bearing  the  words  *0S  ZOH 
(light,  life),  and  lastly,  a  gold  cross  ornamented  with 
cloisonnes  enamels.  The  first  of  these  is  most  impor- 
tant because  it  belongs  to  the  same-period  (if  not  to  an 
even  eariier  one)  as  the  famous  cross  of  Justin  II,  of 
the  sixth  century,  preserved  in  the  treasury  at  St. 
Peter's,  and  which  contains  a  relic  of  the  Tnie  Cross 
aet  in  jewels.  It  was  held,  up  to  the  present,  to  be  the 
oldest  eross  extant  in  a  precious  metal  (De  Waal  in 
"RftmischeQuartalschrift",  VII,  1893, 245 sq.;  Moli- 
nier,  ''Hist,  g^n^rale  dee  arts;  L'orf^vrerie  religieuse 
et  civile",  Paris,  1901,  vol.  IV,  pt,  I,  p.  37).  This 
cross,  containing  relics  of  the  Holy  Cross,  was  dis- 
covered by  Pope  Sergius  I  (687-701)  in  the  sacristy  of 
St.  Peter's  basilica  (cf.  Duchesne,  Lib.  Pont.,  I,  347, 
8.  v.  Sergius)  in  a  sealed  silver  case.  It  contained  a 
jewelled  cross  encloeihg  a  piece  of  the  True  Cross, 
and  dates,  periiaps,  from  the  fifth  cfentury. 

Enamelled  crosses  of  this  nature,  an  inheritance  of 
Byxantine  art,  do  not  date  eariier  than  the  sixth  cen* 
tury.  The  oldest  example  which  we  have  of  this  type 
is  a  fragment  of  the  reliquary  adorned  with  cloisonne 
enamel  in  which  a  fragment  of  the  Cross  was  car- 
ried to  Poitiers  between  565  and  575  (cf .  Molinier,  op. 


cit.;  Barbier  dc  Montault,  "Le  tr^or  de  la  Sainte 
Croix  de  Poitiera",  1883).  Of  later  date  are  theCross 
of  Victory  at  Limburg  near  Aachen,  Charlemagne's 
cross,  and  that  of  St.  Stephen  at  Vienna.  Besides 
these  we  have  in  Italy  the  enamelled  cross  of  Coscousa 
(elevoath  century),  uie  Gaeta  cross,  also  in  enamel, 
crosses  In  the  Christian  section  of  the  Vatican  Museum, 
and  the  celebrated  cross  of  Velletri  (ei^th  or  tenth  cen^ 
tury),  adorned  with  precious  gems  and  enamel,  and 
discussed  by  Cardinal  Stef  ano  Soraia  in  his  work,  '*  De 
Cruce  VelitemA". 

The  worid-wide  devotion  to  the  Cross  and  its  rehcs 
during  the  fifth  and  succeeding  centuries  was  so  great 
that  even  the  iconoclast  Emperors  of  the  East  in  tiieir 
suppression  of  the  cult  of  ima^  had  to  respect  that  of 
the  Cross  (cf .  Banduri,  **  Numism.  imp. ",  II,  p.  702  sq. : 
Niceph.,  ''Hist.  Eccl.",  XVIII,  hv).  This  cult  of  tibe 
Cross  called  forth  the  building  of  many  churches  and 
oratories  wherein  to  treasure  its  precious  rehcs.  The 
churoh  of  S.  Crooe  at  Ravenna  was  built  by  Galla 
Placidia  before  the  year  450  '^  inhonoremsanctae  cruois 
Domini,  a  qu&  habet  et  nomen  et  formam"  (Muratori, 
Script,  rer.  ital.,  I,  PL  II,  p.  544a).  Pope  Symmadius 
(498-514;  cf.  Duchesne,  '^Lib.  Pont.",  261,  s.  v.^rm- 
machus,  no.  79)  built  an  oratory  of  the  Holy  Cross ' 
behind  the  baptistery  at  St.  Peter's,  and  plaoed  in  it 
a  jewelled  gold  cross  containing  a  relic  of.  the  True 
Cross.  Pope  Hilarius  (461-468)  did  the  Uke  at  the 
Lateran,  building  an  oratory  communicating  with  the 
baptiste^,  and  placing  in  it  a  similar  cross  (Duchesne, 
op.  cit.,  I,  242:  ''ubi  lignum  posuit  dominicum^  oru«* 
cem  auream  cum  gemmis  quse  pens.  hb.  XX")- 

The  unvarying  characteristic  style  of  cross  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centimes  is  for  the  most  part  decked 
with  flowers,  palms,  and  foliage,  sometimes  sproutins 
from  the  root  of  the  cross  itself,  or  adorned  wi£ 
gems  and  precious  stones.  Sometimee  on  two  small 
chains  hanging  froin  the  amis  of  the  cross  one  sees  the 
apocalyptic  letters  A,  O,  and  over  them  were  huuK 
small  lamps  or  candles.  On  the  mosaics  in  the  chureh 
of  St.  Felix  at  Nola,  St.  Paulinuii  caused  to  be  written: 
''Ceme  coronatam  domini  super  atria  Christi  stare 
crucem"  (Ep.  xxxii,  12,  ad  Sever.)-  A  flowered  and 
jewelled  cross  is  that  painted  on  the  baptistery  of  the 
Catacomb  of  Pomsianus  on  the  Via  Portuensis  (cf. 
Bottari,  Rom.  Sott.,  PI.  XLIV).  The  cross  is  also 
displayed  on  the  mosaic  in  the  baptistery  built  by 
Galla  Placidia,  in  the  church  of  San  Vitale,  and  in 
Sant'  ApolUnare  in  Classe,  at  Ravenna,  and  over  a  d- 
borium  from  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople.  In  1867, 
at  Berezov  Islands,  on  the  River  Sosswa,  in  Siberia, 
there  was  found  a  silver  plate,  or  Htuigical  paten,  of 
S3nrian  workmanship,  which  now  belongs  to  Count 
Gregory  Stroganov.  In  the  cantre  of  it  is  a  cross 
standing  on  a  terrestrial  globe  studded  with  stars;  on 
either  side  stands  an  angel  with  a  staff  in  his  l^t  hand, 
the  right  being  raised  in  adoration ;  four  rivers  flow 
from  its  base  and  indicate  that  the  scene  is  in  Paradise. 
Some  learned  Russians  attribute  the  plate  to  the  ninth 
centurv,  but  De  Rossi,  more  correctly,  places  it  in  the 
seventh  century.  In  these  same  centuries  the  cross 
was  of  frequent  use  in  liturgical  rites  and  processions 
of  great  solemnity.  It  was  carried  in  the  churches 
where  the  stations  were;  the  bearer  of  it  was  called 
draconantis,  and  the  cross  itself  stationalia.  Theee 
crosses  were  often  very  costly  (cf .  Bottari,  Rom.  Sott. . 
PI.  XLIV),  the  most  famous  being  the  cross  of 
Ravenna  and  that  of  Velletri. 

The  sign  of  the  cross  was  made  at  liturpcal  funo* 
tions  over  persons  and  things,  sometimes  with  five  fin- 
gers extended,  to  represent  the  Five  Wounds  of  Christ 
sometimes  with  three,  in  sien  of  the  Persons  ci  the 
Trinity,  and  sometimes  witin  only  one,  s3rmbolical  of 
the  unity  of  God.  For  the  blessing  of  the  chalice  and 
the  oblations  Leo  IV  prescribed  that  two  fingers  be  ex- 
tended, and  the  thumb  placed  beneath  them,  llus  is 
ihe  only  true  sign  of  the  Trinitarian  cross. 


oao88 


526 


6B088 


pope  wannly  recommended  his  clergy  to  make  this 
mm  with  care,  else  their  blessing  would  be  fruitless, 
lue  action  was  accompanied  by  the  solemn  formula, 
''In  nomine  Patris,  etc."  Another  use  of  the  cross 
was  in  the  solemn  dedication  of  churches  (see  Alpha- 
BBT ;  Consecration)  .  The  bishop  who  performed  the 
ceremony  wrote  the  alphabet  in  Latin  and  Greek  on 
the  floor  of  the  church  along  two  straight  lines  cro6si|^ 
in  the  form  of  the  Roman  deeussis.  The  letter  X, 
which  in  the  land-plottings  of  the  Roman  augurs  repre- 
sented, with  its  two  component  lines,  the  cardo  mtixi' 
mus  and  ^e  decutnantAa  maxitmis,  was  the  same  decu^ 
M  used  by  the  Roman  agrimensori^  in  their  surveys 
of  farms,  to  indicate  boundaries.  This  sign  was  ap- 
propriate to  Christ  bv  its  cruciform  shape  and  by  its 
identity  in  shape  with  the  initial  letter  of  His  name, 
2>«0T6t,  in  Greek.  For  this  reason  it  was  one  of  the 
genuine  forms  of  the  signum  Chrudi. 

The  use  of  the  cross  became  so  widespread  in  the 
fifth  and  following  centuries  that  anything  like  a 
complete  enumeration  of  the  monuments  on  which 
it  appears  is  wellnigh  impossible.  Suffice  it  to  say 
that  there  is  hardly  a  remnant  of  antiquity  dating 
from  this  century,  whether  lowly  and  mean  or  noble 
'and  gr&nd,  which  does  not  bear  the  sign.  In  proof 
of  this  we  shall  give  here  a  cursory  eniuneration.  It 
is  quite  frequent  on  sepulchral  monuments,  on  the 
imperial  urns  at  Constantinople,  on  the  plaster  of  the 
loeiiU  (resting-places)  in  the  catacombs,  especially  of 
Rome,  in  a  painting  in  a  Christian  cemeteiy  at  Alez- 
andria  in  ^Q^t,  on  a  mosaic  at  Boville  near  Rome,  on 
an  inscription  for  a  tomb  made  in  the  form  of  a  cross 
and  now  in  the  museum  at  M areeilles,  on  the  interior 
walls  of  sepulchral  chambers,  on  the  front  of  marble 
sarcophagi  dating  from  the  fifth  century.  In  these 
last  instances  it  is  common  to  see  the  cross  sur- 
mounted by  the  monogram  and  surrounded  bv  a 
laurd  wreath  (e.  g.  the  sarcophagi  at  Aries,  and  in 
the  Lateran  Museum).  A  very  fine  spedmen  was 
found  recently  in  excavations  in  St.  Domitilla's  Cata- 
comb on  the  Ostian  Way;  it  is  a  symbolical  picture 
of  souls  freed  from  the  trammels  of  the  body,  and 
saved  by  means  of  the  Cross,  which  has  two  doves  on 
its  armSj  while  aimed  guards  are  asleep  at  its  base. 
Lastly,  m  England,  crosses  have  been  found  on  se- 
pulchral monuments.  So  universal  was  its  use  by 
the  faithful  that  they  put  it  even  on  household  uten- 
sils, on  medals  of  devotion,  on  potteiy  lamps,  spoons, 
cups,  plates,  glassware,  on  clasps  dating  m>m  Mero- 
vingian times,  on  inscriptions  and  votive  offerings,  on 
seab  made  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  on  toys  representing 
animals,  on  ivory  combs,  on  the  seals  of  wine-jars,  on 
reliciuaiy  boxes,  and  even  on  water-pipes.  In  objects 
of  liturgical  use  we  meet  it  on  Biblical  codices,  on  vest- 
ments, pallia,  on  leaden  thongs  inscribed  with  exor- 
cising f oimulse,  and  it  was  signed  on  the  foreheads  of 
catecnumens  and  candidates  for  confirmation.  The 
architectural  details  of  churches  and  basiUcas  were 
ornamented  with  crosses;  the  facades,  the  marble 
slabs,  the  transoms,  the  pillars,  the  capitals,  the  key- 
stones of  arches,  the  altar-tables,  the  bishops'  thrones, 
the  diptychs,  and  the  bells  were  also  ornamented  in 
the  same  way.  In  the  artistic  monuments  the  so- 
i»l\ed  cruciform  nimbus  around  Our  Saviour's  head 
is  weU  known.  The  cross  appears  over  His  head,  and 
near  that  of  the  orante,  as  in  the  oil-stocks  of  Santo 
Menna.  It  is  also  to  be  met  with  on  monuments  of  a 
symbolical  nature:  on  the  rocks  ^enoe  flow  the  four 
celestial  rivers  the  cross  finds  its  place;  on  the  vase 
and  on  the  symbolical  ship,  on  the  head  of  the  tempt- 
ingserpent,  and  even'on  the  lion  in  Daniel's  den. 

A¥hen  Christianity  had  become  the  official  religion 
oi  the  empire,  it  was  natural  that  the  cross  should  be 
carved  on  public  monuments.  In  fact  it  was  from  the 
fiTBt  used  to  purify  and  sanctify  monuments  and 
temples  originally  pagan;  it  was  prefixed  to  signa- 
tured and  to  inscriptions  placed  on  public  work;  it 


was  borne  by  consuls  on  their  sceptres,  the  first  to  do 
so  being  Baal  the  Younger  (a.d.  541— -cf.  Gori,  Tlics. 
diptjrch.,  II.  PL  XX).  It  was  cut  in  marble  quarrie:^ 
and  in  brickyards,  and  on  the  gates  of  cities  (cf.de 
VogQ^,  Syrie  Centrale;  Architecture  du  VII  sitefe). 
At  Rome  there  is  still  to  be  seen  on  the  Gate  of  St. 
Sebastian  the  figure  of  a  Greek  cross  surrounded  by  a 
circle  with  the  invocations:  AFIB  •  KOKOK  •  ATIS  - 
rmPFI*  In  and  around  Bologna  it  was  usual  to 
set  the  sign  of  salvation  in  the  public  streets.  Aiv 
oording  to  tradition,  these  croases  are  very  andeot, 
and  four  of  them  date  from  the  time  oi  St.  retitmius. 
Some  of  them  were  restored  in  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries  (cf .  Gu>vanni  Goszadini,  Delle  croct  monu- 
mentali  che  erano  nolle  vie  di  Bologna  nd  seeolo 
xiu). 

The  cross  also  played  an  important  part  in  heraldry 
and  diplomatic  science.  The  former  aoes  not  directiy 
come  within  our  scope;  of  the  second  we  shall  give 
the  briefest  outlines.  Crosses  are  to  be  found  on  docu- 
ments of  eariy  medieval  times  and,  being  placed  at 
the  head  of  a  deed,  were  equivalent  to  an  invocation 
of  heaven,  miiether  they  were  plain  or  omam«:itaL 
Hiey  were  at  times  placed  before  signatures,  and  they 
have  even  been  equivalent  to  signatures  in  themselveB. 
Indeed,  from  the  toith  oentury  we  find,  imder  contracts, 
rou^ly-made  crosses  that  have  all  the  appearance  of 
being  intended  as  signatures.  Thus  did  Hug^  Capet, 
Robert  Capet,  Henry  I,  and  Philip  I  sign  thdr  oflicial 
documents.  This  usage  declined  in  the  thirteenth 
century  and  appeared  again  in  the  fifteenth.  In  our 
own  day  the  cross  is  reserved  as  the  attestationrmaric 
of  illiterate  people.  A  cross  was  characteristic  of  the 
signature  of  Apostolic  notaries,  but  this  was  carefully 
designed,  not  rapidly  written.  In  the  eariy  Middle 
Ages  crosses  were  decorated  with  even  greater  ma^ 
nmcence.  In  the  centre  were  to  be  seen  medallionA 
representing  the  Lamb  of  God,  Christ,  or  the  saintii. 
Such  is  the  case  in  the  Velletri  cross  and  that  which 
Justin  II  gave  to  St.  Peter's,  mentioned  above,  and 
again  in  the  silver  cross  of  Afimello  at  Ravenna  (cf . 
^mpini,  Vet.  mon.,  II,  Pl/XlV).  All  this  kind 
of  decoration  displays  the  substitution  of  some  morr; 
or  less  complete  symbol  for  the  fi^:ure  of  Chnst  on  the 
cross,  of  which  we  are  about  to  «>eak'. 

It  may  be  w«U  to  nve  here  a  list  of  works  beMiii|E  on  thfl 
departments  of  the  subject  just  treated,  and  coptsining  Uhis- 
trations  which  it  has  not  been  opportune  to  quote  in  the  fore- 
soing  part  of  the  article:  Stocxbausb,  KunHaeaekiekie  du 
Kretaea  (Schaflhausen.  1870);  GsmouASD  db  Saiict>La£umt, 
Iconoaraphte  de  la  Croix  et  du  Crucifix  in  Ann.  ardUol.^  XXVI« 
XXvII;  Martiont,  DieUonnaire  de»  antimntia  ehrUienneB,  s.  ▼. 
Crucifix;  Batbt,  Recherehca  ^otir  aenrir  a  Vkialoin  da  la  pern- 
ture  ...  en  oriani  (Pluis,  1879);  MOnb,  Laa  moaafquaa 
chritiennea  de  V Italia  {Voratoirt  da  Jean  Vll)  m  Rav,  ercasof^ 
1877,  II;  Labartb,  Hiatoira  dea  aria  induairitia,  11;  Kkaub, 
Real^EneyUop&diader<AriaUiek.    attsri^amsr  (Freibun,  1882)^ 

(5)  Later  Development  of  ths  Crucifix. — ^We  have 
seen  the  progressive  steps,  artistic,  symbolical,  and 
allegorical,  through  which  the  representation  <tf  the 
Cross  passed  from  the  first  centuries  down  to  the 
Middle  Ages;  and  we  have  seen  some  of  the  reasons 
which  prevented  Christian  art  from  making  an  earlier 
display  of  the  figure  of  the  cross.  Now  the  cross,  as 
it  was  seen  duriiig  all  this  time  was  only  a  symbol  of 
the  Divine  Victim  and  not  a  direct  representation. 
We  can  thus  more  easily  understand,  then,  how  much 
more  circumspection  was  necessary  in  proceeding  to 
a  direct  portrayal  of  the  Lord's  actufu  Crucifizion. 
Although  in  the  fifth  century  the  cross  b^an  to  ap- 
pear on  public  monuments,  it  was  not  for  a  century 
afterwards  that  the  figure  on  the  cross  was  shown; 
and  not  until  the  close  of  the  fifth,  or  even  the  middle 
of  the  sixth,  century,  did  it  appear  without  diagiise. 
But  from  the  sixth  centuiy  onward  we  find  many 
imaees — not  allegorical,  but  historical  and  realisUo — 
of  the  crucified  Saviour.  To  proceed  in  order,  we 
will  first  examine  the  rare  allusions,  as  it  were,  to  the 
Crucifixion  in  Christian  art  down  to  the  sixth  oentuiy^ 


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627 


OBOSS 


and  then  look  at  the  produetionB  of  that  art  in  the 
later  period. 

Seeing  that  the  cross  was  the  svmbol  of  an  i^o- 
minious  death,  the  repugnance  of  the  early  Christians 
to  anjr  representation  of  Christ's  torments  and  igno- 
miny IB  easily  understood.  On  a  few  sarcophagi  oxthe 
fifth  century  ^e.g.  one  in  the  Lateran,  no.  171;  scenes 
from  the  Passion  are  shown,  but  so  treated  as  to  show 
none  <^  the  shame  and  horror  attaching  to  that  instru- 
ment oi  death  which  was,  as  St.  Paul  says,  ''to  the 
Jews  a  scandal,  and  to  the  Gentiles  foolishness".  Yet, 
from  the  first  ages  Christians  were  loth  to  deprive 
themselves  altogether  of  the  image  of  their  crucified 
Redeemer,  thoii^,  for  the  reasons  already  stated  and 
because  of  the  "Discipline  of  the  Secret"  (q.  v.),  they 
could  not  represent  the  scene  openly.  The  Council  of 
Elvira,  c.  3(X),  decreed  that  wnat  was  to  be  adored 
ought  not  to  be  used  in  mural  decoration.  Wherefore 
recourse  was  had  to  allegorjr  and  to  veiled  forms,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  cross  itself.  (Cf.  Br^hier,  Les 
origineB  du  Crudfiz  dans  I'art  religieux,  Paris,  1904.) 
One  of  the  most  ancient  allegories  of  the  Crucifixion 
is  considered  to  be  that  of  the  lamb  lying  at  the  foot 
of  the  anchor — symbols  respectively  of  the  Cross  and 
of  Christ.  A  very  ancient  inscription  in  the  Crypt  of 
Ludna,  in  the  Catacombs  of  St.  Callistus,  shows  this 
picture,  which  is  otherwise  somewhat  rare  (cf.  De 
Rossi,  Rom.  Sott.  Christ.,  I,  PL  XX).  The  same  sym- 
bol was  still  in  use  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  and  be- 
{onning  of  the  fifth  oentuiy.  In  the  description  of 
the  mosaics  in  the  basilica  of  St.  Felix  at  Nola,  St. 
Paulinus  shows  us  the  same  cross  in  connexion  with 
the  mystical  lamb,  evidently  an  allusion  to  the  Cruci- 
fixion, and  he  adds  the  well-known  verse:  ''  Sub  cruoe 
sanguined  niveus  stat  Christus  in  agno". 

We  saw  above  that  the  trident  was  a  veiled  image 
of  the  cross.  In  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Callistus  we  have 
a  more  complicated  study:  the  mystical  dolphin  is 
twined  around  the  trident — a  very  expressive  symbol 
of  the  Crucifixion.  The  early  Christians  in  their  ar- 
tistic labours  did  not  disdain  to  draw  upon  the  sym- 
bols and  allegories  of  pagan  mythologv,  as  long  as 
these  were  not  contrary  to  Christian  f  aitn  and  morals. 
In  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Callistus  a  sarcophagus,  dating 
from  the  third  century,  was  found,  the  front  of  which 
shows  Ulysses  tied  to  iixe  mast  while  he  listens  to  the 
song  of  the  Sirens;  near  him  are  his  companions,  who 
with  eais  filled  with  wax,  cannot  hear  the  aUuring 
song.  All  this  is  symboUcal  of  the  Cross,  and  of  the 
Crucified,  who  has  closed  affaiDst  the  seductions  of 
evil  the  ears  of  the  faithful  auring  their  voyage  over 
the  treacherous  sea  oi  life  in  the  ship  which  wm  bring 
them  to  the  harbour  of  salvation.  Such  is  the  inter- 
pretation given  by  St.  Maximus  of  Turin  in  the  homily 
read  on  Ciood  Friday  (S.  Maximi  opera,  Rome,  1874, 
151.  a.  De  Rossi,  Rom.  Sott.,  I,  344-346,  PL  XXX, 
5).  A  very  important  monument  belonging  to  the 
beginning  of  the  third  centuiy  shows  the  Crucifixion 
oi^enly.  This  would  seem  to  contradict  what  we  have 
said  above,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  this  is 
the  work  oif  pagan,  and  not  of  Christian,  hands  (cf . 
De  Rossi,  Bull  d'arch.  crist.,  1863,  72,  and  1867,  75), 
and  therefore  it  has  no  real  value  as  a  proof  among 
purely  Christian  works.  On  a  beam  in  the  Pcedc^ 
gogium  on  the  Palatine  there  was  discovered  a  graffito 
on  the  plaster,  showing  a  man  with  an  ass's  head,  and 
clad  in  a  perixoma  (or  short  loin-cloth)  and  fastened 
to  a  crux  tmtniaaa  (regular  Latin  cross).  Near  by 
there  is  another  man  in  an  attitude  of  prayer  witib  the 
legend  AX^ftf'ot  ffifiercu  Mw,  i.  e.,  Alexamenos  adores 
God.  Thia  graffito  is  now  to  be  seen  in  the  Kircherian 
Museum  in  Rome,  and  is  but  an  impious  caricature  in 
mockery  of  the  Christian  Alexamenos,  drawn  by  one 
of  his  pagan  comrades  of  the  jxgdagogium.  (See 
Abs.)  In  fact  Tertullian  tells  us  that  in  his  day, 
L  e.  precisely  at  the  time  when  this  caricature  wsm 
made.  Christians  were  accused  of  adoring  an  ass's 


head,  ''Somniatis  caput  asininimi  esse  Deum  nos- 
trum" (ApoL,  xvi;  Ad  Nat..  I,u).  And  Minudus 
Felix  confirms  this  (Octav.,  ix).  The  Palatine  araffUo 
is  also  important  as  showing  that  the  Christians 
used  the  crucifix  in  their  private  devotions  at  least 
as  eariy  as  the  third  centuiy.  It  would  not  have 
been  possible  for  Alexamenoe'  companion  to  trace  that 
graffito  of  a  crucified  person  clad  in  the  perizoma  (which 
was  contrary  to  Roman  usage)  if  he  had  not  seen  some 
such  figure  made  use  of  by  the  Christians.  Professor 
Haupt  sought  to  identify  it  as  a  caricature  of  a  wor- 
shipper of  the  Egyptian  ^  Seth,  the  IVpho  of  tiie 
Greeks,  but  his  explanation  was  refutecl  oy  Kraus. 
Recently,  a  similar  opinion  has  been  put  forth  b^' 
Wttnsch,  who  takes  his  stand  on  the  letter  Y  which  is 
placed  near  the  crucified  figure,  and  which  has  also 
been  found  on  a  tablet  relating  to  the  worship  of 
Seth ;  he  therefore  concludes  that  Alexamenos  of  the 
graffito  belon^d  to  the  Sethian  sect.  (With  refer- 
ence to  the  A&xamenos  graffito,  which  certainly  has  a 
bearing  on  the  crucifix  and  its  use  by  the  early  Chris- 
tians, see  Raffaele  Gamed,  "Un  crocifisso  graffito  da 
mano  pasana  nella  casa  dei  Cesari  sul  Palatine  *\  Rome, 
1857;  Ferdinand  Becker,  ''Das  Spott-Crucifix  dei 
rdmischen  Kaiserpal&ste",  Breslau.  1866;  Kraus, 
"Das  Spott^rucifix  vom  Palatin  ,  Freibuig  im 
Breisgau,  1872;  Visconti,  "Di  un  nuovo  n'affito  pala- 
tine relativo  al  cristiano  Aleasameno",  Rome,  1870; 
Visconti  and  Landani,  "Guida  del  Palatino",  1873,  p. 
86;  De  Road,  "Rom.  Sott.  Crist.",  1877,  pp.  353-^354; 
Wttnsch,  ed.,  "Setianische  Verfluchungstafeln  aus 
Rom",  Leipzig,  1898,  p.  110  sqq.:  Vigouroux,  "Les 
livres  saints  et  la  critique  rationaliste  ,  I,  04-102.) 
The  crucifix  and  representations  of  the  Crudfixion  be- 
came general  after  the  sixth  century,  on  manuscripts, 
then  on  private  monuments,  and  finally  even  on  public 
monuments.  But  its  appearance  on  monuments  up  to 
about  the  eighth  centuiy  surely  indicates  such  monu- 
ments to  be  works  of  pnvate  zeal  and  devotion,  or,  at 
least,  not  clearly  and  decidedly  public.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  is  noteworthy  that,  in  tne  vear  602,  i.  e.  at  the 
end  of  the  seventh  century  the  Quinisext  Council  of 
Constantinople,  called  the  Trullan,  ordered  the  s^« 
bolical  and  allegorical  treatment  to  be  laid  aside. 
The  earliest  MS.  bearing  a  representation  of  Christ 
crucified  is  in  a  miniature  of  a  Syriac  codex  of  the 
Gospels  dating  from  a.  d.  586  (Codex  Syriacua,  56), 
written  by  the  scribe  Rabula,  and  which  is  in  the 
lAurentian  Library  at  Florence.  Therein  the  figure 
of  Christ  is  robed  (Assemani,  Biblioth.  Laurent. 
Medic,  catalog.,  PL  XXIII,  p.  104).  Other  images  of 
the  crudfix  belong  to  the  sixth  century.  Gr^iy  of 
Tours,  in  his  wortc  "De  GloriA  Martynim'*,  I,  xxv, 
speaks  of  a  crucifix  robed  in  a  colobium,  or  tunic, 
which  in  his  day  was  publicly  venerated  at  Narbonne 
in  the  church  of  St.  (jenesius,  and  which  he  consid- 
ered a  profanation — so  far  was  the  public  cult  of  the 
crucifix  from  having  become  general  up  to  that  time. 
A  cross  belonging  to  the  sixth  centurv  is  to  be  found 
in  the  treasury  at  Monza,  on  which  the  image  of  the 
Saviour  is  wrought  in  enamel  (d.  Mozzoni,  "Tavole 
cronolo^che-critichedella  stor.  ecd:  secolo  VH",  70), 
and  which  seems  to  be  identical  with  that  given  by 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  to  Theodolinda,  Queen  of  the 
Lombanls.  We  know  also  that  he  gave  a  cross  to 
Recared,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  and  to  others  (cf.  S. 
Gregprii  Lib.  Ill,  Epist.  xxxiij  Lib.  IX,  Epist.  cxxii; 
Lib.  XIII,  Epist.  xUi;  Lib.  XIV,  Epist.  xii). 

It  is  certain,  then,  that  the  custom  of  displaying 
the  Redeemer  on  the  Cross  began  with  the  close  en 
the  sixth  century,  especially  on  enoolpia,  yet  such  ex- 
amples of  the  crucifix  are  rare.  As  an  example,  we 
have  a  Byzantine  encolpion.  with  a  Greek  inscrip- 
tion, which  was  erroneously  thought  to  have  been  dis- 
covered in  the  Roman  Catacombs  in  1662,  and  about 
which  the  renowned  Leo  Allatius  has  written  learn- 
edly (cf.  "Codice  Cliigiano*',  VI;  Fea,  "Miscellanea 


OBoas 


528 


cntoss 


fllol.  critica'*,  282).  The  little  metal  vases  pre- 
served at  Monza,  in  which  was  carried  to  Queen  Tneo- 
dolinda  the  oil  from  the  Holy  Places,  show  clearly 
how  the  repugnance  to  effigies  of  Christ  lasted  well 
into  the  sixth  century.  In  the  scene  of  the  Cruci- 
fiidon  thereon  depicted,  the  two  thieves  alone  are 
seen  with  arms  extended,  in  the  attitude  of  cruci- 
fixion, but  without  a  cross,  while  Christ  appears  as  an 
orante,  with  a  nimbus,  ascending  among  the  clouds, 
and  in  all  the  majesty  of  glory,  above  a  cross  hidden 
under  a  decoration  of  flowers.  (Cf .  Mozzoni,  op.  cit.,  77, 
84.)  In  the  same  manner,  on  another  monument,  we 
see  the  cross  between  two  archangels  while  the  bust  of 
Christ  \b  shown  above. 
Another  very  impor- 
tant monument  of  this 
century,  and  perhaps 
dating  even  from  the 
preceding  one,  is  the 
Crucifixion  carved  on 
the  wooden  doors  at 
S.  Sabina  on  the  Aven- 
tine  Hill,  at  Rome. 
The  Crucified  Christ, 
stripped  of  His  gar- 
ments, and  on  a  cross, 
but  not  nailed  to  the 
cross,  and  between 
two  thieves,  is  shown 
as  an  orante,  and  the 
scene  of  the  Crucifix- 
ion is,  to  a  certain 
extent,  artistically 
veiled.  The  carving 
is  roughly  done,  but 
the  work  has  become 
of  great  importance, 
owhig  to  recent  studies 
thereon,  wherefore  we 
shall  briefly  indicate 
the  various  writings 
dealing  with  it:  Grisar, 
"Analecta  Romana", 
427  sqq.;  Berthier, 
"  La  Porte  de  Sainte- 
Sabine^  Rome:  Etude 
arch^logique  *  (Fri- 
bourg,  Switzerland, 
1892);P^rat4,  "L*Ar- 
chdolo^e  chr^tienne" 
in  *'Bibliothdque  de 
i'enseignementdes 
beaux  arts'*  (Paris, 
1892,  pp.  330-36); 
Bertram,"  DieThuren 
von  Sta.  Sabina  in 
Rom:  das  Vorbild  der 
Bemwards  Thttren  am 
Dom  zu  Hildesheim 
(Fribourg,  Switzer- 
land, 1892) ;  Ehrhard,  "Die  altchristliche  Prachtthtlre 
der  Basilika  Sta.  Sabina  in  Rom  *'  in  '*  Der  Katholik  '^ 
LXXII  (1892),  444 sqq.,  538 sqq. ;  "Civilti Cattolica", 
IV  (1892),  68-89;  "Romische  Quartalschrift",  VII 
(1893),  102;  "Analecta  BoUandiana",  XIII  (1894), 
53;  Forrer and  Miiller, "Kreuz  und  Kreuzigung Christi 
in  ihrerKunstentwicklung"  (Strasburg,  1894),  15,  PI. 
II  and  PI.  Ill;  Strzygowski,  "Das  Beriiner  Mosed- 
relief  und  die  ThQren  von  Sta.  Sabina  in  Rom*'  in 
"  Jahrbudi  derkOnigl.  preussischen  Kunstsammlungen 
XVI  (1893),  65-81;  Ehrhard,  "PrachtthQre  von  8. 
Sabina  in  Rom  und  die  Dom th  Ore  von  Spalato*'  in 
"Ephemeris  Spalatensis"  (1894),  9  sqq.;  Grisar, 
"  Kreuz  und  Kreuzigung  auf  der  altchristl.  Thlire 
von  S.  Sabina  in  Rom  (Rome,  1894);  Dobbert,  "Zur 
Entstchungsgeschichtc  des  Cnicifixes"  in  "  Jalirb.  der 
preuss.  Kunstsammlungen",  I  (1880),  41-50. 


The  Crucifixion — Guido  Reni 
(Church  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Lucina,  Rome) 


To  this  same  period  belongs  a  crucifix  at  Mount 
Athos  (see  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiq- 
uities", London,  1875, 1,  514),  as  well  as  an  ivorr  in 
the  British  Museum.  Christ  is  shown  wearing  om^  a 
loin-cloth:  He  appears  as  if  alive,  and  not  suflfering 
physical  pain.  To  the  left,  Judas  is  seen  hanged, 
and  below  is  the  purse  of  money.  In  the  foUowio^ 
century  the  Crucifixion  is  still  sometimes  r^resented 
with  tne  restrictions  we  have  noticed,  for  instance, 
in  the  mosaic  made  in  642  by  Pope  Theodore  in  S. 
Stefano  Rotondo,  Rome.  There,  between  Sts.  Pri- 
mas  and  Felician,  the  cross  is  to  be  seen,  with  the 
bust  of  the  Saviour  just  above  it.  In  the  same  sev- 
enth century,  also, 
the  scene  of  the  Cru- 
cifixion is  shown  in 
all  its  historic  reality 
in  the  crypt  of  St. 
Valentine's  Catacomb 
on  the  Via  Flaminia 
(cf.  Marucchi,  La 
cripta  sepolcrale  di  S. 
Valentino,  Rome, 
1878).  Bosio  saw  it 
in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  it  was  then 
in  a  better  state  of 
preservation  than  it 
is  to-day  (Bosio, 
RomaSott.,  Ill,  Ixv). 
Christ  crucified  ap- 
pears between  Our 
Lady  and  St.  John, 
and  is  clad  in  a  long, 
flowing  tunic  (colo- 
hhtm),  and  fastened  by 
four  nails,  as  was  the 
ancient  tradition,  and 
as  Gregory  of  Tours 
teaches:  **CIavorum 
ergo  dominicorum 
gratis  quod  qratuor 
fuerint  luec  est  ratio: 
duo  sunt  afiixi  in 
palmis,     et    duo    in 

Slantis'*  C'De  Gloria 
[artyrum",  I,  vi,  in 
P.  L.,  XXI,  710). 

The  last  objections 
and  obstacles  to  the 
realistic  reproduction 
of  the  Crucifixion  dis- 
app^ured  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighth 
century.  In  the  ora- 
tory built  by  Pope 
John  VII  in  the  Vati- 
can, A.  D.  705,  the  cru- 
cifix was  represented 
realistically  in  mosaic. 
But  the  figure  was  robed,  as  we  may  learn  from  the 
drawings  made  by  Grimaldi  in  the  time  of  Paul  V, 
when  the  oratory  was  pulled  down  to  make  room  for 
the  modem  facade.  Part  of  such  a  mosaic  still  exists  in 
the  grottoes  at  the  Vatican  similar  in  treatment  to 
that  of  John  VII.  Belonging  to  the  same  centuiy, 
though  dating  a  little  later,  is  the  image  of  the  Cruci- 
fied discovered  a  few  years  ago  in  the  apse  of  the  old 
church  of  S.  Maria  Antiqua  in  the  Roman  Forxmi. 
This  remarkable  picture,  now  happily  recovered,  was 
visible  for  a  little  while  in  the  month  of  May,  1702, 
and  is  mentioned  in  the  diary  of  Valesio.  It  dates 
from  the  time  of  Pope  St.  Paul  I  (757-768),  and  stands 
in  a  niche  above  ihe  altar.  The  figure  is  draped  in  a 
long  tunic  of  a  greyish-blue  colour,  is  very  lifelike,  and 
has  wide-open  eyes.  The  soldier  Longinus  is  in  the 
act  of  wounding  the  side  of  Christ  with  the  lance.    On 


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CDB088 


either  hand  are  Mary  and  John;  between  them  and 
the  Cross  stands  a  soldier  with  a  sponge  and  a  vessel 
filled  with  vin^ar;  above  the  Croas  the  sun  and  moon 
dim  their  rays. 

Another  interesting  picture  is  that  in  the  crypt  of 
SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo  at  Rome,  in  their  dwelling- 
house  on  the  Cdian  Hill.  It  is  Byzantine  in  style 
and  shows  the  crucifix.  In  the  nmth  centuiy  the 
crucifix  of  Leo  IV  is  of  importance  (840-847).  It  is  a 
stripped  fi^re,  with  a  perizoma,  and  four  nails  are 
used.  A  sunilar  figure  is  in  the  paintings  of  S.  Ste- 
fano  alia  Cappella.  To  the  same  century  belongs 
a  diptych  from  the  monastery  of  Rambona  of  about 
tiie  year  898,  and  now  in  the  Vatican  Library  (Buo- 
narroti, ''Osservazioni  aopr&  alcune  frammenti  di 
vetro",  Florence,  1716,  267-283,  and  P.  Germano  da 
B.  Stanislao,  ''La  casa  celimontana  dei  SS.  Giovanni 
e  Paolo",  Rome,  1895).  To  bring  this  list  to  a  close 
we  may  mention  an  eleventh*century  diptych  in  the 
cathedral  of  Toumai,  a  twelfth-century  Roman  cross 
preserved  at  the  Porte  de  Halle,  at  Brussels,  and  an 
enamelled  crucifix  in  the  Spitzer  collection. 

Here  we  bring  our  researches  to  an  end,  the  field  of 
Christian  archseology  not  extending  further.  In  the 
artistic  treatment  of  the  crucifix  there  are  two 
periods:  the  first,  which  dates  from  the  sixth  to  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries;  and  the  second, 
dating  from  that  time  to  our  own  day.  We  shall 
here  treat  only  of  the  former,  touching  lightly  on  the 
latter.  In  the  first  period  the  Crucifieid  is  shown  ad- 
htsring  to  the  cross,  not  hanging  forward  from  it;  He 
is  alive  and  shows  no  signs  of  physical  suffering;  He 
is  clad  in  a  lonsi  flowing,  sleeveless  tunic  (colobium)^ 
which  reaches  the  knees.  The  head  is  erect,  and  sur- 
rounded bv  a  nimbus,  and  bears  a  royal  crown.  The 
figure  is  mstened  to  the  wood  with  four  nails  (cf. 
Garrucci,  "Storia  dell'  arte  crist.".  Ill,  fig.  139  and 
p.  61 :  Marucchi,  op.  cit.,  and  "  II  cimitero  c  la  basilica 
di  S.  Valentino",  Rome,  1890;  Forrer  and  Miiller,  op. 
cit.,  20,  PI.  Ill,  fig.  6).  In  a  word,  it  is  not  Christ 
suffering,  but  Christ  triumphing  and  glorious  on  the 
Cross.  Moreover,  Christian  art  for  a  long  time  ob- 
jected to  stripping  Christ  of  his  garments,  and  the 
traditional  cohbiunif  or  tunic,  remained  until  the 
ninth  century.  In  the  East  the  robed  Christ  was 
preserved  to  a  much  later  date.  Again,  in  miniatures 
from  the  ninth  century  the  figure  is  robed,  and 
stands  erect  on  the  cross  and  on  the  mppedaneum. 

The  scene  of  the  Crucifixion,  especially  after  the 
eighth  centuiy,  includes  the  presence  of  the  two 
thieves,  the  centurion  who  pierced  Christ's  side,  the 
soldier  with  the  sponge,  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  St. 
John.  Mary  is  never  shown  weeping  and  afflicted, 
as  became  the  custom  in  later  ages,  but  standii^ 
erect  near  the  cross,  as  St.  Ambrose  says,  in  his 
funeral  oration  on  Valentinian:  *'  I  read  of  her  stand- 
ing; I  do  not  read  of  her  weeping*"  Moreover,  on 
either  side  of  the  Cross  the  sun  and  the  moon,  oft«i 
with  human  faces,  veil  their  brightness,  being  placed 
there  to  typify  the  two  natures  of  Christ;  the  sun, 
the  Divine,  and  the  moon,  the  human  (cf .  St.  Gregory 
the  Great,  Homily  ii  in  Evang.).  At  the  foot  of 
the  Cross  the  female  figures  are  sjrmbolical  of  the 
Church  and  the  Synagogue,  the  one  receiving  the 
Saviour's  blood  in  a  cup,  the  other  veiled  and  dis- 
crowned, holding  in  her  hand  a  torn  banner.  With 
the  tenth  century  realism  began  to  play  a  part  in 
Christian  art,  and  the  colobium  becomes  a  shorter 
garment,  reaching  from  the  waist  to  the  knees  (perv- 
Eoma) .  In  the  "  fiortus  deliciarum ' '  in  the  "  album ' ' 
belonging  to  the  Abbess  Herrada  of  Landsberg  in 
the  twelfth  the  oolobium  is  short,  and  approaches  the 
form  of  the  perizoma.  From  the  eleventh  century  in 
the  East,  and  from  the  Ck)thic  period  in  the  West,  the 
head  droops  onto  the  breast  (cf.  Borgia,  De  Cbruoe 
Velitemi,  191),  the  crown  of  thorns  is  introduced, 
the  arms  are  bent  back,  the  body  is  twisted,  the  face 
T       34 


is  wrung  with  agony,  and  blood  flows  from  the  wounds. 
In  the  thirteenth  centuiy  complete  realism  is  reached 
by  the  substitution  of  one  nail  in  the  feet,  instead  of 
two.  as  in  the  old  tradition,  and  tibe  resulting  crossing 
of  the  legs.  All  this  was  done  from  artistic  motives, 
to  brin^  about  a  more  movL^  and  devotional  pose. 
The  living  and  triumphant  Christ  gives  place  to  a 
Christ  dead,  in  all  the  humiliation  of  His  Passion,  the 
agony  of  His  death  being  even  accentuated.  Tlxis 
manner  of  treatment  was  afterwards  generalised  by 
the  schools  of  Cimabue  and  Giotto.  In  conclusion  it 
may  be  noted  that  the  custom  of  placing  the  crucifix 
over  the  altar  does  not  date  from  earUer  than  the 
eleventh  century.  (See  Section  III  of  this  article.) 
Works  of  i«ference  on  the  crucifix  and  its  various  forms  in 

Smeml:  Justus  Lipudb,  De  Cntee  libri  trea  (Antwerp,  1505); 
RETSER,  De  Cruce  Chnali  rebuMue  ad  earn  perttneniUme 
(Ingoldstadt,  1595-1605);  Bosius,  Crux  iriumj^uma  et  glorioaa 
(Antwerp.  1617,  folio);  BAirrHOLi2«U8,  De  Cruce  Ckristihy 
Vomnemata  (Copenhagen,  1651);  Algkb,  HieUny  of  the  Croaa 
(Boston.  1858);  MOnz,  ArckAologiacKe  Bemerkungen  aber  doe 
KreuB  Chriati  (Fmnkfort,  1867);  SroCKBAUEm  KunetQeschichte 
dea  Kreuaea  (Schaffhausen,  1870);  ZdcKLEB,  Daa  Kreua  Chriati 
(Gttteisloh,  1876). 

Obazio  Mabucchi. 

II.  The  True  Cross  and  Representations  of  it 
AS  Objects  of  Devotion. — (1)  Growth  of  the  Chria- 
tian  Ctdt. — ^The  Cross  to  which  Christ  had  been  nailed, 
and  on  which  He  had  died,  became  for  Christians, 
quite  naturally  and  logically,  the  object  of  a  special 
r^pect  and  worship.  St.  Paul  says,  in  I  Cor.,  i,  17: 
**  For  Christ  sent  me  not  to  baptize,  but  to  preach  the 
eospel:  not  in  wisdom  of  speech,  lest  the  cross  of 
Chnst  should  be  made  void'^  in  Gal.,  ii,  19:  "With 
Christ. I  am  nailed  to  the  cross'';  in  Eph.,  ii,  16: 
Christ  .  .  .  "might  reconcile  both  to  God  in  one 
body  by  the  cross*':  in  Phil.,  iii,  18:  "For  msaxy  walk 
.  .  .  enemies  of  the  cross  of  Christ";  in  Col.,  ii, 
14:  "Blotting  out  the  handwriting  of  the  decree  that 
was  against  us,  which  was  contraiy  to  us.  And  he 
hath  taken  the  same  out  of  the  way,  fastening  it  to 
the  cross";  and  in  Gal.,  vi,  14:  "But  God  forbid  that 
I  should  glorv,  save  in  the  cross  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ;  by  wnom  the  world  is  crucified  to  me,  and  I 
to  the  world". 

It  seems  clear,  therefore,  that  for  St.  Paul  the  Cross 
of  Christ  was  not  only  a  precious  remembrance  of 
Christ's  sufferings  and  aeath,  but  also  a  symbol  closely 
associated  with  His  sacrifice  and  the  mystery  of  the 
Passion.  It  was,  moreover,  natural  that  it  should  be 
venerated  and  become  an  object  of  a  cult  with  the 
Christians  who  had  been  saved  by  it.  Of  such  a  cult 
in  the  Primitive  Church  we  have  definite  and  suffi- 
ciently numerous  evidences.  Tertullian  meets  the 
objection  that  Christians  adore  the  cross  by  answering 
with  an  argumentum  ad  hominemf  not  by  a  denial. 
Another  apologist,  Minucius  Felix,  replies  to  the  same 
objection.  Lastly  we  may  recall  the  famous  carica- 
ture of  Alexamenos,  for  which  see  the  article  Abs. 
From  all  this  it  appears  that  the  pa{;ans,  without 
further  consideration  of  the  matter,  beheved  that  the 
Christians  adored  the  cross;  and  that  ^e  apologists 
either  answered  indirectly,  or  contented  themselves 
with  saying  that  they  do  not  adore  the  cross,  without 
denying  that  a  certain  form  of  veneration  was  paid 
to  it. 

It  is  also  an  accepted  belief  that  in  the  decorations 
of  the  catacombs  uiere  have  been  found,  if  not  the 
cross  itself,  at  least  more  or  less  veiled  allusions  to 
the  holy  symbol.  A  detailed  treatment  of  this  and 
other  historical  evidence  for  the  early  prevalence  of 
the  cult  will  be  found  in  Section  I  of  this  article. 

This  cult  became  more  extensive  than  ever  after 
the  discovery  of  the  Holy  Places  and  of  the  True 
Cross.  Since  the  time  when  Jerusalem  had  been  laid 
waste  and  ruined  in  the  wars  of  the  Romans,  especially 
since  Hadrian  had  founded  upon  the  ruins  his  colony 
of  iElia  Capitolina,  the  places  consecrated  by  the  Paa- 


0B0S8 


530 


0B08B 


BioDi  Deathi  and  Burial  of  Christ  had  been  profaned 
uid,  it  would  seem,  deserted.  Under  Constantine, 
after  peace  had  been  vouchsafed  to  the  Church,  Ma- 
carius.  Bishop  of  Jerusalem;  caused  excavations  to 
be  made  (about  a.  d.  327,  it  is  believed)  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  location  of  these  holy  sites.  That  of 
Calvarv  was  identified,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre;  it  was  in  the  course  of  these  excavations 
that  the  wood  of  the  Cross  was  recovered.  It  was 
recognized  as  authentic,  and  for  it  was  built  a  chapel, 
t)r  oratory,  which  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius,  also  by 
St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  Silvia  (Etheria).  From 
A.  D.  347,  that  is  to  say,  twenty  years  after  these  ex- 
cavations, the  same  St.  Cyril,  in  his  diBCOUrses  (or 
caUcheaea)  delivered  in  these  very  places  (iv,  10;  x, 
14;  xiii,  4)  speaks  of  this  sacred  wood.  An  in- 
scription of  A.  D.  359,  found  at  Tixter,  in  the  neigh- 
boiurhood  of  S^tif  in  Mauretania,  mentions  in  an 
enimieration  of  relics,  a  fragment  of  the  True  Cross 
(Roman  Miscellanies,  X,  441).  For  a  full  discussion 
of  the  legend  of  St.  Helena,  see  Section  I  of  this 
article;  see  also  Helena,  Saint.  Silvia's  recital 
(Peregrinatio  Etheriae),  which  is  of  indisputable  au- 
thenticity, tells  how  the  sacred  wood  was  venerated 
in  Jerusalem  about  a.  d.  380.  On  Good  Fridav,  at 
eight  o'clock  in  Uie  morning,  the  faithful  and  the 
monks  assemble  in  the  chapelof  the  Cross  (built  on  a 
site  hard  by  Calvary),  and  at  this  spot  the  ceremony 
of  the  adoration  takes  place.  The  bishop  is  seated 
on  his  chair;  before  him  is  a  table  covered  with  a  cloth ; 
the  deacons  are  standing  around  him.  The  silver-gilt 
reliquary  is  brought  ana  opened,  and  the  sacred  wood 
of  tne  Cross,  with  the  Title,  is  placed  on  the  table. 
The  bishop  stretches  out  his  hand  over  the  holy  relic, 
and  the  deacons  keep  watch  with  him  while  the  faith- 
ful and  catechumens  defile,  one  by  one,  before  the 
table,  bow,  and  kiss  the  Cross;  they  touch  the  Cross 
and  the  Title  with  forehead  and  eyes,  but  it  is  for- 
bidden to  touch  them  with  the  hands.  This  minute 
watchfulness  was  not  unnecessarv,  for  it  has  been 
told  in  fact  how  one  da^  one  of  the  faithful,  making 
as  though  to  kiss  the  Cross,  was  so  unscrupulous  as 
to  bite  off  a  piece  of  it,  whidi  he  carried  off  as  a  relic. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  deacons  to  prevent  the  repetition 
of  such  a  crime.  St.  Ch^l,  who  also  tells  of  this  cere- 
mony, makes  his  account  much  more  brief,  but  adds 
the  important  detail,  that  relics  of  the  True  Cross  have 
been  distributed  all  over  the  world.  He  adds  some 
information  as  to  the  silver  reliquary  which  contained 
the  True  Cross.  (See  Cabrol,  La  Per^rinatio  ad  loca 
sancta,  105.)  In  several  other  passa^  of  the  same 
woric  Silvia  (also  called  Egeria,  Echeria,  Eiheria,  and 
Etheria)  speaks  to  us  of  this  chapel  of  the  Cross  (built 
between  tne  basilicas  of  the  Anastasis  and  the  Mar- 
tyrion)  which  plays  so  great  a  part  in  the  paschal 
Uturgy  of  Jerusalem. 

A  law  of  Theodosius  and  of  Valentinian  HI  (Cod. 
Justin.,  I,  tit.  vii)  forbade  under  the  gravest  penalties 
any  painting,  carving,  or  engraving  of  the  cross  on 
pavements,  so  that  this  august  sign  of  our  salvation 
might  not  be  trodden  under  foot.  This  law  was  re- 
vised by  the  Trullan  Council,  a.  d.  691  (canon  Ixxii). 
Julian  the  Apostate,  on  the  other  hand,  according 
to  St.  CJyril  of  Alexandria  (Contra  Julian.,  vi,  in. 
0pp.,  VI),  made  it  a  crime  for  Christians  to  adore  the 
wood  of  the  Cross,  to  trace  its  form  upon  their  fore- 
heads, and  to  engrave  it  over  the  entrances  of  their 
homes.  St.  John  Chrysostom  more  than  once  in  his 
writings  makes  allusion  to  the  adoration  of  the  cross; 
one  citation  will  suffice:  "Kings  removing  their  dia- 
dems take  up  the  cross,  the  symbol  of  their  Saviour's 
death;  on  the  purple,  the  cross;  in  their  pravers,  the 
cross;  on  their  armour,  the  cross;  on  the  holy  table, 
the  cross;  throughout  the  imiverse,  the  cross.  The 
crofw  shines  brighter  than  the  sun."  These  quota- 
tions from  St.  Chrysostom  may  be  found  in  the  au- 
thorities to  be  named  at  the  end  of  this  article.    At 


the  same  time,  pilgrimages  to  the  holy  places  became 
more  frequent,  and  especially  for  the  purpose  of  f ol- 
lowing  the  example  set  bv  St.  Helena  in  venerating 
the  True  Cross.  Saint  Jerome,  describing  the  pil- 
grimage of  St.  Paula  to  the  Holy  Plaoes,  tcfis  us  tliat 
^prostrate  before  the  Cross,  she  adored  it  as  thouj^ 
she  had  seen  the  Saviour  hanging  upon  it"  (Ep.  cviii). 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  even  the  Iconoclasts,  who 
fought  with  such  zeal  against  images  and  representa- 
tions in  relicdf,  made  an  exception  in  the  case  of  the 
cross.  Thus  we  find  the  image  of  the  cross  on  the 
coins  of  the  Iconoclastic  emperors,  Leo  the  Isaurian, 
Constantino  Copronymus,  Leo  IV,  Nicephonw, 
Michael  H,  and  Theophilus  (cf.  Banduri,  Numism. 
Imperat.  Rom.,  II).  Sometimes  this  cult  involved 
abuses.  Thus  we  are  told  of  the  Staurolaters,  or  thane 
who  adore  the  cross;  the  Chazingarii  (from  chazuMt 
cross),  a  sect  of  Armenians  who  adore  the  cross.  Tlie 
Second  Council  of  Nic8ea(A.D.  787),  held  for  the  purpose 
of  reforming  abuses  and  putting  an  end  to  the  dis- 
putes of  Iconoclasm,  fixed,  once  for  all,  the  Catholic 
doctrine  and  discipline  on  this  point.  It  defined  that 
the  veneration  of  the  faithful  was  due  to  the  form  "of 
the  precious  and  vivifying  cross",  as  well  as  to  images 
or  representations  of  Christ,  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and 
of  the  saints.  But  the  coimdl  points  out  that  we 
must  not  render  to  these  objects  the  cult  of  UUria, 
"which,  according  to  the  teaching  of  the  faith,  betongs 
to  the  Divine  nature  alone.  .  .  .  The  honour 
paid  to  the  image  passes  to  the  prototype;  and  he 
who  adores  the  image,  adores  the  penon  whom  it 
represents.  Thus  the  doctrine  of  our  holy  fathers 
obtains  in  all  its  force:  the  tradition  of  the  H6Ly 
Catholic  Church  which  from  one  end  of  the  earth  to 
the  other  has  received  the  gospel."  This  decree  was 
renewed  at  the  Eighth  (Ecumenical  Council,  at  Constan- 
tinople, in  869  (can.  iii).  The  council  cleariy  dis- 
tinguishes between  the  '^salutation"  {irwd^fiAs)  and 
"veneration"  (xpoaKOtnif^it)  due  to  the  cross,  and  the 
"true  adoration"  (dXiyWni  Xarpek),  which  should 
not  be  paid  to  it.  Theodore  the  Studite,  the  great 
adversary  of  the  Iconoclasts,  also  makes  a  very  exact 
distinction  between  the  adoratw  relativa  (wpoffKAwti^t 
^X^^)  and  adoration  properly  so  called. 

(2)  Catholic  Doctrine  on  the  VenercOion  of  the  Crom. 
— ^In  passing  to  a  detailed  examination  of  the  Catho- 
lic doctrine  on  this  subject  of  the  cult  due  to  the  Cross, 
it  will  be  well  to  notice  the  theories  of  Brock,  the 
Abb^  Ansault,  le  Mortillet,  and  others,  who  pretend 
to  have  discovered  that  cult  among  the  pag^ms  be- 
fore the  time  of  Christ.  For  a  demonstration  of 
the  purely  Christian  origin  of  the  Qiristian  de- 
votion the  reader  is  referred  to  Section  I  of  this 
article.  See  also  the  works  of  de  Harlay,  Lafar- 
gue,  and  others  cited  at  the  end  of  this  section. 
With  reference,  in  particular,  to  the  ansated  cross  of 
Epypt,  Letronne,  Raoul-Rochette,  and  Lajard  discuss 
with  much  learning  the  symbolism  of  that  simple 
hieroglyphic  of  life,  in  'v^icn  the  Christians  of  Egypt 
seem  to  nave  recognized  an  anticipatory  revelation  o( 
the  Christian  Cross,  and  which  th^  employed  in  tiieir 
monuments.  According  to  the  text  of  the  Second 
Council  of  Nicoea  cited  above,  the  cult  of  the  Cross 
is  based  upon  the  same  principles  as  that  of  relics  and 
ims^es  in  general,  although,  to  be  sure,  the  Tme  Cross 
holds  the  nighest  place  in  dimity  among  all  relics. 
The  observation  of  Petavius  (AY,  xiii,  1)  should  be 
noted  here:  that  this  cult  must  be  considered  as  not 
beloncine  to  the  substance  of  religion,  but  as  being 
one  01  tne  iSidipopa,  or  things  not  absolutely  neoes- 
saiy  to  salvation.  Indeed,  while  it  is  of  faith  that 
this  cult  is  useful,  lawful,  even  pious  and  worthy  of 
praise  and  of  encoura^ment,  and  while  we  are  not 
permitted  to  speak  against  it  as  something  pernicious, 
still  it  is  one  of  those  devotional  practices  which  the 
Church  can  enoouniM|e,  or  restrain,  or  stop,  according 
to  circumstances.    This  explains  bow  the  veneration 


dROSS 


631 


0BOS8 


oi  images  was  forbidden  to  the  Jews  by  that  text  of 
£Ixodus  (XX,  4  sqq.)  which  has  been  so  grossly  abused 
by  Iconoclasts  and  Protestants:  "Thou  snalt  not 
make  to  thyself  a  graven  thing,  nor  the  likenesB  of 
any  thing  that  is  in  neaven  above,  or  in  the  earth  be- 
neath, nor  of  those  things  that  are  in  the  waters  under 
the  earth.  Thou  shalt  not  adore  them,  nor  serve 
them:  I  am  the  Lord  thy  God,"  etc.  It  also  explains 
the  fact  that  in  the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  when  con- 
verts from  paganism  were  so  numerous,  and  the  im- 
pression of  idol-worship  was  so  fresh,  theOiurch  found 
it  advisable  not  to  permit  the  development  of  this  cult 
of  images ;  but  later,  when  tiiat  danger  had  disappeared, 
when  Christian  traditions  and  Clmstian  instmct  had 
tied  strength,  the  cult  developed  more  freely. 
lin,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  cult  of  ima^  and 

ilics  is  not  that  of  lairia,  which  is  the  adoration  due 
to  God  alone,  but  is,  as  the  Second  Council  of  Nicsa 
teaches,  a  relative  veneration  paid  to  the  image  or 
relic  and  referring  to  that  whicn  it  represents.  Pre- 
dsely  this  same  doctrine  is  repeated  in  Sess.  XXV  of 
the  Council  of  Trent:  "Imaees  are  not  to  bo  wor- 
shipped because  it  is  believed  that  some  divinity  or 
power  resides  in  them  and  that  they  must  be  wor- 
shipped on  that  accoimt,  or  because  we  ought  to  ask 
anything  of  them,  or  because  we  should  put  our  trust 
in  them,  as  was  done  by  the  gentiles  of  old  who  placed 
their  hope  in  idols;  but  because  the  honour  which  is 
shown  to  them  is  referred  to  the  prototypes  which 
they  represent;  so  that  through  the  images  which  we 
kiss,  and  before  which  we  kneel,  we  may  adore  Christ, 
and  venerate  the  saints,  whose  semblances  they  bear.'' 
(See  also  Imagbs.) 

This  clear  doc^ine,  which  cuts  short  every  objec- 
tion, is  also  that  taught  by  Bellarmine,  by  Bossuet,  and 
by  retavius.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  ^is 
view  was  not  always  so  clearly  taught.  Following 
Bl.  Albertus  Magnus  and  Alexander  of  Hales,  St. 
Bonaventure.  St.  Thomas,  and  a  section  of  the 
Schoolmen  who  appear  to  have  oveiiooked  the  Second 
Council  of  Nicsa  teach  that  the  worship  rendered  to 
the  Cross  and  the  imaee  of  dlhrist  is  that  of  latria,  but 
with  a  distinction:  t£e  same  worship  is  due  to  the 
imase  and  its  exemplar,  but  the  exemplar  is  honoured 
for  Himself  (or  for  itself),  with  an  absolute  worahip; 
the  imag^  because  of  its  exemplar,  with  a  relative 
worship.  The  object  of  the  adoration  is  the  same, 
though  it  be  primaiy  in  regard  to  the  exemplu*  ajoa 
secondanr  in  regard  to  the  image.  To  the  image  of 
Christ,  then,  we  owe  a  worship  of  latria  as  well  as  to 
His  Person.  The  image,  in  fact,  is  morally  one  with 
its  prototype,  and,  thus  considered,  if  a  lesser  degree 
of  worship  be  rendered  to  the  image,  that  worship 
must  resell  the  exemplar  lessened  in  dc^gree.  Against 
this  theory  an  attack  has  recently  been  made  in  ''The 
Tablet",  the  opinion  attributed  to  the  Thomists  beine 
sharply  combated.  Its  adversaries  have  endeavoured 
to  prove  that  the  image  of  Christ  should  be  venerated 
but  with  a  lesser  degree  of  honour  than  its  exemplar. 
The  cult  paid  to  it,  they  say,  is  simply  analogous  to 
the  cult  of  latriaf  but  in  its  nature  different  and  in- 
ferior. No  ima^  of  (Uhrist,  then,  should  be  honoured 
with  the  worship  of  latria,  and,  moreover,  the  term 
"  relative  latria  ",  invented  by  the  Thomists,  ou^ht  to 
be  banished  from  theologiciu  langu£^e  as  equivocal 
and  dangerous.*:— Of  these  opinions  iJie  former  rests 
c^efly  upon  considerations  of  pure  reason,  the  latter 
upon  ecclesiastical  tradition^  notabhr  upon  the  Sec- 
ond Council  of  Nicsea  and  its  confirmation  by  ^e 
Fourth  Council  of  Constantinople  and  upon  the  decree 
of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

(3)  Rdics  of  the  True  Crow.— The  testimony  of 
Silvia  (Etheria)  proves  how  highly  these  relics  were 
prized,  while  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  her  contemporaiy, 
testifies  as  explicitly  that  "the  whole  inhabited  eartii 
is  full  of  relics  of  the  wood  of  the  Cross*'.  In  1889 
two  French  arehseologists,  Lotaille  and  AudoUent, 


discovered  in  the  district  of  S^tif  an  inscription  of  thd 
year  359  in  which,  among  other  relics,  is  mentioned 
the  sacred  wood  of  the  Cross  (de  li^o  cruds  et  de 
terrft  promissionis  ubi  natus  est  Chnstus).  Another 
inscription,  from  Rasgunia  (Cape  Matifu),  somewluit 
eariier  in  date  than  the  preceding,  mentions  another 
relic  of  the  Cross  ("sancto  ligno  salvatoris  adlato". — 
See  Duchesne  in  Acad,  des  inscr.,  Paris,  6  December, 
1889;  Morel,  '^Les  missions  catholiques",  25  March, 
1890,  p.  156;  Catech.  iv  in  P.  G.,  XXXIII,  469;  cf. 
also  ibid.,  800;  Prooopius,  '^De  Bello  Persico",  II,  xi). 
St.  John  CSurysoetom  tells  us  that  fragments  of  the 
True  Cross  are  kept  in  golden  reliquaries,  which  men 
reverently  wear  upon  their  persons.  The  passage  in 
the  ''Per^rinatio^'  which  treats  of  this  devotion  has 
already  been  cited.  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola,  some  years 
later,  sends  to  Sulpicius  Severus  a  fragment  of  the 
True  Cross  witii  these  words:  "Receive  a  great  gift 
in  a  little  [compass] ;  and  take,  in  [this]  almost  atomic 
s^ment  of  a  short  dart,  an  armament  [ag^unst  the 
perils]  of  the  present  and  a  pledge  of  everlasting 
safety"  (Epist.  xxxi,  n.  1.  P.  L.,  LXI,  325).  Aboi5 
455  Juvenal,  Patriarch  ot  Jerusalem,  sends  to  Pope 
St.  Leo  a  fragment  of  the  precious  wood  (S.  Leonis 
Epist.  cxxxix,  P.  L.,  LIV,  1108).  The  ''Liber  Ponti- 
ficalis",  if  we  are  to  accept  the  authentidly  of  its 
statement,  tells  us  that,  in  the  pontificate  of  St.  Syl- 
vester. Constantine  presented  to  the  Sessorian  basi- 
lica (Santa  Crooe  in  Gerusalemme)  in  Rome  a  portion 
of  the  True  Cross  (Duchesne,  Liber  Pontif.,  I,  80; 
cf.  78,  178,  179,  195).  Later,  under  St.  Hilary  (461- 
68)  and  under  Syxnmachus  (498-514)  we  are  again 
told  that  fra^ents  of  the  True  Cross  are  enclosed  in 
altars  (op.  cit.,  I,  242  sq.  and  261  so.).  About  the 
year  5()0  Avitus,  Bishop  of  Vieime,  asks  for  a  portion 
of  the  Cross  from  the  JPatriaroh  of  Jerusalem  (P.  L., 
LIX,  236,  239). 

It  is  known  that  Radegunda^  Queen  of  the  Franks, 
having  retired  to  Poitiers,  obtamed  from  the  Emperor 
Justin  II,  in  569,  a  remarkable  relic  of  the  True  (Jroas. 
A  solemn  feast  was  celebrated  on  this  occasion,  and 
the  monastery  founded  W  the  queen  at  Poitiers  re- 
ceived from  that  moment  the  name  of  Holy  Cross 
It  was  also  upon  this  occasion  that  Venantius  For- 
tunatus,  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  and  a  celebrated  poet  of 
the  period,  composed  the  hymn  "Vexilla  Re^" 
which  is  still  sung  at  feasts  of  the  Cross  ?n  the  Latin 
Rite.  St.  Gr^ry  I  sent,  a  little  later,  i.  portion  of 
the  Cross  to  Ineodolinda,  Queen  of  the  ix>mbards 
(Ep.  xiv,  12),  and  another  to  Recared,  the  first  CathoUo 
King  of  Spain  (Ep.  ix,  122).  In  690,  under  SCTgius  I, 
a  casket  was  found  containing  a  relic  of  the  True  Cross 
which  had  been  sent  to  John  III  (560-74)  by  ike 
Emperor  Justin  II  (cf.  Borgia,  "De  Cruce  YaticanA", 
Rome,  1779,  p.  63,  and  Duchesne,  "Liber  Pontifi- 
calis",  I,  374,  378).  We  will  not  give  in  detail  the 
history  of  other  relics  of  the  Cross  (see  the  works  of 
Gretser  and  the  articles  of  Kraus  and  B&umer  quoted 
in  the  bibliography).  The  work  of  RohauH  de  Fleury, 
"M^moire  sur  les  instruments  de  la  Passion"  (Pans, 
1870),  deserves  more  prolonged  attention;  its  author 
has  sought  out  with  great  care  and  learning  all  the 
relics  of  the  True  Cross,  drawn  up  a  catalogue  of 
them,  and,  thanks  to  this  labour,  ne  has  succeeded 
in  showing  that,  in  spite  of  what  various  Protestant 
or  Rationalistic  authors  have  pretended,  the  frag- 
ments of  the  Cross  brought  together  again  would  not 
only  not  "be  comparable  in  bulk  to  a  battleship",  but 
would  not  reach  one-third  that  of  a  cross  which  has 
been  supposed  to  have  been  three  or  four  metres  in 
height,  with  a  transverse  branch  of  two  metres  (see 
above,  imder  I)^roportion8  not  at  a£  abnormal  (op. 
cit.,  97-179).  Here  is  the  calculation  of  this  savant: 
Supposing  the  Cross  to  have  been  of  pine-wood,  as  is 
beueved  by  the  savants  who  have  made  a  special  study 
of  the  subject,  and  giving  it  a  weight  of  about  seventy- 
five  kilograms,  we  find  that  the  volume  of  this  c 


OEOSS 


532 


O&OSB 


178,000,000  cubic  millimetres.  Now  the  total  known 
volume  of  the  IVue  Cross,  according  to  the  finding  of 
M.  Rohault  de  Fleuiy,  amounts  to  above  4,000,000 
cubic  millimetres,  allowing  the  miiwing  part  to  be  as 
big  as  we  will,  the  lost  parts  or  the  parts  the  existence 
of  which  has  been  overlooked,  we  still  find  ourselves 
far  short  of  178,000,000  cubicmiUimetres,  which  should 
viake  up  the  True  Cross. 

(4)  Principal  Feasts  of  the  Cross.— The  feast  of  the 
Gross,  like  so  many  other  liturgical  feasts,  had  its 
origin  at  Jerusaleni,  and  is  connected  with  the  com- 
memoration  of  the  Finding  of  the  Cross  and  the  build- 
ing, by  Constantine,  of  churches  upon  the  sites  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  and  Calvary.  In  335  the  dedication 
of  these  churches  was  celebrated  with  great  solemnity 
^  the  bishops  who  had  assisted  at  the  Council  of 
Tyre,  and  a  great  numb^  of  other  bishops.  This 
dedication  took  place  on  the  13th  and  14th  ot  Septem- 
ber. This  feast  of  the  dedication,  which  was  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Enccenia,  was  most  solemn ;  it  was 
on  an  equal  footing  with  those  of  the  Epiphany  and 
Easter.  The  description  of  it  should  be  read  m  the 
"  Pereerinatio  ",  which  is  of  g^t  value  upon  this  sub- 
ject ofHturgical  origins.  This  solemnity  attracted 
to  Jeruenlem  a  great  number  of  monks,  from  Meso- 
potamia, from  Syria,  from  Egypt,  from  the  Thebald, 
and  from  other  provinces,  besides  laity  of  both  sexes. 
Not  fewer  than  forty  or  fifty  bishops  would  journey 
from  their  dioceses  to  be  present  at  Jerusalem  for  the 
event.  The  feast  was  considered  as  of  obligation. "  and 
he  thinks  himself  guilty  of  a  grave  sin  who  during  this 
period  does  not  attend  the  great  solemnity".  It  lasted 
eight  days.  In  Jerusalem,  then,  this  feast  bore  an 
entirely  local  character.  It  passed,  like  so  many 
other  feasts,  to  Constantinople  and  thence  to  Home. 
There  was  also  an  endeavour  to  give  it  a  local  feeling, 
and  the  church  of  "The  Holy  Cross  in  Jerusalem" 
was  intended,  as  its  name  indicates,  to  recall  the 
memory  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  bearing  the  same 
dedicaoon. 

The  feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross  sprang  into 
existence  at  Rome  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  century. 
Allusion  is  made  to  it  during  the  pontificate  of  Ser- 
gius  I  (6S7-701).  but,  as  Dom  Bftumer  observes,  the 
very  terms  of  the  text  (Lib.  Pontif .,  I,  374,  378) 
show  that  the  feast  already  existed.  It  is,  then, 
inexact,  as  has  often  been  pointed  out,  to  attribute 
the  introduction  of  it  to  this  pope.  The  Gallican 
churches,  which,  at  the  period  here  referred  to,  do  not 
yet  know  of  this  feast  of  the  14th  September,  have 
another  on  the  3rd  of  May,  of  the  same  signification. 
It  seems  to  have  been  introduced  there  in  the  seventh 
century,  for  ancient  Gallican  documents,  such  as  the 
Lectionary  of  Luxeuil,  do  not  mention  it;  Gregory  of 
Tours  also  seems  to  ignore  it.  According  to  Mgr. 
Duchesne,  the  date  seems  to  have  been  borrowed  from 
the  legend  of  the  Finding  of  the  Holy  Cross  (Lib. 
Pontif.,  I,  p.  cviii).  Later,  when  the  Gallican  and 
Roman  Lituigies  were  combined,  a  distinct  character 
was  given  to  each  feast,  so  as  to  avoid  sacrificing 
either.  The  3rd  of  May  was  called  the  feast  of  the 
Invention  of  the  Cross,  and  it  commemorated  in  a 
special  manner  Saint  Helena's  discovery  of  the  sacred 
wood  of  the  Cross;  the  14th  of  September,  the  feast 
of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross,  commemorated  above 
ail  the  ciroumstances  in  which  Heraclius  recovered 
from  the  Persians  the  True  Cross,  which  they  had 
carried  off.  Nevertheless,  it  appears  from  the  history 
of  the  two  feasts,  which  we  have  just  examined,  that 
that  of  the  13th  and  14th  of  September  is  the  older,  and 
that  the  commemoration  of  tne  Finding  of  the  Cross 
was  at  first  combined  with  it. 

The  Good  Friday  ceremony  of  the  Adoration  of  the 
Cross  also  had  its  origin  in  Jerusalem,  as  we  have  seen, 
and  is  a  faithful  reproduction  of  the  rites  of  Adoration 
of  the  Cross  of  the  fourth  century  in  Jerusaleni  which 
have  been  described  above,  in  accordance  with  the 


description  given  by  the  author  of  the  "Peregrinatio". 
This  worship  paid  to  the  Cross  in  Jerusalem  on  Good 
Friday  soon  became  general.  Gr^ory  of  Tours 
speaks  of  the  Wednesday  and  Friday  consecrated  to 
the  Cross — ^probably  the  Wednesday  and  Friday  of 
Holy  Week.  (Cf.  Greg.,  De  Glorii  Mart.  I.  v.)  The 
most  ancient  adoration  of  the  Cross  in  the  Romaa 
Chureh  is  described  in  the  "Ordo  Romanus'^  generallv 
attributed  to  Saint  Gregory.  It  is  p^ormeo,  acooro- 
ing  to  this  "Ordo",  just  as  it  is  nowadays,  after  a 
series  of  responsory  prayers.  The  cross  is  prepared 
before  the  altar;  priests,  deacons,  subdeacons,  denes 
of  the  inferior  grades,  and  lastly  the  people,  each  one 
comes  in  his  turn;  tney  salute  the  cross,  during  the 
singing  of  the  anthem,  "Ecce  lignum  cruds  in  quo 
salus  mundi  pependit.  Venite,  adoremus"  (Bdiold 
the  wood  of  tne  cross  on  which  the  salvation  of  the 
world  did  hang.  Come,  let  us  adore)  and  then  Ps. 
cxviii.  (See  Mabillon,  Mus.  lUl.,  Paris,  1689,  II, 
23.)  The  Latin  Church  has  kept  until  to-day  the 
same  litumcal  features  in  the  ceremony  of  Good  Fri- 
day, addea  to  it  is  the  song  of  the  Improperia  and  the 
hymn  of  the  Cross,  "Pange,  lingua,  gloriosi  lauream 
certaminis*'. 

Besides  the  Adoration  of  the  Cross  on  Good  Friday 
and  the  September  feast,  the  Greeks  have  still  anotiiier 
feast  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Cross  on  the  Ist  of  August 
as  well  as  on  the  third  Sunday  in  Lent.  It  is  probable 
that  Gre^ry  the  Great  was  acquainted  with  this  feast 
during  lus  stay  in  Constantinople,  and  that  the  sta- 
tion of  Santa  Crooe  in  Gerusalemme,  on  Letare  Sun- 
day (the  fourth  Sunday  in  Lent),  is  a  souvenir,  or  a 
timid  effort  at  imitation,  of  the  Byzantine  solenmity. 

On  the  theoUxnf  of  the  mbjeet.  St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theel.,  II  I, 
Q.  3DCV,  aa.  3  and  4,  with  which  d.  Idolairy,  the  eontroveny  in 
The  Tablet  from  22  June  to  21  Sept.,  1007.  Pktavxvs,  De 
Incamat.t  XV,  zv-xviii;  Beliarmine,  De  Imaoimbu»  Sancto- 
rum^ II,  xsdv;  Tbbodors  tkb  SrvDira,  Adv,  loonomachM  in 
P.  G.,  XCIX.  For  the  oontroveny  in  the  time  o£  Cbariemagne. 
GoNDX  OF  Orlbans,  De  CuUu  Imaoinum,  P.  L.,  CVt,  306  aq.; 
DuNOAl.,  Libef  advenua  Claudium  Taurinenaem^  P.  L.,  Cv. 
457  sg.;  AiiAX.ARiVB,  De  officiU  ecciet..  I,  zvi,  P.  L.,  CV,  102S 
aq.;  PesuDO-AixniXN,  OMcta  et  OrcM.  de  Cruee.F.  L..  CL  1207 
aq.;  Rabanus  Maurus,  De  Laudibua  S.  Crueia,  P.  L^  CVII.  13S: 
SooTUS  ERnTGENA,  De  Ckriata  CruciflxOf  P.  L.,  CxLI.  345. 

On  the  cult  of  the  Croaa  in  pre-Chriatum  timea:  Brck^  The 
CroM,  Heathen  and  ChriaUan  (Londcm,  1880),  oritidaed  bjr 
DB  Harlet  in  Did.  apol.  de  la  foi catholimie(Pnn»,  1801),  670-7t^ 
DE  Harlet,  Pritmdue  origine  paUnne  de  la  Croix  in  La  Conin  - 
verae  (1882).  IV.  705-32;  cf.  La  Croix  et  U  Cruei^,  Urid.  (ISST/. 
IX,  386-^104.  and  La  croix  ehet  lea  ChinoU,  ibid.  (1886),  VIJ, 
589;  Brino-Movton,  De  No(d  Christianiami  Awihiffud  Cnue 
(Ixindon,  1745);  Saint  F£tix-MAUREMONT,  Da  la  croix  covl- 
8idSr4e  comma  eigne  hiiroolyphioue  d* adoration  et  de  aabU  ia 
BuUetin  delaaoc.  archSd.  du  midi  de  la  France  (1836-37).  Ill, 
183;  Lajard,  Obaervationa  aur  V origine  et  la  aignificaHon  dtf 
aymbcle  appeU  la  croix  atuie  in  M^moirea  de  Vaead.  dea  inac. 
(1846);  Rapp,  Daa  Labarum  u.  der  Sonntneuittia  in  Jahfi». 
(Bonn,  1866),  XXXIX,  XL;  HOller,  Ueber  Sterna,  Krewu, 
u.  Kr&me  ala  religidae  Synibole  der  alten  Ktdlurv^Hker  (Coper  t- 
hagen.  1865);  Mortillet,  Le  eigne  de  la  croix  avanl  U  ekrio' 
tionisme  (Paria.  1886)— <;f.  Nuova  Antologia  (1867),  797.  805, 
and  Revue  Celtiaue  (1866).  297;  VcRTua,  Du  cuUe  da  la  croir 
avant  J.-C.  in  Annuaire  de  la  Soc.  Uiat.  ArehSoL  de  CkdteaU" 
Thierry  (1873.  1874),  IX.  135-194;  Bunsen.  Daa  Symbd  diw 
Kretizea  bei  alien  Naltonen  u.  die  Entat^vng  aea  KretU'Sinnbala 
dea  chriatlichen  Kirche  (Berlin.  1876);  Hochart.  La  aymboia 
de  la  croix  in  Ann.  de  la  fac.  liti.  de  Bordeaux  (1886);  Roaxotr, 
(^itervationa  aur  lea  aignea  hiiroglyvhiquea  qui  peuvent  rappaUr 
la  figure  de  la  Croix  in  Science  cedh.  (1800),  IV.  465-471;  Ak- 
SAULT,  Le  ouUe  de  la  croix  avant  J.'C.  (Paiia.  1880);  Id.,  Mi- 
moire  8itr  le  cuUc  de  la  croix  avant  J.-C.  (Paria.  1891) :  Lafarour. 
Le  culte  de  la  croix  avarU  J.-C.  in  Rev.  eath.  de  Bordeaux  (1891), 
XIII.  321-330;  Pre^hriatian  Crou  in  Bd.  Rev.  (1870),  CXXXI. 
222;  Meyer,  Die  Geach.  dea  Kreuzhaiaea  von  Chriatua  in  Ab- 
handl.  phUoa.-phiM.  bauer.  Akad.  (1882).  XVI.  101,  116. 

On  crosaea  m  genenJ:  Borota,  Da  Cntce  Vaiieand  (Rome, 
1774);  Id.,  De  Cruce  VelitemA  (Rome.  1780);  Orrtbrr.  De 
Cruce  Chriati  (2  vola.  4<>,  Ingoldatadt,  1600)  and  4th  ed.  of 
the  aame,  enlarged,  in  Opp.  Omnia  (1618);  Bono,  Crux  b> 
umpJuma  et  Olonoaa  (Antwerp,  1617);  Decker,  De  StauroUatrid 
RotnanA  (Hanover,  1617);  Bariuub,  De  Vetarum  Ckriatiano- 
rum  Ritibua  (Rome,  1647);  Schuchteil  Da  Crueaaipud  Judeaoa, 
Chriatianoa  et  GentHea  aigno  Salutia  (Halle.  1732);  Zaocaba, 
Diaaerl.  de  Invention^  S.  Crueia  in  (Sort,  Symbol.  Litt.,  X.  65 
eq.;  Paperroch.  De  Inventione  S.  Crueia  in  Acta  8S.,  3  liRy,  i 
aqq;  Ljpbius,  De  Cruce  libri  III  (4»,  Antwerp,  1503);  Zdcx- 
LRR,  Daa  Kreua  Chriati  (GQteraloh,  1775);  Ziboblbauer, 
HiMoria  didactica  de  S.  Crueia  CuUu  el  Veneratione  in  Ord.  D. 
Brrwdieti  (Vienna.  1746);  Wiseman.  Four  Ledurra  on  the 
Officea  and  Ceremoniea  a/  Holy  Wade  CLondoD,  1830>   11-114; 


I.  CROSS  OF  CONG  (1123),  NATIONAL  MUSEUM,  DUBLIN 

a.  CROSS  OF  MONASTERBOICS  4.    CROSS  OF   INNISMACSAINT,   LOUGH  XRNB 

3.  CROSS  OF  CLONMACNOISB  5.    CROSS  OF  GLENDALOUGH 


I.  SILVER  (CAPITULAR)  PROCESSIONAL  3.  BRONZE  CRUCIFIX— GIOVANNI  DA 

CROSS,  XVI  CENTURY  BOLOGNA 

PITTI  PALACE,  FLORENCE  PITTI  PALACE,  FLORENCE 

2   BRONZE  ALTAR  CRUCIFIX— BENEDETTO  4.  IVORY  CRUCIFIX— DONATELLO  (DONATO 
DA  MAJANO  DI  NICOLO  DI  BETTO  BARDI) 

CATHEDRAL,    FLORENCE  PITTI    PALACE,    FLORENCE 


OiMB 


533 


oitos6 


de  la  Crtnx  in  Rev,  det  Qui^tHona  Hittoruiuea  (1878),  XXIU. 
472  sq.;  The  Sign  of  (he  Crou  m  the  Early  Church  in  The  Dub.  Rev. 
(1861),  XX.  113:  Bbrkabdakis,  Le  euUe  de  la  Crmx  ehet  lee 
Oreee  in  ifcAo*  iOrterd  (1902),  19»-202:  Rsviub,  De  CitUu 
Crude  Q^eyden,  18fil) ;  AixiEB,  Hietory  cf  the  Croev  (Bofltoa. 
1858);  Berjsau,  History  of  the  Holy  Croee  (London,  1863); 
RoBAtn<T  DB  FiAsuBT,  Mtneoite  evr  lea  inetrumenta  de  la  Paaaiori 
( Paris,  1870):  Nbvtu:.  De  Sanetd  Cruce  (Berlin.  1888). 

On  the  Funding  of  the  Croaa  in  particular:  Papxbbocsi  in 
Acta  SS,,  3  May;  Cabbol,  Etude  aur  la  Peregrinatio  Silvia 
(Pteris.  1895).  109-105;  Hoiden,  fnventio  S.  Crucia  (Leipiix. 
18S»);  OoMBHi,  tr.  by  hmm  Cappadbuta.  The  Finding  of  the 
Croae  (LondoB«  1907);  Stalbt,  The  Lilurgieal  Year,  an  Ex- 
vlanaHon  cf  the  Origin^  History  and  Signifiotance  cf  the  Festival 
JJfxye  and  Fasting  Days  of  the  English  Church  (London,  1907), 
101-103:  DucHBSNB,  tr.  MgQzjObe,  Chriatian  Warship  (Lon- 
don, 1904),  274  M.,  and  cf.  In.  Liber  Pontificalia,  I.  374,  378; 
Fr.ABBT,  Ancient  Engliah  Holy  Week  Cerenumxal  (London,  1897), 
114  aq. 

See  alflo  BXUMBR  in  Kireheniex.,  a.  w»  Kreug.  Kreuaer- 
fmdung,  Kreuapartikel:  Mabttccbi  in  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  a.  v. 
Crxrix;  QcBVVn  in  KeaieneykjUr  proL  Theol,,  a.  w.  Kreuz  u. 
Kreutigungj  KreuxattMndung,  Kreuaeateidten. 

For  additional  bihliogiaphy  aee  BXumbr  and  above  all 
Ghbyaubb,  Topo-BiU.,  a. v.  Croix. 

Fernand  Cabrol. 

m.  Thb  Cross  Aim  Cbitcifix  in  Liturqy. — (1) 
Material  ObjecU  in  LUwrgical  l^«e.— A.  The  Altaic 
Cross. — Aa  a  permanent  adjunct  to  the  altar,  the  cross 
or  crucifix  can  hardly  be  traced  farther  back  than  the 
thirteenth  century.  Hie  third  canon  of  the  Second 
Coundl  of  ToiuB  (567),  "ut  corpus  Doniini  in  altario 
non  in  imaginario  online  sed  sub  crucis  titulo  ccmi- 
ponatur'^  which  has  sometimes  been  appealed  to  to 
prove  the  early  existence  of  an  altar-cross,  almost 
certainly  refers  to  the  arrangement  of  the  particles  of 
the  Host  upon  the  corporal.  They  were  to  be  arranged 
ill  the  form  of  a  cross  and  not  according  to  any 
fanciful  idea  of  the  cdebrant  (see  Hefele,  Concilienr 
geschichte).  On  the  other  hand,  Innocent  III  at  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  in  his  treatise  on 
the  Mass  savs  plainly,  "a  cross  is  set  upon  the  altar, 
in  the  middle  oetween  two  candlesticks",  but  even 
this  probably  refers  only  to  the  actual  duration  of  the 
Holy  Sacrifice.  From  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  oen>- 
tury  the  rule  is  several  times  repeated:  ''Let  nothing 
be  placed  on  the  altar  except  a  chest  with  relics  en 
saints  or  periiaps  ihe  four  gospels  or  a  pvx  wiHi  the 
lozd's  Bod^  for  the  viaticinn  of  the  sick"  (cf.  Thiers, 
Sur  les  principaux  autels  des  ^lises,  129  sqa.). 
llkis  no  ooubt  was  understood  to  exclude  even  the 
crucifix  &om  the  altar,  and  it  is  certain  that  in  various 
iitungical  ivory  carvings  of  the  eighth,  ninth,  and 
tenth  oeniuries  no  cross  is  shown.  At  the  same  time 
it  should  be  noted  that  the  cibonum,  or  canopy  over 
the  altar,  was  often  surmoimted  by  a  plain  cross,  and 
also  that  the  eorofUBf  or  ornamental  circular  frames 
which  were  suspended  from  the  inner  side  of  the 
oiborium,  frequently  had  a  cross  hanging  down  in  their 
midst.  Some  sudi  coron»  are  explicitly  referred  to 
In  the  ''Liber  Fontificalis"  during  the  ninth  century. 
The  best-known  existing  example  is  the  corona  of 
Reeesvinthus  now  at  the  Mus^  de  Cluny,  Paris,  in 
which  the  pendent  cross  is  set  with  large  gems.  The 
papal  chronicle  just  ref eired  to  also  mentions  a  silver 
cross  which  was  erected  not  over,  but  close  beside, 
the  high  altar  of  St.  Peter's  in  the  time  of  Leo  III 
(796-^16):  "There  also  he  made  the  cross  of  purest 
silver,  gQded,  which  stands  beside  the  high  altar,  and 
which  weifllis  22  pounds"  (Lib.  Pont.,  Leo  III,  c. 
Ixxxvii).  It  is  probable  that  when  the  cross  was  first 
introduced  as  an  ornament  for  the  altar  it  was  most 
oommonly  plain  and  without  any  figure  of  Our  Sav- 
iour. &ich  is  the  cross  which  a  well-known  Anglo* 
Saxon  manuscript  represents  King  Onut  as  presenting 
to  Hyde  Abbey,  Winchester.  But  the  association  of 
the  figure  of  Christ  with  the  cross  was  familiar  in 
En^and  as  early  as  678,  when  Benedict  Biscop 
brcnuiht  a  paintins  of  the  Crucifixion  from  Rome 
(Beds,  Hist.  Abb.,  |9),  and  we  can  hardly  doubt  that 
a  people  capable  of  producing  such  sculptural  work 
aa  the  stone  crosses  at  Ruthwell  and  Bewcastle.  or 


the  Franks'  casket,  would  soon  have  attempted  the 
same  subject  in  the  solid.  We  know  at  anyrate  that  a 
cold  crucifix  was  found  in  the  tomb  of  St.  Edward  the 
CoDf  essor,  and  a  crucifix  is  menticmed  in  one  of  the 
later  Lives  of  St.  Dunstan.  That  such  objects  were 
sometimes  used  for  the  altar  seems  highly  probable. 
Still,  Innocent  HI  speaks  only  of  a  cross,  and  it  is 
certain  that  for  several  centuries  later  neither  cross 
nor  crucifix  were  left  upon  the  altar  except  at  Mass 
time.  Even  so  late  as  the  bwnning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  an  engraving  in  the  Giunta  "  Corpus  Juris  " 
shows  the  altar-crueifix  being  carried  in  at  high  Mass 
by  the  celebrant,  while  in  many  French  dioceses  this  or 
some  similar  custom  lasted  down  to  the  time  of  Claude 
de  Vert  (Explication,  IV,  31).  At  present  the  "Ccere- 
moniale  Episcoporum  "  assumes  the  permanency  of  the 
crucifix  on  the  altar,  with  its  attendant  candlesticks 
[see  Altar-Crucifix,  under  Altar  (in  Liturgt)]. 

(1)  B.  The  Processional  Cross.— When  Bede  telb  us 
that  St.  Augustine  of  England  and  his  tsompanions 
came  before  Ethelbert  "carrying  a  silver  cross  for  a 
standard"  (veniebarU  crucem  jrro  vexiUo  fererUes argenr 
team)  while  they  said  the  litanies,  he  probably  toudies 
upon  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  processional  cross. 
Its  use  seems  to  have  been  general  m  eariy  times  and 
it  is  so  mentioned  in  the  Roman  "Ordines"  as  to 
surest  that  one  belonged  to  eadi  church.  An  intex^ 
eating  specimen  of  the  twelfth  century  still  survives 
in  the  Cross  of  Cong,  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Academy,  Dublin.  This  is  made  of  oak 
covered  with  copper  plates,  but  much  decoiaticA  is 
added  in  the  form  of  gold  filigree  work.  It  lacks  moat 
of  the  shaft,  but  is  two  feet  six  inches  hi^^  and  one 
foot  six  inches  across  the  arms.  In  the  centre  is  a 
boss  of  rock  crsrstal,  which  formerly  enshrined  a  relic 
of  the  True  (>os8,  and  an  inscription  teUs  us  that 
it  was  made  for  Turloch  O'Cono^  King  of  Ireland 
(1123).  It  seems  never  to  have  nad  any  figure  ol 
Christ,  but  other  processional  crosses  of  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries  are  for  the  most  part  true 
crucifixes.  In  a  great  niunber  of  cases  the  shaft  was 
removable,  and  the  upper  portion  could  be  set  in  a 
stand  to  be  used  as  an  alta^Ksross.  Indeed  it  seems 
not  improbable  that  this  was  the  actual  origin  of  the 
altar-cross  employed  during  Mass  (Rohault  de  Fleury, 
La  Messe,  V,  123-140).  Just  as  the  seven  candle- 
sticks carried  before  the  pope  in  Rome  were  deposited 
before  or  bdiind  the  altar,  and  probably  developed 
into  the  six  altar-candlesticks  (seven,  it  will  be  re- 
membered, when  a  bishop  celebrates)  with  which  we 
are  now  fsuniliar,  so  the  processional  cross  seems  also 
to  have  first  been  left  in  a  stand  near  the  altar  and 
ultimately  to  have  taken  its  place  upon  the  altar 
itself.  Tx)  this  day  the  ritual  books  of  the  Church 
seem  to  assume  that  the  handle  of  the  processional 
cross  is  detachable,  for  in  the  funeral  of  mfants  it  is 
laid  down  that  the  cross  is  to  be  carried  without  its 
handle.  All  C^hristians  are  supposed  to  be  the  fol- 
lowers of  Christ,  hence  in  procession  the  crucifix  is 
carried  first,  with  the  figure  turned  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  procession  is  moving. 

(1)  C.  Archiepiscopal  and  Papal  Cross. — It  is  not  easy 
to  determine  with  certainty  at  what  period  the  archie- 
piscopal cross  came  into  separate  use.  It  was  prob- 
ably at  first  only  an  ordinaiy  processional  cross.  In 
the  tenth  "Ordo  Romanua"  we  read  of  a  subdeaoon 
who  is  set  aside  to  carry  the  crux  T^palis.  U  this 
specially  papal  cross  had  been  in  existence  for  some 
time  it  IS  likely  that  it  was  imitated  by  patriarchs  and 
metropolitans  as  a  mark  of  di^ty  which  went  with 
the  pallium.  In  the  twelfth  century  the  archbishop's 
cross  was  generally  recognised,  and  in  the  dispute 
regarding  uie  primacy  l^tween  the  ArchbishopB  of 
Canterbuiy  and  York  the  right  to  cany  their  cross 
before  them  played  a  prominent  part.  In  1125  Pope 
Honorius  II  admonished  the  Southern  bishops  of 
England  that  they  should  allow  Archbishop  Thurstan 


0EOS8 


534 


0BO88 


of  York  crucem  ante  ae  dejerre  juxta  anUquam  consue- 
tudinem.  In  all  ecclesiastical  functions  an  archbiahop 
in  his  own  province  has  a  right  to  be  preceded  by  hlis 
crofis-bearer  with  cross  displayed.  Hence  an  arch- 
bishop when  solemnly  giving  his  blessing  gives  it  with 
head  uncovered  out  of  reverence  for  the  cross  which 
is  held  before  him.  An  ordinarv  bishop,  who  is  not 
privileged  to  have  such  a  cross,  blesses  the  people  with 
nis  mitre  on.  As  regards  form,  both  the  papal  and 
the  archiepiscopal  cross  consists  in  practice  of  a  simple 
crucifix  mounted  upon  a  staif,  the  material  bemg 
silver  or  silver  gilt.  The  crosses  with  double  and 
triple  bars,  which  are  sometimes  termed  distinctively 
archiepiscopal,  patriarchal,  or  papal  crosses,  have  for 
the  most  part  only  a  heraldic  existence  (see  Barbier 
de  Montault,  La  croix  k  deux  croisillons,  1883).  An 
archiepiscopal  cross  is  borne  with  the  figure  turned 
towards  the  archbishop. 

Jl)  D.  Pectoral  Crosses.— r-These  objects  seem  origi- 
ly  to  have  been  little  more  than  costly  ornaments 
upon  which  much  artistic  skill  was  lavished  and  which 
usually  contained  relics.  A  jewel  of  this  kind  which 
belonged  to  Queen  Theodelinda  at  the  end  of  the 
sixth  century  is  still  preserved  in  the  treasiuy  of 
Monsa.  Another  of  much  later  date,  but  wrought 
with  wonderful  enamels,  was  foimd  in  the  tomb  of 
Queen  Dagmar  and  is  at  Copenhagen.  When  the 
present  Queen  Alexandra  came  to  England  in  1863 
to  marr^  the  then  Prince  of  Wales,  she  was  presented 
with  a  Mussimile  of  this  jewel  containing,  among  other 
relics,  a  fragtnent  of  the  True  Cross.  Such  encolpia 
were  probably  at  first  worn  by  bishops  not  as  insidua 
of  rank,  but  as  objects  of  devotion.  For  example,  a 
famous  and  beautiful  jewel  of  this  kind  was  found  in 
^e  tomb  of  St.  Cuthbert  and  is  now  at  Durham. 
When  they  contained  relics  they  often  came  later  on 
to  be  enclosed  in  processional  crosses.  This  no  doubt 
was  the  case  with  the  Cross  of  Cong,  mentioned  above, 
upon  which  we  read  in  Irish  characters  the  Latin  verse: 
Hae  cruce  crux  tegitur  qua  jpassus  conditor  orbis.*-- 
See  Joum.  Soc.  Antiq.  Ireland,  vol.  XXXI  (1901).  As 
a  lituigical  cross,  and  part  of  the  ordinaiy  episcopal 
insignia,  the  pectoral  cross  is  of  quite  modem  date. 
No  word  is  said  r^arding  it  in  the  first  edition  of  the 
''Csremoniale  Episcoporum"  of  1600,  but  latereditions 
speak  of  it,  and  its  liturgical  character  is  fully  recoe- 
nized  by  all  modem  rubricians.  It  is  worn  by  all 
bishops  at  Mass  and  solemn  functions,  and  also  forms 
part  of  their  ordinary  walking-dress.  It  is  usually  a 
plain  Latin  cross  of  gold  suspended  round  the  neck  by 
a  gold  chain  or  a  cora  of  silk  and  gold.  Its  use  seems 
gradually  to  have  been  introduced  during  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  in  imitation  of  the 
pectoral  cross  whic^  we  know  to  have  been  r^ularly 
worn  by  the  popes  from  a  much  earlier  date.  ,  Cer- 
tain metropohtans  (e.  g.  the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon  and 
the  Archbishop  of  Ammgh)  are  accustomed  to  wear  a 
cross  with  two  bars  or  transoms  (Anal.  Jur.  Pont.,  1896, 
344).  The  privile^  of  wearing  a  pectoral  cross  has 
also  been  conceded  to  certain  canons. 

(1)  E.  Consecration  Crosses. — ^These  are  the  twelve 
crosses,  usually  merely  painted  on  the  wall,  which 
mark  ihe  places  where  the  church  walls  have  been 
anointed  with  chrism  in  a  properly  consecrated  churdi. 
A  candle-bracket  should  oe  inserted  immediately  bo- 
low.  Some  of  these  consecration  crosses  are  even  yet 
distinguishable  on  the  walls  of  old  churches  which  go 
back  to  the  Romanesque  period.  The  Carlovingian 
oratory  in  Nimeguen  preserves,  perhaps,  the  most 
ancient  known  example.  In  other  cases,  e.  g.  at 
Ftlrstenfeld,  some  of  the  old  Romanesque  candle- 
brackets  also  remain.  Owing  to  the  number  of  unc- 
tions, it  was  not  infrequently  the  custom  to  place 
these  consecration  crosses  on  shields,  each  borne  by 
one  of  the  twelve  Apostles.  In  the  Sainte  Chapelle 
at  Paris,  built  by  St.  Louis  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
we  find  twelve  statues  of  the  Apostles  carrying  discs 


used  for  this  purpose.  In  Ehgjand  it  was  the  custom 
to  mark  twelve  consecration  crosses  on  the  outside 
walls  of  the  church  as  well  as  twelve  on  the  inside. 
The  Roman  Pontifical  only  prescribes  the  latter.  (See 
Consecration.)  Salisbuiy  cathedral*  still  preserves 
some  remarkable  examples  of  consecration  croflses. 
At  Ottery  St.  Marjr,  Devon,  the  old  crosses  are  carved 
in  high  relief  on  shields  borne  by  angels  within  moulded 
panels,  a  ouatrefoil  in  a  square.  Those  inside  have 
marks  of  tne  remains  of  iron  brackets  for  candles  or 
a  lamp.  (See,  on  Endish  examples,  MiddleUm  in 
"Archfflologia'^  XLVitt,  1885.) 

(1)  F.  Churdiyard  or  Monumental  Crosses. — ^In  the 
contemporary  life  of  St.  Willibald  (bom  c.  700)  we 
have  a  significant  mention  of  the  Anclo-Saxon  custom 
of  erecting  a  cross  instead  of  a  church  as  a  rendezvous 
f  or  praver.  Many  ancient  stone  crosses  still  surviving 
in  £n^and  are  probably  witnesses  to  the  practice,  and 
the  conjecture  of  Prof.  Baldwin  Browne  (Arts  in 
Anglo-Saxon  England),  that  the  cross  and  gjcsiyeysLtd 
often  preceded  the  church  in  date,  has  much  to  rec- 
ommend it.  Certain  it  is  that  tJie  earliest  known 
forms  for  blessing  a  cemetery  (q.  v.)  contain  five  bles- 
sinas  pronounoea  at  the  four  points  of  the  compass 
and  one  in  the  centre,  thus  fonning  a  cross,  while 
crosses  were  later  on  planted  in  the  ground  at  each  of 
these  places.  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  both  in 
En^and  and  on  the  Continent,  there  seems  always 
to  have  been  one  principal  churchyard  cross.  Tliis 
was  commonly  an  object  of  great  importance  in  tiie 
Palm  Sunday  procession,  when  it  was  saluted  with 
prostrations  or  genuflexions  by  the  whole  assembly. 
There  was  also  a  scattering  <n  boughs  and  flowers, 
and  the  cross  was  often  decorated  with  garlands  ol 
yew  or  box.  For  this  reason  it  was  often  called  entx 
buxata  (cf.  Gasquet,  Parish  Life,  1906,  pp.  171-4). 
Many  beautiful  churchyard  crosses  are  still  preserved 
in  England.  France,  and  Qermany;  the  most  remark- 
able Soiglish  examples  being  perhaps  those  of  Ampney 
Cmcis,  near  Cirencester^  ana  Bag  Enderfoy,  lincolxH 
shire.  The  famous  ancient  Northumbrian  crosses  at 
Bewcastle  and  Ruthwell  (which  English  scholars  still 
assign  to  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries,  despite  the 
plea  for  a  much  later  date  put  forward  by  Prof.  A.  S. 
Cook  of  Yale)  may  possibly  have  been  principal 
churchyard  crosses.  The  fact  that  they  were  prob- 
ably memorial  crosses  as  well  does  not  exclude  this. 
When  St.  Aldhehn  died  in  709,  his  body  had  to  be 
transported  fifty  miles  to  Malmesbury,  and  at  eadi 
stage  of  seven  miles,  where  the  body  rested  for  the 
ni^t,  a  cross  was  afterwards  erected.  These  crosses 
were  still  standiiig  in  the  twelfth  century  (William 
of  Malmesbury,  (%sta  Pont.,  383).  An  even  mote 
famous  example  of  such  memorial  crosses,  but  of 
mudi  later  date,  is  supplied  by  the  removal  of  the 
body  of  Eleanor,  Queen  of  Edward  I,  from  Lincoln  to 
London.  Several  of  these  crosses  in  a  more  or  leas 
mutilated  form  exist  at  the  present  dav.  The  most 
famous  of  the  series^  however.  Charing  (  7  Chire  Heine) 
Cross  in  London,  is  a  modem  reconstmction.  Tlie 
route  followed  by  the  body  of  St.  Louis  oi  France  on 
its  way  to  St.-Denis  was  similarly  honoured,  and  it 
seems  probable  that  a  laige  number  of  wayside  crosses 
originated  in  this  maimer.  No  stronger  testimony 
of  the  early  coimexion  of  the  cross  with  the  cemetery 
could  be  desired  than  the  directions  given  by  St. 
CuUibert  for  his  own  burial :  ''  Cum  autem  Deus  susoe- 
pent  animam  meam,  sepelite  me  in  hit  maaaione  juxta 
oratorium  meum  ad  meridiem,  contra  orientalem 
plagam  sanctss  cmcis  quam  ibidem  erexi''  (Bode, 
Vita  S.  Cuthberti). 

(1)  O.  Rood,  Rood-Screen,  and  Rood-Loft.— fVom 
very  early  times  it  seems  to  have  been  not  unusual  to 
introduce  a  plain  cross  in  such  a  way  into  the  mosaics 
of  the  apse  or  of  the  main  arch  (Triumpkbogen)  as  to 
dominate  the  church.  Notable  examples  may  be  found 
at  S.  ApolUnaxe  in  Classe  at  Ravenna,  at  S.  Ptidenjaana 


0E088 


535 


cotoss 


in  Romei  and  at  the  Lateran  basilica.    There  are  also, 
as  already  noticed,  incontestable  examples  both  of 
crosees  snnnounting  the  ciborium  over  the  altar,  and 
of  the  large  crosses  suspended,  with  or  without  a 
coiona,  from  the  under  side  of  the  ciboriimi.    It  must, 
ha'weveTf  be  pronounced  very  doubtful  whether  the 
rood,   which   in  so   many   churches   of  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries  occupied  the  ^reat 
arch,  can  be  regarded  as  a  development  of  this  idea. 
Tliis  point  vnH  be  more  fully  treated  under  Rood- 
Screen.    It  will  be  sufficient  to  notice  here  that  in  the 
thirteenth  century  a  practice  grew  up  of  screening  oflf 
the  choir  from  the  nave  of  the  ^;reater  churches  by  a 
fl^^ructure  broad  enough  to  admit  a  narrow  bridge  or 
^^alleiy  spanning  the  cnancel  arch  and  most  commonly 
adorned  by  a  great  crucifix  with  the  figures  of  Our 
L«ady  and  St.  John.    The  rood-loft  of  the  cathedral  of 
Sens,  as  described  by  J.  B.  Thiers  (Traits  sur  lesjub^) 
affoids  a  valuable  hmt  of  how  this  process  was  effected. 
It  consisted,  he  tells  us,  of  two  stone  pulpits  quite 
separate  from  each  other,  supported  by  oc^umns,  and 
ijvith  a  crucifix  between  them,  each  havmg  an  entrance 
on  ihe  choir  side  and  an  exit  down  into  the  nave, 'on 
either  side  of  the  principal  door  of  the  choir.    From 
this  it  seems  probable  that  the  two  ambos  (q.  v.) 
from  which  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  were  sung  in  earlier 
times,  became  gradually  connected  by  a  continuous 
gallery  upon  wmch  was  erected  a  great  crucifix,  and 
that  in  this  way  we  mav  trace  the  development  of  the 
rood-loft,  or  jvb^,  which  was  so  conspicuous  a  feature 
in  later  medieval  architecture.    There  can  at  least  be 
no  doubt  that  this  loft  was  used  on  certain  occasions 
of  ceremony  for  reading  the  Epistle  and  Gospel  and  for 
makine  annoimcements  to  the  people.    The  great 
rood  above  the  rood-screen  was  saluted  by  the  whole 
procession,  as  they  re-entered  the  church  on  Palm  Sun- 
day, with  the  words:  Ave  Rex  noster. 

(1)  H.  Absolution  Crosses. — ^These  have  already  been 
spoken  of  in  the  article  Buhial,  Ghribtiak.  They 
seem  for  the  most  part  to  have  been  rude  crosses  of 
lead  laid  upon  Uie  breast  of  the  corpse.  It  is  only  in 
Gome  few  examples,  of  which  the  most  important  is 
that  of  Bishop  Godfrey  of  Chichester  (1088),  that  a 
formula  of  absolution  is  found  inscribed  upon  them  en- 
tire. We  may  infer  that  the  practice  in  the  West  was 
always  in  some  measure  irregular,  and  it  is  only  the 
absolution  paper,  which  is  uniformly  placed  in  the  nand 
or  on  the  breast  of  the  corpse  in  the  Eastern  Church, 
which  explains  them  and  gives  them  a  certain  impor- 
ance  as  a  liturgical  development. 

(1)  J.  Crosses  on  Vestments,  etc. — Rubrical  law  now 
requires  that  most  of  the  vestments,  as  well  as  some 
other  objects  more  immediately  devoted  to  the  service 
of  the  altar,  should  be  marked  with  a  cross.  Speaking 
generally,  this  is  a  comparatively  modem  develop- 
ment. For  example,  the  great  majority  of  the  stoles 
and  maniples  of  the  Middle  Ages  do  not  exhibit  this 
feature.  At  the  same  time  Dr.  Wickham  Legg  goes 
much  too  far  when  he  says  without  qualification  that 
such  crosses  were  not  used  in  mie-R^ormation  times. 
For  example,  the  stole  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury 
preserved  at  Sens  has  three  crosses,  one  in  the  middle 
and  one  at  eadi  extremity,  just  as  a  modem  stole 
would  have.  Thai  the  archiepiscopal  pallium,  like 
the  Greek  amophorion  (see  Constantinopijb,  Rttb  of) 
was  always  marked  with  crosses,  is  not  disputed.  Ihe 
large  cross  conspicuous  upon  most  modem  chasubles, 
which  appears  behind  in  the  French  type  and  in  front 
in  the  Roman,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  originally 
adopted  with  any  symbolic  purpose.  It  probably 
came  into  existence  accidentally  for  sartorial  reasons, 
the  orphreys  having  been  so  arranged  in  a  sort  of  Y- 
croas  to  conceal  the  seams.  But  the  idea,  once  sug- 
gested to  the  eye,  was  retained,  and  various  symbofi- 
cal  reasons  were  found  for  it.  In  somewhat  of  the 
same  way  a  cross  was  marked  in  the  Missal  before  the 
Canon,  and  this  the  Driest  was  directed  to  kiss  when 


beginning  this  portion  of  the  Mass :  nrobably  this  cross 
first  arose  from  an  illumination  of  the  initial  T,  in  the 
words:  Te  igiiur  clementMme Pater,  As  Irmooent  III 
writes,  "Et  forte  divinA  factum  est  providentii  ut  ab 
e&  liter&  T  [tau]  canon  inciperet  quie  sui  form&  signum 
cmcis  ostendit  et  exprimit  in  figur&";  and  Belethfui^ 
ther  comments,  "Unde  profecto  est,  quod  istio  cmcis 
imago  adpingi  debeaf'  (See  Ebner,  Quellen  und 
Forschungen,  445  sqq.).  The  tradition  is  perpetu- 
ated m  the  picture  of  tiie  Cmdfixion  which  precedes 
the  Canon  ia  every  modem  Missal.  The  five  crosses 
commonly  marked  on  altar-stones  depend  closely  on 
the  rite  of  the  consecration  of  an  altar. 

(1)  K.  Crosses  for  Private  Devotion. — ^These  may  all 
be  held  to  wear  a  liturgical  aspect  in  so  far  as  the  Church, 
in  the  "  Bituale,''  provides  a  form  for  their  blessing,  and 
presupposes, that  such  a  cross  dtiould  be  placed  m.the 
hands  of  the  dying.  The  crosses  whidi  surmount  the 
Stations  of  the  Cross,  and  to  which  the  Indulgences  are 
directly  attached  may  also  be  noticed.  In  the  Greek 
Church  a  little  wooden  cross  is  used  for  the  blessing  of 
holy  water,  and  is  dipped  into  it  in  the  course  of  the 
ceremony. 

(2)LUwrgical  Forma  connected  vnth  the  Material 
Objects, — ^A.  Blessing  of  Consecration  Crosses. — ^Ilie 
"  Pontificale  Romanum ''  directs  that  towards  the  close 
of  the  dedication  ceremony  the  twelve  consecration 
crosses  previously  marked  upon  the  walls  of  the 
churdi,  three  upon  each  wall,  are  to  be  each  anointed 
by  the  bishop  with  chrism,  the  f oUowiiig  form  of  words 
beine  spoken  over  eadi:  "May  t^  Temple  be  hal- 
lowed +  and  consecrated  +  in  the  name  of  Uie  Father 
+  and  of  the  Son  +  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  +  in 
honour  of  God  and  the  glorious  Virgin  Mary  and  of  all 
the  Saints,  to  the  name  and  memory  of  Saint  N. 
Peace  be  to  thee."  This  is  prescribecf  in  practical^ 
identical  terms  in  English  pontificals  of  the  tentii  cen- 
tury; and  the  Pontifical  of  Egbert  (?768)  describes  the 
anointing  of  the  walls,  though  it  does  not  give  the 
words  of  the  form.  What  is  more,  an  analogous  cere- 
mony must  have  existed  in  thb  (Celtic  Church  from  a 
very  early  date,  for  a  liturgical  fragment  in  the  Leabar 
Breac  describes  how  the  bishop  with  two  priests  is  to 
go  round  the  outside  of  the  diurch  marking  crosses 
upon  the  "tel-columns"  with  his  knife,  while  the 
three  other  priests  do  the  same  within  (see  Olden  in 
"Trans.  St.  Paul's  Eccles.  Soc.",  IV,  103).  In  this 
case,  however,  the  use  of  chrism  is  not  mentioned. 
From  this  Celtic  practice  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Sarum 
uses  seem  to  have  derived  the  custom  of  afllxing  con- 
secration crosses  outside  the  church  as  well  as  within. 

(2)  B.  In  the  consecration  of  an  altar,  also,  crosses 
are  to  be  marked  in  chrism  upon  the  altaj>«lab  with 
almost  the  same  form  of  words  as  that  used  for  Uie 
walls.  This  practice  may  equally  claim  Celtic  ana^ 
logues,  whose  antiquity  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
altar  to  be  consecrated  must  have  been  of  wood.  The 
Tract  in  the ''  Leabar  Breac  "  says:  '^The  bishop  marks 
four  crosses  with  his  knife  on  the  four  comers  of  the 
altar,  and  he  marks  three  crosses  over  the  middle  of 
the  i^tar,  a  cross  over  the  middle  on  the  east  to  the 
edge,  and  a  cross  over  tiie  middle  on  the  west  to 
the  edge,  and  a  cross  exactly  over  the  middle. "  This 
makes  seven  crosses,  but  the  Roman  usage  for  many 
centuries  has  provided  five  only. 

(2)  C.  Pontifical  BlessingB  of  Crosses. — ^The  conse- 
cration crosses  on  the  walls  of  churches  and  on  altars 
are  clearly  not  substantive  and  independent  objects  of 
cultus;  the  blessing  they  receive  is  only  a  dettul  in  a 
longer  ceremony.  But  the  ''Pontificale  Romanum" 
supphes  a  solemn  form  of  episcopal  blessing  for  a  cross, 
under  the  title,  Benedictio  novcB  Crucia,  which,  besides 
containing  several  prayers  of  considerable  length,  in- 
cludes a  conseoratory  preface  and  is  accompanied  with 
the  use  of  incense.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  ceremony 
we  find  the  mbric:  "Tiun  Pontifex,  flexis  ante  cnicem 
genibus,  ipsam  devote  adorat  et  osculatur,"    This 


OBO^S 


536 


0BO8S 


rite  IB  of  great  antiquil^,  and  many  of  the  prayera  oc- 
cur in  identical  terms  in  pontificals  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury or  eatiier,  e.  g.  in  the  Benedictional  of  Archbishop 
Robert  (Henry  Bradshaw  Soc.).  But  in  the  ancient 
ceremony  the  cross  was  first  washed  with  holv  water 
and  then  anointed  with  chrism  precisely  as  in  the  form 
for  the  blessing  of  bells  (see  Bells).  For  cemetery 
crosses  in  this  oonnexion,  see  Oemetert. 

(2)  D.  Blessings  of  Crosses  in  the  Ritual.— The 
" Rituale  Romanum"  (tit.  VIII,  cap.  xxiv)  supplies  an 
ordinary  blessing  for  a  cross  which  may  be  used  by  any 
priest.  It  consists  only  of  a  short  prayer,  with  a  sec- 
ond prayer  whose  use  is  optional,  and  onlv  holy  water 
is  used;  but  the  same  rubric  directing  the  priest  to 
kneel  and  '^ devoutly  adore  and  kiss  the  cross"  is 
added)  which  we  havejust  noticed  in  the  solemn  epis- 
copal benediction.  Furthermore,  the  Ritual,  in  an 
appendix,  reprints  the  longer  form  from  the  Pontifi- 
cal under  the  headine:  ''Benedictiones  reservatee,  ab 
episcopo  vel  sacerdotmus  facultatem  habentibiis  faci- 
endse."  It  may  be  noted  that  St.  Louis,  King  of 
France,  regarded  it  as  imseemly  that  crosses  and  stat- 
ues shoula  be  set  up  for  veneration  without  being  pre- 
viously blessed.  He  accordingly  ordered  search  to  be 
made  for  a  form  of  blessing  in  the  ancient  episcopal 
ceremonials.  The  form  was  found  and  duly  used  first 
of  all  in  St.  Louis'  own  private  chapel;  but  the  in- 
cident seems  to  suggest  tnat  the  practice  of  blessing 
such  objects  had  parUy  fallen  into  desuetude.  (See 
Galfridus,  De  Bello  Loco,  cap.  xxxvi.) 

(2)  E.  Blessings  ofCrosses  tor  Indulgences,  etc. — ^The 
indulgences  most  commonly  attachedto  crosses,  cruci- 
fixes, etc.,  are:  first,  the  so-called  ''Apostolic  Indul- 
gences'', which  are  the  same  as  those  attached  to 
objects  blessed  by  the  Holy  Father  in  person.  These 
are  numerous  and,  amongst  other  things,  entitle  the 
possessor  who  has  habitually  worn  or  used  such  a 
cross  to  a  plenary  indulgence  at  the  hour  of  death; 
secondly,  the  indulgences  of  the  Stations  of  the  Cross, 
which  under  certain  conditions  may  be  gained  by  the 
sick  and  others  unable  to  visit  a  chureh  upon  the  reci- 
tation of  twenty  Paters,  Aves,  and  Glorias  before 
the  indul^nced  cross  which  they  must  hold  in  their 
hand;  thirdly,  the  so-called  "Bona  Mors"  indulgence 
for  the  use  of  priests,  enabling  the  priest  by  the  use  of 
this  cross  to  communicate  a  plenaiy  indulgence  to 
any  dying  person  who  is  in  the  requisite  dispositions 
to  receive  it.  Special  faculties  are  needed  to  com- 
municate such  indulgences  to  crosses,  etc.,  though  in 
the  case  of  the  ''Apostolic  Indulgences''  these  Acui- 
ties are  easily  obtained.  The  only  blessing  required 
is  the  making  of  a  simple  sign  of  the  cross  over  the 
crucifix  or  other  object  with  the  intention  of  imparting 
the  indulgence.  For  further  details,  the  reader  must 
be  referred  to  the  article  Indulgences  and  to  such 
treatises  upon  indulgences  as  those  of  Beringer, 
"Les  Indulgences",  or  of  Mocchegiani,  "Collectio 
Indulgentiarum ' '  (Quaracchi,  1897).    (See  also  Bless- 

INQ8.) 

(3)  Festivals  of  the  Hdy  Cross, — ^A.  The  Invention 
of  the  Holy  Cross. — ^This  is  now  kept  by  the  Western 
Chureh  upon  3  May,  but  so  far  as  our  somewhat  un- 
certain data  allow  us  to  judge,  the  real  date  of  St. 
Helena's  discovery  was  14  September,  326.  Upon 
this  same  day,  14  September,  took  place  the  dedica- 
tion of  Constantine's  two  churehes,  that  of  the  Ana- 
stasis  and  that  of  Golgotha  Ad  Crucemj  both  upon 
Calvarv,  within  the  precincts  of  the  present  church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  portion  of  the  Holy  Cross 
preserved  in  Jerusalem  afterwards  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Persians,  but  was  recovered  by  the  Emperor 
Heraclius,  and,  if  we  may  trust  our  authorities,  was 
solemnly  brought  back  to  Jerusalem  on  3  May,  629. 
This  day,  strangely  enough,  seems  to  have  attracted 
special  attention  among  Celtic  liturdsts  in  the  West 
and,  though  disregarded  in  the  East,  has  passed 
through  Celtic  channels  (we  meet  it  first  in  the  Lec- 


tionary  of  Silos  and  in  the  Bobbio  Missal)  into  j, 

recognition  under  the  mistaken  title  of  '^Invention  of 
the  Cross".  Chuiously  enough  the  Greek  Church 
keeps  a  feast  of  the  apparition  of  the  Cross  to  St.  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem  on  7  May,  though  that  of  3  May  is  un- 
known in  the  East. 

(3)  B.  The  Feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross,  14 
September,  though  apparently  introduced  into  the 
West  somewhat  later  than  the  so-called  ''Invention", 
on  3  May,  seems  to  preserve  the  true  date  of  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Cross  bv  St.  Helena.  Tins  festival  has 
always  been  kept  in  uie  East,  and  especially  at  'Jeru- 
salem, on  that  day,  under  the  name  of  t^toffu,  i.  e. 
''elevation",  which  probably  meant  originally  the 
'^brinong  to  light". 

(3)  C.  Other  Feasts  of  the  Oosi.— We  might  in 
some  sense  r^urd  such  a  festival  as  that  of  the  Holy  ' 
Lance  and  Nails  as  a  festival  of  the  Cross,  but  it  shoula 
periiaps  rather  be  grouped  with  feasts  of  the  Passion* 
In  the  East,  however,  we  find  other  celebrations 
strictly  connected  with  the  Cross.  For  example,  on 
1  August  the  Greeks  commemorate  the  taking  of  the 
relic  of  the  Holy  Cross  from  the  palace  in  Constanti- 
nople to  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  and  on  7  May,  as 
we  have  seen,  they  recall  an  apparition  of  the  Cross 
to  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem.  The  Armenians,  on  the 
other  hand,  observe  one  principal  feast  of  the  Cross, 
under  the  name  ChaU,  which  occurs  in  autumn  almost 
immediatdy  after  the  feast  of  the  Assumptioiu  It  is 
counted  as  one  of  the  seven  principal  feasts  oi  the 
year,  is  preceded  by  a  week's  fast,  and  followed  by  an 
octave  or  its  Armenian  equivalent.  See  also  above 
under  I. 

(4).  The  "Adoration*', — ^From  a  theological  stand- 
point this  is  treated  above  under  ^^^tion  U.  (See 
also  Latria.)  As  a  liturgical  function  the  veneration 
of  the  Cross  on  Good  Friday  must  no  doubt  be  traced 
back,  as  Amalarius  already  in  the  ninth  century  cor- 
rectly divined,  to  the  practice  of  honouring  the  relic 
of  the  True  Cross  at  Jerusalem  which  is  described  in 
detail  in  the  ''  Pilgrimage  of  Etheria",  c^  380  (see  Sec- 
tion II  of  this  article).  The  ceremony  came  to  prevail 
eveiywhere  where  relics  <rf  the  True  Cross  existed, 
and  by  a  very  natural  development,  where  relics  failed 
any  ordinary  cross  supi>Ued  their  place  as  an  object 
of  cultus.  As  Amalarius  again  sensibly  remarloi, 
"although  every  church  cannot  have  such  a  relic,  still 
the  virtue  of  the  Holy  True  Cross  is  not  wanting  in 
those  crosses  which  are  made  in  imitation  of  it." 
Neither  was  this  veneration,  in  the  case,  at  any  rate, 
of  relics  of  the  True  Cross,  confined  to  Good  Friday. 
St.  Gregory  of  Tours  uses  languiuge  which  may  pos- 
sibly imply  that  in  Jerusalem  the  True  Cross  was 
honoured  every  Wednesday  and  Fridajr.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  at  Constantinople  a  Sunday  in  Mid-Lent, 
the  first  of  Aueust,  and  the  14th  of  September  were 
similarly  privi^ged.  Even  from  eariy  times  there 
was  no  hesitation  about  usin^  the  word  adoralio. 
Thus,  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola,  writmg  of  the  great  Jeru- 
salem relic  (c.  410),  declares  that  the  bishop  offered 
it  to  the  people  for  worshio  (cnuxm  quotannis  ado- 
randam  populo  promit),  ana  first  adored  it  himself. 
(See  P,  L.,  LXI,  325.)  A  curious  practice  was  also 
introduced  of  anointing  the  cross,  or,  on  occasion, 
any  image  or  picture,  with  balm  (balaamo)  before 
presenting  it  for  the  veneration  of  the  faithful.  This 
custom  was  transferred  to  Rome,  and  we  hear  much 
of  it  in  connexion  with  the  very  ancient  reliquary  of 
the  True  Cross  and  also  the  supposed  miraculous  por- 
trait of  Our  Saviour  {achevrojHneta,  i.  e.  not  made  by 
the  hand  of  man)  preserved  in  the  Sancta  Sanctorum 
of  the  Lateran,  both  of  which  recently,  together  with 
a  multitude  of  other  objects,  have  been  examined 
and  reported  on  by  papal  permission  (see  Grisar,  Die 
rdmiscne  Kapelle  Ssmcta  sanctorum  und  ihr  Scnatz, 
Freiburg,  1908, 91,  92).  The  objects  mentioned  were 
completely  covered  in  part  with  solidified  balm.  Pope 


CROSS 


537 


OROSS 


Adrian  I,  in  vindicating  the  veneration  of  images  to 
Charlemagne,  mentions  this  use  of  balm  and  defends 
it  (Mansiy  Concilia,  XIII,  778).  The  ceremony  of 
the  adoration  of  the  Cross  on  Good  Friday  must  have 
spread  through  the  West  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries,  for  it  appears  in  the  Gelasian  Sacramentary 
and  is  presupposed  in  the  Gregorian  Antiphonarium. 
Bolii  in  Anglo-Saxon  Endand  and  in  the  England  of 
the  later  Middle  Ages  the ''Creeping  to  the  Cross"  was 
a  ceremony  which  made  a  deep  impression  on  the 
popular  mind.  St..  Louis  of  France  and  other  pious 
princes  dressed  themselves  in  haircloth  and  or^t  to 
the  cross  barefoot.  At  present,  instead  of  creeping 
to  the  cross  on  hands  and  knees,  three  piofoiuna 
double  genuflexions  are  made  before  kissing  the  feet 
of  the  crucifix,  and  tiie  sacred  ministers  remove  their 
shoes  when  performing  the  ceremony.  The  collection 
no^w  commonly  made  on  this  occasion  for  the  support  of 
the  Holy  Places  seems  also  to  date  from  medieval  times. 

(5)  For  the  Figure  of  the  Cross  a«  a  Manual  Sign  of 
Blessing  the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  article 
SiaN  OF  TRB  Cross,  also  subtitles  (4)  of  Section  I  and 
(1)  of  Section  II  in  this  article. 

(6)  Dedicaiions  of  Churches^  etc,  to  the  Holy  Cross, — 
Possibly  one  of  the  earliest  dedications  to  the  Cross, 
if  we  put  aside  Constantine's  church  upon  Calvaiy 
known  in  Etheria's  time  as  Ad  Crucem  and  also  the 
SesBorian  basilica  which  was  its  Roman  counterpart, 
was  the  monastery  erected  at  Poitiers  l^  St.  Rhade- 
gund  in  the  sixth  century.  In  behalf  of  this  founda- 
tion the  saint  bezged  and  obtained  a  relic  of  the  True 
Cross  from  the  ^perar  Justin  U  at  Conslaiitinople. 
The  bringing  of  the  relic  to  Poitiers  was  the  occasion 
of  the  coxnposition  of  the  two  famous  hymns,  by 
Venantius  Fortunatus,  "Vexilla  r^is"  and  "Pange. 
lin^nia,  gloriosi  prslium  certaminis''.  In  England 
peniape  the  most  famous  monastery  bearing  this  dedi- 
cation was  the  Holy  Cross  Abbey  at  Waltham,  founded 
by  King  Harold.  At  present  about  sixtv  ancient  Eng- 
lish churches  are  deaieated  to  the  Holy  Cross,  while 
twenty  more  bear  the  same  dedication  in  the  dlistino* 
tively  Englii^  form  of  "Holy  Rood".  The  famous 
Holyrood  Palace  in  Edinbui|;h,  once  occupied  by 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  derives  its  name  from  a  monas- 
tery of  the  Holy  Rood  upon  the  site  of  which  it  was 
erected,  and  its  church,  now  in  ruins,  was  originally 
the  church  of  the  monks. 

(7)  The  Crossin  Religious  Orders  and  in  the  Crusades. 
— ^Although  the  older  oniers  were  earnest  in  conforming 
to  the  general  usage  of  the  Church  as  r^ards  the  ven- 
eration of  the  Cross,  no  distinctive  cultus  seems  to  be 
attributable  to  the  monasteries.  The  practice  of 
canying  a  crucifix  as  part  of  the  ordinary  religious 
habit  seems  to  be  of  comparatively  modem  date.  It 
is  significant  that,  although  in  most  modem  congrega- 
tions of  nuns  the  bestowal  of  the  crucifix  ib  a  promi- 
nent feature  of  the  ceremony  of  profession,  the  service 
in  the  Roman  Pontifical,  **De  £knedictione  et  Conse- 
cratione  Viiginum ' ',  knows  nothing  of  it.  It  provides 
for  the  Riving  of  rings  and  crosses  but  not  of  cmcifixes. 
IVobabl^  much  of  the  stimulus  given  to  devotion  to 
th'e  cracifix  ma^  be  traced  ultimately  to  Franciscan  in- 
fluences, and  it  is  not  mere  coincidence  that  the  devel- 
opment in  art  of  the  agonised  and  thorn-crowned  type 
of  fi^re  upon  the  Cross  coincides  more  or  less  exactly 
with  the  great  Franciscan  revival  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Somewhat  eariier  than  the  time  of  Francis  an 
Italian  Order  of  crodferi  (cross-bearers),  distinguished 
by  carrying  as  part  of  their  costtmie  a  plain  cross  of 
wood  or  metal,  was  founded  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Bologna  to  tend  the  sick,  and  several  other  orders,  par- 
ticularly one  established  shortly  afterwards  in  the  Neth- 
erlands and  still  surviving,  have  since  borne  the  same 
or  a  similar  name.  In  the  ease  of  the  Military  Orders, 
for  example,  that  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  or  Knights 
Hospitallers,  the  cross  impressed  upon  their  habit  nas 
^adually  become  distinctive  of  tho  order.    It  seems 


to  have  been  originally  only  the  badge  of  the  crusa- 
ders,  who  wore  a  red  cross  upon  their  right  shouldera 
as  a  token  of  the  obligation  they  haa  taken  upon 
themselves.  The  Roman  Pontifical  still  contains  the 
ceremonial  for  the  blessing  and  imposition  of  the 
cross  upon  those  who  set  out  for  the  aid  and  defence 
of  the  Christian  Faith  or  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy 
Land.  After  the  cross  has  been  blessed  the  bishop 
imposes  it  upon  the  candidate  with  the  words:  "Re- 
ceive the  sign  of  the  cross,  in  the  Name  of  the  Father + 
and  of  the  Son  +  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  +  in  token  of 
the  Cross.  Passion,  and  Death  of  Christ,  for  the  de- 
fence of  tny  body  and  thy  soul,  that  by  the  favour  of 
the  Divine  Goodness  when  thy  journey  is  accomplished 
thou  mayest  return  to  thy  family  safe  and  amended 
[salvus  et  emendatus].  Through  Christ  Our  Lord, 
Amen.*'  The  crosses  conferred  by  sovereigns  in  con- 
nexion with  various  orders  of  knighthood  may  prob- 
ably be  traced  to  the  same  idea. 

The  various  types  of  cross  have  rather  to  do  with 
heraldry  or  art  than  witti  the  history  of  Christianity. 
The  names  and  Grapes  of  the  more  common^vsurieties 
can  best  be  gathered  from  the  annexed  table.  For  the 
vast  majority  the  form  is  piuiely  conventional  and  arti- 
ficial. Their  divergence  from  the  normal  type  is  a 
mere  freak  of  fancy  and  corresponds  to  no  attempt  to 
reproduce  the  shape  of  the  gibbet  on  which  Our  Say* 
iour  died,  or  to  convey  any  symbolical  meaning.  The 
crux  ansata,  or  cross  with  a  handle,  and  the  crux  gam" 
mataf  or  "fylfot",  are  much  more  ancient  than  dnris- 
tianity.  (See  in  Section  I  of  this  article,  (1)  Primitive 
CruciformSigns.)  Thecfcrt8fium,orc^i-rAo,  haa  already 
been  mentioned  as  the  earliest  forms  in  which  the  cross 
appears  in  Christian  art  [Section  I  (4)].  The  forms 
which  it  took  varied  considerably  and  it  is  difficult  to 
classify  them  chronologically.  With  re^rd  to  the 
great  Celtic  stone  crosses,  particularly  in  Ireland,  we 
may  note  the  tendency  conspicuous  in  so  manv 
specimens  to  surround  the  cross  with  a  circle.  U 
is  just  conceivable  that  there  is  foundation  for  r^eard- 
ingthis  circle  as  derived  from  the  loop  of  the  J^yp- 
tian  crux  ansata. 

(8)  The  Cross  outside  of  the  Catholic  Churdi.—ln  the 
Russian  Church  the  conventional  form  in  which  the 
cross  is  usually  diown  is  in  fact  a  three-barred  cross, 
like  this  ^^  of  which  the  upper  bar  represents  the  title 
of  the  r  cross,  the  second  the  arms,  and  the  lowest, 
which  is  always  inclined  at  an  angle,  the  suppedaneum 
or  foot-iest.  In  England  it  may  be  said  that  in  the 
eariy  yeare  of  Elisabeth's  reign  a  clean  sweep  was 
made  of  the  crosses  so  long  venerated  by  the  people. 
All  the  roods  were  ordered  to  be  pulled  down,  and 
the  crosses  were  removed  from  the  altars,  or  rather  the 
commimion-tables  which  replaced  the  altars.  The 
only  check  in  this  movement  was  the  fact  that  the 
queen  herself,  for  some  rather  obscure  reason,  insisted 
at  first  on  rietaining  the  crucifix  in  her  own  private 
chapel.  The  presence  of  a  crucifix  or  even  a  plain 
cross  upon  the  altar  was  lone  held  to  be  illegal  in  virtue 
of  the  "  Ornaments  Rubric ''.  In  recent  years,  how- 
ever, there  has  been  a  notable  reaction,  and  crosses,  or 
even  crucifixes,  are  quite  commonly  seen  upon  the 
altar  of  Anglican  churches.  Again,  in  the  reredos  re- 
cently erected  in  St.  Paul's  Cath^lral  in  London  a 
large  cmcifix,  with  the  figures  of  St.  Maxy  and  St. 
John,  forms  the  most  conspicuous  feature.  In  Luth- 
eran churches  there  has  alwayB  been  much  tolerance 
for  the  crucifix  either  upon  or  behind  the  altar. 

It  would  not  be  eaay  to  provide  an  adequate  bibliography 
for  the  very  wide  field  covered  by  thia  article.  A  few  woria 
may  be  mentioned  of  a  more  general  kind. — ^BXumeb  in  Kir' 
cherUex.,  VII.  1054-1088;  Quillistt  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath.. 
Ill,  2330-2363;  Hoppenot,  Le  crucifix  daru  I'histoire  (Lille, 
1900);  Sktmoub,  The  Cross  in  Tradition,  History  and  Art  (New 
York,  1898). — ^Both  these  laet  works  are  very  comprehensive 
in  soope,  but  unfortunately  quite  uncritical. — Stsvens,  Th9 
Cross  %n  the  Life  and  Literature  of  the  Anclo-Saxona  (New  York, 
1004):  RoHAyLT  db  Flkubt,  La  Messe  (Paris,  1885),  specially 
valuable  for  its  illustrations  of  liturgical  crosses:  Sraub,  Oa- 
BchichU  der  christliehen  Kunst  (Freiburg,  1805-1008);  Oox  and 


+ 


29 


+ 


CROSS 


t 

T 


538 


1 

11 

T 

n  w       ^ 

24 

X 


30  31 


1 


13 


X 


3 

X 

8 

4^ 


c&oss 


19 


1 


27 


3 

4^ 


10 

T 
+ 


22 


la 


34 


+ 


35 

+ 


30 


* 


+ 


* 


40 


f 


SOME  FORMS  OF  THE  CROSS  IN  CHRISTIAN  ART 


1.  LATIN  CROSS 

2.  CALVARY  CROSS 

S  and  4.  ANCHOR  CROSS 
5.  PATRIARCHAL  CROSS 
ft.  PAPAL  CROSS 

7.  CROSS  PATEE 

8.  MALTESE  CROSS 

9  and  19.  CROSS  MOLINB 
10.  11.  12.  TAU  CROSS 
18  and  28.  FYLFOT  (28.  CRUX  OAMMATA 

OR  SWASTIKA) 
14.  CROSS  QUARTER  PIERCED 


IS.  GREEK  CROSS 

16    CROSS  QUARTERLY  PIERCBD 

17.  CROSS  FLEURIB 

18.  CROSS  PATONCE 

20.  CROSS  FLEURETTB 

21.  CROSS  BNQR AILED 

22.  CROSS  RAOULBB 

23.  CROSS  QUADRATE 

24.  8ALTIRE  (CRUX  DBCUSSATA) 
2ti,  CROSS  BOTONNEB 

20.  CROSS  POMMEB 

27.  CROSS  POTENT 

38.  CRUX  OAMMATA  OR  SWASTIKA 


29.  CROS.S  FOURCHBB 

30.  CROSS  URDBB 
SI.  CROSS  CR06SLBT 

32.  CROSS  FITCHES 

33.  CROSS  RECERCELBE 

84.  CROSS  POINTED 

85.  CROSS  WAVY 
30.  CROSS  OF  lONA 

37.  FROM  THE  CATACOMBS 
88.  FROM  THB  CATACOMBS 
89  aad  40.  FROM  THB  CATAOOMB8 
(MONOGRAMS  OF  OB&IBT) 


0BO88 


539 


0B0T98 


Hajivct,  BngliA  Church  Fumitun  (Ixmdoo,  lfN)7);  BufTBBEti, 
DenhviiniiaknUn,  IV.  F»rt  I,  406  Mjq.;  MAirriwB,  X>«  Antiffuw 
BccUaia  RUHnu:  TmBBs,  Duterlo/um  tur  ^  prineipaux  autda 
et  aurUn  ;iiM»  (Pfciw.  1688).  HERBERT  ThursTON. 

OroBfl-Bearer,  the  cleric  or  miniBter  who  carries 
the  processional  cross,  that  is,  a  crucifix  provided  with 
a  long  staff  or  handle.  An  archbishop's  croes  is  borne 
with  the  figure  of  the  crucifix  towards  the  prelate,  but 
in  all  other  cases  the  figure  should  be  turned  forward. 
The  crosa-bearer  shoula,  whenever  possible,  be  a  cleric 
(Council  of  Milan,  seventeenth  century),  but  in  lay 
processions  the  most  worthy  of  the  laity -should  m 
selected  for  the  office.  In  the  more  solemn  processions 
such  as  those  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  Palm  Simday, 
and  Candlemas  Day,  the  cross  should  be  borne  by  a 
subdeaoon  vested  in  amice,  alb,  and  tunic;  on  less 
solemn  occasions  by  a  clerk  in  surplice.  The  staff  is 
held  with  both  hands  so  that  the  ngure  is  well  above 
the  head.  The  cross-bearer  and  the  two  acolytes  by 
whom  he  is  accompanied  on  the  more  solemn  occasions 
should  walk  at  the  head  of  the  procession,  except  when 
the  ihurifer  is  there,  and  should  not  make  any  rever- 
ence whilst  engaged  in  this  function. 

Cferemoniale  EptMeoporum,  pasam;  De  Hkbdt,  Prwn»  LUur- 
ffim  8acrm  (Louv«in.  1004).  Ill,  318;  Lb  VAVAasEUB,  C*r^ 
manial  Remain  (Pans,  1876),  I.  680. 

Patrick  Morrisroe. 

Oro88  of  Jenu,  Brothers  of  the,  a  congregation 
foimded  in  1820  at  Lyons,  France,  by  Father  G.  M.. 
Bochard,  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  Vicar-General  of 
the  Diocese  of  Lyons.  Father  Bochard  was  the  first 
superior  general  (1820-34).  He  had  as  successors 
the  Rev.  Father  Coreiain  (1834-66)  and  the  Rev. 
Father  Bernard  (1865-74).  Until  then  the  direction 
of  the  principal  houses  was  entrusted  to  Fathers  who 
were  members  of  the  congregation.  In  1873  Bishop 
Richard  of  Belley,  afterwards  Cardinal  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  employed  the  Fathers  as  parish 
priests  and  the  congregation  was  henceforward  com- 
posed of  Brothers  only.  The  superiors  general,  from 
this  epoch,  have  been  the  Reverend  Bros.  Pierre-Joseph 
(1873-85),  Lucien  (1885-98),  and  Firmin  (1898—). 

The  name  of  the  congregation  indicates  its  dis- 
tinctive spirit.  It  grew  during  the  nineteenth  century 
in  eastern  France  and  in  Switzeriand,  until  the  perse- 
cution of  1903,  which  destroyed  nearly  all  its  estab- 
lishments. Brother  Firmin,  Superior  General,  sent 
Brother  Evariste  with  32  religious  to  establish  a  prov- 
ince in  North  America,  unoer  the  patronage  of  the 
Right  Rev.  A.  A.  Blais,  Bishoj)  of  Rimouski,  Canada. 
The  institution,  incorporated  in  Canada  by  a  bill  of 
the  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quebec  (May,  1905), 
possesses  at  Rimouski,  a  ''house  of  formation" 
(novitiate  and  scholasticate),  where  the  young  mem- 
bers of  the  congrenition  are  taught  all  the  high- 
school  branches  and  the  commencal  courses  both 
En^sh  and  French.  At  the  request  of  the  Most  Rev. 
L.  1*.  A.  Lan^vin,  Archbishop  of  St.  Boniface, 
Manitoba,  the  institution  has  opened,  since  1904, 
the  colleges  of  St-Jean-Baptiste  and  of  St-Pierre, 
Joly,  Manitoba. 

Brother  Charles. 

Orotoa,  JoHANN  (property  Johannes  Jager,  hence 
often  called  Venator,  "  hunter",  but  more  commonly, 
in  greciaed  form,  Crotus,  "archer"),  German  Human- 
ist, b.  at  Domheim,  in  Thuringia,  o.  1480;  d.  probably 
at  Halle,  c.  1539.  From  the  name  of  his  burthplaoe 
he  received  the  latinised  appellation  Rubianus  and  is 
generally  known  as  Crotus  Rubianus.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  went  to  the  University  of  Erfurt,  then  the 
chief  centre  of  (Serman  Humanism,  where  he  obtained 
his  baccaUureate  degree  in  1500.  Friendship  with 
Conrad  Mutianus  and  ulrich  von  Hutten  led  him  from 
being  an  upholder  of  Scholasticism  to  become  an  en- 
thusiastic partisan  of  Humanism  and  a  violent  op- 
ponent of  the  older  learning.    In  1505  he  induced  von 


Hutten  to  leave  the  monaateiy  (tf  Fulda,  but  in  1506 
came  back  with  the  latter  from  Cologne  to  Erfurt, 
where  in  1508  Crotus  obtained  the  degree  of  Master 
of  Arts.  After  this  he  was  absmt  from  Erfurt  for  a 
short  time  as  tutor  to  Count  von  Henneberg,  but  by 
1509  he  had  again  returned  to  hk  studies  and  in  1510 
was  the  head  of  the  monast€^  school  at  Fulda.  He 
now  formed  close  relations  wiui  Reuchlin  and  Reuch- 
lin's  supporters  in  Cologne;  about  1514  he  was  for  a 
short  tune  in  Colore  out  soon  returned  to  Fulda 
idiere  he  was  ordamed  priest  and  obtained  a  small 
benefice.  About  1515  he  wrote  ^e  larger  part  of  the 
''Epistolffi  Obsourorum  Virarum";  the  letters  com- 
posed by  him  are  the  most  violent  in  cfaiuracter,  full 
of  venom  and  stinging  scorn  against  Scholasticism  and 
monastidsm.  In  1517  he  settled  in  Bologna  as  tutor 
of  the  Fuchs  brothers,  and  during  his  stay  at  this  dty , 
up  to  1519,  he  studied  suoeessively  jurisprudence  and 
theoloey.  Before  leaving  Italy  he  went  in  company 
with  Eoban  Hesse  to  Rome  (1519)  in  Older  to  observe 
for  himself  the  ''see  of  corruption".  While  in  Bo- 
logna he  had  become  acquainted  wiUi  Luther's  writ- 
ing and  actions,  learned  of  the  violent  stand  he  had 
taken  and  approved  it  as  the  be^umins  of  a  sreatly 
needed  reform  of  the  Churdi ;  apparent^  also  ne  had 
a  share  in  the  anonsrmous  broadsides  wludi  appeared 
in  Germany.  From  1520  he  was  again  in  Erfurt 
where  he  was  made  rector  of  the  university,  and  here 
in  1521  he  gave  Luther  a  wann  ^;reeting  when  the 
latter  passed  through  Erfurt  on  hjs  wav  to  Worms. 
Soon  itfter  this  Crotus  retiuned  to  Fulda  where  Me- 
lanchthon  visited  him  in  1524.  In  the  same  year 
Crotus  entered  the  service  of  Duke  Albredit  of  Prussia 
at  KOnigBberg  anci  endeavoured  to  justifv  the  duke's 
withdrawal  from  the  old  Faith  in  a  pamphlet  directed 
against  the  new  master  of  the  Teutonic  Order  entitled 
''Christliche  Vermahnung"  (1526). 

Weary  of  his  position  at  KOnigsberg  as  eariy  as 
1529,  he  went  first,  in  1530,  to  Leipzig,  and  soon  after- 
wards to  Halle;  here  Crotus  accepted  service  under 
Cardinal  Albrecht  of  Brandenburg  as  councillor  and 
received  a  canonty.  As  a  genuine  Humanist  Crotus 
had  for  a  Icmg  time  felt  disrated  with  the  public  dis- 
turbance and  the  bitter  polemics  that  resulted  from 
the  Lutheran  movement;  he  was  still  more  dissatis- 
fied with  the  grave  disorder  in  morals  and  religion. 
Thus  in  Halle,  probably  through  the  influence  3  its 
canons,  he  positively  returned  to  Catholicism,  whidi 
he  seems,  however,  never  to  have  abandoned  con- 
sciously. The  first  clear  notice  of  Ihis  change  of 
views  IS  the  "Apologia,  qua  respondetur  temeritati 
caiumniatorum  non  verentium  confictis  criminibus  in 
populare  odium  protrahere  reverendissimum  in 
Christo  patrem  et  dominum  Albertum"  (Ldpsig, 
1531).  'The  ''Apologia"  contained  a  positive  denial 
of  the  accusations  made  by  Alexander  Crosner  or 
Luther  that  Cardinal  Albrecnt,  in  the  persecution  of 
the  new  doctrine  and  in  his  opposition  to  granting  the 
cup  to  the  laity,  had  acted  with  extreme  cruelty  and 
lack  of  consideration.  Crotus  showed  that  the  Ref- 
ormation had  resulted  in  the  sanctioning  of  all  kinds 
of  immoralitv  and  blasphemy,  and  that  where  the 
''Antipopes"  ruled,  those  of  other  bdiefswere  crudly 
oppressed,  denounoed  by  spies,  and  persecuted.  Vari- 
ous pamphlets,  chiefly  anonymous,  were  issued  in 
reply  to  the  ''Apologia"  and  the  author  was  violently 
attacked  by  Justus  Jonas  and  other  of  his  former 
friends.  After  this  Luther  always  gave  the  name  of 
Dr.  KrOte  (toad)  to  his  one-time  adherent,  the  dreaded 
opponent  in  former  days  of  Scholasticism  and  monas- 
ticism.  Suspicion  was  even  thrown  on  the  motives 
for  the  inner  change  in  Crotus.  His  connexion  with 
the  Church  was  attributed  to  desire  for  princely  favour 
and  greed  of  gain.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
his  resolution  was  a  deliberate  one  and  that  he  be- 
longed to  Luther's  party  only  so  long  as  he  hoped  in 
this  way  to  attain  a  reform  of  the  Church. 


OBOWK 


540 


OBOWK 


Am  soon  as  thete  was  a  fonnal  break  with  the  Church, 
and  the  pretended  reform  movement  produced  only 
anarchy  m  religion  and  moraLs,  he  turned  his  back  on 
it  without  giving  a  thought  to  the  hatred  of  his  f lienda 
of  earlier  days.  In  a  letter  dated  1532  to  Duke  Al- 
brecht  he  states  his  religious  views  clearly:  "  with  the 
help  of  God  he  intends  to  remain  in  commimion  with 
the  Church  and  allow  all  innovations  to  pass  over  like 
a  disagreeable  smoke ' '.  Crotus  appears  to  have  spent 
the  last  years  of  his  life  entirely  at  Halle,  but  nothing 
positive  is  known  on  the  subject.  Most  probably  Geoig 
Witzel  urged  hhn  at  different  times  to  write  again  in 
defence  of  the  Church,  and  he  seems,  indeed,  to  have 
made  an  effort  to  do  this.  But  afterwards  we  hear 
that  the  position,  "imworthy  of  a  man",  in  which  he 
was  placed,  did  not  permit  him  to  take  up  his  pen 
on  behalf  of  religion.  It  is  not  entirely  certain 
whether  lus  canonry  or  his  character  of  official  in 
the  service  of  Cardinal  Albrecht  laid  these  limi- 
tations on  him.  Yet  he  apparently  had  an  im- 
portant influence  on  the  writmgs  of  others  as,  e.  g. 
on  those  of  Witzel.  Crotus  himself,  as  a  Hiunanist  of 
strong  intellectual  tastes,  preferred  above  all  the  quiet, 
of  his  study.  It  may  be  that  the  revolutionary  tu-' 
mult  in  religious  and  social  life  took  from  him  both 
Uie  desire  and  the  strength  to  use  the  pen  which  had 
formerly  so  unmercifully  scouiged  the  weaknesses  ol 
his  opponents.  He  seems,  however,  to  have  influenced 
the  reli^ous  demeanour  of  his  master,  Cardinal  Al- 
brecht, in  the  cardinal's  later  years.  The  last  scanty 
information  concerning  Crotus  reaches  to  the  year 
1539 ;  his  death  occurred,  if  not  in  this  year,  certainly 
not  much  later. 

KAMPscsiULTB.i>ie UnivernUU  Erfurt  in  ihnm  VerhoUnis zu dem 
Uumaniamm  undder  Reformation  (Trier.  1858-60),  1, 197  sqq.; 
II.  43  sqq.;  Idem,  De  Joanna  Croto  Rubiano  (Bonn,  1862):  Rlss, 
Die  Converiiten  sett  der  Reformation  (FreibuK,  1866),  L  9fi~122; 
E^NEBT,  Crotua  Rubianui:  Ein  Beitraa  zur  Gesdk.  det  aumania- 
mua  in  ThUringen  in  ZeiUchriftfilr  Geaeh.  und  AUertumakunde 
ThUringens,  new  ser.,  IV,  1-76:  Rsduch,  Cardinal  Albrecht  von 
Brandenburg  und  daa  neue  Stift  tu  Halle  (M&inz,  1900),  55-69; 
WvLTB  in  KirchenUx,,  III.  1206  sqq.;  Knod,  Deutsche  Studenten 
m  Bologna  (Berlin.  1899),  463  sqq.  JoSBPH  SauE». 

Grown,  Franciscan  (or  Seraphic  Rosary)  ,  a  rosary 
consisting  of  seven  decades  in  commemoration  of  the 
seven  joys  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  (the  Annunciation, 
Visitation,  Birth  of  Our  Lord,  Adoration  of  the  Magi, 
Finding  of  the  Child  Jesus  in  the  Temple,  the  Resuiv 
rection  of  Our  Lord,  and  the  Assumption  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  and  her  Coronation  in  heaven),  in  use 
among  the  members  of  the  three  orders  of  St.  Francis. 
The  ftanciscan  Crown  dates  back  to  the  year  1422. 
Wadding  tells  us  that  a  young  novice  who  had  that 
year  been  received  into  the  Franciscan  Order  had, 
previous  to  his  reception,  been  accustomed  to  adorn  a 
statue  of  the  Blessed  Vii^  with  a  wreath  of  fresh  and 
beautiful  flowers  as  a  mark  of  his  piety  and  devotion. 
Not  being  able  to  continue  this  practice  in  the  noviti- 
ate, he  decided  to  return  to  the  worid.  The  Blessed 
Virgin  appeared  to  him  and  prevented  him  from  carry- 
ing  out*his  purpose.  She  then  instructed  him  how,  by 
reciting  daily  a  rosary  of  seven  decades  in  honour  of 
her  seven  jo3r8,  he  might  weave  a  crown  that  would  be 
more  pleasing  to  her  than  the  material  wreath  of 
flowers  he  had  been  wont  to  place  on  her  statue. 
From  that  time  the  practice  of  reciting  the  crown  of 
the  seven  j  oys  became  general  in  the  ordeT,  The  man- 
ner of  reciting  the  Franciscan  Rosary  is  as  follows: 
The  Apostles'  Creed,  the  Our  Father,  and  three  Hail 
Marys  having  been  said  as  usual,  the  mysteiy  to  be 
meditated  upon  is  introduced  after  the  word  Jesus  of 
the  first  Hail  Mary  of  each  decade,  thus:  ''Jesus, 
whom  thou  didst  joyfully  conceive",  **  Jesus,  whom 
thou  didst  joyfully  cany  to  Elizabeth '^  and  so  on  for 
the  remaimng  five  decades,  which  are  given  in  most 
manuals  of  Franciscan  devotion.  At  the  end  of  the 
seventh  decade  two  Hail  Mar3r8  are  added  to  complete 
the  number  of  years  (72)  that  the  Blessed  Virgin  is 
said  to  have  lived  on  earth.    There  are  othor  ways  of 


reciting  the  Crown  but  the  one  ^ven  seems  to  be  in 
more  general  use.  The  plenary  Indulgence  attached 
to  the  recitation  of  the  Franciscan  Crown,  and  applica- 
ble to  the  dead,  may  be  ^ined  as  often  as  the  crown  is 
recited.  It  is  not  reqmred  that  the  beads  be  bkased, 
or  in  fact  that  beads  be  used  at  all,  since  the  Lidul- 
gence  is  not  attached  to  the  material  rosary,  but  to  the 
recitation  of  the  prayers  as  such.  In  1905  Pope  Pius 
X,  in  response  to  the  petition  of  the  Procurator  Gen- 
eral of  the  Friars  Manor,  enriched  the  Frandscan 
Crown  with  several  new  Lodulgences  that  may  be 
gained  by  all  the  faithful.  Those  who  assist  at  a  pub^ 
Uc  recitation  of  the  Franciscan  Crown  participate  m  all 
the  Indulgences  attached  to  the  Seraphic  Rosanr  that 
are  gained  bv  the  members  of  the  F^dscan  Order. 
It  is  reauired,  however,  that  beads  be  used  and  that 
they  be  blessed  by  a  priest  having  the  proper  faculties. 
A  translation  of  the  pontifical  0rief  is  given  in  ''St. 
Anthony's  Almanac''  for  1909. 

Wadding,  AnnaUa  Minorum,  X,  61:  XVI.  02:  Hoogbboi- 
ANi,  CoUectio  InduJgentiarum  (Quamcchi,  1897).  317-320;  and 
JurieprudenHa  Eedeaiastiea  (Quaraochi,  1905),  III,  516-619. 

Stbphbn  M.  Donovan. 
Orowning  of  Images.    See  Images. 
Grown  of  Thorns. — ^Although  Our  Saviour's  Crown 

of  Thorns  is  mentioned  by  three  Evangelists  and  is 
often  alluded  to  by  the  earl;^  Christian  Fathers,  sudi  as 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and  others,  there  are 
comparatively  few  writers  of  the  first  six  centuries 
who  speak  of  it  as  a  relic  known  to  be  still  in  existence 
and  venerated  by  the  faithful.    It  is  remarkable  that 
St.  Jerome,  who  expatiates  upon  the  Cross,  the  Title, 
and  the  Nails  discovered  by  St.  Helen  (Tobler,  Itinera 
Hierosolym.,  II,  36).  says  nothins  either  of  the  Lance 
or  of  the  Crown  of  Thorns,  and  the  silence  of  Andreas 
of  Crete  in  the  eighth  centiiry  is  even  more  surprising. 
Still  there  are  some  exceptions.    St.  Paulinus  of  Nola, 
writing  after  409,  refers  to  "  the  thorns  with  which  Our 
Saviour  was  crowned''  as  relics  held  in  honour  along 
with  the  Cross  to  which  He  was  nailed  and  the  pillar  at 
which  He  was  scourged  (£p.  ad  Macar.  in  Migne,  P.  L., 
LXI,  407).    Gassiodorus  (c.  570),  when  commenting  on 
Ps.  Ixxxvi,  speaks  of  the  Crown  of  Thorns  amonf  the 
other  relics  which  are  the  glory  of  the  earthly  Jeru- 
salem.   '*  There ' ',  he  says,  '"we  mav  behold  the  thorny 
crown,  which  was  only  set  upon  the  head  of  Our  Re- 
deemer in  order  that  all  the  tnoms  of  the  world  miAt 
be  gathered  together  and  broken  "  (Migne,  P.  L.,  I^X, 
621).    When  Gregory  of  Tours  ("  De  glori^  mart."  in 
"Mon.  Germ.  Hist,:  Scrip.  Merov.",  I,  492)  avers  that 
the  thorns  in  the  Crown  still  looked  geeen,  a  freshnees 
which  was  miraculously  renewed  each  day,  he  does  not 
much  strengthen  the  historical  testimony  for  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  relic,  but  the  "Breviarius",  and  the 
''Itinerary"  of  Antoninus  of  Piacenza,  both  of  the 
sixth  century,  clearly  state  that  ihe  Crown  of  Thorns, 
was  at  that  period  uiown  in  the  church  upon  Mount 
Sion  (Geyer,  Itinera  Hierosolymitana.  154  and  174). 
From  these  fragments  of  evidence  ana  others  of  later 
date — ^the  "Pilgrimage"  of  the  monk  Bernard  shows 
that  the  relic  was  still  at  Mount  Sion  in  870— it  is  cer- 
tain that  what  purported  to  be  the  Crown  of  Thorns 
was  venerated  at  Jerusalem  for  several  hundred  years. 
If  we  may  adopt  the  conclusions  of  M.  de  M^y,  the 
whole  Crown  was  only  transferred  to  Bysantium  about 
1063,  although  it  seems  that  smaller  portions  must 
have  been  presented  to  the  Eastern  emperors  at  an 
earlier  date.    In  any  case  Justinian,  who  died  in  565, 
is  stated  to  have  given  a  thorn  to  St.  Germanus,  Bishop 
of  Paris,  which  was  long  preserved  at  8aint*Germain- 
des-Pr^,  while  the  Empress  Irene,  in  798  or  802,  sent 
Charlemagne  several  thorns  which  were  deposited  by 
him  at  Aachen.   Eight  of  these  are  known  to  have  been 
there  at  the  Consecration  of  the  basilica  of  Aachen  by 
Pope  Leo  III,  and  the  subsetiuent  history  of  sevmral  oi 
them  can  be  traced  without  difficulty.    Four  were 
given  to  Saint-Comeilleof  C-ompi^gne  in  877  by  Charles 


OBOYXiAMD 


541 


CROYLAITD 


the  Bald.  One  was  sent  bjr  Hugh  the  Great  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  King  Athelstan  in  027  on  the  oecasion  of 
certain  marriage  negotiations,  and  eventually  found  its 
way  to  Malmesbury  Abbey.  Another  was  presented 
to  a  Spanish  princess  about  1160,  and  again  another 
was  taken  to  Andedis  in  Germany  in  the  year  1200. 

In  1238  Baldwin  II,  the  Latin  fknperor  of  Constan- 
tinople, anxious  to  obtain  support  for  his  tottering  em- 
pire, offered  the  Crown  of  Thorns  to  St.  Louis,  Kmg  of 
France.    It  was  then  actually  in  the  hands  of  the 
Venetians  as  security  for  a  heavy  loan,  but  it  was  re- 
deemed and  conveyed  to  Paris  where  St.  Louis  built 
the  Sainte-Chapelle  (completed  1248)  for  its  reception. 
There  the  great  relic  remained  until  the  Revolution, 
when,  after  finding  a  home  for  a  while  in  the  Biblioth^ 
que  Nationale,  it  was  eventually  restored  to  theChiux^h 
and  was  deposited  in  the  Cathedral  of  Notre-Dame  in 
1806.    Ninety  years  later  (in  1896)  a  magnificent  new 
reliquary  of  rock  crystal  was  made  for  it,  covered  for 
two-thirds  of  its  circumference  with  a  silver  case  splenr 
didly  wrougjit  and  jewelled.    The  Crown  thus  pre- 
served consists  only  of  a  circlet  of  rushes,  without  any 
trace  of  Uioms.    Authorities  are  agreed  that  a  sort  of 
hehnet  of  thorns  must  have  been  platted  by  the  Ro- 
man soldiers,  this  band  of  rushes  being  employed  to 
hold  the  thorns  together.    It  seems  likely  according 
to  M.  de  M^y,  that  already  at  the  time  when  the  circlet 
was  brought  to  Paris  the  sixty  or  seventy  thorns,  which 
seem  to  mive  been  afterwards  distributed  by  St.  Louis 
and  his  successors,  had  been  separated  from  the  band 
of  rushes  and  were  kept  in  a  different  reliquary.  None  of 
theee  now  remain  at  Paris.    Some  small  fragments 
of  rush  are  also  preserved  apart  from  the  sainte  Ctm- 
ronne  at  Paris,  e.  g.  at  Arras  and  at  Lyons.    With  re- 
sard  to  the  origin  and  character  of  the  thorns,  both  tra- 
dition and  existine  remains  suggest  that  they  must 
have  come  from  the  oush  botanicalfy  known  as  Zizyphua 
spina  Christif  more  popularly,  the  jujube-tree.     This 
reaches  the  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  and  is  found 
growing  in  abundance  by  the  wayside  around  Jerusa- 
lem.   The  crooked  branches  of  this  shrub  are  armed 
with  thorns  growine  in  pairs,  a  straight  spine  and  a 
curved  one  commonly  occurring  together  at  each  point. 
The  relic  preserved  in  the  Capella  della  Spina  at  Pisa, 
as  well  as  that  at  Trier,  whicn  though  their  eariy  his- 
tory is  doubtful  and  obscure,  are  among  the  lar^9st  in 
siae,  afford  a  good  illustration  of  this  peculiarity. 

Tliat  all  the  reputed  holy  thorns  of  which  notice  has 
survived  cannot  by  any  possibility  be  authentic  will  be 
disputed  by  no  one.  Af .  de  M61y  has  been  able  to  enu- 
merate more  than  700  such  relics.  The  statement  in 
one  medieval  obituary  that  Peter  de  Averio  ^ve  to  the 
cathedral  of  Angers  "  unam  de  spinis  quse  fuit  apposita 
coronse  spineie  nostri  Redemptoris"  (de  M41y,  p.  362), 
meaning  seemingly  a  thorn  which  has  touched  the  real 
Crown  of  Thorns,  throws  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  prob- 
able origin  of  many  such  relics.  Again,  even  in  com- 
paratively modem  times  it  is  not  always  easy  to  trace 
the  history  of  these  objects  of  devotion,  which  were 
often  divided  and  thus  multiplied.  Two  "holy 
thorns"  are  at  present  venerated,  the  one  at  St.  Mich- 
ael's church  in  Ghent,  the  other  at  Stonyhurst  College, 
both  professing,  upon  what  seems  quite  satisfactory 
evidence,  to  be  the  thorn  given  by  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
to  Tliomas  Percy  Earl  of  Northumberland  (see  "The 
Month",  April,  1882,  540-556).  Finally,  it  should  be 
pointed  out  that  the  appearance  of  the  Crown  of 
Thorns  in  art,  notably  upon  the  head  of  Christ  in  repre- 
sentationa  of  the  Crucifixion,  is  posterior  to  the  time  of 
St.  Louis  and  the  building  of  the  Samte-Chajpelle. 
Some  archsologists  have  professed  to  discover  a  ngure 
of  the  Crown  of  Thorns  in  the  circle  which  sometimes 
surrounds  the  chi-rho  emblem  v^  on  early  Christian 
sarcophagi,  but  it  seems  to  be  /|\  quite  as  probable 
that  this  is  only  meant  for  a  laurel-wreath. 

Th«  one  recent  and  authoritative  study  oi  the  whole  subject 
w  that  of  DE  MiLT,  forming  the  third  volume  of  Riant.  Exuvuw 
CinularUinopolUanw  (Parw,   1904).    See  also:   dk  M^.ly»  La 


Ccuronne  d'ipineM  in  the  Revue  ds  Vart  ehrHien  (1800  and 
1000);  MoRSXs,  Bnolith  Relica  in  T?ie  MotUh  (London,  April  and 
August.  1882):  LssItub  in  Did.  de  la  BibU  (Paris.  1807).  II, 
1088;  RoHAUijr  dk  Flsurt,  Mimoin  wr  lea  inHrumenU  ae  la 
Paseion  (Paris.  1870),  100-224;  Martin,  AnhMoaie  de  la  Paa^ 
eion  (Paris.  1807).  388-346;  CouBt»,  De  VinverUwn  d.  VestaUa* 
tion  de  la  Croix  (Paris.  1003;  tr.  1008).  138  sqq.;  (jombun. 
Notice  hietarique  aur  la  aainte  Covronne  a'ipineeCPaaiM^  1688). 

Herbebt  Thubston. 

Oroylaad  (or  Crowland),  Abbbt  of,  a  monastery 
of  the  Benedictine  Order  in  Lincolnshire,  sixteen  miles 
from  Stamford  and  thirteen  from  Peterborougjh.  It 
was  founded  in  memory  of  St.  Guthlao,  early  in  the 
eighth  century,  by  Ethelbald,  King  of  Mercia,  but  was 
entirely  destroyed  and  the  community  slaughtered 
by  the  Danes  in  866.  Refounded  in  the  reign  of  King 
Eared,  it  was  again  destroyed  by  fire  in  1091,  but  re- 
built about  twenty  years  later  by  Abbot  Joffrid.  In 
1170  the  greater  pwrt  of  the  abbey  and  church  was 
once  more  burnt  down  and  once  hiore  rebuilt,  under 
Abbot  Edward.  From  this  time  the  history  of  Croy- 
land  was  one  of  growing  and  almost  unbroken  pros- 
perity down  to  the  time  of  the  Dissolution.  Richly 
endowed  by  royal  and  noble  visitors  to  the  shrine  of 


Abbbt  of  Crotland 

St.  Guthlao,  it  became  one  of  the  most  opulent  of  East 
Anglian  abbeys;  and  owing  to  its  isolated  position  in 
the  heart  of  the  fen  country,  its  security  and  peace 
were  comparatively  undisturoed  during  the  great  civil 
wars  and  other  national  troubles.  The  first  abbot  (in 
Ethelbald 's  reign)  is  said  to  have  been  Kenulph,  a 
monk  of  Evesham;  and  one  of  the  most  notable  was 
Ingulphus,  who  ruled  from  1075  to  1109,  and  whose 
pseuao-chronicle  was  lone  considered  the  chief  au- 
thority for  the  history  of  tne  abbey,  though  it  is  now 
acknowledged  to  be  a  compOation  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. At  the  time  of  the  Dissolution  the  abbot  was 
John  Welles,  or  Bridges,  who  with  his  twenty-seven 
monks  subscribed  to  the  Royal  Supremacy  in  1534, 
and  five  years  later  surrendered  his  house  to  the  king. 
The  revenue  of  the  abbey  at  this  time  has  been  vari- 
ously estimated  at  £1083  and  £1217.  The  site  and 
buildings  were  granted  in  Edward  VI's  reign  to  Ed- 
ward Lord  C^mton,  and  afterwards  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Hunter  famUy.  The  remains  of  the 
abbey  were  fortified  by  the  Royalists  in  1643,  and  be- 
sieged and  taken  by  Cromwell  in  May  of  that  year. 
The  abbey  church  comprised  a  nave  of  nine  bays  with 
aisles,  183  feet  long  by  87  wide,  an  apsidal  choir  of 
five  bays  90  feet  long,  a  central  tower  and  detached 
bell-tower  at  the  east  end.  The  existing  remams  con- 
sist of  the  north  aisle,  still  used  (as  it  was  from  the 
earliest  times)  as  the  parish  church;  the  splendid  west 
front,  the  lower  (twelfth  century)  and  the  upper  part 
(fourteenth  century)  elaborately  decorated  with 
arcading  and  statues,  it  is  thought  in  imitation  of 
Wells  cathedral ;  and  a  few  piers  and  arches  of  the 
nave.  Much  careful  restoration  and  repair  has  been 
carried  out  since  1860,  under  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  Mr.  J. 
L.  Pearson,  and  other  eminent  architects. 


OEUaiFIX 


542 


OBUILTY 


Fkux  ov  Groti^and,  Life  of  St.  Guthlae  in  Acta  SS.,  Apcil, 
IL  88:  OouoH,  HUtory  and  ArUiquUie%  of  Croyland  Abbey  in 
Bib.  Top,  Brit.,  XI;  Victtnia  History  of  Uncolnahire  (1906), 
lOfr-118;  Hiatoria  Croylandenaia  in  Rerum  Angl.  Scriptaret, 
ed.  FuLMAN,  I,  1-107;  Orderxcdb  ViTAua,  Hiat,  EccUaitui., 
II;   DuQDALB,  Monaat.  Anglic.;  II.  00-126. 

D.  O.  HuNTER-BlAIR. 

Omdfix.    See  Cross  and  Crucifix. 
Oracifizioii.    Seb  Cross  and  Crucifix;  Passion. 

Omelty  to  Animals. — Hie  firat  ethical  writers  of 
pagan  antiquity  to  advocate  the  duty  of  kindness 
towards  the  brute  creation  were  Pythagoras  and 
]^pedocles.  Holding  the  doctrine  of  metempsy- 
chosis, or  the  transmigration  of  human  souls  into  the 
bodies  of  lower  animals  after  death,  these  philosophers 
taught  t^at  animals  share  in  human  rights,  and  that  it 
is  a  crime  to  kill  them.  These  ideas,  together  with  an 
appreciation  of  the  services  rendered  by  domestic  ani- 
mals to  man,  found  some  expression  in  early  Roman 
lemslation.  The  error  of  ascribing  human  rights  to 
animals  is  condemned  by  Cicero  (De  Finibus,  bk.  Ill, 
xx).  The  Old  Testament  inculcates  kindness  towards 
animals.  The  Jews  were  forbidden  to  muzzle  the  ox 
that  tr^eth  out  the  com  (Deut.,  xxv,  4)  or  to  yoke 
together  an  ox  and  an  ass  (ibid.,  xxii,  10).  Some 
other  texts  which  are  frequently  quoted  as  instances 
are  not  so  much  to  recommend  kind  treatment  of  ani- 
mals as  to  insist  upon  duties  of  neighbourly  goodwill, 
llie  prohibition  against  seething  the  kid  in  its 
mother's  milk,  a  process  in  which  there  b  no  crueltv 
at  all,  and  the  one  against  taking  a  mother-bird  with 
her  young,  seem  to  nave  a  religious  rather  than  a 
humanitarian  significance. 

The  New  Testament  is  almost  silent  on  this  subject. 
Even  when  St.  Paul  cites  the  Mosaic  prohibition 
against  muzzling  the  ox,  he  brushes  aside  the  literal 
in  favour  of  a  symbolic  signification  (I  Cor.,  ix,  9  so.), 
llie  Fathers  of  the  Church  insist  but  little  on  this 
point  of  duty.  Nevertheless,  Christian  teaching  and 
practice  from  the  beginning  reflect  in  a  general  way 
the  Scriptural  ideal  of  ri^teousness  which  is  ex- 

f)ressed  in  the  words:  "The  just  regardeth  the 
ives  of  his  beasts:  but  the  bowels  of  the  wicked  are 
cruer'  (Prov.,  xii,  10).  The  hagiological  literature 
of  monastic  life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  which  so 
largjel^  formed  and  guided  the  moral  sentiment  of  the 
Christian  world,  as  Lecky  sets  forth  with  ample  evi- 
dence, '*  represents  one  of  the  most  striking  efforts 
made  in  Christendom  to  inculcate  a  feelins  of  kind- 
ness and  pity  towards  the  brute  creation'*^  (History 
of  European  Morals  from  Augustus  to  Charlemagne, 
II,  161  sqq.).  This  considerate  feeling  was  a  cha - 
acteristic  of  many  holy  personages,  even  before  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi  and  some  of  his  followers  carried  it 
to  a  degree  that  seems  almost  incredible. 

Hie  scholastic  theologians  condemn  the  infliction 
of  needless  suffering  on  animals,  chiefly  because  of  the 
injurious  effects  on  the  character  of  the  perpetrator. 
TTius  St.  Thomas,  in  his  "Summa  Contra  Gentiles'* 
(bk.  II,  cxii),  after  refuting  the  error  that  it  is  not 
lawful  to  take  the  lives  of  brutes,  explains  the  imjwrt 
of  the  above-mentioned  texts  of  Scripture.  He  says 
that  these  prohibitions  are  issued  either  "lest  anyone 
by  exercising  cruelty  towards  brutes  may  become 
cruel  also  towards  men;  or,  because  an  injury  to 
brutes  may  result  in  loss  to  the  owner,  or  on  account 
of  some  symbolic  signification".  Elsewhere  (Summa 
Theologica,  I-II,  Q.  cii,  a.  6,  ad  Sum)  he  states  that 
God's  purpose  in  recommending  kind  treatment  of 
the  brute  creation  is  to  dispose  men  to  pity  and  ten- 
derness for  one  another.  While  the  scnofastics  rest 
their  condemnation  of  cruelty  to  animals  on  its  de- 
moralizing influence,  their  general  teaching  concern- 
ing the  nature  of  man's  rights  and  duties  furnishes 
principles  which  have  but  to  be  applied  in  order  to 
establisli  the  direct  and  essential  siniulncss  of  cruelty 


to  the  animal  world,  irrespective  of  the  rasults  of  audi 
conduct  on  ^e  character  of  those  who  praciiBe  it. 

CaUiolic  ethics  has  been  criticized  by  some  soophil- 
ists  because  it  refuses  to  admit  that  animals  nave 
rights.  But  it  is  indisputable  that,  when  properly 
imderstood  and  fairly  judged.  Catholic  doctrine, 
though  it  does  not  oonoede  rights  to  the  brute  crea- 
tion, denounces  cruelty  to  animals  as  vigorously  and 
as  lo^cally  as  do  those  moralists  who  make  our  duty 
in  this  respect  the  correlative  of  a  ri^t  in  the  animals. 
In  order  to  establish  a  binding  obli^tion  to  avoid  the 
wanton  infliction  of  pain  on  the  brutes,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  acknowledge  axiy  rig^t  inherent  in  them.  Our 
duty  in  this  respect  is  part  of  our  duty  towajds  €rod. 
From  the  juristic  standpoint,  the  visible  world  with 
which  man  comes  in  contact  is  divided  into  persons 
and  non-persons.  For  the  latter  term  the  word 
''things''  is  usually  employed.  Only  a  person,  that 
is,  a  being  possessed  of  reason  and  seU-control,  can  be 
the  subject  of  ri^ts  and  duties;  or,  to  express  the 
same  idea  in  terms  more  familiar  to  adherents  of  other 
schools  of  thought,  only  beings  who  are  ends  in  them- 
selves, and  may  not  be  treated  as  mere  means  to  the 
perfection  of  ower  bein^,  can  possess  ri^ts.  Ri^ts 
and  duties  are  moral  ties  which  can  exist  only  in  a 
moral  being,  or  person.  Bein^  that  may  be  treated 
simply  as  means  to  the  perfection  of  persons  can  have 
no  rights,  and  to  this  category  the  brute  creation  be- 
longs. In  the  Divine  plan  of  the  universe  the  lower 
creatures  are  subordinated  to  the  welfare  of  man. 
But  while  these  animals  are,  in  contradistinction  to 
persons,  classed  as  things,  it  is  none  the  less  true  that 
between  them  and  the  non-sentient  world  there  exists 
a  profound  difference  of  nature  which  we  are  bound  to 
consider  in  our  treatment  of  them.  The  very  essence 
of  the  moral  law  is  that  we  respect  and  obey  the  order 
established  by  the  Creator.  Now,  the  animal  is  a 
nobler  manifestation  of  His  power  and  goodness  than 
the  lower  forms  of  material  existence.  In  unpartii^ 
to  the  brute  creation  a  sentient  nature  capable  of  suf- 
fering— a  nature  which  the  animal  shares  in  common 
with  ourselves— ^od  placed  on  our  dominion  over 
them  a  restriction  which  does  not  exist  with  r^ard  to 
our  dominion  over  the  non-sentient  world.  We  are 
bound  to  act  towards  them  in  a  manner  conformable 
to  their  nature.  We  mav  lawfully  use  them  for  our 
reasonable  wants  and  welfare,  even  though  such  em- 

Sloyment  of  them  neceesarilv  inflicts  pain  upon  them. 
»ut  the  wanton  infliction  of  pain  is  not  the  satisfac- 
tion of  any  reasonable  need,  and,  being  an  outrage 
a^inst  the  Divinely  established  order,  is  therefore 
smful.  This  principle,  by  which,  at  least  in  the  ab- 
stract, we  may  solve  tne  problem  of  the  lawfulness  of 
vivisection  and  other  cognate  questions,  is  tersely  put 
by  Zigliara:  ''  The  service  of  man  is  the  end  appointed 
by  the  Creator  for  brute  animals.  When,  therefore, 
man,  with  no  reasonable  purpose,  treats  the  brute 
cruelly  he  does  wrong,  not  because  he  violates  the 
ri^t  of  the  brute,  but  because  his  action  conflicts 
with  the  order  and  the  design  of  the  Creator"  (Phil- 
osophia  Moralis,  9th  ed.,  Rome,  p.  136).  With 
more  feeling,  but  with  no  less  exactness,  the  late 
Cardinal  Manning  expressed  the  same  doctrine:  ''It 
is  perfectly  true  that  obligations  and  duties  are  be- 
tween moral  persons,  and  merefore  the  lower  j^'irmla 
are  not  susceptible  of  the  moral  obligations  which  we 
owe  to  one  another;  but  we  owe  a  seven-fold  obliga- 
tion to  the  Creator  of  those  animals.  Our  obligation 
and  moral  duty  is  to  Him  who  made  them;  and  if  we 
wish  to  know  the  limit  and  the  broad  outline  of  our 
obli^tion,  I  say  at  once  it  is  His  nature  and  His  per- 
fections, and  among  these  perfections  one  is,  most 
profoundly,  that  of  Eternal  Mercy.  And  thwefore, 
although  a  poor  mule  or  a  poor  horse  is  not,  indeed,  a 
moral  person,  yet  the  Lord  and  Maker  of  the  mule  is 
the  highest  Lawgiver,  and  His  nature  b  a  law  unto 
Himself.    And  in  giving  a  dominion  over  His  creat- 


OftTTBt 


643 


ORUSABtS 


ures  to  man,  He  gave  it  subject  to  the  condition  that 
it  ^ould  be  used  in  oonfonnity  to  His  perfections 
which  is  EKs  own  law,  and  therefore  our  law"  (The 
Zoophilist,  London,  1  April,  18S7).  While  Catholic 
ethical  doctrine  insists  upon  the  merciful  treatment 
of  animals,  it  does  not  piace  kindness  towards  them 
on  the  same  plane  of  duty  as  benevolence  towards  our 
f ellow^men.  Nor  does  it  approve  of  unduly  magnify- 
ing, to  the  nc^ect  of  higher  duties,  our  obligations 
conoeming-animsds.  Excessive  fondness  for  tnem  is 
no  sure  index  of  moral  worth;  it  ma^r  be  carried  to 
un>CSiristian  excess;  and  it  can  coexist  with  grave 
laxity  in  far  more  important  matters.  There  are 
many  imitators  of  Schopenhauer,  who  loved  his  dog 
and  hated  his  kind. 

St.  Tbouaa,  Summa  TheoloQiea,  I.  Q.  xovL  a.  1,  2;  tl-II, 
Q.  bdv,  ».  1;  Id..  Contra.  Oeni.,  Ill,  cxii;  Ziouara,  PhUo- 
Mophia  moralia,  I.  i;  Joseph  Rickabt,  Moral  PhUoeophy,  Pt. 
II.  y;  Anon.,  The  Church  and  Kindnen  to  AnimaU  (London, 
1900);  Ttbbbll  in  Contemporary  Review,  LXVIII,  November, 
1805. 

James  J.  Fox. 

Omet,  a  small  vessel  used  for  oontaininc  the  wine 
and  water  required  for  the  Holv  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 
Two  are  fdways  employed.  The  Roman  Missal  (Ru- 
bricsB  Gen.^  aX)  directs  that  they  should  be  made  of 
g^ass.  This  is  the  most  suitable  material  because 
easily  cleaned,  and  its  transparency  obviates  danger 
of  oonfoimding  the  water  and  wine.  Other  materials, 
however,  are  used,  such  as  gold,  silver,  and  other 
precioi^  metals.  In  this  case  it  is  advisable  to  have  a 
V  {Vinum)  on  the  wine  and  an  A  (aqua)  on  the  water 
cruet,  so  that  one  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  the 
other.  In  shape  nothing  is  prescribed,  but  the  ves- 
sels should  have  a  eood  firm  base  on  which  to  stand 
securely  and  a  fainy  wide  neck  so  as  to  admit  of 
being  easfly  cleansed.  They  should  have  a  cover  to 
keep  away  flies  and  insects.  Formerly  the  wine  for 
tiie  JHoly  Sacrifice  was  brought  by  the  faithful  in  a  jar- 
shaped  vessel.  It  was  then  received  by  the  deacon 
and  poured  into  the  chalice,  a  vestige  of  which  custom 
is  stul  observable  at  the  consecration  of  a  bishop. 

Van  Dbr  Stappen,  De  Mxaea  Cdehratione  nhlecblin,  1902), 
88;  Puoin,  Olossary  of  Eodeeiaetical  Ornament  (London,  1868). 

Patrick  MoRRiaROE. 

Orasade,  Bull  of  the,  a  Bull  granting  indulgences 
to  those  who  took  part  in  the  wars  aeainst  the  infidels. 
These  indulgences  were  similar  to  those  which,  as  far 
back  as  the  eleventh  century,  had  been  granted  to  the 
faithful  of  the  Spanish  Mark  who  took  part  in  the 
work  of  buildine  churches  and  monasteries,  or  who 
gave  alms  to  be  devoted  to  this  purpose.  The  first  of 
these  Crusade  Bulls  which  concerned  Spain  was  that 
of  Urban  II  to  the  Counts  Berenguer  Ram6n  de  Barce- 
lona and  Armengal  de  Besalt!i  in  1089  at  the  time  of 
the  reconquest  oiTarragona,  and  that  of  Gelasius  II  to 
Alfonso  I  of  Aragon,  when  he  undertook  to  reconquer 
Saragossa  m  11 18.  Qement  IV  m  1265  issued  a  gen- 
eral Bull  for  the  whole  of  Spain,  when  the  Kings  of 
Aragon  and  Castile  joined  in  the  expedition  against 
Murcia.  In  the  course  of  time  these  pontifical  con- 
cessions became  more  and  more  frequent ;  in  the  reign 
of  the  Catholic  kings  alone  they  were  granted  in  1478, 
1479,  1481,  1482,  1485,  1494,  1503,  and  1505,  and 
were  continued  during  the  following  reigns,  that 
granted  by  Gregoiy  XllI  in  1573-  being  renewed  by 
his  successors. 

The  alms  given  by  the  faithful  in  response  to  this 
Bull,  which  were  at  first  used  exclusively  for  carrying 
on  the  war  against  the  infidels,  were  afterwards  used 
for  the  construction  and  repair  of  churches  and  other 
pious  worln;  sometimes  they  were  also  used  to  defray 
expenses  of  the  State.  The  Cortes  of  Valladolid  of 
1523  and  that  of  Madrid  of  1592  petitioned  that  this 
moncr^  should  not  be  used  for  any  other  purpose  than 
that  for  which  it  had  orianally  been  intended  by  the 
donors,  but,  notwithstaaaing  the  provisions  maae  by 


Philip  III  in  compliance  with  this  request,  the  abuse 
already  mentioned  continued.  After  1847  the  funds 
derived  from  this  source  were  devoted  to  the  endow- 
ment of  churches  and'the  clergy,  this  disposition  being 
ratified  by  a  law  in  1849  and  in  the  Concordat  of  1851, 
still  in  force. 

In  virtue  of  the  concessions  granted  by  this  Bull,  the 
faithful  of  the  Spanish  dominions  who  had  fulfilled  the 
necessary  conditions  could  gain  the  plenary  indul* 
gence,  c;ranted  to  those  who  rought  for  the  reconc^uest 
of  the  Holy  Land  and  to  those  who  went  to  Rome  in  the 
year  of  Jubilee,  provided  they  went  to  confession  and 
received  Holy  Communion.  They  enjoyed  also  the 
privilege  of  l>einff  absolved  twice  of  sins  and  censures 
reserv^  to  the  Holy  See  and  the  ordinary ,  except  open 
heresy,  and  others  concerning  ecclesiastics;  to  have 
vows  which  could  not  be  fulfilled  without  difiiculty 
commuted  by  their  confessor,  unless  failure  to  fulfil 
them  would  be  to  the  disadvantage  of  another;  also 
simple  vows  of  perpetual  chastity,  of  religious  profes- 
sion, and  of  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land.  Those  who 
visited  five  churehes  or  altars,  ca  the  same  altar  five 
times,  and  prayed  for  the  iiltentions  of  the  Crusade, 
could  gain  the  indulgences  granted  to  those  who  visitea 
the  stations  in  Rome.  The  Bull,  moreover,  permitted 
the  faithful  of  the  Spanish  dominions  to  eat  meat  on  all 
the  days  of  I^ent  and  other  days  of  fast  and  abstinence, 
except  Ash  Wednesday,  the  Fridays  of  Lent,  the  last 
four  days  of  Holy  Week,  and  the  vigils  of  the  feasts  of 
the  Nativity,  Pentecost,  the  Assumption,  and  Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul. 

Mkndo,  BvUm  Sacra  CruciaUs  DUucidatio  (Madrid.  1651); 
Li.AMA2ARE0,  HistoTta  de  la  Bula  de  la  Santa  Crmada  (Madrid, 
I860);  Salcbs,  ETplioaei6n  de  la  Bxda  de  la  Santa  Crutada 
(Madrid,  1881);  GorriiOB,  Kreueablaae  und  AlmoeenablaM 
(Stuttgart,  1906),  195-246.        EdUARDO  DB  HiNOJOSA. 

Omaades. — The  Crusades  were  expeditions  under- 
taken, in  fulfilment  of  a  solemn  vow,  to  deliver  the 
Holv  Places  from  Mohammedan  tyranny.  The  origin 
of  the  word  may  be  traced  to  the  cross  made  of  cloth 
and  worn  as  a  badge  on  the  outer  ^uinent  of  those 
who  took  part  in  these  enterprises.  Medieval  writers 
use  the  terms  crux  (pro  cruce  transmariruif  Charter  of 
1284,  cited  hy  Du  Cange  s.  v.  crux),  craisement  (Join- 
ville),  croiserie  (Monstrelet),  etc.  Since  the  Middle 
Ages  the  meaning  of  the  word  crusade  has  been  ex- 
tended to  include  all  wars  undertaken  in  |)ursuanoe  of 
a  vow,  and  directed  against  infidels,  Le.  against 
Mohammedans,  pa^;ans,  neretica,  or  those  under  the 
ban  of  excommumcation.  The  wars  waged  by  the 
Spaniards  against  the  Moors  constituted  a  continual 
crusade  from  the  eleventh  to  the  sixteenth  centuiy; 
in  the  north  of  £uroi>e  crusades  were  organized  a^nst 
the  Prussians  and  Lithuanians;  the  extermination  of 
the  Albigensian  heresy  was  due  to  a  crusade,  and,  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  the  popes  preached  crusades 
against  John  Lacklana  and  Frederick  II.  But  modem 
literature  has  abused  the  word  by  applying  it  to  all 
wars  of  a  religious  character,  as^or  instance,  the  expe- 
dition of  Heraclius  against  the  renaians  in  tne  seventh 
'  century  and  the  conquest  of  Saxony  by  Charlemagne. 
Tlie  idea  of  the  crusade  corresponds  to  a  political  con- 
ception which  was  realized  in  Christendom  only  from 
the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth  oentuiy;  this  supposes  a 
union  of  all  peoples  and  sovereigns  under  the  oiiection 
of  the  popes.  All  crusades  were  announced  by  preach- 
ing. After  pronouncing  a  solemn  vow,  each  warrior 
received  a  cross  from  the  hands  of  the  pope  or  his 
legates,  and  was  thenceforth  considered  a  soldier  of 
the  Church.  Crusaders  were  also  granted  Indulgences 
and  temporal  privile^,  such  as  exemption  from  civil 
jurisdiction,  inviolability  of  persons  or  lands,  etc.  Of 
all  these  wars  undertaken  in  the  name  of  Christendom, 
ti^e  most  important  were  the  Eastern  Crusades,  which 
are  the  only  ones  treated  in  this  article. 

PRESBNT  KirOWLEDQB  OF  THB  CRUaADBS. — ^A  his-> 

toiy  of  the  Crusades  was  begun  in  France  in  the  seven- 


O&tTSABtt 


544 


0EXT8ADES 


teeuth  century  by  the  Benedictines  of  the  Con 
tion  of  St-Maur.  (Bongara  had  previously  publislied 
the  first  collection  of  texts  bearing  upon  the  Latin 
Orient,  under  the  title  of  ''Gesta  Dei  per  Francos", 
fiOBnover,  1611,  fol.)  The  publication  of  ori^al  Ori- 
ental texts  prepared  by  Berthereau  in  the  eighteenth 
oenturjr  was  prevented  by  the  French  Revolution,  but 
in  the  nineteenth  century  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions and  Belles-Lettres  adopted  the  Benedictine  plaii 
and,  in  1841,  b^an  to  issue  a  "Collection  de  lliis- 
toire  dcB  Croisades" — Western  historians,  5  vols.; 
Elastem  or  Arabian  historians,  4  vols.;  Greek,  2 
vols.;  Armenian  documents,  2  vols.;   laws.  2  vols. 

The  historic  revival  that  followed  the  Restoration 
of  1815,  produced  works  of  a  romantic  character  like 
those  of  Michaud  (Histoire  des  Croisades,  Ist  ed.,  3 
vols.,  Paris,  1812-17:  and  7  vols.  8vo,  1824-29); 
Wilken  (Qesch.  der  Kreuzsiige,  Leipzig,  7  vols.,  8vo, 
1807-32) ;  and  Mills  (History  of  the  Crusades,  2  vols., 
London,  1820}.  Between  1839  and  1842  King  Louis 
Philippe  established  in  the  Versailles  Museum  the 
Halls  of  the  Crusades,  decorated  with  the  armorial 
bearings  of  families  whose  ancestors  had  taken  part  in 
the  Holy  Wars.  At  this  time  was  brought  to  light  the 
unduly  famous  Courtois  collection,  consisting  of  re- 
ceipts for  advance-money  loaned  to  French  knights 
by  Italian  bankers  and  which,  upon  being  compared 
with  authentic  texts,  was  found  to  contain  a  laige 
number  of  forgeries.  (See  L.  Delisle,  "Biblioth^ue 
de  I'Eooie  des  Chartes",  1888,  304;  Cartellieri, 
"PhiHpp  II  August",  Leipzig,  1906,  II,  302  sqq.)  It 
is  only  within  the  last  thirty  years  that  the  history  of  the 
Crusades  has  been  studiecl  in  a  truly  scientific  manner, 
thanks  to  the  Soci^t^  de  I'Orient  Latin  founded  by 
Count  Riant  in  1875  (principal  seats  at  Paris  and  Ge- 
neva). Its  publications  were  at  first  divided  into  geo- 
graphical and  historical  series,  the  former  containing 
the  itineraries  of  pilgrims  ana  the  latter,  chronicles, 
letters,  and  charters.  The  ''Archives  de  l^Orient 
Latin"  were  published  m  1881  (2  vols.,  Paris),  but 
since  1893  the  publications  have  been  induded  in  the 
''Revue  de  I'Orient  Latin",  a  periodical  bibliography 
of  the  history  of  the  Crusades.  Moreover,  in  allEuro- 
pean  countries  national  collections  of  documents 
C'Monumenta  GermaniaB*';  "Soci^t^  de  I'histoire  de 
France";  "Rerum  britannicarum  medii  sevi  scrip- 
tores";  **Fontes  rerum  austriacarum",  etc.)  have 
done  much  toward  providing  \m  with  sources  of  the 
history  of  the  Crusades.  Owing  to  these  labours  the 
student  of  the  Crusades  may  now  consult: 

(1)  Documents  in  Archives. — R6hricht's  "Regeeta 
regni  hierosolymitani,  1097-1291"  (Innsbruck, 
1893),  and  Delaville-Leroulx's  "Cartulaire  g^n^ral 
des  Hospitallers  de  8.  Jean  de  Jerusalem'*,  4  vols.,  fol. 
(Paris,  1894).  The  correspondence  of  the  popes,  pre- 
served in  the  Vatican  archives,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant sources  for  the  history  of  the  Crusades.  After 
these  archives  were  made  accessible  to  scholars  by 
order  of  Leo  XIII  in  1881,  the  Ecole  Fran^aise  of 
Rome  inaugurated  the  publication  of  the  registers  of 
the  popes  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy  (Library  of  the 
Ecole  Francaise  of  Rome)— Gregory IX  (Auvray,  ed.) ; 
Innocent  IV  (E.  Bei^ger,  ed.);  Alexander  IV  (de  la 
Rondure,  ed.);  Urban  IV  (Guiraud,ed.);  Clement  IV 
(Jordan,  ed.);  Gregory  X  and  John  XXI  (Guiraud 
and  Carxiier,  ed.);  Nicholas  III  (Gay,  ed.):  Martin  IV 
(Soehn^,  ed.);  Honorius  IV  (Prou,  ed.);  Nicholas  IV 
(Landois,  ed.);  Boniface  VIII  TFaucon,  ed.);  Bene- 
dict XI  (Grandjean,  ed.).  To  these  must  be  added 
the  registers  of  Honorius  III  (Pressuti,  ed. ;  Rome, 
1888)  and  Clement  V  (Benedictines,  ed. :  Rome,  1885- 
88).  For  the  other  popes  see  Migne's  "Patrolo^ 
Latina"  and  the  "Annates  Ecclesiastici"  of  Baromus 
and  Raynaldi  (Mansi,  ed.,  Lucca,  1738-59).  The 
archives  of  the  Italian  states  of  Venice.  Genoa,  and 
Naples  have  aJso  been  of  ereat  value  for  throwing  new 
light  on  the  history  of  the  Crusades»  e.  g.  Tafel  and 


Thomas,  ''Urkunden  suralteren  liandels-  und  Staato* 
geschichte  der  Republik  Venedig"  (Pontes  renun 
austriacarum.  XII-aIV,  Venice,  1856-57);  ThoniM, 
"  Diplomatanum  Veneto-Levantinum  "  (Venice,  1880). 

(2)  Judicial  Documente, — Such  are  the  ''AssiBes  de 
Jerusalem"  (Beugnot,  ed.,  2  vols.,  PariB,  1841)  and  the 
"R^gle  du  Temple"  (Curaon,  ed.,  Paris,  1886). 

(3)  Chronides. — ^Thesehave  not  vet  been  withered 
into  a  single  collection.  Hie  reader  should  consult 
chiefly  the  ^Collection  de  I'histoire  des  Croisadefl", 
published  by  the  Acad^mie  des  Inscriptions,  and  the 
^S6rie  Historique"  of  the  Sod^t^  de  I'Orient  Latin. 
The  most  detailed  account  of  the  Christian  states  is 
that  in  the  chronicle  of  William,  Archbishop  of  TVre 
(d.  1190).  It  comprises  twenty-three  books  (1095- 
1184)  and,  from  1143.  has  the  value  of  an  original  source 
(Historiens  Occidentaux,  I).  This  work  was  translated 
into  French  under  the  title  of  "Livre  d'Eracles", 
the  translation  being  continued  until  1229  by  Emoul 
and  until  1231  by  Bernard,  Treasiuvr  of  Saint-Pierre 
de  Corbie. 

(4)  AccounU  of  Pilgrimages  and  Itineraries,  EtpeciaUy 
in  the  Latin  Orient, — The  following  are  important:  a 
geographical  series  from  the  fourth  to  the  thirteenth 
century,  issued  by  the  Palestine  Pilgrims'  Text  Soci- 
ety (London,  18m — );  ''Recueil  de  voyages  et  m^ 
moires ' ',  published  by  the  Soci^t^  de  G^ograpnie  (P&ris, 
1824-66);  **Recueil  de  voyages  et  de  documents  pour 
servir  k  la  geographic "  (Pans,  1890 — ). 

(5)  Oriental  Research, — The  history  of  the  Crusades 
has  profited  by  the  progress  made  in  the  study  of  the 
Byzantine,  Arabian,  Airnenian,  and  Mon^lian  Orient 
(Collection  de  I'histoire  des  Croisades:  Greek  histo- 
rians, 2  vols.,  1875;  Arabian  historians,  4  vols.,  since 
1872;  and  Armenian  documents,  2  vols.,  since  1869). 

(6)  ArchcBology, — Finally,  archseological  exploration 
has  added  new  elements  to  our  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
Orient.  The  castles  of  the  crusaders  in  Palestine  and 
the  churches  in  French  style  throt^out  Cyprus  and 
Syria  have  been  discussed  by  Rey  in  his  "  Etudes  sur 
les  monuments  de  Tarchitecture  militaire  des  crois^" 
(Paris,  1871)  and  by  Enlart  in  "L*art  gothique  et  la 
Renaissance  en  Chypre"  (Paris,  1899);  for  coins  and 
seals  see  Schlumbeiier's  "Numismatique  de  I'Orient 
Latin"  (Paris,  1878).  The  history  of  the  Crusades 
becomes  henceforth  a  special  fidd  of  stud^.  How- 
ever, manv  sources  of  information  still  remam  unpub- 
lished, ana  those  that  have  been  published  are  scattered 
through  numerous  collections  as  yet  but  little  known. 

Division. — It  has  been  customary  to  describe  the 
Crusades  as  eight  in  number:  the  first,  1095-1101; 
the  second,  headed  by  Louis  VII,  1145-47;  the  third, 
conducted  by  Philip  Augustus  and  Richard  CcBur-de- 
Lion,  1188-92;  the  fourth,  during  which  Constanti- 
nople was  taken,  1204;  the  fifth,  which  included  the 
conquest  of  Damietta,  1217;  the  sixth,  in  which  Fred- 
erick II  took  part  (1228-29);  also  Thibaud  de  Cham- 
pagne and  Richard  of  Cornwall  (1239):  the  seventh, 
led  by  St.  Louis,  1249-52;  the  ei^th,  also  under 
St.  Louis,  1270.  This  division  is  «mi>itrary  and  ex- 
cludes many  important  expeditions,  amonf;  them 
those  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  In 
reality  the  Crusades  continued  until  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  crusade  of  Lepanto  occurring 
in  1571,  that  of  Hungary  in  1064,  and  the  erusade  of 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  to  Candia,  in  1609.  A  more 
scientific  division  is  baised  on  the  histoiy  of  the  Chns- 
tian  settlements  in  the  East;  therefore  ^e  subject 
will  be  considered  in  the  following  order:  I.  Origin  of 
the  Crusades;  IL  Foundation  Of  Christian  states  in 
the  East ;  III.  Fint  destruction  of  tiie  Christian  states 
(1144-87)*  IV.  Attempts  to  restore  the  Oiristian 
states  ana  the  crusade  against  Saint-Jean  d*Acre 
(1192-98);  V.  The  crusade  against  Constantinople 
(1204);  VI.  The  thirteenth-centuiy  crusades  (1217- 
52);  VII.  Final  loss  of  the  Christian  colonies  of  the 
East  (1254-1)1);  VIII.  The  fourteenth-oentuiy  crusade 


QftOMBIS 


545 


OftVtADIS 


a&d  the  Ottoman  invasion  |  IX.  H&e  cnuadci  in  the 
fifteenth  century;  X.  Modifications  and  survival  of 
the  idea  of  the  crusade. 

1.  Origin  of  thb  CRuaADBa. — ^The  origin  of  theCnir 
flades  is  direotik  traeeable  to  the  moral  and  political 
oandition  of  Western  Ghristendom  in  the  eleventh 
oentuiy.  At  that  time  Europe  waa  divided  into  nu- 
meioiB  states  whoee  sovereigna  were  absorbed  in  tedious 
and  petty  territorial  disputes  while  the  emperor,  in 
theoiy  the  temporal  head  of  Christendom,  was  wast- 
ing his  str^ifith  in  the  quarrel  over  Investitures.  Hie 
popes  alone  nad  maintained  a  just  estimate*  of  Chris- 
tiaii  unity;  they  realized  to  what  extent  the  interests 
of  Europe  ^[pre  threatened  by  the  Bv^antine  Empire 
and  the  Mohammedan  tribes,  and  they  alone  had  a 
foreign  policy  whose  traditions  were  formed  under  Leo 
IX  and  Qr^ty  VII.  Tlie  reform  effected  in  the 
Church  and  tne  papac]^  through  the  influence  of  the 
monks  of  Cluny  had  increased  the  i>restige  of  the 
Roman  pontiff  in  the  eyes  of  all  Christian  nations; 
hence  none  but  the  pope  could  inau^rate  the  into 
national  movement  that  culminated  m  the  Crusades. 
But  despite  his  eminent  authority  the  pope  could 
never  have  persuaded  the  Western  peoples  to  arm 
themselves  for  the  conquest  of  the  Holy  Land  had  not 
the  immemorial  relations  between  Syria  and  the  West 
favoured  his  design.  Europeans  listened  to  the  voice 
oi  Urban  II  because  their  own  inclination  and  historic 
traditions  impelled  them  towards  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
From  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  there  had  been  no 
break  in  their  intercourse  with  the  Orient.  In  the  early 
Christian  period  colonies  of  Syrians  had  introduced 
the  religious  ideas,  art,  and  culture  off  the  East  into  the 
laige  cities  of  Gaul  and  Italy.  The  Western  Christians 
in  ttim  joumeved  inlar^  numbers  to  Syria,  Palestine, 
and  Egypt,  either  to  visit  the  Holy  Places  or  to  follow 
the  ascetic  life  among  the  monks  of  t^e  Thebaid  or 
Sinai.  There  is  still  extant  the  itinerary  of  a  pilgrim- 
age from  Bordeaux  to  Jerusalem,  dated  333;  in  385 
St.  Jerome  and  St.  Paula  founded  the  first  Latin  mon- 
asteries at  Bethlehem.  Even  the  Barbarian  invasion 
did  not  seem  to  dampen  the  ardour  for  pilmmages 
to  the  East.  The  Itinerary  of  St.  Silvia  (Ethena) 
^ows  the  organisation  of  these  expeditions,  which 
were  directed  by  clerics  and  escorted  by  armed  troops. 
In  Uie  year  600,  St.  Gregory  the  Great  had  a  hospice 
erected  in  Jerusalem  for  the  accommodation  of  pil- 

Esent  alms  to  the  monks  of  Mount  Sinai  (''  Vita 
rii''  in ''  Acta  SS.",  March  II,  132),  and,  although 
plorable  condition  of  Eastern  Christendom  after 
.  the  Arab  invasion  rendered  this  intercourse  more  diffi- 
cult, it  did  not  by  any  means  cease. 

As  early  as  the  eighth  century  Anglo-Saxons  undei^ 
went  the  sreatest  hardships  to  visit  Jerusalem.  The 
journey  of  St.  Willibald,  Bishop  of  Eichst&dt,  took 
seven  years  (722-29)  and  furnishes  an  idea  of  the 
varied  and  severe  trials  to  which  pilgrims  were  subject 
(lUner.  Latina,  I,  241-283).  After  their  concjuest  of 
the  West,  the  Carlovin^ans  endeavoured  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  Latins  settled  in  the  East;  m  762 
Pepin  the  Short  entered  into  negotiations  with  the 
Caliph  of  Bagdad.  In  Rome,  on  30  November,  800, 
the  verv  day  on  which  Leo  III  invoked  the  arbitration 
of  Charlemagne,  ambassadors  from  Haroun  al-Raschid 
delivered  to  the  Kin£  of  the  Franks  the  keys  of  the 
Holf  Sepulchre,  the  banner  of  Jersualem,  and  some 
prsoious  relics  (Einhard,  ''Annales",  ad  on.  800,  in 
^'Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script",  I,  187),-  this  was  an 
acknowledgment  of  the  Prankish  protectorate  over  the 
Christians  of  Jerusalenu  That  churches  and  monas- 
teries were  built  at  Charlemagne^  expense  is  attested 
by  a  sort  of  a  census  of  the  monasteries  of  Jerusalem 
dated  808  ("  Commemoratio  de  Caais  Dei "  in  "  Itiner. 
Bieros.",  1, 209).  In  870,  at  the  time  of  the  pilgrim- 
Me  of  Bernard  the  Monk  (Itiner.  Hierosol,  I,  314), 
these  institutions  were  still  very  prosperous,  and  it  has 
been  abundantly  proved  that  aUns  were  sent  regularly 
IV.~36 


from  the  West  to  the  Holy  Land.  In  the  tenth  cen^ 
tury,  just  when  the  political  and  social  order  of  Europe 
was  most  troubled,  knights,  bishops,  and  abbots, 
actuated  b^r  devotion  and  a  taste  for  aaventure,  were 
wont  to  visit  Jerusalem  and  pray  at  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre without  beiiig  molested  by  the  Mohaixunedans* 
Suddenly,  in  1009,  Hakem,  the  Fatimite  Caliph  of 
£Jgypt,  m  a  fit  of  madness  ordered  the  destruction  of 
the  Holy  Sepuldire  and  all  the  Christian  establish- 
ments in  Jerusalem.  For  yean  thereafter  Christians 
were  cruellv  persecuted.  (See  the  recital  of  an  eye- 
witness, lanja  of  Antioch,  in  Schlumberger's  ''Epo- 
pde  byzantine",  II,  442.)  In  1027  the  Prankish  pro- 
tectorate was  overthrown  and  replaced  by  that  of  the 
Bysantine  emperors,  to  whose  diplomacywas  due  the 
reconstruction  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  Christian 
Quarter  was  even  surroundea  bv  a  waU,  and  some 
Amalfi  merchants,  vassals  of  tne  Greek  emperors, 
built  hospices  in  Jerusalem  for  pilgrims,  e.  g.  the  Hos- 
pital of  St.  John,  cradle  of  the  Order  of  Hospitallers. 
Instead  ol  diminishing,  the  enthusiasm  of  Western 
Christians  for  the  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  seemed 
rather  to  increase  during  the  eleventh  century.  Not 
only  princes,  bishops,  and  kni^ts,  but  even  men  and 
women  of  the  humbler  classes  undertook  the  holy 
journey  (Radulphus  Glaber,  IV,  vi).  Whole  armies 
of  pilgrims  traversed  Europe,  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Danube  hospices  were  established  where  they  could 
replenish  their  provisions.  In  1026  Bichard,  Abbot 
of  Saint- Vannes,  led  700pilgrinis  into  Palestine  at  the 
expense  of  Richard  II,  Duke  of  Normandy.  In  1065 
over  12,000  Germans  who  had  crossed  Europe  under 
the  command  of  Gttnther,  Bishop  of  Bamberg,  while 
on  their  way  through  Palestine  had  to  seek  shelter  in 
a  ruined  fortress,  where  they  doended  themselves 
against  a  troop  of  Bedouins  (Lambert  of  Hersfeld,  in 
"Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.*',  V,  168).  Thus  it  is 
evident  that  at  the  close  of  the  eleventii  century  the 
route  to  Palestine  was  familiar  enough  to  Western 
Christians  who  looked  upon  the  Holy  Sepulchre  as  the 
most  venerable  of  relics  and  were  ready  to  brave  any 
peril  in  order  to  visit  it.  The  memory  of  Charle- 
magne's protectorate  still  lived,  and  a  trace  of  it  is  to 
be  found  in  the  medieval  legend  of  this  emperor's 
journey  to  Palestine  (Gaston  Paris  in  "Romania", 
1880,  p.  23).  The  rise  of  the  Seljukian  Turks,  however, 
compromised  the  safety  of  pilmrims  and  even  threat- 
ened the  independence  of  the  Bvzantine  Empire  and 
of  all  Christendonu  In  1070  Jerusalem  was  taken, 
and  in  1091  Diogenes,  the  Greek  emperor,  was  de- 
feated and  made  captive  at  Mantsikert.  Asia  Minor 
and  all  of  Syria  became  the  prey  of  the  Turks.  Anti- 
och succumbed  in  1084,  ana  by  1092  not  one  of  the 
great  metropolitan  sees  of  Asia  remained  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Christians.  Although  separated  from 
the  communion  of  Rome  since  the  schism  of  Michael 
Cierulariua  (1054),  the  emperors  of  Constantinople 
impbred  the  assistance  of  the  popes;  in  1073  letters 
were  exchanged  on  the  subject  between  Michael  VII 
and  Gregory  VII.  The  pope  seriously  contemplated 
leading  a  force  of  50,000  men  to  the  East  in  oitler  to 
re-establish  Christian  unity,  repulse  the  Tkirks,  and 
rescue  the  Hoi V  Sepulchre.  But  the  idea  of  the  crusade 
constituted  ozuy  a  part  ot  this  magnificent  plan.  (The 
letters  of  Gregory  VII  are  in  P.  L.,  CXLVIII,  300, 
325,  329,  386;  d.  Riant's  critical  discussion  in  Ar- 
chives de  rOrient  Latin,  I,  56.)  The  conflict  over  the 
Investitures  in  1076  compelled  the  pope  to  abandon 
his  projects;  the  Emperors  Nicephorus  Botaniates  and 
Alexius  Comnenus  were  unfavourable  to  a  religious 
union  with  Rome;  finally  war  broke  out  between  the 
Byzantine  Empire  and  the  Normans  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  It  was  Pope  Urban  II  who  took  up  the  plans 
of  Gregory  VII  and  gave  them  inore  definite  shape. 
A  letter  from  Alexius  Comnenus  to  Robert,  Count  of 
Flanders,  recorded  by  the  chroniclers,  Guibert  de 
Nogent  ("Historiens  Occidentaux  des  Croisades".  ed 


OfttMADliS 


546 


OMBA&U 


by  the  Acad^mie  des  Inscriptions,  IV,  131)  and  Hugues 
de  Fleuiy  (in  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.",  IX, 
392),  Seems  to  impl^  that  the  crusade  was  insti- 
gated by  the  Byzantine  emperor,  but  this  has  been 
proved  false  (Chalandon,  Easai  sur  le  r^gne  d'Alexis 
Coran^ne,  appendix),  Alexius  having  merely  sou^t 
to  enroll  live  nundted  Flemish  kn^hts'in  the  imperial 
army;  (Anna  Comnena,  Alexiad.,  VII,  iv).  The  honour 
of  initiating  the  crusade  has  also  been  attributed  to 
Peter  the  Hermit,  a  recluse  of  Picardy,  who.  after  a 
pilgrioiage'to  Jerusalem  and  a  vision  in  tbe  cnurcb  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre,  went  to  Urban  II  and  was  com- 
missioned by  him  to  preach  the  crusade.  However, 
thougl;  eyewitnesses  of  the  crusade  mention  his 
preaching,  they  do  not  ascribe  to  him  the  all-important 
r61e  assigned  him  later  by  various  chroniclers,  e.  g. 
Albert  of  Alx  and  especially  William  of  Tyre,  (S^ 
Hagenmeyer,  Peter  der  Eremite  Leipzig,  1^.)  The 
idea  of  the  crusade  is  chiefly  attributed  to  Pope  Urban 
n  (1095),  and  the  motives  that  actuated  him  are 
deariv  set  forth  by  his  contemporaries:  "On  behold- 
ing tne  enormous  injury  that  all,  clergy  or  people, 
brought  upon  the  Christian  Faith  ...  at  the  news 
that  the  Kumanian  provinces  had  been  taken  from 
the  Christians  by  the,  Turks,  moved  with  conipassion 
and  impelled  by  the  love  of  God,'  he  crossed  the 
mountams  and  descended  into  Gaul"  (Foucher 
de  Chartres,  X,  in  "Histoire  des  Crois.",  Ill,  321}. 
Of  course  it  is  possible  that  in  order  to  swell  his 
forces,  Alexius  Comnenus  solicited  assistance  in  the 
West ;  however,  it  was  not  he  but  the  pope  who  agitated 
the  great  movement  'vdiich  filled  the  Greeks  with  anx- 
iety and  terror. 

II.   FbUNDATION    OF    CHRISTIAN    StaTES    IN    THE 

East. — After  travelling  through  Burgundy  and  the 
south  of  France,  Urban  II  convoked  a  council  at 
Clermont-Ferrand,  in  Auvergne.  It  was  attended  by 
fourteen  archbishops,  250  bishops,  and  400  abbots* 
moreover  a  great  number  of  knights  and  men  of  all 
conditions  came  and  encamped  on  the  plain  of  Chan- 
toin,  to  the  east  of  Clemiont,  18-28  November,  1095. 
On  i7  November,  the  pope  himself  addressed  the 
assembled  multitudes,  exporting  them  tojgo  forth  and 
rescue  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  Amni  wonoerful  enthu- 
siasm and  cries  of  .God  wills  it!"  all  rushed  towards 
the  pontiff  .to  pledge  themselves  by  vow  to  depart  for 
the  Holy  Land  and  receive  the  cross  of  red  material 
to  be  worn  on  the  shoulder.  At  the  same  time  the 
pope  sent  letters  to  all  Christism  nations,  and  the 
movement  made  rapid  headway  throughout  Europe. 
Preachers  of  the  crusade  appeared  everywhere,  and 
on  all  sides  sprang  up  disorganized,  undisciplined, 
penniless  hordes,  almost  destitute  of  equipment,  who, 
surging  eastward  through  the  valley  of  the  Danube, 
plundered  as  thejr  went  along  and  murdered  the  Jews 
m  the  German  cities.  One  of  these  bands,  headed  by 
Folkmar,  a  German  cleric,  was  slaughtered  by  the 
Hungarians.  Peter  the  Hermit,  however,  and  the 
German  knight,  Walter  the  Pennyless  (Gautier  Sans 
Avoir),  finally  reached  Constantinople  with  their  dis- 
organi;jed  troops.  To  save  the  city  from  plunder 
Alexius  Comnenus  ordered  them  to  be  conveyed 
across  the  Bosporus  (August,  1096);  in  Asia  Minor 
they  turned  to  pillage  andwere  nearly  all  slain  by  the 
Turks.  Meanwhile  the  regular  crusade  was  oeing 
organized  in  the  West  and^  according  ^  a  well  con- 
ceived plan,  the  four  principal  anriies  were  to  meet  at 
Constantinople.  {!)  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Duke  of 
Lower  Lorraine,  at  tne  head  of  the  pieople  of  Lorraine, 
the  Germans,  and  the  French  from  the  north,  followed 
the  valley  or  the  Danube,  crossed  Hungary,  and  ai^ 
rived  at  Constantinople,  23  December,  1096.  (2) 
Hugh  of  Vormandois,  brother  of  King  Philip  I  of 
France,  Robert  Courte-Heuse,  Duke  of  Normandy, 
and  Count  Stephen  of  Blois,'  led  bands  of  French  and 
Normans  across  the  Alps  and  set  sail  from  the  ports  of 
Apulia  for  Dyrrachium  (DurazJBo),  whence  they  took 


the  ''Via  Egnatia'*  to  Constantinople  and  aasemUed 
there  in  May,  1097.     (3)  The  French  from  the  south, 
under  the  leadership  of  Raymond  of  Saint-Gilles, 
Count  of  Toulouse,  and  of  Adhemar  of  MontcO,  Bishop 
of  Puy  and  papal  le^te,  began  to  fight  their  way 
throu^  the  longitudmai  valleys  of  the  Eastern  Alpi 
and,  aiter  bloody  conflicts  with  the  Slavonians,  reached 
Constantinople  at  the  end  of  April,  1097.    (4)  Lastly, 
the  Normans  of  Southern  Italy,  won  over  by  the  en- 
thusiasm  of  the  bands   of  orusaders  that    riassed 
through  their  country,  embarked  for  Epirus  under  the 
command  of  Bohemond  and  Tancred,  one  being  the 
eldest  son,  the  other  the  nephew,  of  Robert  Guiscard. 
Crossing  the  Byzantine  Empire,  they  succeeded  in 
reaching  Constantinople,  26  April,  1097.    The  appear- 
ance of  the  crusading  armies  at  Constantinople  raised 
the  greatest  trouble,  and  helped  to  bring  about  in  the 
futuro  irremediable  misunderstandings  between  the 
Greeks  and  the  Latin  ChristiMis.    Hie  unsolicited  in- 
vasion of  the  latter  alarmed  Alexius,  who  tried  to  pre- 
vent the  concentration  of  all  these  forces  at  Constan- 
tinople bv  transporting  to  Asia  Minor  each  Western 
army  in  the  order  of  its  arrival ;  moreover,  he  endeav^ 
oured  to  extort  from  the*  leadera  of  the  erosade  a 
promise  that  they  would  restore  to  the  Greek  Eknplre 
the  lands  they  were  about  to  conquer.    After  resisting 
the  imperial  entreaties  throughout  the  winter,  God- 
frey of  Bouillon,  hemmed  in  at  Pera.  at  length  con- 
sented to  take  the  oath  of  fealty.    Bonemond,  Robert 
Courte-Heuse,  Stephen  of  B1<ms,  and  the  other  crusad- 
ing chiefs  unhesitatingly  assumed  the  same  obligation ; 
Raymond  of  St-Gilles,  however,  remained  obourate. 
Transported  into  Asia  Minor,  the  crusaders  laid 
siege  to  the  city  of  Nicaea,  but  Alexius  ne^ol^ated  with 
the  Turks,  had  the  city  delivered  to  hun,  and  pro- 
hibited the  crusaders  from  entering  it  (1  June,  1097). 
After  their  victory  over  the  Turfci  at  the  battle  of 
Dorylieum  on  1  July,  1097,  the  Christians  entered 
upon  the  high  p1ateau:jt  of  Asia  Minor.    Constantly 
harrassed  by  a  relentless  enemy,  overcome  W  the 
excessive  heat,  and  sinking  under  the  wei^t  c»  their 
leathern  armour  covered  with  iron  scales,  tneir  suffer- 
ings were  wellnigh  intolerable.    In  September,  1097, 
Taiicred  and  Baldwin,  brothers  of  Godfrey  of  BouiUoii, 
left  the  bulk  of  the  army  and  entered  Armenian  terri- 
tory.   At  Tarsus  a  feud  almost  broke  out  between 
them,  but  fortunately  they  became  reconciled.    Tan- 
cred took  possession  of  the  towns  of  Cilicia,  whilst 
Baldwin,  summoned  by  the  Armenians,  oroffied  the 
Euphrates  in  October,  1097,  and,  after  marrying  an 
Armenian  princess,  was  proclaimed  Lord  of  Edessa.  • 
Meanwhile  the  crusaders,  revictualled  by  the  Aime- 
nians  of  the  Taimis  region,  made  their  wa^ into  Syria 
and  on  20  October,  1097,  reached  the  fortified  city  of 
Antioch,  which  was  protected  by  a  wall  flanked  with 
450  towers,  stocked  by  the  Ameer  Jagi-Sian  with 
immense  quantities  of  provisions.    Thanks  to  the 
assistance  of  carpenters  and  en^neere  who  belonged 
to  a  Genoese  fleet  that  had  arrived  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Orontes,  the  crusaders  were  enabled  to  construct 
battering-machines  and  to  begin  the  esege  of  the  city. 
Eventually  Bohemond  negotiated  with  a  Turkish 
chief  who  surrendered  one  of  the  towers,  and  on  the 
night  of  2  June,  1098,  the  cntadere  took  Antioch  by 
storm.    'Hie  veiy  next  day  they  were  in  turn  besieged 
within  the  dty  oy  the  army  of  KerbClga,  Ameer  of 
MoeuL    Plague  and  famine  cruelly  decimated  theil* 
ranks,  and  many  of  ihem,  amons  others  Stephen  of 
Blois,  escaped  imder  cover  of  night.    The  army  was 
on  the  veige  of  giving  way  to  (uscouragement  when 
its  spirits  were  suddenly  revived  by  the  discovery  of 
the  Holy  Lance,  resulting  from  the  dream  of  a  Prov- 
encal priest  named  Pierre  Barth^lemy.    On  28  June, 
1098,  KerbClga's  army  was  effectually  repulsed,  but, 
instead  of  marchine  on  Jerusalem  without  delay,  the 
chiefs  spent  several  months  in  a  quarrel  due  to  the 
rivalry  of  Raymond  of  Saint-Gilles  and  Bohemond, 


CORONATION  OF  BALDWIN  I.  KING  OF  JERUSALEM.  BY  ENRICO  DANDOLO, 

DOGE  OF  VENICE 

VASSILACCHI   (l*ALIENS£),  DOGE's  PALACE,  VENICE 


oEuaAon 


647 


mmuou 


bMi  of  ^vfaom  ebdo&d  the  ridit  to  Antiodu  It  waa 
not  until  April,  1099,  that  the  maich  tQwavcb  Jeru- 
salem was  begun»  Bdhemond  xemdimng  in  pogpcnpiop 
of  Antioch  while  Raymond  Beiaed  on  TripolL  On  7 
June  the  erasadera  began  the  siege  of  Jenwilem. 
Their  predicament  would  have  been  aeriou^f  indeed, 
had  not  another  Genoese  fleet  arrived  at  Jaffa  and,  as 
at  Antioch,  furnished  the  en^eera  necessavy  for  a 
siege.  Af  ttt*  a  general  procession  which  the  crusaden 
mada  baref ooted  around  the  «iiy  walls  amid  the  in- 
Bulteand  incantations. of  Mohammedan «oreeieri,. the 
attack  began  14  Juhr,  1009.  Next  day  the  Christiaiui 
entered  Jeiusalem  from  aU  sides  and  slew  its  ipLhabi- 
tants  r^atdlesB  of  age  or  set.  « Having  aecomplished 
their  i^srimafle  to  the  Holy  Sepulbhie,  the  kni^is 
chose  aalord  of  the  new  conquest  Godfr^  of  Bouillon, 
who  called  himself  ''Defender  of  Uie  Holy  Sepuldire  V. 
Th^  had  then  to  repulse  an  Egyptian  anny,  whidi 
was  defeated  at  Asoakm,  12.  August,  1099.  Hieir 
position  was  nevertheless  very  mseeure.  Alexius 
GomnemiB  threatened  the  principality  of  Antioch,  vad 
in  1100  Bohemond  himsen  was  made  prisoner  by  the 
Turks,  while  moot  of  the  dties  on  the  coast  were  rtill 
under  Mohammedan  controL  Before  his  death,  29 
July,  1099,  Urban  II  once  more  proclaimed  the  cru- 
sade. In  1101  three  expeditions  citssed  Europe  un- 
der the  leadership  of  Count  Stephen  Of  Blois,  Duke 
William  IX  of  Aquitaine,  and  Welf  IV,  Duke  of 
Bavaria.  All  three  managed  to  reach  Asia  Minor,  but 
were  manaered  by  the  Turin.  On  his  retease  fh>m 
prison  Bohemond  attacked  theBysantine  E^npire^  but 
was  surrounded  by  the  imperial  army  and  forced  to 
acknowledge  himself  the  vassal  of  Alexius.  On  Bohe- 
mond's  death,  however,  in  1111,  Tanored  refused  to 
live  up  to  the  treaty  and  retained  Antioch:  Ctodfrey 
€i  Bouillon  died  at  Jerusalem  18  Jidy,  llOa  H& 
brother  and  successor,  Baldwin  of  Edessa,  waserowned 
King  of  Jertisalem  in  the  Basilica  of  Bethlehem,  25 
December,  1100.  In  1112,  with  the  aid  of  Norwe^aas 
under  Sigurd  Jorsalafari  and  the  support  of  Genoese, 
Pisan,  and  Venetian  fleets,  Baldwin  1  began  the  con- 
quest of  the  ports  of  Syria,  which  was  completed  in 
1124  bj  the  capture  of  Tyre.  Ascalon  alone  kept  an 
Egyptian  geurison  until  1153. 

At  this  period  the  Christian  states  formed  an  ex- 
tensive ana  unbroken  territory  between  the  Euphrasies 
and  the  Egyptian  frontier,  and  included  four  almost 
independent  prindpalities:  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem, 
the  Countship  of  liipoli,  the  Principality  of  Antiodi. 
and  the  Countship  of  Rohea  (Edessa).  These  small 
states  were,  so  to  speak,  the  common  property  of  all 
ChristendiKn  and,  as  sudi,  were  subordinate  to  the 
authority  of  the  pope.  Moreover,  the  French  kni^^ 
and  Italian  merchants  established  in  the  neidy  eon- 
auered  cities  soon  gained  the  upper  hand.  The  au- 
thority of  the  sovereigns  of  these  different  principali- 
ties was  restricted  by  the  fief4ioldBie,  vassals,  and 
under-vassals  who  constituted  the  Court  of  Lieges,  or 
Supreme  Court.  Hiis  assembly  had  entire  oonlrol  in 
legislative  matters;  no  statute  or  law  ooukl  be  estab- 
lished without  its  consent;  no  baron  eould  be  deprived 
of  his  fief  without  its  decision;  its  jurisdiction  ex- 
tended over  all,  even  the  king,  and  it  controlled  also 
the  succession  to  the  throne.  A  "Court  of  the  Bur- 
gesses" had  similar  lurisdiotion  over  the  dtiadas. 
JUach  fief  had  a  like  tribunal  composed  of  knights  and 
dtiaens,  and  in  the  ports  there  were  police  and  merctm- 
tiie  courts  (see  Assizes  of  Jvbubaubm).  The  author- 
ity of  the  Qiuroh  also  helped  to  limit  tiie  power  of  llie 
Imig;  the  four  metropohtan  sees  of  Tyre,  Csesarea, 
Bessan,  and  Petra  were  subject  to  the  Patriajeh  of 
Jenunlem,  simihiriy  seven  suffragan  sees  and  a  Street 
many  abbevs,  among  them  Mount  Sion,  Mount  Ouvet, 
the  Temple.  Josapnat,  and  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
lluou^  tim  and  frequent  (fenations  the  clergy  be- 
came the  largest  property-holders  in  the  kingdom; 
they  also  received  from  the  crusaders  important 


estates  situated  in  Europe.  In  spite  of  the  aforesaid 
restrictions,  in  the  twelxth  century  the  Kin^  of  Jeru- 
salem had  a  large  income.  The  customs  duties  estab- 
lished in  the  ports  and  administered  by  natives,  tiiie 
tolls  exacted  from  caravans,  and  tJbe  monopoly,  of 
certain  industries  were  a  fruitful  source  of  revenue. 
From  a  military  point  of  view  all  vassals  owed  the 
M^f  unlimited  service  as  to  time,  though  he  was 
obliged  to  compensate  them»  but  to  fill  the  ranks  of 
the.  army  it  was  necessary  to  enroll  natives  who  re- 
peived  !a  life  atmuity  (fief  de  mnMd).  In  this  way 
waa  reoruited  the  U^t  cavalry  of  the  '^Turcoples'% 
armed  in  Saracenic  style.  Altogether  these  foroes 
barely  exceeded  20,000  men,  and  yet. the  powerful 
vassals  who  commanded  them  were  aimost  independ- 
ent of  the  kinfl*  So  it  was  that  the  great  need  of 
r^ular  troops  for  the  defence  of  the  Christian  domin- 
ions brought  about  the  creation  o£  a  unique  institu- 
tion,  the  religious  orders  of  knighthood,  vis.:  the 
Hospitallers,  who  at  first  did  duty  in  the  Hospital 
of  St.  John  founded  by  the  aforraaid  merchants  of 
Amalfi*  and  were  then  organised  into  a  militia  by 
Gerard  du  Pay  that  they  might  fight  the  Saraoens 
(1113);  and  the  Templars,  nine  pi  whom  in  1U8 
mthered  around  Hugues  de  Payens  and  received  the 
KuLe  of  St.  Bernard*  xhese  members,  whether  kni^ts 
drawn  from  the  nobility,  bailiffs,  clerks,  or  chi^latns, 
pronounced  the  three  monastic  vows^  but  it  was  chief- 
ly to  the  war  against  the  Saracens  that  they  pledged 
tnemselvea  Being  favoured  with  many  spiritual  and 
temporal  privileges,  they  easily  ffained  recruits  from 
amon|  ^e  younger  sons  of  feudal  bouses  and  acquired 
both  m  Palestine  and  in  Europe  considerable  pro^ 
erijy.  Their  oastles,  buUt  at  the  principal  strategic 
points,  Margat,  Le  Crac,  and  Tortosa,  were  strcmg 
citadels  protected  by  several  concentric  endo^res. 
In  the  ICingdom  of  Jerusalein  these  mUitaiy  orders 
virtually  formed  two  independent  commonwealths. 
Finally,  in  the  cities^  the  public  power  was  divided 
between  the  native  citisens  and  the  Italian  colamsts, 
Genoese,  Venetians,  Pisans,  and  also  the  Marseillais 
who,  in  exchange  for  their  services,  were  given  su- 
preme power  in  certain  districts  wherein  small  self- 
govenung  communities  had  their  consuls,  their 
churches,  and  on  the  outskirts  their  fann-land,  used 
for  the  cultivation  of  cotton  and  sugar-cime.  The 
Qyrian  ports  were  regulariy  visited  by  Italian  fleets 
which  obtained  there  the  spices  and  silks  brought  by 
caravans  from  the  Far  East.  Thus,  during  the  first 
half  of  the  twelfth  eentury  the  Christian  states  of  the 
East  were  completely  organised,  and  even  eclipsed 
in  wealth  and  prosperity  most  of  the  Western  states. 
IIL  First  Dbstbuction  of  the  CnRis-nAN  States 
(1144-87). — ^Many  dangers,  unfortunately,  threatened 
this  prosperity.  On  the  south,  were  the  Caliphs  of 
Egypt,  on  the  east  the  Seljuk  Ameers  of  Damascus, 
Hamah  and  Aleppo,  and  on  the  nprth  the  Byzantine 
emptors,  eager  to  realize  the  project  of  Alexius  Com- 
nenusand  briii^  the  Latin  states  under  their  power. 
Moreover,  in  the  presence  of  so  many  enemies  the 
Christian  states  lacked  cohesion  and  discipline.  The 
help  they  received  from  the  West  was  too  scattered 
and  intermittent.  Nevertheless  these  Western  knights, 
isolated  amid  Mohammedans  and  forced,  because  of 
the  torrid  climate,  to  lead  a  life  far  different  from 
that  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed  at  home,  dis- 
played admirable  bravery  and  energy  in  their  efforts 
to  save  the  Christian  colonies..  In  1137  John  Com- 
nenus.  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  appeared  before 
Antioch  with  an  army,  and  compellcKl  Prince  Ray- 
mond to  do  hun  homage.  On  the  death  of  this  poten- 
tate (1143),  Raymona  endeavoured  to  shake  off  the 
irluome  yoke  and  invaded  Byzantine  territoiy,  but 
was  hemmed  in  by  the  imperial  army  and  compelled 
(1144)  to  humble  himself  at  Constantinople  before  the 
Emperor  Manuel.  The  Princ^;>ality  of  Edessa^  com- 
pletely isolated  from  the  other  Christian  states  oould 


(MtVSAlMBS 


548 


MIMAMS 


ttot  withstand  the  attacks  of  Imad-ed-Din,  the  prince, 
or  (Uab^of  Mosul,  who  forced  its  garrison  to  capita- 
late  25  Decanter,  1144.  After  the  assassination  of 
Imad-ed-Din,  his  son  Nonived-Din  continued  kostili- 
^es  a^unst  the  Christian  states.  At  news  of  this, 
Louis  Vll  of  France,  Queen  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  and 
a  great  number  of  knights,  moved  by  the  ^xhortatioiks 
of  St.  Bernard,  efnlisted  under  the  cross  (Asdembly  of 
V^selay,  31  March,  I14d).  The  Abbot  of  Ckdrvaux 
became  the  apostle  of  the  crasade  and  conceived  the 
idea  of  uiig^  all  Europe  to  attadt  the  infidels  sSzorul- 
taneoushr  in  Syria,  in  Spain,  and  beyond  the  Elbe. 

;  At  first  ne  met  with  strong  opposition  in  Germany. 

'  Eventually  Emperor  Ckinrad  m  acceded  to  his  wirfi 
and  adopted  the  standard  of  the  cross  at  the  Diet  of 
Spires,  26  December.  1146.  However,  ther^  was  no 
such  enthusiasm  as  nad  prevailed  in  1095;  Just  as 
the  crusaders  started  on  their  march.  King  Roger  of 
Sicily  attacked  the  Byzantine  Empire,  but  his  expedi- 
tion merely  checked  the  progress  of  Nour^-Din's 
invasion.  The  sufferings  endured  by  the  crusaders 
while  crossing  Asia  Minor  prevented  them  from  ad- 
vancing on  Edessa.  Ihey  contented  themselves  widi 
besieging  Damascus,  but  were  obliged  to  retreat  at 
the  end  of  a  few  weeks  (July,  1148).  This  defeat 
caused  great  dissatisfaction  in  the  West;  moreover, 
the  conflicts  between  the  Greeks  and  the  crusaders 
only  confinned  the  general  opinion  that  the  Bysantine 
Eknpii^  was  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  success  of  the 
CfMsades.  Nevertheless,  Manuel  Oomnenus  endeav- 
oured to  strengthen  l^e  bonds  that  united  the  Bytfafi- 
tine  Eknpire  to  the  Italian  principalities.  In  1161  he 
married  Mary  of  Antioch,  and  in  1167  gave  the  hand 
of  one  of  his  nieces  to  Amalrio,  King  of  Jerusalem. 
Tliis  alliance  resulted  in  thwarting  the  progress  of 
Nou^«d-Din,  who,  having  become  master  of  Damas- 
cus in  1154,  refrained  thenceforth  from  attacking  the 
Christian  dominions.* 

Kmg  Amalric  profited  by  this  respite  to  interpoto 
in  the  affairs  of  Egypt,  as  the  only  remaining  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Fatmiite  dynasty  were  chikhreni  and 
two  rival  viriers  were  disputing  the  supreme  power 
amid  conditions  of  absolute  anarchy.  One  of  these 
disputants,  Shawer,  being  exiled  from  E^ypt,  took 
refuge  with  Nour-ed-Din,  who  sent  his  best  general, 
Shfrktlh.  to  reinstate  him.  After  his  oonc[ue8t  of 
Cairo,  Smrkt^  endeavoured  to  bring  Shawer  mto  dis- 
favour with  the  calij^ ;  Amalric,  taking  advantage  of 
this,  allied  himself  with  Shawer.  On  two  occasions, 
in  1164  and  1167,  he  forced  ShfrictUi  to  evacuate 
EJgypt;  a  body  of  Prankish  knights  was  stationed  at 
one  of  th^  gates  of  Cairo,  and  Egjrpt  paid  a  tribute  of 
100,000  dfn^^  to  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusaleih.  In 
1168  Amalric  made  another  attempt  tocon<]uer  ^Sfpt, 
but  failed.  After  ordering  the  assassination  of  Sha- 
wer, Shfrki^  had  himself  proclaimed  Grand  Viner. 
At  his  death  on  3  March,  1160,  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  nephew,  Salah-ed-Dtn  (Saladin).  During  that 
year  Amalric,  aided  by  a  Bysantine  fleet,  invaded 
&ypt  once  moTe,  but  was  defeated  at  Damietta. 
Saladin  retained  full  sway  in  Egjrpt  and  appointed  no 
successor  to  the  last  Fatimite  caBph,  who  died  in  1171. 
Moreover,  Nour-ed-Din  died  in  1174,  and,  while  his 
sons  and  nephews  disputed  the  inheritance,  Saladin 
to<^  poUnesBion  of  Damascus  and  conquered  all  Meso- 

fotamia  except  Mosul.  Thus,  when  Antalric  died  in 
173,  leaving  the  roj^  power  to  Baldwin  IV,  **the 
Leprous",  a  child  of  thirteen,  the  kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem was  threatened  on  all  sides.  At  th^  ^ame  time 
two  factions,  led  respectively  by  Guy  de  liusignan, 
brother-in-law  of  the  king,  and  Raymond,  'Count  of 
tVipoli,  contended  for  the  supremacy.  Baldwin  IV 
died  In  1134,  and  Was  soon  followed  to  the  'grAve  by 
his  nephew  Baldwin  V.  Despite  lively  opposition, 
Quy  de  Lusignan  was  crowned  king,  20  Jifly>  11^. 
Though  the  strug^  against  Saladin  was  already 
under  way,  it  was  unfortunately  conducted  without 


ordeil  or  diMdpBne.  NotwiihstMiding  tke  tnloe  eoo- 
dtoded  with  Saladin^  Rtoaod  d^  Ch&tittDii,  a  powerful 
feudatory  and  lord  of  tiw  tnuohJordanic  region,  which 
•indhded  thc^  M  of  MOntiM,  ttie  great  cBstle  of 
Kantk,and  Allet,  e  port  <m  the  fied  Sea,  sought  to 
divert  the  enemy's  ^atteittioii  by  attaokihg  the  holy 
cities  of  the' '  Mokammedans.  Oariesa  vanseis  anere 
bfought  to  Aittet  on  the  backs  of  cameb  in  1182,  and 
a  ^fleet  of  Rvegadlc^  trav«raed  the  Red  Sea  for  a 
wholer  ysar,  ravaging  the  ooaskr  a^  far  as  Aden;  a 
iKkly  or  kn%kta  crv«a  aittepted  to'seiae  Mediaa.  In 
^tftie  end  this  fleet  waadestitjy^'IbySBladinV  and,  to 
the  great  joy  df  the'Mdhawnedaiirf^  the  Frankiah 
•  prisonera  w«i»  put^  to  death  at  Mteoa.  Atlaekad  in 
his  castle  at  Kiuyc^  Eeoaad  t*<oB  repulsed  Saladin'a 
fotoes  (11SM6).  A  truoe  w»  than  aigiied,  bat 
itenaud  brcdte  it  again  and  eanied  off  a  eaifavan  in 
•which  was'the  acdtaa's  own  sister*  In  faia  exaspera- 
tion Saladin  invaded  the  Kiiigdo^  el  Jenaaiem  and, 
al^io<igh  Guy  de  Lusignan  gathered  att  his  faroes  to 
repel  the  attadc,  on  4  July;  1187,  Saladin's  amy 
annihilated  that  of  the  Christiana  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Tiberias.  The  king:  the  gnaid  'master  of  the 
Temple,  Renaud  de-Ch4tuon,  and  the  moatjpoweifiil 
men  in  the  -refedm  were  made  orisoiienL  .  After  day- 
lag  Renaud  with  his  own  hand,  Sdladiii  tnarched  on 
Jerusalem.  The  city  eapitnlated  17  Septobber,  and 
T^,  Antioch,  and  Tripoli  were  tha  only  phues  in 
Syria  that  remamed  to  4to  ChiMianiBL 

iV.  AVTEMPtB  to  RBBVOtUB  inv  CiBISRaW  StATBB 
AUD   VBB   CRirSADiB  JlOAtKffir  SAlNislBiKK   b'AdKI.— 

The  news  of  these  ^venta  eansed  great  ecmateniatkyD 
in  Ghristendora,  aftid  Pope  GrB^sot^  Vin  strove  to  put 
a  8t<»>  to  aU  dissensions  among  the  Christian  prinoeB. 
On  21  January,  118B,  Phihp  AugtistiB,  King  of 
France,  and  Heniy  II.  Pkintaijenet,  beeanoe  reconciled 
at  Oiaors  and  took  the  ehtes;  On  27  Mardi,  at  the 
Difttd  Macma,  fVederiokBacbarosBa  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  German  knifi^ts  made  alvaw  to  defend  the 
Christian  cause  in  PalMiaei  In  Italy,.  Pisa  made 
peace  with  Genoa,  Venite  with  the  Km^f  of  Hunguy, 
add  WiUiam  of  Sieily  with  the  Bysantine  Empire. 
Moreover,  a  Scandinavian  fleet  «oiiBiBting  of  12,000 
warriors  ssdled  around  the  ^hiores  of  Europe;  when 
passing  Foitugal^  it  helped  to'capture  Ahmrirom  the 
Mohammedans,  finthuaium  lor  the  crusade  was 
a^dn  wrought  up  to  a  hirii  pitch;  bnt,  on  the  other 
hand,  diploma^  and  royal  aiid  prinioely  aohemes  be- 
came increasin0yimik>riantinitsOigan]ditioii.  Fred- 
erick Barbarossa  entered  into  negotiations  with  haac 
Ansehis,  Bmperor  of  €oniAaBtinm>le^  «rith  the  Sult^ 
of  leoniufift,  and  even  nnrith  «flalaain  hsmaelf  .  It  was, 
moreover,  the  first  tone  that  .aU  the  Mohammedan 
forcet  w«re  united  under- »  single  leader;  Saladin, 
while  the  holy  war  was  baing  preaehed,  oiganised 
against  the  Christiaos  'sowetning  lika  a  oounter- 
orusade.  Frederick  Barbarossa,  who  was  first 
reai^  for  the  ente^rise,  and  to  whom  ehronJclers 
attrflMite  an  army  of  100,000  men,  left  Batisbon, 
11  May,  1180.  After  mtaiuig  Hungaiy  he  took  the 
Battoan  passes  bynaaikuh;  ittKl  tried  to  outflank  the 
hostile  movements  of  Isaac  Angelas  by  attacking  Con- 
atanttiiople.  Finatty,  after  the  sack. of  Adriaaople, 
laaae  Angelus  sun^ndered,  and  between  21  and  30 
March,  IroO,  the  Germans  sucoeeded  ia  crossing  the 
Strait  of  Gallipoh.  As  usual,  (the  march  acroBS  Aaa 
Mhior  was  most  arduomsi  With  a  view  to  repleniw- 
ing  provisions,  the  army  took  IcoBium  bv  assault.  On 
their  arrivid  in  the  Taoni$  i^n,  Fsederiek  Baiba- 
rona  tried  to  cross  the  Seief  (Kalykadiios)  on  born- 
bank  and  was  drowned.  Thereupon  maiqr  Oennin 
princes  retonied  to  EiBrope-  the  otham,  under  the 
embeior^i  son.  Fredarick  of  iSwafaia^  reached  Antioeb 
and  proceeded  thence  ^to  Salnt^ean  d'Acm.  It  was 
before  this  city  that  finally  all  the  erusadii«  troof» 
assembled  In  June>  1189,  Kmp  Giqr  de  Lusignuip 
who  had  been  released  from  captivity,  Appeared  tbera 


ramuwH 


549 


amsAJOA 


with  the  remoanit  of  tbe  Ctmsimx  aioiy,  and^  in  Sep^ 
tember  d  the  BiiBie  jmrt  the  ScaQdinavian  fleet  nis 
rivedt  i^olWi^  by  the  £iigUflh  puid  Flemish  fleet«»  ocnsk- 
ma^ci^d  coipeetively  by  l^he  Archbi^hoj)  <^  CaQjM>ury 
and  Jaoaue?  ()'Ave«Qe«.  Thia  heioio  skge  laated  two 
yeav.  Ip  the  spring  e|  eaqh  year  xeinlodscemeiitBi  ar* 
rived  fixHP  the  West,  and  ^  veritable  Chjnatiim  <HlQn 
sprang  iip  outride  the  walls  of  Aci^. .  But  the  wintcira 
were  oisastKonA  to  the  i(;rMSfKlei»«.whoBe  lanks  were 
decimated  by  diseaae  bn>ufl^t  on  by  the  inclemenoy  of. 
the  rainy  season  apd  lack  of  f  podi  paladin  came  to  thd 
aasistasioe*  of,  the  city,  and  commrunioated  with ;  it  by^ 
means  of  earrier  pi^oe..  MMlo^hiudis^  machanes 
(ptsm^rsa),  wowd  by  powerful  maehinery,  wera 
used  by  the  erui^ers  to  demolieh  the.  wafls  of  Acore^- 
but  the  ]4oh4mmedan^  also  had  sti^ongartiUeiyv  This, 
famous  sieKehad  already,  legated  two  jream  when  Philips 
Augustw  jQbg  of  Fni^eQ»iB»d  Ri<tovi  Qosm  deli^j 
Kiitf  el  JBnglei»d,.afriyed.  on  the  soena<;  After  long 
dellbcffatiion  they,  had  loft  y^lay.tqBfether^  i  July; 
1100«  Hichacd  embarked!  at  Maoieifles,  , Philip  at 
Genoa,  and  they  met  atrMessina^i  Puling; a  soioiim> 
in  thi9  nhifle,  ^sting^  uni)il»Maif0h^Jll91,  they  aunofit* 
qnuarreltedji  b^  finiuW  concluded  a  treaty  of  peaee^ 
While  Philip,  wae  landizig  at  Aomj  (RuAsMLwas  ship^ 
wnoelo^  on  the  eoftet  of  Cmntaf  then.  independei£t> 
under  UaaQ  Oomneftue,  r  Wstb  the  aid  (^  Guy  de  Irusi- 
nian»  Richard  o^icpieied  thiB  isiandj  The  amyal  ufi 
the  Kings  of  Ffanoe  and;  Bngbnd  before  Aere  bmighV 
about  tbf&.capiiUilatiQA  of  thJeei^^  13  July,  U91» 
^oon^  however^  the  .^uafiol  of  the  FievM^h  and  English 
kings  broke  out  agam,  and  Philip  Augustus  left  Palea-! 
tme,  98  Julyv  Richfard  was  now  leader  of  the  cru^e, 
and,  to  punish  Saladin  Un  tho  iipn^fulfihnetit  of  the 
treaty  oo^diioonti  withip  th^  time  Apeei0ed,  had  the* 
Mohammadaa  hoctagco  put  to  death.  Keitt^anattaek 
on  JerMsalpm  waaneditaiied/  but,  after  bMiilii^  the 
Cfaristi^i^,i>jy  Be^pitia^ionfi^  Bala<^  brou^  ■numer^ 
ous  troops  uom  £gypt. ,.  The  .enterpisie  failed,  and! 
Hichard  oompe^aatea.  hixnself  for  t&ese>  reverees  by. 
brilliant  bu^.uaele^  ^cploita  whiehtmade  his  names 
legendanr  among  the  Mebammedaiia^  Before  his  da* 
pfutuie  he  aold  w  Island  of  CSyprus,  first  to  the  Tern*, 
plai^  who  were  .tmable  to  s^tle  theieiand  then  to  Qvi^ 
de  l40signa>»,  who  icenkounoed  the  ISongdomiOf  Jerosa^ . 
lem  in  favour  of  ComM  of  MoB((fmat  (U92):  .  Alt^ 
a  last  exnodition  toi  defend  Jaffa  against^  Saladin, 
Ridiard  cMareda  tniee  said  embarked  for  Europe, 
9  Octoberi  UQ2^biit  didnotraaoh  his  English  reum 
untU.  he  ha4  undmgqne  ahprnlliatiftg  capUyity.  at 
the  faaada  of  the  Duke  of  Austria,  ymo  avenged  in 
this  .wAy  the  insults  offered  hinii  before  SaintrJean 
d'Acm,'  'I 

While  Oapetiana  and  Plaixtagenets,  oblivious  of  the 
Holy  Waiv  were,  settling  at  home  tiieir  territorial  dis<^ 
nutes.  Emperor  Heniy  VI,  son  of  Barbaressa,  took  in 
hand  the  supreme  direction  ol  Christian  poUties  in  the 
East.  Crowned  Kkg  of  the  Two  Sldili€6,  25  Decern* 
her,  lld4,  he  took  the  cross  at  Bari.  31  May,  1195,aBd 
made  ready  an  expedition  which,  ne  thought,  would 
recover  Jerusalem  a<nd  wrest  Constantinople  from  the 
usurper  Alexius  III.  Eager  to  exercise  his  imperial 
authority  be  made  Amaury  do  Lusignaa  King  ofCy* 
prua  and  Leo  U,  King  or  Armenia*  In  September, 
1197,  the  German  crusadeps  started,  for  the  East. 
They  landed  at  Saint-Jean  d'Acre  and  marched  on 
Jeruaalemi.  but  were,  detained  before  the  little  town 
of  Tibnin  from  November.  1197,  to  February,  119a 
On.raisiiE^  the  m^9^  they  learned  that  Henry  YI  had 
died,  28  SM>temher,  at  Messina,  where  he  had  gaUiered 
the  fleet*  ifcatwna  to  convey  him  to 'ConstantinOplew 
The  Germans  signed  a  truoe  with  the  Safaeens,  hut 
their  future  influence  in  Palestine  was  assured  by  the 
creation  of  the  Order  of  tho  Teutonic  Knights.  In 
1 143,  a  Geiman  pilgrim  had  founded  a  hoepiUl  for  his 
fellow^oountrymen;  the  religious  who  served  it  moved 
to  Acse  and,  in  1108,  were  otganiaed  in  imitation  of 


the  plaaof  the  Hospitallers,  their  rule  being  approved 
by  tnnoeent  III  in  1199. 

V.  THB  C^USAOB  AOAJNffT  OoNSTAiniNOFLB  (1204). 

— ^In  the  many  attempts  made  to  establish  the  Chris- 
tian states  the  efforts  of  the  crusaders  had  been  lii* 
reoted  solely  toward  the  object  for  which  the  Holy 
War  had  beeen  instituted;  the  crusade  against  Con- 
stantinople shows  the  Qist  deviation  from  the  oxigiaal 
purpcse^  For  those  who  strove  to  gain  their  ends  by 
takmg  the  direction, of  the  crusades  out  of  the  popra 
hands^  this  new  movement  was,  of  course,  a  triumph, 
but  for  Christendom  it  waa  a  aource  of  perplexity. 
Scarcely  had  Innocent  III  been  elected  pope,  in  Janu- 
ary, 1198,  when  he  inaugurated  a  policy  in  the  East 
which  he  was  to  follow  throughout  his  pontificate. 
Se  euhordinated  all  elae  to  the  recapture  oi  Jerusalem 
Und  the  reoonquest  of  the  Holy  Land.  In  his  first 
En^cUcals.  he  smnmoned.  all  Christians  to  join  the 
cruaftda.aiid'even  neigotiated  with  Alexius  III,  tiia 
Bsysantij&e  emperor,  trying  to  peivuadehim  to  reenter 
t&  Roman  oommunion  and  use  bia  troops  for  the  lib- 
ejration  of  Palewrtine.  Peter  of  Qapua,  the  papal  legate, 
broui^t  about  a  truoe  bcltween  Philip  Augustus  and 
lUchaRi  Coeur  de  lion,.  January,  1199,  and  popttlar. 
pneaohen,  among  othm  the  parish  priest  FouJques 
of  Neuilly,  attracted  large  crowds.  During  a  tourna- 
ment at  Ecry-fiur-Alsoe  U/i  November,  1199,  Count 
ThifaAud  de  Champagne  and  a  great  man;^  knights* 
took  the  cross;  in  southern  Germany,  Martin,  Abbot 
(^•Pairis,  near  Cc^mar,  won  many  to  the  crusade^  It 
would  seem^  however,  that,  from  the  outset,  the  pope 
kiat  QO&trol  of  this  enterprise.  Without  even  ooiwult- 
mg  Innocent  III,  the  French  knights,  who  had  elected 
Ihibaud  de  Champag^  a$  their  leader,  decided  to  at- 
tack the  Mohammedans  in  Egypt  and  in  March,  1201,i 
coiaeluded  with  the  Republic  of  Venice  a  contract  for 
the  transportation  of  troops  on  the  Mediten^anean. 
On  the  death  of  Thibaud  the  crusaders  diose  as  his 
aucoeasof  Bonileoe^  Marquis  of  Montf  errat,  and  cousin 
of  Philip  ol  Bwabia,  theoi  in  opea  confiict  with  tha 
pope*  Juflt  at  this  time  the  son  <^  Isaac  An«Belua,  the 
dethreoed  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  soudnt  refuge 
ia  the  West  and  asked  InAooent  III  and  his  own 
brotber-ix»-law.  Philip  of  Swabia,  to  reinstata  him  on 
the  imperial  thrqne*  The  question  has  been  raised 
whether  it  was  pre-arranged  between  Philip  and  Boni' 
face  of  Montf^rrat  to  turn  the  crusade  towards  Con-v 
stanUnople,  and  a  passage  in  the  **  Gesta  Innoeentii" 
(83,  in  P.  U,  CCXrvTcXXXII). indicates  that  the 
ideawasnotnewtoBonifaoeof  Montferrat  when,  in  the 
spring  of  1202,  he  made  it  known  to  the  pope.  Mean* 
while  the  crusaden  assembled  at  Venice  could  not  pay 
the  amount  called  for  by  their  contract,  so,  by  way  of 
exchange,  the  Venetians  su^seeted  that  they  help  re- 
cover me  dty  of  SSara  in  Dumatia.  The  knights  ac* 
cepted  the  proposal,  and,  after  a  few  da^'  sie^,  the 
city  capitulated,  November,  1202.  But  it  was  m  vain 
^at  InnoGBBl  III  ursed  the  crusaders  to  set  out  for' 
Palestine.  Having  obtained  absolution  for  the  cap- 
ture of  Zara,  and  despite  the  opposition  of  Simon  of 
MontfOrt  and  a  part  ot  the  army,  on  24  May,  1203,  the 
leaders  ordered  a  march  on  Constantinople.  They 
had  concluded  with  Alexius,  the  Bysantine  pretender, 
a  treaty  whereby  he  promised  to  have  the  Greeks  re^ 
turn  to  the  Roman  communion,  aive  the  crusadem 
200,000  marks,  and  participate  in  me  Holy  War.  On 
23  June  the  crusaders'  fleet  appeared  before  Constan- 
tinople ;  on  7  Jufy  they  took  possession  of  a  suburb  of 
O^ata  and  forced  theur  way  into  the  Golden  Horn;, 
on  17  July  they  simultaaeoualy  attacked  the  sea 
walls  and  land  waUs  of  the  Blachenue.  The  troops 
of  Alexiua  III  made  an  unsuccessful  sally,  and  the 
usurper  fled,  whereupon  Isaac  Angelus  was  released 
from  prison  and  permitted  to  sharo  the  imperial  dig- 
nity with  his  son,  Alexius  IV.  But  even  had  the  hitter 
been  sincere  he  would  have  been  powerless  to  keep  the 
promisee  made  to  the  oruaaders.    After  some  months 


fwraADn 


550 


OMHUDtB 


of  tediouB  waiting,  thoee  of  their  number  canlxmed  at. 
Oalata  lost  patience  with  the  Greeks^  who  not  only 
refused  to  hve  up  to  their  amement,  but  likewiae 
treated  them  with  open  hostility.  On  5  February, 
1204.  Alexius  IV  and  Isaac  Angdus  were  depoeed  by  a 
revolution,  and  Alexius  Murzuphla,  a  usurper,  under- 
took the  defence  of  Constantinople  agaiost  the  Latin 
drusaders  who  were  preparing  to  besiege  Constanti- 
nople a  second  time.     By  a  treatv  concluded  in  Mardi, 

1204,  between  the  Venetians  and  the  crusading  ohi^s, 
it  was  pre-arranged  to  share  the  spoils  of  ^e  Greek 
Empire.  On  12  April,  1204,  Constantinople  was  car^ 
riea  b^r  storm,  and  the  next  day  the  ruthless  plunder- 
ing of  its  (lurches  and  palaces  was  begun.  The  mto* 
terpieoes  of  untiquity,  piled  up  in  pubHc  places  and  in 
the  Hippodrome,  were  utterly  destroyed.  Clerics  and 
knights,  in  their  dagemess  to  acouire  famous  and 
priceless  relics,  took  part  in- the  sack  of  the  chtuxdies.' 
Jhe  Venetians  received  half  the  booty;  the  portion  ci 
each  crusader  was  determined  according  to  his  rank 
of  baron,  knight,  or  bailiff,  and  most  of  the  churches 
of  t^  West  were  enriched  with  ornaments  stripped* 
from  those  of  Constantinople.  On  9  May,  1204,  an 
electoral  eoUege,  formed  oi  'prominent  ennaklera  end^ 
Venetians,  assembled  to  elect  an  emperor.  Dandolo>' 
Doge  of  Venice,  ref ucted  ther  honour;  and  Boniface  of 
Montf erfat  was  not  oonsideted.  In  the  end,  Baldwin. 
Count  of  Flanders,  was  elected  and  solenmly  cmwnea 
in  St.  SopUa.  Constantinople  and  the  empire  were 
divided  among  the  emperor,  the  Venetians,  and  the 
chief  crusaders;  the  Marquis  of  Montlerrat  received 
Thessalonica  and  Macedonia,  with  the  title  c^  long; 
Henry  of  Flanders  became  Lord  of  Adramyttaon; 
Louis  of  Blois  was  made  Duke  of  Nieesa,'  and  fiefs  were 
bestowed  upon  six  hundred  knights.  Meanwhile,  the 
Venetians  reserved  to  themselves  the  ports  of  Thrace, 
the  Peloponnesus,  and  the  islands.  Thomas  Moro-' 
sini,  a  Venetian  priest,  was  elected  patriarch. 

At  the  news  of  these  most  extraoidinaxT  events,  "in 
triiich  he  had  had  no  hand.  Innocent  III  bowed  as  in 
submiBsion  to  the  designs  of  Providence  and,  in  the  in- 
terests of  Christendom,  detennlned  to  make  the  best  of 
the  new  conquest.  His  c^ief  aim  was  to  suppress  the 
Greek  schism  and  to  place  liie  forces  of  the  new  Latin 
Empire  at  the  service  of  the  crusade.  Unfortuiiately, 
the  Latin  £2mpire  of  Constantinople  was  in  too  pre- 
carious a  condition  to  furnish  any  material  support  to 
the  papal  policy.*  The  emperor  was  unable  to  impose 
his  authority  upon  the  baronsw  At  Nicea,  not  far 
from  Constantinople,  the  former  Byzantine  Govern- 
ment gathered  the  remnant  of  its  authority  and  its 
followers.  Theodore  Lascaris  was  proclamied  em- 
peror. In  Europe,  Joannitsa,  'Tsar  of  the  Walla<^- 
lans  and  Bulganans,  invaded  Thrace  and  destroyed 
tiie  army  (A  the  crusadere  before  Adrianople.  14  April, 

1205.  During  the  battle  the  Emperor  BaMwin  fell. 
His  brother  and  successor,  Henry  of  Flanders,  devoted 
his  reign  (1206-16)  to  interminable  conflicts  with  the 
Bulgarians,  the  Lombards  of  Thessalonica,  and  the 
Greeks  of  Asia  Minor.  Nevertheless,  he  succeeded  in 
strengthening  the  Latin  conquest,  forming  an  alliance 
with  the  Bulgarians,  and  establishmg  his  authority 
even  over  tlie  feudatories  of  Morea  (Pariiament  of 
Ravennika,  1209);  however,  far  from  leading  a  cru- 
sade into  Palestine,  he  had  to  solicit  Western  help, 
and  was  obliged  to  sign  treaties  with  Theodore  Las- 
caris and  even  with  the  Bultan  of  Iconium.  Th4 
Greeks  were  not  reconciled  to  the  Church  of  Rome; 
most  of  their  bishops  abandoned  their  seeb  and  tdok 
refuge  at  NiesBa,  leaving  their  churches  to  the  Latin 
bishops  named  to  replace  them.  Greek  eonventff 
were  replaced  by  Cistercian  monasteries,  command- 
cries  of  Templars  and  Hospitallers,  and  chapters  of 
canons.  With  a  few  exceptions,  however,  the  native 
population  remained  hostile  and  looked  upon  the 
Latin  conquerors  as  foreigners.  Having  failed  in  all 
his  attempts  to  induce  the  barons  of  the  Latin  Empire 


to  Undertake  an  expeditioh  against  PaleBtine,  and 
understanding  at  last  the  cause  of  failure  of  the  cru- 
sade in  1204,  Innocent  III  resolved  (1207)  to  oreanize 
a  new  drusade  and  tb  take  no  furtiier  notice  m  Con- 
stantinople. Ciroumstances,  however,  were  unfa- 
vourable. Instead  of  concentrating  the  forces  of 
Christendom'  agnunst  the  Mohammedans,  the  pope  him- 
setf  disbandedlhem  by  proclaiming  (1200)  a  crusade 
against  the  ^bi^nses  m  the  souSi  of  fSrance,  and 
against  the  Almohades  of  Spain  (1213),  the  pagans  of 
Pmssia,  and  John  Lackland  of  Ei^and.  At  the  same 
time  there  occurred  outbursts  of  mvBtical  emotion 
similar  to  those  which  had  preceded  the  fixst  enisade. 
In  1212  a  young  shepherd  of  Venddme  and  a  youth 
from  Cologne  gathered  thousands  oi  children  whom 
they  proposed  to  lead  to  the  conquest  oi  Palestine. 
Tlie'movfkient  spread  through  France  and  Italy. 
Tins  ^Chfldren*s€rusade''  at  length  reached  Brindisi, 
where  merchants  sold  a  number  of  the  children  as 
slaves  to  the  Moors,  while  neariy  all  the  rest  died  of 
himger  and  exhaustion.  In  1213  Innocent  III  had  a 
crtt«de  preached  throutthout  Eurdpe  And  sent  Car- 
dhiai  Pelagtiis  to  lihe  £b^  to  effect,  u  possible,  the  re- 
turn of  the  Greeks  to  ihe  fold  of  Roman  unity.  Gd 
25  Julyj  1/21S,  Frederick  II,  after  his  vietoi>y  over  Gtto 
of  Brunswick/ took  the  cross  at  the  t(»nb  of  Charie- 
magne  at  Aauieii.  0n  11  Kovember,  1215,  Innocent 
m  opcmed  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  with  an  ex- 
hortatkm  to^aH  the  faitfrful  to  join  the  crusade,  the 
depanure  being  set  for  1217.  At  the  tune  of  h»  death 
(1216)  Pope  Innocent  felt  that  a  great  movement  had 
been  started. 

VI.  Tms  Tiuim>BNTR<»NTtmT  Crusadbs  0217" 
52).— In  Burope,  however,  the  preadung  of  the  cru- 
sade met  with  great  oppositidn.    Temporal  princes 
were  strongly  averse  to  Iddhg  jurisdiction  over  their 
subjects  who  took  pait  in  the  crusades.     Absorbed  in 
potitical  schemes,  tiiey  ^ere  tmwUlkig  to  send  bo  far 
away  the  milltaiy  mrceli  on  "whkh  they  depended. 
Ab  early  as  December,  121«,  Fk^eridc  II  wasgranted 
a  first  delay  in  the  fulfihneftt  of  his  vow.     The  cru- 
sade as  preached  in  the  thirteenth  cerxtuiy  was  no 
longer  the  great  enthusiastic  movement  of  1095^  but 
rather  a  series  of  iiresular  and  desultory  entefprises. 
Andrew  II,  King  of  Hnngar^,  and  CaAimir,  Duke  of 
Pomerania;  set  saU  from  l^nioe  and  Spalato,  while  an 
army  of  Scandinavians  made  a  tour  of  Europe.    The 
crusaders  landed  at  Saint-Jean  d'Aere  in  1217,  but  con- 
fined themselves  to  incurnons  on  Mussuhnan  territoiy, 
hereupon  Andrew  of  Himgaiy  returned  to  Buro^ 
Receiving  reinforoements  in  the  spring  of  1218,  John 
of  Brienne,  King  of  Jerusalem,  resolved  to  make  an 
attack  on  iJie  Holy  Land  by  way  of  Egypt.    The  cru- 
sadens  accordingly  landed  at  Damietta  m  May>  1218, 
and,  after  a  siege  marked  by  many  deeds  of  heroism, 
took  the  citv  bf  storm,  5  November,  1219.    Instead 
of  profiting  by  this  victory,  th^  spent  over  a  year  in 
idle  quarrSs>  and  it  wae  not  untu  May,  1221,  iH&i  they 
set  out  for  Cairo.    Surrounded  by  the  Saracens  at 
Mansurah,  24  July,  the  Christian  armv  was  routed. 
John  of  Brienne  was  compiled  to  purenase  a  retreat 
by  the  surrender  of  Damietta  to  the  Saracens.    Mean- 
while Emperor  Frederick  II,  who  was  to  be  the  leader 
of  the  crusade,  had  remained  in  Europe  and  continiied 
to  importune  the  pope  for  new  postponements  of  his 
departure.    On  9  November,  1225,  he  married  Isa- 
belle  of  Brienne,  heiress  to  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem, 
the  oersmomr  taking  place  at  Brindisi.    Completely 
iBnoring  his  father-in-law,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Song 
(tt  Jerusalem4    In  1227,  however,  he  had  not  yet  W 
for  Palestine.    Gi^iy  IX,  elected  pope  $9  Mar^* 
1227,  summoned  Frederick  to  fulfil  his  vow.    Finally^ 
8  September,  the  emperor  embarked  but  soon  turned 
bock;  therefore,  on  29  September,  the  pope  excom- 
municated  him.    Nevertheless,   Fredenok  set  sau 
again  18  June,  1228,  but  instead  of  leading  a  cnu^e 
he  played  a  game  of  diplomacy.    He  won  over  ICalek- 


(ftTOAJDSS 


551 


Q|tUSiJ>VS 


el-Khamil,  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  who  was  at  war  with 
the  Prince  of  Damajscus,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with 
him  at  Jaffa,  February,  1220,  according  to  the  terms 
of  which  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  and  Nazareth  were 
restored  to  the  Christians.  On  18  March,  1229^  with* 
out  any  religious  ceremony,  Frederick  assumed  the 
royal  crown  of  Jerusalem  m  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  Returning  to  Europe,  he  became  recon- 
ciled to  Gregory  IX,  August,  1230.  The  pontiff  ratified 
the  Treaty  of  Jaffa,  and  Frederick  sqnt  knights  into 
Syria  to  take  possession  of  the  cities  and  compel  all 
feudatories  to  do  him  homage.  A  struggle  occurred 
between  Richard  Filangieri,  the  emperor's  marshal, 
and  the  barons  of  Palestine,  whose  leader  was  Jean 
d'IbeUn,  Lord  of  Beirut.  Filansieri  vainly  at- 
tempted to  obtain  possession  of  the  Island  of  Cyprus, 
and,  when  Conrad,  son  of  f^rederick  II  and  Isabelle  of  • 
Bnenne,  came  of  age  in  1243,  the  High  Court,  de- 
scribed above,  named  as  regent  Alix  of  Champagne, 
aueen  of  Cyprus.  In  this  way  German  power  was 
x)lished  in  Palestine. 

In  the  meantime  Count  Thibaud  IV  of  Champa^e . 
had  been  leading  a  fruitless  crusade  in  ^yria  a2%). 
Similarly  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  Richard  ot  Corn- 
wall, brother  of  the  King  of  England,  who  had  under- 
taken to  recover  Ascalon,  concluded  a  truce  with 
Egypt  (1241).  Europe  was  now  threatened  with  a 
most  grievous  disaster.  After  conquering  Russia,  the 
Mongols  under  Jenghis  Khan  appeared  in  1241  on 
the  frontiers  of  Poland,  routed  the  army  of  the  Duke 
of  Silesia  at  li^nitz,  annihilated  that  of  Bela,  King 
of  Hungary,  and  reached  the  Adriatic.  Palestine  felt 
the  consequences  of  this  invasion.  The  Mongols  had 
destroyed  the  Mussulman  Empire  of  Kharizm  in  Cen- 
tral Asia.  Fleeing  before  tneir  conquerors,  10,000 
Kharizmians  offeied  thedr  services  to  the  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  meanwhile  seizing  Jerusalem  as  they  passed  by, 
in  September,  1244.  The  news  of  this  catastrophe 
created  a  great  stir  in  Europe,  and  at  the  Coimcu  of 
Lyons  (June-July,  1245)  Pope  Innocent  IV  pro- 
claimed a  crusade^  but  the  lack  of  harmony  between 
him  and  the  Emjxsror  Frederick  II  foredoomed  the 
pontiff  tp  disappointment.  Save  for  Louis  IX,  King 
of  France,  who  took  the  cross  in  December,  1244,  no 
one  showed  any  willingness  to  lead  s^  expedition  to 
Palestine.  On  being  imormed  that  the  Mongols  were 
well-disposed  towaras  Christianity,  Innocent  IV  sent 
them  Giovanni  di  Pianocarpini,  a  Franciscan,  and 
Nicolas  Asoelin^  a  Dominican,  as  ambassadors.  Piano- 
carpini was  in  £[arakorum  8  April,  1246,  the  dav  of  the 
election  of  the  great  khan,  but  nothing  came  of  this  first 
attempt  at  an  alliance  with  the  Mongols  against  the 
Mohammedans.  However,  when  St.  Xouis,  who  left 
Paris  12  Jime,  1248,  had  reached  the  Island  of  Cyprus, 
he  received  there  a  friendly  embassy  from  the  great 
khan  and^  in  r^um,  sent  mm  two  Dominicans.  En- 
couraged, perhaps,  by  this  alliance,  the  King  oi  France 
decid^  to  attack  Egypt.  On  7  June,  1249,  he  took 
Damietta,  but  it  was  ozily  six  noonths  later  that  he 
marched  on  Cairo.  On  19  December,  his  advance- 
i,  commajided  by  his  brother,  Robert  of  Artois, 
_n  imprudently  to  %ht  in  the  streets  of  Mansurah 
were  destroyed.  The  king  himself  was  cut  off. 
from  communication  with  Damietta  and  made  prisr- 
oner  5  April,  1250.  At  the  same  time,  the  Ajoubite 
dvnasty  founded  by  Saladin  was  overthrown  oy  the 
Mameluke  militia,  ^hose  ameers  took  possession  of 
Eg^t.  St.  Louis  negotiated  with  the  latter  and  was 
set  at  liberty  on  condition  of  surreiulering  Damietta 
and  ^yin^  a  ransom  of  a  million  gold  bezants.  He 
remamed  in  Palestine  until  1254;  baiigained  with  the 
Egyptian  ameers,  for  the  deliverance  of  prisoners; 
improved  the  equipment  of  the  strongholds  of  the 
kingdom,  Saint-Jean  d'Acre,  Caesarea,  Jaffa,  and 
Sidon;  and  sent  Friar  William  of  Rubruquis  as  am- 
bassador to  tlie  ereat  khan.  Then,  at  the  news  of  tho 
death  of  his  mother,  Blanche  of  Castile,  who  had  been 


acting  as  re^nt,  he  returned  to  France.  .  Since  the 
crusade  against  SaintrJean  d'Acre,  a  new  Prankish 
state,  the  Kingdom  of  Cyprus,  had  been  formed  in  the 
Mediterranean  opposite  Syria  and  became  a  valuable, 
{Kunt  of  support  for  the  crusades.  By  lavish  distribu- 
tion of  lan(&  and  franchises^  Guy  de  Lusignan  suc- 
ceeded in  attracting  to  the  islana  colonists,  knights, 
mesn-at-arms,  and  civilians;  his  successors  estabh^bea 
a  government  modelled  after  that  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Jerusalem.  The  king's  power  was  restricted  oy  that 
of  the  High  Court,  composed  of  all  the  knights,  vas- 
sals, or  under-vassals,  with  its  seat  at  Nicosia, 
However,  the  fiefs  were  less  extensive  than  in  Pales- 
tine, and  the  feudatories  could  inherit  only  in  a  direct 
line.  The  Island  of  Cyprus  was  soon  populated  with 
French  colonists  who  succeeded  in  winnmg  over  the 
Greeks,  upon  whom  they  even  imposed  theirlangu^e. 
Churches  Duilt  in  the  French  style  and  forti^ed  castles 
appeared  on  all  sides.  The  Cathedral  of  St.  Sophia 
in  Nicosia,  erected  between  1217  and  1251,  was  almost 
a  copy  of  a  church  in  Champagne.  Finally,  commei:- 
ciai  activity  became  a  pronounced  characteristic  of> 
the  cities  of  C^rus,  and  Famagusta  developed  into 
one  of  the  busiest  of  lilediterranean  ports.    . 

VII.  Final  Loss  of  the  Christian  Colonies  of 
THB  East  (1254-91). — ^No  longeraided  by  funds  from 
the  West|  and  rent  by  intemaldisorders,  the  Christian 
colonies  owed  their  t^porary  salvation  to  the  changes 
in  Mussulman  policy  and  the  intervention  of  the  Mon- 
tis. The  Venetians  drove  the  Genoese  from  ,Saint- 
Jean  d'Acre  and  treated  the  city  as  conquered  tend- 
toi:3r;  in  a  battle  where  Christians  fought  against 
Christians,  and  in  which  HospitaUers  were  pitted 
Mainst  Templars,  20,000  mpn  perished.  In  revenge 
the  Genoese  alUed  themselves  with  Michael  Pakeqlo- 
gus,  Emperor  of  Nicaoay  whose  general,  Alexius  Btra* 
tegopulos,  had  now  no  trouble  in  entering  Constanti- 
nople and  overthrowing  the  Latin  Emperor,  Baldwin 
II,  25  July,  1261.  The  conquest  of  tfo  Caliphajte  of 
Bagdad  by  the  Mongols  (1258)  ^d  their  invasion  o£ 
Syria,  where  they  seized  Aleppo  and  Damascus,  terri* 
fied  both  Christians  and  Mohammedans;  but  the 
Mameluke  ameer,  Bibars  the  Arbelester,  defeated  th^ 
Mongols  and  wrested  Syria  from  them  in  September, 
1260.  Proclaimed  sultan  in .  consequence  of.  a  con> 
spiracy,  in  1260,  Bibars  began  a  merciless  war  on  the 
remaining  Christian  states.  In  1263  he  destroved  the, 
church  at  Nazareth :  ixx  1265  took  Caesarea  tma  Jaffa, 
a,nd  finally  capturea  Antioch  (May^  1268).  .  The  ques- 
tion of  a  crusade* was  always  being  agitated  in  the 
West,  but  except  among  men  of  a  religious  turn  of 
mind}  like  St.  Louis,  there  was  no  longer  any  earnest- 
ness in  the  matter  among  European  princes.  They. 
Ipoked  upon  a  crusade  as  apolitical  instrument,  to  be 
used  only  when  it  served  their  own  interests.  To  pre-, 
vent  the  preaching  of  a  crusade  against  Constantinople, 
Michael  Pal»ologus  p)X)mised  the  pope  to  work  for  the 
union  of  the  Churdies;  but  Charles  of  Aniou,  brother 
of  St.  Xiouis,  whom  the  conquest  of  the  Two. Sicilies 
had  rendered  one  of  the  m^t  powerful  princes^  of 
Christendom^  undertook  to  carry  out  for  his  own  bene- 
fit the  Eastern  designs  hitherto  cherished  by  the 
Hohenstaufen.  White  Mary  of  Antioch,  granddaugh- 
ter of  Amaury  II,  bequeathed  him  the  ri^ts  Sie 
claimed  to  have  to  thei  crown  of  Jerusalem,  he  signed 
the  treaty  of  Viterbo  with  Baldwin  II  (27  May,  1267), 
which  assured  him  eventually  the  inheritance  of  Con- 
stantinople. In  no  wise  troubled  by  these  diplomatic 
combinations,  St.  Louis  thought  only  of  the  crusade. 
In  a  parliament  held  at  Paris,  24  March,  1267,  }ie  and 
his  three  sons  took  the  cross,  but,  despite  his.  example, 
many  knights  resisted  the  exhortations  of  the  preach* 
er  Humb^  de  Eomans.  On  bearing  the  reports  of 
the  missionaries,  Louis  resolved  to  land  at  Tusiis,  whose 
prince  he  hoped  to  convert  to  Christianity,  Xi  haja 
been  asserted  that  St.  Louis  was  led  to  Tunis,  b^ 
Charles  of  Anjou,  but  instead  of  encouraging  his 


0BU8ADU 


552 


brother'fl  ambition  the  saint  endeavoured  to  thwart 
it.  CSiaries  had  tried  to  take  advantage  of  the 
vacancy  of  the  Holy  See  between  1268  and  1271  in 
order  to  attaclc  Constantinople,  the  n^tiations  of 
the  popes  with  Michael  Palseologus  for  religious  union 
havmg  heretofore  prevented  him.  St.  Louis  received 
Uie  embassy  of  the  Greek  em]3eror  very  graciously  and 
ordered  Charles  of  Anjou  to  join  him  at  Tunis.  The 
crusaders,  among  whom  was  Prince  Edward  of  Eng- 
land, landed  at  Carthage  17  July,  1270,  but  the  plague 
broke  out  in  their  camp,  and  on  25  August,  St.  Louis 
himself  was  carried  off  by  the  scourge.  Charies  of 
Anjou  then  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Mohamme- 
dans, and  the  crusaders  reimbarked.  Prince  Edward 
alone,  determined  to  fulfil  his  vow,  and  set  out  for 
Saint- Jean  d'Acre;  however,  after  a  few  raszias  on 
Saracenic  territory,  he  concluded  a  truce  with  Bibars. 

Hie  field  was  now  clear  for  Charies  of  Anjou,  but 
the  election  of  Gregory  X,  who  was  favourable  to 'the 
crusade,  a^ain  frustrated  his  plans.  While  the  emis- 
saries of  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  traversed  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  the  new  pope  was  awaiting  the 
union  of  tiie  Western  and  Eastern  Churdies,  which 
event  was  solemnly  proclaimed  at  the  Council  of 
Lyons,  6  July,  1274;  Michael  Palfleologus  himself 
promised  to  take  the  cross.  On  1  May,  1275,  Gregory 
A  effected  a  truce  between  this  sovereign  and  Charles 
of  Anjou.  In  the  meantime  Philip  III,  King  of 
France,  the  King  of  England,  and  the IQng  of  Ar^n 
made  a  vow  to  go  to  the  Holv  Land.  Unfortunately 
the  death  of  Gregoiy  X  brought  these  plans  to  nought, 
and  Charies  of  ^jou  resumed  his  scheming.  In  1277 
he  sent  into  Syria  Roger  of  San  Severino,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  planting  his  banner  on  the  castle  of  Acre 
and  in  1278  took  possession  of  the  principalitv  of 
Achaia  in  the  name  of  his  daug^ter-in-iaw  Ineibelfe  de 
Villehardouin.  Michael  Pal»olofi:us  had  not  be^i 
able  to  effect  the  union  of  the  Greek  clergy  with  Rome, 
and  in  1281  Pope  Martin  IV  excommunicated  him. 
Having  signed  an  alliance  with  Venice,  Charies  of 
Anjou  prepared  to  attack  Constantinople,  and  his 
expedition  was  set  for  April.  1283.  On  30  March, 
1282,  however,  the  revolt  known  as  the  Sicilian 
Vespers  occurred,  and  once  more  his  projects  were 
defeated.  In  order  to  subdue  his  own  rebellious  sub- 
jects and  to  wage  war  a^unst  the  King  of  Ara^n, 
Charles  was  at  last  compelled  to  abandon  his  designs 
on  the  East.  Meanwhile  Michael  PalsBologus  re- 
mained master  of  Constantinople,  and  the  Holy  Land 
was  left  defenceless.  In  1280  the  Mongols  attempted 
once  more  to  invade  Syria,  but  were  repulsed  by  the 
E^ptians  at  the  battle  of  Hims;  in  1286  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Saint-Jean  d'Acre  expelled  Charies  of  Anjou's 
seneschal  and  called  to  their  aid  Henry  II,  King  of 
Cyprus.  Kelaoun,  the  successor  of  Bibars,  now  broke 
the  truce  which  he  had  concluded  with  the  Christians, 
and  seised  Maisat,  the  stronghold  of  the  Hospitallers. 
Tripoli  surrendered  in  1289,  and  on  5  Apnl,  1291, 
Malek-Aschraf,  son  and  successor  of  Kelaoim,  ap- 
peared before  Saint-Jean  d'Acre  with  120,000  men. 
The  25,000  Christians  who  defended  the  city  were 
not  even  under  one  supreme  commander;  neverthe- 
less thev  resisted  with  heroic  valour,  filled  breaches  in 
the  wall  with  stakes  and  bags  of  cotton  and  wool,  and 
communicated  by  sea  with  King  Henry  II,  who 
brought  them  help  from  Cyprus.  However,  28  May, 
the  Mohammedans  made  a  general  attack  and  pene- 
trated into  the  town,  and  its  defenden  fled  in  their 
ships.  The  strongest  opposition  was  offered  by  the 
Templars,  the  garrison  of  whose  fortress  held  out  ten 
davs  longer,  onlv  to  be  completely  annihilated.  In 
July.  1291,  the  fast  Christian  towns  in  Syria  capitu- 
Iftted^and  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  ceased  to  exist. 

VIn.  Thb  Fourteenth  Centurt  Crusade  ano 
THE  Ottoman  Invasion. — ^The  loss  of  Saint-Jean 
d'Acre  did  not  lead  the  princes  of  Europe  to  organize 
a  new  crusade.    Men's  minds  were  indeed,  as  usual, 


directed  towards  the  East,  but  in  the  first  yean  of  the 
fourteenth  century  the  idea  of  a  crusade  inspired  prin- 
cipally the  works  of  theorists  who  saw  in  it  the  best 
means  of  reforming  Christendom.  The  treatise  by 
Pierre  Dubois,  law-officer  of  the  crown  at  Coutaaoes, 
"De  Recuperatione  Terre  Sanctcs''  (Langlois,  ed., 
Paris,  1891),  seems  like  the  work  of  a  dreamer,  yet 
some  of  its  views  are  tnil^  modem.  Th.e  establish- 
ment of  peace  between  Christian  princes  by  means  of 
a  tribunal  of  arbitration,  the  idea  of  m^dn^  a  French 
prince  hereditary  emperor,  the  secularization  of  the 
Patrimony  of  St.  Peter,  the  consolidation  d  the  Orders 
of  the  Hospitallers  and  Templars,  the  creation  of  a 
disciplined  army  the  different  corps  of  whidi  were  to 
have  a  special  uniform,  the  creation  of  schools  for  the 
study  of  Oriental  lan^asres,  and  the  intermarriage  of 
Christian  maidens  with  Saracens  were  the  piincipai 
ideas  it  propounded  (1307).  On  the  other  hand  the 
writings  of  men  of  greater  activity  and  wider  expe- 
rience suggteted  more  practical  methods  for  effecting 
the  conquest  of  the  East.  Persuaded  that  Christian 
defeat  in  the  Orient  was  largely  due  to  the  mereantfle 
relations  which  the  Italian  cities  Venice  and  Genoa 
continued  to  hold  with  the  Mohammedans,  these 
authors  sou^t  the  establishment  of  a  commercial 
blockade  which.  Within  a  few  years,  would  prove  the 
ruin  of  Es^t  and  cause  it  to  fall  imder  Christian 
control.  For  this  purpose  it  was  recommended  that 
a  large  fleet  be  fitted  out  at  the  expense  of  Christian 
princes  and  made  to  do  poHoe  duty  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean so  as  to  prevent  smuggling.  Theee  were  the 
projects  set  forth  in  the  memoirs  of  Fidentius  of 
Padua,  a  Franciscan  (about  1291,  Bibliothdque  Na- 
tionale,  Latin  MSS.,  7247);  in  those  of  King  Charies 
n  of  Naples  (1293,  Bib.  Nat.,  Prankish  MSS.,  0049); 
Jacques  de  Molay  (1307,  Baluse,  ed.,  Vite  papanim 
Avenion.,  II,  176-185);  Henry  II,  King  of  CypniB 
(Mas-Latrie,  ed..  Histoire  de  Cnypre,  II,  118);  Guil- 
laume  d'Adam,  Archbishop  of  SultiBuiieh  (1810,  Kohler, 
ed.f  Collect.  Hist,  of  the  Crusades.  Annenian  Docu- 
ments, II);  and  Marino  Sanudo,  tne  Venetian  (Bon- 
gfOBt  ed.,  Secreta  fidelium Ouds,  II).  The  consolida- 
tion of  the  military  orders  was  also  ura^  by  Charies 
II.  Many  other  memoirs,  especially  that  of  Hayton, 
Kin^  of  Armenia  (1307,  ea.  Annenian  Documents,  I), 
considered  an  alliance  between  the  Christians  and  the 
Mongols  of  Persia  indispensable  to  success.  In  fact, 
from  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  oentuiy  many  miflston- 
aries  had  penetrated  into  the  Mongolian  Empire;  in 
Persia,  as  well  as  in  CJhina,  their  propagancui  flour- 
ished. St.  Francis  of  Assisi  and  Raymond  Lully  had 
hoped  to  substitute  for  the  wariike  crurade  a  peace- 
able conversion  of  the  Mohammedans  to  Christianity. 
Raymund  Lully,  bom  at  Palma,  on  the  Island  of 
Majorca,  in  1235,  began  (1275)  his  ''Gt«at  Art'', 
which,  by  means  of  a  universal  method  for  the  study 
of  Oriental  languages,  would  equip  missionaries  to 
enter  into  controversies  with  the  Mohammedan  doc- 
tors. In  the  same  year  he  prevailed  upon  the  King 
of  Majorca  to  found  the  College  of  the  Bkssed  Trinity 
at  Miramar,  where  the  Friars  Minor  could  learn  the 
Oriental  languages.  He  himself  translated  catecheti- 
cal treatises  into  Arabic  and,  after  spendins  hu  life 
travelling  in  Europe  trying  to  win  over  toliis  ideas 

Sopes  and  kings,  simered  martyrdom  at  Bougie,  wheie 
e  had  begun  his  work  of  evangelization  (1314). 
Amon^  the  Mohammedans  this  propaganda  encoun- 
tered insurmountable  difficulties,  whereas  the  Mon- 
gols, some  of  whom  were  still  members  of  the  Nestorian 
Church,  received  it  willingly.  During  the  pontfficate 
of  John  XXn  (13i6-34)  permanent  Dommican  and 
Franciscan  missions  were  established  in  Persia,  CtdnAt 
Tatarv,  and  Turkestan,  and  in  1318  the  Ardibtshonric 
of  Sultanieh  was  created  in  Persia.  In  China  Gio- 
vanni de  Monte  Corvino,  created  Archbishop  of  C^am- 
baluc  (Peking),  organized  the  relis;ious  hierarchy, 
founded  monasteries,  and  converted  to  Christianity 


OBTOADIB 


553 


cntuaADts 


men  of  note,  possibly  the  great  khan  himself.  The 
account  of  the  joumey  of  Blessed  Orderio  de  Porde- 
none  (Cordier,  ed.)  across  Asia,  between  1304  and 
1330,  shows  us  that  Christianity  had  gained  a  foothold 
in  Persia,  India,  Central  Asia,  and  Southern  China. 

By  thus  leadjng'up  to  an  alliance  between  Mongols 
and  Christians  against  the  Mohammedans,  the  crusade 
had  produced  the  desired  effect;  early  in  the  four- 
teeatn  oentuiy  the  future  develomnent  of  Christianity 
in  the  East  seemed  assured.    Unfortunately,  how- 
ever, the  internal  changes  which  occurred  in  the  West, 
the  weakening  of  the  political  influence  of  the  popes, 
the  indifference  of  temporal  princes  to  what  did  not 
directly  affect  their  territorial  interests  rendered  un- 
availing all  efforts  towards  the  re-establii^ment  of 
Christian  power  in  the  East,    The  popes  endeavoured 
to  insure  the  blockade  of  E^ypt  by  prohibiting  com- 
.  mercial  intercourse  with  the  mndels  and  by  organizing 
a  squadron  for  the  prevention  of  smu^lmg,  out  the 
Venetians  and  Genoese  defiantly  sent  ^eir  vessels  to 
Alexandria  and  sold  slaves  and  militaiy  stores  to  the 
Mamelukes.    Moreover,  the  consolidation  of  the  mili- 
tary orders  could  not  be  effected.    By  causing  the 
suppression  of  the  Templars  at  the  Council  of  Vienne 
in  1311,  King  Philip  the  Fair  dealt  a  cruel  blow  to  the 
crusade;    instead  of  giving  to  the  Hospitallers  the 
inmiense  wealth  of  the  Templars,  he  confiscated  it. 
The  Teutonic  Order  having  established  itself  in  Prus- 
sia in  1228,  there  remained  in  the  East  only  the  Hos- 
pitallefB.    After  the  capture  of  Saint-Jean  d'Acre, 
Menry  II,  King  of  Cyprus,  had  offered  them  shelter  at 
Limasol,  but  there  they  found  th^nselves  in  very 
etraitened  cireumstances.    In  1310  they  seized  the 
Island  of  Rhodes,  which  had  become  a  den  of  pirates, 
and  took  it  as  their  permanent  abode.    Finally,  the 
contemplated  alliance  with  the  Mongols  was  never 
fully  realized.    It  was  in  vain  that  A^oun,  Khan  of 
Persia,  sent  the  Nestorian  monk,  Raban  Sauma,  as 
ambassador  to  the  pope  and  the  princes  of  the  W^ 
(1285-88);  his  offers  elicited  but  vague  replies.    On 
23  December,  1299,  Cazan,  successor  to  Ar^un,  in- 
flicted a  defeat  upon  the  Christians  at  Hims,  and 
captured  Damascus,  but  he  could  not  hold  his  con- 
quests, and  died  in  1304  just  as  he  waspreparing  for 
a  new  expedition.    The  princes  of  the  West  assumed 
the  cross  in  order  to  appropriate  to  their  own  use  the 
tithes  which,  for  the  defrayal  of  crusade  expenses, 
they  had  levied  upon  the  property  of  the  clergy.    For 
these  sovereigns  the  crusslde  nad  no  longer  any  but  a 
fiscal  interest.    In  1336  King  Philip  VI  of  France, 
whom  the  pope  had  appointed  leader  of  the  crusade, 
collected  a  fleet  at  Marseilles  and  was  preparing  to  go 
to  the  East  when  the  news  of  the  projects  of  Edwa^ 
III  caused  him  to  return  to  Paris.    War  then  broke 
out  between  France  and  England,  and  proved  an 
insurmo\mtable  obstacle  to  the  success  of  an^  crusade 
just  when  the  combined  forces  of  all  Christendom 
would  have  been  none  too  powerful  to  resist  the  new 
storm  gathering  in  the  East.    From  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century  a  band  of  Ottoman  Turks,  driven 
out  of  Central  Asia  by^  Mongol  invasions,  had  founded 
a  mUitanr  state  in  Asia  Minor  and  now  threatened  to 
invade  EJurope.    They  captured  Ephesus  in  1308.  and 
in  1326  Othman,  their  sultan,  established  his  residence 
at  Broussa  (Prusa)  in  Bithynia;    under  Ourkhan, 
moreover,  they  organized  the  regular  foot-guards  of 
ianizaries  aeamst  whom  the  unaisciplined  troops  of 
Western  knights  could  not  hold  out.    The  Turks  en- 
tered Nicomedia  in  1328  and  Nicsea  in  1330;  when 
they  threatened  the  Elmperors  of  Constantinople,  the 
latter  renewed  negotiations  with  the  popes  with  a 
view  towards  the  reconciliation  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  Churches,  for  Which  purpose  Barlaam  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Avignon,  in  1339.    At  the  same  time 
tbe  Egyptian  Mamelukes  destroved  the  port  of  La- 
lazzo,  commercial  centre  of  the  Kii^lom  of  Armenia 
Minor,  where  the  remnants  of  the  Christian  colonies 


had  sought  rafuge  after  the  taJdof  of  Saint-Jean 
d'Acre  (1337).  Hie  oommerdai  welwe  of  the  Vene- 
tians themselves  was  threatened;  with  their  support 
Pope  Clement  VI  in  1344  succeeded  in  reorganizing 
the  maritime  league  whose  operations  had  been  pre- 
vented by  the  war  between  France  and  Epgland. 
Genoa,  the  Hospitallers,  and  the  King  of  <>prus  all 
sent  their  contingents,  and,  on  28  October,  1344,  the 
crusaders  seised  Smyrna,  ^ich  was  ccmfided  to  the 
oare  of  the  HosmtoDers.  In  1345  reinforcemmts 
under  Humbert,  Dauphin  of  Viennois,  appeared  in 
the  Archinelago,  but  the  new  leader  <x  tne  crusade 
was  utteny  disqualified  for  the  work  assi^ied  him; 
unable  to  withstand  the  piracy  of  the  Turkish  ameen, 
the  Christians  oonduded  a  truce  with  them  in  1348. 
In  1356  the  Ottomans  oi^tured  Qallipoli  and  inter- 
ceded the  route  to  Constantinople. , 

The  cause  of  the  crusade  then  found  an  unexpected 
defender  in  Peter  I,  King  of  C^rus,  who,  billed  upon 
by  the  Armenians,  succeeded  m  surprising  and  storm- 
ing the  citv  of  Adalia  on  the  Cilician  coast  in  1361. 
Urged  bv  nis  ^ancdlor,  Philippe  de  M^sidres,  and 
Pierre  Thomas,  the  papftl  legate,  Peter  I  undertook 
a  voyage  to  the  West  (1362-66)  in  the  hope  of  reviv- 
ing the  enthusiasm  of  the  CSiristian  princes.  Pope 
Urban  V  extended  him  a  magnificent  welcome,  as  cud 
also  John  the  Good,  King  of  France,  who  took  the 
cross  at  Avignon,  20  March,  1863 :  the  tatter's  example 
was  followed  by  King  Edward  III,  the  Black  Prince, 
Emperor  Charles  IV,  and  Casimir,  King  of  Poland. 
Everywhere  King  Peter  was  tendered  fair  promises, 
but  when,  in  June,  1365,  he  embarked  at  Venice  he 
was  accompanied  by  hardly  any  but  his  own  forces. 
After  rallying  the  fleet  of  the  Hospitallers,  he  appeued 
unexpectedly  before  the  Old  Port  of  Alexandria, 
landed  without  resistance,  and  plundered  the  city  for 
two  days,  but  at  the  approach  of  an  Emtian  army 
his  soldiers  forced  him  to  retreat,  9-16  October,  1365. 
Again  in  1367  he  pillaged  the  ports  of  Syria,  Tripoli, 
Tortoea,  Laodicea,  and  Jaffa,  thus  destroying  the 
commerce  of  Egypt.  Later,  in  another  voyage  to  the 
West,  he  made  a  supreme  effort  to  interest  the  princes 
•in  the  crusade,  but  on  his  return  to  C^yprus  ne  was 
assassinated,  as  the  result  of  a  oonspiraoy.  Mean- 
while the  Ottomans  continued  their  progress  in  Eu- 
rope, taking  Philippopolis  in  1363  and,  in  1365,  cap- 
turing Adnanople,  wnich  became  the  capital  of  the 
sultans.  At  tne  solicitation  of  Pope  Urban  V, 
Amadeus  VII,  Count  of  Savoy,  took  the  cross  and  on 
15  August,  1366,  his  fleet  seised  Gallipoli:  then,  bUbt 
rescuing  the  Greek  emperor,  John  V,  hela  captive  by 
the  Bulgarians,  he  returned  to  the  West.  In  spite  of 
the  heroism  displayed  during  these  expeditions,  tke 
efforts  made  by  the  crusaders  were  too  intermittent 
to  be  productive  of  enduring  results.  Philippe  de 
M^zi^res,  a  friend  and  admirer  of  Pierre  de  Lusignan, 
eager  to  seek  a  remedy  for  the  ills  of  Giristendom, 
dreamed  of  founding  a  new  militia,  the  Order  of  the 
Passion,  an  organization  whose  character  was  to  be  at 
once  clerical  and  military,  and  whose  members,  al- 
thou^  married,  were  to  fcAd  an  almost  monastic  life 
and  consecrate  themselves  to  the  conquest  of  the 
Holy  Land.  Being  well  received  by  Charies  V. 
Philippe  de  M^zi^res  established  himself  at  Paris  and 

?ropagated  his  ideas  among  the  French  nobility.  In 
390  Louis  II,  Duke  of  Bourbon,  took  the  cross,  aUd 
at  the  instigation  of  the  Genoese  went  to  besie^ 
el-Mahadia,  an  African  city  on  the  coast  of  Tunis. 
In  1392  Charles  VI,  who  had  signed  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  England,  appeared  to  have  been  won  over  to  the 
crusade  project  juist  before  he  became  deraneed.  But 
the  time  for  expeditions  to  the  Holy  Land  was  now 
passed,  and  henceforth  Christian  Europe  was  foreed 
to  defend  itself  against  Ottoman  invasions.  In  1369 
John  V,  Palffiologus,  went  to  Rome  and  abjured  the 
schism ;  thereafter  the  popes  worked  valiantly  for  the 
preservation  of  the  remnants  of  the  Bysantine  Empire 


OSUSADBS 


554 


ORUSADES 


and  the  ChHstiah  states  in  the  Balkans.  Having  be- 
come master  of  Servia  at  the  battle  of  Kosovo  in  1389, 
the  Sultan  Bajazet  imposed  his  80vereignt3^  upon  John 
V  and  seeured  possession  of  Philadelphia,  the  last 
Greek  city  in  Asia  Minor.  Sigismund,  King  of  Hun- 
gary, alarmed  at  the  progress  of  Ihe  Turics,  sent  an 
embassy  to  Charles  VI,  and  a  laree  number  of  French 
lords,  among  them  the  Count  of  Nevers,  son  of  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  enlisted  under  the  standard  of  the 
cross  and,  in  July,  1396,  were  joined  at  Buda  by  Eng- 
lish and  German  kni^ts.  The  crusaders  invaded 
Servia,  but  despite  their  prodiraes  of  valour  Bajazet 
completely  routed  them  before  Nicopolis,  25  Septem- 
ber, 1396.  The  Count  of  Nevers  and  a  great  many 
lords  became  Bajazet's  prisoners  and  were  released 
only  on  condition  of  enormous  ransoms.  Notwith- 
standing this  defeat,  due  to  the  misguided  ardour  of 
the  crusaders,  a  new  expedition  left  Aimiesmortes  in 
June,  1399,  under  the  command  of  the  Marshal  Bouci- 
cault  and  succeeded  in  breaking  the  blockade  which 
the  Turks  had  established  around  Constantinople. 
Moreover,  between  1400  and  1402,  John  Palseolo^is 
made  another  voyage  to  the  West  in  quest  of  rein- 
forcements. 

IX.  The  CnuBiiDE  in  the  Fifteenth  Century. — 
An  unlooked-for  event,  the  invasion  by  Timur  and  the 
M6ngols,  saved  Constantinople  for  the  time  being. 
They  annihilated  Baiazet's  army  at  Ancyra,  20  July, 
1402,  and,  dividing  the  Ottoman  Empire  among  sev- 
eral princesi  redu^  it  to  a  state  of  vassalage.  The 
Western  rulers,  Henry  III,  King  of  Castile,  and 
Charles  VI,  King  of  France,  sent  ambassadors  to 
Timur  (see  the  account  by  Ruy  Gonzales  de  Claviio, 
Madrid,  1779),  but  the  circumstances  were  not  fa- 
vourable, as  they  had  been  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  national  revolt  of  the  Chinese  that  overthrew  the 
Mongol  dynasty  in  1368  had  resulted  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Christian  missions  in  Farther  Asia;  in  Cen- 
tral Asia  the  Mongols  had  been  converted  to  Moham- 
medanism, and  limur  showed  his  hostility  to  the 
Christians  by  taking  Smyrna  from  the  Hospitallers. 
Mar^al  Boucicault  took  advanta^  of  the  de- 
jection into  which  the  Mongol  invasion  had  thrown 
the  Mohammedan  powers  to  sack  the  ports  of  Syria, 
Tripoli,  Beirut,  ana  Sidon  in  1403,  but  he  was  unable 
to  retain  his  conquests;  while  Timur,  on  the  other 
hand,  thought  only  of  obtainiog  possession  of  China 
and  returned  to  Samarkand,  where  he  died  in  1405. 
Tlie  civil  wars  that  broke  out  among  the  Ottoman 
princes  gave  the  Byzantine  emperors  a  few  years'  re- 
spite, but  Murad  II,  having  re-established  the  Turkish 
power,  besieged  Constantinople  from  June  to  Septem- 
ber in  1422,  and  John  VIII,  Palseologus,  was  compelled 
to  pay;  him  tribute.  In  1430  Murad  took  Thessalon- 
ica  from  the  Venetians,  forced  the  wall  of  the  Hexa- 
milion,  which  had  been  erected  by  Manuel  to  protect 
the  Peloponnesus,  and  subdued  Servia.  The  idea  of 
the  crusade  was  always  popular  in  the  West,  and,  on 
his  death-bed,  Henry  V  of  England  r^retted  that  he 
had  not  taken  Jerusalem.  In  her  letters  to  Bedford, 
the  regent,  and  to  the  Duke  of  Buigund^r,  Joan  of  Arc 
alhided  to  the  union  of  Christendom  against  the  Sara- 
.cens,  and  the  popular  belief  expressed  m  the  poetry  of 
Christine  de  risan  was  that,  after  having  delivered 
Fraooe,  the  Maid  of  Orleans  would  lead  Charles  VU  to 
the  Holy  Land.  But  this  was  only  a  dream,  and  the 
civil  ware  in  France,  the  crusade  against  the  Hussites, 
and  the  Council  of  Constance,  prevented  any  action 
from  being  taken  against  the  Turks.  However,  in 
1421  Philip  the  Good;  Duke  of  Bureundy,  sent  Gilbert 
de  Lannoy,  and  in  1432,  Bertrand  de  la  Brocqui^re, 
to  the  East  as  secret  emissaries  to  gather  information 
that  might  be.  of  value  for  a  future  crusade.  At  the 
same  time  negotiations  for  jthe  religious  union  which 
would  facilita^  the  crusade  were  resumed  between  the 
Byaantine  emperors  and  the  popes.  Emperor  John 
VIU  came  in  person  to  attend  tne  council  convoked 


by  Pope  Ettsene  IV  at  Ferrara,  in  1438.  Thanks  to 
the  good  wilfof  Bessarion  and  of  Isidore  of  Kiev,  the 
two  Greek  prelates  whom  the  pope  had  elevated  to 
the  cardinalate,  the  council,  which  was  transferred  lo 
Florence,  established  harmony  on  all  points,  and  on 
6  July,  1439,  the  reconciliation  was  solemnly  pro- 
claimed. The  reunion  was  received  in  bad  part  by 
the  Greeks  and  did  not  induce  the  Western  pnnoes  to 
take  the  cross.  Adventurers  of  all  nationalities  en- 
rolled themselves  under  the  command  of  Cardinal 
Giuliano  Cesarini  and  went  to  Hungary  to  join  the 
armies  of  Jdnos  Hunyady,  Waywode  of  Trsmsylvania, 
who  had  just  repulsed  the  Turks  at  Hennanstadt,  of 
Wladislaus  Jagello,  King  of  Poland,  and  of  George 
Brankovitch,  Prince  of  Servia.  Having  defeated  the 
Turks  at  Nish,  3  November,  1443,  the  allies  were  en- 
abled to  conquer  Servia,  owing  to  the  defection 
of  the  Albanians  under  George  Castriota  (Scander- 
beg)i  their  national  commander.  Murad  signed  a  t^n 
years'  truce  and  abdicated  the  throne,  15  July, 
1444,  but  Giuliano  Cesarini,  the  papal  legate,  did 
not  favour  peace  and  wished  to  push  forward  to 
Constantinople.  At  his  instigation  the  crusadens 
broke  the  truce  and  invaded  Bulgaria,  whereupon 
Murad  again  took  command,  crossed  the  Bosporus 
cm  Genoese  galleys,  and  destroyed  the  Christian 
army  at  Varna,  10  November,  1444.  This  defeat 
left  Constantinople  defenceless.  In  1446  Murad  suc- 
ceeded in  conquering  Morea,  and  when,  two  years 
later,  Jdnos  Hunyady  tried  to  go  to  the  assistance  of 
Constantinople  he  was  beaten  at  Kosovo.  Scander- 
beg  alone  managed  to  maintain  his  independence  in 
Epirus  and,  in  1449,  repelled  a  Turkish  invasion. 
Mohammed  II,  who  succeeded  Murad  in  1451,  was 
preparing  to  besiege  Constantinople  when,  12  Decem- 
ber, 1452,  Emperor  Constantine  XII  decided  to  pro- 
claim the  union  of  the  Churdies  in  the  presence  of  the 
papal  legates.  The  expected  crusade,  however,  did 
not  take  place;  and  when,  in  March,  1453,  the  armed 
forces  of  Mohammed  II,  numbering  160,000,  com- 
pletely surrounded  Constantinople,  the  Greeks  bad 
only  5000  soldiers  and  2000  Western  knights,  com- 
manded by  Giustiniani  of  Genoa.  Notwithstanding 
this  serious  disadvantage,  the  city  held  out  against  the 
enemy  for  two  months,  but  on  the  night  of  28  May, 
1453,  Mohammed  II  ordered  a  general  assault,  and 
after  a  desperate  conflict,  in  whi(£  Emperor  Constan- 
tine XII  perished,  the  Turks  entered  the  city  from 
all  sides  and  perpetrated  a  frightful  slaughter.  Mo- 
hammed II  rode  over  heaps  of  corpses  to  the  church  of 
St.  Sophia,  entered  it  onhorsebacK,  and  turned  it  into 
a  mosque. 

The  capture  of  "New  Rome"  was  the  most  appall- 
ing calamity  sustained  by  Christendom  since  the  tak- 
ing of  Saint-Jean  d'Acre.  However,  the  agitation 
which  the  news  of  this  event  caused  in  Europe  was 
more  apparent  than  genuine.  Philip  the  Good,  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  gave  an  all^orical  entertainment  at 
Idlle  in  which  Holy  Church  solicited  the  help  of 
knights  who  pronounced  the  most  extravagant  vows 
before  God  and  a  pheasant  (mr  le  faiaan),  Mneaa  Syl- 
vius, Bishop  of  Siena,  and  St.  John  Capistran,  the 
FranciBcan,  preached  the  crusade  in  Germany  and 
Hungai-y ;  the  Diets  of  Ratisbon  and  Frankfort  prom- 
ised assistance,  and  a  league  was  formed  between  Ven- 
ice, Florence,  and  the  Duke  of  Milan,  but  nothing 
came  of  it.  Pope  Callistus  III  succeed^  in  collecting 
a  fleet  of  sixteen  gallejnB,  which,  under  the  command 
of  the  Patriarch  oiAquileia,  gusjxledthe  Archipelago. 
However,  the  defeat  of  the  Turks  before  Belgrade  in 
1457,  due  to  the  bravery  of  J^nos  Hunyady,  and  the 
bloody  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus  in  1460  seemed 
finally  to  revive  Christendom  from  its  torpor.  J]neas 
Sylvius,  now  pope  under  the  name  of  Pius  II,  multi- 
plied his  exhortations,  declaring  that  he  himself 
would  conduct  the  crusiade,  and  towards  the  close  of 
1463  bands  of  crusaders  b^gan  to  assemble  at  Anoona* 


COt7NTRI£8  BORDERING  ON  THE  MEDITERRANBAN 

I  at  the  time  of  the  FIRST  CRUSADE, 

AND  THE  ROUTES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  CRUSADES. 


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«       JERUSALEM 

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(ttUSADIS 


555 


ORUSADM 


The  Doge  of  Venice  had  jrielded  to  the  pope^  en- 
treaties, whereas  the  Duke  of  Bux^gundv  was  satisfied 
with  sending  2000  men.  But  when,  in  Jfune,  1464,  the 
pope  went  to  Ancona  to  assume  command  of  the  ex- 
pedition, he  fell  sick  and  died,  whereupon  most  of  the 
crusaders,  being  unarmed,  destitute  of  ammunition, 
and  threatened  with  starvation,  returned  to  tiieir  own 
countries.  The  Venetians  were  the  only  ones  ^o 
invaded  the  Peloponnesus  and  sacked  Athens,  but 
they  looked  upon  the  crusade  merdy  as  a  means  of  ad- 
vancing.  then*  commercial  interests.  Under  ^xtus 
rV  they  had  the  presumption  to  utilize  the  papal  fleet 
for  the  seisure  ot  merohandise  stored  at  Smyrna  and 
Adalia;  they  likewise  purchased  the  daims  of  Cath- 
erine Comaro  to  the  Kmgdom  of  Cyprus.  Finally,  in 
1480,  Mohammed  11  directed  a  tnple  attack  against 
Euime.  In  Hungary  Matthias  Corvinus  withstood 
the  Turkish  invasion,  and  the  Knights  of  Rhodes,  con- 
ducted by  Pierre  d'Aubusson,  cfefended  themsdves 
victorioustv,  but  the  Tuiks  succeeded  in  gaining  pos- 
session of  Otranto  and  threatened  Italy  with  conquest 
At  an  assembly  held  at  Rome  and  presided  over  by 
Sixtus  IV,  ambassadors  from  the  Christian  princes 
again  promised  help;  but  the  condition  of  Christendom 
would  have  been  critical  indeed  had  not  the  death  of 
Mohammed  II  occasioned  the  evacuation  of  Otranto. 
while  the  power  of  the  Turks  was  impaired  for  several 
years  by  civil  wan  among  Mohanomeid's  sons.  At  the 
time  of  Charles  VIII's  expedition  into  Italy  (1492) 
there  was  again  talk  of  a  crusade;  aocordine  to  the 
plans  of  the  King  of  France,  the  conquest  of  Naples 
was  to  be  followed  by  that  of  Constantinople  and  the 
East.  For  this  reason  Pope  Alexander  VI  aelivered  to 
him  Prince  Djem,  son  of  Mahommed  II  and  pretender 
to  the  throne,  who  had  taken  refu^  with  the  Hos- 
pitallers. When  Alexander  VI  jomed  Venice  and 
Maximilian  in  a  league  against  Charles  VIII,  the  offi- 
cial object  of  the  affiance  was  the  crusade,  but  it  had 
become  impossible  to  take  such  projects  as  seriously 
meant.  Tne  leases  for  the  crusade  were  no  longer 
anything  but  pohtacal  combinations,  and  the  preadi- 
ing  of  tl^  Hol3r  War  seemed  to  the  people  nothmg  but 
a  means  of  raising  money.  Before  his  death.  Emperor 
Maximilian  took  the  cross  at  Metz  with  due  soleomity, 
but  these  demonstrations  could  lead  to  no  satisfactory 
results.  The  new  conditions  that  now  controlled 
Christendom  rendered  a  crusade  impossible. 

X.  MonmcAnoMB  and  Survival  of  thb  Idsa  of 
THB  Cbubadb. — ^From  the  sixteenth  century  European 
policy  was  swayed  exclusively  by-  state  ii^erests: 
hence  to  statesmen  the  idea  of  a  crusade  seemed 
antiquated.  Egypt  and  Jerusalem  having  been  con- 
quered by  Sultan  Selim,  in  1517,  Pbpe  Leo  X  made  a 
supreme  effort  to  re-establish  the  peace  essential  to 
the  organisation  of  a  crusade.  The  King  of  France 
and  Emperor  Charles  V  promised  their  cooperation; 
the  King  of  Portugal  was  to  besieee  Constantinople 
mth  300  ships,  and  the  pope  himself  was  to  conduct 
the  expedition.  Just  at  this  time  trouble  broke  out 
between  Francis  I  and  Charies  V;  these  plans  there- 
fore failed  completely.  The  leaders  of  the  Reforma- 
tion were  unfavourable  to  the  crusade,  and  Luther 
declared  that  it  was  a  sin  to  make  war  upon  the  Turks 
because  God  had  made  them  His  instruments  in  pun- 
ishins  the  sins  of  His  people.  Therefore,  althou^ 
the  idea  of  the  crusade  was  not  wholly  lost  sight  of,  it 
took  a  new  form  and  adapted  itself  to  the  new  condi- 
tions. The  Conquidadares,  who  ever  since  the  fif- 
teenth cen^ory  had  been  going  forth  to  discover  new 
lands,  considered  themselves  the  auxiliuies  of  the 
crusade.  The  Infante  Don  Henrique,  Vasco  da  Oama, 
Chrntopher  Columbus,  and  Albuquerque  wore  the 
cross  on  their  breast  and,  when  seeking  the  means  of 
doubling  Africa  or  of  reaching  Asia  by  routes  from 
the  East,  thou^t  of  attacking  the  Mohammedans  in 
the  rear;  besioes,  they  calculated  on  the  allianoe  of  a 
fabulous  sovereign  said  to  be  a  Christian,  Prester  John. 


The  popes,  moreover,  strongly  encouraged  these  expe- 
ditions. On  the  other  hand,  amcmg  the  Powers  of 
Europe  the  House  of  Austria,  which  was  mistress  of 
Hungary,  where  it  was  directly  threatened  by  the 
Turks,  and  which  had  supreme  control  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, realized  that  it  would  be  to  its  advanta^  to 
maintain  a  certain  interest  in  the  crusade.  UntO  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  a  diet  of  the 
Qerman  princes  was  held  at  Ratisbon,  the  question  of 
war  against  the  Turks  was  frequently  agiteted,  and 
Luther  himsdf,  modifying  his  first  opinion,  exhorted 
the  German  nobiUtj  to  defend  Christendom  (1528- 
29).  The  war  in  Hungary  always  partook  of  the 
chaneter  of  a  crusade  and,  on  different  occasions,  the 
French  nobles  enlisted  under  the  imperial  banner. 
Thus  the  Duke  of  Merooeur  was  authorised  by  Heniy 
IV  to  enter  the  Hungarian  service.  In  1664  Louis 
XIV,  eager  to  extend  his  influence  in  Europe,  sent  Ihe 
emperor  a  contingent  t^ieh,  under  the  command  of 
the  Count  of  Cdimy,  repulsed  the  Turks  in  the  battle 
of  St.  Qothard.  But  such  demonstrations  were  of  no 
importance  because,  from  the  time  of  Francis  I,  the 
kings  of  France,  to  maintein  the  balance  of  power  in 
Europe  against  the  House  of  Austria,  had  not  heoh 
teted  to  enter  into  treaties  of  allianoe  with  the  Turks. 
When,  in  1683,  Kara  Mustapha  advanced  on  Vienna 
with  30,000  Turks  or  Tatars,  Louis  XIV  made  no 
move,  and  it  was  to  John  Sobieskfi  King  of  Poland, 
that  the  emperor  owed  his  safety.  This  ^  was  the 
supreme  effort  made  by  the  Turks  in  the  West.  Over- 
whelmed by  the  victories  of  Prince  Eugene  at  tiie 
dose  of  the  seventeenth  centmy,  they  became  thence- 
forth a  passive  power. 

On  the  Mediterranean.  Genoa  and  Venice  beheld 
their  commereial  monopoly  destroyed  in  the  sixteenth 
century  by  the  discovery  of  new  eontinente  and  of 
new  water-routes  to  the  Indies,  while  their  political 
power  was  absorbed  by  the  House  of  Austria.  With^ 
out  allowing  the  crusaders  to  deter  them  ^m  their 
continental  enterprises,  the  Hapsbur^s  dreamed  of 
«uning  control  of  the  Mediterranean  by  checkiiM;  the 
Barbaiy  piiates  and  arresting  the  progress  of  the 
Turks.  When,  m  1671,  the  Island  oi  Cyprus  was 
threatened  by  the  Ottomans,  who  cruelly  massacred 
the  jBsarrisons  of  Famagusta  and  Nicosia,  these  towns 
havmg  surrendered  on  stipulated  terms,  Pope  Pius  V 
succeeded  in  forming  a  league  of  maritime  powei^ 
against  Sulten  Selim,  and  secured  the  co*operation  dt 
Philip  II  by  granting  him  the  rig^t  to  titties  for  the 
crusade,  while  he  himself  equipped  some  galleys.  On 
7  October,  1671,  a  Christian  fleet  of  200  g^eys,  cany- 
ing  50,000  men  under  the  command  of  Don  Juan  of 
Austria,  met  the  Ottoman  fleet  in  the.Straito  of 
Lepanto,  destro^red  it  completely,  and  liberated  thou- 
sands of  dnistians.  This  expedition  was  in  the 
nature  of  a  cnisade.  The  pope,  considering  that  the 
victor^r  had  saved  Christenaom.  by  way  of  commemo- 
rating it  instituted  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Rosary,  whi<^ 
is  celebrated  on  the  first  Sunday  of  October.  But  the 
allies  pushed  their  advantages  no  further.  When,  in 
the  seventeenth  centuiy,  France  superseded  Spain  as 
the  great  Mediterranean  power,  she  strove,  despite  the 
treaties  that  bound  her  to  the  Turks,  to  defend  the  last 
remnanto  of  Christian  power  in  the  East.  In  1609 
Louis  XIV  sent  the  Duke  of  Beaufort  with  a  fleet  of 
7000  men  to  the  defence  of  Candia,  a  Venetian  prov- 
ince, but.  notwithstanding  some  brilliant  sallies,  he 
sucoeeded  in  putting  off  its  capture  for  a  few  weeks 
only.  However,  the  drolomatic  action  of  the  kings  of 
France  in  regard  to  Eastern  Christians  who  were 
Turidsh  subjects  was  more  efficacious.  The  regime 
of  ''Capitulations",  established  under  Francis  I  in 
1636,  renewed  under  Louis  XIV  in  1073,  and  Louis 
XV  in  1740,  ensured  Catholics  religious  freedom  and 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  French  ambaissador  at  Constan- 
tinople; all  Western  pilsrims  were  allowed  access  to 
Jerusalem  and  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  which  was  con- 


ORUaADIS 


556 


ORmADn 


fided  to  the  care  of  the  FriaiB  Minor.  Such  was  the 
ittodus  Vivendi  finally  established  between  Ghristendom 
god  the  Mohazmneaan  world. 

Notwithstanding  these  changes  it  may  be  said  that, 
until  the  seventeenth  centurv,  the  imagination  of 
Western  Christendom  was  still  haunted  bv  the  idea 
of  the  Cnisades.  Even  the  least  chimerical  of  states- 
m»i»  such  as  Pdre  Joseph  de  Tremblav,  the  oonfideo- 
tial  friend  of  Richdieu,  at  times  cherished  such  hopes, 
while  the  plan  set  forth  in  the  memorial  which  Leibnis 
addressed  (1672)  to  Louis  XIV  on  the  conquest  of 
£4gypt  was  that  of  a  regular  crusade.  Lastly,  there 
remained  as  the  respectaUe  relic  of  a  glorious  past 
^e  Order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusuem; 
which  was  founded  in  the  eleventh  centuiy  and  con- 
tinued to  exist  until  the  French  Revolution.  Despite 
the  valiant  efforts  of  their  mxtd  master,  Villiers  de 
risle  Adam,  the  Turks  had  ariven  them  from  Rhodes 
bk  1622,  and  they  had  taken  refuge  in  Italv.  In  1590 
Charles  V  presented  them  with  the  Isle  of  Malta,  ad- 
mirably situated  from  a  strategic  point  of  view, 
whence  they  mi^t  exercise  surveillance  over  the 
Mediterranean.  They  were  obliged  to  promise  to  give 
up  Malta  on  the  recovery  of  Rhodes,  and  also  to  make 
war  upon  the  Barbary  pirates.  In  1565  the  Knights 
of  Malta  withstood  a  lurioua  attack  by  the  Turks. 
They  also  maintained  a  squadron  able  to  put  to  fli^t 
the  Barbaiy  pirates.  Recruited  from  oxaoog  the 
younger  sons  of  the  noblest  families  of  Europe,  they 
owned  immense  estates  in  France  as  well  as  m  Italy, 
and  when  the  French  Revolution  broke  out,  the  order 
quickly  lost  ground.  The  propertjr  it  held  in  Fraaoe 
was  confiscated  in  1790,  ana  when,  in  1798,  the  Direc- 
tory undertook  an  expedition  to  Egypt,  Bonaparte, 
in  passing,  seised  the  Isle  of  Malta,  whose  knis^ts  had 
l^aced  themselvea  imder  the  protection  of  the  Csar, 
Paul  I.  The  city  of  Valetta  surrendered  at  the  first 
summons,  and  the  order  disbanded;  however,  in  1826 
it  was  reorganised  in  Rome  as  a  charitable  association. 

The  hktory  of  the  Crusades  is  therefore  intimately 
connected  with  tiiat  of  the  popes  and  the  Church* 
Iliese  Holy  Wars  were  essentially  a  papal  enterprise. 
The  idea  or  quelling  all  dissensions  afnong  Christians, 
of  uniting  them  under  the  same  standard  and  sending 
them  forth  against  the  Mohammedans,  was  conceived 
in  the  eleventh  century,  that  is  to  say,  at  a  time  when 
there  were  as  yet  oo  oiganiced  states  in  Europe,  and 
when  the  pope  was  the  only  potentate  in  a  position  to 
know  and  undentand  the  common  interests  of  Chris-, 
tendom.  At  this  time  the  Turks  threatened  to  invade 
Europe,  and  the  Bysantine  Empire  seemed  unable  to 
withstand  the  enemies  by  whom  it  was  surrounded. 
Urban  II  then  took  advantage  of  the  veneration  in 
which  the  holy  places  were  hekl  by  the  Christians  c^ 
the  West  and  entreated  the  latter  to  direct  their  eom- 
bksed  forces  agiainst  the  Mohammedans  and,  by  a  bold 
attack,  check  their  progress.  The  result  of  thlB  effort 
was  the  establishment  of  the  Christian  states  in  Syria. 
While  the  authority  of  the  popes  remained  undisputed 
in  Europe,  the^  were  in  a  position  to  furnish  these 
Christian  colonies,  the  help  they  requiied;  but  when 
this  authority  waa  shaken  by  dissensiona  between  the 
priesthood  and  the  empire,  the  crusading  anny  lost 
the  unity  of  command  so  essential  to  success*  The- 
maritime  powers  of  Italy,  whose  assistance  was  indift- 
penaable  to  the  Christian  armies,  thou^t  only  of  using 
the  Crusades  for  political  and  economic  ends.  Other 
princes,  first  the  Hohenstaufen  and  atterwards  Charies 
of  Aigou,  followed  this  precedent,  the  crusade  of  1204 
being  the  first  open  rebellion  against  the  pontifical 
will.  Finally,  when,  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages^ 
all  idea  of  the  Christian  monarchy  had  been  definitively 
cast  aside,  when  state  policy  was  the  sole  infiuen^Q 
that  actuated  the  Powers  of  Europe^  the  ^rusadv 
seemed  a  respectable  but  troublesome  survival*  In 
the  fifteenth  centuiy  Europe  permitted  the  Turks  to 
WMB  Constantinople!  and  princes  were  far  leas  <^nt 


oemed  about  their  departure  for  the  East  than  about 
finding  a  way  out  <^  the  fulfilment  of  their  vow  as 
erusadsrs  wim>ut  loring  the  good  opinion  of  the  pub- 
he*  Thereafter  all  attempts  at  a  enisade  partook  of 
the  nature  of  politioal .  schemes.  Notwithstanding 
their  final  overthrow,  liie  Crusadea  hold  a  very  impor- 
tant place  in  the  history  of  (he  worid.  Essentially  the 
woi^  of  the  popes,  these  Holy  Warn  first  of  all  helped 
to  strengthen  pontifical  authority;  they  afferded  the 
popes  an  opportunity  to  idteif  ere  in  the  wan  b^ween 
Chrisitian  priUces,  while  the  tempond  and  ^iritual 
privileges  wluch  they  oonfefred  upon  emaadeim  vir- 
tually made  the  latter  their  Mibjeds.  Atthesametime 
this  was  the  prinoiiMd  reason.why  so  manv civil  nilos 
refus^  to'  join  the  Crusades.  It  imisl  be  said  that 
the  advantages  tibus  acquired  by  the jx^ms  were  for 
I2ie  common  safety  of  Christettdflnn.  Ftom  the  outset 
the  Crusade  were  defensive  wan  and  checked  the 
advanoe  of  the  Mohammedans  who,  for  two  oenturies, 
oonoentrated  their  foress  in  a  strugsie  agamat  the 
CSiristiaA settlementB in S3Fria;  henceEurope is lar^ 
^  indebted  .to  the  C^nisades  for  the  mainlenanee  of  its 
independence.  Besides,  the  Gruaades  buought  about 
results  of  which  the  pQf>ea  had  never  dreamed,  and 
which  were  periiaps  the  most  important  of  alL  They 
re-established  traffic  between  the  East  and  West, 
which,  after  having  been  silapended  for  several  centu- 
ries, was  then  resumed  with  even  greater  energy;  they 
were  the  mebne  of  foringm^  koia  the  depths  of  their 
respective  provinces  and  introducing  into  the  most 
civiliseid  Asiatic  countries  Western  knigbts,  to  whom 
a  new  worid  was  thus  revealed,  and  who  returned  to 
their  native  land  filled  With  novd  ideas;  they  were 
infltruaiental  in-  extending  the  oommerse  of  the  Indies, 
of  which  the  Italian  etties  long'held  the  monopoly,  and 
Ihe  products  of  which  transformed  the  material  life  of 
the  West.  Moreover,  as  early  as  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century,  the- development  of  general  culture 
in  the  West  was  the  direot  reisult  of  these  Holy  Wan. 
FieaUy,  it  is  with  the  Crusades  that  we  must  oouple 
tiie  orimn  of  the  inographicaleacploradonB  made  oy 
Maroo  ralo  and  Qrderie  of  Frndenone,  theltaiians 
who  bcoii^t  to  Europe  tike  knowledge  of  continental 
Asia  and  China.  At  a  ddll  later  date,  it  was  the  ^nrit 
of  the  true  crusader  that  animated  CSnistopher  Co- 
lun^boawhen  he  undertone  his  periloue  voyage  to  the 
then  unknown  Amesica^  and  Vaseo  da  Qama  when  he 
set  out  in  quest  of  India.  If,  indeed,  the  Ottistlan 
oivilifUKtioti  of  Europe  has  become  universal  culture, 
in  the  highest  sense,  the  gkxiy  redoundsy  in  no  amall 
measure,  to  the  Crusades* 

KdatAR,  ^e$eh.  der  KreussUoe  in  CoUsa.  Oneken  {1880); 
ROaaiOBTr  Geaek:.  Af  iCrmuvfl^  im  Umriu  Klmuibmek,  1806)s 
Jirnktam,  L'SM»  tt  V.OnttU  au  iiMyt»v4ge«  Xm  ammim 
(Fw^WQJ);  .rRVn,  KyUurffeach.  derKrntMz^  (Berlin,  1883); 
R£Y,  Kiaai  aur  ta  donAinatton  ftancctU€  en  Surie  penamU  le 
movM->4o»  (PftriB.  1866):  Odtttonii  The  Laiiti^  Kitt^dom  <4  Jtrw 
aaUmihoDOxm,  1807):  BMrnaar,  Qeaph.  dtr  KMifrmfks  Jer^ 
8^m  (Xnnsbnick,  1W8);  Mxa-LijviB,  Bik.  deVUe  d»Chvpn 
(Plirid,  185i-6I);  i)biavillb-L«-roxjx.  Le«  NomiUaien  m 
Tern  Sirinu  c(  k  Ch^pf^  (Paxis,  1004);  ^bM*.  £MimdW«M^ 
tmd  Untmim^  ibt  /(WpitAMM^tvAnM  (B^riia,  1888);  RiAirr, 
Ezpiditiqm  et  pSSfinagea  dts  Stxmdinavm  tn  Terrx  Smnie  (Flam, 
1885):  BiiBt^EiraoM.  The  Cruandd  in  iheSadtCBXtibxidtfi,  IMT). 

L  PotJOomviUiB,  Mimoif  4ur  tea  •  4taUimema%U  franpaU  au 
Uv9nl.  (kpuia.  Vim  ^.  iy^'9  lu  fk^dt^XVU*  ^nMe  in.  Mi- 
moirea  Acad,  aea  Mna€npl.f  3«  aeries,  X:  niAUT,  ha  mf/t^altwf^  de 
HuffUMs  wtrquis  de  TokcaMt  OK  Setini  Sipfdete  eC  lea  ikAUne- 
maUM  Uama  de  Mmttkm  ott  X*  «M4.  ibid,  (1884);  Jbiaif, 
/mwiiloirtf  dea  Uifrm  ki$i$ngk^  ^  irvimdu  in  JLreMmt  da 
VOrient  Latin,  I. 

lQ02)r§rWKL,^eiiA,  dea  araten  Kr^tMtkM  (Innsbnidc,  1901); 
Cumjo^omm  AMi>«r  ^  r»ffi«.  d^AkxiafimmUm  (Ftezis,  1900); 
Haobkiixtxb,  t^ater  der  BremU  (LetjE>siat  187y)s  Idem,  Bgia^ 
hdmet  tkcaUe  dd  kiaoriaHiptinfi  6ei<«  «pecte«ii«t  (lttbibniek»  1901 ). 
UL  'SkmvatxHm^B^mo^  9aih.Glaih9ttSMmdAi$  Anfmga  dea 
"        ■       "•       "         —    «        -      u^. 

1906). 


mid  de  ^SSSSnTvrww^Aii^^o^  (P^rir^^fts  Iokm.  C 
p6qnea  du  tot  Aftitury  I  de  JiruaaUm  m  SJoifpiB  (nris.  190 
IV.  FMrnaaaL^GeaeLdaaKrautatlfaaKaiaarar  '  '  " 


JUli  1189  bu  Februar  1190  !n  Buun^niaeiM  Ze* 
Xi>ail.  Oifi'  Ffie&e  «u  AdfutmoT,  ibid.  flioS^B 


FtotiT.,  iSrifJm  bad  tkB  PgUi 


.   (1003); 
Iha  Kin$dmm  o/  Jtrutaiem  (New 


OBinfOttID 


567 


Yoik,  IM); 


Tht  Maiitnai  Kmadomt  ci  Ctipnta  and 


ArwUmm  ^Oifoid.  Iw7);  CUbtbluub.  ^UUpnt  ilAugua,  XI^ 
Der  KnuBBug  (Leipnc,  IQQO);  LAVXsaik  i>0  nwrmano  SaUenst 
ordmu  TeuUmiei  magxain  (PBris,  1878);  Abchsb.  The  Cru9ad4 
of  Ritkafd  i  (N««.  York.  1888). 

V.  HqaniB.   Hi^.^^  ^ggpa   hmocmUjIl  (giun,    1867); 

^^ ,   -^   ^ Hano- 

TAXJit^  Le»  VtnUimia  oninto  troAi  la  dtritimti  m  190t  m  Revua 
HiU*  <1877);  Riant,  I«  tlhamqtmmd  dt  dinatiom  da  la  ^uaHhHB 
arouiaoB  in  Bevua  om  quettwi^a  kUUniques  (1878);  tiosN, 
Marltgnf  Ctmmd  von  MontftrrtU  (Marburs,  1881);  Tbbsixb, 
la  qmattni^im  tromuU  OP^>i«»  1884);  Nobobbt.  Der  viertt  KrtuM* 


LuCTAiBB/iSMOoenl  *///.    Tamisationlr  Orient  \Paru,  1907)1 
WiifXEucAsnf ,  PMtivpe  wm  5eftiMAm  (Leipsig,  1873);, 


Beeiarian  < 


1808);  NoBOBN.  Dm  Papdtum  und  Byzaru  (Berlin, 
IWlS); '  nABa.  7*^  Fe»  of  Ccnatmtinople  (London,  1885): 
-QwmAMB,  OeeA.  derKmeer  Baldam  I  emd  Hemriek,  IM^Uie 
(OomVutB.  100():  BncHOIv.  Meckerche$  hiai,  eur  la  priaeipauU 
frtmoaiee  d»  Morie  (Paris,  1846);  Rood,  The  Prineea  of  Achata 
and  Oie  Ckronidee  of  Morea  (London,  1907);  Riant,  BsuvUm 
eaarm  Conatamimopolitaam  (Qcnova,  1877);  RAbbcbt,  Der 
Kimier  Krmueuo  Uk  Hietenmshe  Zeitechrift  (1876). 

VI.  RftHBiCHT.  Btudien  zur  Qeech.  deafUnften  KreuizHoee 
(InnabrackTlSei);  Idem,  Die  Kretufakri  FriedriOi  II  (Berlin, 
i874);  Bunotrnt.  Let  rdaHene  diplomatigmet  dee  Hohenetaufim 
oeecieeSidtaHeiBo^mte  in  Reme  HitL,  XXXI;  Cakdn.  hUro- 
duction  a  fkiai.  dTTAeie;  Turce  et  MongoU  (Pam,  1896): 
GoLUBOTTCft,  BiUioteea  Ine-Mflioorttfica  ddla  Terra  Santa  •  deU* 
Oriente  Franeeeeano  (Quaimechi,  1906);  Tiixbmont,  Vie  de 
8<nrU  Louie  roideFnmee,  ed.  Socuri  db  L'maroxBB  db  Fbancb 
(1847-51);  Bbboxb.  S.  Louie  et  hmoeeiU  IV  (FBris,  1803); 
DKI.ABOBDB,  Jean  de  JontmBe  (Flaria,  1805). 

VTI.  Lboot  db  la  Mabcrb,  Lapridieatum  de  la  aweade  au 
XIW  eiieU  in  Rev.  dee  quest,  hiat.  (1800^  &rBBNFBLD,  Ludurige 
dee  HeUioen  Kreutsug  naeh  Tunie  (Benin,  1806);  RAhbicbt, 
Etude  eur  lea  demxera  tempo  du  nwai>fiM  da  Jdruealem  in  Ar^ivea 
de  r  Orient  Latin,  I.  619:  11,  865;  ^em.  Die  Broberung  Akhaa 
in  Farednmg  eur  deutaene  Oeach.,  XX. 

VIII:  DBi4ATTUJfi-LB<BOux,  La  France  en  Orient  au  XIV* 
eikde  (PBiis,  1885);  Bbidbbt,  La  condition  'juridijue  dee 
craiaSa  et  le  priviUoe  de  la  croix  CParis.  1900);  Magnocatallo. 
Marino  Sanudo  (BerGEBmq,  1901);  BaubAad.  Haimond  Lidte 
in  Hiat.  LiU.de  la  France,  XXIX;  AnDBM^Lekienheunux  Rmt- 
mond  LuUe  (Paris.  1900);  Kobubr,  Stude  eur  GuOaume  d^Adam 
arehevique  de  Bnltani/ek  in  Doeuanenta  Arminiene^  II;  Qat,  La 
pope CUment  VIetteeaffairea  <rOrient  (1342-18J^(Ftau,  1904); 
JoRGA,  PkUippe  de  Miziirea  at  la  ertnaade  au  XIV*  aiide  (Paris, 
1806);  Idbm, LatinaatGrece d^Orient in Byzantin.  ZeU., XV;  Pab- 
RAUD,  Vie  de  S.  Pierre  Thonuta  (Anceis,  1806);  Jabbt,  Le  ratour 
de  la  croieade  de  Barbarie  (BibUoth.  Eeole  dss  Chiirtes»  1803). 

IX.  DB  Sact.  Memoira  aur  tme  eorreapondance  inidite  de 
Tamerlan  avee  Chaiiea  VI  in  Mhnoiree  de  VAeadhnie  dee  Inacrip- 
tione,  VI-VII;  Bbrgbb  db  Xivbbt,  La  vie  et  lea  ouvragee  de 
Vempermar  Manuel  PaUoifgee,  Urid..  XJXi  Yam^.U  cardiauA 
(Paris,  1878);  .^abs.  The  Deatruaion  of  the  Oreek 
^jca  demiera  joura  de  Conatan' 
9  diaeottra  da  voyage  d^Outre^ 

— ^ . --,  JoBOA,  A^o<»eM  et  iBEfroito  f»our 

fcnwr  a  thiat,  dee  ^^naadea  au  XV^  eikde  (Paris,  1902). 

Lox7is  Brehxer.  , 

Onitelied  Friars  (or  ORoasEO  Fioars),  an  order  o£ 
mendioiint  friars  who  went  to  England  in  the  thii^ 
teenth  centmy  from  Italy,  where  they  had  existed  for 
Bome  time,  and  where  they  were  called  '^FrcOres  Cm- 
eifert"  (see  Mow).  Tlieir  first  appearance  in  England 
was  at  a  synod  of  the  Diooese  oi  Rochester  in  1244, 
when  they  presented  documents  from  the  pope  and 
asked  to  be  allowed  to  settle  in  the  country  (Matthew 
Paris).  Each  friar  carried  in  his  hand  a  wooden  staff 
Bormounted  by «  cross  an4  had  also  a  cross  of  red 
doth  upon  his  habit,  from  which  ofrcuinstances  or^- 
inated  the  name  by  which  they  became  common^^ 
known.  Their  rule  was  that  of  St.  Augustine  and 
their  habit,  or^jinally  brown  or  black,  was  later  on 
changed  to  blue  by  Pom  Pius  11.  They  established 
ei^t  or  nfile  houses  in  England,  the  first  being  either 
at  ColcHesttor  (according  to  Di^ale),  or  at  Reigate 
(according  to  Reyber),  founded  in  1245.  They  set- 
tled in  London  in  1249,  where  they  gave  their  name  to 
the  locality,  near  Ttmet  Hill,  stilt  called  "Crutched 
Friars".  Other  houses  were  a^  Oxford  (1348),  York, 
'  Great  WelthAm  (Suffolk;),  Parham  (a  cell  to  Qt.  Wel- 
tham,),  Wotton-under-Edge  (Gloucestershire),  Brack- 
ley  (Northants),  and  Kil^de  (Yorkshire). 

FkutniS  OtitJCiFBRi. — ^The  ori^  of  these  friars  is 
somewhat  uncertain.  They  clauned  to  have  been 
founded  in  the  East,  in  tin  first  eentmy,  by  St.  Cletus, 
and  to  have  been  reconstituted  by  St.  Oyriacus,  Pa- 
triarch of  Jerusalem,  in  thcfourth.  It  is  not  known 
whttn  they  came  to  Italy,  but  iSiey  were  certainly  there 
%i  thetwelfth  oentory,  for  in  lieo  Poi^  Alexander  III 


Sve  them  constitutions  and  a  rule  of  life  sunilar  to 
at  of  the  Augustinians.  Pope  Pius  II  prescribed 
for  them  a  blue  habit  and  substituted  a  small  sflver 
cross  for  the  larger  wooden  one  they  had  hitherto  be^i 
accustomed  to  carry  in  their  hands.  It  was  from  this 
custom  that  they  obtained  their  name.  Hieir  mon- 
asteries were  at  one  time  numerous  in  Italy,  number- 
ing two  hundred  and  eight,  divided  into  five  prov- 
inces: Bologna,  Venice,  Rome,  Mflan,  and  Naples. 
The  priorv  of  S.  Maria  di  Morula  at  Bologna  was  made 
the  chief  nouse  of  the  order  by  Pope  Clement  IV,  and 
it  was  from  this  that  the  En^ish  Crutched  Friars 
came.  In  later  times  corruptions  were  allowed  to 
crec^  iUj  and  fh>m  that  and  other  causes  their  num- 
bers dwindled  down  to  not  more  than  fifty  houses  in 
1656,  when  the  order  was  suppressed  by  Pope  Alex- 
ander VII.  A  similar  order  of  friars,  Imown  by  the 
same  name  and  like  them  claiming;  to  come  from  the 
East,  also  existed  in  France  and  the  Low  Countries, 
having  been  introduced  or  organized  in  1211  by  Th^ 
dore  de  Celles.  Hflyot  sa3rs  their  houses  were  num- 
erous, but  the  order  suffered  extinction  in  the  French 
Revolution.  These  friars  wore  a  black  habit  with 
a  red  cross  upon  it.  Other  Fratres  Cruciferi  were  also 
to  be  found  m  Bohemia  in  the  thirteenth  century  and 
some  are  said  to  have  existed  in  Ireland,  but  there  is 
practically  no  reliable  information  to  be  obtained 
about  them. 

Uatthbw  Pabis,  Hiatoria  Anglorum.  Rolls  ad.  (London, 
1866).  n;  Tannbb.  Notitia  Monaatiea  (London,  1744);  Dua- 
BAi.B»  Monaeticon  Anglieanun^  (London.  1817-dO),  Vr.  Rbt- 
MBB,  Apoatolatua  Benedietinorum  in  AngliA  (DoubL  1626); 
Gasqubt,  Bngliah  Monaatie  Life  (London.  1904);  H£ltot, 
Hiat.  dee  ordrea  rdigieux  (Paris,  1792),  II;  HBiMBtrcsBB,  Orden 
und  Congregationen  (2d  ed.,  1907),  II,  33-37. 

G.  Cyprian  Ai^toiN. 

Onu,  Ram6n  de  la,  a  poet,  b.  at  Madrid,  Spain, 
28  March,  1731;  d.  in  the  same  city,  4  November, 
1795.  He  was  for  a  time  a  clerk  in  the  Ministiy  of 
Finance,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Seville  and  of  the  Arcadians  of  Rome.  Veiy  little 
is  known  of  his  Ufe.  He  wrote  more  than  three 
hundred  pieces  for  the  stage,  many  of  which  were 
improvised.  It  was  his  custom  to  go  to  the  Prado 
in  the  evening  and  there,  seated  on  one  of  the  stone 
benches,  worn  out  some  theme  suggested  by  the 
scene  before  him.  This  he  wrote  tne  next  day. 
The  theatre  anxiously  awaited  the  improvisation, 
and  it  was  produced  within  two  or  three  days.  In 
this  way  he  wrote  "La  Casa  de  T6came  Roque", 
which  won  immediate  favour,  and  has  continued  to 
be  a  favourite  almost  to  the  present  day.  Cruz 
at  first  wrote  in  the  several  known  styles  of  dramatic 
composition,  including  tragedies,  zarzuelas,  and 
comedies,  but  it  is  as  the  inventor  of  a  new  form  of 
dramatic  writing  that  he  is  best  remembered.  This 
is  the  aainete,  a  short  farcical  sketch  of  city  life  and 
manners,  especially  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes. 
As  a  writer  of  these  he  has  never  ^  been  equalled. 
They  abound  in  exuberant  humour,  jokes,  and  puns, 
and  describe  faithfully  the  customs  and  manners 
of  the  time.  '  His  pictures  of  the  middle  and  lower 
classes  were  produced  with  such  exactness,  vivacity, 
grace,  and  colouring,  that  for  these  qualities  rather 
than  for  any  literary  merit  they  might  possess  his 
I>lay8  won  public  favour,  and  many  of  them  con- 
tinued to  be  presented  with  but  slight  changes, 
almost  down  to  our  own  times.  His  oest  sainetea 
are  "La  Casa  de  T6came  Roque",  just  mentioned, 
"  El  Prado  por  h&  Noche",  "  Las  TertuHas  de  Madrid, 
6  el  Por  ou6  de  las  Tertulias",  and  "La  Comedia 
de  Maravulas".  There  are  several  editions  of  the 
works  of  Cms,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
"Ram6n  de  la  Cms,  Sametes"  (1  vol.,  Madrid,  1877), 
"La  Biblioteca  Universal"  (XXXV),  and  "Teatro 
itelecto  de  don  Bam6n  de  la  Cms"  (1  vol.,  Madrid, 
1882>i  ViarroRA  Pucktib. 


OMXfZ 


658 


OUBA 


ChnUf  San  Juan  ds  la.  See  John  or  tbb  Caoas, 
Saint. 

Orsrpt  (or  Lower  Chubcb). — ^The  word  originalhr 
meant  a  hidden  place,  natural  or  artificial,  suitable 
for  the  concealment  o!  persons  or  things.  When 
visits  to  the  burial-places  without  the  walls  of  Rome 
fell  into  disuse  there  ensued  a  curious  change.  The 
Church,  no  longer  able  to  go  out  to  honour  the  mar- 
tyrs, brought  the  martyrs  within  the  walls,  and  in- 
stead of  building  churches  above  the  tombs,  dug  tombs 
under  the  churches  in  which  the  precious  relics  were 
deposited.  This  was  the  origin,  nrst  of  the  confessio 
of  the  basilicas,  and,  at  a  later  period,  of  the  crypt, 
which  answered  the  same  purpose  in  the  churches 
of  the  eariy  Middle  Ages.  In  this  way  the  Roman- 
esque crypt  is  the  direct  descendant  of  the  hjnwgoBwn 
or  excavation  of  the  early  Christian  catacomo.  The 
term  ciypt  is  sometimes  used  to  signify  the  lower 
story  of  a  two-storied  building,  e.  g.  tne  lower  chapel 
of  the  Sainte-Chapelle  at  Pans,  and  of  the  church  of 
San  Francesco  at  Assisi:  and  in  England  the  over- 
ground crypt  of  St.  Etnelreda's  Chapel  in  London, 
which  is  all  that  remains  of  the  great  episcopal  palace 
called  Ely  Place. 

The  crypt  has  a  long  and  venerable  history.  What 
was  done  at  Rome  set  a  precedenc  for  Christendom 
in  general.  There  is  an  early  example  of  a  crypt  at 
Ravenna,  at  Sant'  Apollinare  m  Classe  (534).  At  first 
crypts  were  sometimes  as  deep-sunk  as  the  cvbicula  of 
the  catacombs  themselves,  e.  g.  in  Saint-Crermain,  at 
A  uxerre ,  and  in  the  Chartres  cathedral.  Or  they  were 
but  partly  above  ground,  and  were  lighted  by  small 
windows  placed  in  their  side  walls,  e.  g.  Emulph^s  crypt 
at  Canterbury.  Occasionally  their  floor  was  but  little 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  in  the  eastern 
crypt  at  Canterbury;  or  it  was  on  a  level  with  the 
pavement  of  the  nave,  as  in  San  Miniato,  Florence. 
In  these  latter  cases  the  crypt  practically  became 
a  second  or  lower  church,  e.  g.  St.  Faith's,  under  Old 
3t.  Paul's,  London.  Such  a  ciypt,  however,  entailed  a 
raised  choir;  hence  it  is  that  one  ascends  high  flights 
of  steps  to  such  choirs  as  those  of  San  Mimato, 
Rochester,  Canterbury,  etc.  Almost  all  the  crypts 
now  found  in  England  were  built  during  the  Norman 
period,  or  very  eariy,  in  the  pointed  style.  That  at 
Ulasgow,  however,  belongs  to  the  perfected  style  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  Here  the  crypt  extends  imder 
and  beyond  the  whole  choir.  Had  there  been  an 
opening  in  the  centre  of  the  vault  (and  it  is  by  no 
means  clear  that  one  was  not  orisinally  intended),  it 
would  be  more  like  a  German  double  church  than 
anything  found  in  England.  The  earliest  ciypts  in 
England  are  those  of  Hexham  aiid  Ripon.  In  the 
eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries  crypts 
developed  into  magnificent  churchy  like  those  of 
Gloucester,  Rochester,  Worcester,  Winchester,  St. 
Peter's  at  Oxford,  Bayeux,  Chartres,  Saintes,  Bourses, 
Hciy,  Trinity  at  Caen,  Padua,  Florence,  Pavia,  Paler- 
mo, and  Modena. 

Gailhabaud,  AncierU  and  Modem  ArehiUdure  (Ixmdon, 
1844),  Tl;  Carteh,  Ancient  ArehUedure  iff  En^ikmd  (London, 
1887);  Bond.  Qothte  Ardiiteetun  in  Bnaiand  (New  York.  1000); 
Brown,  From  Schda  to  Cathedral  (Edinbiuieh,  1886);  Low^b, 
MonumenU  of  the  Early  Church  (London,  1906);  Spencb,  The 
White  Robe  of  Churdtee  CNew  York,  1900);  BANirtPUB,  A  Hi^ 
iory  0/  Afth.  (New  York.  1905);  PAnxB,  Ol^emvry  o/  ArxK. 
(London,  184«).  ^  ^    ^ 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

OsMiid,  Diocese  of,  includes  tlie  counties  of  Temes, 
Totontdl,  Krass6-Ss6r^n(yj  Arad,  Csanid,  and  a  part  or 
Ceongr&d  and  B^k6s,  Hunrnv^an  area  of  13,7138quare 
miles.  It  is  suffragan  of  ICalocsa,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  2,060,000  souls,  of  whom  824,000  are  Catholics 
and  56^000  Uniat  Greeks.  The  diocese  has  a  cathe- 
dralohapter,  8  regular  and  6  titular  canonries,  3  titu- 
lar abbeys.  1  proYostship,  3  titular  provostships^  6 
arefadeanerks,  24  subordinate  deaneries,  236  pimk 


churches,  1090  filial  churches,  231  {Mu4h  priests,  122 
chaplains,  28  other  eodesiastics,  54  clerics,  8  retired 
ecclesiastics,  8  priests  outside  of  the  diocese.  The  male 
orders  and  congr^ations  have  11  houses  and  01  num- 
bers, divided  as  follows:  Piarists  (who  also  oonduct  3 
fl^innasia),  3  houses;  Franciscans,  2:  Minorites,  4; 
Brothers  of  Charity,  1,  and  priests  of  the  Order  ol  the 
Divine  Saviour,  1.  The  School  Sisters  of  Notre-Dame, 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  St  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  Holy 
Cross  Sisters  have  28  convents  and  484  members  in 
the  diocese.  There  is  a  seminaiy  for  priests  (with  a 
lyceum),  a  preparatory  one  for  bovs,  and  two  Gaining- 
schools,  for  male  and  female  teacners.  The  cathedral 
built  in  barocco  style,  1736-54,  is  dedicated  to  St. 
Geoive.  The  residence  of  the  bishop  is  at  Temesvar. 
Csanad  is  one  of  the  oldest  sees  of  Hunganr.  It  was 
created  by  King  Stephen  in  1035  and  its  first  bialiop 
was  the  Italian  Abbot  Gerardus,  the  tutor  <A  Ste- 
phen's son,  Emmerich.  In  the  thirteenth  centuiy  the 
diocese  suffered  greatly  from  the  invasion  of  the  Mon- 
gols ;  in  the  fourteenth  century,  after  the  Turkish  con- 


Cathbdral  or  GbanXd. 

tuest  of  Servia,  from  the  immigration  of  flchismatle 
erbs  called  Rascians  into  Huiwaiy ;  in  the  sixteenth 
century  from  the  rebellion  of  the  peasants  (1514). 
By  order  of  D6ssa,  the  leader  of  the  peasants.  Bishop 
Nicholas  Csiky  was  impaled.  After  the  brittle  A 
Mohto  (1526)  in  which  Bishop  Frans  Ctoholy  (1514- 
26)  was  killed,  aknoet  the  entire  diooese  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Zdpolya,  the  ally  of  the  Turks.  When  in 
1552  Temesvar  also  was  taken  by  the  Turks  the  dio- 
cese was  nearly  ruined.  The  see  had  henoeforth 
merely  a  nominal  existenoe  and  the  residence  of  the 
bishop  was  jtransferred  in  1574  to  Ss^jedin.  It  was 
only  after  the  Treaty  of  Passarowits  (1718)  freed  the 
land  from  the  yoke  of  the  Turks  that  Bishop  LadisUus 
N^asdy  (1710-30)  re-entered  the  diocese;  the  depop- 
ulated territory  was  laigely  settled  anew  by  derman 
colonists.  During  the  Revolution  of  18w  Bishop 
Joseph  Lonovice  von  Krivina  (1834-48)  was  driven 
into  exile :  later  the.  Hux^garian  minister  of  worship, 
Michael  Horvath,  was  appointed  bishop  but  was  not 
consecrated.  Duriqg  tne  episcopate  of  Ladislaus 
Kdssegliy  (1800-28)  the  seminary  for  priests  was 
founded;  aurii^that  of  Alexander  Csajighy  (1851- 
60)  the  School  Sisters  of  Notre-Dame  were  brought 
into  the  diocese,  and  during  the  administration  of 
Alexander  Bonnas  (1860^89)  the  seminary  for  boys 
was  erected* 

HoHWiaKeii,  Qeechxehie  dee  Temeeer  Banaiee  (NMQr-Bootkerek. 
1861):  IiMKninKirchenUx,.\IlMi-Z7:  DiehUholie^Kirdie 
und  Oite  ZKetMf  tfi  WoH  wtd  BOd  (Munich.  1000),  n.  029-26; 
Schematiemue  tieri  dimeeeie  Ctanadieneie  (Muuial). 

JoaEPtt  I^DIB. 

Oubai /*  The  Pearl  of  the  Antilles  ",  is  the  hiiKeet  and 
westernmost  island  ci  the  West  Indies.    Its  extent, 

fiphical  poeitioiv,  the  great  number  of  its  ports, 
ertiUty  of  its  soil,  snd  Its  climate  make  it  one  ol 
the  most  iatarestiiig  countries  in  the  New  Worid.    It 


01IB4 


559 


CUMAr 


lies  at  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  between  10^ 
&nd  23^  N.  latitude,  and  74''  and  SS''  W.  longitude.  Its 
western  extremity.  Cape  San  Antonio,  approaches  to 
within  130  miles  of  Yucatan,  and  its  easternmost 
point.  Cape  Maisf,  is  within  50  miles  of  Haiti,  the 
Windwara  Passage  separatme  tbe  two  islands,  while 
the  southern  end  oi  Florida  is  less  than  100  miles  from 
the  northern  coast  of  Cuba.  The  island  thus  occupies 
a  very  important  strategic  position,  commanding,  aa  it 
does,  the  entrances  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  has  a 
length  of  almost  750  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  its 
wicfili  varies  from  100  miles,  at  the  eastern  end,  to  30 
'  miles  in  the  western  portion*  Its  area  is  about  45,000 
square  miles,  including  the  Isle  of  Pines,  which  lies  im- 
mediately south  of  its  western  extremity.  It  is  there- 
fore a  little  less  in  size  than  the  State  of  Virginia  and 
about  the  siae  of  Eneland.  It  is  divided  politically 
into  six  provinces  in  the  following  order  from  west  to 
east:  Pinar  del  Rio,  Havana,  Matanzas,  Santa  Clara, 
Puerto  Principe  (CamagOey),  and  Santiago  de  Cuba. 

Natural  CThabacteristics. — ^The  coast  line,  espe- 
cially along  the  southern  shore,  is  dotted  with  numer- 
ous small  islands,  while  both  the  north  and  south 
coasta  have  many  excellent  bays  and  harbours;  those  of 
Bahfa  Honda,  Havana,  Matanzas  and  Cdrdenas,  on 
the  north  coast,  and  Bataban6,  Cienfuegos,  Santiago 
de  Cuba,  and  Guantanamo,  on  the  south,  being  accessi- 
ble to  ships  of  deep  drau^t.  The  principal  feature  in 
the  phvBical  geo^i^y  of  Cuba  is  a  range  of  moun- 
tains wnidb,  more  or  less  broken,  runs  through  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  island  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
From  this  backbone  the  rivers  run  generally  north  and 
south,  in  short  courses,  to  the  sea.  For  the  most  psu^» 
low  tracts  intervene  between  the  central  elevation 
and  the  sea.  The  forests  are  noted  for  a  great  variety 
and  abundance  of  hardwoods,  some  of  which  are  un* 
surpassed  for  their  special  qualities.  Among  these 
are  lignnm-vitse,  imcoa-wood,  which  scxnewhat  resem- 
bles it,  mahogany  of  superior  quality  and  very  abun- 
dant, and  cedar.  Though  the  forests  are  extensive 
and  almost  impenetrable,  there  are  no  large  wild  ani- 
mals. There  are  more  than  two  hundred  species  of 
birds,  many  of  them  of  exceedingly  beautiful  plumage. 
The  varieties  of  fish  are  even  more  abundant.  In- 
sects are  extremely  numerous  and  of  many  trouble- 
some kinds,  the  most  to  be  feared  being  the  tarantula 
and  scorpion ;  the  most  beautiful,  the  large  fire-flies  or 
cucuyos,  which  emit  a  mild,  steady  light.  Although  the 
mineral  riches  of  Cuba  have  not  as  yet  been  fufly  ex- 
plored, it  is  known  not  to  be  deficient  in  this  respect. 
The  precious  metals  have  been  foimd,  but  not  in  suf- 
ficient qnantities  to  repav  the  coot  of  working  There 
are  abundant  deposits  of  copper,  alum,  iron,  marble, 
and  manganese. 

Lying  just  within  the  tropical  s9one,  Cuba  enjoys  a 
warm  climate  throughout  the  year.  This  is  tempered, 
during  the  summer  months,  by  the  cool  norta-east 
trade-winds  which  blow  almost  everv  day  in  the  year 
from  early  morning  until  sunset,  ancf  abo  by  the  rains 
which  are  most  frequent  during  those  months.  The 
year  is  divided  between  the  hot,  wet  season^  and  the 
cool,  dry  season.  From  May  to  October  rain  and 
thunder  are  of  almost  daily  occurrence;  from  Novem- 
ber to  April  is  the  diy  season,  during  which  period  the 
rainfall  is  comparatively  lig^t.  The  temperature  at 
Havana  during  Hie  hottest  mondi,  August,  avera^ 
82^  F.  fluctuating  between  a  maximum  and  a  mini- 
mum of  88*^  F.  aiid  72**  F.  During  January,  the  cold- 
est month,  the  average  temperature  is  72**  F.,  the 
maximum  78^  F.,  and  the  minunum  58^  F.  The  aver- 
age for  the  year  is  about  77*^  F.  In  the  interior,  and 
especially  in  the  higher  portions  of  the  island,  the  Uier- 
mometer  occteionally  drops  to  the  f  reestng-point,  and 
thin  ice  may  be  seen  on  the  surface  of  pooln.  Snow, 
however,  is  unknown  throuriiout  the  island.  There 
are  no  diseases  specially  encKvnic  to  the  island.  Yel- 
low fever  was  formerly  very  common  and  virulent,  es- 


pecially in  Havana  and  other  seacoast  towns,  though 
imknown  in  the  interior.  During  the  American  occu- 
pation, however,  such  vigorous  and  thorough  sani- 
tarv  measures  were  adopted  that  Havana,  from  beins 
a  plague  spot  and  a  menace  to  the  ports  of  the  United 
States,  became  one  of  the  cleanest  cities  in  the  world. 

History. — Cuba  was  discovered  by  Columbua  dur- 
ing his  first  voyage,  on  the  28th  of  October,  1492.  He 
took  possession  in  the  name  of  the  Catholic  monarchs 
of  Spain,  and  named  it  Juana  in  honour  of  the  Infante 
Don  Juan.  He  again  visited  the  island  in  1494,  tuid  in 
1602,  and  on  each  occasion  explored  part  of  the  coast. 
He  then  believed  that  Cuba  was  part  of  the  mainland, 
aiid  it  was  not  until  1^8  that  Sebastian  Ocampo^  by 
ofder  of  the  king,  circumnavigated  it,  and  proved  it  to 
he  an  island.  In  1511,  Captaip  Diego  VeiiaC^xiez,  who 
had  accompanied  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage,  was 
sent  to  Cuba  to  subjugate  and  colonize  the  island.  He 
landed  near  Cape  Maisf,  the  eastern  extremity,  and 
there  was  founded  Baracoa,  the  first  colony  in  Cuba. 
In  1514  Veldsquez  founded  Trinidad  and  Santiago  de 
Cuba  on  the  south  coast,  Sancti  Spiritus,  Remedios, 
and  Puerto  Principe  in  the  central  portion;  and,  on 
the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Bataban6,  towards  the 
western  extremity^  of  the  south  coast,  San  Crist6bal  de 
la  Habana;  this  last  name,  however,  waa  ^ven,  in  1519, 
to  a  settlement  existing  on  the  present  site  of  Havana. 
The  same  year  Baracoa  was  raised  to  the  di^ty  of  a 
city  and  a  bishopric,  and  was  made  the  capit^,  as  it 
continued  to  be  until  1522,  when  both  the  capital  and 
bishopric  were  transferred  to  Santiago  de  Cuoa.  Ha- 
vana oecame  the  capital  in  1552,  and  has  remained  so 
ever  since. 

Upon  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  23  January,  1516, 
Veyisquez  changed  the  name  of  the  island  to  Feman- 
dina  in  honour  of  that  monarch.  Later,  the  name 
was  changed  to  Santiago  in  honour  of  Spain's  patron 
saint,  and  still  later,  to  Ave  Maria  in  honour  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  During  all  these  official  changes, 
however,  the  island  continued  to  be  known  by  ita  orig- 
inal name  of  Cvba^  given  it  by  the  natives,  and  it  has 
retained  that  name  to  the  present  day.  The  aborig- 
ines (Siboneys)  whom  the  Spaniards  found  i^  Cuba, 
were  a  mild,  timid,  inoffensive  people,  entirely  unable 
to  resist  the  invaders  of  their  countrv,  or  to  enduna 
the  hardships  imposed  upon  them.  Thev  lived  .under 
nine  independent  caciaiies  or  chiefs,  and  possfessed  a 
simple  religion  deyoia  of  rites  and  ceremonies,  but 
with  a  belief  in  a  supreme  being,  and  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  They  were  reduced  to  slavery  by  the 
white  settlers,  among  whom«  however,  the  energetic 
and  persevering  Father  Bartolom^deLasCasas,  ''The 
Protector  of  tl^  Indians",  as  he  was  officially  called, 
earned  a  high  reputation  in  history  b^  his  philajir 
thropic  efforts.  (See  Cabas,  Bartolome  ds  las.)  In 
1524,  the  first  oatgo  of  negro  slaves  was  landed  in  C^iba. 
Then  began  the  iniquitous  traffic  ia  African  slaves  upon 
which  corrupt  offioials  fattened  for  many  years  there- 
after. The  negroes  were  subjected  to  great  cruelties 
and  hardships,  their  natural  increase  was  checked^ 
aild  their  numbers  had  to  be  recruited  by  rep 
hnpcwtationB.  This  traffic  constantly  increasea,  until 
at  the  beginnlDg  of  the  nineteenth  century,  slaves 
were  being  imported  at  the  rate  of  over  10,000  per 
year. 

In  1538,  Havaaa  was  reduced  to  ashes,  by  the 
French,  and  was  destroyed  a  second  time  in  1554.  In 
1762,  the  city  was  taken  by  the  English,  but  within  a 
year,  under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  which 
ended  the  Seven  Years  War,  it  was  returned  to  Spain 
in  exchange  for  Florida.  Fix>m  this  time  the  pfogress 
of  fhiba  was  rapid.  Luis  de  Las  Cases,  who  wa^  sent 
to  Cuba  as  captain  general,  was  especially  energetic  in 
instituting  reforms,  and  he  did  much  for  the  proHperit^ 
and  advancement  of  the  islands  During  the  nine^ 
teenth  century,  however,  Cuba  was  governed  by  asuo- 
cession  of  captains  general,  some  of.  whom  were  hooh 


CUBA 


560 


OUBJL 


ourable  !n  their  administration,  while  others  seemed  to 
regard  their  office  solely  as  the  means  of  aoquirine  a 
fortune.  Various  oppressive  measures  instituted  oy 
some  of  these  ^vemors,  such  as  depriving  the  native 
Cubans  of  political  and  civil  liberty,  excluding  them 
from  |)ublic  office,  and  burdening  them  with  taxation, 
gave  rise  to  the  deadly  hatred  between  the  Cubans  ana 
the  Spaniards,  which  manifested  itself  from  time  to 
time  m  uprisings  for  greater  privile&es  and  freedom. 
Of  this  kind  were  the  conspiracy  of  the  "  Black  Ea^e^' 
(1829),  the  insurrectionof  the  black  population  (1844), 
and  the  conspiracy  of  Narciso  L6pe2  (1849-51),  all  of 
which  gave  occasion  to  repressive  measures  of  great 
cruelty.  The  rebellion  of  1868-78,  however,  compelled 
Spain  to  promise  the  Cubans  representation  in  the 
Cortes,  together  with  other  needed  reforms.  She  failed 
to  keep  many  of  her  promises,  and  the  general  discon- 
tent continued,  with  the  result  that  in  1895,  a  new  and 
formidable  revolt  broke  out.  The  insurgents,  under 
able  leaders,  were  able  to  keep  the  field,  in  spite  of  the 
extremely  energetic  and  even  cruel  measures  that  were 
adopted  to  crush  them.  They  were  able  to  maintain 
the  semblance  of  a  government,  and  their  heroic  re- 
sistance, as  well  as  the  conduct  of  Spain,  aroused  great 
sympathy  for  them  throtijghout  the  United  States. 

From  the  time  that  Fbrida  became  a  part  of  the 
United  States,  this  government  had  taken  a  deep  in- 
terest in  Cuba,  fearing  that  the  island  might  pass  from 
Spain  to  other  hands,  especially  England  or  France. 
In  1848,  President  Polk  had  authorized  the  American 
minister  at  Madrid  to  offer  $100,000,000  for  the  pur- 
chase of  Cuba,  but  Spain  rejected  the  offer.  The  sub- 
ject had  been  revived  in  1854,  following  the  Ostend 
Manifesto,  but  again  it  came  to  nothing.  During  the 
last  uprising  of  the  Cuban  people,  alreiuly  mentioned, 
not  only  the  United  States  government,  but  the  entire 
American  people  were  watching  the  struggle  with  in- 
tense interest,  when,  on  the  night  of  15  February,  1898, 
a  terrific  exj^Iosion  destroyed  the  United  States  battle- 
ship Maine  m  Havana  harbour,  whither  she  had  gone 
on  a  friendly  visit  by  invitation  of  ihe  Spanish  Govern- 
ment. Relations  between  the  two  governments  became 
strained^  and  they  finally  went  to  war  in  April  of  the 
same  year.  The  war  was  of  only  a  few  months  dursr 
tion,  and  as  a  result  of  it,  under  the  tenns  of  the 
Treaty  of  Paris,  (10  December,  1898).  Spain  relin- 
auished  her  hold  on  Cuba,  which  she  had  held  for  over 
400  years.  Beginning  1  January,  1899,  the  United 
States  oceupieathe  iuand  and  appointed  a  military 
governor,  pending  the  formation  of  a  native  govern- 
ment. This  was  eventually  installed  with  the  inau- 
guration as  president  of  Don  Tomds  Estrada  Palma 
(20  May,  1902),  and  the  American  occupation  formally 
and  definitely  ceased  on  that  day.  Cuba  now  seemed 
to  be  entering  upon  an  era  of  peace  and  prosperity,  but 
it  was  to  be  of  short  duratbn.  Differences  between 
the  Moderate  and  Liberal  parties  occasioned  by  the 
second  presidential  election,  in  1905,  ciilminated,  in 
July,  1906.  in  a  revolutionary  movement  started  by 
the  Liberal  leaders.  The  Government  soon  lost  con- 
trol of  the  situation,  so  that  in  September,  1906,  the 
United  States  was  forced  to  intervene.  A  provisional 
ffovemment  was  then  established  under  authority 
from  Washington,  with  Charles  £.  Magoon  at  its  head. 
During  1907,  a  new  census  was  undertaken,  upon 
which  to  base  new  elections  for  president  and  members 
of  Congress. 

Agricui/turb. — ^For  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
after  the  discovery  of  the  island,  cattle  raising  seems  to 
have  been  the  principal  industry,  and  very  little  atten* 
tion  was  paid  to  a^culture.  Now,  however,  Cuba  is 
essentially  an  agricultural  country.  The  principal 
agricultural  products  are  sugar,  tobacco,  and  fruits. 
As  for  coffee,  little  more  is  grown  than  is  needed  for  do- 
mestic consumption,  althou^  the  soil  and  climate  of 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  island  are  adapted  to  the  cvS^ 
tiviitwn  of  a  superior  quality  of  coffee.     Oranges, 


limes,  lemons,  olives,  pineapples,  and  many  other  fruita 
are  ako  grown,  as  well  as  all  kinds  of  vegetables,  which 
grow  almost  the  year  around.  The  Cuban  orange  is 
noted  for  its  exquisite  taste,  and  its  cultivation  was  an 
important  Cuban  industry  until  Califomlan  and  Flori- 
dan  competition  impaired  its  value.  Bananas  are 
grown  throu^out  the  island,  but  the  best  oome  from 
we  central  and  eastern  portions.  The  most  important 
of  all  the  products,  however,  are  sugar  and  tobacco. 
The  former  was  introduced  into  Cuba  b^  its  first  gov- 
ernor, Vel^ues,  and  from  a  small  beginning  tiie  in- 
dustrv  ^w,  with  improved  methods  of  cultivation 
and  tne  mtroduction  of  improved  madiinery,  until,  just 
before  the  last  insurrection  (1805),  the  nnniial  ou^ut 
amounted  to  over  1,000,000  tons.  The  product  next 
in  importance  to  sugar  is  tobacco.  This,  unlike'the 
former,  is  indigenous  in  Cuba,  and  was  in  use  bv  the 
natives  when  the  Spaniards  firat  visited  the  island. 
Cuban  tobacco  is  universally  admitted  to  be  the  finest 
in  the  world,  especiallv  that  grown  in  a  section  of  the 

Srovinoe  of  Pinar  del  Rfo  Imown  as  Vuelta  Aba/o. 
[any  attempts  have  been  made  to  reproiluee  the  to- 
bacco of  this  region  in  other  parts  of  the  worid,  and 
even  in  other  parts  of  Cuba,  but  always  without  suc- 
cess, the  superiority  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo  product  being 
probably  due  to  peculiar  conditions  of  sou  and  dimate, 
and  eepecially  to  the  peculiar  toponaphy  of  the  coun- 
try. In  1894-95,  the  season  in  which  the  best  crop  was 
grown  previous  to  the  last  census  (1899),  the  produc- 
tion for  the  island  amounted  to  62,000,000  lbs.  valued 
at  $22,000,000. 

Transportation.— Cuba  had  very  few  railroads 
imtil  within  recent  years,  when  there  has  been  great 
activity  in  building  new  lines  and  esctending  old  ones. 
The  completion  of  the  road  running  throu^  the  centre 
of  the  island,  and  connecting  Havana  with  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  marks  the  realisation  of  a  long-felt  oommerciAl 
need  and  the  attainment  of  a  politicu  end  of  great  im- 
portance. 

Population. — ^The  official  census  of  1890  showed  a 
total  population  of  1,572,797  divided  by  provinces  aa 
follows: — 

Havana 424,804 

Matanzas 202,444 

Pinar  del  Rfo 173,064 

Puerto  Principe 88,234 

Santa  Clara 356,536 

Santiago  de  Cuba 327,715 

Of  the  inhabitants  1,400,262  are  natives>  and  172,535 
foroign-bom.  The  white  population  constitutes  68 
per  cent,  of  the  total,  the  remaining  32  per  cent,  being 
made  up  of  negroes,  mixed  elements,  and  Chinese. 
The  native  white  population  are  nearly  all  descen- 
dants of  the  Spaniaros.  Although  since  the  eyacua- 
tion  of  Cuba  by  the  Spaniards  mre  has  been  entiie 
freedom  of  worshro,  the  population  is  almost  ezdii- 
sivriy  Catholic.  Spanish  is  the  official  lanjguage  (»f 
Cuba,  though  it  is  characterized  by  certain  slight IochI 
peculiarities  of  pronundatton. 

Rbugion.— In  1518^  Leo  X  estaWshed  the  Diocese 
of  all  Cuba,  which  included  also  the  Spanish  posses- 
sions  of  Louisiana  and  Florida.  The  see  was  estab- 
lished at  Baraooa  in  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  in  1522,  by 
a  Bull  of  Adrian  VI,  it  was  transferred  to  the  city  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  whera  it  has  remained  to  the  present 
day.  Prior  to  the  nineteenth  century,  there  appesri 
to  have  been  no  Question  regarding  the  titles  of  prop- 
erty held  by  the  Church  in  bpain  or  in  Cuba.  But  m 
the  beginning  of  that  century,  the  property  held  by  t^ 
Church  in  Spain  was  confiscated  oy  the  State.  This 
confiscation  however,  related  only  to  the  C3iurcb  pos- 
sessions in  Spain  and  did  not  affect  her  insular  posses- 
sions. In  1837^  Captain  General  Tac6n  sougbt  to 
make  this  Spanish  confiscation  act.  applicable  to  the 
holdings  of  tne  monastic  orders  in  Cuba,  and  in  iMt 
Vald6B,  who  was  then  governor^  actually  seised  thef<0 


LoasitBda 


CENTRAL  AMERICA— WEST  INDIES 

(I)  ECCLESIASTICAL  PROVINCES.    (H)  VICARIATES  APOSTOUC 

ADJACENT  TO  THE  CARIBBEAN  SEA: 
(I)    GMtagmm,  Goatenala,  Yacaten*  Santiaco  de  Coba,  Port-an- 
Prf  nee.  Santo  Domingo,  Porto  Rioo,  Port  of  Spain,  Voacxaela. 
ODD    Jamaica,  Cuafao,  Honduras. 

0         ap        too ajo ago 4P0         \ 

Seal*  of  EuiUth  Statuta  Milei  \ 


Scale  of  Kilonict«ri 


pvNiOMT,  t.,j«,  lY  ftoaem  a^pixion  co. 


75  from.  Gr«en«-ich 

T  8Mt  of  Arebbkthoprio 

t 
% 

t     "     "  Tioftrikto  AptMloUc 
lodisii  irilMi  to  ITALlCb 


70 


Vun  OF  Tin  Dioom  o»      L,„  q,  vicam- 
YioAUAZB  Aronouo         l^,,  IronmS 
I.  wccL.  now,  or  saiitiam  di  ccba 

L  Arehblahoprlo  of  BMittago  <!• 

CabA. 

1  DIoceM  oC  St.  Chriitoplier  of 

H*\ 


S.  DIooeM  of  Ctanfoegoa.. 
A.  DIocMeofPlnarddRio. 


aiagodeCDlM. 

HaTwuL 
Cfenfoegoa 
Plnar  del  Rio. 
IL    ROCL.  PBOT.  or  CABTA6UA  (COLOIBIA) 

S.  l>loc«Mof8MitelCutA BanteVarUL 

»>  DIocicM  of  Panama. iPanaina. 

IIL    nCL.  PBOT.  or  OVATBBALA 
1.  Archbtahoprtoof  Ouatemala...  C 
1  DIooeae  of  Oomayagiia  (Hon- 

doras) C 

SL  DIocaae  of  Ban  Jos«  da  Oorta 


k  jont  1. 


A.  Dlooeae  of  Nloaniflma 

Ah  DIoccae  of  9ao  aalrador. . 


&  Jot«. 

Leon. 

Han  SalTador. 


IT.    lOCL.  PBAT..  or  TUCATAR 

L  ArohUahoiMio  qf  TucaUui |M«rlda. 

1  DIoceae  of  Campeohei Campeche. 

&  DIooeeeofTabaaoo 16. Juan  Bautlata. 

T.    BOCIi.  PBOT.  or  P0BT.AD.PBI1ICB 
Arehbiahoprio  of  Port-ao-         I 

■"  •^-  -( Portia-Prince. 

of  Oayea lAoxCajea. 


OapBattiMi. 
Porum-PrinoOi 


1  DIooew  of  cap  Haltim. 
A.  IMooeae  of  OonalTem 

admlniaterMl  fkom 
A.  DIooeeaof  Port-de-Palx. 

TL    BCCL.  PBOT.  OP  BABTO  DOHOIflO 
L  ArcbUaboprio  of  Banto  Do-      I 

mlnga iBanto  Domiiwa 

TIL  TW  BiMpI  Bfab«frl«  ef         I 

Parte  BIm iPortoRlca 

Tf  IL    ECCL.  PBOT.  OP  POBT  OP  BPAIR 
L  Arebbidioprlo of  Portof  BpatniPort  of  Spain. 
1.  DIooeM  of  Roeeao  (Cbarlotte- 

town) {Roeeao. 

IX.    BOCU  PBOT.  or  BARTIAOO    Dl  TIHBCBLA 
1.  Arebbiabopric  of  Santiago  de 


Valencia. 


5.  Dioceeeof  Baraulalmeto.... 
9L  Dioceeeof  Santo  Tomaade 

Guajana. Cindad  Rolirar. 

A.  Diocew  of  Caiaboao Caiaboao. 

A.  Dioceee  of  lUrida M«rtda. 

6.  Dloceee  of  ZolU Maraoalba 

X.    BOCL.  PBOT.  or  BOBDBACX.  PBARI'B 

1.  DIoeeee  of  Ooadeloupe. (Potaite-a-Pltra. 

1.  Dioceeeof  Martinique iFbrtdePraaoa 

XL  Tkariate  AfetMIe  ef  Jamka  |Kli«aton. 
XIL  Ttaaf^le  ApeMelto  ef  HMienMlBeliasL 
XIIL  TInrlale  ApertoU*  Carafes.  IWUIematad. 


HoTBi— Tbe  Dtowwan  nnmben  in  VeneaoelA  and  Cartaitena  (Panama)  on  tbla  map 

1  wltb  tboee  on  map  of  Hoatb  Amerloa«  Volnnie  III,  and  witb  tboee  on  tbe 

-»  of  tbeee  prorlnoea  oppoelte  artlola  Ooijohbla  of  ttUa  rolnmab  q.  ▼. 


20 


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561 


CUBA. 


properties  and  diverted  them  to  the  uses  of  the  State. 
Among  these  8ei2ures  were  the  convent  of  the  Francis- 
canfl,  which  has  been  used  since  then  as  the  Custom 
House ;  the  convent  of  the  Dominicans,  used  for  a  time 
by  the  University  of  Havana;  the  convent  of  the  Au- 
gustinians,  used  as  the  Academy  of  Sciences;  Uie  con- 
vent of  Ssm  Ysidro,  used  by  the  Spaniards  as  mUitary 
barracks,  and  later,  by  the  Amencans,  as  a  relief  sta- 
tion. Up  to  the  time  of  the  American  occupation 
these  ana  other  valuable  properties,  formerly  held  by 
the  Catholic  Church,  had  t>een  held  b^r  Spain,  subject 
to  the  results  of  a  long  series  of  negotiations  between 
the  Crown  of  Spain  and  the  Holy  See.  The  Spanish 
Government  also  held  a  large  amount  of  censos,  or 
mortgages,  upon  property  in  different  parts  of  the  is- 
land which  had  been  given  to  the  Church  for  religious 
piuposes,  but  which  had  been  taken  over  by  the  State 
for  puiposes  of  administration.  The  Crown,  however, 
annually  mid  the  Church  a  large  sum  for  its  mainte- 
nance. With  the  American  occupation  these  annual 
pKayments  ceased,  and  the  American  Government  con- 
tinued to  use  the  property  for  the  same  governmental ' 
purposes  to  which  it  had  been  put  by  the  Spaniards. 
The  Church  thereupon  claimed  ^he  right  to  take  back 
the  property.  This  cave  rise  to  a  long  discussion  and 
investigation,  until  tne  whole  matter  was  finally  re- 
ferred to  a  judicial  commission  in  1902.  This  commis- 
sion decided  in  favour  of  the  claims  of  the  Church,  and 
the  matter  was  adjusted  to  the  satisfaction  of  all.  The 
Government  of  Intervention  agreed  to  pav  a  rental  of 
5  per  cent,  upon  the  appraised  value  of  the  property, 
which  amounted  to  about  $2,000,000,  with  anve  years' 
option  to  the  Government  of  Cuba,  when  organized,  to 
buy  the  property  at  the  appraised  value,  receiving 
credit  against  the  purchase  pnoe  for  25  per  cent,  of  the 
rental  paid ;  and  the  matter  of  the  censoa  was  adjusted 
by  the  Government  of  Intervention  taking  them  at  50 
oents  on  the  dollar  and  permitting  the  debtors  to  take 
them  up  at  the  same  rate. 

The  island  at  i»esent  is  divided  ecclesiastically  into 
one  archdiocese  and  three  suffragan  dioceses  as  fol- 
lows: the  Archdiocese  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  created  as 
such  in  1804,  comprising  ^e  civil  province  of  the  same 
name  and  tnat  of  Puerto  Principe;  the  Diocese  of  Ha- 
vana, established  in  1788,  compnsingthecivilprovinces 
of  Havana  and  Matanzas;  the  Diocese  of  Cienfu^os, 
established  in  1903,  whidi  includes  the  province  of 
Santa  Clara;  the  diocese  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  established 
at  the  same  time  as  the  preceding  in  1903,  and  com- 
prising the  civil  TOOvince  of  the  same  name  and  the  Isle 
of  Pines.  In  1899  the  remains  of  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, whidi  had  been  brought  from  Santo  Domingo  in 
1796  and  had  since  then  been  preserved  in  the  catheidral 
of  Havana,  were  once  more  removed,  this  time  to  Se- 
ville in  Spain.  The  Archbishop  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  is 
metropoutan  of  the  island,  francisoo  Bamaba  Agui- 
lar,  the  first  native  incumbent  of  this  metropolitan  see, 
was  consecrated  bv  Archbishop  CSiapelle,  2  July,  1899. 
Under  Spanish  rufe  all  the  bisbops,  as  well  as  most  of 
the  priests  of  the  island  were  appointed  from  Madrid. 
An  Apostolic  Del^ate  for  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  now 
resides  at  Havana.  He  is  not  accredited  to  the  Cuban 
Government,  and  Cuba  has  no  official.representative  at 
the  Vatican.  The  first  delegate  was  Archbishop  Cha- 
pelle  of  New  Orleans,  who  was  sent  by  Leo  AlII  to 
took  after  the  interests  of  the  Church  in  Cuba  during 
the  American  occupation.  Hiere  are  in  the  island  199 
secular,  and  129  r^[alar  priests.  Of  institutions  con- 
ducted by  religious  orders,  there  are  13  colleges  for 
boys,  17  schooS  and  academies  for  eirls.  5  orphan  asy- 
lums, 1  reform  school,  2  houses  of  the  Good  Shepherd, 
2  asylums  for  the  af^ed,  and  2  hospitals.  The  clergy 
are  exempt  from  military  service  and  jury  duty.  There 
are  no  chapels  in  the  prisons ;  wills  and  inheritances  are 
subject  only  to  civil  laws ;  cemeteries  are  owned  in  some 
instances  by  the  mtmicipalities,  in  others,  as  at  Ha- 
vana, by  the  Church.  Chur^  property  is  held  in  the 
IV.— 36 


name  of  ''the  Roman  Catholic  Church".  Both  civil 
and  religious  nuutiaoes  are  legal  and  binding,  and  per- 
sons may  be  married  according  to  either  or  both.  Di- 
vorce is  not  lega^  recognised. 

Education. — During  the  eariy  history  of  Cuba,  the 
clergy  seemed  to  have  been  the  principal  if  not  the  only 
agents  of  education.  B^  the  Bull  of  Adrian  VI  (2iS 
April,  1522),  the  Scholatna  was  established  at  Santii^ 
de  Cuba  for  giving  instruction  in  Latin.  In  ld89,  tne 
College  of  San  Ambrosio  was  founded  in  Havana  under 
control  of  the  Jesuits,  for  the  piurpose  of  preparing 
yoimg  men  for  the  priesthood.  The  foimdation  of 
another  Jesuit  coUege  in  Havana  was  the  next  step 
that  ^ve  a  fresh  impulse  to  education ;  this  was  opened 
in  1724  under  the  name  of  the  College  of  San  Ignacio. 
The  old  Coll^  of  San  Ambrosio  was  then  unit^  with 
it,  although  it  still  retained  its  character  as  a  founda- 
tion-school for  the  Church.  As  early  as  1088,  the  city 
council  of  Havana  petitioned  the  royal  Ciovemment  to 
establish  a  university  in  that  city,  in  order  that  voung 
men  desirous  of  pursuing  the  higher  studies  might  not 
be  compelled  to  go  to  Europe  to  do  so.  This  was  not 
immediately  granted,  but  nnally,  by  a  letter  of  Inno- 
cent XIII  (12  September,  1721),  the  fathers  of  the  Con- 
vent of  San  Juan  de  Letran  were  authorised  to  open 
the  institution  desired,  and,  after  some  years  of  prepa- 
ration, the  present  University  of  Havana  was  founded 
in  1728.  The  rectors,  vice-rectors,  counselors,  and 
secretaries  were  to  be  Dominicans  In  1793,  under  the 
ackninistration  of  Don  Luis  de  las  Casas,  "^o  is  always 
gratefully  remembered  b  v  the  Cubans,  was  founded  La 
Sociedad  £oon6mioa  de  la  Habana,  which  has  always 
been  the  prime  mover  in  the  educational  advancement 
of  the  island. 

Not  untfl  the  last  century  was  well  advanced,  was 
there  a  free  institution  in  all  Cuba  "^ere  children  could 
be  taught  to  read  and  write.  The  first  opened  was 
that  of  the  Bethlehemite  Fathers  in  Havana,  and  that 
through  the  generosity  of  a  private  citiaen. 

In  1899,  the  date  of  the  American  occupation,  pri- 
vate schools  abounded  in  Cuba,  but  the  benefits  of 
these  could  foe  enjoyed  only  by  the  diildren  of  the  rich. 
The  children  of  the  poorer  classes  who  attended  the  so- 
called  municipal  schools,  received  only  a  rudimentary 
education.  But  soon  after  the  American  intervention 
the  wonderful  work  of  reconstruction  was  begun.  Ade- 
quate school  buildings  were  provided,  the  number  of 
teadiers  was  rapidly  increased,  and  measures  were 
adopted  to  compel  children  to  attend  the  dasses. 
When  the  Cuban  government  assumed  control,  it  con- 
tinued the  ^ood  work  along  the  same  lines,  so  that  now 
it  can  be  said  that  the  public  schools  are  equal,  if  not 
superior  to  the  private  ones,  at  least  as  to  furniture  and 
teaching  apparatus.  Primary  education,  aceordizigto 
the  Constitution,  is  gratuitous  and  compulsory.  The 
expenses  are  paid  by  the  municipality  or,  in  any  case 
of  municipal  inability  to  pay,  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment. Seconduj  and  higher  education  are  controlled 
by  the  State.  The  child^n  of  the  public  schools  re- 
ceive religious  instruction  in  what  are  known  as  doo- 
irinaSj  of  which  there  is  one  in  every  parish,  and  at  the 
head  of  it  is  the  parish  priest.  These  <ioffnmas  are  like 
Sunday  schools,  except  that  sessions  are  held  on  Sat- 
urday instead  of  Simday.  The  teachers  are  all  volun- 
teers, and  are  usually  ladies  who  live  in  the  parish. 
According  to  the  census  of  1899,  the  proportion  of  illit- 
eracy was  about  60  per  cent.  But  with  the  extraordi- 
nary increase  in  tiie  number  of  schools  and  facilities  for 
teaching,  this  proportion  is  (in  1908)  rapkily  decreasing. 

Recently  the  University  has  been  divided  into  three 
faculties:  Letters  and  Sciences;  Medicine  and  Phar- 
macy; Law.  The  faculty  of  Letters  and  Sciences 
consists  of  the  schools  of  letters  and  philosophy,  of 
pedi^sr,  of  sciences,  of  engineering,  electricity,  of 
architecture,  and  of  agriculture.  The  lacuHy  of  Medi- 
cine and  Pharmacy  consists  of  the  schools  of  medicine, 
of  pharmacy,  of  dental  surgery,  and  of  veterinary  sur- 


OUJUOULUM 


562 


OUEBHAVAOA 


The  faculty  of  Law  consists  of  the  schools  of 
)  law,  of  public  law,  and  of  notarial  law.  There  are 
also  in  Havana  a  normal  school,  a  school  of  painting 
and  sculpture,  and  a  school  of  arts  and  trades. 

DB  LA  DAOBA.,  HtatoTia  fUica^  polUica,v  natural  de  la  lata  de 
Cuba  (13  vols.,  Madrid,  1849-61);  von  Siveks,  Cubct,  die  PeHe 
der  AntUlen  (Lapzig,  1861);  Cabrkra,  Cuba  and  the  Cubans,  tr. 
by  QniTBRAft  (Philadelphia,  1896);  Rowan  and  Ramsat.  The 
Idand  €ff  Cuba  (New  York,  1896);  Clabx,  Commercial  Cuba 
(New  York.  1898);  Pobter,  Induetrtal  Cuba  (New  York,  1898); 
Canini,  Four  Centuriee  of  Spanish  Rule  in  Cuba  (Chicago,  1898); 
NoA,  The  Pearl  of  the  AtUiUee  (New  York,  1898);  (h^SRiBB, 
Cuba,  What  shedl  we  do  with  itf  (Baltimore,  1898);  Informe  aobre 
el  Censo  de  Cuba,  1899  (Waahington,  1900);  SenaU  Documente 
(1903-04).  VII.  58th  Congress,  2nd  Session;  Robinson.  Cuba 
and  the  Intervention  (New  York,  1905).  Rodrigxtes,  The 
Church  and  Church  Property  in  Cuba  in  Am,  Cath.  Quar,  Rev, 
(Philadelphia,  1900),  366  sqq. ;  Cunch,  Spain  and  Cuba,  ibid. 
(1897),  809  sqq. 

Ventura  Fubntbs. 
Oubicnliiin.    See  Catacombs. 
OncuUa.    See  Cowl. 

Ouenca  (Conca  in  Indus)  Diocese  of,  a  suffragan 
of  Quito,  in  the  RepuUic  of  Ecuador,  South  America, 
created  13  June,  1779.  The  episcopal  city,  which  has 
30,000  inhabitants,  is  situated  7700  feet  above  the 
sea,  in  a  broad  plaui  of  the  province  of  Ajniav,  about 
seventy-five  miles  south-east  of  Guayaquil.  Peruvian 
antiquities  abound  in  the  vicinity.  Cuenca  is  the 
second  see  in  importance  of  the  Ecuadorian  provinces. 
It  includes  the  civil  divisions  of  Azuay,  of  which  Cu- 
enca is  the  capital,  and  Canar,  the  capital  of  which  is 
Azogues.  The  first  missions  were  centred  in  the  east- 
em  portion  of  the  republic  owing  to  the  slow  progress 
of  crvilisation  elsewhere*  Tlie  Jesuits  were  fiist  in  the 
field  followed  by  the  Franciscans,  Fathers  of  Mercy, 
Dominicans,  and  some  secular  priests.  In  1590  the 
Jesuit  Rafael  Ferrer  penetratea  to  Cofanes,  and  his 
associates  in  the  Society  of  Jesus,  Lucas  de  la  Cueva 
and  Caspar  Cujia,  later  oiganized  the  work  that  went 
on  with  so  much  success  tor  religion  and  civilization 
during  130  years,  until  the  Society  was  expelled  in 
1767.  A  mission,  under  the  Salesian  Fathers,  is  now 
in  operation  in  the  Vicariate  of  Gualaquiza,  east  of 
Cuenca.  To  this  diocese  belonged  the  Franciscan 
Vicente  Solano  (1790-1865),  famous  as  a  Catholic 
controversialist. 

The  first  bishop  of  the  see  was  Jos6  Canidn  y  Marfil, 
consecrated  in  1/86,  and  he  has  had  nine  suocenoxs, 
during  whose  administrations  the  faith  of  the  people 
has  been  loyaUy  preserved  in  spite  of  all  difficulties. 
The  organization  of  the  diocese  is  mainly  due  to  that 
excellent  administrator,  Bishop  Toral  (1861-1883), 
who  also  assisted  at  the  Vatican  Council.  Devotion 
to  the  Blessed  Sacrament  has  been  so  notable  a  char- 
acteristic of  the  diocese  that  Cuenca  has  won  the  title 
of  the  "Euoharistic  Cit^".  A  special  Eucharistie 
feast  known  as  "The  Cuenca  Septenary"  is  kept 
with  mat  fervour.  Owing  to  the  domination  of 
radicansm  in  national  politics  the  Church  is  not  now 
able  to  make  very  special  progress  in  the  republic,  and 
the  secular  spoliation  of  ecclesiastical  property  has 
given  rise  to  scandalous  usurpations  olf  her  rights. 
The  effects  bf  continual  civil  strife  have  been  as  dis- 
astrous to  religious  progress  as  they  have  been  debili- 
tating and  de^ruotive  to  commercial  and  industrial 
prosperity.  The  appointment  by  the  Holy  See,  after  a 
vacancy  of  seven  ytiuns,  on  11  January,  1907,  of 
Bishop  Manud  Maria  Polit  has  had  beneficial  results. 

Statistics* — Parishes,  60;  priests,  secular  130, 
seminarians  18,  regular  60;  lav  brothers  25;  Congre- 
gations of  women,  contemplative  70,  active  140, 
novices  60;  1  college,  120  students;  2  literary  acadei- 
mies,  40  pupils;  2  schools.  Christian  Brothers,  1300 
pupils;  55  parish  schools  (boys),  1500  pupils;  48 
(gu4s),  785  pupils;  2  hospitals;  1  home  for  aged,  20 
inmates,  1  orphan  as3rlum,  15  inmates;  1  House  of 
Good  Shepherd,  14  penitents;  1  asylum,  50  children. 
Catholic  population  200.000. 


BArrkxtDimm,  Afm.  poni,  caih.  (1906);   Ukmdzb,  Kanmrn- 
tipf^J^^t  >•  v.;  Webnsb,  Orbie  terrarum  Cath,  (Freibttrg  in 


Br.,  1800). 


TomXb  Alvarado. 


Oaenca  (Conca),  Diocese  of,  in  Spain,  suffragan 
of  Toledo.  The  episcopal  city^  (10,756)  is  also  the 
capital  of  the  civil  province  of  the  same  name,  and  the 
diocese  includes,  in  addition,  a  portion  of  the  prov- 
inces of  Guadalajara  and  Albaoete.  Cuenca  was  made 
a  diocese  in  1183  by  Lucius  III,  shortly  after  its  re- 
conquest  from  the  Moors  by  Alfonso  IX  (1177). 
The  first  bishop  was  Juan  Yanez.  Among  its  famous 
prelates  were  (1577)  the  ereat  jurisconsiut  Diego  de 
Covarruvias  y  Leyva  (g.  v!),  Isidore  deCarvajaly  Lan- 
caster C1760),  and  (1858)  Cardinal  Miguel  Payd,  Arch- 
bishop  of  Santiago,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
prelates  of  the  \^tican  Council.  The  cath^ral  of 
Cuenca  is  a  magnificent  Crothic  edifice  begun  at  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  and  finished  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tunr.  One  of  its  chapels  bears  the  name  and  was 
buut  at  the  expense  of  the  Albomoz  family  to  which 
belonged  the  great  cardinal  Gil  de  Albomoz  (q.  v.). 
The  church  of  Santa  Maria  de  Gracia,  once  a  synsr 
goeue,  is  remarkable  for  its  fine  sculptures. 

DXviLA,  Teatro  ecd.  de  las  Igleaias  de  Bspafia  (Madrid,  1515), 
I.  428HM)2;  La  Fubntb,  Hitt,  Ecd.  de  EapaAa,  V.  526^  Vt 
286. 

EiDUAaDO   DE  HiNOJOSA. 

Ouernavaea,  DiocasB  of  (Cx]fERNAVACBNB]B), 
erected  23  June,  1891,  comprises  all  the  State  of  Mor&- 
los  in  the  Bepublic  of  Mexico,  and  is  bounded  on  the 
north  and  the  west  by  the  An^diocese  of  Mexico,  on 
the  east  bv  the  Archdiocese  of  PueUa,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Bishopric  of  Chilapa.  It  has  an  area  of 
7184  square  kilometeis,  with  a  population  of  161,097. 
The  Gospel  was  first  preached  m  the  territory  of  the 
present  diocese  by  the  Franciscans  who  founded  the 
convent  of  Cuemavaca  in  1526.  In  1529  the  Domini- 
cans  established  tiiemselves  at  Oaxtepec,  and  the 
Augustinians  in  1534  at  Ocuituco.  MotoUnfa,  the 
Franciscan  historian,  asserts  that  in  1536  all  the  in- 
habitants of  this  region  had  been  converted  (o  the 
Faith.  In  the  ei^teenth  centunr  the  churches 
founded  by  the  religious  of  these  three  orders  were 
secularized,  that  of  Cuautla  alone  remaining  to  the 
Dominioans,  but  this  also  finally  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  secular  deigy.  The  diocese  is  now  enjoying  a 
period  of  peace.  Agriculture,  the  manufacture  of 
alcohol,  and  the  sugar  industrv,  form  thej^cip&l 
means  of  livelihood  for  the  inhabitants.  The  non- 
Catholics,  who  are  about  500  in  number,  ficmn  small 
communities  and  are  permitted  absolute  freedom. 

The  first  bishop,  Fortino  Hip61ito  Vera  was  conse- 
crated 20  July,  1894.  He  died  23  September,  1898, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Francisco  Plancarte  y  Navar- 
rete,  consecrated  first  Bishop*  of  Campeche,  16  Sep- 
tember, 1896,  and  translated  to  the  vacant  see  of 
Cuemavaca,  28  November,  1898.  He  took  possesBion 
16  February,  1899. 

The  diocese  is  divided  into  34  parishes  and  has  42 
secular  and  6  regular  priests,  who  have  ofaaige  of  the 
serainaiy .  £}ight  Marist  Brothers  have  charge  of  the 
schools  for  boys,  and  20  sisters  (Hijas  de  Maria  lomar 
culada  de  Guadalupe)  those  for  the  girls.  There  are 
12  paiochial  sdiOols  with  an  att^idanoe  of  more  than 
one  thousand,  boys  and  girls.  Besides  these  there  ve 
in  the  episcopal  city  a  seminarv  with  about  36  board- 
ers, a  college  for  boys  attended  by  262  students,  both 
boarders  and  day  scholars,  an  orphan  asylam  with  w 
r^ular  imnates-  and  274  girls  who  attend  classes  wre, 
and  a  Catholic  hospital  supported  by  the  Society  of  St 
VmoentdePaul.  The"BoletfnOficialyRevista£^I«- 
iiistica  del  Obispado  de  Cuemavaca "»  publiahed  fort- 
nightly, is  the  only  Catholic  publication  in  the  diocese. 
The  episcopal  residence  is  in  the  city  of  Cuemavaca 
whose  foundatioQ  antedates  the  tiiirteaith  eentuor 


cinnrA 


563 


0UIiD|BE8 


it  has  a  population  of  9564.  Conquered  by  the  Aa* 
teoi  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  it  waa 
taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  April,  1521.  It  was  the 
favourite  leaidenoe  of  HenUUi  Cortes  and  of  the  unfor- 
tunate Emperor  MitTimiluin  Sinoe  1870  it  has  been 
the  capital  of  the  new  State  of  Moreloe. 

Gerurckia  CaUolica  (Uorae,  1008) ;  Hattamdieb,  Ann,  Pmd* 
Caih.  (Paris.  1908). 

FbaNCIBCO  PLANCARTB  T  KAVARRlTrB. 

OueTa*  Juan  de  la,  poet  and  dramatist,  b.  of  a 
noble  family  at  Seville,  Spain,  in  1550;  d.  in  1607. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life  save  that  in  his  later  years 
he  visited  the  West  Indies  and  Uved  for  some  time 
in  Portugal.  It  is  as  a  dramatic  writer  that  Cueva 
merits  notice.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  for  the  stage, 
yet  but  few  of  his  plays  have  been  preserved.  They 
were  represented  m  1570  and  the  vears  following, 
and  are  important  because  most  of  them  are  w* 
torical.  He  must  be  given  credit  also  for  his  dramatic 
initiative,  for  he  ignored  Greek  and  Latin  traditions 
and  develo{)ed  his  plots,  characters,  incidents,  and 
situations  with  little  regard  for  "the  unities"  of  the 
classical  model.  He  was  thus  one  of  the  first  to  for- 
sake the  classical  for  the  romantic  drama.  In  addition 
he  reduced  the  number  of  jomacUu,  or  acts,  from  five 
to  four,  and  introduced  a  number  of  metrical  forms 
hitherto  unknown  upon  the  stage.    Several  of  th6 

Slays  are  on  national  subjects,  such  as  "La  Libertad 
e  Espafta  por  Bernardo  del  Carpio"  and  "  Los  Siete 
Infantes  de  Lara  ".  Among  those  dealing  with  ancient 
history  may  be  mentioned  "La  Muerte.de  Ajax", 
"Tehun6n  Sobre  las  Armas  de  Aquiles'',  and  "La 
Muerte  de  Virginia  y  Apio  Qaiidio*'.  One  of  them, 
"£1  Saco  de  Roma  v  Muerte  de  Borb6n",  deals  with 
a  great  event  which  was  then  recent,  and  describes 
the  Italian  triumphs  of  Charles  V.  Another,  "  El  In- 
famador'^  foreshadows  in  one  of  its  characters,  Leu- 
cino,  the  type  of  libertine  which  Tirso  de  Molina 
afterwards  immortalized  with  his  Don  Juan. 

These  plays  are  somewhat  crude  in  structure,  and 
a  noticeable  fault  is  that  the  author  makes  all  the 
characters,  whether  of  high  or  low  degree,  talk  in 
the  same  lofty  vein.  Again,  he  involves  his  char- 
acters in  difficulties  and  situations  whence  escape 
seems  impossible,  and  then,  without  regard  to 
plausibility,  grasps  the  first  solution  that  presents 
itself,  such  as  a  murder  or  some  supernatural  inter- 
vention. Among  his  non-dramatic  works  are:  a 
collection  of  lyric  poems  and  sonnet8M)ublished  under 
the  title  "Obras  de  Juan  de  la  Cueva*'  (Seville, 
1582);  "Coro  Febeo  de  Romances  historiales",  a 
collection  of  one  hundred  romances  (1587),  of  wluch 
A.  Duran  has  reproduced  sixty-three  in  his  "Ro- 
manoero";  and  an  epic  poem  in  twenty-four  icantos, 
"La  Conquista  de  la  B^tica"  (Seville^  1603),  describ- 
ing the  conquest  of  Seville  by  the  Kmg  Saint  Ferdi- 
nand. 

TiCKivoR,  HiHory  of  SpanUh  lAUratttm  (New  York,  \^S!)\ 
FkmcAUBiCB-KBtLT,  HUtoiy  of  Spaniih  LiUrahm  (Iidtidoii» 

VBNTtJRA  FUBNTBS, 

Oiijaa,  jACQUxe.    See  Law. 

Onldees,  a  word  so  frequently  met  with  in  histories 
of  ihsi  medieval  Churches  of  Ireland  and  Scotland, 
and  so  variously  understood  and  applied,  that  a  well* 
informed  writer  (Reeves)  describes  it  as  the  best- 
abused  word  in  Scotie  church-history.  The  etymol- 
Offf  of  the  term,  the  persons  designated  by  it,  their 
origin^  their  doctrines,  the  rule  or  rules  under  which 
they  hved,  the  limits  of  their  authority  and  privileges 
have  all  neen  matters  of  controversv;  and  on  these 
questions  much  learning  and  ability  nas  been  shown, 
and  not  a  litUe  partisan. zeal.  In  the  Irish  language 
the  word  was  written  CeUe-DCy  meaning  companion, 
or  even  spouse,  of  God,  with  the  Latin  equivalent  in 
tibe  plural,  Colidei,  anglicized  into  Ctddtts;  in  Soot- 


hud  it  was  often  written  KclideL  All  admit  that,  in 
the  beKinning  at  all  events,  the  Culdees  were  separated 
from  the  mass  of  the  faithful,  that  their  lives  were  de- 
voted to  reHgion,  and  that  they  lived  in  community. 
But  the  Scotch  writers,  imwilling  to  trace  the  name 
to  an  Irish  source,  prefer  to  dmve  it  from  "cultores 
Dei'',  worshippers  of  God,  or  from  cut/,  a  shelter,  or 
from  kil,  a  church.  The  Irish  derivation,  however, 
is  the  easiest  and  the  most  natural,  and  the  one  now 
generally  accepted.  From  CeUe-De  the  transition  is 
easy  to  Colideua  and  Cvldee;  and  in  the  Irish  annals 
the  epithet  CeH^De  is  appropriately  ^ven  to  St. 
John,  one  of  the  twelve  Apostles,  to  a  missioner  from 
abroad  whose  coming  to  Ireland  is  recorded  in  the 
Four  Masters  at  the  year  806,  and  to  Aengus  (q.v.), 
the  well-known  monk  and  author  of  Talladfit,  whose 
penances  and  mortifications,  whose  humility,  piety, 
and  religious  zeal,  would  specially  mark  him  out  as 
the  companion  of  God. 

Taking  him  as  an  example  of  the  class  to  which  he 
belonged,  probably  the  highest  example  which  could 
be  given,  when  we  remember  the  character  of  his  life, 
we  find  that  the  Culdees  were  holy  men  who  loved 
solitude  and  lived  by  the  labour  of  their  hands. 
Gradually  they  came  together  in  community,  still 
occupying  separate  oells,  still  much  alone  and  in  com- 
mumon  with  God,  but  meeting  in  the  refectory  and 
in  the  church,  and  giving  obedience  to  a  common 
superior.  St.  Maelruan,  under  whom  Aengus  lived, 
an^  who. died  as  early  as  792,  drew  up  a  rule  for  the 
Culdees  of  Tallaght  which  prescribed  the  time  and 
manner  of  their  (prayers,  fasts,  and  devotions,  the 
frequency  with  which  they  ought  to  go  to  confession, 
the  penances  to  be  imposed  for  faults  committed. 
But  we  have  no  evidence  that  this  rule  was  widely 
accepted  even  in  the  other  Culdean  establishments. 
Nor  Gould  the  Culdees  at  any  time  be  said  to  have 
attained  to  the  position  of  a  religious  order,  composed 
of  many  houses,  scattered  over  many  lands,  bound 
by  a  common  rule,  revering  the  memory  ana  imita- 
ting the  virtues  of  their  founder,  and  looking  to  the 
parent  house  from  which  they  sprang,  as  the  children 
of  Columbanus  looked  to  Luxeuil  or  Bobbio,  or  the 
Columban  monks  looked  to  lona.  After  the  death 
of  Maelruan  •Talla^t  is  forgotten,  and  the  name 
CeUe-De  disappeaxs  from  the  Irish  annals  until  919, 
when  the  Four  Masters  record  that  Armagh  was  plun- 
dered by  the  Danes,  but  that  the  houses  of  prayer, 
"with  the  people  of  God>.  that  is  CeUe-De*^,  were 
spared.  Subsequent  entries  in  the  annals  show  that 
tnere  were  CXildees  at  Clonmacnoise,  Clondalken,  and 
Clones,  at  Monahincha  in  Tipperary,  and  at  Scattery 
Island. 

To  those  of  the  eighth  century,  such  as  were  repre- 
sented by  Aetiffus,  were  soon  added  secular  priests 
who  assumed  the  name  of  Culdees,  lived  in  commu- 
nity, subjected  themselves  to  monastic  discipline,  but 
were  not  bound  by  monastic  vows.  Such  an  order  of 
priests  had,  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  been 
founded  at  Metz.  As  they  hved  according  to  rules 
and  canons  of  councils,  they  came  to  be  called  secular 
canons  and  were  usually  attached  to  collegiate  or 
cathedral  churches.  They  became  popular  and  quick- 
ly extended  even  tz)  Ireland,  and  it  is  significant  that 
in  the  accounts  siven  of  the  Culdee  estaolishments  at 
(jlones,  Devenif^  and  Scattery  Island,  Ciddee  and 
canon  are  taken  as  convertible  terms.  .  The  Danish 
wars,  which  brought  ruin  on  so  manv  proud  monastic 
establishments,  easily  effected  the  destruction  of  the 
Culdee  houses  with  their  feebler  resisting  powers. 
Some,  such  as  Clondalken  and  Clones,  disappeared 
altogether!  or  dragged  out.a  miserable  existence  which 
differed  little  from  death.  At  Clonmacnoise,  as  early 
as  the  eleventh  century,  the  Culdees  were  laymen  and 
married,  whi}e  those  at  Monahincha  and  Scattery 
IslsJid,  being  utterly  corrupt  and  unable,  or  unwilling, 
to  reform,  gave  way  to  the  regular  canons,  with  their 


ODLLJEir 


564 


purer  morals  and  stricter  discipline.    (See  Canons 

AND  CaNONBSSES  RbQULAR.) 

Those  at  Armagh  were  more  tenacious  of  existence. 
Like  their  brethren  throu^out  Ireland,  they  had  felt 
the  corrupting  influence  of  the  Danish  wars;  aiKl 
while  lay  abbots  ruled  at  Armaj^  the  Culdees  had  so 
far  departed  from  their  primitive  piety  that  in  the 
twelf tn  oentiuy  regular  canons  were  introduced  into 
the  cathedral  church  and  henceforth  took  precedence 
of  the  Culdees.  But  the  latter,  six  in  numoer,  a  prior 
and  five  vicars,  still  continued  a  corporate  existence 
at  Armagh.  They  were  specially  charged  with  the 
celebration  of  the  Divine  offices  and  the  care  of  the 
church  building,  had  separate  lands,  and  sometimes 
had  charge  of  parishes.  When  a  chapter  was  formed, 
about  1160,  the  prior  usually  filled  the  ofiice  of  pre- 
centor, his  brethren  being  vicars  choral,  and  himself 
ranking  in  the  chapter  next  to  the  chancellor.  He 
was  elected  by  his  brother  Culdees  and  confirmed  by 
the  primate,  and  had  a  voice  in  the  election  of  the 
archoishop  by  virtue  of  his  position  in  the  chapter. 
As  Ulster  was  the  last  of  the  Irish  provinces  to  be 
brought  effectually  under  English  nue,  the  Armagh 
Culdees  long  outlived  their  brethren  throughout  Ire- 
land. By  tne  end  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  however,  they 
had  died  out,  and  in  162S  a  new  bodv  was  incorpo- 
rated by  Charles  I — the  "Prior  and  Vicars  Choral" 
of  the  cathedral  church  of  Armagh — ^to  which  were 
transferred  the  lands  formerly  held  by  the  Culdees. 
Five  years  later,  the  Catholic  primate,  O'Reilly,  an- 
nounced to  Rome  that  he  had  been  elected  "Prior  of 
the  College  of  the  Culdees",  and  he  wanted  to  know 
if  in  assuming  the  title  he  had  acted  in  accordance 
with  canon  law.  We  do  not  know  what  was  the 
nature  of  the  answer  he  received,  but  this  is  the  last 
mention  made  of  the  Irish  Culdees. 

At  York  was  their  only  English  establishment, 
where  they  performed  in  the  tenth  century  the 
double  duty  of  officiating  in  the  cathedral  church  and 
of  relieving  the  sick  and  poor.  When  a  new  cathedral 
arose  under  a  Norman  archbishop,  the^r  ceased  their 
connexion  with  the  cathedral,  out,  with  resources 
augmented  by  many  donations,  the^  continued  to 
reheve  the  destitute.  The  date  at  which  they  finally 
d^ppeared  is  unknown.  Nor  do  we  know  the  fate 
of  the  mxi^e  Culdean  house  in  Wales,  which  existed 
at  Bardsey  in  the  days  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis.  In 
Scotland  they  were  more  numerous  even  than  in  Ire- 
land. No  less  than  thirteen  monastic  establishments 
were  peopled  by  them,  eight  of  which  were  in  con- 
nexion with  catnedral  churches.  National  pride  in- 
duced some  of  the  Scotch  writers  to  assert  that  the 
Culdees  were  Scotch  and  not  Irish.  But  the  influ- 
ence of  Ireland  on  the  primitive  Christian  Church  of 
Scotland  was  so  overwhelming,  and  facts  to  show  this 
are  so  many,  that  the  ablest  among  the  Scotch  histo- 
rians, such  as  Pinkerton,  Innes,  and  Hill-Burton,  are 
compelled  to  admit  that  the  first  Culdees  were  Irish, 
and  that  from  Ireland  they  spread  to  Scotland,  They 
were  not,  however.  Columban  monks,  for  there  is  no 
mention  of  any  Culdees  at  any  Columban  monastery, 
either  in  Ireland  or  in  Scotland,  until  long  after  Co- 
lumba  was  in  his  grave;  nor  was  it  till  1164  that 
Culdees  are  mentioned  as  being  in  lona,  and  then 
only  in  a  subordinate  position.  Appearing,  then, 
first  in  Ireland,  they  subsequently  appeared  in  Scot- 
land, and  in  both  countries  their  history  and  fate  are 
almost  identical.  Attached  to  cathedral  or  collegiate 
churches,  living  in  monastic  fashion,  though  not  tak- 
ing monastic  vows,  the  Scotch,  like  the  Irish  Culdees, 
were  oririnally  men  of  piety  and  seal.  The  turbu- 
lence of  %e  times  and  the  acquisition  of  wealth  sowed 
the  seeds  of  decay,  zeal  gave  way  to  indolence  and 
neglect,  a  celibate  community  to  married  men.  church 
property  was  squandered  or  alienated,  even  the  altar 
offerings,  grasped  by  avarice,  were  diverted  to  per- 
sonal uses,  and  by  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  oetitury 


the  Scotch  Culdee  houses  had  in  almost  every  caw 
disappeared.  Some,  like  Dunkekl  and  Abemthy, 
were  superseded  by  regular  canons;  othefs,  like 
Brechin  and  Dunblane,  were  extinguiahed  with  the 
introduction  of  cathedral  chapten;  and  one  at  least, 
Monifieth,  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  laymen.  At 
St.  Andrews  they  lived  on,  side  by  side  with  the  regu- 
lar canons,  and  still  clung  to  their  ancient  i»ivilep 
of  electing  the  archbishop.  But  their  claim  was  dis- 
allowed at  Rome,  and  in  1273  ihey  were  debarred 
even  from  voting.  Before  the  Reformation  they  bad 
finally  disappeared,  and  in  1616  the  lands  they  once 
held  were  annexed  to  the  See  of  St.  Andrews. 

RfiEvBd,  The  Culdees  in  Rqutd  Irith  Aoademv  TranaaetiiM* 
(Dublin*  1864);  Lanioan,  AacMtutieol  HiUory  of  IniUmd 
(Dublin,  1822);  fivoKSa  (ed.),  The  Fdin  of  Amtau*  m  B^yvl 
Irish  Aeademif  Transadions  (Dublin,  1880):  Stuabt,  mL 
GoLEiCAK,  Historical  Memoirs  of  Armanh  (Dublin,  1900); 
PlNKKRTON,  An  Enquiry  into  the  History  of  Sestfoiitf  (Edhi- 
burgh,  1814),  II;  Hill-Bubion,  His/Uny  of  SvoHmnd  (Londan, 
1870),  I;  Cosmo  iNirKa.  Scotland  in  the  MiddU  Ams  (Edia- 
burgh.  1860) :  Thomas  Inneb.  A  CriHoal  Beeay  on  the  Andent 
Mudntanis  of  the  Northern  Parts  of  Briiain  €md  ScoOand  (Loo- 
don,  1729). 

£.  A.  D'Alton. 


Oii]Ien»  Paul,  Cardinal,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  K 
at  Prospect,  Co.  Kildare,  Ireland,  29  April,  1803;  d.  at 
Dublin,  24  October,  1878.    His  nrst  school  davs  were 
passed  at  the  Shackleton  School  in  the  nei^bouiing 
village  of  BaUvtore.    He  entered  Carlow  College  tm 
alumnus  in  1816,  and  proceeded,  in  1820,  to  the  Col- 
lege of  Propaganda  in  Kome  where  his  name  is  regis- 
tered on  the  roll  of  students  under  date  of  29  Novem- 
ber, 1820.    At  the  close  of  a  distinguished  course  of 
studies  he  was  selected  to  hold  a  public  disputation  in 
the  haUs  of  Propaganda  on  the  11th  of  September. 
1828,  in  224  theses  from  all  theology  and  ecdesiasticsl 
history.    This  theological  tournament  was  privileged 
in  many  ways,  for  I^  XII,  attended  by  nis  court, 
presided  on  the  occasion,  while  no  fewer  than  ten  car- 
dinals assiBted  at  it,  together  with  all  the  ^te  of  eccle- 
siastical Rome.    Tne  youthful  Abbate  Peoci,  the  fu- 
ture Leo  Xltl,  was  present  at  the  disputation,  and 
referring  to  it  at  a  later  period  declared  that  it  made 
an  indeuble  impression  upon  him,  and  that  he  wan 
filled  with  admiration  for  the  brilliant  talent  and  sin- 
gular modesty  of  the  Irish  student.     During  his  course 
of  studies,  Paul  CuUen  had  acquired  a  profound  loaowl- 
edge  of  the  classical  and  Oriental  languages,  and  it  was 
a  novel  thing  to  see  a  ^roung  Irish  priest  immediately 
on  his  ordination  appointed  to  the  chaiia  of  Hebrew 
and  Sacred  Scripture  in  the  schoob  of  Propaganda, 
and  receiving  at  the  same  time  the  chaige  of  tne  f  tuned 
printing  establishment  of  the  Sacred  Congregatios. 
This  latter  charge  he  resigned  in  1832,  when  appointed 
rector  of  the  Irish  College  in  Rome,  but  dunng  the 
short  term  of  his  administration  he  published  a  stand* 
ard  edition  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Lexicon  of  Hederi- 
cus,  which  still  holds  its  place  in  the  Italian  ooUeges; 
he  also  edited  the  Acta  of  the  Congregation  of  Propa- 
ganda in  seven  quarto  volumes,  and  other  important 
works. 

While  rector  of  the  Irish  Coll^  (1882-1850)  he 
was  admitted  to  the  intimate  friendship  of  Gregory 
XVI  and  Pius  IX.  He  profited  by  tibe  influence 
which  he  thus  enjoyed  to  safeguard  the  intm^ests  of  the 
Irish  Church,  and  to  unmask  the  intrigues  of  the  Brit- 
ish agents  who  at  this  period  were  untiring  in  their 
attempts  to  force  their  political  views  upon  the  Vati- 
can, and  to  forge  fetters  for  Catiiolib  Ireland.  During 
the  troubled  period  of  the  Roman  BevoIatKm,  Da 
Cullen,  at  the  request  of  the  Sacred  Congregation,  aiv 
cepted  the  responsible  position  of  rector  of  ttie  College 
of  Propaganda,  retaining,  however,  the  chaige  of  B&t- 
tor  of  the  Irish  College.  Soon  after  his  appointment 
the  Revolutionaiy  Triumvirate  in  the  frenry  of  thrir 
triumph  issued  orders  that  within  a  few  hours  tbe 
College  of  Propaganda  was  to  be  dissolved  and  tw 


OXJLXJDI 


565 


OUUIiBN 


buOclingB  to  be  appnmriated  for  govenunent  purposes. 
Without  a  moment's  delay  the  rector  wpeafed  to 
l^wis  Cass^  the  United  States  minister,  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  citixens  of  the  United  States  who  were 
students  of  the  coUe^.  Within  an  hour  the  American 
flag  was  floating  oyer  the  Propa^nda  College.  The 
mandate  of  the  Triumvirs  was  withdrawn,  and  a  de- 
cree was  issued  to  the  effect  that  the  Propaganda 
aliould  be  maintained  as  an  institution  of  worlcf  wide 
fame  of  which  Rome  was  justly  proud.  Thus  through 
t)ie  Irish  rector  and  the  American  flag  the  venerame 
ooll^d  was  saved  from  confiscation. 

Dr.  CuUen  was  promoted  to  the  prunatlal  See  of 
Armagh  on  19  December,  1840,  and  was  consecrated 
by  the  Cardinal  Prefect  of  Propasanda  at  the  diureh 
Of  the  Irish  CoUe^,  Rome,  24  Februaiy,  18fi0.  A 
wider  field  was  assigned  to  his  seal  and  piety  when  he 
was  transferred  to  the  See  of  Dublin  1  May,  1862.  He 
was  elevated  to  the  cardinalate  as  Carduial  Priest  of 
San  Pietro  in  Montorio  in  1867,  beii^  the  first  Irish 
bidhop  on  whom  that  high  digni^  was  ever  conferred. 
Hie  fiiHt  great  duty  which  as  Delep^te  of  ihe  Apos- 
tolic See  devolved  on  the  newly  appomted  Archbishop 
of  Armagh  was  to  convene  the  Synod  of  Thurles 
(1850),  toe  fint  national  synod  heki  with  due  public 
solenmity  in  Ireland  since  die  beginning  of  the  Kefor- 
roation  period.  The  main  purpose  of  the  erynod  was 
to  restore  the  vigour  of  ecclesiastical  discipluie  in  Ire- 
land, and  this  was  in  the  fullest  measure  attained. 
Twenty-five  years  later,  Cardinal  Cullen,  once  more  as 
Apostoiic  Delegate,  presided  at  the  national  synod 
held  at  Maynooth  in  1876.  This  second  synod  added 
a  crowning*  grace  to  the  manifold  blessings  that  had 
ancrued  to  w  Irish  Church  from  the  First  Plenary 
Synod.  Throughout  his  episcc^te  it  was  lus  most 
anxious  care  to  cheek  proselytism,  to  promote  the 
beauty  of  the  House  ^of  God^  and  to  multiply  institu- 
tions of  enlig}itenment,  chanty^  and  benevolence.  In 
all  this  his  eff<Mrttf  were  admirably  seconded  by  the 
clergy  and  the  various  sisterhoods  whose  devotion  to 
the  sacred  cause  of  religion  was  beyond  all  pnuse. 

He  was  partioulariy  intent  on  bringing  the  blessings 
of  rd<ip;ious  education  within  reach  en  the  poorest 
Cathohcs  in  the  land.  The  system  of  national  educa- 
tion adopted  by  the  Government  for  Ireland  in  1832 
was  a  great  improvement  on  the  proselytising  systems 
hitherto  earned  on  bv  anti-Catholic  agencies  receiving 
govemment  aid.  Ine  working  of  the  system,  how- 
ever, was  for  many  yean  practically  left  m  the  hands 
of  the  Protestant  Aixhbishop  of  Dublin  (Dr.  Whately) 
and  his  Pre^yterian  lUly,  Rev.  James  Carlile,  both  of 
whom  were  unceasing  in  unscrupulous  efforts  to  make 
it  an  engine  of  attack  on  the  Catnolic  faith  of  the  Irish 
people.  Dr.  Cullen  from  the  beginning  of  his  episco- 
pate till  its  closing  hour  never  relaxed  his  endeavours, 
on  the  (me  hand  to  counteract  those  proselytising 
agencies  and  to  remove  all  danfters  to  the  faith  of  the 
Catholic  chikfren,  and  on  the  other  to  bring  gradually 
the  literature  and  methods  of  the  system  into  harmony 
with  the  national  traditions  and  social  requirements  of 
Ireland*  His  evidence  on  the  national  system  of  edu- 
cation in  Irdand,  given  before  the  Earl  Powis'  Eoyal 
Comnussioa  in  1869,  has  been  pronounced  by  experts 
to  be  a  most  joomplete  statement  of  the  Catholic  claims 
in  the  matter  of  primary  education.  The  national 
system  of  to-day  is  no  longer  what  it  was  in  1849,  and 
almost  all  the  improvements  that  have  been  made  are 
on  the  lines  su^ested  in  the  evidence  of  Cardinal 
CuUen. 

From  the  first  days  of  his  episcopate  Archbishop 
Cullen  had  set  his  heart  on  the  erection  of  a  Catholic 
univenity  for  Ireland.  The  project  was  hailed  with 
enthusiasm  by  the  Irish  race  at  home  and  abroad,  and 
the  beginnings  of  the  institution  in  Dublin  gave  prom- 
ise of  success.  Countless  difl&culties,  however,  arose 
over  which  the  Archbishop  had  no  coatrol,  and  hence 
the  Catholic  University  ot  Ireland  was  attended  with 


only  partial  success  (see  Ireland).  Throughout  his 
whole  episcopate  he  continued  to  extend  his  patronage 
to  it.  lie  used  often  to  repeat:  ''No  one  can  question 
the  justice  of  Ireland's  claim  to  a  Catholic  Univer- 
sitv".  Even  when  its  fortunes  were  at  the  lowest 
ebb,  he  would  say;  ''We  must  keep  the  fla^  flying '\ 
being  assured  of  nnal  triumph.  Another  project  most 
dear  to  him  was  a  diocesan  seminaiv  for  Dubun.  The 
great  ecclesiastical  College  of  Holy  Cross  which  he 
erected  at  Clonliffe  in  the  immediate  suburbs  of  the 
city  will  long  remain  a  conspicuous  monument  to  his 
munificence  and  a  crown  of  immortal  glory  to  the  holy 
prelate  who  raised  it. 

In  political  matters  Cardinal  Cullen  was  quite  heed- 
less of  popularity,  and  he  made  it  a  rule  to  support 
every  measure  from  whatever  political  party  it  came 
that  he  considered  conducive  to  the  interests  of  Ire- 
land. He  condonned  the  Young  Irelanders  as  sowers 
of  dissension,  and  a  source  of  ruin  to  the  Irish  cause. 
He  hi^y  esteemed  the  literary  merit  of  many  of  the 
writers  for  "The  Nation '\  but  he  felt  so  convinced 
that  some  of  those  connected  with  that  newspaper 
were  in  the  secret  pay  of  the  British  Government  tnat 
he  would  have  ho  communication  with  them,  and  he 
regarded  them  as  the  worst  enemies  of  Ireland.  For 
the  same  reasons  he  rdentlessly  opposed  the  Fenian 
movement.  It  was  his  constant  endeavour  to  bring 
toother  all  the  friends  of  Ireland  so  as  to  form  a 
umted  phalanx  in  order  to  redress  by  constitutional 
means  toe  wrongs  ol  centuries  and  thus  lift  up  Ireland 
from  her  oppressed  and  prostrate  condition.  His  pol- 
icy was  attended  with  success.  The  Protestant  Church 
in  Ireland  was  disestablished,  the  condition  of  the  poor 
in  the  workhouses  was  am!eliorated,  the  Industrial 
Schools'  Act  was  passed,  the  laws  affecting  land  tenure 
were  amended,  and  in  many  other  matters  victory 
after  victorjr  crowned  the  constitutional  campaign  of 
Ireland's  fnends. 

One  of  the  accusations  most  frequently  repeated  to 
stir  up  popular  prejudice  against  the  csjrdinal  was  to 
the  effect  that  he  was  a  frequent  visitor  at  the  vice- 
regal castle  in  search  of  favours  for  himself  or  friends. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  onlv  suc^  visit  he  paid  was 
toward  the  close  of  1867.  The  Fenian  leader.  General 
Thomas  F.  Burke,  had  been  s^itenced  to  death  and 
every  effort  to  obtain  a  reprieve  had  been  made  in 
vain.  He  had  fought  with  <hstinction  in  the  Civil 
War  of  the  United  States,  and  the  British  Government 
was  determined  to  deter  other  skilled  military  leaders 
from  enlisting  their  services  in  aid  of  the  Irish  causa 
The  orders  for  execution  from  London  were  peremp- 
toiy.  The  scaffold  was  already  erected  and  the 
next  morning  General  Burke  was  to  be  hanged. 
Throwdi  information  received  from  the  Archbi^op  of 
New  York  and  other  American  friends  the  cardmal 
was  convinced  of  the  uprigfit  character  of  the  accused 
who  had  been  betrayed  by  false  reports  to  engage  in 
the  Fenian  enterprise,  impelled  by  the  sole  motive  of 
love  of  his  native  land.  At  noon  on  the  vigil  of  the 
day  fixed  for  the  execution,  the  cardinal  accompanied 
by  his  private  secretary  and  Mgnsignor  Forde,  his 
vicar-general,  set  out  for  the  viceregal  castle  on  the 
forlorn  errand  to  obtain  a  reprieve  for  the  brave  man. 
The  interview  with  the  viceroy  lasted  for  more  than  an 
hour.  The  cardinal  on  personal  grounds  justified  his 
ri^t  to  be  heard  in  the  case,  since  none  had  in  public 
or  private  more  strenuously  opposed  Fenianism  thsjti 
himself.  He  insisted  that  the  execution  of  such  a 
brave  nian  would  only  add  fuel  to  the  flame,  ¥^ile  the 
exercise  of  clemeiu^  would  serve  to  open  men's  eyes  to 
the  recklessness  of  the  whole  Fenian  enterprise.  The 
viceroy  listened  to  the  cardinal's  reasoning  with  due 
respect,  but  at  the  same  time  was  quite  mexorable. 
He  telegraphed,  however,  the  whole  matter  to  head- 
quarters in  London .  Late  at  night  the  response  came. 
The  reprieve  waa  granted  and  the  life  of  the  brave  man 
was  spaced,    inua  was  the  first  and  last  visit  of  Cardie 


ouut 


566 


OtJLM 


nal  Cullen  to  the  viceregal  castle  to  petition  for  per- 
sonal favours. 

He  paid  frequent  visits  to  Rome.  He  took  part  in 
the  solemn  oelebrations  connected  with  the  definition 
of  the  do^ma  of  the  Immaculate  Ck)noeption  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary  in  1854,  and  with  the  centenary 
of  the  martyrdom  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  in  1867.  On 
these  and  smiUar  occasions  he  took  up  his  residence  at 
the  Irish  College.  From  the  opening  of  the  Vatican 
Council,  Cardinal  CuUai  took  an  active  part  hi  its  de- 
liberations. His  first  discourse  in  defence  of  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  Holy  See,  mainly  on  historical  grotmds, 
in  reply  to  the  Bishop  of  Rottenburg,  was  regarded  as 
one  of  the  ablest  discourses  delivered  in  the  council. 
At  its  close  the  hall  resoimded  with  applause,  and  dur- 
ing the  afternoon  about  eighty  bishops  called  at  the 
Irish  College  to  present  their  congratulations^  Pius 
IX  in  token  of  appreciation  of  the  singular  ability  of 
the  discourse  forwarded  to  the  cardinal  a  gift  of  a  veiy 
fine  Carrara  marble  rilievo  representing  St.  Paul  aa- 
dressing  the  Areopagus.  This  work  of  art  now  adorns 
a  side  Siapfel  in  the  church  attached  to  the  diocesan 
seminary  of  Dublin.  'Towards  the  close  of  the  sessions 
of  the  council  at  the  express  wish  of  the  Central  Com- 
mission, conveyed  in  person  through  its  secretary, 
Archbishop  Franchi,  Cardinal  Cullen  proposed  the  pre- 
cise and  accurate  formula  for  the  definition  of  Papal 
Infallibility.  It  was  a  matter  of  ^reat  delicacy,  as 
promoters  of  the  definition  were  split  up  into  various 
lections,  some  anxious  to  assign  a  wider  range  to  the 
pope's  decisions,  while  others  would  set  forth  in  a 
somewhat  indefinite  way  the  papal  prerogative.  All 
accepted  the  form  of  definition  proposed  by  Cardinal 
Cullen,  and  thus  it  became  the  privilege  of  the  Irish 
Church  to  have  formulated  for  all  time  the  solemn  defi- 
nition of  this  great  article  of  Faith. 

The  condition  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Ireland,  m 
1878,  in  contrast  with  what  it  was  in  1850,  affords 
abundant  proof  of  the  fruitfulness  of  Cardinal  Cullen 's 
seal  and  ot  the  beneficent  results  achieved  during  his 
episcopate.  Those  twenty-eight  years  marked  a  con- 
tinuous period  of  triumphant  progress  in  all  matters 
connected  with  religion,  discipline,  education  and 
charity.  The  eloquent  Dominican  Father  Thomas  N. 
Burke  (q.  v.)  wrote  in  1878*  "The  guiding  spirit  ani- 
mating, encouraging  and  directing  the  wonderful  work 
of  the  Irish  Catholic  Church  for  the  last  twenty-eigjit 
years  was  Paul,  Cardinal  Cullen,  and  history  will  re- 
cord the  events  of  his  administration  as,  peraaps,  the 
most  wonderful  and  glorious  epoch  in  the  whole  eccle- 
siastical history  of  Ireland,  llie  result  of  his  labotuv 
was  tbd  wonderful  revival  of  Ca^olic  devotion  and 
piety  which  in  our  day  has  restored  so  much  of  our 
ancient  glory  of  sanctity  to  the  land  once  called  the 
'  Island  of  Saints ' . "  No  other  Church  in  Christendom 
during  the  same  period  achieved  grander  religious  re- 
sults or  yielded  in  richer  abundance  the  choicest  fruit 
of  genuine  Catholic  piety.  His  remains  rest  beneath 
the  apse  of  the  Church  attached  to  the  diocesan  sem- 
inary at  Clonliffe. 

Patrick  Francib  Cardinal  Moran. 

Onlm,  Diocese  of,  a  bishopric  in  the  north-eastern 
part  of  Prussia,  founded  in  1234,  suffragan  to  Qneeen. 
The  territory  on  the  Vistula  and  Baltic,  which  the 
Teutonic  Order  had  obtained  partly  by  gift  and  partly 
by  conqiiest,  was  divided  in  this  year  by  the  papal 
legate,  William  Bishop  of  Modena,  into  the  four  dio- 
ceses of  Culm,  Ermland,  Pomesanien,  and  Samland; 
in  1255  the  Archbishop  of  Riga  became  the  metropoli- 
tan of  these  dioceses.  The  Bishopric  of  Culm  em- 
braced the  province  of  Culm,  that  is,  the  land  between 
the  Vistula,  Drewenz,  and  Ossa  rivers,  and  in  additwni 
the  city  of  L6bau  and  its  surrounding  district.  Pope 
Innocent  IV  consecrated  as  first  bishop  the  Domini- 
can, Heidenreich  (1245;  d.  1203).  Ori^nally  the  seat 
of  the  diocese  was  Culmsee,  where  Heidenreich  began 


in  1254  the  oonslruction  of  a  cathedraL  The  bishop 
possessed  the  bluest  authority,  botli  apiritual  and 
secular,  in  his  diocese;  he  was  we  ruler  of  the  laod, 
but  was  in  some  measure  dq)eDdent  on  the  Teutonic 
Order.  During  the  episcopate  of  the  first  bubc^,  the 
cathedral  chapter,  founded  in  1251,  fdUowed  the  lUile 
of  St.  Augustme,  but  the  aeoood  bishop,  Ftiedrich  of 
Hausen  (1264-74),  allowed  the  chapter  to  enter  the 
Teutonic  Order,  taking  its  endowment  witli  it  Not 
only  was  Friedrich  a  member  of  the  Teutonic  Order 
but  most  of  his  successors  in  the  episoopal  office  untQ 
1466  also  belonged  to  it.  Under  the  powerful  protec- 
tion of  the  Knights  rapid  progress  was  made  in  culti- 
vating the  soil  and  in  Christianlnng  the  inhabitants. 
Many  flourishing  commtmities  and  numerous  schools 
and  churches  were  f oimded,  an  excellent  system  of 
courts  was  provided,  and  the  Dominican,  Franckcsn, 
and  Cistercian  orders  were  introduced.  As  early  at 
the  reign  of  the  seventh  bishop,  Otto  (1324-49),  who 
was  a  secular  priest,  there  were  113  parishes  and  538 
priests.  The  most  celebrated  schools  of  the  diooese 
were  the  "Johannes"  school  at  Thorn  and  the  cathe- 
dral school  at  Culm;  l^e  latter  was  changed  in  1473 
into  a  s^ium  particulare  and  had  celebrated  pny 
fessbrs,  among  whom  were  Johannes  Dantiscus, 
Eobanus  Hessus,  etc. 

On  account  of  its  close  connexion  with  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  the  diocese  was  involved  in  the  disputes  of 
the  order  with  Poland.    By  the  second  Treaty  of 
Thorn,  1466,  the  order  was  oblig^  to  cede  the  prov- 
ince of  Culm,  with  other  territories,  to  Poland.    The 
bishopric  was  now  reconstructed  as  a  secular  diocese, 
the  bishops  were  named  by  the  kings  of  Poland,  and 
nobles  oiuy  were  appointed  as  memoers  of  the  cath- 
edral chapter.    The  neresies  of  Hus  and  Wydif  found 
many  adherents  in  the  Diocese  of  Qdm  in  the  fifte»ith 
century,  and  thus  the  Kroimd  was  prepared  for  the 
religious  revolution  of  me  sixteenth,    in  the  larger 
towns  especially,  such  at  Dansig,  Elbing^  and  Thorn, 
the  doctrines  of  Luther  won  numerous  siqiportere, 
against  whom  the  lushop,  Johannes  IV  Konopocki 
(1508-30),  showed  himselt  lacking  m  moral  force.    It 
was  only  through  the  exertions  of  the  Dominicans,  who 
had  remained  loyal,  that  Kin^  Sigismund  I  took  more 
severe  measures  against  the  innovations.    The  Jeal- 
ous and  spiritual-minded  Johann  V  von  HOfen,  gen- 
erally caUed  Dantiscus  (1530-38),  laboured  to  main- 
tain the  Catholic  Faith,  as  did  also  Tiedemann  Giese 
(1538-49),  the  friend  of  Copernicus,  and  Stanidaus 
Hoshis  (1549-51),  who,  after  an  episcopate  of  two 
years,  was  transferred  to  the  See  of  Ermland.    Nevi- 
ertheless  Protestantism  took  firm  root  in  Ihoni. 
Graudens,  Marienburg,  and  other  towns.    Peter  1 
Kostka  (1574-^)  was  the  reformer  of  the  diooeee; 
throu^  Ws  efforts  a  provincial  counefl  was  hdd  at 
Gnesen  at  which  the  Diocese  of  Cuhn  was  placed 
under  the  metropolitan  control  of  Gnesen,  the  A^ 
bishopric  of  Riga  having  been  suppressed  in  1^« 
Kostka  also  held  a  diocesan  synod  at  Culm  in  1583, 
promulgated  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  T**"***  ^j 
termed  the  monasteries  of  the  diocese,  and  intmduoed 
the  Jesuits  in  1693.    The  preservation  of  Oatholicwm 
in  the  diocese,  as  well  as  the  reconquest  of  "Wy  •J'^ 
that  had  gone  astray,  was  due  to  the  effective  labourt 
of  the  Jesuits  and  of  the  orders  which  wers  socoe*- 
fullv  re-established.  ,, 

Tlie  fall  of  the  Kmgdom  of  Poland  brou^t  the  dio- 
oese  into  new  relations.  In  1772,  in  oonscqueiwe  ot 
the  first  Partition  of  Poland,  it  came  imder  the  con- 
trol of  Prussia,  to  which,  with  a  short  intenuption 
(1807-15),  it  has  ever  since  belonged.  Under  fw 
sian  auspices  Protestantism  again  mcreased  I'^'K^i^ 
the  diocese;  in  1772  the  possessions  of  the  bidioPf  w 
cathedral  chapter,  and  many  monasteries  were  coons* 
cated,  and  Protestant  colonists  were  settled  througn* 
out  the  province.  In  this  way,  and  also  on  »f^^ 
of  the  confusion  of  the  Napoleonio  era,  the  diooese 


CULT 


667 


0UMMIKO8 


fell  into  decay.  For  lack  of  a  proper  residence,  the 
fortv-ninth  bishop,  Frans  Xaver  Count  Wrbnar- 
Ryosynaki,  was  only  once  in  his  diocese.  After  his 
€ieath  the  see  was  vacant  for  toi  years,  and  the  diooeae 
^ras  administered  by  the  coadjutor  bishop,  Nal^cs 
Wilkxycki.  The  Bull  "De  salute  animarum'',  1821, 
^whieh  provided  for  the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian 
dioceses,  gave  Culm  new  boundaries;  to  the  old  dio- 
cese were  added  parts  of  the  Dioceses  of  Leslau, 
Oneeen,  Plock,  and  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Pom&- 
sanien.  In  1824  the  seat  of  the  bishop  and  the  chap- 
ter was  fixed  at  Pelplin,  where  it  still  remains.  The 
n^w  diocese  suffered  above  all  from  the  lack  of  priests, 
the  suppression  of  the  monasteries,  and  the  ooverty 
of  the  Catholic  population.  Bishop  Ignatius  Matthy 
(1824-32)  bent  alt  his  energies  to  the  foundinjg  of  a 
seminary  for  priests.  Anastasius  Sedlag  (18^-^56) 
made  it  his  aim  to  give  the  diocese  a  unifonn  adminis- 
tration, to  safeguard  the  property  still  remaining  to 
the  Church  after  its  great  losses,  to  promote  the  de- 
velopment of  a  capable  clergy,  and  to  increase  the 
number  of  priests.  In  the  same  way  Johannes 
Nepomuk  von  der  Marwitz  (1857-86)  devoted  his 
entire  attention  to  the  founding  of  new  cures  and  the 
reorganization  of  the  old  parishes.  Unfortunately 
the  diocese  suffered  greatly  during  the  ecclesiastical 
struggle  (Ktdturkampf)  with  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment. After  peace  had  been  restored  the  bishopric 
prospered  a^tin  under  Leo  Redner  (1886-08)  and 
Augustinus  Rosentreter  (consecrated  9  July,  1899). 
In  this  period  the  diocese  in  some  measure  recov- 
ered from  its  losses;  the  suppressed  monasteries  have 
bei^  partly  refilled  with  religious,  and  new  institu- 
tions of  learning  under  the  supervision  of  the  Church 
have  been  founded.  However,  it  still  suffers  from 
the  effects  of  its  earlier  losses,  and  from  the  lack  of 
labourers  in  the  vineyard  of  the  Lord. 

Statistics. — ^The  present  Diocese  of  Culm  includes 
the  Prussian  province  of  West  Prussia  with  the  ex- 
ception of  five  Government  districts;  it  also  includes 
two  districts  of  £ast  Prussia,  two  of  Pomerania,  and 
that  of  Bromberg  belonging  to  Posen.  llie  see  em- 
braces altogether  409  square  miles.  In  1900  it  had 
a  Catholic  population  of  769,166  souls;  in  1907, 
780,000.  The  cathedral  chapter  is  composed  of  two 
dignitaries,  the  cathedral  provost  and  the  cathedral 
dean,  and  eight  prebends.  In  1907  there  were  4 
episcopal  commissariats,  27  deaneries,  275  parishes, 
476  priests,  275  parish  churches,  77  dependent 
churenes,  9  other  churches,  and  37  chapels.  Insti- 
tutions of  learning  under  religious  control  are:  the 
episcopal  seminary  for  priests  at  Pelplin  with  5  pro- 
fessoia;  the  episcopal  seminary  for  boys  at  Pelplin 
with  12  ecclesiastical  teachers;  the  episcopal  houses 
of  studies  at  Culm,  Konitz,  and  Neustadt.  In  the 
three  towns  just  mentioned  the  gjonnasia  are  Catholic 
in  character.  The  diocese  alao  possesses  4  Catholic 
seminaries  for  teachers,  and  2  hi^er  schools  for 
girls.  Orders  for  men  have  not  existed  in  the  dio- 
cese since  the  religious  struggle  (Ktdturkampf)  with 
the  Government.  The  orders  and  congregations  for 
women  devote  their  attention  almost  exclusively  to 
the  care  of  the  sick,  the  poor,  and  the  children; 
but  they  are  not  permitted  to  give  elementary  in- 
struction. In  1906  the  orders  and  congregations  of 
female  religious  were:  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul,  6  houses  with  102  religious;  Sisters  of 
Mercy  of  St.  Charies  Borromeo,  2  nouses  with  39 
religious;  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth,  12  houses  with 
103  religious;  Sisters  of  St,  Francis,  2  houses  with  22 
religious.  These  religious  have  under  their  care  11 
hospitals  and  asylums,  8  day-nurseries,  1  housekeeping 
school,  I  needle-work  school,  1  institution  for  sick 
and  old  religious,  1  home  for  servants,  1  reform  in- 
stitution for  girls,  4  orphanages,  and  12  stations  for 
visiting  nurses. 

The  cathedral,  formerly  a  Cistercian  abbey  church. 


is  the  most  important  church  building  of  the  diocese; 
it  is  a  brick  Ciothic  structure  with  tnree  naves,  was 
erected  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  completely 
restored,  1894-99,  Other  churches  of  note  are:  the 
parish  church  of  Cubnsee,  built  1254-94  and  used  as 
the  cathedral  until  1824;  the  parish  church  of  Culm« 
built  in  1223;  the  churdies  of  St.  John,  St.  James, 
and  St.  Mary,  all  three  erected  in  the  thirteenth  or 
fourteenth  century.  The  most  freouented  places 
of  pilgrimage  are  Maria-Lonk  near  Neumark  (the 
miraculous  picture  of  the  Mother  of  God  is  now  in 
the  parish  church  of  Neumark),  and  Mount  Calvary 
near  Neustadt  with  twenty-four  chapels. 
Schematiamua  dea  Bistufiu  Culm  mii  dgtn  Bi86 


Pdplin  (Pelplinp  1904)  gives  exhaustive  statistics  a(  the  dio- 
cese and  asts  of  t^e  bishops  of  Culm.  Pomesanien,  and  Oujavien 
(Leslau);  WdLsr,  Kahtog  der  BitMU  fon  Cvlm  (Braunsber^. 
1878);  Idem,  Urkundisnbwih  des  Biatunu  Culm  (Danxie,  188l- 
87),  11;  Fankidejbki,  Die  unterQegangenen  Kirchen  tmaKa^- 
ten  der  Didceae  Culm  (in  Polish  1880);  Frtdrycbowicz,  X>^ 
Culmer  Weihbieehofe  (Danaig.  1005);  Conaignatio  toUue  Cleri 
aaadaria.  Sororumpiarum  Conaregationum,  etc.  (Gedani,  1907); 
ZeiUchrift  dea  toeatpreuMsieenen  Geaehichtevereina  (uaaing. 
1880 — );  Pawuiwbki,  Karte  der  DUieeaen  Cvlm  und  BrtiOond 
(Graudent,  1890);  for  an  account  of  the  cathedral  ohttioh  sep 
Frydrycbowzcx.  GeaekidUe  der  Ciaterdenaerabtei  Pdplm  und 
ihra  Bau-und  KunatdenhnOler  (DQsseldorf,  1907):  for  the 
churches  in  general  see  Bau-  una  KunaidenkmAler  der  Provina 
Weaipreuaaen  (Dansig,  1884—). 

Joseph  Lins. 
Chilt,    See  Worship. 

Oulturkampf .    See  Ktn;rtrRKAMPF. 

Onmrninga,  Jeremiah  Williams,  publicist,  b.  in 
Washington,  U.  S.  A.,  April,  1814;  d.  at  New  York, 
4  January,  1866.  His  father's  death  caused  his 
mother  to  move  to  New  York  in  his  boyhood,  and 
he  was  there  accepted  as  an  ecclesiastical  student  by 
Bishop  Dubois,  who  sent  him  to  the  College  of  the 
Propaganda  at  Home  to  make  his  theological  studies. 
He  displayed  much  ability,  and  after  winning  his 
doctor's  degree  returned  to  New  York,  where  he  was 
assigned  as  one  of  the  assistants  at  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral.  He  there  proved  himself  an  accomplished 
linfuist,  writer,  and  musician,  and  an  interesting 
and  popular  preacher  and  lecturer.  In  1848  Bishop 
Hugnes  selected  him  to  found  St.  Stephen's  parish, 
New  York,  and  to  erect  a  church.  Dr.  Cummings 
was  then,  and  had  been  for  several  years  previously, 
the  intimate  friend  and  disciple  of  Orestes  A.  Brown- 
son,  the  philosopher  and  reviewer.  He  was  instru- 
mental in  having  Brownson  change  his  residence 
from  Boston  to  New  York,  took  charge  of  his  lecture 
arrangements,  and  wrote  frequent  contributions 
for  the  ''Review".  "It  was  often  complained  of  in 
Brownson",  says  his  son  (Middle  Life,  Detroit,  1899, 

E.  132),  "that  he  was  lacking  in  policy,  and  no  doubt 
e  was  in  the  habit  of  plain  speaking;  but  Cummings 
was  more  so,  and  some  of  the  most  violent  attacks 
on  the  editor  and  his  'Review'  were  occasioned  by 
unpalatable  truths  plainly  stated  by  Cummings". 

Cummin^  was  one  of  the  leading  spirits  in  a  little 
club  of  pnests  and  laymen,  who  were  opposed  to 
what  they  called  the  "  Europeanizing  "  of  the  Church 
in  the  United  States  by  the  foreign-bom  teadiers, 
to  the  system  of  teaching  in  vogue  in  the  Catholic 
colleges  and  seminaries,  and  wno  were  in  favour 
of  conciliating  those  outside  the  Church  by  the  use 
of  milder  polemics.  In  an  article  on  "Vocations  to 
the  Priestnood"  that  Dr.  Cumminejs  contributed 
to  "  Brownson's  Review"  of  Ootober,1860,  he  severely 
criticized  the  management  and  mode  of  instruction 
in  Catholic  colleges  and  seminaries  which  he  styled 
"cheap    priest-faotories".    This   aroused    a    bitter 


controversy,  and  brought  out  one  of  the  noted  essays 
by  Archbishop  Hughes,  his  "Rieflections  on  tne 
Catholic  Press". 

Under  the  administration  of  Dr.  Cuinmings  St. 
Stephen's,  which  he  had  completed  in  March,  1854, 
became  the  most  fashionable  and  most  frequented 
church  in  New  York,  its  sermons  and  music  making 


OUNOOLQC 


568 


OUHOOLIM 


it  a  local  attiaction.  He  continued  iU  pastor  till 
liis  death,  which  followed  a  long  illness  that  in- 
capacitated him  for  active  service.  Besides  his 
articles  in  "Brownson's  Review"  he  was  also  a  con- 
tributor to  "Appleton's  Encyclopedia"  and  pub- 
lished in  New  Yoric:  ''Italian  Legends"  (1859): 
"Songs  for  Catholic  Schools"  (1862);  "Spiritual 
Ph>gress"  (1865);  "The  SUver  Stole". 

H.  F.  Brown80!y,  OreMiM  A.  BrtfwnBon:  Middle  Lile  (Detroit, 
1899):  Idbm.  Later  Life  (Ibid.,  1900);  Shea,  The  Catholte 
CAwtXm  q/  New  York  CUy  (New  York,  1878):  ooDtemooraiy 
ilea  The  Freenum'e  JoumaL  The  American  CeU,  The  Metro* 
poHtan  Record  (Kew  York),  The  CatkoUc  Herald  (PhiladelphU). 

Thouas  F.  Mjbehan. 

OnncoIim»  Mabttbs  of. — On  Monday,  25  July, 
1583  (N.  S.)»  the  village  of  Cunocdim  in  the  district 
of  Salcete,  territory  of  Goa,  India,  was  the  scene  of  the 
martyrdom  of  five  religious  of  the  Society  of  Jesus: 
Fathers  Rudolph  Acquaviva,  Alphonsus  Pacheco, 
Beter  Bemo.  and  Anthony  Francis,  also  Francis 
Aranha,  lay  brother.  Rudolph  Aoquaviva  was  bom 
2  October,  1550,  at  Atri  in  tne  Kingdom  of  Naples. 
He  was  the  fifth  child  of  the  Duke  of  Atri,  and  nephew 
of  Claudius  Aoquaviva,  the  fifth  General  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  while  on  his  mother's  side  he  was  a  cousin  of 
St.  Aloysius  Gonzaga.  Admitted  into  the  Society  2 
April,  1568,  he  landed  in  Goa  13  Septeml^er,  1578. 
Shortiy  after  his  arrival  he  was  selected  for  a  very 
important  mission  to  the  court  of  the  Great  Mogul 
Akoar,  who  had  sent  an  embassy  to  Goa  with  a 
request  that  two  learned  missionaries  mi^t  be  sent 
to  Fatehpir-Sikri,  his  favourite  residence  near  Agja. 
After  spending  three  years  at  the  Mogul  court,  he 
returned  to  Goa,  much  to  the  regret  of  the  whole 
Court  and  especially  of  the  emperor.  On  his  return 
to  Goa,  he  was  appointed  superior  of  the  Salcete 
mission,  which  post  he  held  imtil  his  martyrdom. 
Alphonsus  Pacheoo  was  bom  about  1551,  of  a  noble 
family  of  New  Castile,  and  entered  the  Societjr  on 
8  September,  1567.  In  September,  1574,  he  arrived 
in  Goa,  where  he  so  distinpuished  himself  by  his  rare 
prudence  and  virtue  that  m  1578  he  was  sent  to  Eu- 
rope on  important  business.  Returning  to  India  in 
1581,  he  was  made  rector  of  Rachol.  He  accompanied 
two  punitive  expeditions  of  the  Portuguese  to  the 
villa^  of  Cuncohm.  and  was  instrumental  in  destroy- 
ing the  pagodas  tnere.  Peter  Bemo  was  bom  of 
humble  parents  in  1550  at  Ascona,  a  Swiss  village  at 
the  foot  of  the  Alps.  After  being  ordained  priest  in 
Rome,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1577,  arrived 
in  Goa  in  1579,  and  was  soon  appointed  to  Salcete. 
He  accompanied  the  expeditions  to  Cuncolim,  and 
assisted  in  destroying  the  pagan  temples,  destroved 
an  ant-hill  which  was  deemed  very  sacred,  and  killed 
a  cow  which  was  also  an  object  of  pagan  worship.  He 
used  to  sav  constantly  that  no  fruit  would  be  gath- 
ered from  Cuncolim  and  the  hamlets  around  it  tiU  they 
were  bathed  in  blood  shed  for  the  Faith.  His  supe- 
riors declared  that  he  had  converted  more  pagans  than 
all  the  other  fathers  put  together. 

Anthony  Francis,  bom  in  1553,  was  a  poor  student 
of  Coimbra  in  Portugal.  He  joined  the  Society  in 
1571,  accompanied  Father  Pacheco  to  India  in  1581, 
and  was  shortly  afterwards  ordained  priest  in  Goa. 
It  )m  said  that  whenever  he  said  Mass,  he  prayed,  at 
the  Elevation,  for  the  grace  of  martyrdom;  and  that 
on  the  day  before  his  death^  when  he  was  saying  Mass 
at  the  diurch  of  Orlim,  a  miracle  prefigured  the  grant- 
ins  of  this  prayer. 

Brother  Francis  Aranha  was  bom  of  a  wealthy  and 
noble  family  of  Braga  in  Portugal,  about  1551,  and 
went  to  India  with  his  uncle,  the  first  Archbishop  of 
Goa,  Dom  Gaspar.  There  he  joined  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  1  November,  1571.  Being  a  skilled  draiightA- 
man  and  architect,  he  built  several  fine  chapels  in 
Goa. 

These  five  religious  met  in  the  church  of  Orlim  on 


the  15th  of  July,  1583,  and  thenoe  proceeded  to  Cun- 
colim, accompanied  by  some  Christians,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  erecting  a  cross  and  selecting  ground  for  build- 
ing a  church.  Seeing  an  opportunity  of  doing  amv 
with  these  enemies  St  their  paoodas,  the  pagan  yil- 
lagers,  after  holding  a  council,  advanoed  in  laigB  num- 
bers, armed  with  swords,  lances,  and  other  weapons, 
towards  the  spot  ¥diere  the  Christians  were.  Gon^ 
Rodrigues,  one  of  the  party,  levelled  his  gun,  but 
Father  Pacheco  stopped  him,  saying:  ''Come,  eome, 
Senhor  Gon^o,  we  are  not  here  to  fi^t."  Then, 
Q>eaking  to  the  crowd,  he  saki  in  Konkani,  their  nati  ve 
langui^, ''DonotbeafrakL''  The  pagans  then  fell 
ui)on  thorn ;  Fath^  Rudolph  received  five  euts  from  a 
sdmitar  and  a  spear  and  died  prajdng  God  to  fomve 
them,  and  pronouncing  the  Holy  Name.  FaUier 
Bemo  was  next  horribly  mutilated,  and  Father  IV 
checo^  wounded  with  a  spear,  fell  on  his  knees  extend- 
ing his  arms  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  praying  God 
to  forgive  his  murderers  and  send  other  missionaries  to 
them.  Father  Anthony  Francis  was  pieroed  with 
arrows,  and  his  head  was  split  open  with  a  swori 
Brother  Aranha,  wounded  at  the  outset  by  a  scimitar 
and  a  lance,  fell  down  a  deep  dedivi^  into  the  thick 
crop  of  a  rice-field,  where  he  lay  until  he  was  diaoov- 
ered.  He  was  then  carried  to  the  idol,  to  which  he 
was  bidden  to  bow  his  head.  Upon  his  refusal  to  do 
this,  he  was  tied  to  a  tree  and,  like  St.  Sebastian, 
was  shot  to  death  with  arrows.  The  spot  where  this 
tree  stood  is  marked  with  an  octagonal  monument 
surmounted  by  a  cross,  which  was  r^iaired  by  the 
Patriarch  of  Goa  in  1885. 

Thebodiesof  the  five  martyrs  were  thrown  intoa  well, 
the  water  of  which  was  afterwards  aou^^t  by  people 
from  all  parts  of  Goa  for  its  miraculouB  n^diiw  prop* 
erties.  The  bodies  themselves,  when  found,  afttf 
two  and  a  half  days,  showed  no  signs  of  decomDon- 
tion.  They  were  solemnly  buried  in  the  chunai  of 
Our  Lady  of  the  Snows  at  Rachol,  and  remained  there 
until  1597,  when  th^  were  removed  to  the  college  of 
St.  Paul  m  Goa,  and  in  1862  to  the  cathedral  ofOid 
Goa.  Some  of  these  relics  have  been  sent  to  Eur^ 
at  various  times.  All  the  bones  of  the  entire  ri^t 
arm  of  Blessed  Rudolph  were  taken  to  Rome  in  1^, 
and  his  left  arm  was  sent  from  Goa  as  a  present  to  the 
Jesuit  college  at  Naples.  In  accordance  with  there- 
ouest  of  the  Pacheco  family,  an  arm  and  l^of  Blessed 
Alphonsus  were  sent  to  Europe  in  1609.  The  procen 
of  canonisation  bqom  in  1600,  but  it  was  only  m  1741 
that  Benedict  XIv  declared  the  martyrdom  proved. 
On  the  16th  of  April,  1893.  the  solenm  beatification  of 
the  five  martyrs  was  celebrated  at  St.  Peter's  m 
Rome.  It  was  celebrated  in  Goa  in  1894,  and  the 
feast  has  ever  since  then  beoi  kept  with  great  soleift- 
nity  at  Cuncolim,  even  by  the  descendants  of  the  mur- 
derers. The  Calendar  of  the  An!hdk>oese  of  Goa  has 
fixed  26  July  as  their  feast-day. 

Along  with  the  five  religious  were  also  killed  Gon- 
^o  Rodrigues,  a  Portuguese,  and  fourteen  native 
Oiristians.  Of  the  latter,  one  was  Dominic,  a  boy  of 
Cuncolim,  who  was  a  student  at  Rachdl,  and  h^^^ 
companied  the  fathers  on  their  expeditions  to  Cun- 
colim and  pointed  out  to  them  the  pagan  temples. 
His  own  heathen  uncle  dispatched  him.  Alphonsus 
an  altai^boy  of  Father  Pacheoo,  had  followed  hun 
closely,  canning  his  breviary,  which  he  wouW  not 
part  with.  The  pasgns  therefore  cut  off  his  hands 
and  cut  throu^  his  knee-joints  to  prevent  his  escape. 
In  this  condition  he  lived  till  the  next  day,  when  he 
was  found  and  killed.  This  bov,  a  native  oi  ^tner 
Margao  or  Venuiy  was  buried  in  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  at  Margao.  Francis  Rodrigues,  who  ^7?^ 
murdered,  used  to  say.  when  he  was  reproached  by  tfae 
fathers  for  slighf  faults,  that  he  hoped  to  atone  for 
them  by  shedding  his  blood  as  a  martyr.  P^^.rJ| 
Costa,  another  of  those  who  died  at  the  Iwaids  oftM 
pagans,  was  an  inhabitant  of  Rachol^  and  bad  oeen 


ouraoomu 


d69 


omuifAo 


distinguiflhed  bv  his  desire  of  dying  for  the  Faith. 
Speakuig  of  these  fifteen  courageous  Ghristi^ns, 
Father  uoldie  says:  **  For  reasons  wnich  we  have  now 
no  means  of  judging,  the  Cause  of  these  companions 
of  the  6ve  Martyrs  was  not  brou^t  forward  before  the 
Archbishop  of  the  time;  nor  since  then  has  any  spe- 
cial cultus,  or  the  interposition  of  God  t^y  mu^e, 
called  the  attention  of  the  Church  to  them.  But  we 
may  hope  that  their  blood  was  in  the  odour  of  swee1>- 
ness  before  God". 

D*SouxA,  Orimte  Canoutalado;  Goldie.  Firai  Chrittiian  Mi§* 
non  to  the  Onat  M^gid;  The  Biemed  Martyrs  of  CuneoUm: 
QKACLkB,  Uma  Doima  P&rtuguega  na  C&rU  do  GiUo-MoqU 
(1907).  A.  X.  D'SOCZA. 

OnnegiindMt  Blbsbed.  Poor  dare  and  patroness 
of  Poland  and  Lithuania;  b.  in  1224;  d.  24  July,  1202, 
at  Sandeck,  Poland.  She  was  the  daughter  of  King 
Bela  IV  and  niece  of  St.  Elisabeth  of  Hungary,  and 
from  her  infancy  it  pleased  God  to  give  tokens  of  the 
eminent  sanctity  to  which  she  was  later  to  attain. 
With  extreme  reluctance  she  consented  to  her  mar- 
riage with  Boleslaus  II,  Duke  of  C^raoow  and  Sando- 
mir,  who  afterwards  became  King  of  Poland.  Not 
long  after  their  marriage,  the  {hous  couple  made  a 
vow  of  perpetual  chastity  in  the  presence  of  the  Bishop 
of  Cracow;  and  Cunegundes,  amidst  the  splendour  and 
pomp  of  the  royal  household,  ^ve  herself  up  to  the 
practice  of  the  severest  austerities.  She  often  visited 
the  poor  and  the  sick  in  the  hospitals,  and  cared  ev&a. 
for  the  lepers  with  a  charity  scaroelv  less  than  haroic. 
In  1279,  King  Boleslaus  died,  and  Cunegundes,  d^ 
spite  the  entreaties  of  her  people  that  she  should  take 
in  hand  the  government  of  the  kingdom,  sold  all  her 
earthly  powoosione  for  the  relief  dff.the  poor  and  en- 
tered the  monastery  of  the  Poor  Clares  at  Sandeck. 
The  remaining  thirteen  years  of  her  life  she  spent  in 
prayer  and  penanoe,  edifying  her  fellow  relijgious  bv 
ner  numerous  virtues,  especially  by  her  heroic  humil- 
ity. She  never  permitted  any<me  to  refer  to  the  fact 
that  d&e  had  onee  been  a  queen  and  was  foundress  of 
the  ocMnmunity  at  Sandeck. 

The  cultus  of  Blessed  Cunegundes  was  approved  by 
Pope  Alexander  VIII  in  1600;  m  1695  she  was  nuuto 
chief  patroness  of  Poland  and  Lithuania  by  a  decree 
fA  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  confinned  by  Clement 
X I .  Her  feast  is  kept  in  the  Order  of  Friars  Biinor  on 
the  27th  of  July. 

Ada  S8.,  Johr,  V.  661-783 :  L»o.  Lives  ef  tho  SainU  and 
BUmed  0/  M«  Tkrm  Ordtn  of  SL  Francis  CTaunton,  18S6).  11, 

523-520.  Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Onneo,  Diocese  of  (CnNESN8iB){8uffrBgan  to  Turin. 
Cuneo  is  tihe  capital  of  the  provmce  of  that  name 
in  Piedmont,  Northern  Italy,  agreeably  situated  on 
a  hill  between  the  Rivers  Stum  and  the  Gesso.  Orig« 
inally  the  city  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Mondovi. 
In  1817  Pius  VII  made  it  an  episcopal  see.  The 
cathedral  is  very  ancient  and  beautiful^  remodelled, 
however,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  painting 
over  the  main  altar  representing  St.  John  the  Baptist 
and  St.  Michad  is  the  work  of  the  Jesuit  Father  Poszi, 
who  painted  also  at  Rome  the  ceiling  of  the  great 
Church  of  St.  Ignatius.  The  first  bishop  of  Cuneo 
was  Amadeo  Bruno  di  Samone.  The  diocese  has  a 
popidation  of  111,200,  with  61  parishes,  190  churches 
and  chapels,  220  secular  and  20  regular  priests,  3 
religious  houses  of  mm,  27  of  women,  and  13  educa- 
tional institutions. 

CAPPBLurm,  L#  chists  d^ItcXia  (Venice,  1844),  XIV, 346^66; 
Ann,  eed.  CRome,  1007),  440-42;  Vinkw.  Stona  d%  Cuneo 
(Cuneo,  1858).  ^^    ^ 

U.  Bbnioni. 

Coiiiiiaglumit  J.  B.    See  Concordia,  Diocese  of. 

Oaoq,  Akdb£-Jean,  philologist,  b.  at  LePuy, 
Fmnce»  1821;  d.  at  Oka  near  Montreal,  1898.  Jean 
Cttoq  eoteied  tbe  Company  of  Saint-Sulpice  in  1844» 


and  two  years  later  was  sent  to  Canada.  In  1847  h» 
was  put  in  charge  of  the  mission  at  the  Lac  des  Deuz- 
Montagnes.  So  ambitious  was  he  to  fulfil  well  the 
duties  of  his  ministry  that  in  a  short  time  he  ao- 
auired  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  Iroquois  and  the 
Algonquin  dialects.  His  numerous  worin,  all  pub- 
lished at  Montreal,  gidned  him  admission  to  niany 
scientific  societies  of  Europe  and  America.  We 
have  from  his  pen:  "Le  Livre  des  s^t  nations" 
(1861);  "Jugement  erron^  de  M.  Ernest  Renan  sur 
les  lazigues  sau  vages  "  (1864) ; "  Etudes  philosophiques 
sur  q^elques  limgues  sau  vages"  (1866);  "Quels 
^tiuent  les  sauvages  que  renoontra  Jacques  Gartier 
sur  les  rives  du  S -Laurent?"  in  "Annales  de  philoso- 
phie  chr6tienne'*  0860);  ''Lesdque  de  la  langue  iro- 

E'se"  (1882);  ^'Lezique  de  bk  langue  algonguine" 
3);  "Grammatre  de  la  hingue  algonquine,  msdrfo 
les  m^moires  [IX-X]  de  la  soci6t4  royale  du 
Canada"  (1891-^):  "Anoct  Kekon"  (ibid.,  1893); 
"  Nouveau  manud  algonquin  "  ( 1 893).  He  wrote  abo 
many  other  works  destined  to  further  the  chiistianisa* 
tion  of  the  Indians. 

BuOelin  trimest.  des  one.  SUves  de  S.-Svlpiee  (October,  1808); 
BBirrRAin>,  BM.  eidpie,  (Phrie,  1000).  fll;  Netiee  biog,  mt 
TflAM  CiMV  (Royal  flooia^  of  QuiadA.  1890). 

A«  FOUBNET. 

Oitpola.-^A  spherical  ceiling,  or  a  bowl-sbaped 
vault,  rising  like  aa  inverted  cup  over  a  circular, 
sQuare,  or  multangular  building  or  any  part  of  it. 
Toe  term,  properly  sneaking,  is  oonfined  to  the  under 
side,  or  ceuinc,  of  a  oome,  and  is  frequently  on  a  dif- 
ferent plane  from  the  dome  which  surrounds  it  out-* 
side.  It  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  the  dome  (but 
for  this  there  is  no  authority),  and  to  a  small  room, 
either  droubu'  or  polygonal,  standing  on  the  top  of  a 
dome,  which  is  callea  by  some  a  lantern.  A  cupola 
does  not  necessarily  presuppose  a  dome,  and  the  latter 
is  often  found  siiimoimtini|  flat  surfaces.  The  signifi* 
cance  of  the  term  is  in  its  form  and  has  nothinsr  to  do 
either  with  the  material  used  or  with  its  method  of 
construction.  According  to  Lindsay,  the  cupola  of 
San  Vitale,  at  Ravenna,  became  the  model  of  all  those 
executed  in  Europe  for  several  centuries.  This  cupola 
is  of  remarkable  construction,  being  built  wholly  of 
hollow  earthen  pots,  laid  spiially  in  cement)  a  light 
oonstraotion  common  in  the  East  from  ear^  times. 
The  cupolas  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  the  cathedral 
at  Florence,  the  churches  of  St.  Peter  at  Home,  and 
Santa 'Sophia  at  Constantinople  are  of  solid  oonflibruo- 
tkm,  and  the  support  of  the  cup-ehaped  vault  is  either 
by  pendentives  or  Inr  a  drum.  In  some  oases,  how- 
ever, the  cupola  is  of  masonry,  and  the  outer  ^leli  of 
the-  cupola  is  of  wood  covered  with  lead,  as  at  St, 
Paul's,  London,  and  at  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  the  five 
masomy  cupolas  have  the  outer  shell  of  wood  and 
m^Al.  The  dome  of  the  Invalides,  in  Paris,  has  a 
wood  and  metal  covering  above  two  inner  structures 
of  stone.  In  the  later  Byzantine  buildings  of  Greece 
and  other  parts  of  the  Levant,  many  of  the  cupolas 
have  angularly  lofty  drums,  which  are  pierced  with 
windows,  uid  the  cupola  proper  becomes  a  mere  roof 
to  a  tall  cylindrical  shaft.  Cupolas  in  modem  con* 
structton  are  generally  of  wrought  iron,  and  the  space 
filled  in  with  some  tile  formation.  The  term  is  some- 
times applied  to  a  small  roof  structure,  used  for  a 
look  out  or  to  give  access  to  the  roof. 

FuarrcHnB,  A  HisUny  of  Arehiteelure  (London  and  New  York* 
1806);  GwiLT.  Bncyd.  o/  Arch.  (London,  1881):  Parkeb,  Otos- 
saryofArch.  (Oxford,  1850):  Wbai<k,  Zhef.  of  T«rm«.'  Lindsay. 
Hutaty  of  Christian  Art,  I;  Brussis,  DteL  of  Areh.  (Londoo  ukI 
N«wYoA,1004).  ^  ^    ^ 

Thomas  H.  Poolb. 

Oilimcao»  VicukRiATE  Arosoouc  or,  includes  the 
islands  of  the  Dutch  West  Indies:  Curasao,  Bonaire, 
and  Aruba;  Saba,  St.  Eustatius,  and  the  Dutch  part 
of  St.  Martin  (Leeward  Islands).    These  islands  are 


OTOAn 


570 


0TOAT8 


Bitiucted  in  the  CAribbean  Sea,  the  former  off  the 
VeDesuelan  coast,  12''  N.  lat.  and  60''  W.  long,^  the 
latter  about  621  miles  north-east  of  the  former,  in  18" 
N.  lat.  and  63**  W.  long.  The  former  were  disieovered 
by  Alonzo  de  0)eda  m  1499.  The  first  missionaries 
were  Spanish  Hieronymites  (Order  of  St.  Jerome) 
fxom  Santo  Domingo,  whose  names  have  been  for- 
gotten. Until  1634  Curasao  remained  subject  to 
Spain,  and  Spanish  priests  attended  the  mission, 
l^^o  churches,  on^  at  Santa  Barbara  the  other  at 
Qroot-Kwartier,  bore  witness  to  their  zeal 

In  1634  Curacao  came  into  the^  possession  of  the 
Dutch  Weat-Indian  (Company,  whlcn  forbade,  under 
severe  penalties,  the  practice  of  the  Catholic  religion. 
A  few  Jesuits,  among  them  Father  Michael  Alexius 
Schnabel,  continued  to  work  with  success  from  1701 
to  1742.  In  1772  Cura^o  received  its  first  prefect 
Apostolic,  Arnold  de  Bruin,  a  secular  priest.  In 
1776  Fathers  Pirovani  and  Sohenok,  Dutch  Fran- 
ciscans, took  up  the  work,  but  were  obliged  to  leave 
it  on  account  of  the  small  number  oi  priests  in 
Holland.  The  last  of  these  priests  died  in  1$21. 
In  1824  M.  J.  Nieuwindt  (d.  1860),  in  every  respect 
a  great  man,  was  appointed  prefect  Apostplic.  In 
1842  Cura^o  was  made  a  vicariate  Apostolic,  the 
6rst  vicar  Apostolic  bein^  Monsignor  Nieuwindt. 
In  the  same  year  a  Cathohc  sisterhood  came  to  the 
mission.  In  1868  the  vicariate  was  confided  to 
the  care  of  the  Dutch  Dominieansi  Nine-tenths  of  the 
people,  especially  the  lower  daases,  are  Catholics,  prin- 
dpsuly  because  m  the  past  the  slaves  were  not  allowed 
to  have  the  same  rehgion  as  their  masters  (Dutch 
Protestants);  as  they  nad  to  profess  some  religion, 
they  were  allowed  to  become  Catholics.  The  re* 
latfonJs  between  Catholics  and  Protestants  are  most 
peaceful.  Monsignor  Nieuwindt  (consecrated  1843) 
Was  scKMseeded  as  vicar  Apostolic  oy  J.  F.  A.  Kiste- 
maker  (1860);  P.  H.  J.  A.  van  Ewyk  (1869);  C.  H.  J: 
Reynen  (1886);  H.  A.  M.  Joosten  (1887).  and  J.  J.  A. 
van  Baan  (1897).  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
vicariate  is  about  46,000:  the  Protestants  number 
7000  and  the  Jews  860.  There  are  in  the  vicariate 
36  priests,  3  seculars  and'  82  regulars,  principally 
Dominicans;  27  brothers;  191  sisters.  The  parochial 
schools  number  29,  with  2626  boys  and  2625  gjrls. 
There  are  17  churches  and  11  chapds. 

The  institutions  under  rdigions  direction  are:  a 
college  for  young  ladies  with  70  pupils;  a  hospital  for 
the  insane,  114  patients;  a  leper  hospital,  19  patients; 
2  orphan  asylums,  87  orphans;  a  hospital,  166  patients. 
The  theological  seminary  for  Venezuela  (Merida) 
is  at  present  closed.  There  are  2  Catholic  news* 
papers^  the  ''Amigoe  di  Curagao",  a  Dutch  weeldy, 
founded  in  1883,  and  *'La  Cms",  a  weekly  in  the 
Papiatnento  dialect  of  the  island,  founded  m  1900. 

Misnonea  CathnliocB  (Rome,  1007),  640-60;  Battandibr, 
ilfMi.  pone.  eolA.  (Pari^  1007).  846;  Th9  Statesman's  Year- 
Book  (XxmdoQ.  1007),  1201-02. 

J.  J.  A.  VAN  Baars. 

Onrate  (Lat.  euratuSf  from  curaf  care),  literally,  one 
who  has  the  cure  (care)  or  charge  of  souls,  in  which 
sense  it  is  yet  used  bv  the  Church  of  England,  ''All 
Bishops  and  Curates''.  In  France,  also,  tne  cogriate 
cur4  (Spanish,  cura)  ia  used  to  denote  the  chief  priest 
of  a  parish.  In  Englishnspeaking  countries,  however, 
the  word  curate  has  gradually  become  the  title  of  those 
prie^  who  are  assistants  to  the  rector,  or  parish 
priest,  in  the  general  parochial  work  of  the  pansh  or 
mission  to  which  they  are  sent  b^  the  bisho|)  of  the 
diocese  or  his  delegate.  Technically  speaking  the 
curate  is  the  one  who  exercises  the  cure  of  souls,  and 
his  assistants  are  vicars  and  coadjutors;  but  in  this 
article  the  word  curate  is  used  in  its  accepted  English 
sense,  viz.  assistant  priest,  and  corresponds,  in  a  gen* 
eral  way,  to  the  vicariu9  temporaliSf  auxiliaris  prea-^ 
byter,  coadjxUor  jparochi. 


In  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Cburdi  there  wag 
but  one  dhurch  in  each  diocese,  located  generally  in 
the  brincipal  city,  i.  e,  in  the  city  where  the  bishop 
resiaed.  To  this  church  the  faithful  of  the  city  and 
the  surrounding  villages  went  on  Sundays  and  feasts 
to  assist  at  Mass  and  receive  the  sacraments.  When 
the  faithful  became  more  numerous  as  the  Chun-h 
developed,  the  number  of  churches  was  Increased  not 
only  in  the  city  but  also  in  the  surrounding  country, 
and  services  were  performed  in  these  churches  by 
priests,  who,  however,  were  not  permanently  ap- 
pointed; i.  e.  the  bishop  remained  the  only  parish 
priest,  but  had  a  certain  number  of  priests  to  assist 
nim  in  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  in  hU 
parochiay  or  diocese  (Les^tre,  La  Paroisse,  Paris,  190<); 
Duchesne,  The  Origin  of  Christian  Worship,  London, 
1906,  11-13).  After  the  fourth  centurv  parishes  be- 
gan to  be  formed  in  the  rural  districts,  but  it  was  not 
until  after  the  year  1000  that  they  were  formed  in 
episcopal  cities  (Lupi,  De  parochiis  ante  aimum  mil- 
lesimum,  Bergamo,  1788;  Vering,  Kirchenrecht,  M 
ed.,  1898,  p.  508).  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  ivsi 
as  the  bishop  found  his  diocese  too  large  for  indiyidual 
ministrations  and  care,  so  the  parish  priest,  in  the 
oouree  of  time,  found  it  necessary  to  secure  the  aid  of 
other  priests  in  attending  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  his 
people. 

In  English-«ipeakii^  ooimtries,  also  in  aoiumber  of 
European  states,  at  the  present-day,  the  curate  holds 
his  faculties  directly  from  the  biaiop,  but  exercises 
them  according  to  the  wish  and  direction  c^  the  parish 
priest  or  rector.  This  applies  not  only  in  the  case  of 
a  true  parii^  priest  or  a  missionary  rector  (both  irz^ 
movable),  but  also  in  the  case  of  a  simple  rector,  who 
by  the  authority  of  the  bishop  governs  a  given  area 
st3rled  a  mission.  Curates  are,  in  general,  removable 
at  the  will  o^  the  bishop.  Nevertheless,  this  power  of 
the  bishop  ought  to  be  exercised  with  prudence  and 
charity,  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  curate  shall  suffer 
no  loss  of  reputation,  a  g.  by  being  sent  without  just 
and  reasonaole  cause  from  one  mission  to  another, 
such  arbitrary  change  being  legitimat^y  interpreU« 
by  common  consent  as  tantamount  to  a  punishment. 
In  such  a  case;  if  the  curate  feels  that  ne  has  been 
unfairly  treated,  he  has  (in  England)  the  right  of 
appeal  to  the  Commission  of  Investigation,  which 
exists  in  eadidiocese.  Meanwhile  he  must  obey  the 
order  of  the  bishop.  The  form  of  investigation  and 
trial  is  the  same  for  curate^  as  for  rectors  and  parish 
priests  (see  Wemz,  op.  cit.  below,  IT,  1052).  It  w 
to  be  noted  that  the  Conmiission  of  Investiffltion 
provided  for  the  United  States  by  a  degree  of  Propa- 
ganda (20  July,  1878;  cf.  Acta  et  Deer.  Cone.  Bait. 
Ill,  292-96)  was  abrogated  by  the  Propaganda  In- 
struction of  "Cum  Magnopere*^'  of  1884,  which  pro- 
vides in  each  diocese  for  a  summary,  but  subetantiflliy 
just,  process  in  all  criminal  and  disciplinarv  causes  of 
ecclesiastics  (Cone.  plen.  Bait.  III.  cap.  Ill,  308-w. 
cf.  Acta  et  Decreta,  287-92).  This  Instruction  ob- 
tains in  Scotland,  and  has  lately  been  extended  to 
Etidarid  for  the  larger  dioceses  (Taunton,  p.  220). 

Tha  general  law  of  the  Church  with  regard  Vi 
curates  is  mainly  concerned  with  their  appomtrocnt 
and  their  right  to  proper  support.  By  common  ec- 
clesiastical tow  the  appointment  of  curates  beJonfis 
to  the  parish  priest  and  not  to  the  bishop  (c.  30,  a, 
3,  5;  Cfouncil  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXI,  cap.  iv,  de  R«  )• 
But  the  bishop  can  oblige  the  parish  priest  to  aocopt 
a  curate  when  the  former  cannot  do  his  work,  eitber 
on  account  of  physical  or  mental  weakness  or  on 
account  of  ignorance;  and  it  belongs  to  the  bishop, 
and  not  to  the  parish  priest,  to  judge  whether  one  or 
more  curates  are  necessary,  also  to  provide  for  their 
examination,  approbation,  and  the  issuing  of  faculties 
to  them.  In  English-ejieaking  countries,  also  w 
France,  Spain,  Germany,  and  Austria,  curates  are 
appointed  by  the  bishop   (or  vicar-general)f  ^'"^ 


OVXATOE 


571 


OUEUPOE 


deiemdnes  their  salary  and  may  remove  them  from^ 
one  mifliioik  to  another.  By  a  particular  r^y  of  the 
Congresaticm  of  the  Gouncu>  14  Augyat,  1863,  it  is 
exprenty  provided  that  this  custom,  derogatmy  to 
the  oommon  law,  shall  be  observed  until  the  Apoistolio 
See  makes  other  provinoii.^ 

The  bishop  can  assign  to  the  curate  a  salary  from 
the  income  of  the  church,  if  the  ineome  of  the 
church  is  not  sufficiMit  the  parish  priest  is  not  to 
suffer;  but  aceording  to  the  common  opinioni  the 
bishop,  as  far  as. he  can,  must  provide  irom  other 
aources  for  the  curate.  By  common  law  the  stole  fees 
(q.  v.)  belong  to  the  pariah  priest,  therefore  the  bishop 
cannot  make  them  part  ct  the  salaiy  of  the  curate. 
Still,  the  Council  of  IVent  says  Uiat  the  bishop  can 
assigii  a  salary  from  the  fruits  of  the  benefice,  or  other^ 
wise  provide;  hence  it  seems  to  some  that  he  mighjb 
use  tne  stole  fees  as  part  of  the  salary  of  the  curate^ 
Tlie  custom  of  ea«^  diocese  is  a  sure  guide  on  this 
point;  in  any  ease,  there  is  always  the  opportunity  of 
appeal  to  Rome  in  a  case  of  more  than  orainary  diffi- 
cultv.  Hie  authority  of  the  curate  is  gathered  from 
his  letter  of  appointment,  the  diocesan  statutes,  and 
legitimate  custom.  Its  actual  limitations  .may  also 
be  gathered  from  the  manuals  of  canon  law  most  used 
in  we  various  Catholic  countries.  As  a  general  rule^ 
curates  are  not  moved  without  good  reason  from  the 
churches  wfaidi  they  serve;  6Ut»>  a  reason  should  be 
the  promotion  of  the  curate,  the  good  of  a  particular 
parish,  or  the  general  good  of  the  mocese.  this  latter 
IS  faixiy  com^ehensivB^and  i^ves  the  hie^op  a  wide 
discretxm.  Bishops  are  advised  to  act  as  ftr  as  pos* 
sU>le,.in  a  manner  agreeable  to  the  parish  priest  or 
rector. 

In  Eni^and  the  synods  of  Westminster  provide 
that  in  each  mission  one  priest  is  appointed  to  be  the 
first  (pnmtiff),  with  the  duty  of  attending  to  the  cure 
of  souls  and  the  administration  of  the  church  or  con^ 
gregatiicm*  Afans  given  for  Masses  are  the  property 
of  each  individual  priest.  Stole  fees  are  not  alwa^rs 
dealt  with  in  thq  same  way  in  each  mission.  It  is 
recommended  that  a  course  oe  followed  which  is  most 
conducive  to  listening  the  burdens  of  the  mhsion. 
Curates  ought  to  inform  the  head  priest  as  often  as 
they  are  absent  from  the  presbytenr,  even  for  a  day; 
they  should  not  be  absent  for  a  Sunday  or  a  Holy 
Day  of  obligation  without  the  leave  of  the  bishop  or 
vicar-genersJ,  except  in  case  of  urgency,  in  which  case 
the  curate,  on  leavmg  home,  ought  as  soon  as  possible 
to  iiiorm  the  bjshop  of  said  ui^ncy,  and  should  leave 
a  suitable,  priest' to  supply  his  place.  Curates  mUst 
not  consider  that  they  are  treed  from  work  merely 
because  ti^ey  are  not  charged  with  the  administration 
of  a  mission.  '  It  is  their  duty,  under  the  rector,  to 
help  him  by  preaching,  by  hearing  confessions,  by 
teaching  children  the  catechism,  by  visiting  the  sick 
and  administeiing  to  them  the  sacraments,  and  by 
fulfilling  all  the  oUier  duties  of  a  missionary.  Rarely 
should  curates  take  meals  elsewhere  than  m  the  pres- 
bytery at  the  oommon  table;  much  less  should  this 
become  habituaL  In  Ireland  the  synods  of  May- 
nooth  forbid  any  curate  to  incur  a  debt  of  over  £20; 
should  he  do  so.  he  is  liable  to  censure.  If  disputes 
arise  between  toe  parish  priest  and  the  curate,  the 
matter  is  to  be  raen^ed  to  the  bishop,  and  in  the 
meantime  the  curate  h  to  abide  by  the  decision  of  the 
parish  priest.  Every  week  the  curate  is  to  meet  the 
parish  priest  in  order  to  receive  from  him  instructions 
as  to  the  arran^;ement8  for  the  coming  week  (it  is  to 
be  noted  that  m  some  parts  of  Ireland  the  curate 
resides  apart  from  the  parish  priest).  Absence  from 
the  parisn,  even  for  one  nidit  is  to  be  notified  to  the 
parish  priest;  absence  for  three  days  is  to  be  notified 
to  the  bishop.  Abs^ce  for  five  days  requires  the 
written  permission  of  the  bishop,  as  does  alo)  absence 
on  Sunday  or  a  Holy  Day  of  obligation.  Certain 
other  statutes  are  incorporated  in  the  synods  of 


Mayoooth  ^ddoh  apply  equally  to  curates  and  parish 
priests.  Thus,  no  person  is  to  be  deotared  excom- 
municated imiesB  tne  bishop  has  given  his  written 
authority  for  such  pioceedkigB.  Priests  are  on  no 
aeoount  to  make  personal  remarks  about  their  parish* 
ionere  in  diflrch.  All  parochial' moneys  received  are 
to  be  entered  in  a  book  which  is  kept  by  the  parish 
priest.  Side  priests^  before  they  receive  the  sacra- 
ment of  Ebctreme  Unction,  are  to  hand  over  to  the 
vicar  loranecr  other  reaponsible  priest,  the  pyx,  holy 
oil  vessel,  rcfijsten^  and  all  other  thin^  which  pertam 
to  the  dmrch;  should  the  priest  die,  his  coUeagues  are 
to  take  the  utmost  care  that  all  papers^  letters,  eta 
are  looked  up.and  so  safeguarded  from  the  danger  of 
falling  into  tne  hands  of  unauthorized  lay  peoptek 

The  Second  Council  of  Quebec  deals  in  aetatl  with 
the  eoclesiaiitioal  status  (rights  and  duties)  of  curates 
in  Fileneh  Canada  (see  Discipline  du  Dioc^  (te  Que- 
bec, Quebec,  1895,  pp.  211,  252,  and  Qiflnac,  Com- 
6md.  jur.  eccl.  ad  usum  Cleri  Canad.,  ibid.,  1001^ 
e  persbois,  908  saq.).  In  the  United  States  also, 
and  in  other  EngUsn-speaking  countries,  the  statutes 
of  various  dioceses  and  the  legic^tion  of  some  prov^ 
incial  synods  (&  g;  Fifth  New  York,  1886)'  regulate  in 
similardetail  the  duties  of  a  oumte,  e  g.  the  continu* 
Qus  residence  that  his  office  calls  for  (see  Rbsidbncb, 
OsuaATioN  of)  and  other  statutory  priestly  obli^ 
tioDS.  Apropos  of  the  relations  between  pansh 
priests  and  tneir  curates,  many  modem  diocesan  and 
provincial  synods  repeat  with  maistence  the  immemo- 
i^  prinoiples  that  govern  the  exercise  of  ecclesiastical 
authority  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  cure  of  souls:  (cvra 
aniancxfum)^  viz.:  on  the  part  of  the .  parish  priest, 
pa.tenial  beoevolenoe  and  mildnese  of  direction,  due 
recognition  of  the  priestly  character  of  his  assistants^ 
equitable  distribution  of  the  parochial  duties  and  bur- 
dens, good  example  in  reliffious  seed  and  works,  wise 
counsel  of  the  young  and  inexperienced,  practical 
guidance  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  spirituai  and  even 
the. temporal  welfare  of  the  parish ;  on  the  part  of  the 
curate,  willing  obedience  to  nis  superior,  due  consultar 
tion  in  all  matters  of  importance,  filial  co-operation, 
respect  for  the  parish  priest's  office  and  priestly  ref  u- 
tatiOB,  a  peaceful  and  even  patient  attitude  when  the 
curate  seems  wronged,  and  recourse  to  tte  diocesaa 
authority  only  when  charity  has  exhskusted  her  sug* 
geetiofis  (Syi^  of  Monster,  1897, 147  sqq.,  in  Lauren- 
tbis,  op.  cit*  below,  pp.  170-71).  Similar  advice  and 
suggestions  are  found  in  many  modem  writings  on  the 
pnesthpod  (e.  g.  the  work^  of  Cardinals  Manning, 
Gibbons,  Yaughan,  and  those  of  Mach,  Ideating,  etc.). 
(See  Ck>MP]eTBNCT;  Conorua;  Parish;  Parish 
JhcfxaT;  Vicar;  Chaplaipt;  Prisst.) 

Smitb.  Elem«nU  of  BaMwmLicaL  Laip  (New  York,  1887): 
Laubbntius,  Institi4t,  juris  eccl.  (Freiburg,  1903),  nn.  21(^^1  IJ 
Wbrwi,  Jua  Decretal.  (Rome,  1809),  11,  nn.  837-^  BAftoii/- 
UAT,  Pfidtet,  funs  can.  (24th  ed.,  P&rio,  1908):    Booxx,  De 


JkolA.  itmAei»m*<  (1878),  XXXIX,  3;  (1879).  XljI.  410.^ 
Kor  l«be  office  and  condition  of  curales  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, nee  Phiujmore,  The  EcdesiastuxU  Laws  of  the  Church  <ff 
England  (London,  1873.  1876):  Makowbb,  ConsiHutian  «f 
The  Church  of  Bnt^lani  (London,  1896);  fuid  Cbipps.  A 
Pnctical  Treatise  on  the  Lav  Relating  to  the  Church  and  Clergy 
(eth  ed.,  London,  1886).  ^  ^ 

David  Dunford. 

Oorator  (Lat.  curare),  a  person  legally  appointed 
to  administer  the  property  of  another,  who  is  unable  to 
undertake  its  management  himself,  owing  to  age  or 
physical  incompetence,  bodily  or  mental.  Curators 
are  often  confounded  with  tutors,  but  they  differ  in 
many  rospects.  Tutors  are  appointed  principally  for 
the  guarcuan^p  of  persons,  and  only  seconcfarily  for 
the  care  of  property;  while  curators  are  deputed 
mainly  and  sometimes  solely  for  temporal  concerns 
and  only  incidentally  as  guardians  of  persons.  Be- 
sides, a  tutor  is  appointed  fop  minora,  wnile  a  curator 


cobM 


672 


anBnnc 


may  have  dbaxgo  of  inoompetent  penoDB  of  any  age. 
Finally,  a  tutor  cannot  be  commissioned  for  a  particu- 
lar  or  determined  duty,  though  a  curator  may  receiTe 
such  an  appointment.  When  the  ward  of  a  tutor  has 
reached  his  majority,  the  tutor  may  become  curator 
until  the  ward  is  twenty-five  years  of  ag^  but  he  can*> 
not  be  compelled  to  undertake  such  a  diarge.  Curar 
tors,  according  to  law,  are  to  be  constituted  for  those 
who  are  mentally  weak,  for  prodigils,  and  those  ad* 
dieted  inordinately  to  gambling:  The  administration 
of  property  cannot,  however,  be  taken  from  a  person 
meorely  because  ho  lives  luxuriously.  '  Curators  may 
also  be  appointed  for  captives,  for  the  absent,  and  tlie 
deaf  and  aumb.  A  husband  may  not  be  constituted 
curator  for  his  wife. 

Before  the  curator  enters  upon  the  administration 
of  property,  he  is  obliged  to  give  proper  bond  for  his 
fidelitv.  Whatever  ssuaiy  he  receives  must  be  deter* 
minea  by  a  judse*  If  he  did  not  demand  a  salary  at 
the  beginning  of  his  administration,  but  later  requests 
one,  the  judge  is  to  fix  the  amount  of  such  salary  only 
for  the  future,  not  for  the  past.  The  obli^tion  of  a 
curator  to  .render  an  account  of  his  admmistration 
after  the  time  of  wardship  has  past  constitutes  an 
ecdesiastieal  impediment  to  entrance  into  the  retigiouB 
state  until  such  obli^tion  has  been  duly  dischi^ed. 
As  regards  the  administration  of  property,  curators 
are  obliged  to  take  sudi  care  of  it  as  would  a  diligent 
parent.  Tbey  are  therefore  to  see  that  the  rents  are 
collected,  that  the  yearly  income  be  not  lessened,  Ihat 
less  useful  goods  be  sold,  and  that  money  be  not'  al«- 
lowed  to  lie  idle.  In  case  the  property  of  the  ward 
suffer  by  the  administration  of  uie  curator,  Ihe  latter 
is  obliged  in  conscience  to  make  restitution,  if  the  de- 
terioration was  caused  by  culpable  n^^Ugence  on  his 
part. 

PsBBABis.  Bibl.  Canon^  0.t.  Tuida  (Rome.  1801)»  VIU  Av- 
OaIhWaoneb,  Did.  4u  droit  can,  (Paris.  lOOl). 

WiLLUM  H.,W.  Fanning. 


Otai    d'Ars. 
Blessed. 


See    Jean  -  Baptibte  Viannet, 


fhire  of  Souls  (Lat.  cura  antmarum\  technically, 
the  exercise  of  a  clerical  office  involvii!^  the  instruo- 
tion,  by  sermons  and  admonitions,  and  the  sanctifica^ 
tion,  throu^  the  sacraments,  of  the  faithful  in  a  de- 
termined district,  bv  a  person  legitimately  appointed 
for  the  purpose.  Those  specially  having  cure  of  souls 
are  the  pope  for  the  entire  Church,  the  bishops  in  their 
diooeeee,  and  the  parish  priests  in  their  respective  part- 
ishes.  Others  may  likewise  have  part  in  the  cure  of 
souls  in  subordination  to  these.  Thus  in  missionary 
countries  where  episcopal  sees  have  not  yet  been 
erected,  those  who  labour  for  the  salvation  of  souls 
are  in  a  special  manner  sharers  of  the  particular  re- 
sponsibility of  the  Vicar  of  Christ  for  those  regions. 
In  like  manner,  a  parish  priest  may  have  curates  who 
attend  to  the  wants  of  a  particular  portion  of  the  par- 
ish, subordinate  to  himself.  The  object  of  the  cure  oi 
aoiUs  is  the  salvation  of  men,  and  hence  it  is  a  continua- 
tion of  Christ's  mission  on  earth.  As  the  Redeemer  e»- 
tablished  a  church  which  was  to  govern,  teach,  and 
sanctify  the  world,  it  necessarily  follows  that  those 
who  are  to  assist  in  the  work  of  the  Church  must  ob- 
tain their  mission  from  her  alone.  ''How  shall  they 
preach,  unless  the3r  be  sent?"  (Rom.,  x,  15). 

The  canonical  mission  of  a  priest  is  derived  from  the 
Apostolic  succession  in  the  uhurch.  This  succession 
is  twofold:  Holy  orders  and  authority.  The  first  is 
perpetuated  by  means  of  bishops;  the  latter  by  the 
living  magistracy  of  the  Church,  of  which  the  head  is 
the  pope,  who  is  the  source  of  jurisdiction.  Both  ele- 
ments enter  into  the  mission  of  him  who  has  cure  of 
souls:  Holy  orders,  that  he  may  offer  sacrifice  and 
administer  the  sacraments,  which  are  the  ordinary 
channels  of  sanctification  employed  by  the  Holy 
Qbost;  aixl  jurisdiction«  that  he  may  teach  correct 


.  doctrine,  free  his  aubjeeta  from  atna  and  omsorec;  and 
govern  them  in  aoooidanoe  with  the  eaaoDs  of  the 
Church.  The  power  of  Holy  orden  »  radically  ooiD' 
mon  to  all  {nriests  b^  virtue  of  their  valid  ordinstioa 
but  the  power  of  jurisdiction  le  ordtnaiy  ouly  in  pope, 
bishops,  and  parish  priests,  and  extcaofdinary  ordde- 
gated  in  others.  It  is  plain,  &en,  that  mile  valid 
orders  may  eodst  outs&de  the  CathoHc  CSmrch,  jum- 
dictaon  cannot,  as  its  source  is  the  Vicar  o£  Chrvt  and 
it  IB  possessed  onl^  so  far  as  he  oonfen  it  or  does  not 
timit  it.  The  duties  of  Hiose  who  have  cure  of  squIb 
are  all  oaxefully  defined  in  &e  sacred  canons.  (See 
Pope;  Bishop;  Paribh  PHfBavO 

We  have  here  touched  oiiy  mpon  what  is  common  to 
the  idea  of.  a  pastor  of  the  faithful. '  It  m  plain  that  the 
closer  the  bond  eziBting  between,  the  subon&iste 
members  of  the  hierardhy  and  their  supenors,  and  be- 
tween pastors  and  their  people,  the  mcnne  eSeetiTe  win 
be  the  work  done  for  the  mvation  of  soidK  If  the 
pastor  be  eamest  in  preaching  and  admonishiTH^  im* 
remitting  in  the  tribunal  of  penance  and  vtsitatioD  d 
the  side,  charitable  to  the  poor^  kind  yet  firm  in  hii 
dealings  with  all  the  menAxm  cl  hia  flock«  obsenrant 
of  the  regulations  of  the  Churdh  aa  to  his  office  and 
particulariy  that  of  dwelling  among  his  neopie  (aee 
Rbsidsmcb,  BccLESiAsnCAL),  tiiat  he  atiay  imow  than 
and  bring  tiiem  succour  at  all  times;  and  if,  on  the 
other  haml,  the  people  be  truly  desirous  for  thetr  own 
salvation,  obedient  towards  ttieir  ptetor,  aeaJous  to 
obtain  and  employ  the  means  of  aanotifioation,  and 
mindful  of  their  obligations  as  members  of  a  paiuh  to 
enable  thdr  pastor  to  institute  and  improve  the 
parochial  institutions  necessary  for  the  proper  farther* 
ance  of  the  object  of  the  Church,  we  diall  have  the 
true  idea  of  the  cure  of  souls  as  intended  by  Christ  and 
as  legislated  for  in  the  canons  of  His  Church. 

SmvH,  Bkmenia  of  ScdmimUeul  L^  (New  YoriL  1896).  t; 
Ifutrudio  PuaUmdu  Eifut^Oenm  (Fmbuis.  1900);  Bomz,  Df 
Parocho  (Paria,  1880. 3rd  ed.).  ^ 

WlLLUM  H.  W.  Famnino. 

Ouri,  DiocEBid  ov.    See  Sabika. 
Curia  Boman^    See  Roman  Cubia. 

Ooiityba  do  Parana,  Djogsse  of  (Cubttubensis 
DE  Parana),  suffragan  of  SSo  Sebasti&o  (Bio  de  Ja- 
neiro), Brazil.  The  city  of  Curityba,  on  the  Igustfii 
River,  was  settled  in  1654  and  became  the  capital  of  the 
State  of  Paranil  in  1831.  It  lies  in  a  fertile  plain  320) 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  has  gold  mines  in  the  vicinitj. 
Erected  by  Bull  of  Leo  XIII,  "Ad  Univenias"  (27 
April,  1392),  the  Bioqese  of  Curityba  embraces  the 
states  of  Parang  and  Santa  Catarioa>  an  area  of 
114,087  sq.  m.,  and  contains  a  Catholic  population  of 
600,900,  with  69  parishes,  68  secular  and  21  regular 
priests,  2  religious  orders  of  men  and  3  of  women,  1 
seminary,  2  colleges,  and  1  Catholic  sdiool  with  an  at- 
tendance of  350. 

Battandibb,  Atw,  ponL  oatK  (Paris,  1906);  Ann.  eta. 
(Rome,  IMS).  „   ^,    « 

Corilim,  a  titular  see  of  Cjrprus,  suppressed  in  1222 
by  the  papal  legate,  Pelagius.  Koureus,  son  of  Kin|- 
ras,  is  said  to  have  founded  Kourion  on  the  sootn- 
weet  coast  of  Cyprus,  west  of  Cape  Kouriss  (now 
Gata),  and  to  have  settled  a  colony  of  Argives  there 
in  1596  B.  c.  The  city  became  the  capital  of  one  of 
the  kingdoms  in  the  island.  On  the  site  of  the  Tuiaii 
is  the  modem  village  of  E^xdcopi  ("Kin#x»»^»  '*®*' 
the  sea,  on  the  ri^t  bank  of  the  Lykos;  it  was  here 
that  Cesnola  discovered  the  many  pr^ious  antiqi^** 
now  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York  (5ty. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  Episkopi  belonged  fint  to  the 
Ibelin  family,  counts  of  Jaffa,  and  later  to  the  Vene- 
tian family  of  Comaro,  who  owned  vahiable  suga^ 
cane  plantations  there.  It  is  still  the  centre  of  ft  v^ 
fertile  district    Thet(Mnbof8t.liermo|^e»anditti 


OOKLtt 


673 


onuntft 


nfios  tti«  proBwed  in  the  diiuoh.  Onlj  two  faubops 
of  Oirium  an  reeordad:  Zetio,  present  at  the  Coundl 
ot  Ephemis  (431),  and  Michael,  in  1061.  Bioaut  (The 
Present  State  at  the  Oredc  and  Annenian  Chunshes, 
London,  1679,  p.  94)  mentiona  a  Bishop  Cosmas  who 
resided  there,  who  was^  however,  probably  a  titular 
or  a  superanmiated  Ushopl 

LaqoxBM.  Or,  Chrim^  II,  1067:  Hacutt.  A  History  cf  tks 
OHkodox  CkixA  ol  Cyprus,  312,  456:  Maa-Latrib,  Hidalre  de 
Chyprt,  paaam;  Iobm,  L'fte  de  Chypn,  22;  Dt  Cmbsoul, 
CppruM,  Tw_ 

Oniley,  Jaihb,  astnnomer,  b.  at  Athleagoe,  Ooimty 
Roeconnaoo, Ireland,  26  Ootober,  1796:  d.  at  GeomH 
town,  Distfiot  of  Ck>himbia,  U.  S.,  24  July,  1889.  H^ 
eariv  education  was  limited,  though  his  talmi:  for 
matnematioB  was  ^discovered,  and  to  aome  elctent 
developed,  by  a  teacher  in  hia  native  town.  He  left 
Irolana  in  hia  yoath,  anivkig  in  Philadftiphia»  10  Octo- 
ber, 1817:  Here  he  workea  for  two  yeata  as  a  book- 
keeper and  then  langfat  matibematica  at  Fredeiiok. 
Marvhand.  In  1896  he  beeame  a  atudent  at  the  old 
semmaty  in  Waahington,  intandfing  to  prepare  him- 
self for  the  priesthood,  and  at  the  aame  time  taufht 
one  of  its  duaes.  The  aeminaiy,  however,  which 
had  bcten  estobliahed  in  1820,  was  doaed  in  the  fo^ 
lowing  vear  and  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jeaua,  29 
^ptmber,  1887.  After  completing  hia  novitiate  he 
again  taught  in  Fredteidc  and  waa  aent  (1831)  to 
teach  natural  philosophy  at  Georgetown  College.  He 
also  studied  tneology  and  was  ordained  priest  on  1 
June,  1833.  His  first  Mass  was  said  at  the  Visitation 
Convent,  Geoigetown,  where  he  afterwards  acted  as 
chaplain  for  mty  years.  He  spent  the  remainde]^  of 
bis  life  at  Geoigetown,  where  he  taught  natural  phil- 
oaophy  and  mathematics  for  forty-eight  years.  He 
planned  and  superintended  the  building  of  the  George- 
town Observatory  in  1844  and  was  its  first  director, 
filling  this  position  for  many  years.  One  of  his 
earli^  achievements  was  the  determination  of  the 
lonsitude  of  Washington.  His  results  did  not  agree 
with  those  obtained  at  the  Naval  Observatoiy,  and 
it  was  not  until  after  the  laying  of  the  first  transat- 
lantic cable  in  1858  that  his  determination  was  found 
to  be  near  the  truth.  The  coincidence,  however,  was 
partly  accidental,  as  the  method  which  he  employed 
was  not  susceptible  of  very  great  precision.  Fattier 
Curley  was  also  much  interested  m  botany.  He  is 
best  remembered,  however,  as  a  teacher.  He  wrote 
"Annals  of  the  Observatoiy  of  Georgetown  College, 
D.  C.  containinf^  the  descnption  of  the  Observatory 
and  tne  description  and  use  of  the  transit  instrument 
and  meridian  circle"  (New  York,  1852). 

Wooddock  LdUn,  XVITI.  3:  Sbsa.  Histcry  of  Otoro9U>wn 
CaUeffe  (WMhinctoD.  1891):  MoLauobuh.  ColUffe  Damt  «l 
Omrydamm  (Phyitdilphia,  laie). 

H.  M.  Brock. 

Oazr,  Joseph,  priest,  controversialist,  and  martyr 
of  (Parity,  b.  at  Sneflield,  ikigland,  in  the  last  quarter 
of  the  ei^teenth  century;  d.  at  Leeds,  29  June,  1847. 
He  was  educated  at  Orook  Hall,  County  Durham,  and 
Ushaw  CoUese,  was  ordained  a  priest  and  served  for 
some  years  the  missions  in  Rook  Street  and  Granby 
Row,  Manchester,  where  he  enga^^ed  in  controversy 
with  the  Protestant  Bible  Association.  Later,  after  a 
retirem^t  to  La  Trappe  in  France,  he  returned  to 
UshaW,  going  thence  to  Callaly,  Northumberiand. 
About  1840  he  was  at  St.  Albans,  BUiekbum,  with  Dr. 
Shari^es,  nntil  the  latter  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
^BmiiiaLin  parlihuB.  Father  Cuir  then  went  to  Whit- 
by, remaining  there  until  about  1846,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  Sh^Bekl.  During  the  typhus  feverepidemic 
of  184^,  liceds  was  ahnost  bmft  of  priests ;  Father  Cuir 
volnnteered  ftfr  service  there,  and  fdl  a  viotim  to  the 
disease.  His  principal  worics  are:  ^The  Instructor's 
Assistant",  long  used  in  Manchester  Sunday  Schools : 
*  Vlaita  lo  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  to  the  Blemed 


Vixipn",  from  the  Italian  of  liguori  (ICaaohester); 
"^Spiritual  Retreat",  adapted  from  Bourdaloue; 
''Familiar  Instructions  in  Catholic  Faith  and  Moral- 
ity'^  (Mandtesler,  1827).  There  remain  two  sermons, 
abo  seveval  pamphlets  and  newspaper  letters  of  a  con- 
troversial character. 

CMMw/ovrnoi  (1835).  36,  40:  Qihuow,  BM.  DicL  «(f  Bng. 
Caih^f  I,  006. 

Patrick  Rtan. 

Onzryt  John,  doctor  of  medicine  and  Irish  his- 
torian; b.  in  Dublin  in  ,the  first  quarter  of  the 
ei^biteenth  century;  d.  there,  1780.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Paris  and  Reims  and  returned  to  Dub- 
lin to  practise  his  precession.  He  was  an  ardent 
Catholic  and,  to  refute  the  calumnies  leveU^l  against 
his  coreligionists,  published  in  London^  in  1747,  a 
"Brief  Account  from  the  most  authentic  Protestant 
Writers  of  the  Irish  Rebellu>n,  1641".  This  was 
bitteri^  attacked  by  Walter  Harris  in  a  volume  pul>- 
lished  in  Dublin,  1752,  and  in  reply  Cuny  published 
hia  "Historical  Memoirs",  afterwards  enlarged  and 
published  (1775)  under  the  title  "An  Histoncal  and 
Critioal  Review  of  the  Civil  Wars  in  Ireland".  Tliis 
is  hia  best  work;  a  new  edition  of  it,  enlarged  from 
Curry's  manuscript,  was  published  by  Charles  O'Con- 
nor of  Belnagaro,  in  2  vols.  (Dublin,  1786),  and  in 
one  vol.  (Dublin,  1810).  In  this  work,  after  a  brief 
{glance  over  the  developments  in  Ireland  after  the 
mvasion  of  Henry  II.  he  takes  up  the  real  history  at 
the  reign  of  EHisabetn  and  carries  it  down  to  the 
Settlement  under  William  III.  (Xiny  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  struggle  of  the  Irish  Catholics  for 
the  repeal  of  the  Penai  Laws,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  (Irish)  Catholic  Committee  which 
met  in  Essex  Street,  1760.  Besides  the  works  al- 
ready mentioned,  he  published  "An  Essay  on  Ordi- 
naiy  Fevers''  (London,  1743)  and  "Some  Thoughts 
on  the  Nature  of  Fevers"  (London,  1774). 

Metnoir  by  Charlbs  0'Ck>NNOs  in  the  editions  of  HUtorietd 
keview  pubfished  at  Dobliii,  1786,  1810;  Wtsb,  Sketch  of  the 
Caihaiie  Aaaoeiation  (London.  1880);  Wbbb.  Compendium  of 
Jrieh  Bioynphv  (Dublin.  1878). 

James  MacCaffret. 

Onriinff . — ^In  its  popular  acceptation  cursing  is 
often  comounded,  especially  in  the  phrase  ''cursing 
ana  swearing",  with  the  use  of  profane  and  insulting 
language;  in  canon  law  it  sometimes  signifies  the  ban 
of  excommunication  pronounced  by  the  Church.  In 
its  more  common  Biblical  sense  it  means  the  opposite 
of  blessing  (of.  Num.,  xxiii,  27),  and  is  generally 
either  a  threat  of  the  Divine  wrath,  or  its  actual  visi- 
tation, or  its  prophetic  announcement,  though  occa- 
sionally it  is  a  mere  petition  that  calamity  mav  be 
visited  by  God  on  persons  or  things  in  requital  for 
wrongdoing.  Thus  among  many  other  Instances  we 
find  Ood  cursing  the  seipent  (Gen.,  iii,  14),  the  earth 
(Gen.,  iii,  17),  and  Cain  (Gen.,  iv,  11).  Similarlv  Noe 
curses  Chanaan  (Cien.,  ix,  25);  Josue,  him  who  should 
build  the  city  of  Jericho  (Jos.,  vi,  26-27) ;  and  in  various 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  there  are  long  lists  of 
curses  against  transgressors  of  the  Law  (cf.  Lev., 
xxvi,  44-25;  Deut.,  zxvii,  15,  etc.).  So,  too,  in  the 
New  Testament,  Christ  curses  the  barren  fierce 
(Mark,  xi,  14),  pronounces  his  denunciation  of  woe 

r'nst  the  incredulous  cities  TMatt.,  xi.  21).  a^nst 
rich,  the  worldline,  the  scrioes  and  the  Pharisees, 
and  foretells  the  awnu  malediction  that  is  to  come 
upon  the  damned  (Matt.,  xxv,  41).  The  word  curse 
is  also  applied  to  the  victim  of  expiation  for  sin  (Gal., 
iii,  13),  to  sins  temporal  and  eternal  (Gen.,  ii,  17; 
Matt.,  xxv,  41). 

In  moral  theologgr,  to  curse  is  to  call  down  evil  upon 
God  or  creatures,  rational  or  irrational,  living  or  dead. 
St.  niomas  treats  of  it  under  the  name  maUdidio, 
and  says  that  imprecation  may  be  made  either  efll- 
caciousiy  and  by  way  of  command,  as  when  made  by 


OmUMttK 


574 


orasos 


God,  or  inefficadoufily  and  bb  a  mere  exprcjaioa  of 
desire.  From  the  faet  that  we  find  many  instances 
of  cuFses  made  by  God  and  his  representatives,  the 
Church  and  the  Prophets,  it  is  seen  that  the  act  of 
cursing  is  not  necessarily  sinful  in  itself;-  Hke  other 
moral  acts  it  takes  its  sinful  character  from  the  object, 
the  ^id,  and  the  circumstances.  Thus  it  is  alwavs  a 
sin,  and  the  greatest  of  sins,  to  curse  God,  for  to  do  so 
involves  both  the  irreverence  of  blasphemy  and  the 
malice  of  hatred  of  the  Divinity.  Jt  is  likewise  blas- 
phemy, and  consequently  a  grievous  sin  Bfiainst  the 
Second  Commandment,  to  curse  creatures  of  any  kind 
precisely  because  they  are  the  work  of  God.  If,  how- 
ever, the  imprecation  be  directed  towards  irrational 
creatures  not  on  accoi^nt  of  their  relation  to  God,  but 
simply  afi  they  are  in  themselves,  the  guilt  is  no 
greater  than  that  which  attaches  to  vain  and  idle 
words,  except  where  ^ve  scandal  is  given,  or  the 
evil  wished  to  the  irrational  creature  cannot  oe  sepa- 
rated from  serious  loss  to  a  rational  creature,  as  would 
be  the  case  were  one  to  wish  the  death  of  another's 
horse,  or  the  destruction  of  his  house  by  fire,  for  such 
wishes  involved  serious  violation  of  charity. 

Curses  which  imply  rebellion  against  Divine  Ph)vi- 
dence,  or  denial  of  His  goodness  or  oth^  attributes, 
such  as  curses  of  the  weather,  the  winds,  the  world, 
the  Christian  Faith,  are  not  generally  grievous  sins,  b^ 
caus^  the  full  content  and  implication  of  such  expres- 
sions is  seldom  realized  by  those  who  use  them:  The 
common  imprecations  against  animate  or  inanimate 
objects  which  cause  vexation  or  pain,  those  against 
enterprises  which  fail  of  success,  so,  too,  the  impreca* 
tions  that  spring  from  impatience,  little  outbreaks  of 
anger  over  petty  annoyances,  and  tnose  spoken  lightly, 
inconsiderately,  under  sudden  impulse  or  in  ioke,  are, 
as  a  rule,  only  venial  jsins, — the  evil  being  slight  and 
not  seriously  desired.  To  call  down  moral  e'wl  upon 
a  rational  creature  is  always  illicit,  and  the  same  holds 
eood  of  physical  evil,  unless  it  be  desired  not  as  evil, 
but  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  goody  for  example,  as  a 
punishment  for  misdeeds,  or  a  means  to  amendment^ 
or  an  obstacle  to  commission  of  sin;  for  in  such  cases 
the  principal  intention,  as  St.  Thomas  says,  is  directed 
per  se  towards  what  is  good.  When,  however,  evil  is 
wished  another  precisely  because  It  is  evil  and  with 
malice  prepense,  there  is  always  sin,  the  gravity  of 
which  varies  with  the  seriousness  of  the  evil;  if  it  be 
of  considerable  magnitude,  the  sin  will  be  grievous,  if 
of  trifling  character,  the  sin  will  be  venial.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  merely  verbal  curses,  even  without  any 
desire  of  fulfilment,  become  grievous  sins  when  ut- 
tered against  and  in  the  presence  of  those  who  are 
invested  with  special  claims  to  reverence.  A  child, 
therefore,  would  sin  erievously  who  should  curse 
father,  mother,  or  goandfather,  or  those  who  hold  the 
place  of  parents  in  nis  regard,  provided  he  does  so  to 
their  very  face,  even  though  he  does  this  merely  with 
the  lips  and  not  with  the  heart.  Such  an  act  is  a 
serious  violation  of  the  virtue  of  piety.  Between 
other  degrees  of  kindred  verbal  curses  are  forbidden 
only  under  pain  of  venial  sin.  To  curse  the  devil  fa 
not  of  itself  a  sin;  to  curse  the  dead  is  not  ordinarily 
a  grievous  sin,  because  no  serious  injury  is  done 
them,  but  to  curse  the  saints  or  holy  tnings,  as  the 
sacraments,  is  generally  blasphemy,  as  their  relation 
to  God  is  generally  perceived. 

LesAtre  In  ViG..  Dtct.  de  la  Bible,  s.  V.  MatMieUon;  UevijA 
in  Jetviah  Eneydopedia,  a.  v.;  St.  Thomas,  Sum,  Thtol,,  O-II, 
zxvi;  Bt.  Alphonbus,  TheoL  Moral.,  IV,  tract,  ii;  Ballebini- 
Palioeju,  Tract,  vu,  aect.  ii;  Lbhmkuhl.  Theol.  Moral.,  I, 
183;   Reutkr,  Neo-CfonfeMorius  (1905),  104;   Noldik,  " 


Moral.,  I.  231. 


J.  H.  Fisher. 


sixteenth  century  onwaid  they  formed  part  of  ^ 
Roman  Curia  in  its  broader  sense,  and  are  at  present 
reckoned  members  of  the  pontifical  family.  Their 
niunber  is  fixed  at  nineteen,  and  th^  are  subject  to 
the  major-domo.  The  prineipal  duties  of  the  oiusores 
are  to  invite  those  who  are  to  take  part  inoonsistoneB 
and  functions  in  the  papal  chapel ;  to  act  as  servitorB 
in  the  pontifical  palace  and  as  doorkeepers  of  tiie  coo- 
clave;  to  affix  na]3al  rescript  to  the  doors  of  tbe 
greater  Roman  Dasilicas;  to  issue  the  summons  foe 
attendance  at  canonizations,  the  funerals  of  cardinals, 
etc.  As  the  cursores  are  representatives  of  the  pope, 
th^  must  be  received  with  tbe  leopeet  becooodng  the 
personage  in  whose  name  they  spei^,  and  their  invita- 
tion has  the  force  of  a  jucuoial  summons.  In  tbe 
early  ages  of  the  Church,  an  institution  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  the  cursorBs  is  f  oiuid  in  meoMmgerB, 
chosen  from  among  the  clergy,  to  carry  impoitant  ti- 
dings from  one  bishop  to  another  or  from  the  bishop  to 
his  flock.  They  were  much  used  in  times  of  peneoi- 
tion  and  they  are  frequently  referred  to  in  the  writing; 
<A  the  Fathers  as  prwisonMy  tniemuniiif  etc  As  gua^ 
dians  of  the  assemblieB  of  the  faithful,  they  were  caUed 
WffiHm.  Despite  these  resemUaiMKe  to  the  modem 
cursores,  however,  it  seems  evident  that  the  latter  took 
their  rise  fiom  tne  employment  of  heralds  by  civO 
states,  rather  than  from  the  prweonM  of  the  early 
CSiurch.  Episcopal  courts  have  likewise  cuieores  oe 
apparitors  among  their  officials. 

CRAiaaoN.  Afoi».7u«v  con.  (IVkris.  1S09).  IV;  AndvI-Waa- 
NKB,  Did,  du  droit  can,  (Paris,  1901). 

William  H.  W.  FAiwiNa 

OuTBOr  Mnndi  (The  Runner  of  tbe  World),  a 
Middle-English  poem  of  nearly  30,000  Imes  containing 
a  sort  of  summary  of  imiversal  history.  From  the 
large  munber  of  manuscripts  in  which  it  is  preserved, 
it  must  have  been  exceptionally  popular.  It  was 
originally  written,  as  certain  peculiarities  of  construc- 
tion and  vocabulary  clearly  show,  somewhere  in  the 
north  of  England,  out  of  tne  author  nothing  can  be 
learnt  except  the  fact,  which  he  himself  telh  us, 
that  he  was  a  cleric.  He  must  have  lived  at  the 
close  of  the  thirteenth  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  his  poem  is  conjectiurally  m- 
signed  to  about  the  year  1300.  In  form  it  is  wntten 
in  ei^t-syllabled  couplets,  but  in  his  accoxmt  of  the 
Passion  of  Christ  the  author  adopts  a  new  metre  of 
lines  of  eight  and  six  syllables  rhyming  alternately. 
Although  the  poem  deals  with  universal  histoiy,  the 
author  contrives  to  give  some  sort  of  unity  to  his  work 
by  grouping  it  around  the  theme  u(  man's  redemption. 
He  explains  in  an  elaborate  prologue  how  folk  desire 
to  read  old  romances  relating  to  Alexander,  J^^ 
Csesar,  Troy,  Brutus,  Arthur,  Charlemagne,  etc.,  and 
how  only  those  men  are  esteemed  that  love  "P***" 
mours*'.  But  earthly  lovfe  is  vain  and  full  of  disap- 
pointm^its. 

Therefore  bless  I  that  paramour  [i.  e.  Our  Lady] 
That  in  my  need  does  me  socoour 
That  saves  me  on  earth  from  sin 
And  heaven  bliss  me  helps  to  win. 

Mother  and  mayden  never-the-lese 
TTierefore  of  her  took  Jesu  flesh. 

He  goes  on  to  say  that  his  book  is  written  in  hbooiff  of 
Mary  and  purposes  to  tell  about  the  Old  and  the  New 
Law  and  ^i  the  worid,  of  the  Trinity,  the  fall  of  tbe 
Angels,  of  Adam,  Abraham,  and  the  patriarcbSt  P^ 
of  Christ's  C(Mning,  of  His  birth,  and  of  the  three  mgff 
etc.,  of  His  public  life  aikd  of  His  Fassian  aM  Cruci- 


Oorsorea  Apostolici,  Latin  title  of  the  ecdesiasti-    fixion,  and  of  the  ''Harrowing  of  Hell".  ^  '™?^i 
cal  heralds  or  pursuivants  pertaining  to  the  papal    will  go  on  to  the  Resurreetion  and  Asflensioo,  the  Ai|j 
court.    Their  origin  is  placea  in  the  twelfth  century, 
azid  they  fulBllecl  for  iho.  pontifical  government  the 
duties  entrusted  t-o  heralds  by  civil  states.     From  the 


sumption  of  Our  Lady,  the  Findhig  of  the  Cross,  ana 
then  to  Antichrist  and  to  the  Day  of  Doom.   As  » 


Day  < 
«ort  of  devotional  appendix  he  also  proposes 


to  deal 


OQEtmS 


576 


008»INUH 


^ith  Blajry^  lopurnbig  beneath  the  Croes  and  of  her 
Conception.    This  work  he  haa  undertaken* . 

In  to  Englifih  Tongue  to  rede 

For  the  love  of  English  lede  [people] 

English  lede  of  England 

For  the  common  [folk]  to  understand. 

rhis  ambitious  programme  Is  faithfully  carried  out 
with  oooaiderable  literary  skill  and  a  devotional  feel- 
ing quite  out  of  the  common  *  The  author  shows  him- 
seu  to  have  been  a  man  of  wide  readins.  Althou£^ 
his  main  authority  is  the  ''Historia  Scholastica^'  of 
Peter  Gomestor  he  has  made  himself  acquainted  with  a 
number  of  other  books  in  Engtliah,  Frenchi  and  Latin, 
and  his  work  may  be  regarded,  as  a  storehouse  of  leg- 
ends not  all  of  wmch  have  been  traced  to  their  original 
sources.  Special  prominence  is  given  throughout  the 
work  to  the  nistory  of  the  Cross  which  for  some  reason 
(possibly  because  St.  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constan- 
tine,  was  reputed  to  have  been  of  British  birth)  was 
always  exceptionally  popular  in  Ensland, 

After  conunending  the  author's  ''keen  eye  for  the 
pteturesaue'',  a  recent  critic,  in  the  ''Cambridge  His- 
tory of  Enfi;lish  Literature'',  remarks,  "The  strong 
humanity  which  runs  through  the  whole  work  is  one  of 
it3  most  attractive  features  and  shows  that  the  writer 
was  full  of  sympathy  for  his  fellow-men." 

The  main  authority  upon  the  Curtor  Mundi  i«  the  elaborate 
edition  of  the  poem  edited  by  Da.  Richard  Morrib  for  the 
Eariy  En^^ish  Text  Society  (1874-1893,  Z  voto.).  with  nppen- 
dixee  and  eritical  appreeiationa  by  fleveral  other  aoholan.  The 
Cursor  Mundi  also  receives  full  attention  in  all  modem  histories 
of  English  literature,  of  which  the  best  is  the  Cambridoe  Hi»toru, 
editedby  A.  W.  Ward,  (Cambridge,  1907).  See  also  especial^ 
Kalusa  in  BngUuke  Studim,  VoH  XI. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Chinibia,  a  titular  see  of  Africa  Proconaularis.  The 
town  was  fortified  about  46  b.  c.  by  P.  Attius  Varus 
and  C.  Considius  Longus,  generals  of  Pompey,  and 
proclaimed  by  Caesar  a  Roman  colony  under  the  name 
of  Colonia  Julia  Curubis.  It  is  mentioned  in  Pliny, 
Ptolemy,  "The  Itinerary  of  Antoninus",  etc.  In  257 
St.  Qrprian  was  exiled  to  Curubis  for  refusing  to 
sacrifice  to  the  gods  (Vita  Pontii,  c.  xii,  ed.  Hartel, 
III,  and  the  year  following  he  was  called  thence  to 
Carthage  to  be  put  to  death.  Four  bishops  are 
known  (one  Donatist),  from  411  to  646  (Morcelli, 
Africa  Christiana,  I,  149).  Curubis  is  to-day  Kourba, 
1  little  village  on  the  coast,  east  of  Tunis,  between 
Cape  Mustapha  and  Ras  Mamoura.  The  region  is 
hilly  and  woody;  it  has  always  been  inhabited  by 
more  or  less  savage  people,  for  which  reason  the 
Christians  were  often  exiled  there.         S.  Vailh£. 

Oosaek,  Thomas  F. 

CE8B  OF. 


See  New  York,  Archdio- 


Oasa,  a  titular  see  of  Egypt.  The  Coptic  name  of 
this  town  was  Kdsko;  in  Greek  it  becomes  Kouscns, 
Akouasa,  Akoussa,  Kousis,  Kousai,  Khousai;  in  Latin 
we  find  Cussa,  Cus®,  Chusae,  etc.  It  is  now  the  fellah- 
town,El-Kou8lyet(Alquous8iah,Al-Ku99!Je,El-Kustye, 
Qossieh),  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  inland  be- 
tween the  railway  stations  D^r  At  esh-Sherlf  and  Mont- 
faiat  Near  it  stands  Deir-el-Moharag,  the  largest, 
richest,  and  most  peopled  of  the  seven  great  Coptic 
monasteries;  the  Holy  Family  is  said  to  have  so- 
journed there  and  it  is  the  centre  of  an  important 
pilgrimage.  The  city  figures  in  the  "Synecaemus" 
ofHierocles  (730,  9),  Georgius  Cyprius  (764),  and 
Parthey's  "Notitia  Prima"  (about  840).  It  was  a 
saffrsigan  of  Antinoe  in  Thebais  Prima.  Lequien  (II, 
597)  mentions  two  bishops,  Achilles,  a  Mefetian,  in 
326,  and  Theonas,  present  at  Constantinople  in  553. 
Cus»  IS  to  be  distinginshed  from  Kyms  in  the  southern 
part  of  tlie  Great  (Tafiis,  now  TXish  el-Kal'a. 

Brugbcii,  Geogr.  den  altm  Aegyptens,  T,  222;  BAVDBKBit, 
Ae&ypten  (1991).  part  II,  45;  fxTLUmn,  L'BgypU,  Souiomin 
bMvium  H  €hrMien»  (LUle.  1890),  249.  _ 

S.  PiTRIDia« 


Oush  (son  of  Cham;  D.  V.  Chua).  like  the  other 
nances  of  the  ethnological  table  of-  Genesis,  x,  is  the 
name  of  a  race,  but  it  has  generally  been  understood 
to  designate  also  an  indivioual,  the  pro^^enitor  of  the 
nations  and  tribes  known  in  the  ancient  world  as 
Cushit^.    The  list  of  those  descendants  of  Cusb  is 

S'ven  in  Qen.,  x,  7-8.  The  country  known  to  the 
reeks  as  Ethiopia  is  called  Gush  (Reh,  KaX)  in  the 
Bible.  In  its  broadest  extension  the  terp[i  designated 
the  region  south  of  Assuan,  on  the  Upper  N^,  now 
known  as  Nubiai  Senaar^  Kardofan,  and  Northern 
Abyssinia.  This  region  is  referred  to  in  Egyptian 
inscriptions  as  KeS  or  KdL  More  often,  however,  the 
name  Cusk  was  given  to  a  part  of  the  territory  just 
mentioned,  called  by  the  Greeks  the  Kingdom  of 
Mero€,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Nile  and  the  Astaboraa 
.(now  Tacassi).  It  is  from  this  king^dom  that  came 
the  eunuch  of  Candace,  (^ueen  of  Ethiopia  (Acts,  viii, 
26-40).  Cush  was  long  a  powerful  nation.  In  iiie 
course  of  the  eighth  century,  b.  c,  its  Kings  became 
rulers  of  Egypt.  Shabitku,  one  of  them,  was  the  prin- 
cipal opponent  of  the  great  Sennacherib,  King  of 
Assyria.'  It  was  in  vain  that  Isaias  warned  his  people 
not  to  place  their  trust  in  such  princes  (Is.,  xviii,  1 ; 
XX,  3, 5). 

The  African  Cush  is  best  known;  but  there  were 
Cushites  in  Asia.  The  ''land  of  Cush''  of  Gen.,  IL  13 
(Heb.  text),  watered  by  the  Gehon,  one  of  the  /our 
riven  of  Paradise,  was  doubtless  in  Asia.  Be^ODQa, 
Saba,  and  Dadan  (Gen.,  x,  7)  were  in  Arabia.  The 
Madianite  wife  of  Moses,  Sephora,  is  called  a  Cushite 
(Ex.,  ii,  16,  21;  Num.,  xii,  I— Heb.  text).  Nemrod, 
son  of  Cuflh,  rules  over  cities  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris  (Gen. ,  x,  8-12).  This  text  points 
to  the  foundation  of  the  fiist  empire  in  this  re^on  by 
Cushites.  It  is  chiefly  the  relics  of  a  Semitic  civilisa- 
tion that  have  been  brought  to  lidit  by  archaeological 
discoveries.  But  traces  are  not  lacking,  according  to 
competent  scholars,  of  an  older  civilization. 

Rawunson,  Fwe  Oreat  Mimareh%e9  (London,  1879),  I,  iii; 
Maspero.  Hialoireanciennede$  peupUa  deVOrierU  (rarin.  1905). 

W.  S.  Reillt. 

Ooapinian  (properly  Spieshaym  or  Spiesham).  Jo- 
hannes, distinguished  humanist  and  statesman^  b.  at 
Schweinfurt,  Lower  Franconia,  in  1473;  d.  at  Vienna, 
19  April,  1529,  In  1490  he  matriculated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leipzig,  went  to  the  University  of  Vienna 
(1493)  to  oontmue  his  humanistic  studies,  and  in  1494 
entered  there  on  a  course  of  medicine.  At  this  early 
age  he  edited  the  '*  Liber  Hjrmnorum"  of  Prudentius, 
and  made  a  reputation  by  his  lectures  on  Virgil,  Hor- 
ace, Sallust,  and  Cicero.  He  was  acquainted  with 
Emperor  Frederick  III.  In  1493,  in  reward  for  a 
panegyric  on  the  life  of  St.  Leopold  of  Austria,  he  was 
crowned  as  poet  laureate  and  received  the  title  of  Mas- 
ter of  Arts  from  Maximilian.  Soon  after  this  he  was 
made  a  doctor  of  medicine,  and  in  1500  rector  of  the 
university.  Maximilian  made  him  his  confidential 
councillor  and  appointed  him  curator  of  the  univer- 
sity for  life.  Cuspinian  also  received  the  position  of 
chief  librarian  of  the  Imperial  Library,  and  superin- 
tendent of  the  archives  of  the  impenal  family.  As 
curator  of  the  university  he  exercised  great  influence 
on  its  development,  although  he  was  not  able  to  pre- 
vent the  decUno  caused  by  the  political  and  religious 
disturbances  of  the  second  decade  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  was  on  terms  of  friendship  with  the 
most  noted  humanists  and  scholars;  the  calling  of  his 
friend  Celtes  (q.  v.)  to  Vienna  is  especially  due  to  him. 
Celtes  and  he  were  the  leading  spirits  of  the  literary 
association  called  the  "Sodalitas  Litterarum  Danu- 
biana".  In  1515  Cuspinian  was  prefect  of  the  city  of 
Vienna.  Emperor  Maximilian,  also  Cliarles  V  at  a 
later  date,  sent  him  on  numerous  diplomatic  missions 
to  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Poland.  He  brou^t 
about  a  settlement  of  the  disputed  succession  between 


OOSTOlt 


576 


omvoH 


the  Hapsburg  line  and  the  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohe- 
mia; another  of  his  missions  was  to  aeoommkny  Bona 
Sforza,  the  bride  of  Kin^  Sigismmid  of  Poland,  to 
Cracow.  His  literary  activity  covered  the  most  va- 
ried domains.  Although  his  poetical  writinfis  are  of 
little  importance,  and  his  manuscript  "CoUectanea 
medicin.  '  of  no  great  value,  nevertheless  he  attained  a 
high  reputation  as  a  collector  and,  to  some  d^ree,  as 
an  editor  of  ancient  and  medieval  manuscripts. 
Among  other  publications,  he  edited  in  1511  L.  Florus. 
in  1515  the  **  Libellus  de  lapidibus''of  Marboduus,  and 
ttie  medieval  chronicler  Otto  of  Freising.  Important 
as  a  contribution  to  the  study  of  ancient  histoiy  is  the 

?ublication  which  first  appeared,  after  his  death  in 
553,  namely,  the  "Fasti  consuiares",  with  which 
were  united  tne  ''Chronicle"  of  Cassiodorus  and  the 
"Breviarium"  of  Sextus  Rufus.  Another  valuable 
work  of  Cuspinian  is  the  ''  History  of  the  Roman  Em- 
perors", prepared  during  the  years  1512-22  (in  Latin, 
1540,  ana  in  German,  1541).  For  a  long  time,  espe- 
cially after  the  battle  of  Mohics,  he  busied  himself 
with  the  Turkish  c^uestton  and  printed  both  political 
and  historical  writings  on  the  subject,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  hk  "De  Turcarum  origine,  reli- 
Sone  et  tyrannide".  His  best  work  is  "Austria,  sive 
^mmentarius  de  rebus  Austrice"  etc.,  edited  by 
Brusch  in  1553  with  critical  notes.  A  kind  of  diary 
(1502-27),  which  throws  much  light  on  his  political 
activity,  was  published  in  "Fontes  rerum  austriaca- 
rum ' '  (1885),  1, 1  sqq .  A  life  of  Cuspinian,  not  alwavs 
reliable,  is  found  in  the  complete  eaition  of  his  works 
by  Gerbelius  (Commentationes  Cusp.,  Strasburg. 
1540) ;  a  more  complete  edition  of  his  works  appears 
at  Frankfort  in  1601. 

AUo.  deut9che  Biogr.,  IV,  062  sqq.;'  Habblbacv,  Cu9piman 
aU  StaaUmatm  tmd  Cfdekrter  (Ylenna,  1S87):  Abchbach,  Qeach. 
dtr  Univenim  Wim  (1877),  II,  284-300;  Bauch.  Die  Recep- 
tion dea  Humaniamue  in  Wien  (1903),  48  sqq. 

Joseph  Satter. 

Oastom  (in  Canon  Law)  is  an  unwritten  law  in- 
troduced by  ^e  continuous  acts  of  the  faithful  with 
the  consent  of  the  Intimate  l^islator.  (Xistom  ina^ 
be  considered  as  a  fact  and  as  a  law.  As  a  fact,  it  is 
simply  the  frequent  and  free  repetition  of  acts  con- 
cerning the  same  thing;  as  a  law,  it  is  the  result  and 
consequence  of  that  fact.  Hence  its  name,  which  is 
deriv^  from  cansuesco  or  caruuejacio  and  denotes  the 
frequency  of  tibe  action.     (Cap.  (yonsuetudo  v,  Dist.  i.) 

I.  Division. — (a)  0>nsider&d  according  to  extent,  a 
custom  is  universal,  if  received  by  the  whole  Church ; 
or  general  (Uiough  under  another  aspect,  particular), 
if  ODserved  in  an  entire  country  or  province;  or  spe- 
ciflJ,  if  it  obtains  among  smaller  but  perfect  societies; 
or  most  special  (9pecialia^ma)  if  among  private  in- 
dividuals and  imperfect  societies.  It  is  obvious  that 
the  last-named  cannot  elevate  a  custom  into  a  legiti- 
mate law.  (b)  Considered  according  to  duration, 
custom  is  prescriptive  or  non-prescriptive.  The 
fonner  is  subdividea,  according  to  the  amount  of  time 
requisite  for  a  custom  of  fact  to  become  a  custom  of 
law,  into  ordinary  (i.  e.  ten  or  forty  years)  and  im- 
memorial, (c)  (Considered  according  to  method  of  in- 
troduction, a  custom  is  judicial  or  extrajudicial.  The 
first  is  that  derived  from  forensic  usage  or  precedent, 
lliis  is  of  great  importance  in  ecclesiastical  circles,  as 
the  same  prelates  are  generally  both  Ic^slators  and 
judges,  i.  e.  the  pope  and  bishops.  Extrajudicial 
custom  is  introduced  by  the  people,  but  its  sanction 
becomes  the  more  easy  the  laiger  the  number  of 
learned  or  prominent  men  who  embrace  it.  (d^  Ckm- 
sidered  in  its  relation  to  law,  a  custom  is  according  to 
law  (juxia  legem)  when  it  interprets  or  confirms  an  ex- 
isting statute;  or  beside  the  law  {proeter  legem)  when 
no  written  l^islation  on  the  subject  exists;  or  con- 
tary  to  law  {contra  legem)  when  it  derogates  from  or 
abrogates  a  statute  already  in  force. 

II.  CoNDmoNB. — ^The  true  efficient  cause  of  an  ec- 


clesiastical custom,  in  as  far  as  it  oonatitutes  law,  h 
solely  the  consent  oif  the  oom^tent  liyslating  authof- 
ity.  All  church  laws  imply  spiritual  jurisdiction,  whidi 
resides  in  the  hierarchy  alone,  and,  consequently,  the 
faithful  have  no  legislative  power,  either  by  Divine  rigjit 
or  canonical  statute.  Therefore,  the  express  or  tadt 
consent  of  the  church  authority  is  necessary  to  gjve 
a  custom  the  force  of  an  ecolflBiaBticai  law.  Ihia  con- 
sent is  denominated  tegal  when,  by  general  statute 
and  antecedently,  reasonable  customs  receive  appro- 
bation. Ecclesiastical  custom  diffen,  therefore,  radi- 
cally from  civil  custom.  For,  diough  both  arise  from 
a  certain  conspiration  and  aoooid  iietween  the  people 
and  the  lawgivers,  yet  in  the  Church  the  entire  juridi- 
cal force  of  we  custom  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  con- 
sent of  the  hierarchy  while  in  the  civil  state,  the  peo- 
ple themselves  are  one  of  ihe  real  eouroes  of  the  legal 
force  of  custom.  Custom,  as  a  fact,  must  proceed 
from  the  oonmiunity ,  or  at  least  from  Uie  action  of  the 
greater  number  constituting  the  community.  Thean 
actions  must  be  free,  uniform,  freauent^  and  public, 
and  performed  with  ttke  intention  of  imposing  an  obli- 
gation. The  usage,  of  whidi  there  is  question,  must 
also  be  of  a  reasonable  nature.  Custom  dther  intro- 
duces a  new  law  or  abrogates  an  old  one.  But  a  law, 
by  its  very  concept,  is  an  ordination  of  reason,  and  so 
no  law  can  be  constituted  by  an  unreasonable  custom. 
Moreover,  as  an  existing  statute  cannot  be  revoked 
except  for  just  cause,  it  follows  that  the  custom  which 
is  to  abrogate  the  old  law  must  be  reasonable,  for 
otherwise  uie  requisite  justice  would  be  wanting.  A 
custom,  considered  as  a  fact,  is  unreasonable  when  it 
is  contrary  to  Divine  law,  positive  or  natural;  or 
when  it  is  prohibited  by  proper  ecclesiastical  autho^ 
ity;  or  when  it  is  the  occasion  of  sin  and  opposed  to 
the  common  good. 

A  custom  must  also  have  a  legitimate  prescription. 
Such  prescription  is  obtained  by  a  continuance  of  the 
act  in  question  during  a  certain  length  of  time.  No 
canonical  statute  has  positively  defined  what  this 
length  of  time  is,  and  so  its  determination  is  left  to  the 
wisdom  of  canonists.  Authors  generally  hold  that  for 
the  legalizing  of  a  custom  in  accordance  with  or  beside 
the  law  (jtixta  or  prceUr  legem)  a  space  of  ten  years  is 
sufficient;  while  for  a  custom  contrary  (contra)  to  law 
many  demand  a  lapse  of  forty  years.  The  reason 
given  for  the  necessity  of  so  long  a  space  as  for^  years 
IS  that  the  commimi^  will  only  slowly  persuade  itself 
of  the  opportuneness  of  abrogating  the  old  and  em- 
bracing the  new  law.  The  opinion,  however,  which 
holds  that  ten  years  suffices  to  establish  a  custom  even 
contrary  to  the  law  may  be  safely  followed.  It  is  to 
be  noted,  however,  that  in  practice  the  Roman  Oon- 
gr^ations  scarcely  tolerate  or  permit  anv  custom, 
even  an  immemorial  one,  oontrarv  to  the  sacred 
canons.  (Cf.  Gasparri,  De  Sacr.  Ormn.,  n.  53, 69  sq.) 
In  the  introduction  of  a  law  by  prescrii>tion,  it  is  as- 
sumed that  the  custom  was  introduced  in  good  faith, 
or  at  least  through  ignorance  of  the  opposite  law.  If* 
however,  a  custom  be  introduced  through  connivance 
(vid  conmventiai)t  good  faith  is  not  required,  for,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  bsS  faith  must,  at  least  in  the  begin- 
lung,  be  presupposed.  As,  however,  when  there  is 
question  of  connivance,  the  proper  IcRislator  must 
know  of  the  formation  of  the  custom  ana  yet  does  not 
oppose  it  when  he  could  easily  do  so,  ihe  contrary  law 
is  then  supposed  to  be  abrogated  directly  hj  tlus  tacit 
revocation  of  the  legislator.  A  custom  which  is  con- 
trary to  ^ood  morals  or  to  the  natural  or  Divine  posi- 
tive law  IS  always  to  be  rejected  as  an  abuse,  and  it  can 
never  be  legalized. 

III.  FoRCB  OF  Custom.— The  efifects  of  a  custom 
vary  with  the  nature  of  the  act  which  has  caused  its 
introduction,  i.  e.  according  as  the  act  is  in  accord 
with  (juxta),  or  beside  (pneier),  or  contrary  (contra)  to, 
the  written  law.  (a)  Tlie  first  (juxta  legem)  does  not 
constitute  a  new  law  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word; 


OVSTOS 


677 


OtJSTOS 


't«  effect  is  rather  to  confirm  and  strengthen  an  already 
existing  statute  or  to  interpret  it.  Hence  the  axiom 
of  jurists:  Custom  is  the  best  interpreter  of  laws. 
Oastom,  indeed,  considered  as  a  fact,  is  a  witness  to 
the  true  sense  of  a  law  and  to  the  intention  of  the  legis- 
lator. If,  then,  it  bring  about  that  a  determinate 
sense  be  obligatorily  attached  to  an  indetenninate 
legal  phrase,  it  takes  rank  as  an  authentic  interpreta- 
tion of  the  law  and  as  such  acquires  true  binding-force. 
Wem«  (Jus  Decretalium,  n.  191)  refers  to  this  same 
principle  as  explaining  why  the  oft-tecurring  phrase  in 
ecclesiastical  aocuments,  "the  existing  discipline  of 
the  Church,  approved  by  the  Holy  See",  indicates  a 
true  norm  and  an  obligatory  law.  (b)  The  second 
species  of  custom  (praster  legem)  has  the  force  of  a  new 
law,  binding  upon  the  entire  community  both  in  the 
internal  and  external  forum.  Unless  a  special  excep- 
tion can  be  proved,  the  force  of  such  a  custom  extends 
to  the  introduction  of  prohibitive,  permissive,  and 
preceptive  statutes,  as  well  as  to  penal  and  nullifying 
enactments,  (c)  Thirdly,  a  custom  contrary  (contra) 
to  law  has  the  effect  of  abrogating,  entirely  or  in  part, 
an  already  existing  ordinance,  for  it  has  the  force  of  a 
new  and  later  law.  As  r^ards  penal  ecclesiaistical 
legislation,  such  a  custom  may  airectly  remove  an 
obligation  in  conscience,  while  the  duty  of  submission 
to  tne  punishment  for  transgressing  the  old  precept 
may  remain,  provided  the  punishment  in  question  be 
not  a  censure  nor  so  severe  a  chastisement  as  neces- 
sarily presupposes  a  grave  fault.  On  the  other  hand, 
this  species  of  custom  may  also  remove  the  punish- 
ment attached  to  a  particular  law,  while  the  law  itself 
remains  obligatory  as  to  its  observance.  Immemorial 
custom,  provided  it  be  shown  that  circumstances  have 
BO  changed  as  to  make  the  custom  reasonable,  has 
power  to  abrogate  or  change  any  human  law,  even 
though  a  clause  had  been  originally  added  to  it  for- 
biddmg  any  custom  to  the  contrary.  To  immemorial 
ciistom  is  also  attached  the  unusual  force  of  inducing  a 
presumption  of  the  existence  of  an  Apostolic  privilege, 
providwi  the  said  privilege  be  not  reckoned  among 
abuses,  and  the  holder  of  the  presumed  privily  be  a 
pjerson  legally  capable  of  acquiring  the  thine  in  ques- 
tion without  first  obtaining  a  special  and  express 
Apostolic  permission  for  it  (cf.  Wemz,  op.  cit.,  who 
has  been  followed  particularly  in  this  paragraph). 
Ferraris  notes  that  no  immemorial  custom,  if  it  be  not 
confirzxLed  by  Apostolic  privilege,  express  or  presump- 
tive, can  have  any  force  for  the  abrogation  of  ecclesi- 
astical liberties  or  immunities,  inasmuch  as  both  canon 
and  civil  law  declare  such  custom  to  be  unreasonable 
by  its  very  nature.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  a 
valid  custom,  in  both  the  constitution  and  the  abroga- 
tion of  laws,  produces  the  same  effects  as  a  legislative 
act. 

IV.  Concerning  Tridentine  Dbcrbbs.-^A  special 
question  has  been  raised  by  some  canonists  as  to 
whether  the  laws  of  the  Council  of  Trent  may  be 
changed  or  abrogated  by  custom,  even  if  immemorial, 
or  whether  all  such  contrary  customs  should  not  be 
rejected  as  abuses.  Some  of  these  writers  restrict 
their  denial  of  the  value  of  contrary  customs  to  ordi- 
nary, some  also  to  immemorial  ones  (cf .  Lucidi,  De  Vis. 
Sac.  Lim.,  I,  ch.  iii,  n.  111).  It  is  unquestionably  a 
general  principle  in  canon  law,  that  custom  can  change 
the  disciplinary  statutes  even  of  oeciraienical  councils. 
The  main  reason  for  rejecting  this  principle  in  favour 
of  the  Tridentine  enactments  in  particular  is  that  any 
contrary  custom  would  certainly  be  unreasonable  and 
therefore  unjustifiable.  It  is  by  no  means  evident, 
however,  that  all  such  contrary  customs  must  neces- 
sarily be  unreasonable,  as  is  plain  from  the  fact  that 
some  authors  allow  and  others  deny  the  value  of  im- 
memori^  customs  in  the  premises,  even  when  they 
agree  in  reprobating  the  force  of  ordinary  customs. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  no  decree  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  the  Council  which  declares,  abso- 
IV.-37 


hitely  and  generally,  that  all  customs  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  the  Council  of  Trent  are  invalid.  Moreover, 
the  Tribunal  of  the  Rota  has  allowed  the  force  of  im- 
memorial customs  contranr  to  the  disciplinary  decrees 
of  Trent,  and  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Council 
has  at  least  tolerated  them  in  secondary  rnatters.  A 
salient  instance  of  the  Roman  official  view  is  the  state- 
ment of  the  Holy  Office  (11  March,  1868)  that  the 
Tridentine  decree  on  clandestine  marriages,  even  after 
promulgation,  was  abrogated  in  some  regions  by  con- 
trary custom  (Collect.  8.  C.  de  Prop.  Fid.,  n.  1408). 
The  confirmation  of  the  Council  of  Trent  by  Pope 
Pius  IV  (26  Jan.,  1664;  17  Feb.,  1666)  abolishes,  it  is 
true,  all  contrary  existing  customs,  but  the  papal  let- 
ters contain  nothing  to  invalidate  future  customs. 
Owing  to  the  comparatively  recent  date  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  and  the  urgency  of  the  Holy  See  that  its  de- 
crees be  observed,  it  is  not  easy  for  a  contrary  custom 
to  arise,  but  whenever  the  conditions  of  a  legitimate 
custom  are  fulfilled,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  Tri- 
dentine decrees  should  be  more  immune  than  those  of 
any  other  oecumenical  council  (cfr.  Laurentius,  op. 
cit.,  below,  n.  307). 

V.  Cessation  op  Customs. — Any  custom  is  to  be 
rejected  whose  existence  as  such  cannot  be  proved 
legally.  A  custom  is  a  matter  of  fact,  and  therefore 
its  existence  must  be  tested  in  the  same  way  as  the 
existence  of  other  alleged  facts  is  tested.  In  this  par- 
ticular, the  decrees  of  synods,  the  testimony  of  the 
diocesan  ordinary  and  of  other  persons  worthy  of 
credence  are  of  great  value.  Proofs  are  considered 
the  stronger  the  more  closely  they  approximate  public 
and  official  monuments.  If  there  be  a  question  of 
proving  an  immemorial  custom,  the  witnesses  must  be 
able  to  affirm  that  they  themselves  have  been  cogniz- 
ant of  the  matter  at  issue  for  a  space  of  at  least  forty 
years,  that  they  have  heard  it  referred  to  by  their 
progenitors  as  something  always  observed,'  and  that 
neither  they  nor  their  fathers  have  ever  been  aware  of 
any  fact  to  the  contrary.  If  the  fact  of  the  existence 
of  an  allied  custom  is  not  sufficiently  proved,  it  is  to 
be  rejected  as  constituting  a  source  of  law.  Customs 
may  be  revoked  by  a  competent  ecclesiastical  legisla- 
tor, in  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  reasons  as  other 
ordinances  are  abrogated.  A  later  general  law  con- 
trary to  a  general  custom  will  nullify  the  latter,  but  a 
particular  custom  will  not  be  abrogated  by  a  general 
law,  unless  a  clause  to  that  effect  he  inserted.  Even 
such  a  nullifying  clause  will  not  be  sufficient  for  the 
abrogation  of  immemorial  customs.  The  latter  must 
be  mentioned  explicitly,  for  they  are  held  not  to  be  in- 
cluded in  any  general  legal  phrase,  however  sweeping 
its  terms  may  be.  Customs  may  likewise  be  abro- 
gated by  contrary  customs,  or  tney  may  lose  their 
legal  force  by  the  mere  fact  that  they  fall  into  desue- 
tude. FinaUy,  an  authentic  declaration  that  a  cus- 
tom is  absolutely  contrary  to  good  morals  (rumpens 
nervum  disciplincB)  and  detrimental  to  the  interests  of 
the  hierarchy  or  of  the  faithful  deprives  it  of  its  sup- 
posed legal  value. 

BAtTDVXN,  De  Cofuuetudifu  in  Jure  Canon.  (Lou vain,  1S88); 
Werne,  /la  Deertialium  (Rome,  1898),  I:  Laurentius,  Insti- 
iutwnea  Juris  Bed.  (Freiburg,  1903);  Pebrabis,  Bibliotheo^ 
Canon.  (Rome,  1886),  II. 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Oiistos(l),  an  under-sacristan.  (See  Sacristan.) 
(2)  A  superior  or  an  official  in  the  Franciscan  Order. 
The  woM  has  various  acceptations  in  ancient  as  well 
as  in  modem  Franciscan  legislation.  Nor  do  the 
three  great  existing  branches  of  the  order — ^the  Friars 
Minor,  Conventuab,  and  Capuchins — attach  the  same 
meaning  to  the  term  at  the  present  day.  Saint  Fran- 
cis sometimes  applies  the  word  to  any  superior  in  the 
order — guardians,  provincials,  and  even  to  the  general 
(see  Rule,  IV  and  VIII,  and  Testament).  Some- 
times he  restricts  it  to  officials  presiding  over  a  certain 
number  of  convents  in  t^e  laiger  piovinces  of  the 


OUTUBEBT 


578 


OTJTBBSBT 


order  with  restricted  powers  and  subject  to  their  re- 
spective provincials.  It  is  in  this  latter  sense  that  he 
refers  (Rule,  VIII)  to  the  custodes  as  having  power, 
conjointly  with  the  provincials,  to  elect.and  to  depose 
the  minister  general. 

The  convents  over  which  a  custos  (in  this  l&it&c 
sense)  presided  were  collectively  called  a  custodia. 
The  number  of  custodise  in  a  province  varied  accord- 
ing to  its  extent.  Already  at  an  early  period  it  was 
deemed  expedient  that  only  one  of  the  several  cus- 
todes of  a  province  should  proceed  to  th-3  general  chap- 
ter with  his  respective  provincial  for  the  election  of  tne 
minister  general,  although  the  rule  accorded  the 
right  of  vote  to  each  custos.  This  custom  was  sanc- 
tioned by  Gregory  IX  in  1230  ("  Quo  elongati ",  Bull. 
Rom.,  Ill,  450,  Turin  edition)  and  by  other  popes, 
evidently  with  the  view  to  prevent  unnecessary  ex- 
pense. The  custos  thus  chosen  was  called  Cuatos 
cusiodum,  or,  among  the  Observantines  until  the  time 
of  Leo  X  ("Ite  et  vos  ",  Bull.  Rom.,  V,  694),  diacretua 
diacretorum.  This  ancient  l^islation,  which  has  long 
since  ceased  in  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor,  still  obtains 
in  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  CJonventuals,  as  may  be 
seen  from  their  constitutions  confirmed  by  Urban 
VIII  (see  below).  The  present-day  legislation  on  the 
point  among  the  Capuchms  and  Friars  Minor  may  be 
oriefly  summed  up  as  follows:  In  the  Capuchin  Order 
there  are  two  kinds  of  custodes — custodes  general  and 
custodes  provincial.  Two  custodes  general  are 
elected  every  three  years  at  the  provincial  chapters. 
The  first  of  these  has  a  right  to  vote  at  the  election  of 
the  minister  general  should  a  ^neral  chapter  be  held 
during  his  term  of  office.  Besides,  he  has  the  obliga- 
tion of  presenting  to  the  ^neral  chapter  an  official 
report  on  the  stete  of  his  province.  The  provin- 
cial custodes,  on  the  contrary,  have  no  voice  in  the 
general  diapters,  and  their  rights  and  duties  are 
much  restricted  and  unimportant.  In  the  constitu- 
tions of  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  there  is  also  men- 
tion of  two  kinds  of  custodes — one  called  custos  pro- 
vincicB,  the  other  custos  regiminis.  The  former  is 
elected  at  the  provincial  chapter  and  holds  office  for 
three  years.  Besides  having  a  voice  in  all  capitular 
acts  of  his  province  he  takes  part  in  the  general  chap- 
ter, should  his  provincial  b«  impeded.  The  custos 
regiminis  is  a  prelate  who  rules  over  a  custody,  or 
small  province.  He  possesses  ordina^  jurisdiction 
and  has  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  a  provindaL 
The  number  of  convents  in  a  casiodia  regiminis  ranges 
from  four  to  eight. 

Kbrchovs,  CommerUaruB  in  Oencralia  SUUuta  OrdiwU  S, 
Franeisci  FnUr.  Minorum  (Ghent,  1770),  VIII.  11:  Piatus, 
Pnd.  Juf.  Reaularia,  I,  644  aqq,;  Olbmsnt  IV.  Virtule  con- 
apieuoa  (1265)  in  Bullar.  Rom,  (Turin  edition).  III,  737; 
Innocent  IV,  Ordinem  Vestrum  in  BuJlar,  Frandsc.,  I,  401; 
Lko  X^  Ite  et  vos  in  Bullar.  Rom.,  V,  694 ;  RegtUcB  et  Const. 
Oenendes  FF.  Minorum  (Rome,  1897),  VIII.  passim:  ConstiL 
Urbana  FF.  Minorum  Convenlualium  (Mechlin),  VIIl.  tit.  De 
Cuttode  Custodum:  Conelit.  Ordinia  Min.  Cap.  anni  16US 
CTouraai,  1876),  VHI;  OrdinaHonea  et  Deciatonea  CapituL 
Oeneralium  Ord.  Cap,  (Rome,  1851). 

Gregort  Cleart. 

Onthbert,  Saint,  Bishop  of  lindisfame,  patron  of 
Durham,  b.  about  635 ;  d.  20  March,  687.  His  emblem 
is  the  head  of  St.  Oswald,  king  and  martyr,  which  he 
is  ref^resented  as  bearing  in  his  hands.  His  feast  is 
kept  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  on  the  20th  of  March, 
and  he  is  patron  of  the  Diocese  of  Hexham  and  New- 
castle, where  his  commemoration  is  inserted  among 
the  Suffrages  of  the  Sainte.  His  early  biographers 
give  no  particulars  of  his  birth,  and  the  accounts  in 
the  ''Libellus  de  ortu'^  which  represent  him  as  the 
son  of  an  Irish  king  named  Muriadach,  thoug^  re- 
cently supported  by  Cardinal  Moran  and  Archbishop 
Healy,  are  rejected  by  later  English  writers  as  legen- 
dary. Moreover  St.  Bede's  phrase,  Britannia  .  .  . 
Snuit  (Vita  Metrica,  c.  i).,  points  te  his  English  birth, 
e  was  probablv  bom  in  tne  neighbourhood  of  Mail- 
COS  (Melrose)  of  lowly  parentage,  for  as  a  boy  he  used 


to  tend  sheep  on  the  mountain-sides  near  that  mo&> 
.astery.     While  still  a  child  living  with  his  foster- 
mother  Kenswith  his  future  lot  as  bishop  had  bc*en 
f oreteld  hv  a  little  play-fellow,  whose  prophecy  had  a 
lasting  effect  on  his  diaracter.    He  was  influenced, 
too,  by  the  holiness  of  the  community  at  Mailros, 
where  St.  Eata  was  abbot  and  St.  Boisil  prior.    In 
the  year  651,  while  watehing  his  sheep,  he  saw  in  a 
vision  the  soul  of  St.  Aidan  carried  to  heaven  bv 
angels,  and  inspired  by  this  became  a  monk  at  Mail- 
ros.    Yet  it  would  seem  that  the  troubled  state  of 
the  country  hindered  him  from  carrying  out  his 
resolution  at  once.    Certain  it  is  that  at  one  part  of 
his  life  he  was  a  soldier,  and  the  years  which  succeed 
the  death  of  St.  Aidan  and  Oswin  of  Deira  seem  to 
have  been  such  as  would  call  for  the  military  service 
of  most  of  the  able-bodied  men  of  Northumbria, 
which  was  constantly  threatened  at  this  time  by  the 
ambition  of  ite  southern  neighbour.  King  Penda  of 
Mercia.    Peace  was  not  restored  to  the  land  until 
some  four  years  later,  as  the  consequence  of  a  ^at 
battle  which  was  fou^t  between  the  Northumbrians 
and  the  Mercians  at  Winwidfield.     It  was  probably 
after  this  battle  that  Cuthbert  found  himself  free  to 
turn  once  more  to  the  life  he  desired.     He  arrived  at 
Mailros  on   horse-back  and  armed   with  a  spear. 
Here  he  soon  became  eminent  for  holiness  and  learn- 
ing, while  from  the  first  his  life  was  distinguished 
by  supernatural  occurrences  and  miracles.     When 
the  monastery  at  Ripon  was  founded  he  went  there 
as  guest-master,  but  m  661  he,  with  other  monks  who 
adhered  to  the  customs  of  Celtic  Christianity,  re- 
turned to  Mailros  owing  to  the  adoption  at  Ripon  of 
the  Roman  Usage  in  celebrating  Easter  and  in  other 
matters.    Shortiv  after  his  return  he  was  struck  by 
a  pestilence  whicn  then  attacked  the  community,  but 
he  recovered,  and  became  prior  in  place  of  St.  Boisil, 
who  died  of  the  disease  in  664.    In  this  year  the  Synod 
of  Whitby  decided  in  favour  of  the  Roman  Usage,  and 
St.  Cuthbert,  who  accepted  the  decision,  was  sent  by 
St.  Eata  to  be  prior  at  Lindisfame,  in  order  that  he 
mi^t  introduce  the  Roman  customs  into  that  house. 
This  was  a  difficult  matter  which  needed  all  his  gentle 
tact  and  patience  \x>  carry  out  successfully,  but  the 
fact  that  one  so  renowned  for  sanctity,  who  had  him- 
self been  brought  up  in  the  Celtic  tradition,  was  loy- 
ally conforming  to  the  Roman  use,  did  much  to  sup- 
port the  cause  of  St.  Wilfrid.    In  this  matter  St.  Cuth- 
bert's  influence  on  his  time  was  very  marked.    At 
Lindisfame  he  spent  much  time  in  evangelizing  the 
people.     He  was  noted  for  his  devotion  to  the  Mass, 
which  he  could  not  celebrate  without  tears,  and  for 
the  success  with  which  his  sealous  charity  drew  sin- 
nezB  to  God. 

At  length,  in  676,  moved  by  a  desire  to  attain 
greater  perfection  bv  means  of  the  contemplative 
ufe,  he  retired,  with  the  abbot's  leave,  to  a  spot  which 
Archbishop  Eyre  identifies  with  St.  Cuthbert's  Island 
near  Lindisfame,  but  which  Raine  thinks  was  near 
Howbum,  where  "St.  Cuthbert 's  Cave"  is  still  shown 
Shortly  afterwards  he  removed  to  Fame  Island,  oppo- 
site Bamborough  in  Northumberland,  where  he  gave 
himself  up  to  a  life  of  great  austerity.  After  some 
years  he  was  called  from  this  retirement  by  a  synod 
of  bishops  held  at  Twyford  in  Northumberland,  under 
St.  Theiodore,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  At  this 
meeting  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Lindisfame,  as  St. 
Eata  was  now  translated  to  Hexham.  For  a  long 
time  he  withstood  all  pressure  and  only  yielded  after 
a  lone  stmggle.  He  was  consecrated  at  York  by  St. 
Theodore  in  the  presence  of  six  bishops,  at  Easter, 
685.  For  two  years  he  acted  as  bishop,  preaching  and 
labouring  without  intermission,  witn  wonderful  re- 
sults. At  Christmas,  686,  foreseeing  the  near  ap- 
proach of  death,  he  resigned  his  see  and  returned  to 
nis  cell  on  Fame  Island,  where  two  months  later  he 
was  seized  with  a  fatal  illness     In  his  last  days,  in 


OUTBBIBT 


579 


OUTHBBRT 


Mmrch,  687,  he  was  tended  by  monks  of  LindiafarDe, 
and  received  the  last  sacraments  from  Abbot  Here- 
frid,  to  whom  he  spoke  his  farewell  words,  exhorting 
the  monks  to  be  faithful  to  Catholic  unity  and  the 
traditions  of  the  Fathers,  fie  died  shortly  after  mid- 
night, and  at  exactly  the  same  hour  that  night  his 
friend  St.  Herbert,  the  hermit,  also  died,  as  St.  Guth- 
bert  had  predicted. 

St.  Cuthbert  was  buried  in  his  monastery  at  Lindis- 
fame,  and  his  tomb  immediately  became  celebrated 
for  remarkable  miracles.  Tliese  were  so  numerous 
and  extraordinary  that  he  was  called  the  "Wonder- 
worker of  England".  In  698  the  first  transfer  of  the 
relics  took  place,  and  the  body  was  found  incorrupt. 
During  the  Danish  invasion  of  875,  Bishop  Eardulf 
and  the  monks  fled  for  safety,  carrying  the  body  of 
the  saint  with  them.  For  seven  years  they  wandered, 
bearing  it  first  into  Cumberland,  then  into  Galloway 
and  back  into  Northumberland.  In  883  it  was  placed 
in  a  church  at  Chester-le-Street,  near  Durham,  given 
to  the  monks  by  the  converted  Danish  kine,  who  had 
a  great  devotion  to  the  saint,  like  King  ^red,  who 
also  honoured  St.  Cuthbert  as  his  patron  and  was  a 
benefactor  to  this  church.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
t^ith  century,  the  shrine  was  removed  to  Ripon,  ow- 
ing to  fears  of  fresh  invasion.  After  a  few  months  it 
was  being  carried  back  to  be  restored  to  Chester-le- 
Street,  when,  on  arriving  at  Durham  a  new  miracle, 
tradition  says,  indicated  that  this  was  to  be  the  rest 
ing-place  of  the  saint's  bodv.  Here  it  remained,  first 
in  a  chapel  formed  of  boughs,  then  in  a  wooden  and 
finally  in  a  stone  church,  built  on  the  present  site  of 
Durham  cathedral,  and  finished  in  998  or  999.  While 
William  the  Conqueror  was  ravaging  the  North  in 
1009,  the  body  was  once  more  removed,  this  time  to 
Lindisfame,  but  it  was  soon  restored.  In  1104,  the 
shrine  was  transferred  to  the  present  cathedral,  when 
the  body  was  again  found  incorrupt,  with  it  being  the 
head  of  St.  Oswald,  which  had  been  placed  with  St. 
Cuthbert's  body  for  safety — a  fact  which  accounts  for 
the  well-known  symbol  of  the  saint. 

From  this  time  to  the  Reformation  the  shrine  re- 
mained the  great  centre  of  devotion  throughout  the 
North  of  England.  In  1542- it  was  plundered  of  all 
its  treasures,  but  the  monks  had  already  hidden  the 
saint's  body  in  a  secret  place.  There  is  a  well-known 
tradition,  alluded  to  in  Scott's  "Marmion",  to  the 
affect  that  the  secret  of  the  hiding-place  is  known  to 
certain  Benedictines  who  hand  it  down  from  one  gen- 
eration to  another.  In  1827  the  Anglican  clergy  of 
the  cathedral  found  a  tomb  alleged  to  be  that  of  the 
saint,  but  the  discovery  was  challenged  b^  Dr.  Lin- 
nrd.  who  showed  cause  for  doubting  the  identity  of 
tne  body  found  with  that  of  St.  Cuthbert.  Arch- 
budbop  Eyre,  writins  in  1849,  considered  that  the 
coffin  found  was  undoubtedly  that  of  the  saint,,  but 
that  the  body  had  been  removed  and  other  remains 
substituted,  while  a  later  writer,  Monsignor  Consitt, 
though  not  expressing  a  definite  view,  seems  inclined 
to  aUow  that  the  remains  found  in  1827  were  truly 
the  bones  of  St.  Cuthbert.  Manv  traces  of  the  former 
widespread  devotion  to  St.  Cuthbert  still  survive  in 
the  numerous  churches,  monuments,  and  crosses 
raised  in  his  honour,  and  in  such  terms  as  "St.  Cuth- 
bert's patrimony",  "St.  Cuthbert's  Cross",  "Cuth- 
bert ducks"  and  "Cuthbert  down "•  The  centre  of 
modem  devotion  to  him  is  found  at  St.  Cuthbert's 
College,  Ushawy  near  Durham,  where  the  episcopal 
ring  of  gold,  enclosing  a  sapphire,  taken  from  his  fin- 
ger in  1537,  is  preserved,  ana  where  under  his  patron- 
age most  of  tne  priests  for  the  northern  counties  of 
Kngla-nd  are  trained.  Hia  name  is  connected  with 
two  famous  early  copies  of  the  Gospel  text.  The 
first,  known  as  the  Lindisfame  or  Cuthbert  Gospels 
(now  in  the  British  Museum,  Cotton  MSS.  Nero  D 
4),  was  written  in  the  eighth  century  by  Ead- 
fnoi  Bishop  of  Lindisfame.    It  contains  the  four 


gospels  and  between  the  lines  a  number  of  valuable 
Anglo-Saxon  (Northumbrian)  glosses;  though  written 
by  an  Anglo-Saxon  hand  it  is  considered  by'  the 
best  judges  (Westwood)  a  noble  work  of  olc^Irish 
calligraphy  and  illumination,  Lindisfame  as  is 
well  known  being  an  Irish  foundation.  The  manur 
script,  one  of  the  most  splendid  in  Europe,  was  origin- 
ally placed  by  its  scribe  as  an  offering  on  the  shrine  of 
Cuthbert,  and  was  soon  richly  decorated  by  monastic 
artists  (Ethelwold,  Bilfrid)  and  provided  by  another 
(Aldred)  with  the  aforesaid  interlinear  gloss  (Kari 
Bouterwek,  Die  vier  Evangelien  in  altnixxihum- 
brischer  Sprache,  1857).  It  has  also  a  history 
scarcely  less  romantic  than  the  body  of  Cu^bert. 
When  m  the  ninth  century  the  monks  fled  before  the 
Danes  with  the  latter  treasure,  they  took  with  them 
this  manuscript,  but  on  one  occasion  lost  it  in  the  Irish 
Channel.  After  three  days  it  was  found  on  the  sea- 
shore at  Whithem,  unhurt  save  for  some  stains  of 
brine.  Henceforth  in  the  inventories  of  Durham  and 
Lindisfame  it  was  known  as  "  Liber  S.  Cuthberti  qui 
demersus  est  in  mare"  (the  book  of  St.  Cuthbert  that 
fell  into  the  sea).  Its  text  was  edited  by  Stevenson 
and  Warning  (London,  1854-65)  and  since  then  by 
Kemble  and  Hardwick,  and  by  Skeat  (see  Lindis- 
faknb).  The  second  early  Gospel  text  connected 
with  his  name  is  the  seventh-century  Gospel  oi  St. 
John  (now  in  possession  of  the  Jesuit  College  at  Stony- 
hurst,  England)  found  in  1105  in  the  grave  of  St. 
Cuthbert. 

Bbdb.  Da>€r  d€  Vitd  ft  MinadiB  3,  CuthbvH;  Viki  S.  Cuth- 
6«rt»,  Meinca,---Bpth  these  lives  are  printed  in  P.  L..  XCIV. 
also  in  Ada  S3, 0,  3.  B.  (Paris,  1660);  Opera  Hist.  Minora,  od. 
Stbvxnbon  (Enff.  Hist.  8oo.,  1838,  and  in  the  various  oolleoted 
editions  of  Bbd^s  works) .  The  prose  life  is  printed  wi^  notes 
mAda  SS„  IX.  Mar.  20.  Bkdk.  Htrt.  Eccl,  Gentia  Anglorum, 
ly,  xxvu-xxni;  Arrow.,  Vita  S.  Cuthberti  (by  a  monk  Of 
Uadisfame,  written  between  698-706.  This  was  the  founda- 
tion of  BaoB'a  life  and  contains  details  omitted  by  him.  It  is 
printed  in  Acta  33.,  IX,  Mar.  20,  and  by  Stevenson,  op.  cit.), 
tr.  by  Foiwxa-LaiTH  (Edinburgh,  1888):  Stmeon  or  Durham, 
HtMtorta  (U  3antio  CtUhberlo;  lo.,  Hidoria  Tran»UUioni» 
Sanelv  Cuthbert^  (included  amonc  Symeon's  works,  though  not 
written  by  him.  Surtees  Soc.TLI,  London,  1868),  See  also 
Brena  Rdatto  de  3,  CtUhberto,  ibid.,  223-233.  The  Historia 
TroMlationia  was  printed  by  the  Bollandiotb  (toe.  cd.)  and 


^ ^ — ..     Symecnia 

MonacM  Opera  Omnia  (London,  1882),  I;  Rboinai.d  or  CoLr 
oiNOHAif ,  Liber  de  B.  Cuthberti  viriutibue  (Surtees  Soo.,  I.  Lon- 
don, 1835);  Spalding  Qub  (London,  1849).  XIX.  329>330: 
Anon..  Liber  de  Ortu  3.  Cuthberti  (an  account  of  Irish  origin, 
Surtees  Soo..  VIII.  London,  1838);  Anon.,  Life  of  St.  Cuthbert, 
in  English  verse,  a.  d.  1450  (Surtees  Soc..  LX3cXVII.  Lwidon. 
1891);  John  op  Tynbmouth.  in  CApaRA>'s.  Nova  Legenda 
AnglU  (London.  1516;  latest  ed.  Oxford,  1901).  I.  216.  (This 
life  is  edited  in  Coloan.  Acta  33.  Scot,  aeu  Hib.,  I,  679.  It  is 
a  compilation  from  Bbdb,  preceded  by  an  extract  from  the 
LibtUue  de  Ortu  and  followed  by  passages  from  Stmeon  and 
Rboinau>.)  HxoaB.  The  Legend  of  St.  CtUhbeH  (1626;  4th  ed., 
London,  1816);  (Thalloneb,  Britannia  Sonata  (London,  1745), 
I.  185-197;  BuTLBR.  Livee  of  the  Saints  (London,  1756),  March 
20;  Rainb,  St.  Cuthbert;  with  account  of  the  opening  of  hie  tomb 
in  1897  (Durham.  1828).  In  connexion  with  this  seeLxNOARD, 
Remarke  on  the  *' Saint  Cuthbert'*  of  Rev.  Jamea  Raine  (New* 
castle.  1828);  Etrb,  History  of  St.  Ctdhbert  (London.  1849;  3d 
ed.  1887);  Montalbmbbrt,  Moines  d'Occident  (1867).  IV,  391- 
449;  Fbtbr.  Cuthbert  of  Lindisfame  (London,  1880);  Cokwtt, 
Life  of  St.  Cuthbert  (London.  1887);  Hunt,  Diet.  Nat.  Biog. 
(London,  1888).  XIII.  359;  Bollandists.  Bibl.  Hag.  LoHna 
(1889).  304-306;  Lbssmann.  Studien  tu  dem  MiUdengiischen: 
life  of  St.  CuthbeH,  in  Englische  Stud.  (1897).  XXIII.  345-365; 
XXIV,  176-195;  Phillips.  Uahaw  Magazine,  II,  176-201.  in 
reply  to  Moban.  Irish  Saints  in  Oreat  Britain,  and  Hbalt.  in 
Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record  (1888).  Sec  also  articles  in  Dublin 
Review  (1849).  XXVII.  512;  Quarterly  Rev.  (1872).  CXXXIII, 
1-42;  Vahaw  Magarins,\l  and  VIL 

Edwin  Burton. 

Oathbert,  Abbot  of  Wsabim>uth,  a  pupil  of  the 
Venerable  Bede  (d.  735).  He  was  a  native  of  Dur- 
ham, but  the  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  un- 
known. Becoming  a  monk  at  Jarrow,  he  studied 
under  St.  Bede  and  acted  aa  his  secretary,  writing 
various  works  from  his  dictation.  Bede  dedicated  to 
him  his  work  "De  Arte  MetricA".  He  was  present 
when  Bede  died,  and  wrote  to  Cuthwin,  one  of  his 
fellow-pupils,  a  detailed  account  of  all  that  happened. 


OUTUBEBT 


580 


OTBXST&A 


except  one  was  buried  at  Christ  Church.  A  letter  of 
his  to  LuUus,  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  is  still  extant  and 
also  two  short  poems  preserved  by  William  of  MalmoK 
bury.  Leland  speaks  of  a  volume  of  his  epigrams  in 
the  libraiy  of  Malmesbury  Abbey.  This  volume  is 
now  lost. 

Ano.'Sax.  Chrtmide,  mih  ann.  741,  742,  768;  Haddoiv  ajcb 
Stdbbb,  Councils,  III,  340-96:  Gervabe.  Actua  Poni,  CanL 
(Twysden,  1640);  Simeon  op  Durham.  Mon.  Hist.  BrU..959, 
661;  WiLUAM  or  Malmesburt.  Gesta  Regum  (Eng.  Hist.  Soc.). 
1.  115.  116;  Idem.  iSest.  PotUiff,  8.  0. 15, 
290;  Hook,  Lives  of  the  Archbishops,  L 
217-34;  MiGNE.  P.  L.,  LXXXI^763. 
767:  Anglia  Saera,  11.  Metrical  Life  of 
Cuthberi. 

G.  E.  Hind. 
College  op  Saint. 


After  the  death  of  Huitbert,  who  succeeded  Ceolfrid 
«8  Abbot  of  Wearmouth,  Cuthbert  was  elected  in  his 
place.  His  correspondence  with  Lullus,  the  disciple 
and  successor  of  St.  Boniface,  Archbishop  of  Mainz, 
is  still  preserved.  He  is  also  supposed  to  have  written 
many  other  letters  now  lost.  Priscus  mentions  a 
manuscript  bearing  his  name  which  contains  an  addi> 
tion  to  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History.  His  letter  de- 
scribing Bede's  death  is  also  worthy  of  note  because 
of  the  ihention  therein  of  the  Ro- 
gation procession  with  the  relics  of 
the  saints. 

Mabillon,  Annales  O.  S.  B.  (Paris, 
1703-39),  II.  99b,  101a;  Idem.  Acta  SS. 
(Venice.  1733.  etc.),  III.  603.  604.  610 
m;  Cbillibr,  Histoire  ginSrale  des  au^ 
teurs  sQtr4s  et  ecdisiastiques  (Paris,  1729- 
69).  a.  V.  Cuthbert,  Abbi  de  Jarrow;  P. 
L.,  XCVI.  838.  846. 

G.  E.  Hind. 

Onthbert,  Archbishop  of  Can 
terbury,  date  of  birth  not  known; 
d.  25  October,  758.  He  is  first 
heard  of  as  Abbot  of  Liminge, 
Kent.  Consecrated  bishop  by 
Archbishop  Nothelm,  he  succeeded. 
Wahlstod  in  the  See  of  Hereford 
in  736  and  was  translated  to 
Canterbury  about  740.  Journey- 
ing to  Rome  he  received  the  pal- 
lium,  and  on   his   return  assisted 

at  the  Council  of  Cloveshoe  in  742.  c^-c-     x >. . 

At  this  councU  Ethelbald,  King  of  Churchof  Santo  Domingo  Cdzco  Peru  cese  embraces  the  province  of  Matto 
Mercia,  confirmed  many  privileges     (On  Inca  Foundauon^of  the  Temple  of     ^^^^^    mi    area    of   5^,705  sq. 


Onthbert, 
See  UsHAW. 

Ouyabiy  Diocese  of  (Cutaben- 
sis),  suffrage  of  SSo  Sebasti3o 
(Rio  de  Janeiro),  Brazil.  The  dty, 
founded  by  miners  about  1720,  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Matto  Grosso  in  1840.  The  present 
population  is  somewhat  over  18,000. 
The  prelature  of  Cuyab^,  erected 
by  Bull  of  Benedict  XIV,  *' Candor 
lucis  aetemfiB*'  (6  Dec.,  1745),  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  bishopric 
(Senhor  Bom  Jesus  de  Cuyabd)  by 
Bull  of  Leo  XII.  '*  Sollicita  catholici 
(15  July,  1826).    The  dio- 


to  churches  and  monastenes.  His 
friendship  with  St.  Boniface,  Archbishop  of  Mainz, 
accounts  for  the  intimate  knowledge  that  St.  Boniface 
had  of  the  evil  life  of  Ethelbald,  which  prompted  the 
saint  to  correspond  with  the  king  in  the  hope  of  induc- 
inghim  to  reform.  Cuthbert,  in  obedience  to  the  wish 
of  rope  Zachary,  called  a  second  Council  of  CJloveshoe, 
in  747,  which  formulated  many  canons  for  the  guidance 
of  monastic  life  and  the  duties  of  bishops  and  priests.   1 1 

especially     insisted      on    

catechetical  instruction 
being  given  in  the  Eng- 
lish tongue.  The  pro- 
ceedings of  this  council 
were  sent  to  St.  Boniface 
and  prompted  him  to 
act  similarly  in  Cler- 
many.  Some  have 
thought  that  St.  Boni- 
face took  the  initiative 
and  not  Cuthbert,  but 
most  now  admit  that 
the  proceedings  in  Ger- 
many for  promoting  a 
greater  union  with  Rome 
took  place  after  this 
"coimcil  of  CHoveshoe  and 
in  imitation  of  it. 

Cuthbert     brought 
about     a    great    change 


Cloister  of  La  Merced,  CTuzco 


with  regard  to  theprecedence  of  the  Cathedral  Church 
of  Canterbury.  Christ  Church,  Canterbury,  was  con- 
sidered inferior  in  dignity  to  the  Church  of  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul  where  all  the  archbishops  were  interred  The 
pope  granted  his  request  for  the  interment  of  the  arch- 
bisnops  at  Clirist  Church  and  King  Eadbert  con- 
firmed this.  A  chapel  was  then  built  at  the  east  end 
of  the  cathedral  deaicated  to  St.  John  the  Baptist  to 
serve  as  the  baptistery,  the  court  of  the  archbishops 
and  their  place  of  burial.  Fearing  opposition  from  tne 
monks  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul's  church  Cuthbert  was 
stealthily  buried  in  the  new  chapel  several  days  before 
his  death  was  generally  known.  From  that  time  until 
^e  Conquest  at  least,  eveiy  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 


miles,  and  has  a  Catholic  popu- 
lation of  100,700,  with  17  parishes,  20  churches,  12 
secular  priests  and  10  regular. 

Battandier,  Ann.  pant.  cath.  (1906);  Hbroeb.  Konve^tt- 
tions'Lex.,  a.  v.;  Werner,  Orbis  tcrrarumCath.  (Freiburg im  Br., 
1890),  213. 

F.   M.    RUDGE. 

Cuyo.     See  San  Juan  de  Cuyo. 

Ouico,  Diocese  of  (Cuzcensis),  suffra^n  of  Lima, 
Peru.  The  city  of  Cuzco, 
capital  of  the  cfepartment 
of  the  same  name,  is  lo- 
cated on  the  eastern  end 
of  the  Knot  of  Cuzco,  11,- 
000  feet  above  sea-leveL 
The  original  Inca  city, 
said  to  have  been  foimded 
in  the  eleventh  century, 
was  destroyed  by  Pizarro 
in  1535.  There  are  still 
remains,  however,  of  the 
palace  of  the  Incas,  the 
Tenaple  of  the  Sim,  and 
the  Temple  of  the  Virgins 
of  the  Sun.  Among  the 
most  noteworthy  build- 
ings of  the  city  is  the 
cathedral  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo. The  diocese, 
erected  by  Paul  III  (5 
Sept.,  1536),  comprises  the  departments  of  Cuzco  and 
Apurimac,  an  area  of  21,677  sq.  m.,  containing  a  Cath- 
olic population  of  480,000,  wit^  106  parishes,  650 
churches  and  chapels,  150  priests,  a  seminary,  and 
schools. 

Battandibr,  Ann.  poni.  eath.  (Paris,  1906);  Ann.  eed. 
(Rome.  1908). 

F.  M.  RuPGE. 

Oybistra,  a  titular  see  of  Cappadocia  in  Asia  Minor. 
Ptolemy  (5,  7,  7)  places  this  city  in  Lycaonia;  Strabo 
(12,  535)  in  aiicia;  acero  (Epist.  tiA  fam.,  15,  2,  4) 
m  Cappadocia  extrema,  near  the  boundary  of  Cilicia 
and  not  far  from  Taurus.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  suf- 
fragan of  Tyana,  metropolis  of  Cappadocia  Secundai 


CTOLAOES 


581 


OTNKWXJLF 


In  tbid  "Synecdemus"  of  Hierocles  (TOO),  and  in  some 
^arly  ''Notitise  episcopatuum".  It  was  captured  by 
Hanin  in  805,  and  by  Almamun  in  832.  Afterwards, 
probably  in  the  eleventh  century,  it  was  made  an  in- 
dependent archbishopib  (Parthey's  Notitis,  10  and 
ll3 ;  it  still  remainea  a  Byzantine  possession  after  a 
Srest  part  of  Cappadocia  had  passed  into  Turkish 
hskiids.  From  the  eighth  to  the. eleventh  centuries 
'we  hear  often  of  a  fortress  Heracleia,  now  known  to 
have  been  near  Cybistra  and  united  with  it  in  one 
bishopric  (Notitia,  10).  The  name  of  this  fortress  has 
been  preserved  in  the  modem  form,  Eregli,  a  poor 
village  and  the  centre  of  a  cam  in  the  vilayet  of 
Konia.  Five-bishops  are  quoted  by  Lequien  (I,  403) ; 
the  first  was  present  at  Nicsea  in  325,  the  last  at  Con- 
stantinople at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Ramsay.  Hiat.  Geogr,  of*  Ana  Minor,  341. 

S.   PiTBIDiB. 

CydadeB,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  ^gean  Sea. 
The  ancients  called  by  this  name  only  Delos  and  eleven 
nei^bouring  islands,  Andros,  Tenos,  Myknos,  Siphnos, 
Senphos,  Naxos,  Syros,  Paros,  Kythmos,  Keos,  and 
Gyaros.  According  to  mythology  they  were  nymphs 
metamorphosed  into  rocks  for  having  refused  to  sacri- 
fice to  Poseidon.  They  are  in  fact  remains  of  an 
ancient  continent  that  disappeared  in  the  tertiarv 
epoch.  Successively  Cretan,  Dorian,  and  Ionian  col- 
onies, they  were  made  subject  to  Athens  by  Miltiades. 
Under  Byzantine  rule  the  Dodekanesoi  (twelve  in- 
lands) were  included  in  the  fifth  European  theme. 
Plundered  by  the  Saracens  in  the  seventh  and  eight 
centuries,  they  became,  after  the  Fourth  Crusade,  a 
duchv  belonging  to  the  Venetian  families  of  Sanudo 
and  Crispo.  The  Tiu'ks  conquered  them  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  Cyclades  are  now  a  nomoa,  or 
department,  of  Greece,  but  imder  this  name  are  com- 
prised also  Melos,  Kimolos,  Sikinos,  Amorgos  (birth- 
place of  Simonides),  Thera  or  Santorin,  los,  Anaphe, 
and  other  islands  between  them.  The  population  is 
about  130,000.  SOk,  wine,  cotton,  fruit,  sponges, 
marble  (Paros),  and  emery  (Naxos),  are  the  chief 
products.  There  is  also  a  coasting  trade;  Hermou- 
polis  in  Syros  is  an  important  port. 

There  were  in  the  Cyclades  many  Greek  sees  suffra- 
gan to  Rhodes.  Under  the  Prankish  rule,  Latin  sees 
were  also  established  at  Naxos,  Andros,  Keos,  Syros, 
Tenos,  Mykonos,  los,  Melos,  and  Thera,  as  suffragans 
of  Rhodes  and  Athens,  later  only  of  Naxos.  The 
Arehdiocese  of  Naxos  includes  also  Paros  and  Anti- 
paros.  It  has  500  Catholics,  some  10  churches  or 
chapels,  and  10  priests.  Amon^  the  latter  are  Capu- 
chins, and  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales;  Ursuline 
jxuna  conduct  th^  schools.  Naxos  and  Paros  were 
Greek  bishoprics  early  united  under  the  name  of  Paro- 
naxia.  It  was  a  metropolitan  see  in  1088,  and  its 
episcopal  list  is  in  Leqmen  (I,  937).  Several  of  its 
metropolitans  united  with  Rome  from  the  fourteenth 
to  the  eighteenth  centunr.  The  list  of  the  Latin  areh- 
bishons  is  in  Lequien  (III,  1001),  Gams  (448),  and 
Eubel  (1, 375,  II,  221).  The  See  of  Naxos  la  now  con- 
fided to  the  Archbishop  of  Athens  as  administrator 
Apostolic.  Andros  was  likewise  a  Greek  see;  its  epis- 
copal list  is  in  Lequien  (I,  s.  v.).  The  Latin  list  is 
found  -there  sJso  (III,  859),  in  Gams  (449),  and  more 
complete  m  Eubel  (I,  89,  II,  99).  From  1702  the  see 
was  administered  by  a  vicar-Apostolic  dependent  di- 
rectly on  Propaganda;  and  in  1824  it  was  confided  to 
the  Bishop  of  Tenos. 

Melos  (Milo)  is  famous  for  the  statue  of  Venus 
found  there ;  it  has  thermal  springs  and  solfataras,  and 
there  are  ruins  of  the  ancient  city.  The  Greek  epis- 
copal list  18  in  Lequien  (I,  945).  The  Latin  list  is  also 
in  LMjuien  (III,  1055),  and  Gams  (449);  see  also  Eu- 
bel (I,  355.  II,  211).  In  1700  the  see  was  united  with 
Naxos  and  in  1830  with  Thera.  The  list  of  the  Latin 
bishops  of  Keos  (Cea,  Zea)  is  in  Lequien  (III,  867), 


Gams  (440),  Eubel  (I,  194,  II,  143).  los  (Nk>,  N«a), 
according  to  tradition  the  site  of  Homer's  death,  had  a 
series  of  Latin  bishops  (see  Leauien,  III,  1135,  and 
Grams,  448).  As  to  Mykonos  (Micone)  we  know  only 
that  the  see  was  united  with  Tenos  as  early  as  1400. 
(See  Strob,  Tenob,  and  Thera.) 

Bbnt,  TAe  Cydad§8.  Life  among  the  huular  Oreeke  (London. 
1885);  ToEBB,  The  idanOe  of  the  JBgean  (Oxford,  1800);  PuL- 
LEN,  Murray*8  Handbook  for  Cfreeoe  and  the  Ionian  lelanda 
.(London.  1895). 

S.  PimtlD^. 

Oyde.    See  Calendar. 

Oyde  (Diontsian).    See  Chronoloqt. 

Oydonia,  a  titular  see  of  Crete.  According  to  old 
legends  Cydonia  (or  Kydonia)  was  founded  by  King 
Kydon,  on  the  northwest  shore  of  Oete.  It  was 
afterwards  occupied  by  the  AchsBans  and  iEolians, 
hut  remained  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  island  till 
it  was  taken  by  Q.  C.  Metellus  (a.  d.  69).  The  Vene- 
tians rebuilt  and  fortified  it  in  1252;  it  was  tdcen  by 
the  Turks  in  1645.  The  Arabs  called  it  Rabdh  el- 
Djebn,  the  modem  Greeks  and  Turks  Khania,  the 
Western  peoples  Canea.  Lequien  (II,  272)  Imows  of 
only  two  Greek  bishops:  Sebon,  in  458,  and  Nicetaa, 
in  692.  Gams  (404)  adds  Meliton,  in  787.  After  the 
Frank  occupation  there  was  in  Crete  a  Latin  see, 
Agriensis,  or  Agiensis,  which  must  have  been  the  same 
as  that  of  Cydonia,  or  Canea.  Lequien  (III,  923-928) 
knows  of  sixteen  Latin  bishops,  trom  1310  to  1645. 
Eubel  (I,  76;  II,  93)  numbers  seventeen  for  the  period 
from  about  1300  to  1481  (see  also  ibid.,  II,  312).  Tke 
last  occupant  retired  to  Italy  when  the  city  had  been 
taken  by  the  Turks.  The  population  of  Canea  is  now 
about  20,000,  mostly  Greeks,  with  200  Latins.  It 
was  the  residence  of  the  Latin  Bishop  of  Candia,  after 
the  see  had  been  re-established  by  Pius  IX.  The 
Catholic  parish  is  held  by  Capuchins.  There  are  some 
Christian  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  de  TAp- 
parition,  with  two  schools  and  an  orphanage.  Canea 
still  remains  a  Greek  see.    (See  Canea;  Candia.) 

S.  PiTRinia. 

Csnne,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor.  Kyme  (Doric, 
Kyma)  was  a  port  on  the  Kymaios  Kolpos  TTchan- 
darli  Bay^,  the  most  important  city  of  .£olis,  and 
was  founded  by  the  .^ouans  about  the  eleventh  or 
the  thirteenth  century  b.  c.,' according  to  old  tradi- 
tions, by  Pelops  on  his  return  from  Greece.  After 
defeating  Oenonmnos  and  expelling  the  native  inhabi- 
tants, he  gave  to  the  city  tne  name  of  the  Amazon 
Kyme.  Another  uncommon  name  was  Phrykonis. 
CJyme  is  mentioned  in  the  "Synecdemus"  of  Hierocles 
and  in  the  ''Notitis  episcopatuum"  as  late  as  the 
thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century.  Five  bishops  are 
mentioned  in  Lequien  (I,  729),  from  431  to  787. 
There  was  another,  John,  in  1216.  C^rm^^  is  identi- 
fied with  the  small  village  of  Lamourt,  in  the  vilayet 
of  Smyrna.  The  name  is  sometimes  transcribed 
Chime,  or  even  Cumse,  possibly  a  source  of  confusion 
with  Chimae  in  Italy.  There  was  also  a  Cyme  in 
.£gyptus  Secunda,  a  suffragan  of  Cabasa. 

S.  P^TRID&S. 

Ojrnewulf . — That  certain  Anglo-Saxon  poems  still 
extant  were  written  by  one  Cyx^wulf  is  beyond  dis- 
pute, for  the  author  has  signed  his  name  in  them  by 
spelling  it  out  in  runic  letters  which  may  be  so  read  as 
to  make  sense  in  the  context  of  the  poem.  It  is,  how- 
ever, quite  uncertain  who  this  Cynewulf  was.  Despite 
strong  expressions  of  opinion  to  the  contrary,  there 
seems  good  reason  for  identifving  him  with  Cynewulf, 
Bishop  of  Lindisf ame,  though  Professor  A.  8.  Cook  of 
Yale  advocates  the  claims  of  a  certain  Cynulf,  an 
ecclesiastic  whose  signature  is  attached  to  the  Decrees 
of  the  Council  of  Clovesho  in  803,  and  who  may  have 
been  a  priest  of  the  Diocese  of  Dunwich.  In  any  case 
it  has  been  conclusively  shown  of  late  that  Professor 


OTNIO 


582 


OTPBIAM 


Otx>k's  chief  reason  for  rejecting  the  bishop'iB  claiin,  vu. 
the  fluppoeed  dependence  of  some  of  Cynewulf 's  poems 
on  Alcuin's  **  De  Trinitate  ",  written  about  802,  is  base- 
less. (See  C.  F.  Brown  in  Pub's,  of  Mod.  Lang.  Ass'n. 
of  N.  Am.,  XVIII,  308.)  Apart  from  conjecture  our 
only  certain  knowledge  about  Cynewulf  is  derived 
from  what  he  tells  us  of  himself  in  the  four  runic  pas- 
sages. He  had  received  gifts  in  a  hall  amid  scenes  of 
revelry,  which  may  mean  that  he  had  been  in  youth  a 
sort  of  gleeman  or  minstrel.  He  was  converted,  and  ' 
had  since  then  devoted  himself  to  sacred  song  but  now 
in  old  age  he  still  dreaded  the  punishment  of  past  sins. 
Four  poems,  the  "Christ",  the  *'Elene",  the  'VTuliana" 
and  the  "Fates  of  the  Apostles"  may  be  attributed  to 
Cynewulf  with  certainty  in  virtue  of  their  nmic  signa- 
tures. The  "Christ",  as  it  is  preserved  in  "The  Exe- 
ter Book",  the  only  manuscript  containing  it,  is  a 
glorification  of  three  themes,  the  Advent  of  Cnricrt,  the 
Ascension,  and  His  second  coming  upon  Doomsday. 
As  in  all  the  other  poems  the  wnter  shows  literary 
gifts  of  a  very  high  order  and  he  must  evidently,  from 
his  knowledge  of  earlier  writers,  especially  St.  Gregory, 
have  been  a  man  of  considerable  learning.  In  the 
"Christ"  he  paraphrases  several  of  the  anthems, 
known  as  the  great  O's,  in  the  Advent  liturgy  and  in 
doing  BO  introduces  passages  of  much  beauty  breath- 
ing tne  most  intense  devotion  to  Our  Blessed  Lady 
(cf.  U.  33-49,  71-103,  etc.),  and  differing  little  in  feel- 
ing from  the  tone  of  such  verses  as  those  of  Lydgate, 
six  hundred  years  later.  The  poem  also  contains  a  re- 
markable testimony  (11.  1307-1326)  to  the  practice  of 
confession.  "Juliana",  also  preserved  to  us  in  "The 
Exeter  Book",  is  a  poetical  version  of  the  Acts  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Juliana.  The  "Elene",  with  those 
next  mentioned,  became  known  only  in  1836  upon  the 
discovery  of  the  Vercelli  codex,  an  Anglo-Saxon  manu- 
script in  prose  and  verse,  which  for  some  unknown 
reason  had  found  its  way  to  Vercelli  in  Italy.  The 
"Elene"  is  generally  reputed  Cynewulf 's  masterpiece. 
It  contains  a  narrative  based  on  earlier  Latin  legends 
of  the  discovery  of  the  true  Cross  by  St.  Helen.  The 
"Fates  of  the  Apostles"  is  a  fragment  chiefly  impor- 
tant as  forming  a  connecting  link  between  Cynewulf 
who  signs  it,  and  the  kindred  poem  "Andreas^*  in  the 
same  manuscript.  This  also  is  consequently  by  most 
authorities  assigned  to  Cynewulf,  though  Knapp,  its 
latest  editor  (Boston,  1906),  regards  it  as  the  work  of 
an  imitator  and  possibly  disciple  of  Cynewulf.  Of  the 
remaining  works  conjecturally  attributed  to  this  poet 
the  beautiful  "Dream  of  the  Rood"  is  the  most  im- 
portant. Some  verses  apparently  derived  from  this 
allegory  and  engraved  upon  the  famous  Ruthwell 
Cross  have  led  to  much  controversy  regarding  both 
the  date  of  the  monument  and  the  authorship  of  the 
poem.  Other  doubtful  works  sometimes  attributed 
to  Cynewulf  are  the  "Guthlac",  the  "Phoenix"  and 
certain  riddles  in  "The  Exeter  Book. "  It  is  safe  to 
say  that  unless  fresh  evidence  comes  to  light  the  au- 
thorship canjiever  be  settled. 

It  18  impossible  to  indicate  more  than  a  few  of  the  immenae 
number  oi  essays  and  editions  which  of  late  yean  have  been 
oonnecrated  to  Cynewulf's  poems,  and  to  the  controvereiee 
centering  round  his  name.  A  food  account  and  a  full  bibliog- 
laphy  is  supplie<l  hv  the  Cambrtdae  History  of  English  Literature 
(Cambridge,  1007).  I,  49-64  and  430-432;  cf.  also  Cook.  The 
Christ  of  Cynrwulf  (Bo«»ron,  1900);  Idem,  The  Dream  of  the 
Rood  (Oxford.  1905);  Gollancx,  Cj/n«irtiif «  Christ  (London, 
1892);  Knapp,  Andreas  and  the  Fates  of  the  Apostles  (Boston, 
1906);  HoLTHAUHEV.  Cynewulf s  Elene  (Heidelberg,  1905); 
Thautmamn,  Kunf^culf  drr  Bischof  und  Dichtrr  (Bonn,  1898); 
Brooke.  Early  Eridish  JAieraiure  (London,  1892);  Stubbs,  The 
Christ  of  Enoiieh  Poetry  (London,  1906). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Cynic  School  of  Philosophy. — The  Cynic  School, 
founded  at  Athens  about  400  D.  c,  continued  in  ex- 
iBtence  imtil  about  200  b.  c.  It  sprang  from  the  eth- 
ical doctrine  of  Socrat<»s  regarding  the  necessity  of 
moderation  and  self-denial.  Witli  this  ethical  ele- 
ment i*.  combined  the  dialectical  and  rhetorical  meth- 


ods of  the  Eleatics  and  the  Sophists.  Both'  these 
influences,  however,  it  perverted  from  their  primitive 
uses;  the  Socratio  etiucs  was  interpreted  by  the 
CyniQs  into  a  coarse  and  even  vulgar  depreciation  of 
knowledge,  refinement,  and  the  common  decencies, 
while  the  methods  of  the  Eleatics  and  the  Sophists 
became  in  the  hands  of  the  Cynics  an  instrument  of 
contention  (Elristic  Method)  rather  than  a  means  of 
attaining  truth.  The  Cynic  contem])t  for  the  refine- 
ments and  conventions  of  polite  society  is  generally 
^ven  as  the  reason  for  toe  name  dogs  (x^yct)  by 
which  the  first  representatives  of  the  school  were 
known.  According  to  some  authorities,  however,  the 
name  Cynic  arose  from  the  fact  that  the  first  repre- 
sentatives of  the  school  were  accustomed  to  meet  in 
the  gsrmnasium  of  Cynosarges. 

The  founder  of  the  schooLwas  Antisthenes,  an 
Athenian  who  was  bom  about  436  b.  c,  and  was  a 
pupQ  of  Socrates.  The  best  known  among  his  fol- 
lowers are  Diogenes  of  Sinope,  Crates,  Menedemus, 
and  Menippus.  Antisthenes  himself  seems  to  have 
been  a  serious  thinker  and  a  writer  of  ability.  In  his 
theory  of  knowledge  he  advocated  individualistic 
sensism  as  opposed  to  Plato's  intellectualistic  theory 
of  ideas;  that  is  to  say,  he  taugjit  that  the  sense- 
perceived  individual  alone  exists  and  that  there  are 
no  universal  objects  of  knowledge.  In  ethics  he 
maintained  that  virtue  is  the  only  good  and  that 
pleasure  is  always  and  under  all  conditions  an  evil. 
Self-control,  he  said,  is  the  essence  of  virtue,  and  a 
wise  man  will  learn  above  all  things  to  despise  mate- 
rial needs  and  the  artificial  comforts  in  which  worldly 
men  find  happiness. 

Diogenes,  generally  referred  to  as  "Diogenes  the 
Cynic  ,  is  one  of  the  most  striking  figures  in  Greek 
history ;  at  least,  his  personality  with  its  eccentricities, 
its  coarse  humour,  its  originality,  and  its  defiance  of  the 
commonplace,  has  app^ed  with  extraordinaiy  force 
to  the  popular  imagination.  His  interview  with  Alex- 
ander, of  which  the  simplest  version  is  to  be  found  in 
Plutarch,  was  greatly  exacserated  by  subsequent 
tradition.  The  followers  of  Diogenes,  namely,  Crates, 
Menedemus,  and  Menippus,  imitated  all  his  eccentrici- 
ties and  so  exaggerated  the  anti-social  elements  in  the 
Cynic  system  that  the  school  finally  fell  into  disrepute. 
Nevertheless,  there  were  in  the  C3mic  philosophy 
elements,  especially  the  ethical  dement,  which  later 
became  a  source  of  genuine  inspiration  in  the  Stoic 
School.  This  element,  combined  with  the  broader 
Stoic  idea  of  the  usefulness  of  intellectual  culture 
and  the  more  enlightened  Stoic  concept  of  the  scope 
of  logical  discussion,  reappeared  in  the  philosophy  of 
Zeno  and  Cleanthes,  ana  was  the  central  ethical  aoo> 
trine  of  the  last  great  system  of  philosophy  in  Greece. 

Zelleb,  Socrates  and  the  Socratic  Schools  (London,  1885), 
285  fr.;  Uebebweo-Heinze,  History  ef  Philosophy,  tr.  HosBia 
(New  York,  1882).  I,  92  iiqq.;  Windbiaa2«d,  ffiatory  of  PAOot- 

•  ,  tr.  TuFTB  (New  York,  1901),  82  sqq.;    Tubkbb,  Hisihirw 
hUosaphy  CBoston,  1903),  87  aqq. 

WlLUAM  TURNKB. 


JfAJ 


Oyprian,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Toulon,  b.  at  Marseillea 
in  476;  d.  3  Oct.,  546.  He  was  the  favourite  pupil  of 
St.  Csesarius  of  Aries  by  whom  he  was  trained,  and 
who,  in  506,  ordained  him  to  the  diaconate,  and,  in 
516,  consecrated  him  Bishop  of  Toulon.  St.  Cyp- 
rian appears  to  have  been  present  in  524  at  the  Svnod 
of  Aries  and  in  the  following  years  to  have  attended  a 
number  of  councils.  At  all  these  assemblies  he 
showed  himself  a  vigorous  opponent  of  Semipelagian- 
ism.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Csesarius  (d.  643)  Qy- 
prian  wrote  a  life  of  his  great  teacher  in  two  boou. 
Being  moved  to  the  undertaking  by  the  entreaty  of  the 
Abbess  Caesaria  the  Younger,  who  had  been  the  head 
of  the  convent  at  Aries  since  529.  The  life  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  biographical  remains  of  the  sixUi 
century.  Cyprian  was  aided  in  his  task  by  the  two 
bishops,  Firminus  and  Viventius,  friends  of  Csesarius, 


0TFBIA9 


583 


omoAH 


•8  'wdl  9B  hv  the  priest  Messianus  and  the  deacon 
Stephen.  Ine  main  part  of  the  work  up  to  the  for- 
Hettx  chapter  of  the  first  book  was  most  probably  writ* 
ten  by  Cyprian  himself.  Within  the  last  few  years 
another  writing  of  his  has  become  known,  a  letter  to 
B]sho|>  Maadmus  of  Geneva,  which  discusses  some  of 
the  disputed  theological  questions  of  that  age.  The 
feast  ot  St.  Cyprian  falls  on  3  October. 

Aeia  S8.,  Oct..  11,  164-178;  HiH.  liU.  de  la  France,  lU,  237- 
241;  Wawba  gives  tha  letter  to  Maximua  in  Theolog,  Quartal' 
BchriU  nrObingen.  1903).  LXXXV,  576-604;  Man.  Oerm,  HuZ: 
Ejnsi,,  III.  434-436,  also  gives  the  letter;  the  life  of  St.  Onarius 
can  be  found  in  the  following  oolleetions:  Acta  jSiS.,  Aug.,VI, 
6^76;  P.  L.,  LXVII,  1001-1042;  and  M&n.  Gem.  HmI.; 
Kbusch,  Scriptorea  Meroving.,  Ill,  457-601. 

Gabriel  Meier. 

Cyprian,  Saint,  and  JusimA,  Saint,  Christians  of 
Antioch  who  suffered  martyrdom  during  the  persecu- 
tion of  Diocletian  at  Nicomedia,  26  September,  304, 
the  date  in  September  being  afterwards  made  the  day 
of  their  feast.  Cyprian  was  a  heathen  macdcian  of 
Antioch  who  had  dealings  with  demons.  By  their 
aid  he  sought  to  bring  St.  Justina,  a  Christian  virgin, 
to  ruin;  but  she  foiled  the  threefold  attacks  of  the 
devils  by  the  sign  of  the  cross.  Brought  to  despair 
Cyprian  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  himself  and  in  this 
way  was  freed  from  the  toils  of  Satan.  He  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Church,  was  made  pre-eminent  by 
miraculous  gifts,  and  became  in  succession  deacon, 
priest,  and  finally  bishop,  while  Justina  became  the 
head  of  a  convent.  During  the  Diocletian  persecu- 
tion both  were  seized  and  ^ken  to  Damascus  where 
they  were  shockingly  tortured.  As  their  faith  never 
WAvered  they  were  brought  before  Diocletian  at  Nico- 
media,  where  at  his  command  they  were  beheaded  on 
the  bank  of  the  river  Gallus.  The  same  fate  befell  a 
Christian,  Theoctistus,  who  had  come  to  Cyprian  and 
had  embraced  him.  After  the  bodies  of  the  saints  had 
lain  unburied  for  six  days  they  were  taken  by  Chris- 
tian sailors  to  Rome  where  they  were  interrea  on  the 
estate  of  a  noble  lady  named  Itufina  and  later  were 
entombed  in  Constantine's  basilica.  This  is  the  out- 
line of  the  legend  or  allegory  which  is  found,  adorned 
with  diffuse  descriptions  and  dialogues,  in  tne  unreli- 
able "  Symeon  Metaphrastes'',  and  was  made  the  sub- 
ject of  a  poem  by  the  Empress  Eudocia  II.  The 
story,  however,  must  have  arisen  as  early  as  the 
fourtn  century,  for  it  is  mentioned  both  by  St.  Greg- 
ory Naziamsen  and  Prudentius;  both,  nevertheless, 
have  confounded  oiu*  Cyprian  with  St.  Cyprian  ot 
Carthage:  a  mistake  often  repeated.  It  is  certain 
that  no  Bishop  of  Antioch  bore  the  name  of  Cyprian. 
The  attempt  has  been  made  to  find  in  Cyprian  a  mys- 
tical prototype  of  the  Faust  legend;  Calderon  took 
the  story  as  the  basis  of  a  drama:  "El  magico  prodi- 
gioso".  The  legend  is  given  in  Greek  and  Latin  in 
Acta  SS.  September,  VII.  Ancient  Syriac  and  Ethi- 
opic  versions  of  it  have  been  published  within  the  last 
few  years. 

KArLRN  in  KxrehenUx.,  s.  v.;  Zark.  Cyprian  vcn  AnHoAien 
vnd  die  deuUehe  Faustsaae  (Erlangen,  1882);  Rybsel,  Urtext  d. 
Cj/prianachen  lA-gcrule  In  Arehiv  f.  neuere  Spraehen  u.  LiU. 
a903),  ex.  273-311;  Btbl  hagion.  lot..  308;  see  abo  Butleb, 
lAves  of  the  Saints,  25  September;  and  Gbid.)  BARiNO-OotTLD, 
Iamb  of  the  SainU, 

Gabribl  Meibr. 

Oyprian  of  Oarthage  (Thabcius  C/bcilius  Ctpri- 
ANUs),  Saint,  bishop  and  martyr.  Of  the  date  of  the 
saint's  birth  and  ot  his  early  life  nothing  is  known. 
At  the  time  of  his  conversion  to  Christianity  he  had, 
perhaps,  passed  middle  life.  He  was  famous  as  an 
orator  and  pleader,  had  oonsickrable  wealth,  and 
held,  no  douot,  a  great  position  in  the  metropolis  of 
Africa.  We  learn  from  his  deacon,  St.  Pontius,  whose 
life  of  the  saint  is  preserved,  that  his  mien  was  di^- 
fied  without  severity,  and  cheerful  without  effusive- 
ness. His  gift  of  eloquence  is  evident  in  his  writings, 
tie  was  not  a  thinker,  a  philosopher,  a  theologian,  but 


eminently  a  man  of  the  worid  and  an  administrator, 
of  vast  ener^es,  and  of  forcible  and  striking  character. 
His  conversion  was  due  to  an  aged  priest  named  Cffici- 
lianus,  with  whom  he  seems  to  have  gone  to  live. 
Csecilianus  in  dying  commended  to  Cyprian  the  care 
of  his  wife  and  family.  While  yet  a  catechumen  the 
saint  decided  to  observe  chastiw,  and  he  gave  most 
of  his  revenues  to  the  poor.  He  sold  his  property, 
including  liis  gardens  at  Carthage.  These  were  re- 
stored to  him  (Dei  indulgentid  restUiUif  says  Pon- 
tius), being  apparently  bought  back  for  him  by  his 
friends;  but  he  would  have  sold  them  again,  had  not 
the  persecution  made  this  imprudent.  His  baptism 
probably  took  place  c.  246,  presumably  on  Easter 
eve,  18  April. 

C^rian's  first  Christian  writing  is  **  Ad  Donatum", 
a  monologue  spoken  to  a  friend,  sitting  under  a  vine- 
dad  fergola.  He  tells  how,  until  the  grace  of  God 
illummated  and  strengthened  the  convert,  it  had 
seemed  impossible  to  conquer  vice;  the  decay  of 
Roman  society  is  pictured,  the  gladiatorial  shows,  the 
theatre,  the  imjust  law-courts,  the  hollowness  of  polit- 
ical success;  the  only  refuge  is  the  temperate,  studi- 
ous, and  prayerful  life  of  the  Christian.  At  the  begin- 
ning should  probably  be  placed  the  few  words  of 
Donatus  to  Cyprian  which  are  printed  by  Hartel  as  a 
spurious  letter.  The  style  of  this  pamphlet  is  affected 
and  reminds  us  of  the  bombastic  unintelligibility  of 
Pontius.  It  is  not  like  Tertullian,  brilliant,  barbar- 
ous, uncouth,  but  it  reflects  the  preciosity  which 
Apuleius  made  fashbnable  in  Africa.  In  his  other 
works  Cyprian  addresses  a  Christian  audience;  his 
own  fervour  is  allowed  full  play,  his  style  becomes 
simpler,  though  forcible,  and  sometimes  poetical,  not 
to  say  flowery.  Without  being  classical,  it  is  correct 
for  its  date,  and  the  cadences  of  the  sentences  are  in 
strict  rhythm  in  all  his  more  careful  writings.  On  the 
whole  his  beauty  of  style  has  rarely  been  equalled 
among  the  Latin  Fathers,  and  never  surpassed  except 
by  the  matchless  energy  and  wit  of  St.  Jerome. 

Another  work  of  his  early  days  was  the  "  Testimonia 
ad  Quirinum",  in  two  books.  It  consists  of  passages 
of  Scripture  arranged  imder  headings  to  illustrate  the 
missing  away  of  the  Old  Law  and  its  fulfilment  in 
Christ.  A  third  book,  added  later,  contains  texts 
dealing  with  Christian  ethics.  This  work  is  of  the 
greatest  value  for  the  history  of  the  Old  Latin  version 
of  the  Bible.  It  gives  us  an  African  text  closely  re- 
lated to  that  of  the  Bobbio  MS.  known  as  k  (Turin). 
Hartel's  edition  has  taken  the  text  from  a  MS.  which 
exhibits  a  revised  version,  but  what  Cyprian  wrote 
can  be  fairly  well  restored  from  the  MS.  cited  in  Har- 
tel's  notes  as  L.  Another  book  of  excerpts  on  mar- 
tyrdom is  entitled  "Ad  Fortunatum";  its  text  can- 
not be  judged  in  any  printed  edition.  Cyprian  was 
certainly  only  a  recent  convert  when  he  became 
Bishop  of  Carthage  c.  248  or  the  beginning  of  249,  but 
he  pa^ed  through  all  the  grades  of  the  ministry.  He 
haa  declined  the  charge,  but  was  constrained  by  the 
people.  A  minority  opposed  his  election,  including 
five  priests,  who  remained  his  enemies;  but  he  tells 
us  that  he  was  validly  elected  "after  the  Divine  judg- 
ment, the  vote  of  the  people  and  the  consent  of  the 
bishops'*. 

Thk  Dbcian  Persecution. — ^The  prosperity  of  the 
Church  during  a  peace  of  thirty-eight  years  had  pro- 
duced great  disorders.  Many  even  of  the  bishops 
were  given  up  to  worldliness  and  gain,  and  we  hear  of 
worse  scandals.  In  October,  249,  Decius  became 
emperor  with  the  ambition  of  restoring  the  ancient 
virtue  of  Rome.  In  January,  260,  he  published  an 
edict  against  Christians.  Bishops  were  to  be  put  to 
death,  other  persons  to  be  punished  and  tortured  till 
they  recantea.  On  20  January  Pope  Fabian  was  mar- 
tyred, and  about  the  same' time  St.  Cyprian  retired  to 
a  safe  place  of  hiding.  His  enemies  continually  re- 
proached him  with  this.    But  to  remain  at  Carthage 


OYPBIAN 


584 


OYPBIAH 


^as  to  court  death,  to  cause  greater  danger  to  others, 
ind  to  leave  the  Church  without  government:  for  to 
elect  a  new  bishop  would  have  been  as  impossible  as  it 
was  at  Rome.  Me  made  over  much  property  to  a 
confessor  priest,  Rogatian,  for  the  needy.  Some  df 
the  clergy  lapsed,  others  fled;  Cyprian  suspended 
their  pay,  for  their  ministrations  were  needed  and 
they  were  in  less  danger  than  the  bishop.  From  his 
retreat  he  encouraged;  the  confessors  and  wrote  elo- 
(juent  pane^ics  on  the  martyrs.  Fifteen  soon  died 
in  prison  and  one  in  the  mines.  On  the  arrival  of  the 
proconsul  in  April  the  severity  of  the  persecution  in- 
creased. St.  Mappalicus  died  gloriously  on  the  17th. 
Children  were  tortured,  women  dishonoured.  Numi- 
dicus,  who  had  encouraged  many,  saw  his  wife  burnt 
alive,  and  was  himself  half  burnt,  then  stoned  and  left 
for  dead:  his  daughter  found  him  yet  living;  he 
recovered  and  Cyprian  made  him  a  priest.   Some,  after 

,  being  twice  tortured,  were  dismissed  or  banished, 

'  often  beggared. 

But  there  was  another  side  to  the  picture.  At 
Rome  terrified  Christians  rushed  to  the  temples  to 
sacrifice.  At  Carthage  the  majority  apostatized. 
Some  would  not  sacrifice,  but  purchased  libeUij  or  cer- 
tificates, that  they  had  done  so.  Some  bought  the 
exemption  of  their  family  at  the  price  of  their  own  sin. 
Of  these  Itbellatici  there  were  several  thousands  in 
Carthage.  Of  the  fallen  some  did  not  repent,  others 
joined  the  heretics,  but  most  of  them  clsunoured  for 
forgiveness  and  restoration.  Some,  who  had  sacri- 
ficed imder  torture,  returned  to  be  tortured  afresh. 
Castus  and  iEmilius  were  burnt  for  recanting,  others 
were  exiled;  but  such  cases  were  necessarily  rare.  A 
few  began  to  perform  canonical  penance.  The  first 
to  suffer  at  Rome  had  been  a  young  Carthaginian, 
Celerinus.  He  recovered,  and  Qrprian  made  him  a 
lector.  His  grandmother  and  two  imcles  had  been 
martyrs,  but  his  two  sisters  apostatized  under  fear  of 
torture,  and  in  their  repentance  ^ve  themselves  to 
the  service  of  those  in  prison.  Their  brother  was  very 
urgent  for  their  restoration.  His  letter  from  Rome  to 
Lucian,  a  confessor  at  Carthage,  is  extant,  with  the 
reply  of  the  latter.  Lucian  obtained  from  a  martyr 
named  Paul  before  his  passion  a  commission  to  grant 
peace  to  any  who  asked  for  it,  and  he  distributed 
these  "indulgences"  with  a  vague formiila:  "Let  such 
a  one  with  his  family  commtuiicate".  Tertullian 
speaks  in  197  of  the  "  custom  "  for  those  who  were  not 
at  peace  with  the  Church  to  beg  this  peace  from  the 
martyrs.  Much  later,  in  his  Montanist  days  (c.  220), 
he  urges  that  the  adulterers  whom  Pope  Callistus  was 
ready  to  forgive  after  due  penance  would  now  get 
restored  by  merely  imploring  the  confessors  and  those 
in  the  mines.  Correspondingly  we  find  Lucian  issu- 
ing pardons  in  the  name  of  confessors  who  were  still 
alive,  a  manifest  abuse.  The  heroic  Mappalicus  had 
only  interceded  for  his  own  sister  and  mother.  It 
seemed  now  as  if  no  penance  was  to  be  enforced  upon 
the  lapsed,  and  Cyprian  wrote  to  remonstrate. 

MeanwhQe  official  news  had  arrived  fr.>m  Rome  of 
the  death  of  Pope  Fabian,  together  with  An  unsimed 
and  ungrammatical  letter  to  the  deray  of  Carthage 
from  some  of  the  Roman  clergy,  implying  blame  to 
Cyprian  for  the  desertion  of  his  flock,  and  giving  ad- 
vice as  to  the  treatment  of  the  lapsed.  Cyprian  ex- 
plained his  conduct  (Ep.  xx),  and  sent  to  Rome  copies 
of  thirteen  of  the  letters  he  had  written  from  his 
hiding-place  to  Carthage.  The  five  priests  who  op- 
posed him  were  now  admitting  at  once  to  communion 
all  who  had  recommendations  from  the  confessors,  and 
the  confessors  themselves  issued  a  general  indulgence, 
in  accordance  with  which  the  bishops  were  to  restore 
to  communion  all  whom  they  had  examined.  This 
was  an  outrage  on  discipline,  yet  Cyprian  was  ready  to 
give  some  value  to  the  indulgences  thus  improperly 
granted,  but  all  must  be  done  in  submission  to  the 
bishop.    He  proposed  that  libellaiici  should  be  re- 


stored, when  in  danger  of  death,  bv  a  priest  or  eivoi  by 
a  deacon,  but  that  the  rest  shoula  await  the  ceasatkm 
of  persecution,  when  councils  could  be  held  at  Borne 
ana  at  Carthage,  and  a  common  decision  be  agreed 
upon.  Some  re^Eurd  must  be  had  for  the  pren^ative 
of  the  confessors,  yet  the  lapsed  must  surely  not  be 
placed  in  a  better  position  than  those  who  had  stood 
last,  and  had  been  tortured,  or  beggared,  or  exilecL 
The  guilty  were  terrified  by  marvels  that  occurred. 
A  man  was  struck  dumb  on  the  very  Capitol  wheze  be 
had  denied  Christ.  Another  went  maa  in  the  public 
baths,  and  gnawed  the  tongue  which  had  tasted  the 
pagan  victim.  In  Cyprian's  own  presence  an  infant 
who  had  been  taken  by  its  nurse  to  partake  at  the 
heathen  altar,  and  then  to  the  Holy  Sacrifice  offered 
by  the  bishop,  was  as  though  in  torture,  and  vomited 
the  Sacred  Species  it  had  received  in  the  holy  chalice. 
A  lapsed  woman  of  advanced  age  had  fallen  in  a  fit^ 
on  venturing  to  communicate  unworthily.  Anoth^*, 
on  opening  tne  receptacle  in  which,  according  to  cus- 
tom, she  had  taken  home  the  Blessed  Sacrament  for 
private  Communion,  was  deterred  from  sacrilegiously 
touching  it  by  fire  which  came  forth.  Yet  anoth^ 
found  nought  within  her  pvx  save  cinders.  About 
September,  Cyprian  received  promise  of  support  from 
the  Roman  priests  in  t^o  letters  written  by  tne  famous 
Novatian  in  the  name  of  his  colleagues.  In  the  b^jn- 
ning  of  251  the  persecution  waned,  owing  to  the  suc- 
cessive appearance  of  two  rival  emperors.  The  con- 
fessors were  released,  and  a  council  was  convened  at 
Carthage.  By  the  perfidy  of  some  priests  Cyprian  was 
unable  to  leave  his  retreat  till  after  Laster  (23 
March).  But  he  wrote  a  letter  to  his  flock  denotm- 
cing  the  most  infamous  of  the  five  priests,  Novatus,  and 
his  deacon  Felicissimus  (£p.  xliiQ.  To  the  bishop's 
order  to  delay  the  reconciliation  of  the  lapsed  until 
the  council,  Felicissimus  had  replied  by  a  manifesto, 
declaring  that  none  should  conamunicate  with  himself 
who  accepted  the  large  alms  distributed  by  Cyprian's 
order.  The  subject  of  the  letter  is  more  fully  devel- 
oped in  the  treatise  "De  Ecclesise  Catholicse  Unitate" 
which  Cyprian  wrote  about  this  time  (Benson  wron^y 
thought  it  was  written  against  Novatian  some  weeks 
later). 

This  celebrated  pamphlet  was  read  by  its  author  to 
the  coimcil  which  met  m  April,  that  he  might  get  the 
support  of  the  bishops  against  the  schism  started  by 
Felicissimus  and  Novatus,  who  had  a  large  following. 
The  unity  with  which  St.  Cyprian  deals  is  not  so  mudi 
the  unity  of  the  whole  Church,  the  necessity,  of  which 
he  rather  postulates,  as  the  unity  to  be  kept  in  each 
dioceseby  imion  with  the  bishop;  the  umty  of  the 
whole  Church  is  maintained  by  the  close  union  of  the 
bishops  who  are  "glued  to  one  another",  hence  who- 
soever is  not  w^ith  his  bishop  is  cut  of!  from  the  unity 
of  the  Church  and  cannot  be  united  to  Christ;  the  type 
of  the  bishop  is  St.  Peter,  the  first  bishop.  Protestant 
controversialists  have  attributed  to  St.  Cyprian  the 
absurd  argument  that  Christ  said  to  Peter  what  He 
really  meant  for  all,  in  order  to  give  a  type  or  picture 
of  unity.  What  St.  Cyprian  really  says  is  simpy  this, 
that  Christ,  using  the  metaphor  of  an  edifice,  foimds 
His  Church  on  a  single  foundation  which  shall  mani* 
f est  and  ensure  its  unity.  And  as  Peter  is  the  founda- 
tion, binding  the  whole  Church  together,  so  in  each 
diocese  is  the  bishop.  With  this  one  argument  Cy- 
prian claims  to  cut  at  the  root  of  all  heresies  and 
schisms.  It  has  been  a  mistake  to  find  any  reference 
to  Rome  in  this  passage  (I>e  Unit.,  4). 

Church  UNrry. — About  the  time  of  ihe  opening  of 
the  council  (251),  two  letters  arrived  from  Rome. 
One  of  these,  announcing  the  election  of  a  pope,  St. 
Cornelius,  was  read  by  (^nBut  to  the  assembly;  the 
other  contained  such  violent  and  improbable  accusa- 
tions against  the  new  pope  that  he  thought  it  better  to 
pass  it  over.  But  two  bishops,  Caldonius  and  Foi«- 
tunatus,  were  dispatched  to  Rome  for  further  i^^fo^ 


(nrpBXAN 


585 


OnBXAN 


maiion,  and  the  whole  council  waa  to  await  their  re- 
turn— such  was  the  importance  of  a  papal  election. 
Meantime  another  message  arrived  with  the  news  that 
N'ovatian,  the  most  eminent  amoxic  the  Roman 
dergy,  had  been  made  pope.  Happily  two  African 
prelates,  Pompeius  and  Stephanus,  who  had  been 
present  at  the  election  of  Cornelius,  arrived  also,  and 
Twere  able  to  testify  that  he  had  been  validly  set  '^in 
Hie  place  of  Peter  ,  when  as  yet  there  was  no  other 
daimant.  It  was  thus  possible  to  reply  to  the  re- 
f^rimination  of  Novatian's  envoys,  and  a  short  letter 
was  sent  to  Rome,  explaining  the  discussion  which 
had  taken  place  in  the  council.  Soon  afterwards 
csune  the  report  of  Caldonius  and  Fortunatus  together 
'with  a  letter  from  Cornelius,  in  which  the  latter  com- 
plained somewhat  of  the  delay  in  recomizing  him. 
Pyprian  wrote  to  Cornelius  explaining  nis  prudent 
conduct.  He  added  a  letter  to  the  confessors  who 
'were  the  main  support  of  the  antipope,  leaving  it  to 
Cornelius  whether  it  should  be  delivered  or  no.  He 
sent  also  copies  of  his  two  treatises,  "  Be  Unitate  "  and 
*'De  Lapsis"  (this  had  been  composed  bv  him  imme- 
diately after  the  other),  and  he  wishes  the  confessors 
to  reaa  these  in  order  that  they  may  understand  what 
a  fearful  thine  is  schism.  It  is  in  this  copy  of  the 
**De  Unitate  that  Cyprian  appears  most  probably 
to  have  added  in  the  margin  an  alternative  version  of 
the  fourth  chapter.  The  original  passage^  as  foimd 
in  most  MSS.  wad  as  printed  in  Hartel's  ^ition,  rims 
thus: 

"  If  any  will  consider  this,  there  is  no  need  of  a  long 
treatise  and  of  arguments.  The  Lord  saith  to  Peter: 
'I  say  imto  thee  that  thou  art  Peter,  and  upon  this 
rock  I  will  build  M^  Church,  and  the  ^tes  of  hell 
shall  not  prevail  agamst  it;  to  thee  I  will  give  the  keys 
of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  what  thou  shalt  have 
boimd  on  earth  shall  be  bound  in  heaven,  and  what 
thou  shalt  have  loosed  shall  be  loosed  in  heaven.' 
Upon  one  He  builds  His  Church,  and  though  to  all  His 
Apostles  after  His  resurrection  He  gives  an  equal 
power  and  says:  'As  My  Father  hath  sent  Me,  even  so 
send  I  you:  Receive  the  Holy  Ghost,  whosesoever  sins 
you  shall  have  remitted  they  shall  be  remitted  unto 
them,  and  whosesoever  sins  you  shall  have  retained 
they  shall  be  retained',  yet  that  He  might  make  unity 
manifest,  He  disposed  the  origin  of  that  unity  begin- 
ning from  one.  The  other  Apostles  were  indeed  what 
Peter  was,  endowed  with  a  like  fellowship  both  of 
honour  and  of  power,  but  the  commencement  pro- 
ceeds from  one,  that  the  Church  may  be  shown  to  be 
one.  This  one  Church  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  person 
of  the  Lord  designates  in  the  Canticle  of  Canticles,  and 
says.  One  is  My  Dove,  My  perfect  one,  one  is  she  to 
her  Mother,  one  to  her  that  bare  her.  He  that  holds 
not  this  unity  of  the  Church,  does  he  believe  that  he 
holds  the  Faith?  He  who  strives  against  and  resists 
the  Church,  is  he  confident  that  he  is  in  the  Church?" 
The  substituted  passage  is  as  follows:  "...  bound 
in  heaven.  Upon  one  He  builds  His  Church,  and  to 
Oie  same  He  says  after  His  resurreciionf  *feed  My 
sheep*.  And  thoueh  to  all  His  Apostles  He  s^ve  an 
equal  power  yet  dm  He  set  up  one  chair,  and  disposed 
the  origin  and  manner  of  unity  by  his  authority.  The 
other  Apostles  were  indeed  what  Peter  was,  hut  the 
primacy  is  given  ta  Peter,  and  the  Church  and  the 
chair  is  shown  to  be  one.  And  all  are  jnistors,  hut 
the  flock  is  shown  to  he  one,  which  is  fed  hy  all  the 
Apostles  with  one  mind  and  heart.  He  who  holds 
not  this  unity  of  the  Church,  does  he  think  that  he 
holds  the  faith?  He  who  deserts  the  chair  of  Peter, 
upon  whom  the  Church  is  founded,  is  he  confident 
that  he  is  in  the  Church?" 

These  alternative  versions  are  siven  Qne  after  the 
other  in  the  chief  famOy  of  MSS.  which  contains  them, 
while  in  some  other  families  the  two  have  been  par- 
tially' or  wholly  combined  into  one.  The  combined 
version  is  the  one  which  has  been  printed  in  many  ed^ 


tions,  and  has  played  a  large  part  in  controversy  with 
Protestants.  It  is  of  course  spurious  in  this  conflated 
form,  but  the  alternative  form  given  above  is  not  only 
found  in  eidith-  and  ninth-centuiy  MSS.,  but  it  is 
quoted  by  Bede,  by  Gregory  the  Great  (in  a  letter 
written  for  his  preaecessor  Pelagius  II),  and  by  St. 
Gelasius;  indeed,  it  was  almost  certainly  known  to  St. 
Jerome  and  St.  Optatus  in  the  fourth  century.  The 
evidence  of  the  MsS.  would  indicate  an  equally  early 
date.  Every  expression  and  thought  in  the  passage 
can  be  paralleled  from  St.  Cyprian's  habitual  languac^ 
and  it  seems  to  be  now  generally  admitted  that  this 
alternative  passage  is  an  alteration  made  by  the  au- 
thor himself  when  forwarding  his  work  to  the  Roman 
confessors.  The  "one  chair  is  always  in  Cyprian 
the  episcopal  chair,  but  in  Rome  that  chair  was  the 
chair  of  Peter,  and  Cyprian  has  been  careful  to  em- 
phasize this  point,  and  to  add  a  reference  to  the  other 
great  Petrine  text,  the  Charge  in  John,  xxi.  The  as- 
sertion of  the  equality  of  the  Apostles  as  Apostles  re- 
mains, and  the  omissions  are  onljr  for  the  sake  of  brev- 
ity. The  old  contention  that  it  is  a  Roman  forgery  is 
at  all  events  quite  out  of  the  question.  Another  pas- 
sage is  also  altered  in  all  the  same  MSS.  which  contain 
the  "interpolation";  it  is  a  paragraph  in  which  the 
humble  and  pious  conduct  of  the  lapsed  "on  this 
hand"  {hie)  is  contrasted  in  alongisuccession  of  paral- 
lels with  the  pride  and  wickedness  of  the  schismatics 
"on  that  hand"  {Ulic),  but  in  the  delicate  manner  of 
the  treatise.the  latter  are  only  referred  to  in  a  general 
way.  In  the  "interpolated  MSS.  we  find  that  the 
lapsed,  whose  cause  had  now  been  settled  by  the  coun- 
cil, are  "on  that  hand"  {iUic),  whereas  the  references 
to  the  schismatics — meaning  the  Roman  confessors 
who  were  supporting  Novatian,  and  to  whom  the  book 
was  being  sent— are  made  as  pointed  as  possible, 
being  brou^t  into  the  foreground  by  the  repeated 
hie,  ''on  this  hand". 

NovATiANisM. — ^The  saint's  remonstrance  had  its 
effect,  and  the  confessors  ra^Ued  to  Cornelius.  But 
for  two  or  three  months  the  confusion  throughout  the 
Catholic  Church  had  been  terrible.  No  other  event 
in  these  early  times  shows  \is  so  clearly  the  enormous 
importance  of  the  papacy  in  East  and  West.  St. 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria  joined  his  great  influence  to 
that  of  the  Carthaginian  primate,  and  he  was  very 
soon  able  to  write  that  Antioch,  Csesarea,  and  Jerusa- 
lem, Tyre  and  Laodicea,  all  Cilicia  and  Cappadocia, 
Syria  and  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  Pontus,  ana  Bithy- 
ma,  had  returned  to  imion  and  that  their  bishops  were 
all  in  concord  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VIL  v).  From 
this  we  gaupe  the  area  of  disturbance.  Cyprian  says 
that  Novatian  "assumed  the  primacy"  (Ep.  Ixix,  8) 
and  sent  out  his  new  apostles  to  very  many  cities;  and 
where  in  all  provinces  and  cities  there  were  long  estab- 
lished, orthodox  bishops,  tried  in  persecution,  he  dared 
to  create  new  ones  to  supplant  them,  as  though  he 
could  range  through  the  whole  world  (Ep.  Iv,  24). 
Such  was  uie  power  assumed  by  a  third-century  anti- 
pope.  Let  it  oe  remembered  that  in  the  first  days  of 
the  schism  no  question  of  heresy  was  raised  and  that 
Novatian  only  enunciated  his  refusal  of  forgiveness 
to  the  lapsed  after  he  had  made  himself  pope.  Cy- 
prian's reasons  for  holding  Cornelius  to  be  the  true 
DLshop  are  fully  detailed  m  Ep.  Iv  to  a  bishop,  who 
had  at  first  yielded  to  Cyprian's  arguments  and  had 
commissioned  him  to  inform  Cornelius  that  "he  now 
communicated  with  him,  that  is  with  the  Catholic 
Church",  but  had  aiterwards  wavered.  It  is  evi- 
dently implied  that  if  he  did  not  communicate  with 
Cornelius  he  would  be  outside  the  Catholic  Church. 
Writing  to  the  pope,  Cyprian  apologizes  for  his  delay 
in  acknowledging  him;  he  had  at  least  urged  all  those 
who  sailed  to  Rome  to  make  sure  that  they  acknowl- 
edged and  held  the  womb  and  root  of  the  Catholic 
Church  (Ep.  xlviii,  3).  By  this  is  probably  meant 
"the  wopib  and  root  which  is  the  Catholic  Church", 


CTPRXAN 


586 


cnktA3K 


but  Hamack  and  many  Protestants,  as  well  as  many 
Catholics,  find  here  a  statement  that  the  Roman 
Church  is  the  womb  and  root.  Cyprian  continues 
that  he  had  waited  for  a  formal  report  from  the  bish- 
ops who  had  been  sent  to  Rome,  before  conmiittingall 
the  bishops  of  Africa,  Numidia,  and  Mauretania  to  a 
decision,  m  order  that,  when  no  doubt  could  remain, 
all  his  oollea^es  "mi^t  firmly  approve  and  hold 
your  communion,  that  is  the  unity  and  charity  of  the 
Catholic  Church  "•  It  is  certain  that  St.  Cyprian 
held  that  one  who  was  in  communion  with  an  anti- 
pope  held  not  the  root  of  the  Catholic  Church,  was  not 
nourished  at  her  breast,  drank  not  at  her  fountain. 

So  little  was  the  rigorism  of  Novatian  the  origin  of 
his  schism,  that  his  chief  partisan  was  no  other  than 
Novatus,  who  at  Carthage  had  been  reconciling  all 
the  lapsed  indiscriminately  without  penance.  He 
seems  to  hare  arrived  at  Rome  just  after  the  election 
of  Cornelius,  and  his  adhesion  to  the  party  of  ri^rism 
had  the  curious  result  of  destroying  the  opposition  to 
Q^rian  at  Carthage.  It  is  true  that  Felicissimus 
fought  manfully  for  a  time;  he  even  procured  five 
bishops,  all  excommunicated  and  deposed,  who  conse- 
cratea  for  the  party  a  certain  Fortunatus  in  opposi- 
tion to  St.  Cyprian,  in  order  not  to  be  outdone  by  the 
Novatian  party,  who  had  already  a  rival  bishop  at 
Carthage.  The  faction  even  appealed  to  St.  Cornelius, 
and  Cyprian  had  to  write  to  the  pope  a  long  account 
of  the  circumstances,  ridiculing  tneir  presumption  in 
"sailing  to  Rome,  the primatiaT Church  (ecclesia  prin- 
cipalis\  the  Chair  of  reter,  whence  the  unity  or  the 
Episcopate  had  its  origin,  not  recoUectiz^  that  these 
are  the  Romans  whose  faith  was  praisea  by  St.Paul 
(Rom.,  i,  8),  to  whom  unfaith  could  have  no  access''. 
But  tins  embassy  was  naturally  unsuccessful,  and  the 
party  of  Fortunatus  and  Felicissimus  seems  to  have 
melted  away. 

The  Lapsed. — With  r^ard  to  the  lapsed  the  coun- 
cil had  decided  that  each  case  must  be  judged  on  its 
merits,  and  that  libellatici  should  be  restored  after 
varying,  but  lengthy,  terms  of  penance,  whereas  those 
who  had  actually  sacrificed  might  after  life-long  pen- 
ance receive  Communion  in  the  hour  of  death.  But 
any  one  who  put  off  sorrow  and  penance  until  the 
hour  of  sickness  must  be  refused  all  Communion. 
The  decision  was  a  severe  one.  A  recrudescence  of 
persecution,  announced,  Cypriaii  tells  us,  by  numer- 
ous visions,  caused  the  assembling  of  another  council 
in  the  summer  of  252  (so  Benson  and  Nelke,  but 
Ritschl  and  Hamack  prefer  253),  in  which  it  was 
decided  to  restore  at  once  all  those  who  were  doing 
penance,  in  order  that  they  might  be  fortified  by  the 
Holy  Eucharist  against  trial.  In  this  persecution  of 
Galfus  and  Volusianus,  the  Church  of  Rome  was  again 
tried,  but  this  time  Cyprian  waa  able  to  congratulate 
the  pope  on  the  firmness  shown;  the  whole  Cnurch  of 
Rome,  he  says,  had  confessed  unanimously,  and  once 
again  its  faith,  praised  by  the  Apostle,  was  celebrated 
throughout  the  whole  world  (Ep.  Ix).  About  June 
253,  ComeHus  was  exiled  to  Centumcellie  (Civitavec- 
chia), and  died  there,  being  counted  aa  a  martyr  by 
CJyprian  and  the  rest  of  the  Church.  His  successor 
Lucius  was  at  once  sent  to  the  same  place  on  his 
election,  but  soon  was  allowed  to  return,  and  CJyprian 
wrote  to  congratulate  him.  He  died  5  March,  254, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Stephen,  12  May,  254. 

Rebaptism  op  Heretics: — Tertullian  had  charac- 
teristically argued  long  before,  that  heretics  have  not 
the  same  God,  the  same  Christ  with  Catholics,  there- 
fore their  baptism  is  null.  The  African  Church  had 
adopted  this  view  in  a  coimcil  held  imder  a  predeces- 
sor of  Cyprian,  Agrippinus,  at  Carthage.  In  the  East 
it  was  also  the  custom  of  Cilicia,  Cappadocia,  and 
Galatia  to  rebaptize  Montanists  who  returned  to  the 
Church.  Cyprian's  opinion  of  baptism  by  heretics 
was  strongly  expressed:  **Non  abluuntur  iUic  hom- 
ines, sed  potius  sordidantur,  nee  puigantur  delicta 


sed  immo  cumulantur.  Non  Deo  nativitas  ilia  sed 
diabolo  filios  generat"  (**De  Unit,",  xi).  A  cer- 
tain bishop,  Magnus,  wrote  to  ask  if  the  baptism 
of  the  Novatians  was  to  be  respected  (Ep.  Ixix). 
Cyprian's  answer  may  be  of  the  year  255;  he  denies 
that  they  are  to  be  distinguished  from  any  other 
heretics.  Later  we  find  a  letter  in  the  same  sense, 
probably  of  the  spring  of  255  (autumn,  according  to 
d'Al^s),  from  a  i»uncil  under  Cyprian  of  thirty-one 
bishops  (Ep.  Ixx),  addressed  to  ei^teen  Numidian 


bishops;  this  was  apparently  the  Bi^inning  of  the 
controversy.  It  appears  that  the  bisnops  of  Maure- 
tania did  not  in  this  follow  the  custom  of^Prooonsular 
Africa  and  Numidia,  and  that  Pope  Stephen  sent  them 
a  letter  appro%'ing  their  adherence  to  Roman  custom. 

Cjrprian,  being  consulted  by  a  Numidian  bishop, 
^intus,  sent  him  Ep.  Ixx,  and  replied  to  his  difficul- 
ties (Ep.  hcxi).  The  spring  council  at  Carthage  in  the 
following  year,  256,  was  more  numerous  than  usual, 
and  sixty-one  bishops  signed  the  conciliar  letter  to 
the  pope  explaining  their  reasons  for  rebaptizin^,  and 
claiming  that  it  was  a  c[ue8tion  upon  which  bishops 
were  free  to  differ.  This  was  not  Stephen's  view,  and 
he  immediately  issued  a  decree,  coucned  evidently  in 
very  peremptory  terms,  that  no  "innovation"  was  to 
be  made  (this  is  taken  by  some  modems  to  mean  "  no 
new  baptism"),  but  the  Roman  tradition  of  merely^ 
laying  hands  on  converted  heretics  in  sign  of  absolu- 
tion must  be  everywhere  observed,  under  pain  of  ex- 
communication. The  letter  was  evidently  addressed 
to  the  African  bishops,  and  contained  some  severe 
censures  on  Cyprian  himself.  CJyprian  writes  to 
Jubaianus  that  he  is  defending  the  one  Church,  the 
Church  founded  on  Peter — Why  then  is  he  caJled  a 
prevaricator  of  the  truth,  a  traitor  to  the  truth?  (Ep. 
Ixxiii,  11).  To  the  same  correspondent  he  sends  Epp. 
Ixx,  Ixxi,  Ixxii;  he  makes  no  laws  for  others,  but 
retains  his  own  liberty.  He  sends  also  a  copy  of  his 
newly  written  treatise  "De  Bono  Patientiae".  To 
Pompeius,  who  had  asked  to  see  a  copy  of  Stephen's 
rescnpt,  he  writes  with  great  violence:  **  As  you  read 
it,  you  will  note  his  error  more  and  more  clearly;  in 
approving  the  baptism  of  all  the  heresies,  he  has 
heaped  into  his  own  breast  the  sins  of  all  of  them;  a 
fine  tradition  indeed!  What  blindness  of  mind,  what 
depravity !" — "  ineptitude ' ',  "  hard  obstinacy  * ', — such 
are  the  expressions  which  run  from  the  pen  of  one  who 
declared  tnat  opinion  on  the  subject  was  free,  and  who 
in  this  very  letter  explains  that  a  bishop  must  never  be 
quarrelsome,  but  meek  and  teachable.  In  Septem- 
ber, 256,  a  3ret  larger  council  assembled  at  Carthage. 
All  agreed  with  Cyprian;  Stephen  was  not  mentioned ; 
and  some  writers  have  even  supposed  that  the  council 
met  before  Stephen's  letter  was  received  (so  Ritschl, 
Grisar,  Ernst,  Bardenhewer).  Cyprian  did  not  wish 
the  responsibility  to  be  all  his  own.  He  declared  that 
no  one  made  himself  a  bishop  of  bishops,  and  that  all 
must  give  their  true  opinion.  The  vote  of  each  was 
therefore  given  in  a  snort  speech,  and  the  minutes 
have  come  down  to  us  in  the  Cypriamc  correspondence 
under  the  title  of  "Sententiae  Episcoporum".  But 
the  messengers  sent  to  Rome  with  this  aocument  were 
refused  an  audience  and  even  denied  all  hospitality  by 
the  pope.  They  returned  incontinently  to  Carthage, 
and  Cyprian  tried  for  support  from  the  East.  He 
wrote  to  the  famous  Bishop  of  Cssarea  in  Cappadocia, 
Firmilian,  sending  him  the  treatise  ''De  Unitate"  and 
the  correspondence  on  the  baptismal  question.  By 
the  middle  of  November  Firmilian's  reply  had  arrived, 
and  it  has  come  down  to  us  in  a  translation  made  at 
the  time  in  Africa.  Its  tone  is,  if  possible,  more 
violent  than  that  of  Cyprian.  (See  Firmilian.)  Af- 
ter this  we  know  no  more  of  the  controversy. 

Stephen  died  on  27  August,  257,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Sixtus  II,  who  certainly  communicated  with 
Cyprian,  and  is  called  by  Pontius  "a  good  and  peace- 
loving  bishop".    Probably  when  it  was  seen  at  Rome 


OTPRIAH 


587 


OT^BUJI 


that  the  East  was  lai^gely  cx)inmitted  to  the  same 
wrong  praotioe,  the  question  was  tacitly  dropped.    It 
ihould  be  rememberod  that,  though  Stephen  had  de- 
manded unquestioning  obedience,  ne  had  apparently, 
like  C3rprian,  considered  the  matter  as  a  point  of  dis- 
cipline.   St.  Cyprian  supports  his  view  by  a  wrong 
ijajference  from  tne  unity  of  the  Church,  and  no  one 
thou^t  of  the  principle  afterwards  taught  by  St. 
Augi^ine,  that,  since  Christ  is  always  the  principal 
agent,  the  validity  of  the  saerament  is  independent  of 
the  unworthiness  of  the  minister:  Ipse  est  atd  hap- 
tizaL    Yet  thii  is  what  is  implied  in  Stephen  s  insist- 
ing upon  nothing  more  than  the  correct  form,  ''be- 
cause baptism  is  given  in  the  name  of  Christ'',  and 
**  the  effect  is  due  to  the  majesty  of  the  Name".    The 
laying  on  of  hands  enjoined  by  Stephen  is  repeatedly 
said  to  be  in  pawUerUiam,  yet  Cyprian  goes  on  to 
aime  that  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  by  the  la3dng  on 
of  hands  is  not  the  new  birth,  but  must  be  subsequent 
to  it  and  implies  it.    This  has  led  some  moderns  into 
the  notion  that  Stephen  meant  oonfinnation  to  be 
given  (so  Duchesne),  or  at  least  that  he  has  been  so 
misunderstood  by  Cyprian  (d'Alds).    But  the  passage 
(Ep.  Izxiv,  7)  need  not  mean  this,  and  it  is  most  im- 
probable that  confirmation  was  even  thought  of  in 
this  connexion.    Cyprian  seems  to  consider  tne  laying 
on  of  hands  in  penance  to  be  a  giving  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.    In  the  East  the  custom  of  rebaptizing  heretics 
had  periiaps  arisen  from  the  fact  that  so  many  heretics 
disbelievea  in  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  possibly  did  not 
even  use  the  right  form  and  matter.    For  centuries 
the  practice  persisted,  at  least  in  the  case  of  some  of 
the  neresies.    But  in  the  West  to  reba^tise  was  re- 
garded as  heretical,  and  Africa  came  into  line  soon 
after  St.  Cyprian.    St.  Augustine,  St.  Jerome,  and  St. 
Vincent  of  L^rins  are  fuU  of  praise  for  the  firmness  of 
Stephen  as  befitting  his  place.    But  Cyprian's  Xm- 
fortunate  letters  became  the  chief  support  of  the 
Puritanism  of  the  Donatists.     St.  Aiigustine  in  his 
^De  Baptismo"  goes  through  than  one  by  one.     He 
will  not  dwell  on  the  violent  words  quainSiepkanum 
'irriUUus  effudit,  and  expresses  his  confidence  that 
C^rian's  glorious  martyrdom  will,  have  atoned  for 
his  excess. 

Afpsaia  to  Rome. — ^£p.  Ixviii  was  written  to 
Stephen  before  the  breach.  Cyprian  has  heard  twice 
from  Faustinus,  Bishop  of  Lvons,  that  Marcianus, 
Bishop  of  Aries,  has  joined  the  party  of  Novatian. 
The  pope  will  certainly  have  been  alreadv  informed 
of  this  oy  Faustinus  and  by  the  other  bishops  of  the 
province.  Cyprian  urges:  "  You  ought  to  send  veiy 
mil  letters  to  our  fellow-bishops  in  Gaul,  not  to  allow 
the  obstinate  and  proud  Marcianus  any  mora  to  insult 
our  fellowship.  .  .  .  Therefore  send  letters  to  the 
province  and  to  the  people  of  Aries,  by  which,  Marci- 
anus having  been  excommunicated,  another  shall  be 
substituted  in  his  place ...  for  the  whole  copious  body 
of  bishops  is  joined  together  b^  the  glue  of  mututu 
ooncord  and  the  bond  of  unity,  m  order  that  if  any  of 
our  fellowship  should  attempt  to  make  a  heresy  and 
to  lacerate  and  devastate  the  flock  of  Christ,  the  rest 
may  give  their  aid.  .  .  .  For  though  we  are  many 
shepherds,  yet  we  feed  one  flock."  It  seems  incon- 
tesUtble  that  Cypriaii  is  here  explainiiiff  to  the  pope 
why  he  ventures  to  interfere,  and  that  he  attributes 
to  the  pope  the  power  of  deposing  Marcianus  and 
ordexing  a  fresh  election.  We  should  compare  his 
witness  that  Novatian  usurped  a  similar  ix>wer  as 
antipope. 

Another  letter  dates  periiaps  somewhat  later.  It 
emanates  from  a  council  of  thirty-seven  bishops,  and 
was  obviously  composed  by  Cyprian.  It  is  addressed 
to  the  priest  Felix  and  the  people  of  Legio  and  Astu- 
rica,  and  to  the  deacon  ^lius  and  tne  people  of 
Emerita,  in  Spain.  It  relates  that  the  bishops  Felix 
and  Sabinus  had  come  to  Carthage  to  complain. 
They  had  been  legitimately  ordained  by  the  Sishops 


of  the  province  in  the  place  of  the  former  bishops, 
Basilides  and  Martialis,  who  had  both  accepted  IxbeUi 
in  the  pexBecution.  Baisilides  had  further  blasphemed 
God  in  sickness,  had  confessed  his  blasphemy,  had 
voluntarily  resigned  his  bishopric,  ana  had  been 
thankful  to  be  allowed  lay  communion.  Martialis 
had  indulged  in  pagan  banquets  and  had  buried  his 
sons  in  a  pagan  cemeteiy.  He  had  publicly  attested 
before  the  procurator  ducenarius  that  he  had  denied 
Christ.  Wnerefore,  says  the  letter,  such  men  are 
unfit  to  be  bishops,  the  whole  Church  and  the  late 
Pope  Cornelius  having  decided  that  such  men  may  be 
admitted  to  penance  but  never  to  ordination  •  it  does 
not  profit  them  that  they  have  deceived  Pope  Stephen, 
who  was  afar  off  and  unaware  of  the  facts,  so  that  they 
obtained  to  be  unjustly  restored  to  their  sees;  nay,  by 
this  deceit  they  have  only  increased  their  guilt.  The 
letter  is  thus  a  declaration  that  Stephen  was  wickedly 
deceived.  No  fault  is  imputed  to  him,  nor  is  there 
any  claim  to  reverse  his  decision  or  to  deny  his  right 
to  give  it;  it  is  simply  pointed  out  that  it  was  founded 
on  false  information,  and  was  therefore  null.  But  it 
is  obvious  that  the  African  council  had  heard  only  one 
side,  whereas  Felix  and  Sabinus  must  have  pleaded 
their  cause  at  Rome  before  they  come  to  Africa.  On 
this  ground  the  Africans  seem  to  have  made  too 
hasty  a  judgment.  But  nothing  more  is  known  <^ 
the  matter. 

Martyrdom. — ^The  empire  was  surrounded  bv  bar- 
barian hordes  who  pourea  in  onidl  sides.  The  danger 
was  the  signal  for  a  renewal  of  persecution  on  the  part 
of  the  Emperor  Valerian.  At  Alexandria  St.  Diony- 
sius  was  exiled.  On  30  Aug.,  257,  C^rian  was 
brought  before  the  Proconsul  Patemus  m  his  aecn- 
tarium.  His  interrogatory  is  extant  and  forms  the 
first  part  of  the  ''Acta  proconsularia''  of  his  martyr- 
dom. Cyprian  declares  himself  a  Christian  and  a 
bishop.  He  serves  one  God  to  Whom  he  prays  day 
and  xueht  for  all  men  and  for  the  safety  of  tne  emper^ 
ors.  "Do  you  persevere  in  this?"  asks  Patemus. 
"A  good  will  which  knows  God  cannot  be  altered." 
"Can  you,  then,  go  into  exile  at  Curubis?"  "I  go." 
He  is  asked  for  the  names  of  the  priests  also,  but  re- 

Elies  that  delation  is  forbidden  by  the  laws;  they  will 
e  found  easily  enough  in  their  respective  cities.  On 
September  he  went  to  Curubis,  accompanied  by  Pon- 
tius. The  town  was  lonely,  but  Pontius  tells  us  it  was 
sunny  and  pleasant,  and  that  there  were  plenty  of 
visitors,  while  the  citizens  were  full  of  kindness.  He 
relates  at  length  C^rian's  dream  on  his  first  night 
there,  that  he  was  in  the  proconsul's  court  and  con- 
demned to  death,  but  was  reprieved  at  his  own  request 
until  the  morrow.  He  awoke  in  terror,  but  once 
awake  he  awaited  that  morrow  with  calmness.  It 
came  to  him  on  the  very  anniversary  of  the  dream. 
In  Numidia  the  measures  were  more  severe.  Cyprian 
writes  to  nine  bishops  who  were  working  in  the  mines, 
with  half  their  hair  shorn,  and  with  insufficient  fooa 
and  clothing.  He  was  still  rich  and  able  to  help  them. 
Their  replies  are  preserved,  and  we  have  also  the  au- 
thentic Acts  of  several  African  martyrs  who  suffered 
soon  after  Cyprian. 

In  August,  258,  Cyprian  learned  that  Pope  Sixtus 
had  been  put  to  death  in  the  catacombs  on  the  6th  of 
that  montn.  together  with  four  of  his  deacons,  in  con* 
sequence  ot  a  new  edict  that  bishops,  priests,  and 
deacons  should  be  at  once  put  to  aeath;  senators, 
knights,  and  others  of  rank  are  to  lose  their  goods, 
and,  if  they  still  persist,  to  die;  matrons  to  be  exiled; 
CsBsarians  (officers  of  the  fiscua)  to  become  slaves. 
Galerius  Maximus,  the  successor  of  Patemus,  sent  for 
Cjrprian  back  to  Carthage,  and  in  his  own  gardens  the 
bisnop  awaited  the  final  sentence.  Many  great  per- 
sonages urged  him  to  fly,  but  he  had  now  no  vision  to 
recommend  this  course,  and  he  desired  above  all  to 
remain  to  exhort  others.  Yet  he  hid  himself  rather 
than  obey  the  proconsul's  summons  to  Utica,  for  he 


CnOPBXAH 


588 


07»HXAM 


cXecIared  it  was  right  for  a  bishop  to  die  in  hit;  own 
city.  On  the  retiim  of  Galeriiis  to  Cartha^,  Cyprian 
was  brought  from  his  gardens  by  two  pnndpes  in  a 
chariot,  but  the  proconsul  was  ill,  and  Cyprian  passed 
the  night  in  the  house  of  the  first  jrrinceps  in  the  com- 
pany of  his  friends.  Of  the  rest  we  have  a  vague  de- 
scription by  Pontius  and  a  detailed  report  in  the  pro- 
consular Acts.  On  the  morning  of  the  14th  a  crowd 
gathered  "  at  the  villa  of  Sextus"',  by  order  of  the  au- 
thorities. Cvprian  was  tried  there.  He  refused  to 
sacrifice,  and  added  that  in  such  a  matter  there  was 
no  room  for  thought  of  the  consec^uences  to  himself. 
The  proconsul  read  his  condemnation  and  the  multi- 
tude cried,  "  Let  us  be  beheaded  with  him! "  He  was 
taken  into  the  grounds,  to  a  hollow  surrounded  by 
trees,  into  whicn  many  of  the  people  climbed.  Cy- 
^  prian  took  off  his  cloak,  and  knelt  aown  and  prayed. 
Then  he  took  off  his  dalmatic  and  gave  it  to  his  dea- 
cons, and  stood  in  his  linen  tunic  in  silence  awaiting 
the  executioner,  to  whom  he  ordered  twenty-five  gold 
pieces  to  be  given.  The  brethren  cast  cloths  and 
nandkerchi^s  before  him  to  catch  his  blood.  He 
bandaged  his  own  eyes  with  the  help  of  a  priest  and  a 
deacon,  both  called  Julius.  So  he  suffered.  For  the 
rest  of  the  day  his  body  was  exposed  to  satisfy  the 
curiosity  of  the  paeans.  But  at  night  the  brethren 
bore  him  with  candles  and  torches,  with  prayer  and 
great  triimiph,  to  the  cemetery  of  Macrobius  Candi- 
Sanus  in  the  suburb  of  Mapuia.  He  was  the  first 
Bishop  of  Carthaee  to  obtain  the  crown  of  martyrdom. 

WRiTiNGa. — ^Tne  correspondence  of  Cyprian  con- 
sists of  eighty-one  letters.  Sixty-two  of  them  are  his 
own,  three  more  are  in  the  name  of  councils.  From 
this  large  collection  we  get  a  vivid  picture  of  his  time. 
The  first  collection  of  his  writing  must  have  been 
made  just  before  or  Just  after  his  death,  as  it  was 
known  to  Pontius.  It  consisted  of  ten  treatises  and 
0even  letters  on  martyrdom.  To  these  were  added  in 
Africa  a  set  of  letters  on  the  baptismal  question,  and 
at  Rome,  it  seems,  the  correspondence  with  Corne- 
lius, except  Ep.  xlviii.  Other  letters  were  successively 
aggregated  to  these  ^ups,  including  letters  to  Cy- 
pnan  or  connected  with  him,  his  collections  of  Testi- 
monies, and  many  spurious  wortcs.  To  the  treatises 
already  mentioned  we  have  to  add  a  well-known  ex- 
position of  the  Lord's  Prayer ;  a  work  on  the  simplicitv 
of  dress  proper  to  consecrated  vireins  (these  are  both 
founded  on  Tertullian);  "On  the  Mortality",  a  beau- 
tiful pamphlet,  composed  on  the  occasion  of  the  pla^;ue 
whicn  reached  Cartnage  in  252,  when  Cyprian,  with 
wonderful  energy,  raiem  a  staff  of  workers  and  a  great 
fimd  of  money  for  the  nursing  of  the  sick  and  the 
burial  of  the  dead.  Another  work,  "On  Almsgiv- 
ing", its  Christian  character,  necessity,  and  satisfac- 
tory value,  was  perhaps  written,  as  Watson  has 
pointed  out,  in  reply  to  the  calumny  that  Cyprian's 
own  lavish  gifts  were  bribes  to  attach  men  to  his  side. 
Only  one  of  his  writings  is  couched  in  a  pungent  strain, 
tiiie  "ad  Demetrianum",  in  which  he  replies  in  a  spir- 
it^ manner  to  the  accusation  of  a  heathen  that  Chm- 
tianity  had  brought  the  plague  upon  the  world.  Two 
short  works,  "On  Patience^'  and  "On  Rivahy  and 
Envy",  apparently  written  during  the  baptismal  con- 
troversy, were  much  read  in  ancient  times.  St.  Cy- 
prian was  the  first  great  Latin  writer  amon^  the  Chris- 
tians, for  Tertullian  fell  into  heresy,  and  his  style  was 
harsh  and  unintelligible.  Until  the  days  of  Jerome 
and  Augustine,  C^rian's  writing  had  no  rivals  in  the 
West.  Their  praise  is  sung  hy  Prudentius,  who  joins 
with  Pacian,  Jerome,  Augustine,  and  many  others  in 
attesting  their  extraordinary  popularity. 

DocmiNS. — ^The  little  that  can  be  extracted  from 
St.  (^rian  on  the  Holy  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation 
m  correct,  judged  by  later  standards.  On  baptismal 
^generation,  on  the  Real  Presence,  on  the  Sacrifice  of 
the  Mass,  his  faith  is  dearly  and  repeatedly  expressed, 
•specially  in  Ep.  Ixiv  on  mfant  baptism,  ana  in  Ep. 


Ixiii  on  the  mixed  chalice,  written  against  the  i 
legious  custom  of  using  water  without  wine  for  Mass. 
On  penance  he  is  clear,  like  all  the  ancients,  that  for 
those  who  have  been  s^>arated  from  the  Church  by 
sin  there  is  no  return  except  by  an  humble  confession 
{examologesis  apud  sacerdotea).  followed  by  remiasia 
facta  per  sacerdotes.  The  ordinary  minister  of  this 
sacrament  is  the  Kuxrdos  par  excellence,  tiie  bishop; 
but  priests  can  administer  it  subject  to  him,  and  m 
case  of  necessity  the  lapsed  might  be  restcMred  by  a 
deacon.  He  does  not  add,  as  we  should  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  that  in  this  case  there  is  no  sacrament;  such 
theological  distinctions  were  not  in  his  line.  There 
was  not  even  a  b^inning  of  canon  law  in  the  Western 
Chtirch  of  the  third  century.  In  Cyprian's  view  each 
bishop  is  answerable  to  God  alone  for  his  actioii, 
though  he  ought  to  take  counsel  of  the  clergy  and  of 
the  laity  also  in  all  important  matters.  The  Bishop 
of  Carthage  had  a  great  position  as  honorary  diief  of 
all  the  biimops  in  the  provinces  of  Proconsular  Africa, 
Numidia,  and  Mauretania,  who  were  about  a  hundred 
in  number;  but  he  had  no  actual  jurisdiction  over 
them.  They  seem  to  have  met  in  some  numbers  at 
Carthage  every  spring,  but  their  conciliar  decisions 
had  no  real  binding  force.  If  a  bishop  should  apoetar- 
tize  or  become  a  heretic  or  fall  into  scandalous  sin,  he 
might  be  deposed  by  his  comprovincials  or  by  the 

Eope.  Cyprian  prol>ably  thought  that  questions  of 
eresy  would  always  be  too  obvious  to  need  much  dis- 
cussion. It  is  certain  that  where  internal  discipline 
was  concerned  he  considered  that  Rome  should  not 
interfere,  and  that  uniformity  was  not  desirable — a 
most  unpractical  notion.  We  have  always  to  remem- 
ber that  his  experience  as  a  Christian  was  of  short 
duration,  that  he  became  a  bishop  soon  after  he  was 
converted,  and  that  he  had  no  Christian  writings  be- 
sides Holy  Scripture  to  study  but  those  of  Tertullian. 
He  evidently  knew  no  Greek,  and  probably  was  not 
aoauainted  with  the  translation  of  Iren»us.  Rome  is 
to  nim  the  centre  of  the  Church's  unity;  it  was  inac- 
cessible to  heresy,  which  had  been  Imocklng  at  its 
doors  for  a  century  in  vain.  It  was  the  See  m  Peter,  • 
who  was  the  tjrpe  of  the  bishop,  the  first  of  the  Apos- 
tles. Difference  of  opinion  between  bishops  as  to  the 
right  occupant  of  the  Sees  of  Aries  or  Emerita  would 
not  involve  breach  of  oonmiunion,  but  rival  biahofMs 
at  Rome  would  divide  the  Chiirch,  and  to  conununi- 
cate  with  the  wrong  one  would  be  schism.  It  is  con- 
troverted whether  chastity  was  obligatoiy  or  only 
strongly  urged  upon  priests  in  his  day.  The  conse- 
crated virgins  were  to  him  the  flower  of  his  flock,  the 
jewels  of  the  Church,  amid  the  profligacy  of  pa^mism. 
Spuria. — ^A  short  treatise,  "Quad  Idola  dii  noa 
sint",  is  printed  in  all  editions  as  Cj^prian's.  It  is 
made  up  out  of  Tertullian  and  Minucius  Felix.     Its 

gmuineness  is  accepted  by  Benson,  Monoeaux,  and 
ardenhewer,  as  it  was  anciently  by  Jerome  aad 
Augustine.  It  has  been  attributed  by  Haussleiter  to 
Novatian,  and  is  rejected  by  Hamack,  Watson,  and 
von  Soden.  "De  Spectaculis"  and  "De  bono  pudi- 
citise"  are,  with  some  probability,  ascribed  to  Nova- 
tian. They  are  well-written  letters  of  an  absent 
bishop  to  his  flock.  "De  Laude  martyrii"  is  again 
attributed  by  Hamack  to  Novatian;  but  this  is  not 
generally  accepted.  "Adversus  Jud»os"  is  perha^ 
by  a  Novatianist,  and  Hamack  ascribes  it  to  Nova- 
tian himself.  "  Ad  Novatianum  * '  is  ascribed  by  Har- 
nack  to  Pope  Sixtus  II.  Ehrhard^  Benson,  Nelke, 
and  Weyman  agree  with  him  that  it  was  written  in 
Rome.  This  is  denied  by  Jtllidier,  Bardenhewer, 
Monceaux.  Rombold  thinks  it  is  by  Cyprian.  "De 
Rebaptismate"  is  apparently  ihe  work  attributed  by 
Gennadius  to  a  Roman  named  Ursinus,  c  400.  He 
was  followed  by  some  earlier  critics,  Routh,  Oudin, 
and  lately  by  Zahn.  But  it  was  almost  certainly 
written  during  the  baptismal  controversy  under 
Stephen.    It  comes  from  Rome  (so  Harnack  and 


OTPBUS 


589 


OTPBUS 


others)  or  from  Mauretania  (so  Enist,  Monoeauz, 
d'Alw),  and  is  directed  against  the  view  of  Cyprian. 
The  little  homily  "  De  Aleatoribus"  has  had  quite  a 
literature  of  its  own  within  the  last  few  years,  since  it 
was  attributed  by  Hamack  to  Pope  Victor,  and  there- 
fore accounted  the  earliest  Latin  ecclesiastical  writing. 
The  controversy  has  at  least  made  it  clear  that  the 
author  was  either  very  early  or  not  orthodox.  It  has 
been  shown  to  be  improbable  that  he  was  very  early, 
and  Hamack  now  admits  that  the  work  is  by  an  anti- 
pope,  either  Novatianist  or  Donatist.  References  to 
all  the  brochures  and  articles  on  the  subject  will  be 
found  in  Ehrhard,  in  Bardenhewer,  and  especially  in 
Hamack  (Chronol.,  II,  370  sqq.)- 

''De  Montibus  Sina  et  Sion"  is  possibly  older  than 
Cyprian's  time  (see  Hamack,  and  also  Turner  in 
Journal  of  Theol.  Studies,  July,  1906).  "  Ad  Vigilium 
Episcopum  de  Judaic^  incredulitate"  is  by  a  certain 
Celsus,  and  was  once  supposed  by  Hamack  and  Zahn 
to  be  addressed  to  the  well-known  Vigilius  of  Thapsus, 
but  Macholz  has  now  convinced  Hamack  that  it  dates 
Ax>m  either  the  persecution  of  Valerian  or  that  of  Max- 
entius.  The  two  **  Orationes"  are  of  imoertain  date  and 
authorship.  The  tract  **  De  Sin^ularitate  clerioorum ' ' 
has  been  attributed  by  Dom  Morin  and  by  Hamack  to 
the  Donatist  Bisho])  Macrobius  in  the  fourth  century. 
"  De  duplici  Martyr io  ad  Fortunatum"  is  found  in  no 
MS.,  and  was  apparently  written  by  Erasmus  in  1530. 
"De  PaschA  computus"  was  written  in  the  year  pre- 
.  ceding  Easter  243.  All  the  above  spuria  are  printed 
in  Hartel's  edition  of  Cyprian.  The  "  Exhortatio  de 
penitentiA"  (first  printed  by  Trombelli  in  1761)  is 
placed  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  by  Wimderer, 
but  in  Cyprian's  time  by  Monceaux. .  Four  letters  are 
also  given  by  Hartel;  the  first  is  the  original  com- 
mencement of  the  "Ad  Donatum".  The  others  arc 
forgeries;  the  third,  according  to  Mercati,  is  by  a 
foiuth-century  Donatist.  The  six  poems  are  by  one 
author,  of  quite  uncertain  date.  The  amusing  'H)ena 
Cypriani"  is  found  in  a  large  number  of  (>prianic 
MSS.  Its  date  is  uncertain;  it  was  re-edited  by 
Blessed  Rhabanus  Maurus.  Cin  the  use  of  it  at  pag- 
eants in  the  early  Middle  AgsA  itee  Mann,  "  History  of 
the  Popes",  II,  289. 

The  principal  editions  of  the  works  of  St.  Cyprian 
are:  lUJDe,  1471  (the  ed,  princepa),  dedicated  to  Paul 
II;rept%lt3dt  Venice,  1471,  and  1483;  Memmingcn,  c. 
1477;  DeveWir,  c.  1477;  Paris,  1500;  ed.  by  Rembolt 
(Paris,  1512);  by  Erasmus  (Basle,  1520  and  frequently; 
the  ed.  of  1544  was  printed  at  Cologne).  A  careful 
critical  edition  was  prepared  by  Latino  Latini,  and 
published  by  Manutius  (Rome,  1563) ;  Morel  also  wf  it 
to  the  MSS.  (Paris,  1564);  so  did  Pamdle  (Antwerp, 
1568),  but  with  less  success:  Rigault  did  somewhat 
better  (Paris,  1648,  etc.).  John  Fell,  Bishop  of  Ox- 
ford and  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  published  a  well- 
known  edition  from  MSS.  in  England  (Oxford,  1682). 
The  dissertations  by  Dodwell  and  the  "Annales  Cy- 
prianici ' '  by  Pearson,  who  arranged  the  letters  in  chron- 
ological order,  make  this  edition  important,  though 
the  text  is  poor.  The  edition  prepared  by  Etienne 
Baluze  was  Brought  out  after  his  death  by  Dom  Pru- 
dence Maran  (Paris,  1726),  and  has  been  several  times 
reprinted,  especially  by  Migne  (P.  L.,  IV  and  V).  The 
btMt  edition  is  that  of  the  Vienna  Academy  (C.  S.  E. 
L.,  vol.  Ill,  in  3  parte,  Vienna,  1868-71),  edited  from 
the  MSS.  by  Hartel.  Since  then  much  work  has  been 
done  upon  the  history  of  the  text,  and  especially  on 
the  or^r  of  the  letters  and  treatises  as  witnessing  to 
the  genealogy  of  the  codices. 

A  fitichometrical  fist,  probably  made  in  354,  of  the  Books  of 
the  Bible,  and  of  many  works  of  St.  Cyprian,  was  iMiblished  in 
1886  from  a  MS.  then  at  Cbeltenhiun  by  Mouubbn,  Zur  lot. 
Stiehometrie;  Hermes,  XXL  142;  ibid.  (180^,  XXV,  636.  on  a 
second  MS.  at  St.  GaD.  See  Sandat  and  Turner  in  Studia 
Bxbliea  (Oxford.  1891).  HI;  Turner  In  CUusioal  Review  (1892, 
etc.),  VI,  206.  On  Oxford  MSS.,  see  Wordbwobxu  in  Old  Lot. 
BMtoal  Texts  (Oxford.  1886).  II,  123;  on  Madrid  MSS..  Sohuls. 
3%.  JUt  Zeituna  (1897),  p.  179.    On  other  MSS.,  Turnrr  in 


Journal  of  Th.  St..  Ill,  282,  586.  579;  Raiisat.  ibid..  III.  685. 

IV,  86.  On  the  ttgnifieanoe  of  the  order,  Oraphan,  ibid.,  IV, 
103;  VON  SoDKN,  Die  cyprianische  Brvefeamndung  (Leipsig. 
1904).  There  are  many  interesting  points  m  Mbrcau,  Jyalcuni 
nuooi  aueeidi  per  la  anUca  del  testo  d*  S.  Cipriano  (Rome,  1899). 

On  the  life  of  St.  Cyprian:  Pbabson.  Annalet  Cyprianid,  ed. 
Fbll:  Ada  SS.^  14  Sept.;  RsrrBBRO,  Th.  Cae.  Cyprianue 
((36ttingon.  1831);  Freppel,  SaitU  Cyprum  et  VEgli$e  fAirique 
(Paris,  1866,  etc.);  PETBBa.  Der  hi.  Cypr.  v.  Karlh.  (Rattsbon. 
1877);  Freppel  and  Peters  occasionally  exasperate  in  the 
Catholic  interest.  Fechtbup,  Der  hi.  Cyprian  (Milnsten  1878); 
RmcRL,  Cyprian  v.  K.  und  die  Verfaaeung  der  Kirche  (GOttin- 
sen,  1885);  Benson,  Cyprian,  hie  life,  his  Hmee,  hia  ioork  (Lon- 
don, 1897).  (This  is  the  fullest  and  best  English  life;  it  is  full 
of  enthusiasm,  but  marred  by  odium  theolooicum,  and  qiute 
untrustworthy  where  controversial  points  arise,  whether 
against  Nonconfonnists  or  against  Catholics.)  Monceaux, 
Hiat.  m.  de  VAfrique  chrit.  (Paris.  1902),  II,  a  valuable  work. 
Ol  the  accounts  in  nistories.  encyclopedias,  and  patroloipes.  the 
best  is  that  of  BaroenbeweRj  Qeach.  der  aUkirdU.  Lit.  (Frei- 
burg,  1903)^1.  PBARaoN*8  chronological  order  of  the  letters 
is  given  in  Hartbl^b  edition.  Rectifications  are  proposed  by 
RrrscaXi,  De  Epiatulie  Cyvrianicie  (Halle.  1885),  and  Cyprian 

V.  Karthago  (Gdttingen,  ISS5);  bv  Nelxe,  Die  CkronbLoqte  der 
Korreep.  Cypr.  (Thorn,  1902);  by  von  Sodbn,  op.  cU.;  by 
Benson  and  Monceaux.  These  views  are  discussed  by  Babi>- 
knhewbb,  loc.  dt.,  and  Harnack,  Chronol.^  II.  Bonaccorsx, 
Le  lettere  di  S.  Cipriano  in  Riv.  atorico-crUica  deUe  acienze  teoL 
(Rome.  1905),  I.  377:  Stufler,  Die  BehandLungder  OefaUenen 
zwr  Zeit  der  deciachen  Verfolgtmo  in  ZeiUchriJtjUr  Kaihol.  Theol., 
1907.  XXXI.  577;  Dwiqht.  St.  Cyprian  and  the  libeUi  tnartyrum 
in  Amer.  Cath.  Qu.  Rev.  (1907) .  XXXII.  478.  On  the  chronology 
of  the  baptismal  controveray,  d'Aleb.  La  queation  baptiamale  au 
tetrvpa  de  aairU-Cyprien  in  Rev.  dee  Queationa  Hiat.  (19()7),  p.  353. 

On  ^prian's  Biblical  text:  Cobssen,  Znr  Orientierunp  Hber 
die  biaherige  Erforachung  dea  Bibellexlea  Cypriana  in  Jahretbe- 
rxeht  aber  die  FortachriUe  der  klaaa.  Altertumawiaa.  (1899); 
Sandat  in  Old  Latin  Bibl.  Texta  (1886),  II;  Turnbr  in  Joum. 
Theol.  St.,  II.  600.  610;  Heidbnreich,  Der  nil.  Text  bei  Cyprian 
(Bamberg.  19()0);  Monceaux,  op.  cU.:  Corbsbn,  Der  cypr. 
Text  der  Ada  Ap.  (Berlin,  1892);  Zahn,  Forathungen  (Erlangen, 
1891).  IV.  79  (on  C^yprian's  text  of  the  Apoc).  A  new  edition 
(Oxford  Univ.  Press)  is  expected  of  the  Teatimonia  by  Sandat 
and  Turner.  Tentative  prolegomena  to  it  by  Turner  in 
Journal  TheHoaioal  Studiea  (1905),  VI.  246,  and  (1907),  IX.  62. 
The  work  has  been  interpolated;  see  Rambat,  On  early  wiser- 
iiona  in  the  third  book  of  St.  Cyprian*a  Text  in  Journal  of  Theol. 
St.  (1901).  II,  276.  Testimomes  of  the  ancients  to  Cyprian  in 
KASSACK.,Oeach.deraUehriaU.  Lit.,  I;  Gdrz,  Oeaeh.  der  cypriq^ 
niadien  Literatur  biaeuder  Zeit  der  eraten  erhaltenen  Handachriften 
CBasle.  1891). 


On  the  Latin  of  St.  Cyprian  an  excellent  essay  by  Watbon, 
The  Style  and  Language  of  St.  Cyprian  in  Stud.  Bibl.  (Oxford, 
1896),  IV;    Batard,  Le  Latin  de  Saint  Cyprien  (Paris,  1902). 


The  letters  of  (^orneUus  are  in  Vulgar  Latin  (see  Mercati,  op.  eit.), 
and  so  are  Epp.  viii  (anonymous)  and  xxi-xxiv  (Celerinus,  Luoi- 
an.  Confessors,  C^ldonius);  they  have  been  edited  by  Mxodonbxi, 
Aaveraiu  Aleatorea  (Erlangen  and  Leipzig,  1889).  On  the  inter- 
polations in  De  Unitate  Ecd.,  see  Habtel,  Preface;  Benson, 
pp.  200-21,  547-552;  Crapuan,  Lea  interpolationa  done  le 
iraiti  de  Saint  Cyprien  aur  Vuniti  de  VEgliae  in  Remis  BinSdic 
tine  (1902),  XIX,  246.  357,  and  (1903),  XX,  26:  Harnack  in 
Theol.  Litt.  Zeitung  (1903).  no.  9.  and  in  Chronol.,  II;  Watson 
in  Journal  Theol.  St.  (1904)j?.  432;  (Chapman,  ibid.,  p.  634,  etc. 
On  particular  points  see  Harnack  in  Texte  und  Vnteraudi., 
IV,  3,  VIII.  2;  on  the  letters  of  the  Ronum  clergy.  Harnack 
in  Theol.  Abhandl.  Carl  v.  Weita&cker  aewidmet  (Freiburg,  1896). 

On  Cyprian's  theolonr  much  has  been  written.  RrrscmL  is 
fanciful  and  unsympathetio.  Benson  untrustworthy.  Gfin, 
Daa  Chriatentum  Cypriana  (Giessen,  1896).  On  his  trust  in 
visions,  Harnack,  Cyprian  ala  Enthuaiaat  in  Zeitaehr.  tUr  ntl. 
Wiaa.  (1902).  lll,ibid.  On  the  baptismal  controversy  and  Cypri- 
an's excommunication,  see  Grxbar  in  Zeitadir.  fUr  kath.  Theol. 
(1881),  V:  HoENBBROECH.t^Mi.  (1891),  XV:  Ernbt,  ibid..  XVII, 
XVIIL  XIX.  PoacHMANN.  Die  SiMbarkeU  der  Kirche  naeh 
der  Lekre dea h.  Cypr.  (Breslau.  1907) 'J[liou,  Lageniaedel'unitS 
ratholique  d  la  penaSe  da  Cyprien  (Paris,  Iwl).  To  merely 
oontroversial  works  it  is  uimeceesary  to  refer. 

The  above  is  only  a  selection  from  an  immense  literature  on 
CTyprian  and  the  pseudo-Cyprianie  writings,  for  which  see 
Chevalier,  Bio-Bibl.,  and  BiCBAXOBOVjBibiiographical  Synop' 
aia.  Good  lists  in  voN  Sodbn,  and  in  Harnack,  ChroncL,  11; 
the  very  full  references  in  Bardbnhewer  are  conveniently 
classified.  JoKN  CHAPMAN. 

(hrprus,  aa  island  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Alexandretta.  It  was 
originally  inhabited  by  Phoenicians  and  Greeks,  and 
was  famous  for  its  temples  of  Aphrodite.  Though 
long  autonomous,  in  the  sixth  century  b.  c.  do- 
minion over  it  was  disputed  bf  the  Egyptians  and 
the  Persians,  the  latter  ruling  it  till  the  mvasion  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  From  the  Ptolemies  of  Efflrpt 
it  passed  to  the  Romans  (59  b.  c).  Despite  Moslem 
invasions  from  the  seventh  to  the  tenth  century,  it  re- 
mained a  part  of  the  Eastern  Empire  untfl  the  end  of 
the  twelfth.  In  1 191  it  waa  conquered  by  Richard  the 
Lion-rHearted,  who  gave  it  to  Guy  de  Lusignan,  King  of 


OYPBUS 


590 


07FBVS 


Jerusalem:  in  1373  it  fell  to  the  Genoese,  in  1489  to 
the  Venetians.  Finally,  in  1571,  it  became  Moslem 
territory  imder  Sultan  Selim  II.  In  1878  it  was  oc- 
cupied oy  En^and  and  is  now  administered  by  an 
En^ish  high  commissioner,  assisted  by  a  board  of  four 
English  members  (Statesman's  Year  Book,  London, 
1908).  I^e  island  is  hillv,  with  few  rivers,  and  the 
climate  is  hot.  Its  once  famous  cities  have  perished; 
the  chief  towns  are  now  Lamaca  (the  best  port),  Ni- 
cosia, and  Limaflol.  Its  area  is  153,584  square  miles. 
The  population  m  1901  was  237,000  (51,000  Mussul- 
mans, 1100  Maronites,  850  Latins,  300  Armenians,  a 
few  Protestants  and  Jews,  and  the  rest  Greeks).  It 
produces  dates,  carobs,  oranges  and  other  fruits,  oil, 
wine,  and  com.  It  has  also  sponge  fisheries.  Gypsum 
18  mined  there  and  copper  mines  were  worked  in  an- 
cient times.  Christianity  was  successfully  preached 
in  Qyiprus  by  St.  Paul,  St.  Barnabas  (a  native  of  the 
island),  and  St.  John  Mark.  At  Paphos  the  m^cian 
Elymas  was  blinded  and  the  Proconsul  Sergius  Faulus 
was  converted  (Acts,  xi,  xiii,  xv).  The  Byzantine 
''Synaxaria''  mention  many  saints,  bishops,  and  mar- 
tyrs of  this  early  period,  e.g.  St.  Lazarus,  St.  Hera- 
dides,  St.  Nicanor  (one  of  the  first  seven  deacons),  and 
others.  In  the  fourth  century  we  find  two  illustrious 
names,  that  of  St.  Spiridion,  the  shepherd  Bishop  of 
IVimithus,  present  at  the  Council  of  Nicsea  in  325  with 
two  other  Cypriot  bishops,  whose  relics  were  removed 
to  Corfil  in  1460,  and  that  of  St.  Epiphanius  (d.  403), 
Bishop  of  Salamis,  the  zealous  adversary  of  all  here- 
sies and  author  of  many  valuable  theolo^cal  works. 
The  Bishop  of  Salamis  (later  Constantia)  was  then 
metropolitan  of  the  whole  island,  but  was  himself  sub- 
ject to  tile  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  During  the  Ai^an 
Quarrels  and  the  Eustathian  schism,  the  C3rpriote 
Church  began  to  claim  its  independence.  Pope  Inno- 
cent I  stood  out  for  the  rights  of  the  Antiochene  patri- 
arch, Alexander  I.  However,  it  was  not  long  before 
the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431)  in  its  seventh  session 
acknowledged  the  ecclesiastical  independence  of  Cy- 
prus: the  cause  was  gained  by  the  metropolitan, 
Kheginus,  who  was  present  at  Ephesus  with  three  of 
his  suffragans.  In  488  Peter  the  Dyer  (Petrus  Fullo), 
the  famous  Monoph3rsite  patriarch,  made  an  effort  to 
recover  the  ancient  Antiochene  jurisdiction  over  the 
island.  During  the  conflict,  however,  the  Cypriote 
metropolitan,  Anthimus,  claimed  to  have  learned  by  a 
revelation  that  the  site  of  the  sepulchre  of  St.  Barna- 
bas was  quite  near  his  own  city  of  Salamis;  he  found 
there  the  body  of  the  Apostle  with  a  copy  of  St.  Mat- 
thew's Gospel,  brought  the  relics  to  donstantinopie, 
and  presented  them  to  the  Emperor  Zeno.  Acacius 
of  Constantinople  decided  in  favour  of  Cyprus  against 
Antioch,  since  which  time  the  ecclesiastical  indepen- 
dence (atUocephalia)  of  the  island  hss  no  more  been 
called  in  question,  the  archbishop,  known  as  exarch, 
ranking  immediately  after  the  five  great  patriarchs. 

From  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  century  the  following 
Archbishops  of  Constantia  (Salamis)  are  worthy  of 
note:  Acadiiis,  biographer  of  St.  Symeon  Stylites  the 
Younger,  and  an  uncompromisiDg  opponent  of  the 
Ecthesisof  Heraclius(q.v.);  Sergius,  who  condemned 
this  document  in  a  council  and  sent  the  pertinent  de- 
cree to  Pope  Theodore  I,  but  became  afterwards  in- 
fected with  the  very  error  he  had  formerly  condemned ; 
Geor^,  a  defender  of  the  holy  images  (icons);  Con- 
stantme,  who  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  their  de- 
fence at  the  Second  Nicene  Council  (787);  Nicholas 
Muzalon,  appointed  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in 
1147.  Another  remarkable  prelate  is  St.  Demetri- 
anus,  Bishop  of  Chytrasa  (ninth  and  tenth  century). 
After  the  conquest  of  Cyprus  by  the  Arabs,  632-647, 
the  Christian  population  with  its  bishops  emigrated  to 
the  mainland.  Justiniem  II  buflt  for  them,  near  the 
Hellespont,  a  city  which  he  called  Nea  Justinianop- 
oUs;  tneir  archbishop  enjoyed  there  the  rights  he  had 
in  Qyprus,  besides  exercising  jurisdiction  over  the  mir- 


rounding  oountiy  (Quinisezt  Council,  oao.  zxziz,  602). 
After  the  death  of  Justinian  II  the  Cypriotes  returned 
to  their  island  with  their  hierarchy.  Under  Nice- 
phorus  Phocas  (963-969^  Cyprus  was  freed  com- 
pletely from  the  Arabs,  who  had  sometimes  treated  it 
more  kindly  than  the  Byzantine  emperors.  Chris- 
tianity, however,  g^uned  by  the  restoration.  To  this 
period  belongs  the  foundation  of  three  great  monas- 
teries. Our  Lady  of  Pity  (Eleusa)  of  Kykkos,  Mach- 
seras.  and  the  Encleistra,  the  last  founded  in  Uie 
twelfth  century  by  the  i«cluse  Neophytus,  author  of . 
several  ascetical  works.  The  Frankiah  rule,  though 
at  first  accepted  rather  willingly,  was  finally  the  souroe 
of  profound  disturbance.  In  1196  ICing  Amauiy  ob- 
tained from  Celeetine  III  a  Latin  hienirchy  for  his 
kingdom:  a  resident  archbishop  was  placed  at  Nico- 
sia (Leuoosia),  with  three  suffragans  at  Paphos,  li- 
masol  (TemesBOs),  and  Famaeusta  (Ammochostos, 
formerly  Arsinoe).  Knights  Templars,  CarmeUtes, 
Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Augustinians,  Benedic- 
tines, Cistercians,  Carthusians,  H^^ular  Canons,  Pre- 
monstratensian  nuns  soon  had  many  flourishing  mon- 
asteries. Splendid  churches  were  built  in  the  Gothic 
or  ogival  style,  and  many  Greek  churches  were 
changed  into  Latin  ones.  Ecclesiastical  revenues 
were  assigned  (in  part)  to  the  Latin  cleigy ;  the  Greek 
clergy  and  the  faithful  were  subordinated  to  Latin 
jurisdiction.  In  the  execution  of  the  decrees  of  the 
Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215)  Cardinal  Pelagius» 
l^te  of  Innocent  III,  showed  himself  utterly  intran- 
sigent. Thirteen  refnctorv  Greek  monks  were  cruelly 
put  to  death.  The  Greek  archbishop,  Neophytus, 
was  deposed  and  exiled,  the  Greek  sees  reduced  to 
four,  the  bishops  order^  to  reside  in  small  villages 
and  obey  the  Latin  archbishop  (1220-1222).  Inno- 
cent IV  and  Alexander  IV  were  more  favourable  to 
the  Greeks  (HereenrdtheivKirBch,  Kirchengesch.,  4th 
ed.,  1904,  II,  726),  and  the  Government  often  defended 
them  against  the  Latins.  The  ecclesiastical  history 
of  C^rus  during  this  sad  period  is  one  of  conflict  be- 
tween the  two  rival  communions,  the  Gjeeks  being 
always  looked  on  as  more  or  less  schismatic  both  by 
the  Latins  and  by  the  Ckeek  Patriareh  of  Constanti- 
nople. An  attempted  union  of  the  two  Churches  in 
1405  did  not  succeed,  nor  was  the  Union  of  Florence 
(1439)  more  lastmg.  In  1489,  through  the  abdication 
of  Queen  Caterina  Cofnaro,  the  island  became  sub- 
ject to  Venice,  whose  rule  was  even  more  intolerable 
to  the  Greeks,  so  that,  as  stated,  in  1571  they  wel- 
comed the  Turkish  conquerors  as  true  deliverers. 

Among  the  more  conspicuous  Latin  Arohbishope  of 
Nicosia  may  be  mentioned  Eustorge  de  Montaigu 
(1217-1250)  who  died  at  the  si^  of  Damietta,  a 
stem  defender  of  the  rights  of  his  Church  and  a  skilful 
administrator;  he  increased  the  splendour  of  the 
church  services,  established  schoob,  built  the  arehi- 
episcopal  palace  and  the  magnificent  cathedral  of  St. 
Sophia;  Ugo  di  Fagiano  (1251-1261),  distinguished 
for  his  seal  and  piety,  but  a  sealous  adTersaiy  of  the 
Greeks:  Gerard  de  Lazigres  (1274).  deposed  by  Boni- 
face VlII  for  siding  with  Philip  the  Fair;  Giovanni 
del  Conte  (1312),  renowned  for  his  charity;  Cardinal 
Elie  de  Nabinals  (1332),  a  great  reformer;  Andreas  of 
Rhodes  (1447),  present  at  the  Council  of  Florence; 
Filippo  Mocenigo  (1559),  who  assisted  at  the  closing 
sessions  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  helped  the  Venetians 
against  the  Turks,  and,  after  the  loss  of  Cyprus,  re- 
tired to  Italy.  The  Latin  bishops  of  Cyprus  showed 
themselves  generally  worthy  of  their  mission,  by  re- 
sisting the  encroachments  of  the  kings,  sometimes  also 
of  the  Latin  Patriarchs  of  Jerusalem,  and  even  of  the 
pontifical  legates.  The  only  reproach  they  deserve 
IB  a  want  of  tact  in  their  behaviour  towards  the 
Greeks,  and  also  that  their  clergy  at  certain  times 
were  ^lilty  of  moral  laxity.  Few  saints  i^pear  in 
Latin  Cj^rus ;  we  hear  only  of  the  saintly  Franciscan, 
Ugo  di  Fagiano,  and  the  Dominican,  Pierre  de  La 


otrhtaio 


691 


OTESNS 


Palu,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  and  administrator  of  the 
See  of  limasol.  Blessed  Pierre  Thomas,  a  Carmelite 
and  papal  le^te,  who  strove  hard  to  convert  the 
Greeks,  died  at  the  siege  of  Famaeusta  in  1366. 

After  frightful  massacres,  the  Turks  allowed  the 
Greeks  to  reorjganize  their  Church  as  thev  liked:  vis, 
with  an  archbishop  styled  "Most  Bleaaed  Archbishop 
of  Nea  Justiniana  [a  blunder  for  Justinianopolis]  and 
all  Cyprus",  and  three  bishops  at  Paphos,  CiUum,  and 
Karpasia.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the  last-named 
eee  was  suppressed,  and  its  territory  given  to  the  arch- 
diocese; on  the  other  hand  the  ancient  See  of  Kyrenia 
was  re-established.  Cyprus,  like  the  other  auto- 
oephalous  orthodox  Churches,  has  its  "Holy  Synod", 
which  consists  of  four  bishops  and  four  priests.  In 
the  last  three  centuries  there  are  few  events  to  men- 
tion, apart  from  simoniacal  elections  and  perpetiial 
domestic  quarrels.  In  1668  Archbishop  Nicephorus 
held  a  council  against  the  Protestants.  In  1821  the 
four  Greek  bishops,  with  many  priestfi,  monks,  and 
laymen,  were  murdered  by  the  Turks.  After  1900 
strife  arose  in  the  ancient  Church  of  St.  Barnabas, 
and  it  was  found  impossible  to  name  a  successor 
to  the  archbishop  who  died  in  that  year.  The 
Turkish  conquest  caused  the  ruin  of  the  Latin 
Church:  two  bishops  were  then  killed  with  many 
priests  and  monks,  the  churches  were  profaned,  and 
the  Latin  Catholics  left  the  island.  However,  as 
eariy  as  1572,  Franciscans  could  again  reside  at 
Lamaca:  after  a  century  they  had  gathered  about 
2000  Catholics  of  various  rites.  Since  1848  Cyprus  has 
been  ecclesiastically  dependent  on  the  new  Latm  Patri- 
archate of  Jerusalem.  The  Franciscans  have  stations 
at  Larnaca,  Limasol,  and  Nicosia,  with  schools  and 
five  churches;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Apparition 
conduct  schools  in  these  three  towns,  and  have  a  hos- 
pital and  an  orphanage  at  Lamaca. 

The  Maronites  were  very  numerous  during  the 
period  of  Latin  rule,  but  owing  to  persecutions  of 
Greeks  or  Turks  have  mostlv  all  departed  or  aposta^ 
tized.  The  latter  are  called  Linobambaci;  some  of 
them  returned  to  Catholicism.  Cyprus,  with  a  part 
of  JLebanon,  still  forms  a  Maronite  diocese,  with 
30,000  faithful.  They  have  in  the  island  a  few 
churches  and  four  monasteries,  but  lack  good  schools 
(see  MARONrrBB).  Among  the  resident  Armenians 
there  is  only  an  insisiificant  number  (12)  of  Catholics; 
the  rest  obey  the  Gregorian  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem 
and  have  two  priests  and  a  monastery.  Other  Chris- 
tians of  Eastern  Rites,  who  lived  in  Cyprus  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  subject  to  their  own  bishops,  have  now 
completely  disappeared. 

CoBHAic,  An  Attempt  at  a  BihKooraphv  of  Cynrua  (4th  ed., 
Niooma,  1000),  about  700  titles;  Idem,  A  Handbook  of  Cyjmu 
(London,  1901);  Mas-Latsie,  Hiatoirt  de  Vile  do  Chyjpre  sout 
le  rhgne  des  princes  do  la  maison  de  Luoignan  (Paris,  1861-65); 
Idem,  Hialoire  deo  anhooiguoo  }aiine_  do  VUo   do   Chunro  in 

AlSialt 


Archxveo  do  V Orient  laHn,  II,  207-328;  Hackbut,  A  Uialory 
upruo  (London.  1901);  Pizha.nkudb8, 
FOBTascuE,   Tho  Orthodox  Baatom 

S.  PiinuDis. 


of  iho  Orthodox  Church  of  Syprua  (London.  1901);  PoRANicuDEi 

Kvirp«V  (Athens,   1800);    ^ ^^      ^  '    '       -      ^ 

Church  cLondon,  1007). 


Oyreoaic  Sehool  of  Pfailoioi^.— Th^  Cyrenaic 
School  of  Philosophy,  so  called  mm  the  city  of 
C]Srrene,  in  which  it  was  founded,  flourished  from 
about  400  to  about  300  b.  c,  and  had  for  its  most 
distinctive  tenet  Hedonism,  or  the  doctrine  that 
pleasure  is  the  chief  good.  The  school  is  generally 
said  to  derive  its  doctrines  from  Socrates  on  the  one 
hand  and  from  the  sophist,  Protagoras,  on  the  other. 
From  Socrates,  by  a  perversion  of  the  doctrine  that 
happiness  is  the  chiet  good,  it  derived  the  doctrine 
of  the  supremacy  of  pleasure,  while  from  Protagoras 
it  derived  its  relativistic  theory  of  knowledge.  Aris- 
tippus  (flourished  c.  400  b.  c.)  was  the  founder  of 
the  school,  and  counted  among  his  followers  his 
daughter  Arete  and  his  grandsisn  Aristippus  the 
Younger.  The  (^yrenaics  started  their  philosophical 
inquify  by  agreeing  with  Protagoras  that  all  knowl- 


edge is  relative.  That  is  true,  they  said,  whiUh 
seems  to  be  true:  of  things  in  themselves  we  can 
know  nothing.  From  this  they  were  1^  to  main- 
tain that  we  can  know  only  our  feelings,  or  the  im- 
pression which  thinsB  produce  upon  us.  Transfer- 
ring this  theoiy  of  knowledge  to  the  discussion  of 
the  problem  of  conduct,  and  assuming,  as  has  been 
said,  the  Socratio  doctrine  that  the  chief  aim  of 
conduct  is  happiness,  they  concluded  that  happiness 
is  to  be  attained  by  the  production  of  pleasurable 
feeUngB  and  the  avoidance  of  painful  ones.  Pleasure, 
theretore,  is  the  chief  aim  in  life.  The  good  man  is 
he  who  obtains  or  strives  to  obtain  the  maximum  of 
pleasure  and  the  minimum  of  pain.  Virtue  is  not 
good  in  itself;  it  is  good  only  as  a  means  to  obtain 
pleasure.  This  last  point  raises  the  question:  What 
did  the  Cyrenaics  re^y  mean  by  pleasure?  They 
were  certainly  sensists,  yet  it  is  not  entirely  certain 
that  by  pleasure  they  meant  mere  sensuous  pleasure. 
They  speak  of  a  hierarchy  of  pleasures,  in  which  the 
pleasures  ol  the  body  are  subordinated  to  virtue, 
cultilre,  knowledge,  artistic  enjoyment,  which  belong 
to  the  higher  nature  of  man.  Again,  some  of  the 
later  Cyrenaics  reduced  pleasure  to  a  mere  ne^tive 
state,  painlessness;  and  others,  later  still,  substituted 
for  pleasure  ''cheerfulness  and  indifference".  The 
truth  seems  to  be  that  in  this,  as  in  many  other  in- 
stances, sensism  was  satisfied  with  a  superficial  and 
loosely-jointed  system.  Thero  was  no  consistency  in 
the  Cyrenaic  theory  of  conduct;  probably  none  was 
looked  for.  Indeed,  in  spile  of  the  example  of  the 
founders  of  the  school,  the  later  (Cyrenaics  fell  far 
below  the  level  of  what  was  expected  from  philoso- 
phers, even  in  Greece,  and  their  doctrine  came  to  be 
merely  a  set  of  maxims  to  justify  the  careless  man- 
ner of  living  of  men  whose  chief  aim  in  life  was  a 
pleasant  time.  But,  taken  at  its  best,  the  Cyrenaic 
philosophy  can  hardly  justify  its  claim  to  be  con- 
sidered an  ethical  system  at  all.  For  good  and  evil 
it  substituted  the  pleasant  and  the  painful,  without 
reference,  direct  or  indirect,  to  obligation  or  duty. 
In  some  points  of  doctrine  the  school  descends  to 
the  commonplace,  as  when  it  justifies  obedience  to 
law  by  remarking  that  the  observance  of  the  law  oi 
the  land  leads  to  the  avoidance  of  punishment,  and 
that  one  should  act  honestly  because  one  thereby 
increases  the  sum  of  pleasure.  The  later  Cyrenaics 
made  common  cause  with  the  Epicureans.  Indeed, 
the  difference  between  the  two  schools  was  one  of 
details,  not  of  fundamental  principles. 

ZvuLtaLt  Soeratea  and  tho  Socmtic  Schoola^  tr.  Reicbbl  (Len- 
don,  1885),  338  Mq.;  Ueberweo-Hbinsb,  Hietory  of  PhUor' 
qphy,  tr.  MORRia  (New  York,  1892).  I.  95  sqq.;  Windelband, 
Biatory  of  PhOooophy.  tr.  Turn  (New  York.  1901),  85  sqq.; 
Tdbnbb,  Hiaiory  of  PhOoaophy  (Boston,  1903).  89  sqq. 


William  Turnsb. 

Oyrone.  a  titular  see  of  Northern  Africa.  The  city 
was  founded  early  in  the  seventh  century  b.  c.  by  a 
Dorian  colony  from  Thera  and  named  after  a  spring, 
Kyre,  which  the  Greeks  consecrated  to  Apollo;  it 
stood  on  the  boundary  of  the  Green  Mountains 
(Djebel  Akhaar),  ten  miles  from  its  port,  Apollonia 
(Marsa  Sousa).  It  was  the  chief  town  of  the  Lydian 
region  between  Egypt  and  Carthage  (Cyienaica,  now 
vi&ysA  of  Benghazi),  kept  up  commercial  relations 
with  all  the  Greek  cities,  and  reached  the  height  of 
its  prosperity  under  its  own  kings  in  the  fifth  century 
B.  c.  ^)on  after  460  it  became  a  republic:  after  the 
death  of  Alexander  it  passed  to  the  Ptolemies  and 
fell  into  decay.  Apion  bequeathed  it  to  the  Bomans, 
but  it  kept  its  self-government.  In  74  b.  c.  Cyrene  be- 
came a  Roman  colony.  There  were  many  Jews  in  the 
region,  with  their  own  synagogue  at  Jerusalem  (Mat., 
xxvii,  32;  Acts,  ii,  10;  vi,  9,  xi,  20,  sq.),  who  rebelledi 
A.  D.  73,  against  Vespasian  and  in  116  against  Trajan. 

Cyrene  is  the  Inrthplaoe  of  the  philosophers  Aris- 
tippus, CallimachuB,  Cameades,  KratostheneSv  and 


OTEIL 


692 


OTBIL 


Synesius;  the  latter,  a  convert  to  Christianity,  died 
Bishop  of  Ptolemais.  Lequien  (II,  621)  mentions  six 
bishops  of  Cyrene,  and  according  to  Byzantine  legend 
the  first  was  St.  Lucius  (Acts,  xiii,  1);  St.  Theodonis 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Diocletian;  about  370 
Philo  dared  to  consecrate  by  himself  a  bishoto  for 
Hydra,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  own  nephew,  Philo; 
Rufus  sided  with  Dioscorus  at  the  Robber  Synod 
(Latrocinivun)  of  Ephesus  in  449;  Leontius  lived 
about  600.  Lequien  (III,  1151)  mentions  also  six 
Latin  bishops,  from  1477  to  1557.  The  Latin  titular 
see  was  suppressed  by  a  papal  decree  of  1894.  The 
old  city,  ruined  by  the  Arab  invasion  in  the  seventh 
century,  is  not  inhabited,  but  its  site  is  still  called 
Qrennah  (Cyrene).  Its  necropolis  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  best  preserved  in  the  world,  and  the  tombs,  most* 
ly  rock-hewn,  are  of  Dorian  style. 

Smith  ani>  Porchibr,  Diacoveries  at  Cyrene  (London,  1864); 
Thriqb,  Res  Curenensium  (Copenhagen,  1828);  Robsbbrq, 
Qutestumea  de  rebus  Cyrenarum  prov.  torn.;  Studnicxka,  Kyrene 
(Leipzig,  1890);  BoRaARi,  Geoorafia.  .  .  della  Trtpolitana,  Cire- 
naica  ef'ezxan  (Turin,  1888);  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  $oman 
Geog,  (London,  1878),  I,  734-36. 

S.   P^TRIDfcs. 


Oyril  and  Methodius  (or  Constantine  and  Meth- 
odius), Saints,  the  Apostles  of  the  Slavs,  were 
brothers,  bom  in  Thessalonica,  in  827  and  826  re- 
spectively. Though  belonging  to  a  senatorial  family 
they  renounced  secular  honours  and  became  priests. 
They  were  living  in  a  monastery  on  the  Bosphorus, 
when  the  Khazana  sent  to  Constantinople  for  a  Chris- 
tian teacher.  Cyril  was  selected  and  was  accom- 
panied by  his  brother.  They  learned  the  Khazar 
language  and  converted  many  of  the  people.  Soon 
after  the  Khazar  mission  there  was  a  request  from 
the  Moravians  for  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel.  German 
missionaries  had  already  laboured  among  them,  but 
without  success.  The  Moravians  wished  a  teacher 
who  could  instruct  them  and  conduct  Divine  service 
in  the  Slavonic  tongue.  On  account  of  their  acquaint- 
ance with  the  language,  Cyril  and  Methodius  were 
chosen  for  the  work.  In  preparation  for  it  Cyril 
invented  an  alphabet  and,  with  the  help  of  Meth- 
odius, translated  the  Gospels  and  the  necessary  litiu*- 
gical  books  into  Slavonic.  They  went  to  Moravia 
m  863,  and  laboured  for  four  and  a  half  years.  De- 
spite their  success,  they  were  regarded  by  the  Ger- 
mans with  distrust,  first  because  mey  had  come  from 
Constantinople  where  schism  was  rife,  and  again 
because  they  held  the  Church  services  in  the  Slavonic 
language.  On  this  accoimt  the  brothers  were  sum- 
moned to  Rome  by  Nicholas  I,  who  died,  however, 
before  their  arrival.  His  successor,  Adrian  II,  re- 
ceived them  kindly.  Convinced  of  their  orthodoxy, 
he  commended  their  missionary  activity,  sanctioned 
the  Slavonic  Liturgy,  and  ordained  Cyril  and  Meth- 
odius bishops.  Cynl,  however,  was  not  to  return  to 
Moravia.     He  died  in  Rome,  4  Feb.,  869. 

At  the  request  of  the  Moravian  princes.  Rastislav 
and  Svatopluk,  and  the  Slav  Prince  Kocel  ot  Pannonia, 
Adrian  II  formed  an  Archdiocese  of  Moravia  and 
Pannonia,  made  it  independent  of  the  German 
Church,  and  appointed  Methodius  archbishop.  In 
870  King  Louis  and  the  German  bishops  summoned 
Methodius  to  a  synod  at  Ratisbon.  Here  he  was 
deposed  and  condemned  to  prison.  After  three  years 
he  was  liberated  at  the  command  of  Pope  John  VIII 
and  reinstated  as  Archbishop  of  Moravia.  He  zeal- 
ously endeavoured  to  spread  the  Faith  among  the 
Bohemians,  and  also  among  the  Poles  in  Northern 
Moravia.  Soon,  however,  he  was  summoned  to  Rome 
again  in  consequence  of  the  allegations  of  the  German 
priest  Wiching,  who  impugned  his  orthodoxy,  and 
objected  to  the  use  of  Slavonic  in  the  liturgy.  But 
John  VI IF,  after  an  intpiiry,  sanctioned  the  Slavonic 
Liturg}',  decreeing,  however,  that  in  the  Mass  the 
Gospel  should  be  read  first  in  Latin  and  then  in  SI&- 


vbnic.  Wiching,  in  the  meantime,  had  been  nomi- 
nated one  of  the  suffragan  bishops  of  Methodius.  He 
continued  to  oppose  his  metropoiitan^^going  so  far  as 
to  produce  spurious  papal  letters.  The  pope,  how- 
ever, assured  Methodms  that  they  were  false.  Meth- 
odius went  to  Constantinople  about  this  time,  and, 
with  the  assistance  of  several  priests,  he  completed 
the  translation  of  the  Holy  Scripture,  with  the  exoc^ 
tionoftheBooksofMachabees.  He  translated  also  tBe 
"Nomocanon*',  i.  e.  the  Greek  ecclesiastico-civil  law. 
The  enemies  of  Methodius  did  not  ceaae  to  antagonize 
him.  His  health  was  worn  out  from  the  long  struggle, 
and  he  died  6  April,  885,  recommending  as  his  suc- 
cessor Gorazd,  a  M9ravian  Slav  who  &d  been  hia 
disciple. 

Formerly  the  feast  of  Saints  QjrX  and  Methodius 
was  celebrated  in  Bohemia  and  li^ravia  on  9  March ; 
but  Pius  IX  changed  the  date  to  5  July.  Leo  XJII, 
by  his  Encyclical  "Grande  Munus'*  of  30  September, 
1 880,  extended  the  feast  to  the  universal  Chumi.  (See 
Moravia:  Slavonic  Liturgy:  Bohemia;  Pcx^and; 
John  VIII.) 

Ada  SS.,  March,  II,  13-20;  Ginzkl.  GesdiidUe  der  SHaren- 
apostel  Cj/nU  und  Method  und  der  alavisdten  Liturffie  (Vienna, 
1861);  Lkger.  CyHUe  et  Mithode^  itude  hiatoriqtie  sur  la  eon- 
version  des  Slaves  au  Christiantsme  (Poitiers-Paris,  1868  >; 
Jagic,  Die  neueslen  Forsdiungen  Hber  die  slarisdi^n  Ap^A 
drill  und  Methodiiis  in  Archiv  f.  sUivische  Philoloffie  (1S79">, 
IV;  Babtolini,  Memorie  storico-eritiche  areheologiche  dex  Santi 
CiriUo  e  Metodw  (Rome,  1881);  Gostz,  OeschichU  der  Slavena- 
postel  Konstaniinus  (KyrHlits)  und  Methodius  (Gotha«  1^7); 
Pastrnek.  D^iny  sUmmskych  apostolu  CyriUa  a  Methoda 
(Prague,  ig02);  BBtycKMER,  Cyryl  i  Melody  (Craoow.  1903), 
Potkanski,  Konstantyn  i  Metodyusz  (Cracow,  1905);  Chbva- 
UER,  Bio-Bibl.,  a.  v. 

L.  Abraham. 

Oyril  of  Alexandria,  Saint,  Doctor  of  the 
Church,  has  his  feast  in  the  Western  Church  on  the 
28th  of  January ;  in  the  Grofok  Mensa  it  is  found  on  the 
0th  of  June,  and  (together  with  St.  Athanasius)  on 
the  18th  of  Januaiy. 

He  seems  to  have  been  of  an  Alexandrian  family, 
and  waa  the  son  of  the  brother  of  Theophilus,  Patri- 
arch of  Alexandria;  if  he  is  the  Cyril  addressed  by 
Isidore  of  Pelusium  in  Ep.  xxv  of  Bk.  I,  he  was  for  a 
time  a  monk.  He  accompanied  Theophilus  to  Con- 
stantinople when  that  bishop  held  the  Synod  of  the 
Oak"  in  403  and  deposed  St.  John  Chiysostom. 
Theophilus  died  15  Oct..  412,  and  on  the  18th  CvttI 
was  consecrated  his  uncle's  successor,  but  only  after 
a.  riot  between  his  supporters  and  those  of  his  rival, 
Timotheus.  Socrates  complains  bitterly  that  one  of 
his  first  acta  was  to  plunder  and  shut  the  churches  of 
the  Novatians.  He  also  drove  out  of  Alexandria  all 
the  Jews,  who  had  formed  a  flourishing  community 
there  since  Alexander  the  Great.  But  they  had 
caused  tumults  and  had  massacred  the  Christians,  to 
defend  whom  Cyril  himself  assembled  a  mob.  This 
may  have  been  the  only  possible  defence,  since  the 
Prefect  of  Egypt,  Orestes,- who  was  very  angry  at  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jews,  was  also  jealous  of  the  power  of 
C^il,  which  certainly  rivalled  his  own.  Five  hun- 
dred monks  came  down  from  Nitria  to  defend  the 
patriarch.  In  a  disturbance  which  arose,  Orestes 
was  wounded  in  the  head  by  a  stone  thrown  by  a 
monk  named  Ammonius.  The  prefect  had  Am- 
monius  tortured  to  death,  and  the  young  and  fiery 
patriarch  honoured  his  remains  for  a  time  as  those  of 
a  martyr.  The  Alexandrians  were  always  riotous,  as 
we  learn  from  Socrates  (VII,  vii)  and  from  St.  Cyril 
himself  (Horn,  for  Easter,  419).  In  one  of  these  riots, 
in  422,  the  prefect  Callistus  wais  killed,  and  in  another 
was  committed  the  murder  of  the  female  philosopher 
Hypatia,  a  highly-reepected  teacher  of  neo-Platonism, 
of  advanced  age  and  (it  is  said)  of  many  virtues.  She 
was  a  friend  of  Orestes,  and  many  believed  that  she 
prevented  a  reconciliation  between  prefect  and  patri- 
arch. A  mob  led  by  a  lector,  named  Pet^,  dragged 
her  to  a  church  and  tore  her  flesh  with  potsherds 


OY&ZL 


593 


OYRIL 


till  ahe  died*.  This  brought  great  disgrace,  savs 
Socrates,  on  the  Church  of  A^xandria  and  on  its 
bishop;  but  a  lector  at  Alexandria  was  not  a  cleric 
(8ocr.,  V,  xxii),  and  Socrates  does  not  suggest  that 
Cyril  was  himself  to  blame.  Damascius,  indeed, 
accuses  him,  but  he  is  a  late  authority  and  a  hater 
of  Christians. 

Theophilus,  the  persecutor  of  Chrysostom,  had  not 
the  privilege  of  communion  with  Rome  from  that 
saint's  death,  in  406,  until  his  own.  For  some  years 
Cyril  also  refused  to  insert  the  name  of  St.  Chrysostom 
in  the  diptychs  of  his  Church,  in  spite  of  the  requests 
of  Chrysostom's  supplanter,  Atticus.  Later  he  seems 
to  have  yielded  to  the  representations  of  his  spiritual 
father,  Isidore  of  Pelusium  (Isid.,  Ep.  I,  370).  Yet 
even  after  the  Coimcil  of  Ephesus  that  saint  still  found 
something  to  rebuke  in  lum  on  this  matter  (Ed.  I, 
310).  But  at  that  date  Cyril  seems  to  have  been  long 
since  trusted  by  Rome. 

It  was  in  the  winter  of  427-28  that  the  Antiochene 
Nestorius  became  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  His 
heretical  teaching  soon  became  known  to  Cyril. 
Against  him  Cvril  taught  the  use  of  the  term  Thsotokos 
in  his  Paschsd  letter  for  429  and  in  a  letter  to  the 
monks  of  Egypt.  A  correspondence  with  Nestorius 
followed,  in  a  more  moderate  tone  than  might  have 
been  expected.  Nestorius  sent  his  sermons  to  Pope 
Celestine,  but  he  received  no  reply,  for  the  latter 
wrote  to  St.  Cyril  for  further  information.  Rome  had 
taken  the  side  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  against  Theo- 
philus, but  had  neither  censured  the  orthodoxy  of  the 
latter,  nor  consented  to  the  patriarchal  powers  exer- 
cised by  the  bishops  of  Constantinople.  To  St. 
Celestine  Cyril  was  not  only  the  first  prelate  of  the 
East,  he  was  also  the  inheritor  of  the  traditions  of 
Athanasius  and  Peter.  The  pope's  confidence  was 
not  misplaced.  Cyril  had  learnt  prudence.  Peter 
had  attempted  unsuccessfully  to  apooint  a  Bishop  of 
Constantinople;  Theophilus  had  oeposed  another. 
Cyril,  thougn  in  this  case  Alexandria  was  in  the  ri^t, 
does  not  act  in  his  own  name,  but  denounces  Nestorius 
to  St.  Celestine,  since  ancient  custom,  he  says,  per- 
suaded him  to  bring  the  matter  before  the  pope.  He 
relates  aU  that  had  occurred,  and  begs  Celestine  to 
decree  what  he  thinks  fit  (rwrO^turb  doxovw — ^aphrajse 
which  Dr.  W.  Bright  chooses  to  weaken  into  "formu- 
late his  opinion '7,^  and  communicate  it  also  to  the 
bishops  ofMacedonia  and  of  the  East  (i.  e.  the  Antio- 
chene Patriarchate). 

The  pope'iB  reply  was  of  astonishing  severity^.  He 
had  already  commissioned  Cassian  to  write  his  well^ 
known  treatise  on  the  Incarnation.  He  now  sum- 
moned a  council  (such  Roman  councils  had  somewhat 
the  office  of  the  modem  Roman  Congregations),  and 
despatched  a  letter  to  Alexandria  with  enclosures  to 
Constantinople,  Philippi,  Jerusalem,  and  Antioch. 
Cyril  is  to  take  to  himself  the  authority  of  the  Roman 
See,  and  to  admonish  Nestorius  that  unless  he  recants 
within  ten  days  from  the  receipt  of  this  ultimatum,  he 
is  separated  from  ''our  body"  (the  popes  of  the  day 
have  the  habit  of  speaking  of  other  churches  as  the 
members,  of  which  thev  are  the  head;  the  body  is,  of 
course,  the  Catholic  Church).  If  Nestorius  does  not 
submit,  Cyril  is  to  "provide  for"  the  Church  of  Con- 
stantinople. Such  a  sentence  of  excommunication 
and  deposition  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  mere 
withdrawal  of  actual  communion  by  the  popes  from 
Cyril  himself  at  an  earlier  date,  from  Theophilus,  or, 
at  Antioch,  from  Flavian  or  Meletius.  It  was  the 
decree  Qrril  had  asked  for.  As  Cyril  had  twice  writ- 
ten to  Nestorius.  his  citation  in  the  name  of  the  pope 
is  to  be  countea  as  a  third  warning,  after  whicn  no 
grace  is  to  be  given. 

St.  Cyril  summoned  a  council  of  his  stiffragans,  and 

composed  a  letter  to  which  were  appended  twelve 

propositions   for   Nestorius   to   anatnematiBe.     The 

epistle  was  not  conciliatory,  and  Nestorius  may  well 

IV.— 38 


have  been  taken  ab£u;k.  The  twelve  propositions  did 
not  emanate  from  Rome,  and  were  not  at  all  equally 
clear;  one  or  two  of  them  were  later  among  the  au- 
thorities invoked  bv  the  Monophysite  heretics  in  their 
own  favour.  Cyril  was  the  head  of  the  riyal  theologi- 
cal school  to  tnat  of  Antioch,  where  Nestorius  had 
studied,  and  was  the  hereditary  rival  of  the  Constanti- 
nopolitan  would-be  patriarch.  (?yril  wrote  also  to 
Jonn,  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  informing  him  of  the  facts, 
and  insinuating  that  if  John  should  support  his  old 
frigid  Nestorius,  he  would  find  himself  isolated  over 
against  Ronie,  Macedonia,  and  Egypt.  John  took  the 
hint,  and  urged  Nestorius  to  yield.  Meanwhile,  in 
Constantinople  itself  large  numbers  of  the  people  held 
aloof  from  Nestorius,  and  the  Emperor  Theodosius  II 
had  been  persuaded  to  smnmon  a  general  council  to 
meet  at  Ephesus.     The  imperial  letters  were  dis- 

E*ied  19  November,  whereas  the  bishops  sent  by 
arrived  at  Constantinople  ^nly  on  7  December. 
»rius,  somewhat  naturally,  refused  to  accept  the 
message  sent  by  his  rival,  and  on  the  13th  or  14th  of 
December  preached  publicly  against  Cyril  as  a  calum- 
niator, and  as  having  used  bribes  (which  was  probably 
as  true  as  it  was  usual) ;  but  he  declared  himself  will- 
ing to  use  the  word  TheotoJcos,  These  sermons  he  sent 
to  John  of  Antioch,  who  preferred  them  to  the 
anathematisations  of  Cyril.  Nestorius,  however,  is- 
sued twelve  propositions  with  appended  anathemas. 
If  Cyril's  propositions  might  be  taken  to  deny  the  two 
natures  in  Christ,  those  of  Nestorius  hardly  veiled  his 
belief  in  two  distinct  persons.  Theodoret  ureed  John 
yet  further,  suid  wrote  a  treatise  against  Cyril,  to 
which  the  latter  replied  with  some  warmth.  He  also 
wrote  an  "Answer"  in  five  books  to  the  sermons  of 
Nestorius. 

As  the  fifteenth-century  idea  of  an  oecumenical 
council  superior  to  the  pope  had  yet  to  be  invented, 
and  there  was  but  one  precedent  for  such  an  assembly, 
we  need  not  be  surprised  that  St.  Celestine  welcomed 
the  initiative  of  tne  emperor,  and  hoped  for  peace 
throu^  the  assembly.  (See  Ephbsus,  Council  op.) 
Nestorius  found  the  churches  of  Ephesus  closed  to 
him,  when  he  arrived  with  the  imperial  commissioner, 
Count  Candidian,  and  his  own  friend.  Count  Irenseus. 
CJyril  came  with  fifty  of  his  bishops.  Palestine,  Crete, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Greece  added  their  quotient.  But 
John  of  Antioch  and  his  suffragans  were  delayed. 
Cyril  may  have  believed,  rightly  or  wrongly,  that  John 
did  not  wish  to  be  present  at  the  trial  of  his  friend 
Nestorius,  or  that  he  wished  to  gain  time  for  him,  and 
he  opened  the  council  without  John,  on  22  June,  in 
spite  of  the  request  of  sixty-eight  bishops  for  a  de- 
lay. This  was  an  initial  error,  which  had  disastrous 
results. 

The  legates  from  Rome  had  not  arrived,  so  that 
Cyril  had  no  answer  to  the  letter  he  had  written  to 
Celestine  asking  "whether  the  holy  synod  should 
receive  a  man  who  condemned  what  it  preached,  or, 
because  the  time  of  delay  had  elapsed,  whether  the 
sentence  was  still  in  force".  Cyril  might  have  pre- 
jsumed  that  the  pope,  in  agreeing  to  send  legates  to 
the  council,  intended  Nestorius  to  have  a  complete 
trial,  but  it  was  more  convenient  to  assume  that  the 
Roman  ultimatum  had  not  been  suspended,  and  that 
the  council  was  bound  by  it.  He  therefore  took  the 
pl£u^  of  president,  not  only  as  the  highest  in  rank,  but 
also  as  stai  holding  the  place  of  Celestine,  though  he 
cannot  have  received  any  fresh  commission  from  the 
pope.  Nestorius  was  summoned,  in  order  that  he 
might  explain  his  neglect  of  Cyril's  former  monition 
in  the  name  of  the  pope.  He  refused  to  receive  the 
four  bishops  whom  the  council  sent  to  him.    Conse- 

auently  nothing  remained  but  formal  procedure.  For 
le  council  was  boimd  by  the  canons  to  depose  Nesto- 
rius for  contumacy,  as  he  would  not  appear,  and  by 
the  letter  of  Celestine  to  condemn  him  for  heresy,  as  he 
had    not    recanted.    The    correspondence    between 


OYBJOL 


594 


OTRIL 


Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Constantinople  was  read,  and 
some  testimonies  were  read  from  earlier  writers  to 
show  the  errors  of  Nestorius.  The  second  letter  of 
Cjrril  to  Nestorius  was  approved  by  all  the  bishops. 
The  reply  of  Nestorius  was  condemned.  No  discus- 
sion took  place.  The  letter  of  Cyril  and  the  ten 
anathematizations  raised  no  comment.  All  was  con- 
cluded at  one  sitting.  The  council  declared  that  it 
was  *'  of  necessity  impelled  "  by  the  canons  and  by 
the  letter  of  Celestine  to  declare  Nestorius  deposed 
and  excommunicated.  The  papal  legates,  who  had 
been  detained  by  bad  weather,  arrived  on  the  10th  of 
July,  and  they  solemnly  confirmed  the  sentence  by 
the  authority  of  St.  Peter,  for  the  refusal  of  Nestorius 
to  appear  had  made  useless  the  permission  which  they 
brought  from  the  pope  to  grant  him  forgiveness  if  he 
should  repent.  But  meanwhile  John  of  Antioch  and 
his  party  had  arrived  on  the  26th  or  27th  of  June. 
They  formed  themselves  into  a  rival  council  of  forty- 
three  bishops,  and  deposed  Memnon,  Bishop  of 
Ephesus,  and  St.  Cyril,  accusing  the  latter  of  ApoUi- 
narianism  and  even  of  Eunomianism.  Both  parties 
now  appealed  to  the  emperor,  who  took  the  amasing 
decision  of  sending  a  count  to  treat  Nestorius,  Cyril, 
and  Menmon  as  being  all  three  lawfully  deposed. 
They  were  kept  in  close  custody;  but  eventually  the 
emperor  took  the  orthodox  view,  though  be  dissolved 
the  council;  Cyril  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  diocese, 
and  Nestorius  went  into  retirement  at  Antioch.  Later 
he  was  banished  to  the  Great  Oasis  of  Egypt. 

Meanwhile  Pope  Celestine  was  dead.  His  successor, 
St.  Sixtus  III,  confirmed  the  council  and  attempted  to 
get  John  of  Antioch  to  anathematise  Nestorius.  For 
some  time  the  strongest  opponent  of  Cyril  was  Theo- 
doret,  but  eventually  he  approved  a  letter  of  Cyril  to 
Acacius  of  Berrhcna.  John  sent  Paul,  Bishop  of  Emesa, 
as  his  plenipotentiary  to  Alexandria,  and  he  patched 
up  a  reconciliation  with  Cyril.  Though  Theodoret 
still  refused  to  renounce  the  defence  of  Nestorius,  John 
did  so,  and  Cyril  declared  his  joy  in  a  letter  to  John. 
Isidore  of  Pelusium  was  now  afraid  that  the  impulsive 
Cyril  might  have  yielded  too  much  (Ep.  i,  334).  The 
great  patriarch  composed  many  further  treatises, 
dogmatic  letters,  and  sermons.  He  died  on  the  0th 
or  the  27th  of  June,  444,  after  an  episcopate  of  nearly 
thirty-two  years. 

St.  Ctril  as  a  Theoloozan. —  The  principal  fame 
of  St.  Cyril  rests  upon  his  defence  of  Catholic  doctrine 
against  Nestorius.  That  heretic  was  undoubtedly 
confused  and  uncertain.  He  wished,  against  Apol- 
linarius,  to  teach  that  Christ  was  periect  man,  and  he 
took  the  denial  of  a  human  personality  in  Our  Lord 
to  imply  an  Apollinariaa  incompleteness  in  His 
Human  Nature.  The  union  of  the  human  and  Divine 
natures  was  therefore  to  Nestorius  an  unspeakably 
close  junction,  but  not  a  union  in  one  hypostasis.  St. 
Cyril  taught  the  personal,  or  hypostatiCf  union  in  the 
plainest  terms;  and  when  his  writings  are  surveyed 
as  a  whole,  it  becomes  certain  that  he  always  held  the 
true  view,  that  the  one  Christ  has  two  periect  and 
distinct  natures,  Divine  and  human.  But  he  would 
not  admit  two  ^i>ae<c  in  Christ,  because  he  took  ^^oi( 
to  imply  not  merely  a  nature  but  a  subsistent  (i.  e. 
personal)  nature.  His  opponents  misrepresented  him 
as  teaching  that  the  Divine  nature  suffered,  because 
he  rightly  taught  that  the  Divine  person  suffered,  in 
His  human  nature;  and  he  was  constantly  aocused  of 
Apollinarianism.  On  the  other  hand,  after  his  death 
Monophysitism  was  founded  upon  a  misinterpretation 
of  his  teaching.  Especially  unfortunate  was  the 
formula  "  one  nature  incarnate  of  God  the  Word  '* 
(jiia  ^oig  Tov  Oeov  Adyov  oeaapiMfikvjf)^  which  he 
took  from  a  treatise  on  the  Incarnation  which  he 
believed  to  be  by  his  great  predecessor  St.  Athanasius. 
By  this  phrase  he  intended  simply  to  emphasize 
against  Nestorius  the  unity  of  Christ's  Person;  but 
the  words  in  fact  expressed  equally  the  single  Nature 


taught  by  Eutyches  and  by  his  own  successor  Dkm- 
ourus.  He  brings  out  admirably  the  necessity  of  the 
full  doctrine  of  the  union  of  our  humanity  to  God,  to 
explain  the  scheme  of  the  redemption  of  man.  He 
argues  that  the  flesh  of  Christ  is  truly  the  flesh  of  God, 
in  that  it  is  life-giving  in  the  Holy  Eucharist.  In  the 
richness  and  depth  of  his  philosophical  and  deTotional 
treatment  of  the  Incarnation  we  recognise  the  diseiple 
of  Athanasius.  But  the  precision  of  his  language,  and 
perhaps  of  hia  thought  also,  is  very  far  behind  that 
which  St.  Leo  developed  afewjrearsafter  Cyril's  death. 

C3rril  was  a  man  of  great  courage  and  f  oree  of  ehar- 
acter.  We  can  often  discern  that  his  natural  vehem- 
ence was  repressed  and  sehooled,  and  he  listened  with 
humility  to  the  severe  admonitions  of  his  master  and 
adviser,  St.  Isidore.  As  a  theologian,  he  is  one  of 
the  great  writers  and  thinkers  of  early  times.  Yet 
the  troubles  which  arose  out  of  the  Council  of  Ephestts 
were  due  to  his  impulsive  action:  more  patience  and 
diplomacy  might  possibly  even  have  prevented  tlie 
vast  Nestorian  sect  from  arising  at  alL  In  spite  of 
his  own  firm  grasp  of  the  truth,  the  whole  of  his 
patriarchate  feU  away,  a  few  years  after  his  time,  into 
a  heresy  based  on  his  writings,  and  could  never  be 
regained  to  the  Catholic  Faith.  But  he  has  always 
been  greatly  venerated  in  the  Church.  His  letters, 
especially  the  second  letter  to  Nestorius,  were  not 
oxdy  approved  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  but  by 
many  subsequent  councils,  and  have  frequently  been 
appealed  to  as  tests  of  orthodoxy.  In  the  East  he 
was  alw&ya  honoured  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
Doctors.  His  Mass  and  Office  fM  a  Doctor  of  the 
Church  were  approved  by  Leo  XIII  in  1883. 

His  Wbitinos.—  The  exegeUcal  works  of  St.  CyrO 
are  very  numerous.  The  seventeen  books  ''On  Adora- 
tion in  Spirit  and  in  Truth"  are  an  exposition  of  the 
typical  and  spiritual  nature  of  the  Old  Law.  The 
T^oifrvpd  or  "brilliant*',  Commentaries  on  the  Penta- 
teuch are  of  the  same  nature.  Long  explanations  of 
Isaias  and  of  the  minor  Prophets  give  a  mystical  in- 
terpretation after  the  Alexandrine  manner.  Only 
fragmentir  are  extant  of  other  works  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, as  well  as  of  expositions  of  Matthew,  Luke,  Sknd 
some  of  the  Epistles,  but  of  that  of  St.  Luke  much  is 
preserved  in  a  Syriac  version.  Of  St.  Cyril's  sermons 
and  letters  the  most  interesting  are  those  which  con- 
cern the  Nestorian  controversy.  Of  a  great  apolo- 
getic work  in  twenty  books  against  Julian  the  Apostate 
ten  books  remain.  Among  his  theological  treatises 
we  have  two  large  works  and  one  small  one  on  the 
Holy  Trinity,  and  a  number  of  treatises  and  tracts  be- 
longing to  the  Nestorian  controversy. 

The  first  collected  edition  of  St.  Cyril's  works  was 
by  J.  Aubert,  7  vob.,  Paris,  1638;  several  earlier  edi- 
tions of  some  portions  in  Latin  only  aro  enumerated 
by  Fabricius.  Cardinal  Mai  added  more  material  in 
the  second  and  third  volumes  of  his  "Bibliotheca  nova 
Patrum",  II-III,  1852;  this  is  incorporated,  together 
with  much  matter  from  the  Catense  published  by 
Ghislerius  (1633),  Gorderius,  Possinus,  and  Cramer 
(1838),  in  Migne's  reprint  of  Aubert's  edition  (P.  G., 
LXVIII-LXXVII,  Paris,  1864).  Better  editions  of 
single  works  include  P.  E.  Pusey,  "Cyrilli  Alex.  Epis- 
toke  tres  OBCumenicee,  libri  V  c.  Nestorium,  XII  capi- 
tumexplanatio,  XII  capitum  defensio  utraque,  scholia 
de  Incamatione  Unigeniti''  (Oxford,  1875);  ''De  roct& 
fide  ad  Imp.,  de  Incarnatione  Unig.  dialogus,  de  reetA 
fide  ad  principissas,  de  rect&  fide  ad  Augustas,  quod 
unus  Christ  us  dialogus,  apologeticus  ad  Imp."  (Ox- 
ford, 1877);  "CyrilU  Alex,  in  XII  Prophetas"  (Ox- 
ford, 1868,  2  vols.);  "la  divi  Joannis  Evangelium" 
(Oxford,  1872,  3  vols.,  including  the  fragments  on  the 
Epistles).  "Three  Epistles,  with  revised  text  and 
English  translation"  (Oxford,  1872);  translations  in 
the  Oxford  ''Library  of  the  Fathers";  "Commentary 
on  St.  John",  I  (1874),  II  (1885);  "Five  tomes  against 
Nestorius"  (1881);  R.  Payne  Smith,  "S.  Cyrilli  Alex. 


CYRII« 


595 


CYRIL 


Conanu  in  Luc«  evang.  quas  supersunt  Syriaoe  e  MSS. 
apud  IkdCuB.  Brit."  (Oxford,  1858) ;  the  sanM  translated 
into  S^nglish  (Oxford,  1859,  2  vols.);  W.  Wri^t, 
''Frasmente  of  the  Homilies  of  Cyril  of  Alex,  on  St. 
Luke,  edited  from  a  Nitrian  MS."  (London,  1874);  J. 
H.  Bernard,  ''On  Some  Fragments  of  an  Uncial  MS.  of 
St.  Cyril  of  Alex.  Written  on  Papyrus"  (Trans,  of  R. 
IHsh  Acsad.,  XXIX,  18,  Dublin,  1892);  ''Cyrilli  Alex. 
librorum  e.  JuHanum  fragmenta  syriaca",  ed.  £. 
Nestle  ete.  in  ^'Scriptorum  grscorum,  qui  Chris* 
tianam  impugnaveruntreligionem",  fase.  Ill  (Leipsig, 
1880).  Fragments  of  the  "Liber  Thesaurorum"  in 
Pitra,  ''Analecta  saora  et  class.'S  I  (Paris.  1888). 

The  b«8t  biosnphy  of  St.  Cyril  is.  perh*pa.  am  that  by  Tii/- 

xjBUOirr  in  MinwirM  pour  ««rtir,  etc.,  XIV.    See  also  Kopallik. 

CyriUttm    ton   AUxandrien   (Mains,   1881),  an  apology  for  St. 

C^yril's  taaohing  and  oharaeter.    A  moderate  view  is  taken  by 

Brxobt   in   Waymarka  of  Church  HitUmt  (London.   1884)  and 

The  Age  of  the  Fathert  (London,  1903).  Il,  but  he  is  recosniied 

aa  prejudiced  wherever  the  papacy  is  in  question.    Ehbhard, 

Die  CurHlw.   AJex,  gugetchriebene  Schrifl,    vrepl   r^C  roD   K. 

ivavSpt^aea^t  ein  Werkdet  Thtodorei  (TQbingen.  1888);  Loom, 

.Vesforiima  (Halle.  1906):  WxioL,  Die  BeOaUKf  de%  Cyria  v. 

iilex.    (Mains,  1906).     Of  review  articles  may  be  mentioned: 

Laroxstt.  Btudes  d^kiat.  oed.:  8.  CyrHU  d^At.  et  le  cone.  d'SpMee 

in  Rev.  dee  Queet.  Hiet.  (1882).  and  Idbu.  Eludee  d'hitl.  eed., 

(Paris,    1892):  ScHirnt.  Die  ChneUUooie  dee  Cyril  t.   Al.  in 

Theoiog.    QuarUOeekrifl    (TQbingen.    1895).    421;    MabC.    Lee 

anaihSmaiieimee  de  S.  CyriOe  in  Rev.  d^hiei.  ecd.   (Oct.,  1906); 

Betbitkb-Baxsb.     Neetoriue    and    hie    Teachinff    (Cambridge. 

1908):    Mabb.  VBueharietU  d*  aprie  S.  CyriUe  g  Al,  in  TUn, 

<r  HiaH.  Bed.  (Oct.,  1907);  L.  J.  Siozufo  defends  Gsril  in  the 

affair  of  Hypatia  in  Dtr  KoJthoLik,  cxzix  (1906).  44  and  127; 

on   his  acoeasion,  ibid.,  CXXXII  (1907),  31  and  121;  Cont- 

BBAAB.  The  Arfikmian  Vereion  of  Reeelation  and  CyrH  of  Alex- 

andr^'e  echoUa  on  the  InoamaHon  edited  from  the  oldeet  MSa, 

and  Sngltehed  (London.  1907). 

John  Chapman. 
Oyill  of  Baieeloiuk  See  Subni,  Ctril. 
OyrU  of  Constantinople.  Saint,  General  of  the 
Carmelites,  d.  about  1235.  All  that  is  known  is  that 
he  was  prior  of  Mount  Carmel,  some  say  for  twenty*- 
seven,  others,  more  correctly,  for  thiee  yeara,  and 
that  he  had  the  reputation  of  being  a  prophet.  One 
of  the  pseudo-prophecies,  given  out  towards  the  end 
of  the  thirteehth  century  by  the  Franciscan  Spirituals, 
and  attributed  to  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  became 
known  to  Gutdo  de  Perpignan  and  other  .Carmelites  at 
Paris,  who  ascribed  it  to  their  former  general,  now 
considered  a  saint  and  a  doctor  of  the  Church,  his 
feast  being  introduced  in  1399.  In  the  Breviary  les- 
sons he  was  also  confounded  with  Cyril  of  Alexandria. 
When  the  mistake  was  discovered  (14^,  but  the  eon« 
fusion  was  maintained  in  the  Venice  Breviary,  1542), 
hia  title  of  doctor  was  justified  by  attributing  to  him 
a  work,  of  which  no  trace  exists,  on  the  procession  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  The  prophecy  or  angeUo  oracle 
''Divinum  oraculumS.  Cfyrillo  Carmelitas  Constanti- 
nopolitano  solemni  legatione  angeli  missum"  (ed. 
PhUippua  a  SS.  Trinitate,  Lvons,  1663),  so  called  be- 
cause it  is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  by  an  angel 
while  Cyril  was  saying  Mass,  is  a  lengthy  document  of 
eleven  chapters  in  incomprehensible  language,  with  a 
commentary  falsely  ascribed  to  Abbot  Joachim.  It  is 
first  mentioned  by  Arnold  of  ViUanova,  o.  1295; 
Teles^horus  of  Coaensa  applied  it  to  the  Western 
Schism  and  treated  it  as  an  utterance  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Another  writing  erroneously  attributed  to 
Cyril  is  ''De  processu  sui  Ordinis'',  by  a  contempo- 
rary, probably  a  French  author;  edited  by  Daniel 
a  Virgine  Mari4  in  ''Speculum  Carmelitarum" 
(Antwerp,  1680),  I,  75. 

Ebbib,  Ueber  CyrUU  Oraadwm  anodieum  in  Archiv  f 
LUeratur  u.  Kirchengeech.  d.  M.  A.  (Berlin,  1886),  II.  327; 
ZzuMBRitAN,  Monumenta  hietor.  CanmL  (L4rins,  1907).  I.  295. 

B.  ZlHMXBUAN. 

Cyxll  of  Jemsalem,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  and 
Doctor  of  the  Church,  b.  about  315;  d.  probably  18 
March,  386.  In  the  East  his  feast  is  observed  on  the 
18th  of  March,  in  the  West  on  the  1 8th  or  20th.  Little 
is  known  of  his  life.  We  gather  information  concern- 
ing him  from  his  younger  contemporaries,  Epiphanius, 


Jerome,  and  Rufinus,  as  well  as  from  the  fifth-century 
historians,  Socrates,  Sosomen,  and  Theodoret.  Cyril 
himself  gives  us  the  date  of  his  "Catecheses"  as  fully 
seventy  years  after  the  Emperor  Probus,  that  is  about 
347,  if  he  is  exact.  Constans  (d.  350)  was  then  still 
alive.  Mader  thinks  Cyril  was  already  bishop,  but  it 
is  usually  held  that  he  was  at  this  date  only  a  priest. 
St.  Jerome  relates  (Chron.  ad  ann.  352)  that  St.  Cyril 
had  been  ordained  priest  by  St.  Maximus,  his  prede- 
cessor, after  whose  death  the  episcopate  was  promised 
to  Cyril  by  the  metropolitan,  Acacius  of  Cassarea,  and 
the  other  Arian  bishops,  on  condition  that  he  should 
repudiate  the  ordination  he  had  received  from  Maxi- 
mus. He  consented  to  minister  as  deacon  only,  and 
was  rewarded  for  this  impiety  with  the  see.  Maximus 
had  consecrated  Heraclius  to  succeed  himself,  but 
Cyril,  by  various  frauds,  degraded  Heraclius  to  the 
priesthood.  So  says  St.  Jerome;  but  Socrates  relates 
that  Acacius  drove  out  St.  Maximus  and  substituted 
St.  Cyril.  A  quarrel  soon  broke  out  between  Cyril 
and  Acacius,  apparently  on  a  question  of  precedence 
or  jurisdiction.  At  Nicaea  the  metropolitan  rights  of 
Caesarea  had  been  guarded,  while  a  special  dignity  had 
been  granted  to  Jerusalem.  Yet  St.  Maximus  had 
held  a  synod  and  had  ordained  bishops.  This  may 
have  been  as  much  the  cause  of  Acacius'  enmity  to 
him  as  his  attachment  to  the  Nicene  formula.  On  the 
other  hand,  Cyril's  correct  Christology  may  have  been 
the  real  though  veiled  ground  of  the  hostility  of 
Acacius  to  him.  At  all  events,  in  357  Acacius  caused 
Cyril  to  be  exiled  on  the  charge  of  selling  church 
furniture  during  a  famine.  Cynl  took  refuge  with 
Silvanus,  Bishop  of  Tarsus.  He  appeared  at  the 
Council  of  Seleucia  in  359,  in  which  the  Semi-Arian 
party  was  triumphant.  Acacius  was  deposed  and  St. 
Cyril  seems  to  nave  returned  to  his  see.  But  the 
emperor  was  displeased  at  the  turn  of  events,  and,  in 
360,  Cyril  and  other  moderates  were  again  driven  out, 
and  only  returned  at  the  accession  of  Julian  in  361. 
In  367  a  decree  of  Valens  banished  all  the  bishops  who 
had  been  restored  by  Julian,  and  CyrU  remained  in 
exile  until  the  death  of  the  persecutor  in  378.  In  380, 
St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  came  to  Jerusalem  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  a  council  held  at  Antioch  in  the  preced- 
ing year.  He  found  the  Faith  In  accord  with  the 
truth,  but  the  city  a  prey  to  parties  and  corrupt  in 
morals.  St.  Cyril  attended  the  great  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople in  381,  at  which  Theodosius  had  ordered 
the  Nicene  faith,  now  a  law  of  the  empire,  to  be  pro- 
mulgated. St.  Cyril  then  formally  accepted  the  homo- 
ouaion;  Socrates  and  Sozomen  call  this  an  act  of 
repentance.  Socrates  gives  385  for  St.  Cyril's  death, 
but  St.  Jerome  tells  us  that  St.  Cyril  lived  eight  years 
under  Theodosius,  that  is,  from  January,  379. 

WwTiNGS.— The  extant  works  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem include  a  sermon  on  the  Pool  of  Bethesda,  a 
letter  to  the  Emperor  Constantius,  three  small  frag- 
ments, and  the  famous  "Catecheses".  The  letter 
describes  a  wonderful  cross  of  light,  extending  from 
Calvary  to  the  Mount  of  Olives,  which  appeared  in 
the  air  on  the  nones  of  May,  after  Pentecost,  towards 
the  beginning  of  the  saint's  episcopate.  The  catechet- 
ical lectures  are  among  the  most  precious  remains  of 
Christian  antiquity.  They  include  an  introductory 
address,  eighteen  instructions  delivered  in  Lent  to 
those  who  were  preparing  for  baptism,  and  five  "mys- 
tagogical"  instructions  given  during  Easter  week  to 
the  same  persons  after  their  baptism.  They  contain 
interesting  local  references  as  to  the  finding  of  the 
Cross,  the  position  of  Calvary  in  relation  to  the  walls, 
to  other  holy  places,  and  to  the  great  basilica  built  by 
Constantino  in  which  these  conferences  were  delivered. 
They  seem  to  have  been  spoken  extempore,  and  writ- 
ten down  afterwards.  The  style  is  admirably  clear, 
dignified,  and  logical;  the  tone  is  serious  and  full  of 
piety.  The  subject  is  thus  divided:  1.  Hortatory. 
2.  On  sin,  and  confidence  in  God's  pardon.     3.  On 


OYRILLIO 


596 


OYRILLIO 


baptism,  how  the  water  receives  the  power  of  sancti- 
fying: as  it  cleanses  the  body,  so  the  Spirit  seals  the 
soul.  4.  An  abridged  account  of  the  Faith.  5.  On 
the  nature  of  faith.  6-18.  On  the  Creed:  6.  On  the 
monarchy  of  God,  and  the  various  heresies  which  deny 
it.  7.  On  the  Father.  8.  His  omnipotence.  9.  The 
Creator.  10.  On  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  11.  His 
Eternal  Sonship.  12.  His  virgin  birth.  13.  His  Pas- 
sion. 14.  His  Resurrection  and  Ascension.  15.  His 
second  coming.  16-17.  On  the  Holy  Ghost.  18.  On 
the  resurrection  of  the  body  and  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  first  mystagogical  catechesia  explains  the  renuncia- 
tions of  Satan,  etc.  which  preceded  baptism ;  the  sec- 
ond is  on  the  effects  of  baptism,  the  third  on  confirma- 
tion, the  fourth  on  Holy  Communion,  and  the  fifth  on 
holy  Mass  for  the  living  and  the  dead.  The  hearers 
are  told  to  observe  the  disciplina  arcani;  Rom.  they  must 
repeat  nothing  to  heathens  and  catechumens;  the 
book  also  has  a  note  to  the  same  effect. 

A  few  points  may  be  noted.  The  mythical  ori^ 
of  the  Septuagint  is  told,  and  the  story  of  the  phoenix, 
so  popular  from  Clement  onwards.  The  description 
of  Mass  speaks  of  the  mystical  washing  of  the  priest's 
hands,  the  kiss  of  peace,  the  "Sursum  Corda^',  etc., 
and  the  Preface  with  its  mention  of  the  angels,  the 
Sanctus,  the  Epiclesis,  the  transmutation  of  the  ele- 
ments by  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  prayer  for  the  whole 
Church  and  for  the  spirits  of  the  departed,  followed 
by  the  Paternoster,  wnich  is  briefly  explained.  Then 
come  the  "Sancta  Sanctis"  and  the  Communion. 
"Approaching,  do  not  come  with  thy  palms  stretched 
flat  nor  with  fingers  separated.  But  making  thy  left 
hand  a  seat  for  thy  right,  and  hollowing-  thy  palm, 
receive  the  Body  of  Cm-ist,  responding  Amen.  Ana 
having  with  care  hallowed  thine  eyes  by  the  touch  of 
the  Holy  Body,  take  it,  vigilant  lest  thou  drop  any 
of  it.  For  shouldst  thou  lose  any  of  it,  it  is  as  though 
thou  wast  deprived  of  a  member  of  thy  own  body." 
"Then  sStcr  Communion  of  the  Body  of  Christ,  ap- 
proach the  Chalice  of  His  Blood,  not  extending  thy 
hands,  but  bending  low,  and  with  adoration  and 
reverence  saying  Amen,  sanctify  thyself  by  receiving 
also  the  Blood  of  Christ.  And  while  thy  lips  are  yet 
wet,  t^uch  them  with  thy  hands,  and  sanctify  thy  eyes' 
and  thy  forehead  and  thy  other  senses"  (Cat.  Slyst., 
V,  22,  21-22).  We  are  to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross 
when  we  eat  and  drink,  sit^  go  to  bed,  get  up,  talk, 
walk,  in  short,  in  every  action  (Cat.  iv,  14).  Again: 
"  if  thou  should  be  in  foreign  cities,  do  not  simply  ask 
where  is  the  church  (kvpmkSv),  for  the  heresies  of  the 
impious  try  to  call  their  caves  icvptaKd,  nor  simply 
where  is  the  Church  (^if»:Xi7<r(a),  but  where  is  the 
Catholic  Church,  for  this  is  the  proper  name  of  this 
holy  Mother  of  all"  (Cat.  xviii,  26). 

Doctrine. — St.  Cyril's  doctrine  is  expressed  in  his 
creed,  which  seems  to  have  run  thus:  "I  believe  in 
one  Grod,  the  Father  Almighty,  Creator  of  Heaven  and 
earth  and  of  all  things  visible  and  invisible.  And  in 
one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  only-begotten  Son  of  God, 
begotten  by  the  Father  true  Clod  before  all  ages,  God 
of  God,  Life  of  Life,  Light  of  Light,  by  Whom  aU 
things  were  made.  Who  for  its  men  and  for  our  salva- 
tion came  down,  and  was  incarnate  hy  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  the  Virgin  Mary^  and  was  made  man.  He  was 
crucified  . .  .  and  buried.  He  rose  again  on  the  third 
day  according  to  the  Scriptures,  and  sat  at  the  right 
hand  of  the  Father.  And  He  cometh  in  glory  to 
judge  the  living  and  the  dead,  whose  kingdom  shall 
have  no  end.  And  in  one  Holy  Ghost,  the  Paraclete, 
Who  spake  by  the  prophets;  and  in  one  baptism  of 
repentance  for  the  remission  of  sins,  and  in  one  holy 
Catholic  Church,  and  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body, 
and  in  life  everlasting."  The  italicized  words  are  un- 
certain. St.  Cyril  teaches  the  Divinity  of  the  Son 
with  perfect  plainness,  but  avoids  the  word  "consub- 
Btantial",  which  he  probably  thought  liable  to  misun 
derstandmg.     He  never  mentions  Arianisra,  though 


he  denounces  the  Arian  formula,  "There  was  a  time 
when  the  Son  was  not".  He  belonged  to  the  Soni- 
Arian,  or  Homoean  party,  and  is  content  to  declare 
that  the  Son  is  "in  all  things  like  the  Father".  He 
communicated  freely  with  bishops  such  as  Basil  of 
Ancyra  and  Eustathius  of  Sebaste.  He  not  only  does 
not  explain  that  the  Holy  Trinity  has  one  Godhead, 
but  he  does  not  even  say  the  Tliree  Persons  are  od<* 
God.  The  one  God  is  for  him  always  the  Father. 
"  There  is  one  God,  the  Fath^  of  Christ,  and  one  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  liie  only-begotten  Son  of  the  only  God, 
and  one  Holy  Ghost,  Who  sanctifies  and  deifies  all 
things"  (Cat.  iv,  16).-  But  he  rightly  says:  "We  do 
not  divide  the  Holy  Trinity  as  some  do,  neither  do  wf^ 
make  a  melting  into  one  like  Sabellius"  (Cat.  xvi,  4^ 
Cyril  never  actually  calls  the  Holy  Ghost  God,  but  H<e 
is  to  be  honoured  together  with  the  Father  and  the 
Son  (Cat.  iv,  16).  "fiiere  is  therefore  nothing  incor- 
rect in  his  doctrine,  only  the  explicit  use  of  the  Niceoe 
formulse  is  wanting,  and  these,  like  St.  Meletius  and 
others  of  his  party,  he  fully  accepted  at  a  later  date. 

St.  Cyril's  teaching  about  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is 
of  the  first  importance,  for  he  was  speaking  freely, 
untrammelled  by  the  "aiscipline  of  the  secret".    On 
the  Real  Presence  he  is  unambiguous:  "  Since  He  Him- 
self has  declared  and  said  of  tne  bread:  This  is  My 
Body,  who  shall  dare  to  doubt  any  mo^e?    And  when 
He  asserts  and  says:  This  is  Afy  Blood,  who  shall  ever 
hesitate  and  say  it  is  not  His  Blood?"    Of  the  Trans- 
formation, he  argues,  if  Christ  could  change  water 
into  wine,  can  He  not  change  wine  into  His  own 
Blood?    The  bread  and  wine  are  symbols:    "In  the 
type  of  bread  is  given  thee  the  Body,  in  the  type  of 
wine  the  Blood  is  given  thee" ;  but  they  do  not  remain 
in  their  original  condition,  they  have  been  changjpd. 
though  the  senses  cannot  tell  us  this:  "Do  not  think 
it  mere  bread  and  wine,  for  it  is  the  Body  and  Blood 
of  Christ,    according  to   the   Lord's   declaration". 
"Having  learned  this  and  being  assured  of  it,  that 
what  appears  to  be  bread  is  not  bread,  though  per- 
ceived oy  the  taste,  but  the  Body  of  Christ,  and  wiat 
appears  to  be  wine  is  not  wine,  though  the  taste  says 
so,  but  the  Blood  of  Christ. . .  .  strengthen  thy  heart, 
partaking  of  it  as  spiritual  (food),  anarejoioe  the  face 
of  thy  soul".    It  is  difficult  not  to  see  the  whole  doe- 
trine  of  Transubstantiation  in  these  explicit  words. 
Confirmation  is  with  blessed  chrism:  "As  the  bread 
of  the  Eucharist  after  the  invocation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  not  bread,  but  the  Body  of  Christ,  so  this 
holy  myrrh  is  no  longer  simple,  as  one  might  say, 
after  the  invocation,  but  a  gift  of  Christ  and  capable 
by  the  presence  of  the  Holy  Ghost  of  giving  His 
divinity'^'  (ii,  4).    St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  went  to 
Rome,  the  heads  (ir^Mwrdirtti)  of  the  Church.    Peter 
is  6  Kopv^drrarw  icaX  irptaro^rdTfis  tQp  droffrSkmp.    Tbe 
Faith  is  to  be  proved  out  of  Holy  Scripture.    St.  Cyril, 
as  the  Greek  Fathers  generally,  gives  the  Hebrew  canon 
of  the  Old  Testament  omittmg  the  deutepo-canonicai 
books.    But  yet  he  often  auotes  them  as  Scripture. 
In  the  New  Testament  he  does  not  acknowledgi  the 
Apocalypse. 

There  have  been  many  editions  of  St.  Cyrils 
works:— (Vienna,  1660);  G.  Morel  (Paris,  1564);  J. 
Pr^vot  (Paris,  1608);  T.  Milles  (London,  1703);  the 
Benedictine  edition  of  Dom  Toutt^  (Paris,  1720;  re- 

Erinted  at  Venice,  1763) ;  a  new  edition  from  MSS., 
y  G.  C.  Reischl,  8vo  (Munich,  1848;  2nd  vol.  by  J. 
Rupp,  1860);  Migne  gives  the  Bened.  cd.  in  P.  G., 
XXXIII;  Photius  Alexandrides  (2  vols.,  Jerusalem, 
1867-8);  Eng.  tr.  in  Library  of  the  Fathers  (Oxford). 
TiLLEMONT,  Mhnoires  pour  servir,  etc.,  VIII;  TourriE  in 
his  edition,  and  Rewchl;  Ada  SS.,  March,  II;  Delactsoix, 
SairU-CyriUe  de  J£ni9cdem  (Paris,  1865);  MiiDEH.  Der  W.  Cyri' 
lua,  Biachof  von  Jcnualem  (Einsiedehi,  1901). 

JoHx  Chapman. 
Cyrillic  Alphabet.    See  Russian  Cbitbch. 
Oyrillic  Prophecy.  See  Cvril  of  Constavtinopia 


6TB£fitJS 


597 


07BV8 


Oyrrhus,  a  titular  see  of  Syria.  The  city  of  the 
same  name  was  the  capital  of  the  extensive  district 
of  Cyrrheatica,  between  the  plain  of  Antioch  and 
Commagene.  The  orie^i  of  the  city  is  unknown;  ac- 
cording to  a  false  tramtion,  it  was  said  in  the  sixth 
century  to  have  been  founded  by  Cyrus,  King  of 
Persia;  this,  however,  was  only  a  play  upon  the  name. 
It  became  at  an  early  date  a  suffra^n  of  Hierapolis 
in  Provincia  Euphratensis.  Eight  bishops  are  known 
before  636  (Lequien,  II,  929;  E.  W.  Brooks,  The  Sixth 
Book  of  the  Select  Letters  of  Severus,  II,  341).  The 
first  was  present  at  Nicsea  in  325;  The  most  celebrated 
is  Theodoret  (423-58),  a  prolific  writer,  well  known 
for  his  r61e  in  the  history  of  Nestorianism  and  Eutych- 
ianism.  (His  works  are  in  Migne,  P.  G.,  LXaX- 
LiXXXIV.)  He  tells  us  that  his  small  diocese  (about 
forty  miles  square)  contained  800  churches,  which 
supposes  a  very  dense  population. 

At  Cyrrhus  a  magnincent  basilica  held  the  relics  of 
SS.  Cosmas  and  Damian,  who  had  suffered  martyr- 
dom in  the  vicinity  about  283,  and  whose  bodies  had 
been  transported  to  the  city,  whence  it  was  also  called 
Hagioupolis.  Many  holy  personages,  moreover,  chief- 
ly hermits,  had  been  or  were  then  living  in  this  terri- 
toiy,  among  them  SS.  Acepsimas,  Zeumatius,  Zebinas, 
Pofychronius,  Maron  (the  famous  patron  of  the  Maron- 
ite  Church),  Eusebius,  Thalassius,  Maris,  James  the 
Wonder-worker,  and  others.  Theodoret  devoted  an 
entire  work  to  the  illustration  of  their  virtues  and 
miracles.  The  city  was  embellished  and  fortified  by 
Justinian.  At  the  same  time  it  became  an  indepen- 
dent metropolis,  subject  directly  to  Antioch.  The 
Eatriarch,  Michael  the  Syrian,  names  thirteen  Jacobite 
ishops  of  Cyrrhus  from  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh 
centmy  (Revue  de  TOrient  chr6tien,  1901,  p.  194). 
Only  two  Latin  titulars  are  quoted  by  Lequien  (III, 
1195).  The  site  of  the  city  is  marked  by  the  ruins 
at  Khoros,  nine  miles  northwest  of  Kills,  in  the  vil- 
ayet of  Aleppo;  these  ruins  stand  near  the  river  Afrin 
Marsyas,  a  tributary  of  the  Orontes),  which  had  been 
banked  up  by  the  aforesaid  Theodoret. 

TiUAKONT,  Minwiree,  XV,  217-280. 

S.  VAILHt. 

OypxB  and  John»  Saints,  celebrated  martyrs  of  the 
Coptic  Church,  sumamed  fiavftarovpyoi  dpdfyyvpoi  be- 
cause they  healed  the  sick  gratis  (Nilles,  Kalendarium 
utriusque  EoclesisB,  Innsbruck,  1896,  I,  89).  Their 
feast  day  is  celebrated  by  the  Copts  on  the  sixth  day  of 
Emsir,  corresponding  to  31  January,  the  day  also  ob- 
served by  the  Greeks;  on  the  same  day  they  are  com- 
memorated in  the  Roman  Martyrology,  regarding 
which  see  the  observation  of  Cardinal  Baronio  (Maiv 
tyrologium  Romanum,  Venice,  1586).  The  Greeks 
celebrate  also  the  finding  and  translation  of  the  relics 
on  28  June  (see  "Menologium  Basil."  and  "Menaia"). 
TTie  principal  source  of  information  regarding  the  life, 
passion,  and  miracles  of  Sts.  John  and  Cyrus  is  the 
encomium  written  by  Sophronius,  Patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem (d.  638).  Of  the  birth,  parents,  and  first  years 
of  the  saints  we  know  nothing.  According  to  the 
Arabic  "Synaxarium"  (Forget,  Synax.  Alexan- 
drinum,  Beirut,  1906,  II,  252),  compiled  by  Michael, 
Bishop  of  Athrib  and  Malig,  Cyrus  and  John  were 
both  Alexandrians;  this,  however,  is  contradicted  by 
other  documents  in  which  it  is  said  that  Cyrus  was  a 
native  of  Alexandria  and  John  of  Edessa.  Cyrus 
practised  the  art  of  medicine  and  had  a  work-sliop 
{ergagterium)  which  was  afterwards  transformed  into 
a  temple  dedicated  to  the  three  boy-saints,  Ananias, 
Misael,  and  Azarias.  He  ministered  to  the  sick  gratis 
and  at  the  same  time  laboured  with  all  the  ardour  of 
an  apostle  of  the  Faith,  and  won  many  from  pagan 
superstition.  This  took  place  under  the  Emperor 
Diocletian.  Denounced  to  the  prefect  of  the  city  he 
fled  to  Arabia  of  Egypt  where  he  took  refuge  in  a 
town  near  the  sea  called  Tz6ten.    There,  having 


shaved  his  head  and  assumed  the  monastic  habit,  he 
abandoned  medicine  and  began  a  life  of  asceticism. 

John  belonged  to  the  army,  in  which  he  held  a  high 
rank;  the  "Synaxarium"  cited  above  adds  that  he 
was  one  of  the  familiars  of  the  emperor.  Hearing  of 
the  virtues  and  wonders  of  Cyrus,  he  betook  himself 
to  Jerusalem  in  f^ilfiUnent  of  a  vow,  and  thence  passed 
into  Egypt  where  he  became  the  companion  of  St. 
Cyrus  m  the  ascetic  life.  During  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian  three  holy  virgins,  Theoctista  (Theopista), 
fifteen  years  old,  Theodota  (Theodora),  thirteen  yearft 
old,  and  Theodossia  (Theodoxia),  eleven  years  old,  to- 
gether with  their  mother  Athanasia,  were  arrested  at 
Canopus  and  brought  to  Alexandria.  Cyrus  and  John, 
fearing  lest  these  girls,  on  account  of  their  tender  age, 
might,  in  the  midst  of  torments,  deny  the  Faith,  re- 
Bolvea  to  go  into  the  city  to  comfort  them  and  encour- 
age them  in  undergoing  martyrdom.  This  fact  be- 
coming known  they  also  were  arrested  and  after  dire 
torments  they  were  all  beheaded  on  the  31st  of  Janu- 
ary. The  bodies  of  the  two  martyrs  were  placed  in 
the  church  of  St.  Mark  the  Evangelist  where  they 
remained  up  to  the  time  of  St.  Cyril,  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria  (412-444).  At  Menuthis  (McroiJ^j  or 
Mevov^is)  near  Canopus  there  existed  at  that  time  a 
pagan  temple  reputed  for  its  oracles  and  cures  which 
attracted  even  some  simple  Christians  of  the  vicinity. 
StMI)yril  thought  to  extirpate  this  idolatrous  cult 
by  establishing  in  that  town  the  cultus  of  Sts. 
CJyrus  and  John.  For  this  purpose  he  transferred 
thither  their  relics  (28  June,  414)  and  ^aced  them  in 
the  chiuxjh  built  by  his  predecessor,  Theophilus,  in 
honour  of  the  Evangelists.  Before  the  finding  and 
transfer  of  the  relics  by  St.  Cyril  it  seems  that  the 
names  of  the  two  saints  were  unknown ;  certain  It  is 
that  no  written  records  of  them  existed  (Migne,  P.  G., 
LXXXVII,  3508  sq.).  In  the  fifth  century,  during 
the  pontificate  of  Innocent  I,  their  relics  were  brought 
to  Rome  by  two  monks,  Grimaldus  and  Amulfus — 
this  accordmg  to  a  manuscript  in  the  archives  of  the 
deaconry  of  Santa  Maria  in  the  Via  Lata,  cited  by 
Antonio  Bosio  (Roma  Sotterranea,  Rome,  1634,  p.  123). 
Mai,  however,  for  historical  reasons,  justly  assigns  a 
later  date,  namely  634,  imder  Pope  Honorms  and  the 
Emperor  Heraclius  (Spicilegium  Rom.,  Ill,  V).  The 
relics  were  placed  in  tne  suburban  church  of  St.  Pas- 
sera  (Abbas  Cyrus)  on  the  Via  Portuense.  In  the 
time  of  Bosio  the  pictures  of  the  two  saints  were  still 
visible  in  this  church  (Bosio,  op.  cit.,  ib.)  Upon  the 
door  of  the  hypogeum,  which  still  remains,  is  the  fol- 
lowing inscription  in  marble: — 

Corpora  sancta  Cyri  renitent  hie  atque  Joannis 
Quae  quondam  Romse  dedit  Alexandria  magna 

(Bosio,  ib.;  Mai,  Spic.  Rom.,  loc.  cit.).  At  Rome 
three  churches  were  dedicated  to  these  martyrs. 
Abbas  Cyrus  de  Militiis,  Abbas  Cyrus  de  Valeriis,  ana 
Abbas  Cyrus  ad  Elephantum — aU  of  which  were 
transformed  afterwards  by  the  vulgar  pronimciation 
into  S.  Passera,  a  corruption  of  Abbas  Cyrus;  in  the 
Coptic  Difnar,  Apakiri,  Apakyri,  Apakyr;  in  Arabic, 
'Abaqir,  'Abuqir  (see  Armellini,  Le  Chiese  di  Roma, 
Rome,  1891,  179  sq.,  563  sq.,  681,  945  sq.). 

vSoraRONius.  Laudes  in  SS.  Cyrum  et  Joannem  in  Mione, 
P.  (?.,  LXXXVII.  3379-3676  (the  other  two  Uvea,  3677-^3606. 
are  not  of  Sophronius):  see  also  Bardenhewer,  Patrol.  (It.  tr., 
Rome,  1908).  Ill,  41;  Ada  SS.,  Jan.,  II,  1081  sq.;  Petrub  Par- 
TRENOPBN8I8,  SS.  CyH  et  Joannia  patsio  in  Spicilegium  Romanum 
(Rome,  1840),  IV.  268-280:  Analecta  BoUandiana  (BruwelB, 
1889).  VIII,  95-96:  Detjbner,  Dt  incubatione  capita  queUtucr 
(Leipzig.  1900);  cf.  Analecta  BoUandiana  (1901).  XX,  324  sq.; 
(1906)  XXV,  233,  40 ;  Heme  de  POrimi  ekrit,  (Pam.  1902J 
376  sqq.  ,>     ,    ^ 

P.  J.  Balgotri. 

Cynu  of  Alexandria,  a  Melohite  patriarch  of  that 
see  in  the  seventh  centuxy,  and  one  of  the  authors 
of  Monothelism:  d.  about  641  He  had  been  since 
620  Bishop  of  Pnasis,  in  Colchis,  .when  the  Emperoi 


OTZICUl 


698 


OZEOR 


Heraclius,  in  the  course  of  his  Persian  campaign 
(626),  consulted  him  about  a  plan  for  bringing  the 
Monophysites  of  Egypt  back  to  the  Church  and  to 
the  support  of  the  empire.  The  plan,  suggested  by 
Sergius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  consisted  of 
confessing  the  faith  of  Chalcedon  on  the  two  natures 
of  Christ,  while  practically  nullifying  it  by  the 
admission  of  one  theandrio  will  and  operation, 
h)  BkT^rifia  ml  /lia  kvkpytia,  Cyrus  hesitated  at  first, 
but  being  assured  by  Sergius  that  this  formula 
was  opposed  to  neither  the  Fathers  nor  Chalcedon 
and  was  destined  to  achieve  great  results,  he  became 
a  stanch  supporter  of  it,  and  was,  in  return,  raised  by 
Heraclius  to  the  then  vacant  See  of  Alexandria  (630). 
Once  a  patriarch,  he  set  himself  vigorously  to  effect 
the  desired  union.  In  a  synod  held  at  Alexandria 
he  proposed  what  is  known  as  the  irXrfpo<j>opla^  or 
"Satisf actio",  an  agreement  in  nine  articles,  the 
seventh  of  which  is  a  bold  assertion  of  the  Monothe- 
lite  heresy.  The  Monophysites  (Theodosians  or  Sever- 
ians)  welcomed  the  agreement  with,  however,  the 
remark  that  Chalcedon  was  coming  to  them,  not 
they  to  Chalcedon.  The  union  thus  effected  was 
adroitly  exploited,  with  a  view  to  win  over  Pope 
HonoriuB  to  Monothelism;  otherwise  it  proved  in- 
effective, and  soon  fell  into  discredit  under  the  name 
of  evLXTtg-  vSpopa^^y  contemptuously  called  the 
"washy  union".  Cyrus  persevered  none  the  less  in 
his  adhesion  to  the  compromise,  and  even  accepted 
the  Ecthesis,  a  new  imperial  formulary  of  the  same 
error  (637).  When  Omar's  general,  Amru,  threatened 
the  Prefecture  of  Egypt,  Cyrus  was  made  prefect 
and  entrusted  with  the  conduct  of  the  war.  Certain 
humiliating  stipulations,  to  which  he  subscribed 
for  the  sake  of  peace,  angered  his  imperial  inaster. 
He  was  recalled  and  harshly  accused  of  conniyance 
with  the  Saracens;  however,  he  was  soon  restored 
to  his  former  authority,  owing  to  the  impending 
siege  of  Alexandria,  but  could  not  avert  the  fall 
of  the  great  city  (640)  and  died  shortly  after. 

From  Cyrus  we  have  three  letters  to  Sergius  and 
the  ''Satisfaction,  all  preserved  in  the  acts  of  the 
Roman  Synod  of  the  Lateran  and  of  the  Sixth 
(Ecumenical  Council  (Mansi,  X,  1004;  XI,  660,  662, 
064).  The  first  letter  is  an  acceptation  of  the 
Ecthesis;  in  the  second  Cyrus  describes  his  perplexity 
between  Pope  Leo  and  Sergius;  the  conversion  of  the 
Theodosians  is  narrated  in  the  third.  The  seventh 
article  of  the  ''Satisf actio" — the  others  are  irrelevant 
— reads  thus:  "The  one  and  same  Christ,  the  Son, 
performs  the  works  proper  to  God  and  tp  man  by 
one  theandric  operation  [^nf  BeavSpiK^  ivEpyela] 
according  to  St.  Dionysius".  Cyrua'  chief  opponents, 
St.  Sophronius,  d.  in  637  (Epistola  synodica,  Manai. 
XI,  480),  and  St.  Maximus,  d.  in  662  (Epistola  ad 
Nicandrum;  disputatio  cum  Pyrrho,  P.  G.,  XCI, 
101,  345),  reproached  him  for  falsifying  the  then 
much-respected  text  of  Dionysius  and  substituting 
fit^  for  Kaiv^  (new).  They  showed,  moreover,  the 
inanity  of  his  claim  to  the  support  of  the  Fathers, 
and  explained  how  the  Divine  and  human  natures 
of  Christ,  sometimes  styled  one,  because  they  be- 
long to  the  same  person  and  work  in  perfect  harmony, 
can  no  more  be  physically  identified  than  the  natures 
from  which  they  proceed.  Historians  are  not  agreed 
as  to  how  Cyrus  came  by  this  error.  Some  think 
that  he  was,  from  the  outset,  a  Monophysite  at  heart. 
Others,  with  more  reason,  hold  that  he  was  led  into 
error  by  Sergius  and  Heraclius.  Cyrus  was  con- 
demned as  a  heretic  in  the  Lateran  Council  of  649 
(Denzinger,  Enchiridion,  217,  219)  and  in  680  at  the 
Third  Oecumenical  Council  of  Constantinople  (Den- 
linger,  238;  Mansi.  XI,  554).    (See  Monothdutbs.) 

Neali,  History  of  the  Holy  EaaUrn  Church  (London.  1847), 
II;  HcFELE,  Conciliengesch.  (Freiburg,  1877).  Ill;  Pbtaviub, 
Dogmata  Caiholica  (Paris.  1866).  V.  i.  19;  Burt.  History  of  thB 
Later  Raman  Empire  (London.  1880):  Mann,  Lives  of  the 
Popea  (London,   1902),  Vol.  I,  Pt.  I,  330;  Schwanb-Deoert, 


Hi9t.  da  dogmes  (Paris,   190.3),  II;  Turmzl.   ffial.  d»  la  IA4»1 
pontite  (Pari».  1904). 

J.  F.  SOLUEB. 

Cysicus,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  metropolitan 
of  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  province  of  HeUespontus. 
The  city  was  probably  founded  by  PelasgiaQs  from 
Thessaly;  later  it  leoeived  many  oolonies  from  Mile- 
tus, but  its  importance  began  only  after  the  Pelopoa- 
nesian  war,  when  the  decay  of  Athena  and  Miletus  Mt 
in.  Alcibiades  defeated  the  Laoedsemonians  there 
(410  B.  c).  Alexander  captured  it  from  the  Persians 
in  334  B.  c;  and  Mithridates  besieged  It  with  300,000 
men  in  74  b.  o.,  but  it  withstood  him  stoutly,  and  the 
year  following  was  delivered  by  LucuUub.  The  Rom- 
ans favoured  it  and  recognised  its  municipal  inde- 
pendence. Cyaious  was  the  leading  city  of  Northers 
Mysia  as  far  as  Troas.  Under  Tiberius  it  was  incor- 
porated with  the  empire,  but  remained  the  capital  of 
Mysia,  afterwards  of  HeUespontus,  and  became  one  of 
the  greatest  dties  in  the  world.  The  era  of  its  Olym- 
piads was  reckoned  from  a.  d.  135  or  139.  Its  peculiar 
coin,  the  Cysicenus,  was  worth  28  drachmae,  i.  e. 
nearly  five  dollars  and  a  half  in  American  money. 
Cyaicus  was  captured  by  the  Arabs  in  675,  and  ruined 
by  earthquakes  iu  443  and  1043;  it  began  to  be  de- 
serted as  early  as  the  eleventh  century.  Its  site  is  to- 
day marked  by  a  huge  heap  of  ruins  amid  the  marshes 
of  Balkiz  Serai,  in  the  caza  of  Erdek,  vilayet  of  Bnua. 
The  walls,  dating  from  the  fourth  century,  are  partly 
preserved;  there  are  also  the  ruins  of  a  Koman  aque- 
duct and  a  theatre.  The  amphitheatre,  built  in  the 
third  century  b.  c,  was  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world ; 
its  diameter  was  nearly  500  feet.  Colossal  founda- 
tions of  a  temple  dedicated  to  Hadrian  are  still  visi- 
ble: the  columns  were  21.35  metres  high  (about  70 
feet),  while  the  highest  known  elsewhere,  those  si 
Baalbek  in  Syria,  are  only  10.35  metres  (about  63 
feet).  The  monuments  of  Cysicus  were  used  by  Jus- 
tinian as  a  quarry  for  the  building  of  Saint  Sophia, 
and  are  still  exploited  by  the  natives. 

As  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  HeUespontus,  Cyii- 
cus  had  a  catalogue  of  bishops  beginning  with  the 
first  century;  Lequien  (I,  747)  mentions  fifty-nine. 
A  more  complete  list  is  found  in  Nicodemos,  in  the 
Greek  "Office  of  St.  Enulian"  (Constantinople,  1876), 
34-36,  which  has  eighty-five  names.  We  may  men- 
tion the  famous  Arian  Eunomius;  St.  Dalmatius;  St. 
Proolus  and  St.  Germanus,  who  became  PatriarchB  of 
Constantinople;  and  St.  Emilian,  a  martyr  in  the 
eighth  century.  Gelasius,  an  historian  of  Arianism. 
who  wrote  about  475,  was  born  at  Cysicus.  Lequien 
(III,  041)  mentions  a  Latin  bishop  in  1477.  Cyzicus 
is  still  a  metropolitan  title  for  the  Greeks,  the  metro- 
politan residing  at  Artake  (Erdek),  a  little  port  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  peninsula.  Opposite  to  Artake 
is  another  port,  Peramos  (Perama),  where  an  Assump- 
tionist  Father  has  founded  a  Greek  parish.  At  Panor- 
mos  (Pander ma),  another  more  important  port  nine 
miles  south-east  of  the  ruins  of  Cyaicus  (10,000  inhab- 
itants), there  is  a  Catholic  Armenian  parish.  At  the 
Dardanelles,  also,  there  is  a  Latin  parish. 

Mabouardt,  Cyticua  und  win  O^but  (Berlin,  1886):  Psriot. 
Exploration  archiolog.  de  la  Oalatie  st  de  la  Bithynie,  &h90: 
WisQAND,  Reiaen  in  Mytisn  in  Athsn.  MittsHungm  (1904); 
8mitr,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Oeogr.  (London,  1878).  L 
739-42. 

S.  VAILHi. 

Ozeth  Lfterataie. — The  Csech  or  Bohemian  lan- 
guage is  spoken  by  that  branch  of  the  Indo-European 
Slavs  who  settled  in  Moravia  and  Bohemia  about  the 
fifth  century  after  Christ.  It  is  closely  allied  to  the 
Russian,  Polish,  Bulgarian,  and  other  Slav  langua^ 
having  a  common  origin.  The  evolution  of  Ciech 
literature  dates  back  to  863,  when  Moravia  and  Bo- 
hemia, through  the  efforts  of  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius, 
the  apostles  of  these  two  countries,  were  converted 
to  Christianity  and  thus  became  participants  in  the 


CZECH 


599 


CZECH 


great  work  of  civilization.  Of  all  Slav  literature,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Bulgarian,  the  Caech  is  the  oldest 
and,  until  the  seventeenth  century,  was  also  the 
richest.     It  may  be  divided  into  four  periods. 

First  Period. — This  era  extended  from  the  Christian* 
isatlon  of  Bohemia  to  the  appearance  in  public  of  John 
Hub,  in  the  year  1404.  It  may  be  called  the  childhood 
of  Csech  literature  and  is  characterised  by  fruitf ujbiees 
in  poetry.  From  pagan  times  we  have  no  literary 
relics,  though  it  is  certain  that  the  Bohemians  used 
certain  crude  characters  or  letters  commonly  called 
th6  runic.  St.  Cyril,  using  the  Greek  characters  as  a 
basis,  devised  a  special  Slav  alphabet  with  new  marks 
indicating  soft  sounds.  At  the  same  time  he  intro- 
duced a  Slavonic  Liturgy  and  translated  part  of  the 
Bible.  The  liturgy,  however,  was  soon  superseded  by 
the  lAtin,  written  in  the  Latin  language  with  Roman 
letters.  This  was  brought  about  chiefly  by  the  Ger- 
man bishops,  who,  it  is  said,  feared  that  this  Slavonic 
Liturgy  might  finally  lead  to  schism.  The  Slavonic 
Liturgy  survived  longest  (until  10^)  in  the  Abbey 
of  Saxava.  To  re-establish  it  Emperor  Charles  I 
founded  an  abbey  at  Prague  commonly  called  ''Na 
Slovanech",  or  at  the  present  time  Emmaus,  inducing 
Slay  Benedictine  monks  from  Croatia  to  settle  there. 
The  monks,  however,  were  scattered  during  the  Hus- 
site wars  in  1419  and  did  not  return.  The  older  part 
of  the  famous  "Reims  Gospel",  it  is  claimed,  dates 
from  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century.  The  newer 
part  was  written  at  Emmaus  in  1395,  and  is  the  only 
relic  of  Old  Slavonic  extant.  This  Gospel  was  carried 
away  by  the  Hussites,  was  taken  as  far  as  Turkey,  and 
thence  to  Reims,  where  it  was  used  by  the  French 
kings  when  pronouncing  the  coronation  oath.  Of  the 
oldest  period,  that  is  from  the  tenth  to  the  twelfth 
century,  only  a  few  manuscripts  have  been  preserved, 
among  them  two  fragments  of  liturgical  translations 
written  in  the  Glagolitic  or  Old  Slavonic  alphabet. 
The  most  precious  relic  of  this  period  is  the  hymn 
''Hospodine,  pomiluj  ny'',  a  paraphrase  of  the  Kyrie 
Eleison,  which,  with  its  deep  choral  melody,  is  very 
impressive.  It  is  surpassed  only  by  the  beautiful 
song  in  honour  of  St.  Wenceslaus. 

A  marked  improvement  in  Czech  literature  began 
in  the  year  1250.  The  Western  lands  gave  birth  to 
new  watchwords,  new  ideas,  and  new  life.  The 
splendour  of  tournaments,  the  pomp  of  feasts,  and  the 
grandeur  of  knighthood  took  the  fancy  of  the  age, 
while  the  Crusades  widened  the  people's  knowledge 
of  other  countries  and  customs.  The  troubadours  of 
France  and  the  minnesingers  of  Germany  went  from 
castle  to  castle,  glorifying  heroic  deeds  of  knighthood. 
Tendencies  of  this  kind  found  favour  also  in  Bohemia, 
and  because  of  their  origin  in  Latin  or  Roman  lands, 
literature  of  this  period  is  commonly  called  romance. 
The  deeds  and  adventures  of  the  knights  were  ex- 
tolled in  song  and  poem  after  foreign  models;  the  best 
of  these  was  "Alexandreis",  written  by  an  unknown 
author.  This  piece  of  literature  is  remarkable  for  its 
almost  faultless  form  and  elegant  diction.  Another 
effect  of  the  Crusades  was  the  extraordinary  revival 
of  religious  faith  among  the  people,  which  gave  rise  tc 
a  new  class  of  literature,  to  legends  and  to  mystery  oi 
spiritual  plays.  In  prose  were  written  spiritual  ro- 
mances, legends,  and  passionals  depicting  the  passion 
of  Our  Lord  and  of  the  martyrs.  The  Crusades  fur- 
ther enkindled  in  the  hearts  of  many  a  desire  to  see 
and  know  new  lands  and  new  peoples.  This  led  to 
works  on  travel,  geography,  etc.  in  great  numbers. 
The  veneration  of  the  Blessed  Mother  developed 
rapidly  and  fostered  a  deeper  respect  for  women  and 
children.  The  founding  of  the  University  of  Prague,  in 
1348,  by  Emperor  Charles  I  was  a  mighty  factor  in  the 
improvement  of  Bohemian  literature  in  all  branches. 
The  moral  condition  of  the  Church  at  that  time 
cannot  be  called  exemplary.  There  existed  certain  dis- 
orders which  called  forth  reformers,  who  honestly  and 


sincerely  worked  for  their  elimination.  Numbers  of 
devotional  and  moral  tracts  were  written,  the  best  of 
which  were  by  Tomdd  Stltny,  who  fearlessly  assailed 
the  abuses  wherever  he  found  them.  Stftnj^'s  literary 
activity  also  made  its  influence  felt  in  another  line. 
Up  to  this  time  the  Czech  language  had  been  regarded 
as  unfit  for  scientific  writing,  the  Latin  being  almost 
exclusively  used  here,  as  in  many  other  countries,  for 
^atises  on  theological  and  philosophical  subjects. 
oUtnf,  however,  dispelled  this  illusion,  by  using  the 
Czech  language  even  in  his  scientific  writings,  and 
thus  created  a  rich  scientific  vocabulary.  The  last 
of  these  literary  reformers  was  John  Hus.  He,  how- 
ever, allowed  himself  to  be  led  astray  by  the  heresies 
of  John  Wyclif  and  thus  become  the  cause  of  unhappy 
dissension  and  bloody  war  in  his  native  country. 

Second  Period, — The  appearance  of  John  Hus  in 
1404  marks  the  second  period  of  Czech  literature. 
During  this  the  Czech  language  passed  from  its  old 
form  to  the  medieval  sta^e,  and  this  epoch  may  be 
called  the  golden  age  of  Bohemian  literature.  Devo- 
tional prose  was  in  preponderance.  The  literary 
merit  of  John  Hus  consists  in  his  establishing  a  dia- 
critical orthography,  making  the  written  language 
more  simple  and  stable;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  iSs 
activity  caused  dissensions  in  the  Church,  which 
brought  on  bloody  wars  and  the  ruin  of  literature. 
These  sad  conditions  improved  only  during  the  reign 
of  George  of  Podiebrad  (1458-71).  The  sect  known  as 
the  Bohemian  Brethren,  founded  in  1457,  imparted  a 
new  character  to  Czech  literature  and  produced  many 
eminent  writers.  In  religious  meetings  held  in  the 
fashion  of  the  early  Christians,  spiritual  reading,  medi- 
tation, and  religious  songs  formed  the  greater  part  of 
the  services.  The  practice  led  to  the  publishing  of  a 
great  number  of  devotional  songs  and  hymn-boo ks, 
\nd  to  the  founding  of  printing  establishments.  Eight 
.eading  members  of  the  Brethren  translated  from  the 
original  Hebrew  and  Greek  the  whole  of  the  Bible, 
which  is  generally  known  as  the  Kralickd  Bible,  from 
the  town  of  Kralice  in  which  it  was  printed.  This 
translation  is  excellent  and  from  a  literary  standpoint 
it  must  be  called  classical.  The  greatest  writer  of  the 
Brethren  was  their  last  bishop,  Jan  Amos  Komensk^ 
(Johann  Amos,  called  Comenius),  a  pedagogue  of  re- 
nown, who,  in  his  masterpiece,  ''The  Labjrrinth  of  the 
World  and  the  Heart's  Paradise" — the  best  devo- 
tional and  philosophical  work  in  medieval  Bohemian 
hterature — proves  that  all  worldly  glory,  riches,  and 
pleasures  are  vanities  and  that  true  happiness  con- 
sists only  in  the  possession  of  God  and  the  fulfilling  of 
His  Commandments. 

Another  important  factor  in  Czech  literature  was 
Humanism.  As  early  as  the  reign  of  George  of  Podie- 
brad (1458-71)  many  writers  turned  their  attention 
to  the  old  Roman  and  Greek  literatures  They  studied 
the  classics,  copied  the  elegancies  of  form,  and  drew 
upon  the  verbal  riches,  many  even  going  so  far  as  to 
write  their  works  in  Latin.  But  two  poweriul  ob- 
stacles stood  in  the  way  from  the  beginning.  An  ar- 
ticle of  Hussite  dogma  condemned  the  fostering  of 
worldly  sciences,  and  the  members  of  the  Bohemiaa 
Brethren  subscribed  to  this  opinion.  For  this  reason 
Humanism  was  cultivated  at  first  only  by  Catholics. 
Foremost  in  this  movement  must  be  mentioned  the 
talented  poet  Bohuslav  z  Lobkovic  and  John  HodS- 
jovskf  from  HodSjov,  who,  though  not  a  writer,  was 
a  generous  patron  of  literature.  When  Protestantism 
superseded  Hussitism,  John  Blafaoslav,  a  member  of 
the  Bohemian  Brethren,  wrote  an  elaborate  defence 
of  Humanism,  and  three  religious  bodies  then  began 
to  emulate  one  another  in  fostering  Humanism:  the 
Catholics,  who  had  suffered  greatly  during  the 
Hussite  wars,  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  who  at  tlus 
time  were  at  the  zenith  of  their  literary  development, 
and  the  Protestants,  who  were  growing  in  force.  New 
schools  were  founded,  of  which  those  conducted  by  the 


OZXOH 


600 


OZXOH 


Brethren  were  foremost.  These,  however,  were  grad- 
ually superseded  by  the  Jesuit  schools.  Humanism 
indeed  revived  classic  models  of  poetry,  but  it  was 
destnictiVe  of  home,  that  is  Czech,  literature,  in  that 
Humanistic  poetry  was  exclusively  Latin.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  through  the 
influence  of  Humanism  Bohemian  prose  vastly  im- 
proved, culminating  in  the  works  of  Daniel  Adam  of 
Veleslavfn,  who  rightly  wrote:  "The  Bohemian  lan- 
guage, in  its  present  high  development,  is  elegant,  rich, 
graceful,  ana  sublime,  and  perfectly  adapted  to  the 
setting  forth  of  any  topic,  whether  in  theology  or 
philosophy."  This  splendid  development  terminated 
suddenly  in  1620,  at  the  beginning  of  the  era  of  decline. 

Third  Period. — The  Prot^tant  nobility,  refusing  to 
recognize  Emperor  Ferdinand  II,  chose  the  Calvinist 
Elector  Frederick  V  as  their  king  (1619).  This  rebellion 
was  overthrown  at  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain, 
8  Nov.,  1620,  and  the  Bohemian  nation  by  the  fool- 
hardiness  and  stubbornness  of  its  nobles  was  shorn  of 
its  independence.  The  victorious  Ferdinand  began  to 
enforce  the  existing  motto  of  the  Reformation:  Cuius 
regio  iUius  religio.  Some  of  the  leaders  of  rebellion 
were  executed  and  their  property  confiscated,  and 
others  were  warned  either  to  adopt  the  Catholic  relig- 
ion or  to  leave  the  land.  Many  left  Bohemia  and 
their  property  was  sold  or  given  to  German,  Spanish, 
Frencn,  or  Italian  nobles.  After  the  battle  of  the  White 
Mountain  we  meet  but  few  writers.  Most  prominent 
amongst  the  Catholic  writers  of  this  day  was  Vilem 
Slavata  of  Chlum,  wlfo  wrote  a  lai^e  history  in  refu- 
tation of  that  of  Skala  of  Zhof  which  unduly  favoured 
Protestantism.  After  the  Thirty  Yeare  War,  how- 
ever, all  literary  activity  ceased.  During  the  whole 
of  the  seventeenth  century  there  was  not  published  a 
single  original  work  of  merit.  In  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury works  were  written  in  Latin  and  Carman.  The 
German  language  gradually  took  the  place  of  the 
Bohemian,  and  when,  in  1774,  Emperor  Joseph  II 
excluded  it  from  the  schools  and  from  all  public  offices, 
it  looked  as  if  the  Bohemian  language  was  condemned 
to  a  gradual  but  sure  death.  But  just  here  came  a 
sudden  change  for  the  better,  and  1780  marks  the  bc^- 
ginning  of  the  modem  period  of  Bohemian  literature. 

Fourth  Period, — A  handful  of  patriotic  priests  and 
teachers  took  up  the  heroic  task  of  awakenmg  the  na- 
tion and  succeeded.  During  the  couipe  of  one  cen- 
tury Bohemian  literature  grew  to  such  proportions  in 
all  its  branches  that  to-day  it  may  well  compare  with 
the  literature  of  other  nations.  Foretiiost  among  the 
pioneers  of  this  era  of  resurrection  must  be  mentioned 
Josef  Dobrovsk^,  a  Jesuit,  and  Prof.  Josef  Jungman. 

Bohemian  Writers  in  Various  Fields. — Poetry: 
— Fr.  Lad.  Celakovskjr  (1799-1852):  Boleslav  Jablon- 
sk^,  CathoHc  priest  (1813-1881);  Jan  Kollar  (1793- 
1852);  Vft^zslav  mfek  (1835-1874);  Adolf  Heyduk 
(1835);  Svatopluk  Cech  (1846-1908);  Josef  SWdek 
(1854),  translated  nearly  all  of  the  plajrs  of  Shake- 
speare and  the  principal  works  of  Longfellow,  Byron, 
Bums,  Bret  Harte,  etc.  Jaroslav  Vrchlick^  (1853) 
is  the  most  prolific  Bohemian  poet.  He  wrote  sixty- 
seven  volumes  of  original  poems.  Besides  this  he 
wrot«  a  number  of  dramas  and  translated  from  nearly 
all  the  languages  of  Europe.  He  translated  "Divina 
Commedia"  of  Dante,  Ariosto's  ''Orlando  Furioso", 
and  a  great  part  of  Gioethe,  Carducci,  Andersen,  De 
Amicis,  Byron,  Hugo,  de  Lisle,  Camoens,  Ihsen, 
Moliere,  Hamerling,  Shelley,  etc.  Julius  Zeyer  (1841- 
1901).  Cech,  Vrchlick^,  and  Zeyer  are  the  greatest 
Bohemian  poets.  The  most  prominent  of  the  younger 
generation  are: — Otakar  Brezina,  Jaroslav  Kvapil, 
Jan  Machar,  Fr.  Svoboda;  and  the  following  Catholic 
priests: — Sigismund  Boudka,  O.S.B.;  Xaver  DvoMk; 
Adam  Chlumeck^  and  the  Bohemian-American  poet, 
Jan  Vrdnek  of  Omaha,  Nebraska. 

Navels  and  Romances: — Josef  Ehrenberger,  Cath- 
olic   priest     (1815-1882);     Prokop    Chocholoufek 


(1819-1864);  FrantiSek  Pravda,  Catholic  priest 
(1817-1904);  Fr.  RubeS  (1814-1852);  KaroUna 
SvStU  (1830-1899);  Jan  Neruda  (1834-1801);  Boiena 
N«moov4  (1820-1862);  Viclav  V15ek  (1839);  Jakub 
Arbes  (1840);  V^lav  BeneS  Tfeblask;^,  Catholic 
priest  (1849-1884);  Servdc  Heller  (1846);  Ignat  Her- 
man (1854);  Alois  Jir^sek  (1851);  Karel  Kloster- 
mann  (1848);  Viclay  Kosmik,  Catholic  priest 
(1843-1898);  Vdclav  Reznf «ek,  Ph.D.  (1861);  Antal 
Stafek  (1843);  Alois  Smilovsk;^  (1837-1883).  Tfc- 
bfzsk^  and  tfirdsek  are  the  most  famous  noTeliata. 
The  most  prominent  of  the  rising  generation  are: — 
Bohiunil  Brodsk;^,  Catholic  priest  (1862);  Jan  Hav- 
lasa  (1883);  Karel  Rais  (1859);  Mat^j  Simidek 
(1860);  Alois  Dost^,  Catholic  priest  (1858). 

Drama:-^VAclav  Klicpera  (1792-1859);  Josef  Tyl 
(1808-1856);  Fr.  Jeftlbek  (1836-1893);  Josef  KoUr 
(1812-1896) ;  Emanuel  BoKl|ch  (1841-1889) ;  Fr.  Stiou- 
pe4nick5r  (1850-1892);  Jos.  Stolba,  LL.D,  (1846).  The 
best  dramatists  are  Bozd^h  and  Stroupeinick^. 

Of  all  the  branches  of  scientific  Bohemian  literature 
the  theological  is  the  richest.  The  leading  writers  are : — 

Exegesis:'-FT.  Sulil,  Ph.D.  (1804-1868),  tnuuH 
lated  and  wrote  a  very  extensive  commentery  to  the 
New  Testament.  This  is  the  only  work  of  its  kind  in 
all  Slav  literature.  Innocenc  Frencl,  S.T.D.  (1818- 
1862);  Jaroslav  SedliWSek,  S.T.D. 

Pastoral  Theology: — ^Antonin  SkoSdopole,  Ph.D. 
(1828);  Xaver  Blanda,  S.T.D.  (1838). 

Apologetics: — ^Bishops  Jan  Valerian  Jirsfk  (1798— 
1883),  Eduard  Brynych  (1846^1902),  and  Antonin 
Lenz,  S.T.D.  (1829-1901),  a  master  of  dogmatic  the- 
oloey,  apologetics,  Mariology,  sociology,  and  CathoHc 
anthropology.  He  pointedout  with  imusual  clearness 
the  errors  of  Wydif ,  Hus,  Cheliick;^,  and  Comeniua. 

Gaelic  Phih9ophy:—JB.n  Kadefibek,  S.T.D. 
(1840);  VAclav  Simdnio,  S.T.D.  (1844-1897);  Pavel 
Vychodil,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.  (1862);  Frantifek  Konedn^; 
Vdclav  Hlavat^,  S.T.D.,  and  Joaef  PospfSil,  S.T.D. 

Canon  2>iti^:— Klement  Borov^,  S.T.D.  (1838- 
1897);  Alois  JirAk,  S.T.D.  (1848-1906). 

Moral  Theolpgy.^-'M&tiii  Prochfoka,  S.T.D.  (1811- 
1889);  Karel  RehAk,  S.T.D.  (1843). 

Christian  Sociology: — ^Rudolf  Horsk^,  S.T.D,,  and 
Rudolf  Vrba. 

Oriental  Languages: — ^Fr.  Ryzlink,  S.T.D. 

Biblical  Archeology:— UeMchar  M16och,  S.T.D. 
(1833),  and  Alois  Musil,  S.T.D.,  of  wide  repute. 

Radiography: — ^Frantidek  Eckert;  Hugo  iCarlik. 

Chwn^  History:— Ft,  KrAsl,  S.T.D.  (1844);  Fr. 
K^Stufek,  S.T.D.;  Josef  Svoboda,  S.J.  (1826-1896). 
— ^The  leading  theological  writers  (1908)  are: — 

Jan  S^kora,  S.T.D.;  Josef  Tumpach,  S.T.D.;  An- 
tonin Podlaha,  S.T.D. 

Law:— Albfn  Brdf,  LL.D.;  Antonfn  Randa,  LL.D. 

Philoso'phy  and  Msthetics^—^osei  Durdfk,  Ph.D.; 
Ottokar  Hostinsk;^,  Ph.D.;  Tom«  Masaffk,  Ph.D. 

Higher  MaihemaHcs: — Dr.  Fr.  StudniSka;  Vfidav 
Simerka;  Brothers  Emil  and  Eduard  Weyr. 

3/ediciW— Jan  Purkyn«,  M.D.  (1784-1869);  Bob. 
Eiselt,  M.D.;  Emerich  Maixner,  M.D.;  Josef  Tho- 
mayer,  M.D. 

Natural  Science: — Karel  Amerling,  M.D.  (1807- 
1884);  Jan  Pressl,^M.D.  (1791-1849);  Jan  Krej«, 
M.D.;  Vladislav  §fr,  M.D. 

Astronomy: — Karel  Zenger  (1830-1908). 

Travel:— EmU  Holub,  M.D.  (1807-1884);  Stan- 
islav  Vrfe  (1859). 

//wforv.-— FrantiSek  Palack^  (1798-1876),  who 
wrote  a  history  of  the  Bohemian  people  in  eleven  vol- 
umes from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  year  1526; 
Viclav  Vladivoj  Tomek  (1818-1905);  Antontn  Rezek 
Ph.D.  (1853). 

„  Arch(Bology:—J&a  Erazim  Vocel  (1802-1871);  Pavd 
Safarfk  (1795-1861). 

BiaoR^rv,  Nauinif  StovnOc;  Ottuy.  NauStiH  Slovnik;  Via 
STAiribu  StnUnS  dijiny  literatury  Se$ki,    FraKCIS  VAi^OTTB. 


D 


D'Abbadie,  Antoine.    See  Abbadie,  Antoinb  d\ 

Dablon,  Claude,  Jesuit  missionaiy,  b.  at  Dieppe, 
Prance,  in  February,  16 J8;    d.  at  Quebec,  3  May, 
1697.    At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  entered  the  Sori- 
ety  of  Jesus,  ana  after  his  course  of  studies  and  teach- 
ing in  France,  arrived  in  Canada  in  1655.     He  was  at 
once  deputed  with  Chaumonot  to  begin  a  central  mis- 
sion among  the  Iroquois  at  Onondaga.    The  diary  he 
kept  of  this  journey  and  of  hia  return  to  Quebec  in  the 
year  following  gives  a  ffraphlc  account  of  the  terrify- 
ing conditions  under  wnicn  these  joumevs  were  made. 
In  1661  ^e  accompanied  Druillettes,  tne  Apostle  of 
Maine,  on  an  expedition  overland  to  Hudson  Bay,  the 
purpose  of  which  was  to  establish  missions  among  the 
Indians  in  that  region  and  perchance  to  ctiscover  an 
outlet  through  Hudson  Bav  to  the  China  Sea.    llie 
'  expedition  was  unsuccessful  and  is  only  chronicled  as 
another  abortive  attempt  to  find  the  famous  North- 
west Passage.     In  1668  Dablon  was  on  Lake  Supe- 
rior with  Allouez  and  Marauette,  formine  with  them 
what  Bancroft  calls  the  ''illustrious  tnum\arate", 
and  he  was  the  first  to  inform  the  world  of  the  rich 
copper  mines  of  that  region,  so  valuable  to  the  com- 
merce of  to-day.     It  was  Dablon  who  appointed  Mar- 
auette to  undertake  the  expedition  whicn  resulted  in 
the  discovery  of  the  Upper  Mississippi ;  he  also  gave 
Marc|uette'8  letters  ancl  charts  to  the  world.    In  con- 
nexion with  this  discovery  he  called  attention  to  the 
feasibility  of  passing  from  Lake  Erie  to  Florida  "by 
cutting  a  canal  through  only  half  a  league  of  prairie  to 
paas  from  the  end  of  the  Lake  of  the  IlfinoisJJfichigan] 
to  the  River  of  St.  Louis"  (the  Illinois).    This  canal, 
projected  by  Dablon  233  years  ago,  was  the  subject  of 
a  special  message  from  the  Governor  of  Illinois  to  the 
State  Legislature  in  March,  1907.    After  founding 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Dablon  became,  in  1670,  Superior 
General  of  all  the  Canadian  Missions,  retaining  that 
office  until  1680.     He  was  reappointed  in  1686  and 
remained  superior  until  1693.     His  contributions  to 
the  "Relations"  possess  the  highest  value,  his  de- 
scriptions of  places  and  people  and  his  narration  of 
events  being  singularly  clear  and  comprehensive. 

ThwaitE8«  Jesuit  Relations  (Cleveland,  1896-1801),  Index 
LXXII,  180;  SoMMERVOGBL,  Bibl.  delaC.de  J.,  II,  1773-1775; 
De  Backer,  I,  1504;  Campbell,  Pioneer  Priests  of  N.  Amer., 
(New  York,  1908),  101: .  Rochemonteix,  Les  JSsuites  et  La 
NouvelU  France  au  X  V//*«»«  siMe  (Paria,  1896-1896),  II,  III. 

passim;   Charlbyoix,  ed.  Shea,  Htstoru  and  General  P "- 

tion  of  New  France  (New  York,  1872),  II.  Ill;  Shea.  H\ 


passim;  Charlevoix,  ed.  Shea,  Htstory  and  General  Descrijh- 
tion  of  New  France  (New  York,  1872),  II.  Ill;  Shea.  History  of 
the  Catholic  Missions  in  the  U.  S.,  16t9-mU  (New  York,  1865), 


241;  Donohob,  The  Iroquois  and  the  Jesuits  (Buffaio.  1895), 
XI,  71;  Harris,  History  of  the  Early  Missions  in  Western 
Canada  (Toronto.  1893),  XXVII;  Bancroft.  History  of  the 
U.  3.  (Boston,  1879),  II,  32,  33. 

E.  P.  Spillane. 

Dacca,  Diocese  of  (Dacchensis),  in  Bengal,  India. 
By  the  Constitution  ''iGquam  reputamus  "  Paul  III 
established  in  1534  the  See  of  Goa,  conferring  upon  it 
spiritual  jurisdiction  over  all  the  Portuguesepossessions 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  China.  Early  in  the 
sixteenth  century  the  Portuguese  found  their  way 
into  Eastern  Ben^,  and  the  Eurasian  and  native 
Christian  commumties  that  grew  up  around  the  sev- 
eral settlements  were,  in  virtue  of  the  aforesaid  Con- 
stitution, subject  to  the  ecclesiastical  authority  of 
Goa,  and  later  (1606)  to  the  See  of  Mylapore,  suffra- 
gan to  Goa.  When  the  political  power  of  Portugal 
was  replaced  by  British  rule  in  India,  the  Bishop  of 
Afylapore  still  retained  jurisdiction  over  the  Church 
In  Bengal,  and  seven  thousand  out  of  the  twenty-two 


001 


thousand  Catholics  within  the  territory  of  the  Diocese 
of  Dacca  are  still  subject  to  him.  In  the  interest  of 
more  effective  missionary  work,  Propaganda,  18  April, 
1834,  appointed  Robert  of  St.  Ledger,  a  priest  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Calcutta  and  the 
territory  under  its  political  jurisdiction,  which  at  the 
time  included  the  entire  province  of  Bengal.  In  1850, 
at  the  instance  of  Archbishop  Carew,  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Bengal,  Pius  IX  divided  the  province  into  two 
vicariates  Apostolic,  one  of  Eastern;  the  other  of 
Western  Bengal.  .A  subsequent  subdivision  (1870) 
resulted  in  tne  establishment  of  a  third  allot- 
ment, the  Vicariate  of  Central  Bengal.  The  territory 
of  the  third  vicar  Apostolic  was  taken  in  part  from  the 
Eastern  and  in  part  from  the  Western  vicariates. 

On  the  creation  of  the  hierarchy  in  India,  Sept., 
1886,  the  Eastern  vicariate  became  the  Diocese  of 
Dacca,  the  district  of  Arakan  (Burma)  being  substi- 
tuted lor  that  of  Assam,  which  in  1889  became  a  pre- 
fecture Apostolic.  With  Dacca  City  as  centre,  the 
diocese  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  Assam,  on  the  east  by  the  Vicariates  of 
Northern  and  Southern  Burma,  on  the  south  by  the 
Bav  of  Ben^l,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
and  the  Diocese  of  Krishnagar.  According  to  tne 
latest  Government  survey  the  area  thus  enclosed 
measured  fifty-nine  thousand  square  miles,  the  popu- 
lation in  the  census  of  1902  re^tered  slightly  above 
seventeen  millions.  The  first  occupant  of  the  new  see 
was  Augustine  Louage,  a  priest  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Holv  Cross,  who  on  nis  death  in  1894  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Bishop  Hurth.  Except  for  an  interim  of 
twelve  years  (1^6-1888)  when  the  mission  was  in 
care  of  members  of  the  Benedictine  Order,  religious  of 
the  Conurbation  of  the  Holy  Cross  have  laboured  in 
Eastern  Beneal  since  1853.  Since  1888  the  Institute 
of  the  Holy  Cross  has  had  from  Rome  exclusive  chai^ 
of  the  mission.  The  nine  * '  centres ' '  into  which  the  Dio- 
cese of  Dacca  is  divided  give  opportunity  to  the  twenty 
missionaries  at  work  in  it  to  carry  on  an  active  prop- 
aganda in  outlying  districts.  In  each  centre  there 
is  a  school,  and  in  many  of  the  dependent  stations 
there  is  a  catechumenate  under  the  immediate  super- 
vision of  local  catechists  and  the  elders  of  the  respec- 
tive communities.  In  Dacca,  Chittagong,  and  Akjrab 
the  mission  conducts  schools  in  which  indents,  irre- 
spective of  religious  piofession,  are  prepared  for  **  en- 
trance" or  colligate  work.  The  academy  for  girls  in 
each  of  these  cities  is  directed  b^  a  staff  of  35  nuns, 
Daughters  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Missions  (23),  and  the 
Sisters  Catechists  (12).  The  diocesan  school  attend- 
ance for  1907  numbered  1768  pupils. 

The  Church  in  the  Diocese  of  Dacca  experiences  all 
the  obstacles  common,  to  foreign  missionary  work  the 
world  over.  Dacca  City  is  three-fifths  Mohammedan, 
and  among  the  Hindus  of  Eastern  Bengal  the  tradi- 
tional caste  will  oppose,  for  some  time  at  least,  an 
effective  barrier  to  the  rapid  spread  of  the  Catholic 
Faith.  As  Dacca,  however,  is  the  college  town  of  India, 
the  percentage  of  students  being  relatively  greater 
here  than  in  any  other  city  of  the  empire,  Catholicism 
has  continually  brightening  prospects  opening  before 
it,  in  and  around  the  capital  of  Bengal-Assam.  The 
influential  Somaj  of  Dacca  is  one  of  the  many  present- 
day  manifestations  of  the  increasingly  accurate  appre- 
ciation of  the  part  or  function  of  reason  in  life.  The 
widespread  awakening  of  a  critical  rationalistic  spirit, 
which  has  already  questioned  the  feasibility  of  many 
caste  observances,  will  eventually  work  harm  to  the 


DACIER 


602 


DAOOH 


claims  of  Hinduism  itself.  All  this  augurs  well  for  the 
cause  of  truth. 

Tavsbnxkr,  Travels  in  India  (1676);  Bbrnxer,  Travds  in 
Hindustan  (16S4):  Wzlks,  Some  AceourU  of  the  CUy  of  Dacca 
(1820);  RiORDAN,  Directory  for  the  Apostolic  Vicariate  of  West- 
em  Bengal  (1855):  Hunter,  Statistical  Account  of  Bengal 
(1874),  V.  VI.  IX;  Bradley  Bzrt.  Romance  of  an  Eastern 
Capital  (1906):  numerous  references  in  Journal  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Bengal,  Calcutta  Resiew,  etc. 

P.  J.  Htjrth. 

DaeieK;  Andb£,  a  French  philologist,  b.  at  Castres, 
6  April,  1661;  d.  18  Sept.,  1722.  He  was  a  Huguenot 
and  studied  under  Tanneguy  Lef^vre  at  Saumur. 
While  visiting  Paris  he  was  presented  to  the  Due 
de  Montausier  who  engaged  him  to  edit  Pomponius 
Festus  in  the  collection  of  Latin  authors  Ad  u%um  Del- 
phini  (Paris,  1681;  Amsterdam,  1699).  In  1683  he 
married  Anne  Lef ^vre,  the  daughter  of  his  former  pre- 
ceptor and,  two  years  later  he  and  his  wife  abjured 
Protestantism.  At  this  time  Dacier  published  a  trans* 
lation  of  the  works  of  Horace  and  a  commentary  on 
them  (Paris,  1681-89),  the  text  being  that  of  Tanne- 
guy Lef^vre  published  at  Saumur  in  1671.  The  trans- 
lation is  quite  accurate  for  the  period,  but  the  commen- 
tary is  far  too  diffuse  and  is  distinctly  illustrative  of 
the  taste  for  allegory  that  persisted  far  into  the  seven- 
teenth century.  According  to  Dacier,  Horace  knew 
everything,  and  the  commentator  even  discovered 
that  the  poet  had  read  the  books  of  Moses  and  followed 
the  method  of  Solomon  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs  to  in- 
spire a  horror  of  adultery.  In  Dacier,  however,  are 
also  found  good  explanations  and  judicious  observa- 
tions. He  was  mainly  a  translator,  and  his  work  in 
this  line  included  ^'Marcus  Antoninus"  (Paris,  1690); 
Aristotle's  "Poetics"  (Paris,  1692);  the  "CEdipus" 
and  "Electra"  of  Sophocles  (Paris,  1692);  Plutarch's 
"Lives"  (five  lives,  Pans,  1694;  complete,  Paris, 
1721;  Amsterdam,  1723);  Hippocrates  (4  works, 
Paris,  1697);  Plato  (selections;  Paris,  1699);  Pytha- 
goras and  Hierocles  (Paris,  1706)  and  Epictetus  and 
Simplicius  (Paris,  1715).  He  was  appointed  keeper  of 
books  in  the  king's  study  and,  in  1695  entered  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  the  French  Academy  of 
which  he  became  the  secretary. 

Anne  Dacier  {nh  Lefevrb),  the  wife  of  Andr^  Da- 
cier, b.  at  Saumur  in  1651;  d.  17  April,  1720.  She  re- 
ceived the  same  instruction  as  her  brother  and  at  the 
age  of  twenty-three  published  an  edition  of  fragments 
from  the  Alexandrian  poet  Callimachus  (Paris,  1674). 
She  divided  her  time  between  translations  (Anacreon 
and  Sappho,  1681;  several  plays  by  Plautus  and 
Aristophanes,  1683-1684;  Terence,  1688;  Plutarch's 
"Lives"  in  her  husband's  translation;  "The  Iliad", 
1699;  "The  Odyssey",  1708)  and  the  editions  of  the 
collection  Ad  uaum  Delphini  (Florus,  1674;  Dictys 
and  Dares,  1684,  and  Aurelius  Victor,  1681).  She 
had  a  certain  vigour  that  her  husband  lacked;  ''In 
intellectual  productions  common  to  both,"  cays  an 
epigram  used  by  Boileau,  "she  is  the  father."  In 
the  notice  on  Dacier  in  the  "Si^cle  de  Louis  XIV" 
Voltaire  declares:  "Madame  Dacier  is  one  of  the  prod- 
igies of  the  century  of  Louis  XIV."  However,  she 
was  no  bluestocking  and  refjused  to  give  her  opinion 
in  scholarly  debates,  agreeing  with  Sophocles  that 
"silence  is  the  ornament  of  women."  She  reared  her 
three  children  admirably. 

But  Madame*  Dacier  belongs  to*  the  history  of 
French  literature  and,  in  a  measure;  to  the  history  of 
ideas  because  of  her  participation  in  the  dispute  about 
the  ancients  and  moderns.  In  1699  Madame  Dacier 
published  a  translation  of  "The  Iliad"  with  a  preface 
which  was  a  reply  to  Homer's  critics.  It  was  only  in 
1713  that  Houdart  de  la  Motte,  a  wit  and  unpoetic 
versifier,  published  a  translation  of  "The  Iliad"  Ita 
verse.  The  poecn  was  reduced  to  twelve  cantos,  all 
its  so-called  prolixity  was  eliminated  and  it  was  re- 
vised in  accordance  with  eighteenth  century  taste  and 
made  "reasonable  and  elegant".    Madame  Dacier  re- 


futed this  attack  in  ''Les  causes  de  la  corrupiion  du 
goiit"  (Paris,  1714).  The  dogmatic  part  of  this  work 
consists  of  an  analysis  of  the  "  Dialogue  on  Orators" 
by  Tacitus  and  Madame  Dacier  added  clever  remarks 
fin  the  influence  of  climates.  La  Motte  replied  hu- 
mourously and  courteously  in  his  "R^flexioiis  sur  la 
critique"  (Paris,  1714).  In  the  course  of  the  same 
year  F^nelon,  in  his  letter  on  the  doings  of  the  French 
Academy,  ably  and  solidly  defended  the  anciente, 
thus  rendering  their  supporters  a  signal  service.  But 
the  quarrel  was  prolonged,  and  in  1716  the  Jesuit 
Hardouin  published  an  apology  for  Homer.  It  was  a 
new  system  of  interpreting  "The  Iliad"  and  Madame 
Dacier  attacked  it  in  "Homdre  d6fendu  centre  Tapol- 
ogie  du  P.  Hardouin  on  suite  des  causes  de  la  corrup- 
tion du  gotit"  (Paris,  1716). 

BozB.  Histoire  de  VAoadhnie  des  Inseriptione  (Pana,  1740>, 
II,  276;  NiciRON,  M&moires  pour  servir  A  Vhistoire  des  hommes 
iUuatres,  III;  Saint-Suion.  Mimoires,  III,  248;  Mmk.  db 
StaaIt-Dblaunat,  Mimoirea  (Paria,  1854).  XXXIV.  752: 
Saints-Bbxtvb,  Causeries  du  Jjundi,  IX«  388;  EooBS.  L'ffd' 
Unisme  en  Prance  (Paris,  1869),  II.  131;  RxGAnL,T,  Hiaairt  de 
la  guereUe  des  andens  et  dee  modemes  (Paris.  1866);  raprinted  in 
(Sumnes  oompliUs  (Paris.  1859);  Jal,  Dietionnaire  eriUgue  ds 
bioffraphie  et  d*histoire  (Paria,  1872),  465;  Aaaa  in  La  Grande 
Eneyc.,  XIII,  742  sqq. 

Paxil  Lsjat. 

Dagon,  a  Philistine  deity.  It  is  commonly  ad- 
mitted that  the  name  Dagon  is  a  diminutive  form, 
hence  a  term  of  endearment,  derived  from  the  Semitic 
root  dag,  and  means,  accordingly,  ''little  fish".  The 
name,  therefore,  indicates  a  isb-shaped  god.  This 
the  Bible  also  suggests  when  speaking  of  the  Dagon 
worshipped  in  the  temple  of  Axotus  (I  K.,  v,  1-7):  he 
had  face  and  hands  and  a  portion  of  his  body  resem- 
bled that  of  a  fish,  in  accordance  with  the  most  prob- 
able'interpretation  of  "the  stump  of  Dagon"  (verse  5). 
From  the  received  text  of  the  Septuagint  it  would 
seem  tl\at  he  possessed  even  feet,  although  Swete's 
edition  gives  here  a  different  reading;  at  any  rate, 
this  sentence,  in  the  Greek  translation,  shows  all  tbe 
appearances  of  a  gloss.  With  the  description  found 
in  the  Bible  coincides  that  which  may  be  seen  on  the 
coins  of  various  Philistine  or  Phcenician  cities,  on 
most  of  which  Dagon  is  represented  as  a  composite 
figure,  human  as  to  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  fish- 
like as  to  the  lower.  From  this  it  may  well  be  inferred 
that  Dagon  was  a  fish-god,  a  fact  not  in  the  least  sur- 
prising, as  he  seems  to  have  been  the  foremost  deity  of 
such  maritime  cities  as  Asotus,  Gasa  (the  early  sites  of 
which  are  supposed  to  be  buried  under  the  sand- 
mounds  that  run  along  the  sea-shore),  Ascalon,  and 
Arvad.  In  the  monuments — also  most  probably  in 
the  popular  worship — Dagon  is  sometimes  associated 
with  a  female  half-fish  deity,  Derceto  or  Atargatis, 
often  identified  with  Astarte. 

A  few  scholars,  however,  waving  aside  these  evi- 
dences, consider  Dagon  as  the  god  of  agriculture. 
This  opinion  they  rest  on  the  following  statement  of 
Philo  Byblius:  "Dagon,  that,  is  corn"  [the  Hebrew 
word  for  corn  is  dag  an],  "Dagon,  after  he  had  dis- 
covered corn  and  the  plough,  was  called  Zeus  of  the 
plough"  (ii,  16).  The  same-  writor  t«lls  us  (in  Euse- 
bius,  Pr£ep.  Evang.,  i,  6)  that,  according  to  an  old 
Phoenician  legend,  Dagon  was  one  of  the  four  bods 
bom  of  the  marriage  of  Anu,  the  lord  of  heaven,  with 
his  sister,  the  earth.  Moreover,  on  a  seal  bearing  cer- 
tain symbolic  signs,  among  which  is  an  ear  of  com, 
but  not,  however,  the  image  of  a  fish,  may  be  read  the 
name  of  Baal-Dagon,  written  in  Phoenician  characters. 
It  is  open  to  question  whether  these  arguments  out- 
weigh those  in  favour  of  the  other  opinion;  so  much  so 
that  the  etymology  adopted  by  Philo  Byblius  might 
possibly  be  due  to  a  misapprehension  of  the  name.  It 
should,  perhaps,  be  admitted  that,  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean shore,  a  twofold  conception  and  repreflenta- 
tion  of  Dagon  were  developed  in  the  course  of  time  as 
a  result  of  the  presumed  twofold  derivation  of  the 


DAOmSSSEAU 


603 


DAHOBCinr 


aame.  At  any  rate,  all  scholars  agree  that  the  name 
and  worship  of  Dagon  were  imported  from  Babylonia. 
\  The  Tell-el-Amarna  letters  (about  1480-1460  b.  c). 
which  have  yielded  the  names  of  Yamlr-Dagan  and 
I^agan-takala,  rulers  of  Ascalon,  witness  to  the  an- 
tiquity of  the  Dagon-worship  among  the  inhabitants 
of  Palestine.  We  learn  from  the  Bible  that  the  deity 
had  temples  at  Gaza  (Judges,  xvi,  21,  23)  and  Asotus 
(I  K.,  V,  1-7);  we  may  presume  that  shrines  existed 
Ukewise  in  other  Philistine  cities.  The  Dagon- wor- 
ship seems  even  to  have  extended  beyond  the  confines 
of  their  confederacy.  The  testimony  of  the  monu- 
ments is  positive  for  the  Phoenician  city  of  Arv^d; 
moreover,  the  Book  of  Josue  mentions  two  towns 
called  Bethdagon,  one  in  the  territory  of  Juda  (Jos., 
XV,  41),  and  the  other  on  the  border  of  Aser  (Jos.,  xix, 
27);  Josephus  also  speaks  of  a  Dagon  "beyond  Jeri- 
cho" (Antiq.  Jud.,  XIII,  viii,  1;  De  beU.  Jud.,  I,  ii, 
3) ;  all  these  names  are  earlier  than  the  Israelite  con- 
quest, and,  unless  we  derive  them  from  dagdn,  witness 
to  a  wide  dissemination  of  the  worship  of  Dagon 
throughout  Palestine.  This  worship  was  kept  up,  at 
least  in  certain  Philistine  cities,  until  the  last  centuries 
B.  c.  Such  was  the  case  at  Azotus;  the  temple  of 
Dagon  that  stood  there  was  burned  by  Jonathan 
^Cachabeus  (I  Mach.,  x,  84;  xi,  4). 

Unlike  the  Baals,  who,  among  the  Chanaanites,  were 
essentially  local  deities,  Dagon  seems  to  have  been 
considered  by  the  Philistines  as  a  national  god  (I  Par., 
X,  10).  To  him  they  attributed  their  success  in  war; 
him  they  thanketi  by  great  sacrifices,  before  him  they 
rejoiced  over  the  capture  of  Samson  (Judges,  xvi,  23) ; 
into  his  temple  they  brought  the  trophies  of  their  vic- 
tories, the  Ark  (I  K.,  v,  1,  2),  the  armour,  and  the  head 
of  Saul  (I  K.,  xxxi,  9,  10;  I  Par.,  x,  10).  A  bronze 
demi-rilievo  of  Assyro-Phcenician  workmanship  would 
also  suggest  that  Dagon  played  a  prominent  part  in 
tha  doctrines  concerning  death  and  future  life.  As  to 
the  ritual  of  his  worship,  little  can  be  gathered  either 
from  the  documents  or  from  Scripture.  The  elaborate 
arrangements  for  returning  the  Ark  (I  K.,  v,  vi)  may 
have  been  inspired  more  by  the  circumstances  than  by 
any  ceremonies  of  the  Dagon-worship.  We  only 
know  from  ancient  writers  that,  for  religious  reasons, 
most  of  the  Syrian  peoples  abstained  from  eating  fish, 
a  practice  that  one  is  naturally  inclined  to  connect 
with  the  worship  of  a  fish-god. 

MooRB,  Judge*  in  International  Crit.  Comment.  (Edinburgh 
and  New  York,  1895);  Smith.  Hitt.  Geog.  of  the  Holy  Land  (6th 
ed..  London.  1899);  Satcs,  Historical  Criticism  and  the  Monu- 
ments (London.  1894);  Scloen,  De  diis  Spris  (London,  1637); 
LAaRANOa.  Etudes  sur  Us  religions  sSmitiques  (Paris,  1903); 
Lajabo.  Rscherehes  sur  le  cuUe  de  Vinus  (Parie.  1837-1847); 
BABBLOif,  Catologue  des  monnaies  de  la  Bibliothique  nattonaU; 
Les  Aehimfyiides  (Paris,  1893).  ChablbS  L.  SouVAT. 

Daguessean  (or  d'Aguesseau),  HENM-FBANgois, 
chancellor  of  France,  b.  at  Limoges,  27  November, 
1668;  d.  at  Paris,  5  February,  1751.  He  belonged  to 
a  distinguished  family  which  had  produced  many  able 
magistrates,  an4  was  educated  by  his  father,  who  was 
intendant  of  Languedoc  and  afterwards  a  counciUor  of 
state.  Having  been  appointed  advocate-general  of 
the  Parle ment  of  Paris*  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  Da- 
guesseau  performed  the  duties  of  his  office  in  the  most 
satisfactory  manner  for  ten  years,  his  speeches  being 
models  of  elegant  diction  and  clear  reasoning.  In 
1700  he  was  promoted  to  the  office  of  attorney-general. 
In  this  position  he  re-established  order  in  the  courts, 
reformed  the  management  of  the  hospitals,  prevented 
and  corrected  abuses.  In  1709  war,  famine,  and  pub- 
lic distress  gave  him  an  opportunity  to  display  all  his 
energy,  judgment  and  goodness  of  heart.  He  was  con- 
sulted on  the  most  difficult  points  of  administration 
and  drew  up  many  memorials  for  the  king.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  however,  he  was 
threatened  with  disgrace  for  refusing  to  register  the 
Bull  "Unigenitus",  of  which,  as  he  was  a  strong  Gal- 
lican,  he  was  a  pronounced  opponent. 


In  1717  the  regent,  the  Due  d'Orl^ans,  appointed 
Daguesseau  chancellor,  but  before  a  year  had  eUpsed, 
the  seals  were  taken  from  him  because  he  opposed  the 
projects  of  the  notorious  John  Law.  In  1720,  after 
the  failure  of  Law's  schemes,  he  was  recalled  to  his 
former  office.  He  repaired  the  mischief  done  during 
his  retirement  and  by  his  firmness  and  sagacity  pre- 
vented total  bankruptcy.  With  a  view  to  concilia- 
tion he  finally  consented  to  the  registration  of  the 
Bull  ''Unigenitus".  He  was  again  disgraced  in  1722, 
through  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Dubois,  and  retired 
to  his  estate  at  Fresnes,  where  he  passed  five  years. 
Here  the  Scliptures,  which  he  read  and  compared  in 
various  languages,  and  the  jurisprudence  of  his  own 
and  other  countries  were  the  principal  objects  of  his 
study;  the  rest  of  his  time  he  devoted  to  philosophy, 
literature,  and  gardening.  Daguesseau  was  recalled 
to  office  in  1727.  Chancellor  now  for  the  third  time, 
he  revived  public  respect  for  law,  introduced  several 
important  enactments  regarding  donations,  testa- 
ments, and  succession^  and  effected  a  greater  uniform- 
ity in  the  execution  of  the  laws  throughout  the  several 
provinces.  In  1750  he  resigned  his  position,  the  king 
bestowing  upon  him  a  pension  of  100,000  francs,  which 
he  enjoyed  until  his  death. 

During  his  long  career  Daguesseau  was  a  man  of 
spotless  honesty  and  absolute  devotion  to  the  public 
interest.  He  was  an  upright  magistrate,  a  fine  orator 
and  jurist,  and  a  remarkable  linguist.  He  used  his  ex- 
tensive knowledge  and  intellectual  acquirements  in 
the  cause  of  religion  and  morals.  Saint-Simon  speaks 
of  him  thus:  "Talent,  industry,  penetration,  universal 
knowledge,  dignity,  purity,  equity,  piety  and  inno- 
cence of  life  are  the  foundation  of  M.  d'Aguesseau's 
character.''  The  greater  part  of  Daguesseau's  writ- 
ings and  letters  were  edited  l^y  Pardessus,  "(Euvres 
completes"  (Paris,  1818-1820),  16  vols.  8  vo;  other 
letters  were  edited  by  M.  Rives,  "Lettres  in^dites" 
(Paris,  1823). 

Box7U:<BK,  Histoire  de  la  vie  et  des  ceuvres  du  cKancdier  d'AguM^ 
seau  (Paria,  1835);  Monnixr,  Le  chancdier  d'Aguesseaut  sa 
conduite  ei  ses  idSes  politiques  (Paris,  1860). 

Jean  Lb  Babs. 

Dabomey,  Vicabiate  Apostolic  of,  in  West  Africa, 
is  territorially  identical  with  the  French  colony  of  the 
same  name.  This  colony  has  a  coastline  of  about  75 
miles  on  the  Slave  Coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  whence 
it  stretches  northwards  to  the  French  Sudan;  it  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  British  territory  of  Lagos 
and  the  River  Ocpara,  and  on  the  west  by  the  German 
territory  of  Togo  and  the  River  Mono.  Its  area  is  es- 
timated at  about  59,000  square  miles,  and  its  total 
population  in  1902  was  probably  a  little  less  than  half 
a  million.  The  chief  exports  of  the  colony  are  palm 
kernels  and  palm-oil.  Its  indigenous  population  is  of 
the  pure  Negro  stock,  chiefly  of  the  Fon  subdivision  of 
the  Ewe  family.  About  the  year  1728  the  territory 
now  known  as  Dahomey  was  subject  to  three  native 
dynasties,  one  of  which  at  that  date  conquered  the 
other  two  and  set  up  its  own  despotism  under  the 
present  territorial  designation.  This  despotism,  tem- 
pered only  by  the  fear  inspired  by  Fetishism  (q.  v.), 
of  which  Dahomey  was  said  to  be  the  last  extant 
stronghold  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  ended 
with  the  capture  and  exile  of  King  Behansim  by  a 
French  military  expedition  in  1892. 

The  Faith  was  first  preached  in  Dahomey  in  the 
year  1660,  when  certain  French  residents  introduced 
Franciscan  missionaries.  Against  this  Catholic  enter- 
prise the  English  adventurers  successfully  combined 
with  native  priests  of  Fetishism.  In  1674  Father 
Gonsalvez,  a  Dominican,  with  two  companions,  was 
poisoned;  an  Augustinian,  who  visited  the  coast  in 
1699,  escaped  death  by  flight.  No  further  attempt  to 
plant  the  Faith  in  Dahomey  is  recorded  until  1860, 
when  Fathers  Borghero  and  Fernandez,  of  the  then 
newly  founded  Lyons  Society  of  African  Missions,  ar- 


DALALLS 


604 


DALOAIBHS 


rived.  Their  institute  has  carried  on  the  work  ever 
since.  The  French  Government,  in  1864,  obtained  in 
behalf  of  the  missionaries  a  lai^e  territorial  concesaion 
at  Porto  Novo,  where  a  flourishing  station  was  soon 
established.  The  mission  of  Agwe,  now  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  in  the  vicariate,  oegan  its  existence  in 
1874. 

The  first  erection  of  a  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Daho- 
mev  waa  in  1860,  when  its  jurisdiction  was  defined  to 
include  all  the  country  between  the  Rivers  Niger  and 
Volta.  In  1870,  however,  the  title  of  this  vicariate 
was  changed  to  "The  Benin  Coasts";  and  in  1882  it 
w^as  divided,  the  region  west  of  the  River  Ocpara  being 
then  erected  into  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Daho- 
mey, from  which,  again,  the  Gennan  territory  of  Togo 
-was  ecclesiastically  separated  in  1892,  and  the  adja- 
cent British  possessions  in  1894.  By  decree  dated 
22  April,  1901,  this  Prefecture  of  Dahomey  was  erected 
into  the  present  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  that  name, 
which  is  thus  seen  to  differ  territorially  from  that 
erected  in  1860. 

The  residence  of  the  vicar  Apostolic  is  at  the  coast 
town  of  Whydah,  formerly  the  native  capital  and  a 
notorioiis  centre  of  Dahomeyan  Fetishism.  "Mis- 
siones  Catholicfe"  (1907),  the  official  triennial  hand- 
book of  the  Propaganda,  gives  the  following  statistics 
of  Dahomey:  Total  Catholic  population,  S900;  mis- 
sionary statiotis,  6;  churches  with  resident  pastor,  4; 
chapels,  11;  total  number  of  priests,  32;  catechists, 
15 ;  houses  of  religious  women  (Sisters  of  the  Queen  of 
the  Apostles),  4,  with  an  aggregate  of  20  religious; 
schools  for  boys,  13,  with  1330' pupils;  schools  for 
girls,  4,  with  480  pupils. 

Plan  QUE  in  Piolet.  Lea  Missions  catholiquesfrancaises  (Paris, 
1902),  V,  vi;  The  Statesman's  Year-Book.  1908  (London,  annual); 
Bdbton,  Mission  to  Gelele,  King  of  Dafwme  (London,  1864); 
Chandothn,  Trots  mois  de  ctiptiviti  au  Dahomey  (Paris);  Poi- 
RiER,  Campagne  du  Dahomey ^  1892-9U  (Paris,  1895). 

E.  Macpherson. 
Dalalle,  Henry.    See  Natal. 

Dalberg,  Adolphtts  von,  Prince-Abbot  of  Fulda 
and  founder  of  the  university  in  the  same  city,  b.  29 
May,  1678;  d.  3  November,  1737,  at  Hammelburg  on 
the  river  Saale  in  Lower  Franconia.  After  holding  the 
^office  of  provost  at  Zelle  in  Hanover  for  some  years  he 
w^as  elected  Prince-Abbot  of  the  Benedictine  monas- 
tery of  Fulda  in  1724.  Though  he  was  not  a  bishop, 
Dalberg  had  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction  over  the  tci^ 
ritory  belonging  to  the  abbey  and  held  a  diocesan  synod 
in  1729.  This  privilege  of  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction 
was  granted  to  the  abbots  of  Fulda  by  Pope  Zachary 
in  751 .  Dalberg  spared  no  pains  to  improve  the  Cath- 
olic educational  facilities  of  Fulda.  Its  once  famous 
school,  which  had  suffered  severely  during  the  relig- 
ious upheaval  of  the  sixteenth  century,  had  regained 
some  of  its  ancient  prestige  by  the  united  efforts  of  the 
Jesuits  and  Benedictines.  Dalberg  hoped  to  restore 
in  all  its  splendour  the  ancient  seat  of  learning  which 
had  made  Fulda  world-renowned  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  With  this  end  in  view  he  founded  a  university 
at  Fulda  which  came  to  be  known  after  his  own  name 
as  the  Ahna  Adolphina.  The  faculties  of  philosophy 
and  iheologv  he  formed  by  uniting  the  two  existing 
schools  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Benedictines;  for  the 
new  faculties  of  jurisprudence  and  medicine  he  en- 
gaged other  professors.  Pope  Clement  XII  granted 
the  charter  of  foundation  on  1  July,  1732,  and  Em- 
peror Charles  VI,  the  charter  of  confirmation  on  12 
March,  1733.  The  solemn  inauguration  of  the  uni- 
versity took  place  on  19  September,  1733.  Tlie 
Adolphina  was,  however,  not  destined  to  be  of  long 
duration.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuit  Order 
by  Pope  Clement  XIV  in  1773  the  university  came 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  Benedictines,  w^ho  were 
finally  obliged  to  discontinue  it  in  1805,  in  conse- 
qucMiop  of  tiie  srcularization  of  the  Benedictine  monas- 
tery iu  1802. 


RxcHT£R,  QueUen  und  Al>handlungen  txar  Geachichte  der  Abtei 
und  Didtese  Ftdda  (Fulda,  1904).  I.  For  a  bittory  of  tb»  Cm- 
verdty,  Gboknbauk,  Bin  Jahrhunderi  aus  der  OtaehiekU  der 
hdheren  GeUhrtenSchulen  FvUas,  IISL-ISSS  (Fulda.  1885);  for 
its  early  history,  Komp,  Die  rweite  Sckule  Fuldas  una  das 
pdpsUidie  Seminar,  1571-1775  (Fulda,  1877).  70  sqq. 

MiCHAXL  OtT. 

D'Albomoz.    See  Gil  d'Albornoz. 

D' Alembert,  Jean  Lb  Rond.  See  ENcrcLOPEDisra. 

Dalgaima,  John  Dobree  (in  religion  Father 
Bernard),  b.  in  the  island  of  Guernsey,  21  Oct., 
1818;  d.  6  April,  1876,  at  St.  George's  Retreat, 
Burgess  Hill,  near  Brighton,  England.  He  matric- 
ulated at  Exeter  college,  Oxford,  1836,  and  took  a 
second  class  in  Uteris  humanxorihus^  1839.  Already 
an  ardent  follower  of  Newman,  he  had  written  (183S) 
to  the  Paris  "Univers"  a  letter  signed  *' jeune  membrr 
de  llJniversit^",  on  the  Catholic  movement  then 
spreading  in  the  English  Church,  which  elicited  a  cor- 
respondence with  Father  Dominic  the  Passionist.  In 
1842  he  ioined  Newman  at  Littlemore;  while  there 
he  contributed  several  articles  to  the  "British  Critic'' 
and  wrote  the  Lives  of  St.  Stephen  Harding,  St.  Gil- 
bert, St.  Helier,  St.  Aelred,  and  others  for  the  series 
of  early  English  saints  then  being  edited  by  Newman. 
The  grasp  of  medieval  history  displayed  in  these 
lives,  and  their   picturesque   setting    evoked  higib 

S raise  even  from  such  a  strbng  Protestant  as  Dean 
[ilman.  Dalgaims's  life,  work,  and  studies  had 
drawn  him  ever  closer  to  the  Church,  and  in  Septem- 
ber, 1845,  he  was  received  into  it  by  his  former  corre- 
spondent, Father  Dominic.  He  then  repaired  to  the 
Abb4  Jovain,  canon  of  Langres,  whose  acquaintance 
he  had  made  in  1841  when  the  abb^  was  on  a  visit  to 
Oxford;  in  December,  1846,  he  was  ordained  priest 
at  Langres.  A  worthless  French  translation  of  New- 
man's "Essay  on  Development''  was  described  by 
Dalgairns  in  the  "Univers",  10  Jan.,  1847,  as  "un 
amas  inintelligible  de  paroles  sans  id^es,  et  dahs 
lequel  en  plusieurs  endroits  le  traducteur  avait 
donn^  une  apparence  d'h^r&ie  aux  phrases  de  Tau- 
teur",  words  strangely  prophetic  of  tne  use  made  by 
certain  "Modernist    writers  of  the  same  work. 

At  Easter,  1847,  he  joined  Newman  in  Rome  and 
entered  the  new  English  Oratorian  novitiate  at  Santa 
Croce.  As  an  Oratorian  he  was  successively  at  Mary- 
vale,  St.  Wilfrid's,  Staffordshire,  King  William  Street, 
London  (1849),  Birmingham  (1853),  and  South  Ken- 
sington, London  (1856),  where  he  was  elected  superior 
on  Father  Faber's  death,  September,  1863.  As  a 
preacher  he  was  second  only  to  Faber  and  as  a  con- 
fessor his  knowledge  of  languages  attracted  a  large 
circle  of  penitents,  among  whom  was  Queen  Marie- 
Am^lie,  wife  of  Louis  Philippe.  In  1869  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Metaphysical  Society  which  was  then 
being  formed.  With  Manning  and  Ward,  Dalgairns 
had  to  defend  Catholicism  against  scientific  agnostics 
like  Huxley  and  Tyndall,  literary  agnostics  such  as 
Morley  and  Leslie  Stephen,  Thompson  the  Ang;lican 
Archbishop  of  York,  the  Unitarian  James  Martmeau, 
and  others  of  every  shade  of  creed  or  of  no  creed. 
Speaking  of  these  debates  Thompson  says,  "he  was 
more  struck  by  the  metaphysical  ability  of  Father 
Dalgairns  and  Mr.  James  Martineau  than  any  of  the 
other  debaters".  Hutton,  then  editor  of  "The  Spec- 
tator," says  of  Dalgairns  and  his  coreligionists,  "tnere 
was  in  their  countenance  a  blending  of  genuine  humil- 
ity and  genuine  thankfulness  for  the  authority  on 
wnich  they  had  anchored  themselves  and  a  sense  of 
the  redunaance  of  their  provisions  for  the  spiritual 
life,  of  which  almost  all  the  other  members  seemed  to 
feel  they  had  but  a  bare  and  scanty  pasturage  ".  His 
knowledge  of  Christian  philosohpy,  and  his  acquaint- 
ance witn  the  writings  of  German  scientists  enabled 
him  to  meet  Huxley  successfully  on  his  own  grounds. 
But  the  attendance  at  the  meetings  of  the  Societv 
broke  down  Dalgaims's  health.    lie  was  struck  with 


DALILA 


605 


DALLAS 


paralysis^and  he  died  after  a  year's  lingeriDg  mental 
illness.  Hutton  describes  him  as  ''a  man  of  singular 
sweetnte  and  oi>enne88  of  character  with  something 
of  a  French  type  of  plavfuhiess  of  expression".  His 
best  known  works  are  ''The  Devotion  to  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus*'  (London,  1853);  "The  Holy  Com- 
munion" (Dublin,  1861):  "The  German  Myotics  of 
the  Fourteenth  Century"  (London,  1858). 

Gif^Low.  B%bl,  Did.  Eng.  Cath.,  Ill,  3;  The  TabUt  and  The 
WteJdit  Regieter  (London.  16  April.  1876).  files;  Ward,  WHliam 
George  Ward  ana  the  Oxford  Movement  (London,  1889);  Vie 
de  VAhhi  Jovain.  SEBASTIAN  BoWDBN. 

Dalila(Heb.  DfliMA).  Samson,  sometime  afterhis  ex- 
ploit at  Gaza  (Judges,  xvi,  1-3),  "loved  a  woman,  who 
dwelt  in  the  valley  of  Sorec,  and  she  was  called  Dalila  " 
(verse  4).  The  village  of  Sorec  was  known  to  Euse- 
bius  and  to  St.  Jerome  (Onomast.),  and  rightly  placed 
north  of  Eleutheropolis  near  Saraa,  the  home  of  Sam- 
son. It  is  now  called  Khan  S(lr^.  The  valley  of  that 
name,  mentioned  in  the  text,  was  probably  a  little  lat- 
eral vdley  of  the  great  Wadi  Serar,  or  the  Wadi  Serar 
itself  (Lagrange,  "Le  livre  des  Juges",  247).  The 
railway  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem  passes  through  this 
region  a  little  to  the  west  of  the  station  of  Deir  Aban. 
The  district  was  on  the  borderland  between  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  Israelites  and  those  of  their  principal  ene- 
mies and  oppressors  at  this  period,  the  Philistines.  Sorec 
may  have  been  inhabited  by  the  latter;  and  although 
it  is  not  stated  to  which  people  Dalila  belonged,  the 
story  told  in  this  sixteenm  cnapter  of  Judges  of  her 
relations  with  the  princes  of  the  Philistines,  makes  it 
very  unlikely  that  she  was  an  Israelite.  It  is  not  prob- 
able either  that  she  became  the  wife  of  Samson.  The 
expression  above  quoted  with  which  Scripture  intro- 
duces the  narrative  of  her  relations  with  him,  and  the 
facility  with  which  the  Philistines  were  brought  into  her 
house,  not  to  speak  of  her  readiness  to  betray  the  Israel- 
ite hero,  suggest  rather  that  she  was  a  harlot,  an  opin- 
ion that  is  now  more  common  among  commentators. 

The  Philistines,  thinking  that  the  strength  which 
had  made  Samson  familiar  to  them  must  oe  due  to  > 
some  ma^cal  charm,  seek  to  find  out  what  it  is. 
Tlieir  prmces,  probably  the  five  mentioned  in 
Judges,  iii,  3,  and  elsewhere,  coming  to  Dalila,  to 
whose  house  Samson  often  resorted — ifhe  did  not  live 
there — say:  "  Deceive  him,  and  learn  of  him  wherein 
his  great  strength  lieth,  and  how  we  may  be  able  to 
overcome  him,  to  bind  and  afflict  him:  which  if  thou 
shalt  do,  we  will  give  thee  every  one  of  us  eleven 
hundred  pieces  of  silver  *  '(verse  5) .  This  sum  must  have 
appearea  enormous  to  Dalila.  She  undertakes  to  dis- 
cover the  secret  of  Samson's  strength  and  the  means  to 
overcome  it.  Four  different  times  she  asks  him  to  tell 
her  his  secret,  having  each  time  a  number  of  Philistkies 
on  hand  to  seize  him  if  she  can  cajole  him  into  betray- 
ing it.  Samson  at  first  indulges  his  humour  in  an- 
swers which  allow  him  to  laugh  at  her  attempts  to  bind 
him ;  but  finally  her  importunity  prevails,  and  he  tells 
her  of  his  consecration  as  a  Nazarite  and  of  the  neces- 
sity of  keepins  his  long  hair,  the  mark  of  that  conse- 
cration. Dalua  then  causes  this  hair  to  be  cut  off 
while  Samson  sleeps,  and  hands  him  over  to  his  ene- 
mies who  bring  him  a  prisoner  to  Gaza. 

Laqranob.  Le  livre  des  Juges  (Paris,  1003);  Von  Humiicx/- 
AUER,  Comm.  in  librae  Judieum  et  Ruth  (PariB,  1888) ;  Paus, 
Dalila  in  \iQ.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  W.  S.  ReILLT. 

Dallas,  Diocese  of  (Dallascensis),  created  1890, 
comprises  108  counties  in  the  northern  and  north- 
western portion  of  the  State  of  Texas,  U.  S.  A.,  and 
El  Paso  County  in  the  western  section,  an  area  of  118,- 
000  square  miles.  The  citv  of  Dallas  has  a  population 
of  95,000  and  stands  in  the  centre  of  a  circle  within 
whose  radius  of  fifty  miles  is  included  nearly  one-half 
of  the  population  of  Texas.  It  was  settled  chieflv  by 
people  from  Kentucky,  Illinois,  Indiana,  with  a 
sprinkling  of  foreigners  and  a  considerable  number  of 
negroes.     It  is  an  important  distributing  centre,  rich 


in  mineral  resources  and  products  of  the  soil  (chiefly 
cotton).  As  late  as  1868  there  was  only  one  CathoUc 
family  resident  there  whose  members,  with  several 
scattering  settlers,  were  attended  as  a  mission  station 
from  StTPaul's,  PoUin  County,  by  Father  Joseph  Mar- 
tin^re,  later  a  domestic  prelate  and  vicar-general  of  the 
diocese.  His  visits  often  necessitated  journeys  over 
hundreds  of  miles  through  swamp  and  forest.  In 
1802  the  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  had  grown 
to  15,000  with  30  priests  ministering  to  them. 

The  first  bishop,  Thomas  Francis  Brennan,  was 
bom  October,  1863,  in  the  County  Tipperary,  Ireland, 
and  ordained  priest  at  Brixen  in  the  Tyrol,  4  July, 
1880.  He  was  consecrated  at  Erie,  Pennsylvania, 
6  April,  1891.  Two  vears  later  (1  February,  1893)  he 
was  transferred  to  the  titular  See  of  Utilla  and  made 
coadjutor  of  the  Bishop  of  St.  John's,  Newfoundland  . 
He  was  removed  December,  1904,  and  called  to  Rome, 


UasuuNa  Academy,  Dallas,  Ttxas 

where  he  resides  (1908),  having  been  transferred,  7  Oc- 
tober, 1905,  to  the  titular  See  of  Csesarea  in  Mauretania. 

As  his  successor  the  Rev.  Edward  Joseph  Dunne, 
rector  of  the  church  of  All  Saints,  Chicago,  was 
chosen.  He  was  bom  in  the  County  Tipperary, 
Ireland,  23  April,  1848,  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  with  his  parents  when  a  child,  and  was 
ordained  priest  29  June,  1871,  in  Baltimore.  His 
consecration  took  place  in  Chicago,  30  November, 
1893.  He  foresaw  from  the  first  the  religious  possi- 
bilities assured  by  the  location  and  resources  of  Dallas, 
also  by  the  enterprise  of  the  people  and  by  the  climate. 
To  his  energy,  administrative  abilities,  and  zeal  is  ow- 
ing the  new  cathedral,  admittedly  the  finest  in  the 
South-Westem  States.  The  Vincentian  College,  St. 
Paul's  Sanitarium,  the  Ursuline  Academy,  novitiate 
and  provinciad  house  (1907),  the  cathedral  parochial 
school,  St.  Patrick's  church,  the  industrial  school  for 
coloured  children  are  other  monuments  of  religion 
erected  within  a  short  space  of  time.  Fort  Worth, 
Sherman,  El  Paso,  Denison,  Munster,  Weatherford, 
Mar^all,  and  several  other  cities  have  substantial 
and  even  beautiful  churches  and  religious  institutions, 
educational  and  charitable. 

Religious  communities  represented  in  the  diocese 
are:  Men, — Benedictine  Fathers,  five  charges:  Jes- 
uits, six;  Oblates;  and  Vincentians.  Wcnnen. — School 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame;  Sisters  of  Charity  (Emmits- 
burg);  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Incarnate  Word;  Sis- 
ters of  the  Holy  Cross;  Sisters  of  Loretto;  Sistera  of 
St.  Mary;  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence;  White  Bene- 
dictine Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  Mt.  Olive ;  Sisters 
of  St.  Rose  of  Lima;  Ursulme  Nuns;  Sisters  of  Mercy. 

Statistics  of  the  diocese  (1908)  give  83  priests  (50 
diocesan  and  33  regulars);  52  churches  with  resident 
pastors,  51  with  missions,  75  stations,  12  chapels; 
12  academies  for  girls,  24  parochial  schools  with  3180 


DAIXBY 


606 


DALMATIA 


pupils,  14  ecclesiastical  students,  1  industrial  school 
(50  pupils);  1  orphan  asylum  (83  inmates);  6  hospi- 
tals; total  Catholic  population  (estimated)  60.000. 

Catholic  Directory  (1908);  Heuss.  BioQ.  Cyd.  of  the  Catk. 
Hierarchy  of  (he  V.  &.  (Milwaukee,  1898). 

SiSTEB   M.   AUOUBTINB   EnRIOHT. 

Dalley,  William  Beds,  lawyer  and  statesman,  b. 
in  Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  1831;  d.  there  28  Octo- 
ber, 1888.  He  was  educated  in  part  at  St.  Mary's 
College,  Sydney,  and  was  called  to  the  Bar  in  1856.  In 
1857  he  became  a  representative  of  Sydney  in  the  first 
parliament  elected  under  responsible  government  in 
New  South  Wales;  was  solicitor-general  (1858-9),  and 
attorney-general  (1875-7,  1883-5).  After  the  fall  of 
Khartoum  (1885)  Dalley  (then  acting-premier)  dis- 
patched a  contingent  of  nine  hundred  men  to  the  Su- 
dan to  aid  the  imperial  troops.  Dalley,  who  had 
declined  a  knighthood  and  the  office  of  Chief  Justice  of 
New  South  Wales,  was  in  1887  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Privy  Council — the  first  Australian  on  whom  that 
honour  was  conferred.  He  was  regarded  as  the  fore- 
most lay  representative  and  champion  of  the  Catholic 
body,  was  noted  for  his  parliamentary  and  forensic 
eloquence,  and  was  endowed  with  considerable  liter- 
ary ability.  Many  of  his  newspaper  articles  and 
sketches  were  reprinted  in  1866  in  Barton's  "Poets  and 
Prose  Writers  of  New  South  Wales." 

Hbaton,  Australian  Dictionary  of  Dates  (Sydney,  1879); 
Mbnnbll,  Dictionary  of  Attatrcdanan  Biography  (London, 
1802);  Pabksa,  Fifty  Years  in  the  Making  of  Australian  His- 
tory (London.  1892) ;  Mohan,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
Australasia  (Sydney,  ft.  d.);  Carltlb  in  Diet.   Nat.  Biog.,  Suppl. 

n,B.v.  Hbnbt  W.  Clbakt. 

Dalmasio.  See  Scannadecchi. 

Dalmatian  a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Croatia  accord- 
ing to  a  convention  entered  into  between  Croatia 
and  Hungary.  It  stretches  along  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea  from  Croatia  on  the  north  to 
Montenegro  in  the  south  and  is  bounded  by  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  on  the  east.  The  Velebic  moun- 
tains separate  it  from  Croatia,  the  highest  peaks  of 
which  are  Sveto  brdo  (5774  ft.)  or  Holy  M!ountain, 
the  dwelling  of  fairies  according  to  popular  legend, 
ViSeruna  (5350  ft.)  and  Vaganski  vrh  (6563  ft.). 
The  eastern  frontier  lines  are  formed  by  the  Dinaric 
Alps,  running  parallel  to  the  sea,  highest  elevation 
being  5940  ft.  The  highest  peak  in  Dalmatia  is 
Mount  Orjen  (6225  ft.).  The  coast  is  steep  and  rocky 
and  lined  by  many  islands:  Pago,  Rab,  and  Krk  on  the 
northern  Croatian  coast;  the  first  rises  to  a  height  of 
885  ft.,  the  last  to  1338  ft.  Islands  of  lesser  import- 
ance are  Cres,  LoSinj,  Osor,  Uljan.  On  the  south  lies 
Bra«  with  the  mountain  of  St.  Vid  (2574  ft.),  Hvar 
with  St.  Nicholas  (2078  ft.),  and  Korcula  (1879  ft.); 
lastly  Lastovo,  Mljeti  and  Vis.  The  principal  natural 
harbours  are:  Zadar,  Trogir,  Sibenik,  Grul,  PeljeSac, 
Kator,  Hvar,  Vis,  and  Mljet.  Dalmatia  is  poor  in 
water,  though  the  rainfalls  make  temporary  lakes. 
The  only  rivers  of  importance  are:  Krka  (Titius)  and 
Cetina  (Tilurus)  flowing  from  the  Dinara  mountains; 
the  former  has  interesting  falls  and  wild  scenery. 
Neretva  (Naro)  belongs  chiefly  to  Herzegovina.  The 
climate  is  warm  and  healthy.  The  temperature 
varies  between  57°  F.  at  Zadar,  62°  at  Hvar,  and  63° 
at  Dubrovnik.  The  prevailing  wind  is  the  sirocco  or 
south-east,  but  the  terrible  Boora  or  north-east,  may 
blow  at  any  season  of  the  year.  The  land  is  fit  chiefly 
for  pasture.  Barley,  wheat,  maize,  oats,  rye,  millet, 
beeroot,  hemp,  and  potatoes  are  raised  in  small  quan- 
tities. Asses  and  mules  are  used  as  beasts  of  burden. 
Mines  of  coal,  asphalt,  lignite,  salt  are  under  develop- 
ment. Among  the  industries  are  the  distillation  of 
liquors,  the  manufacture  of  oil,  tile-burning,  the  rais- 
ing of  timber,  wine-growing,  and  ship-building.  Other 
products  of  the  country  are  cheese,  honey,  silk,  and 
sardines.  Railroads  are  nearly  unknown  in  Dalmatia, 
although  there  is  urgent  need  of  them.  Commerce  is 
further  hampered  by  &  bureaucratic   administration. 


Coast  navigation  is  i^adually  taking  on  greater  pro- 
portions and  extending  through  the  Adriatic  a&d 
Mediterranean  Seas.  The  capital  of  Dalmatia  is  Za- 
dar, where  the  Diet  meets  when  convoked  by  the 
king.  It  is  composed  of  forty-three  members,  and  is 
represented  in  Vienna  by  eleven  delegates  elected  by 
direct  vote.  The  archbishop  is  a  member  of  the  Diet 
The  head  of  the  Royal  Dalmatian  Government  is  a 
governor  appointed  by  the  king.  Dalmatia  is  the 
most  neglected  country  under  Austrian  rule.  The 
population  consists  of  Croats,  who  are  in  the  majority, 
Serbs,  Italians,  and  Albanians  (about  10  per  cent.. 
Croatian  is  now  the  official  language. 

Religion  and  Schools, —  The  general  educational  in- 
stitutions are  public  schools  (with  5  claasee),  while  in 
every  village  or  hamlet  there  is  an  elementiuy  school. 
There  are  also  middle  schools  or  gynmasia  (with  8 
classes),  colleges  and  private  institutiona,  a  central 
seminary  for  priests  at  Zadar,  and  a  petit  shninaire  at 
Dubrovnik.     There  are  also  a  naval  and  an  agricul- 
tural school.     The  majority  of  the  inhabitans  are 
Catholics.     There  are  also  (hthodox  Greeks  and  a  few 
Jews.     There  are  many  magnificent  churches  and  ec- 
clesiastical buildings  which  date  back  many  centuries 
to  the  flourishing  times  of  the  Church.     The  archao- 
logical  museums  at  Bihac  and  Knin  contain  much 
historical  material  illustrating  early  Chriatianity  and 
the  period  of  the  oldest  Croatian  rulers.     There  is  a 
literary  society,  "Matica  Dalmatinska",  which  pub- 
lishes   valuable    books    every    year.     The    "Matica 
Hrvatska",  at  Zagreb,  and  the  St.  Jerome  Society  do 
the  same  for  popular  books.     The  Catholic  press  is 
represented  by  weeklies  and  periodicals  such  as  "Aca- 
demia  Paleoslovenica'',  at  Krk  (Veglia).     Throngh- 
out  Dalmatia,  including  the  adjoining  islands,  as  well 
as  on  the  Croatian  coast,  the  Old  Croatian  language 
called  Glagolitic  is  stiU  in  use  at  church  services.    This 
comes  down  from  the  times  of  Sts. Cyril  and  Methodius 
also.     The  right  to  use  the  Glagolitic  language  at  Mas 
with  the  Roman  Rite  has  prevailed  for  many  cen- 
turies in  all  the  south-western  Balkan  countries,  and 
has  been  sanctioned  by  long  practice  and  by  many 
popes.     The  religious  orders  are  well  represented  in 
Dalmatia  by  the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Jesuits,  and 
others,  as  well  as  by  many  oommimitiea  of  religioua 
women.     In  the  administration  of  church  affairs  the 
civil  authorities  accept  the  principles  of  canon  law. 
The  Concordat  was  abolished  by  the  laws  of  1874,  and 
a  civil  marriage  law  was  introduced  in  1867.    The  ir- 
removable rectors  must  contribute  to  the  expenses  of 
worship  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  law.     The 
State  administers  the  church  property  and  layrdown 
the  conditions  for    establishing   new  parishes.    The 
archbishops,  bishops,  and  canons  are  nominated  hy 
the  king,  and  invested  by  the  pope.     The  ecclesiasti- 
cal province  of  Dalmatia  was  erected  by  Leo  Xll  in 
1828,  by  the  Bull  *'  Locum  beati  Petri,"  when  the  two 
Archbishoprics  of  Spljet  and  Dubrovnik  were  sup- 
pressed, and  Zadar  was  made  the  see  of  the  arch- 
bishop.    The    province    comprises    five    bishoprics: 
Sibenik,  Spljet,  Hvar,  Dubrovnik,  and  Kotor.    The 
Bishopric  of  Krk  was  joined  by  Pope  Pius  VIII  to  the 
province  of  Goricza.     There  are  527,500  Catholics  m 
Dalmatia  and  80,900  Greek  schismatics  with  two 
bishoprics  at  Zadar  and  in  Kotor. 

History.— The  meaning  of  the  name  Dalmatia  or 
Delmatia,  which  is  of  Arnautic  origin,  is  *'^^ J'^ 
shepherds"  (delminium — pasture  for  sheep).  The 
earliest  mention  of  the  name  occurs  at  the  time  of  the 
fall  of  the  southern  Illyric  kingdom,  167  a.  c.  The 
people  who  dwelt  near  the  rivers  Neretva  and  Krka 
formed  a  league  against  the  advancing  Romans. 
Their  principal  town  was  Delminium,  on  the  prefi^nt 
plain  of  Sinj,  or  possibly  Duvno  in  Hersegovina,  *nd 
after  that  city  the  tribes  called  themselves  J^^°?*J[*' 
or  Dalmati,  170  b.  c.  The  islands  were  peopledj^ 
the  Greeks;  but  the  mainland  by  the  Hlyriani.    ^ 


DALMATIA 


607 


DALMATIA 


Dalmatian  league  soon  came  into  conflict  with  the 
Romans.  In  153  b.  c.  the  Roman  Senate  sent  envoys 
to  negotiate  with  the  Dalmatians,  but  they  returned 
complaining  that  they  were  received  in  an  unfriendly 
manner,  and  that  they  would  have  been  killed  if  they 
had  not  secretly  escaped.  During  the  next  year  war 
broke  out.  Finally  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica 
conquered  the  land  and  demolished  the  city  of 
Delminium.  The  Romans'  success  was  incomplete; 
they  must  subdue  the  neighbouring  IIlyrianB  and 
Celts  if  they  wished  to  retain  the  whole  of  Dalmatia. 
The  two  new  consuls  had  to  march  from  Gaul  to 
lUyrium  and  occupy  the  city  of  Segestica,  now  Sisak, 
thence  to  invade  Dalmatia  and  capture  the  city  of 
Salona.  The  consul  Metellus  carried  out  this  plan, 
defeated  the  enemy  in  118  b.  c,  and  celebrated  a 
triumph  at  Rome,  receiving  the  title  Dalmaticus 
(1 17).  The  Roman  Senate  now  created  the  large  prov- 
ince of  Illyricum,  extending  southward  to  the  River 
Drim,  northward  as  far  as  the  Julian  Alps  and  the 
River  Sava.  The  principal  strategic  point  and  fortress 
in  this  new  province  was  the  city  of  Salona  (Solin). 
But  the  Dalmatians  did  not  patiently  bear  the  Roman 
yoke  and  tribute.  Many  uprisings  broke  out  until 
the  time  of  Octavian,  who  came  to  Illyricum  in  40 
B.  c,  and  subjugated  all  the  tribes;  he  made  the 
rivers  Drava  and  Danube  the  northern  boundaries 
of  the  Roman  possessions  and  sailed  on  them  in  his 
triremes.  Later,  when  emperor,  he  broke  the  power 
of  the  Dalmatian  and  Pannonian  tribes  who  tried 
again  to  throw  off  the  Roman  rule.  The  insurrection 
started  in  the  year  6  b.  c.  and  ended  in  a.  d.  9.  The 
power  of  the  rebels  was  crushed  and  their  country 
devasted.  Since  the  Punic  wars  Rome  had  not 
been  in  as  critical  a  situation  aa  during  this  insurrec- 
tion suppressed  by  Tiberius. 

From  this  date  beings  the  Romanising  of  Illyricum. 
This  province  now  received  the  name  of  Dalmatia  and 
comprised  all  the  land  south  of  the  River  Sava,  within 
which  were  many  famous  watering  places,  such  as 
Aquae  Jasss  (the  Yarazdinske  tophce  of  to-day). 
Aquae  Balissae  (Lipik  in  Croatia),  and  much  mineral 
wealth  exploited  by  them,  as  appears  from  their  re- 
mains to-day.  The  Roman  rule  in  Dalmatia  ended 
with  the  entry  of  Christianity  and  the  invasion  of  the 
northern  nations.  The  Romans  persecuted  the  Chris- 
tians in  Dalmatia  and  Pannonia,  but  they  flourished 
nevertheless.  St.  Paul  sent  bis  disciple  Titus  to  Dal- 
matia, who  founded  the  first  Christian  see  in  the  city 
of  Salona  and  consecrated  it  with  his  blood  A.  p.  65. 
St.  Peter  sent  St.  Domnius.  Salona  became  the 
centre  from  which  Christianity  spread.  In  Pannonia 
St.  Andronicus  founded  the  See  of  Syrmium  (Mitro- 
vica)  and  later  those  of  Siscia  and  Mursia.  The  cruel 
persecution  under  Diocletian,  who  was  a  Dalmatian 
by  birth,  left  numerous  traces  in  Old  Dalmatia  and 
Pannonia.  St.  Quirinus,  Bishop  of  Siscia,  died  a 
martyr  a.  d.  303.  St.  Jerome  was  borne  in  Strido,  a 
city  on  the  border  of  Pannonia  and  Dalmatia.  After 
the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  in  476,  peace  never 
came  to  Dalmatia.  She  successively  fell  into  the 
power  of  Odoacer,  Theodoric,  and  Justinian.  The 
Goths  were  Arians,  but  they  did  not  persecute  the 
Catholics.  Two  provincial  church  councils  were  held 
at  Salona— -530  and  532.  The  Western  Empire  was 
succeeded  by  the  Ostro-Goths,  after  whose  fall  in 
555  Dalmatia  came  under  Byzantine  power.  In  A.  d. 
598  the  khan  of  the  Avars -advanced  from  Syrmium 
through  Bosnia,  devastated  Dalmatia,  and  demolished 
forty  cities.  In  a.  d.  600  appeared  the  Slavs, 
who  entered  Dalmatia.  Pope  Gregory  the  Great 
wrote  to  Maxim,  Archbishop  of  Salona:  "Et  de 
Slavorum  gente,  quae  vobis  valde  imminet,  affligor 
vehementer  et  conturbor.  Affligor  in  his,  quae  jam 
in  vobis  patior;  conturbor  quia  per  Istriae  aditum  iam 
Italiam  intrare  cceperunf. 

In  the  seventh  century  Dalmatia  received  the 
dominant   element   of   its   present   population,    the 


Croats.  In  the  ninth  century  we  find  the  Croatian 
influence  at  its  height,  and  the  Croatian  princes 
recognized  as  Kings  of  Dalmatia.  At  the  time  of 
Thomislav  there  were  held  two  councils  at  Spljet  for 
the  whole  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia.  The  legates  of 
the  Holy  See,  John,  Bishop  of  Ancona  and  Leo,  Bishop 
of  Praeneste,  were  present.  Pope  John  X  wrote  a 
letter  to  Thomislav,  King  of  the  Croats,  and  all  the 
people  of  Dalmatia.  In  this  he  reminded  the  king  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons,  to  whom  Gregory  I  sent  not  only 
Christianity,  but  also  culture  and  education.  The 
council  met  in  925  to  decide  the  question  of  the  pri- 
macy of  the  Sees  of  Nin  and  Spljet;  to  re-establish  rules 
of  discipline,  to  settle  administrative  questions  arising 
from  disputes  about  the  boundaries  of  dioceses,  and 
finally  to  show  the  reason  for  using  the  Old  Croatian 


Cathbdral.  Trau,  Dalmatia,  (XIII  Century) 

language  at  Mass.  On  this  occasion  Bishop  Grgur 
Ninski  energetically  defended  the  right  of  the  Croa- 
tians  to  use  that  language.  Pope  Leo  VI  decreed  by 
his  Bull  that  the  primate  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia 
should  be  the  Archbishop  of  Spljet.  All  the  decisions 
of  the  councils  were  sent  to  Rome  for  confirmation. 
The  See  of  Nin  was  suppressed  in  928,  when  the  See  of 
Spljet  renounced  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  and  submitted  to  the  Holy  See.  At 
the  ne.xt  council,  held  1059-60  at  Spljet,  permission 
was  given  to  use  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  at 
Mass.  The  use  of  the  old  Croatian  language  was 
often  forbidden,  but  never  abolished.  During  the 
following  centuries  the  history  of  Dalmatia  is  closely 
connected  with  that  of  Croatia.  In  the  course  of 
time,  however,  Venice  extended  her  authority  over 
Dalmatia.  Venice  never  gained  the  affection  of  the 
Dalmatian  people.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio 
in  1797  she  lost  Dalmatia,  which  came  under  Austrian 
rule,  under  which  it  has  continued  to  the  present  time 
with  the  exception  of  Napoleonic  times  (1805-1814). 
The  feeling  towards  Austria  was  not  friendly,  as  the 
outbreak  in  1869  shows.  This  was  put  down  by  force 
of  arms  in  February  of  the  next  year.  Influential 
patriots,  the  members  of  the  home  Diet,  and  the  dele- 


DALMATIO 


608 


DALBIATIO 


gates  in  the  ReichBtag  at  Vienna  are  working  to  carry 
out  the  provisions  of  the  fundamental  law  requiring 
the  union  of  Dalmatia  with  the  mother-country, 
Croatia,  which  the  king  promised  in  a  solenm  oath  at 
his  coronation. 

The  literature  of  Dalmatia  from  its  beginnings  in 
the  eleventh  century  was  inspired  by  the  Ca^olic 
Church  and  remained  so  until  the  rise  of  Humanism. 
Numerous  private  and  public  libraries  existed,  con- 
taining thousands  of  volumes  (1520).  The  art  of 
printing  found  its  way  to  Dalmatia  as  early  as  the  end 
of  the  fif'ccenth  century.  The  first  Humanists  such 
as  Men6eti6,  Bobali,  Puci6,  Gu6eti6,  Marulii  wrote  in 
Latin  and  Croatian  and  produced  many  varieties  of 
literature:  the  drama,  lyrics,  epics,  bucolics,  come- 
dies, religious,  and  gipsy  poetry.  Dalmatia  has  in 
fact  been  called  the  cradle  of  Croatian  literature. 
The  city  of  Dubrovnik  was  spoken  of  sb  another 
Athens.  Architecture  fiourishea  greatly,  as  is  proved 
by  the  existing  monuments. 

FoRns,  Travels  in  Dalmatia  (1778);  Paton,  Highlands  and 
hlands  of  the  Adrialic  (1840);  Lodvich,  Det  coatumi  dei  Mot' 
laki  (1776):  Kataunicii.  Memorie  degli  awenimenti  auccessi  in 
Dalmazia;  Mitis,  Iax  Dalmazia  ai  tempi  di  Lodovico  il  Grande; 
(Zara,  1887):  Schmidl,  Das  Kimiareieh  Dalmazien  (1843); 
Masciiek,  Mamutle  del  regno  di  Dalmazia  per  Vanno  (1875); 
Kohl,  Reisen  in  htrien  etc.  (1850);  Scmpy,  CuUurbHaer  aua 
Dalmazien  (Vienna,  1875);  don  Frank  Buu6,  Hrvalahi  apo- 
menici  (Zagreb,  1888);  Academia  Slavorum  Meridianalium, 
Documenta  pars  t,  rescripta  et  sj/fiodalia  (Zajn^b,  1877);  Ljubic, 
Listine  (ZaRreb,  1870-1885);  GELacH.  Monumenia  Rtu/usina 
'^agreb,  1879-1897);  ^  Gruber,  Osvajanje  Zadra,  Vienac, 
Zagreb  (1882);  Klaic,  Hrvataki  knezovi  od  plemena  Subic 
(Zagreb,  1897);  Sdrmin,  Hrvatski  spomenici  (Zagreb):  HoR- 
VAT,  Hrvatska  povjest  (Zagreb,  1908);  Medini,  Povjest  hrvaUke 
Imjutevnosti  (Zagreb,  1902);  Valla,  Povjest  novoga  vieka 
'Zagreb.  1899,  1900);    Valla,  Povjest  srednjega  vieka  (Zacr«b, 

891, 1893).  M.  D.  Krmpoti6. 


Dalmatic. — Present  Usage. — ^The  dalmatic  is  the 
outer  liturgical  vestment  of  the  deacon.  It  is  worn  at 
Mass  and  at  solemn  processions  and  benedictions,  ex- 
cept whe^  these  processions  and  benedictions  have  a 
penitential  character,  as  in  Advent,  during  the  pe- 
riod from  Septuagesima  Sunday  to  Easter,  at  the 
blessing  of  candles  and  the  procession  on  Candlemas 
Day,  etc. ;  this  is  because  the  dalmatic  has  been  re- 
garded from  the  earliest  times  as  a  festal  earment. 
The  dalmatic  is  also  worn  by  bishops  under  me  chas- 
uble at  solemn  pontifical  Mass,  but  not  at  private 
Masses.  Priests  are  not  permitted  to  wear  tne  dal- 
matic under  the  chasuble  unless  a  special  papal  privi- 
lege to  this  effect  has  been  granted,  and  then  omy  on 
those  days  and  occasions  for  which  the  permission  has 
been  given.  At  Rome,  and  throughout  Italy,  the 
dalmatic  is  a  robe  with  wide  sleeves ;  it  reaches  to  the 
knees,  is  closed  in  front,  and  is  open  on  the  sides  as  far 
as  the  shoulder.  Outside  of  Italy  it  is  customary  to 
slit  the  under  side  of  the  sleeves  so  that  the  dalmatic 
becomes  a  mantle  like  a  scapular  with  an  openine  for 
the  head  and  two  square  pieces  of  the  materid  falling 
from  the  shoulder  over  the  upper  arm.  The  distinc- 
tive ornamentation  of  the  vestment  consists  of  two 
vertical  stripes  running  from  the  shoulder  to  the  hem; 
accordij^  to  Roman  usage  these  stripes  are  narrow 
and  united  at  the  bottom  by  two  narrow  cross-stripes. 
Outside  of  Rome  thfi.  vertical  stripes  are  quite  broad 
and  the  cross-piece  is  on  the  upper  part  of  the  gar- 
ment. There  are  no  regulations  as  to  the  materi^  of 
the  dalmatic ;  it  is  generally  made  of  silk  correspond- 
ing to  that  of  the  chasuble  of  the  priest,  with  which  it 
must  agree  in  colour,  as  the  ordinances  concerning  lit- 
urgical colours  include  the  dalmatic.  As  tJlie  dal- 
matic is  the  distinguishing  outer  vestment  of  the  dea- 
con, he  is  clothed  with  it  at  his  ordination  by  the 
bishop,  who  at  the  same  time  says:  "May  the  Lord 
clothe  thee  with  the  garment  of  salvation  and  with  the 
vesture  of  praise,  and  may  he  cover  thee  with  the  dal- 
matic of  nghteousness  forever". 

History. — According  to  the  "Liber  Pontificalis*' 
the  dalmatic  was  introduced  by  Pope  Sylvester  I 


(314-36).  It  IS  certain  that  as  eariy  as  the  first  half  of 
the  fourth  century  its  use  was  customary  at  Rome; 
then,  as  to-day,  the  deacons  wore  it  as  an  outer  vest- 
ment, and  the  pope  put  it  on  under  the  chasuble.  In 
early  Roman  practice  bishops  other  than  the  pope  and 
deacons  other  than  Roman  were  not  permitted  to 
wear  the  vestment  without  the  express  or  tacit  permis- 
sion of  the  pope — such  permission,  for  instance,  u 
Pope  Symmadius  (498-514)  gave  to  the  deacons  of  St. 
Csssarius  of  Aries.  The  Biidiops  of  Milan  most  proba- 
bly wore  the  dalmatic  as  early  as  the  fifth  century: 
this  is  shown  by  a  mosaic  of  Sts.  AmbrosiuB  and 
Matemus  in  the  chapel  of  San  Satiro  near  the  church 
of  San  Ambrogio;  mosaics  in  the  church  of  San  Vitale 
at  Ravenna  show  that  it  was  worn  by  the  archbi^op 
of  Ravenna  and  their  deacons  at  least  as  early  as  the 
sixth  century.  About  the  ninth  century  the  dalmatic 
was  adopted  almost  universally  for  bishops  and 
deacons  m  Western  Europe,  even  including  Spain 
and  Gaul,  where  instead  of  a  dalmatic  deacons  had 
worn  a  tunic  called  an  alb  (see  Alb),  About  the 
tenth  century  the  Roman  cardinal-priests  were  granted 
the  privilege  of  wearing  the  dalmatic,  at  which  time 
also  priests  outside  of  Rome,  especially  abbots, 
received  the  same  as  a  mark  of  distinction.  Thus, 
John  XIII  in  970  granted  the  Abbot  of  St.  Vin- 
centius  at  Metz  the  nght  to  wear  the  daknatic  Ben- 
edict VII  in  975  granted  this  privilege  to  the  car- 
dinal-priests of  the  cathedral  of  Trier,  but  limited  it  to 
occasions  when  they  assisted  the  archbishop  at  a  pontif- 
ical Mass  or  celebrated  the  solemn  high  Mass  in  the 
cathedral  as  his  representatives.  According  to  Ro- 
man usa^  the  dalmatic  was  only  worn  by  prelates  at 
the  pontifical  Mass,  and  never  under  the  cope  on  other 
occasions,  as  was  often  the  case  in  Ge^any  in  the 
later  Middle  Ages. 

The  custom  of  leaving  off  the  dalmatic  on  peniten- 
tial days  originated,  like  the  vestment  itself,  in  Rome, 
whence  it  eradually  spread  over  the  rest  of  Western 
Europe.  In  ihe  twelfth  century  this  usage  was  um'- 
versal.  On  such  days  the  deacons  either  wore  no 
vestment  over  the  alb  or  put  on,  instead  of  the  dal- 
matic, the  so-called  pUinda  pUcixia,  a  dark-coloured 
chasuble  folded  in  a  particular  manner.  An  excep- 
tion was  made  in  the  penitential  season  for  Maundy 
Thiusday  on  which  it  nad  been  the  custom  from  an- 
cient times,  principally  on  account  of  the  consecration 
of  the  holy  oils,  to  use  the  vestments  appropriate  to 
feast  days.  In  early  times  the  dalmatic  was  seldom 
used  by  deacons  at  Masses  for  the  dead,  but  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  Middle  Aces  it  was  universally  worn 
dunng  solenm  requiem  Masses.  At  an  early  date  it 
was  customary  at  Rome  to  confer  the  dalmatic  on  a 
deacon  at  onunation;  Hie  usage  is  recognized  in  the 
"  Eighth  Ordo ' '  (ei^th  century )  and  the  '^Ninth  Ordo" 
(ninth  century)  of  Mabillon.  In  the  rest  of  Western 
Europe  the  custom  took  root  very  slowly,  and  it  did 
not  become  universal  tmtil  towards  the  end  ef  the 
Middle  Ages.  TTie  first  medieval  liturgist  to  mention 
it  was  Sicard  of  Cremona  (c.  1200),  from  whose  lan- 
guage it  is  evident  that  the  ceremony  was  not  every- 
where prevalent.  A  prayer  at  the  bestowal  of  the 
dcdmatic  was  not  customary  imtil  a  later  period. 

Shape  and  Material  in  Eablier  Ages. — ^The  orig- 
inal form  of  the  vestment  is  well  shown  by  the  remains 
of  the  pre-Carlovingian  period,  especially  bjr  the  mo- 
saics in  San  Satiro  at  Milan  (fifth  century),  m  San  Vi- 
tale at  Raveima  (sixth  century),  and  in  San  Venanzo 
and  Sant'  Agnese  at  Rome  (seventh  century);  also  in 
various  frescoes,  such  as  the  picture  of  the  four  holy 
bishops  in  the  church  of  San  Callisto  at  Rome.  Ac- 
cording to  these  representations  it  was  a  long,  wide 
tunic  with  very  large  sleeves  and  reached  to  the  feet. 
In  the  above-mentioned  pictorial  remains  the  width  of 
the  sleeves  equalled  the  half  or  at  least  the  third  of  the 
lengtii  of  the  vestment.  Up  to  the  twelfth  century 
the  Italiac  representations  show  no  change  in  i^ 


DALTON 


609 


DALTOK 


fonu.  After  this,  in  the  Italian  remains,  the  vestment 
is  shorter  and  the  sleeves  narrower  although  the 
traces  of  the  change  are  at  first  only  here  and  there 
noticeable.  As  eariy  as  the  ninth  century  the  short- 
ening of  the  vestment  and  the  narrowing  of  the  sleeves 
had  begun  in  Northern  countries,  but  up  to  the 
twelfth  century  no  important  modification  had  taken 
place.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  length  of  the 
dalmatic  was  still  about  51-55  inches.  In  Italy  this 
measurement  was  maintained  during  the  fourteenth 
century;  in  the  sixteenth  century  the  dalmatic,  even 
in  Italy,  was  usually  only  about  47}  inches  long.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  its  length  eveiywhere  was 
only  a  little  more  than  43}  inches;  in  the  eighteenth 
century  it  was  only  39}  inches,  and  at  times  about 
35}  inches.  The  shortening  of  the  vestment  could 
hardly  go  further;  and,  as  its  length  decreased,  the 
sleeves  became  correspondingly  narrower.  To  facili- 
tate the  putting  on  of  the  dalmatic  slits  were  made  in 
the  sides  of  the  vestment  in  the  pre-Carlovingian  era, 
and  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  regularly 
shaped  openings  were  often  substituted  for  the  slits. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  especially  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  sides  were  very  commonly 
opened  as  far  as  the  sleeves,  unless  the  dalmatic  was 
widened  below  by  the  insertion  of  a  gore.  Now  and 
then,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  sleeves  appear  to 
have  been  opened  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  but 
this  custom  was  not  general  imtil  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  and  then  it  was  not  observed  in 
Italy,  where,  in  accordance  with  the  Roman  usage^ 
the  sleeves  were  always  closed. 

Orieinally  the  dalmatic  was  made  of  linen  or  wool, 
but  when  silk  became  more  common  and  less  esroen- 
sive,  the  dalmatic  was  also  made  of  silk.  From  about 
the  twelfth  centuiy,  judeing  from  the  inventories,  the 
vestment  seems  to  have  oeen  made  almost  altogether 
of  silk,  although  up  to  modem  times  there  were  also 
dalmatics  made  of  fine  woollen  material.  Until  aft^r 
the  tenth  century  the  dalmatic  was  always  white. 
From  this  time  on  coloured  dalmatics  are  more  often 
found,  especially  outside  of  Italy,  in  countries  where 
old  traditions  were  not  so  firmly  rooted.  Coloured 
dalmatics  were  the  rule  when,  about  1200,  it  was  deter- 
mined what  colours  should  be  recognized  as  liturgical 
and  in  consequence  their  use  was  definitely  regulated. 
As  soon  as  certain  colours  were  prescribed  for  the  chas- 
uble it  must  have  seemed  only  proper  to  employ  the 
same  for  the  outer  vestment  of  the  deacon.  The  orna- 
mentation of  the  dalmatic  at  first  consisted  of  two 
narrow  stripes,  called  clam,  which  went  in  a  straight 
line  down  the  front  and  back,  and  of  a  narrow  band  on 
the  hem  of  the  sleeves.  In  the  beginning  the  stripes 
were  more  purple  than  red  in  shade.  In  the  old  repre- 
sentations fringe  is  found  on  the  dalmatic  as  early  as  the 
seventh  centuiy ;  at  times  it  was  placed  on  the  sleeves, 
at  other  times  along  the  openings  on  the  sides.  About 
the  ninth  century  the  curious  custom  arose  of  setting 
tufts  of  red  fringe  on  the  cUwi  and  on  the  bands  of  the 
sleeves;  this  usage  was  kept  up  until  the  thirteenth 
century,  but  it  was  more  common  in  Northern  coun- 
tries than  in  Italy.  In  the  later  medieval  period  there 
was  great  diversity  in  the  ornamentation  of  the  dal- 
matic, and  very  often  it  received  no  ornamentation  at 
all.  In  Italy  it  was  customary  to  set  a  costly,  and 
often  richly  embroidered,  band  (aunfrisiuniy  parura, 
fimbria)  above  the  lower  hem  on  the  back  and  front  of 
the  vestment  and  also  above  the  sleeves;  at  times 
narrow  vertical  bands  were  added  to  this  adornment. 
In  France  and  Germany  the  preference  was  to  orna- 
ment the  two  sides  of  the  vestment  with  broad  and 
elegantly  embroidered  bands  which  were  united  on 
the  breast  and  back  by  croBs-bands.  Occasionally 
the  dalmatic  was  entirely  covered  with  embroidered 
figures.  A  fine  specimen  of  such  decoration  is  pre- 
served in  the  imperial  treasury  at  Vienna.  This  dal- 
matic 18  completely  covered  with  a  costly  omamentar 
IV,— 39 


tion  consisting  of  human  figures  very  artistically  i 
cuted  in  fifteenth-century  Burgundi^  embroidery 
and  was  one  of  the  rich  Mass-vestments  of  the  Order  ot 
the  Golden  Fleece. 

OaiGiN  AND  Symbolism. — ^The  dalmatic  was  taken 
from  a  garment  of  the  same  name,  which  originated,  to 
judge  from  the  designation,  in  Dalmatia,  and  which 
came  into  common 'use  at  Home  probably  in  the 
course  of  the  second  century.  But  it  was  only  the 
garment  as  such,  and  not  the  ornamental  bands,  that 
Kome  imported,  for  the  davi  were  an  old  Roman 
adornment  of  the  tunic.  The  secular  dalmatic  is  often 
mentioned  by  writers  and  is  frequently  seen  in  the  pic- 
torial reoiains  of  the  later  imperial  epoch,  e.  g.  in  the 
so-called  consular  diptychs.  It  was  part  of  the  cloth- 
ing of  the  higher  classes;  consequently  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  it  was  taken  into  ecclesiastical  use  and 
afterwards  became  a  liturgical  vestment.  The  earliest 
symbolical  interpretations  of  the  dalmatic  occur  at  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  century,  in  the  writings  of 
Rabanus  (Hrabanus)  Maurus  and  Amalarius  of  Metz. 
On  account  of  the  cruciform  shape  and  the  red  orna- 
mental stripes,  Rabanus  Maurus  regarded  it  as  sym- 
bolical of  tne  sufferings  of  Christ  and  said  that  the 
vestment  admonished  the  servant  of  the  altar  to  offer 
himself  as  an  acceptable  sacrifice  to  God.  Amalarius 
saw  in  the  white  colour  a  symbol  of  purity  of  soul,  and 
in  the  red  stripes  the  emblem  of  love  for  one's  neigh- 
bour. WHat  in  later  times  was  said  of  the  symbolism 
of  the  dalmatic  is  hardly  more  than  a  repetition  of  the 
words  of  Rabanus  and  Amalarius. 

In  the  Oriental  rites  deacons  do  not  wear  a  dal- 
matic; while  instead  of  the  chasuble  the  bishops  wear 
an  outer  vestment  called  the  sacc^,  which  is  similar  to 
the  dalmatic.  The  aaccds  came  into  use  in  the  elev- 
enth century. 

Dalmatic  in  England. — ^The  English  inventories  f  re- 

Suently  give  the  dalmatic  the  same  name  as  that  of 
ae  wearer:  thus  (1539.  Ludlow  Priory.  Salv^.):  "A 
chasabuU  and  ij  decons  of  whyte  nedell  work  for 
lent."  According  to  the  old  English  Consuetudinary 
of  Sarum  (Salisbury)  (ch.  xcvi)  the  acolytes,  thun- 
fers,  etc.  of  the  preat  cathedrals  and  minsters  wore 
dalmatics  in  their  ministrations.  At  York  Minster 
they  had  sets  of  four  tunicles  pro  ihunbitlariis  et  char- 
istis  (for  the  thurifers  and  chanters)  in  each  of  the 
four  colours,  white,  red,  blue,  and  green  (York  Fabric 
Rolls,  pp.  228, 233-4).  The  dahnatic  is  still  worn  by 
the  sovereigns  of  England  at  their  oorcmation  as  a 
supertunic,  surcoat,  or  caLodium,  (For  the  use  of  the 
dalmatic  in  England  consult  Rock,  "Ages  of  Faith".) 

Bock,  GeachtdUe  der  liturgiachen  Gew&nder  (Bonn.  1860),  II, 
83-100;  Mabkiott,  Ve9tiarium  Ckrittianum  (London,  1868), 
Introduction,  Iv-lx;  Rohault  de  Fledry,  La  Messe  (Paris, 
1888,  richly  illustrated).  VII.  71-10»;  Db  Linab.  Anciens  vHe- 
menu  Mcerdotata  in  Revus  de  Vart  dwMien  (Ist  series,  Paris, 
1860),  561-77.  627->50;  Wilpbrt.  Die  Oewandimg  der  enten 
Christen  (Colojme,  1898).  20,  36-40;  Krieo  in  Kraub.  Reed- 
Encyk.,  s.  v.  Kleiaung;  Braun,  Die  liiuraiaehe  Gewandung  im 
Occident  tind  Orient  (Proibarg  im  Br.,  1907).  247-802;  Lowrib. 
Chriatiem  Ari  and  Archacloffu  (London,  1901);  Macaustkb, 
Ecclesiastical  Vestments  (London,  1896). 

Joseph  Braun. 

Dalton,  John,  Irish  author  and  translator  from 
Spanish  and  German,  b.  in  1814;  d.  at  Maddermarket, 
Norwich,  15  February,  1874.  He  spent  his  early  years 
at  Coventry,  England,  and  was  educated  at  Sedgley 
Park  School.  He  then  proceeded  to  Oscott  College, 
whece  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1837.  After  serving 
some  time  on  the  mission  at  Northampton  (where  he 
established  large  schools),  he  laboured  at  Norwich  for 
three  years,  and  subsequently  built  a  handsome 
church  at  Ljmn.  During  his  residence  in  Lynn  ho 
published  his  best-known  book,  an  English  transla- 
tion of  "The  Life  of  St.  Teresa,  written  by  herself", 
showinga  perfect  mastery  of  the  Spanish  language. 
Father  Dalton  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  life 
and  works  of  St.  Teresa,  and  caused  her  writings  to 


damIo 


610 


DAMARALAMD 


heoome  generally  known  to  English  readers.  On  the 
erection  of  the  Diooese  of  Noiinampton,  in  1854,  he 
was  nmde  a  member  of  the  chapter,  and  lived  many 
years  at  Bishop's  House  in  that  city.  In  order  to  ac- 
quire a  first-hand  acquaintance  with  the  Spanish  lit- 
erature pertaining  to  the  life  of  the  foundress  of  the 
Discalced  Carmelites,  he  spent  nine  months  diuing  the 
vears  1868-59  at  the  Engli^  (College,  Vailadolid.  On 
nis  return  to  England  he  settled  at  St.  John's,  Madder- 
market,  Norwich,  where  he  ended  his  days.  Canon 
Dalton  is  described  by  contemporary  writers  as  most 
amiable,  zealous,  and  charitable,  and  a  favourite  with 
all  creeds  and  classes.  Among  his  numerous  works 
translated  from  the  Spanish  are  the  following:  ''Life 
of  St.  Teresa"  (London,  1861);  "The  Interior  Castle, 
or  the  Mansions"  (London,  1852-53);  "The  Way  of 
Perfection"  (London,  1852):  "The  Letters  of  St. 
Teresa"  (London,  1853);  "The  Book  of  the  Founda- 
tions" (London,  1853),  etc.  He  also  published  trans- 
lations from  Latin  and  German,  including  "The  Life 
of  Cardinal  Ximenes"  from  the  German  of  Bishop  Von 
Hefele  (London,  1860). 

QiLLOW,  BM.  Diet.  Em,  Cath.  (London.  1887)  s.  v.;  Weekly 
Beffialer,  28  Feb.,  1874;  Contemponiry  newspapers. 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

DamSo  (Damau,  Damaun),  Diocese  of,  suffragan 
to  Goa,  and  situated  in  Portuguese  India  and  the 
British  €k)vemment  of  Bombay,  was  erected  by  the 
Bull  ''Humans  Salutis"  of  Leo  XIII,  1  September, 

1886,  which  confirmed  the  concordat  then  entered 
into  between  the  Holy  See  and  Dom  Luis  I,  King  of 
Portugal.  This  concordat  effected  a  settlement  of 
the  opposing  claims  to  jurisdiction  in  India  of  the 
Metropolitan  of  Goa,  on  the  one  part,  and  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Propaganda,  on  the  other  (see  Pai>- 
ROADo).  A  pontifical  decree,  dated  14  March,  1887, 
confirmed  the  nomination  by  the  King  of  Portugal  of 
Dom  Antonio  Pedro  da  Costa  to  be  first  Bishop  of 
DamSo  with  the  titular  Archbishopric  of  Cranganor, 
and  that  prelate  took  possession  of  his  see  19  June, 

1887.  The  church  of  Bom  Jesus,  at  Damfto,  then  be- 
came the  cathedral  of  the  new  diocese. 

The  city  of  DamSo,  on  the  Arabian  Sea,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Damfto  River,  about  100  miles  north  of 
Bombay,  formerly  belonged  to  the  Mohammedan 
State  of  Guzerat.  It  first  came  to  the  notice  of  the 
Portuguese  in  1523,  when  Diogo  de  Mello,  overtaken 
by  a  storm  on  his  way  to  Ormuz,  took  refuge  in  the 
harbour.  In  1529  an  expedition  sent  by  Dom  Nuno 
da  Cunha,  the  Portuguese  viceroy,  sacked  and  burned 
the  city,  and  in  1541  da  Cunha  himself,  on  his  way  to 
the  conquest  of  Diu,  disembarked  his  whole  army  at 
DamAo  and  caused  Mass  to  be  celebrated  there  for  the 
first  time.  But  it  was  not  until  the  feast  of  the  Puri- 
fication in  the  year  1568  that  another  viceroy,  Dom 
Constantino  de  Braganza,  imdertook  to  acquire  finallv 
the  place  for  his  sovereign;  the  native  garrison,  al- 
though much  more  nimierous  than  the  attacking  force 
of  3(X)0,  fled  at  their  approach,  and  the  capture  was 
effected  without  bloooshed.  The  victorious  com- 
mander at  once  caused  a  mosque  to  be  prepared  for 
Christian  worship;  Father  Gonsalo  da  Silveira,  Pro- 
vincial of  the  Jesuits,  celebrated  Mass  there,  and  the 
mosque  became  the  Jesuit  church  of  S9o  Paulo. 
From  that  time  until  its  erection  as  a  suffrajgan  dio- 
oese, in  1886,  DamSo  belonged  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Goa. 

The  territory  of  the  diocese  extends  along  the 
shores  of  the  Arabian  Sea  from  the  Narbada  River,  on 
the  north,  to  Ratn^ri,  on  the  south^nd  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Western  Ghats.  There  are  71,000 
Catholics  in  the  diooese,  51  churches,  21  affiliated 
chapels,  and  about  85  priests.  The  stipends  of  the 
clei^  are  for  the  most  part  paid  by  the  Portuguese 
Government.  The  territory  is  divided  into  districts 
as  follows:  DamSo,  4  churches,  5  affiliated  chapels; 


Diu,  2  churches,  3  chapels;  Thana  (vicariate) «  25 
churches,  6  chapels;  Konkan.  2  churches,  1  chapel; 
Bassein.  12  churches,  1  chapel;  Bombay,  6  churches, 
5  chapels.  To  each  of  the  churches  of  this  diocese  a 
parish  school  is  attached,  where  instruction  is  given  in 
Catholic  doctrine,  music,  English,  and  Portuguese,  as 
well  as,  in  some  instances,  Guzerati  and  Mahratti. 
Some  of  these  schools  receive  subsidies  from  both  the 
Portuguese  and  the  British-Indian  Governments. 
The  spiritual  work  of  the  diocese  is  very  largely 
helped  by  means  of  confraternities,  of  which  there  are 
at  least  42  in  the  Vicariate  of  Thana  alone. 

Among  the  churches  in  the  dty  of  DamSo  the  cathe- 
dral of  Bom  Jesus  is  worthy  of  note  as  having  been 
built,  in  1559,  on  the  site  of  an  old  mosque.  At 
Dam9o  Pequeno  (Little  Dam9o>  the  churdi  of  Nosaa 
Senhora  dollar,  founded  in  1701,  in  the  old  fortreas,  is 
still  used  by  local  Catholics.  Another  fortress  diurch 
is  that  of  tne  Conceive  at  Diu,  which  was  originally 
built  in  1610  as  part  of  the  now  extinct  convent  of  S2o 
Paulo.  The  vicariate  of  Thana  includes  the  island  of 
Salsette,  of  which  Thana  itself  was  formerly  the  capi- 
tal. Here,  before  the  Mogul  invasion  of  1318,  a  com- 
munity of  Nestorians  existed.  The  conquering  Mo- 
hanmiedans  converted  both  the  Nestorian  churches 
and  the  Hindu  temples  into  mosques  for  their  own 
worship.  It  was  also  at  Thana  that  the  Franciscan 
missionaries  Thomas  of  Tolentino  and  Giaoomo  of 
Padua,  with  the  lay  brothers  Demetrius  and  Peter, 
were  martyred  early  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Fra 
Jordanus,  a  Dominican,  who  buried  the  bodies  of 
these  martyrs,  was  himself  also  martyred  by  the  Mo- 
hammedans, but  the  Hindus  of  the  vicinity  so  hif^ly 
venerated  his  memory  as  to  set  up  a  bronze  statue  of 
him  amons  the  gods  in  one  of  their  temples ;  this  tem- 
ple was  afterwards  destroyed,  and  in  the  sixteenth 
century  some  workmen  who  were  dimng  on  the  spot 
found  among  the  ruins  this  pagan  tmute  to  a  Oiris- 
tian  martyr.  Thana  was  also  the  field  of  the  fruitful 
labours^of  Father  Gonsalo  Rodrigues,  one  of  the  com- 
panions of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  who  founded  in  the 
neighbourhood  a  Christian  villa«^.  This  village  was 
destroyed  by  the  Mahrattas,  but  the  ruins  of  its 
church,  coll^,  and  orphanage  are  still  distinguiflh- 
able.  The  cntuxsh  of  Nossa  Senhora  do  Cbrmo  at 
Chaul,  in  the  Konkan  district,  dates  from  the  year 
1580.  Bassein,  first  acquired  by  Portugal  in  1534,  is 
memorable  for  the  martyrdom  of  five  refieious  burned 
alive  in  the  orphanage  by  the  Mahommeoui  invaders 
in  1540,  as  well  as  for  the  apostolic  visits  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier.  Lastly,  in  the  Mazagon  suburb  of  Bombay  is 
the  church  of  Nossa  Senhora  da  Gloria,  long  regarded 
locally  as  the  Portuguese  cathedral*  here  alao  is  the 
Bombay  residence  of  the  Bishop  of  DamSo,  Titular 
Archbi&op  of  Cran^mor. 

Db  Brxtto,  EaboooHitiorieo  de  DamSo;  Gobska,  Lendat 
da  India,  II;  Webnbr,  China  Tenarum  Cath,  (Fraboxc  im  Br.. 
1890). 

J.   GODINHO. 

Damaralandi  the  middle  part  of  the  German  col- 
ony, German  Southwest  Africa,  between  19^  and  23^ 
S.  lat.,  14**  and  20*>  E.  long.  Moving  from  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  towards  the  interior  the  traveller  meets  first 
a  sand-belt  of  forty-two  miles,  stripped  of  all  vegeta- 
tion and  covered  with  gigantic  sand-dimes;  then  a 
strip  of  desert  land  about  ninety  miles  broad,  with 
rugged,  bare  mountains  and  wide,  barren  sand-plains. 
Then  follows  Hereroland  proper,  which  rises  to  a 
height  of  7000  feet,  and  in  which  mountain  ranges  and 
solitary  peaks  succeed  long-drawn  valleys,  deep  rav- 
ines and  nigh  plateaux.  Towards  the  nortn  and  east, 
this  mountainous  district  passes  over  into  the  undu- 
lating plain  of  the  Omaheke  and  the  Kalahari  Des^i 
which  IS  crossed  by  dry  river-beds  and  is  spandh^  in- 
habited. In  peneral,  the  country  suffers  from  want  of 
rain;  it  is  and,  and  fit  for  cattle-raising  only;  ^- 
culture  is  hardly  possible  except  where  the  land  » 


DAMAftCSNE 


611 


DABCASOUS 


artificially  irrigated,  llie  population  is  comiHwed  of 
tlie  Hill  Damara  and  the  Herero;  besides  these  there 
are  also  some  4000  Kaffirs,  Bastards,  and  Nama,  and 
1500  Christian  Ovambo.  The  Hill  Daniara,  or  Klip 
KaffiiSy  about  20,000  in  number,  were  the  original  pos* 
ocooors  of  the  country,  but  were  robbed  of  Uieir  pas- 
tures and  flocks  by  the  invading  Herero.  Down  to  our 
tixnefi  they  lived  among  the  Herero  as  slaves,  without 
rii^ts  and  protection,  ix)or  and  despised;  at  the  up- 
risiog  of  the  Herero  they  naturally  sided  with  the  Gor- 
man Grovemment  and  thereby  improved  their  lot  con* 
siderably. 

The  Herero,  or  Ovaherero,  are  a  tribe  of  the  Bantu, 
and  immigrated,  during  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries,  from  the  north-east  into  Damaraland. 
Their  bodies  are  well  built,  their  skin  is  chocolate- 
coloured,  their  hair  wavy  and  jet  black.  The  cloth- 
ing of  the  men  consists  of  an  apron,  made  of  the  skin  of 
sheep  or  goats,  and  wound  around  the  hipsj  that  of 
the  women  comprises  a  leather  cap  with  a  veil,  a  long 
apron,  and  a  hide  thrown  over  tne  back;  numerous 
rings  of  iron  and  pearls  adorn  their  arms  and  legs,  and 
a  number  of  pearl  strings  encircle  their  necks.  The 
Herero  are  boastful,  vain,  avaricious,  beggarly,  given 
to  lying  and  cheating,  dishonest,  and  cruel  and  fero- 
cious in  their  hatred;  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  also 
hospitable,  possess  a  high  sense  of  honour,  and  great 
love  for  their  parents.  Their  religion  consists  in  an 
ancestral  cult,  especially  of  the  deceased  chiefs  of  each 
tribe,  and  a  gruesome  beUef  in  ghosts  and  specters,  to 
whom  they  frequently  offer  sacrifices.  True  they 
recognize  a  God  of  ^eaven  and  earth,  but  they  do  ncrt^ 
worship  him;  the:^  think  of  him,  but  they  do  not 
thank  nim.  Previous  to  the  iusurrection  of  1904- 
1906,  which  almost  destroyed  them,  they  were  divided 
into  tribes;  these  were  nued  by  chiefs,  who  were  at 
the  same  time  the  tribal  priests.  In  the  fights  with 
the  Nama,  all  the  Herero  had  acknowledged  one  com- 
mander-in-chief, Maherero  Kajamuaha.  After  his 
death,  in  1890,  the  German  Grovemment  chose  his 
yoimger  son,  Samuel  Maherero,  as  supreme  chief,  pass- 
ing by  the  rightful  heir.  Generally  speaking,  monog- 
amv  prevails  among  the  Herero,  though  the  chiefs 
and  the  wealthier  tribesmen  often  have  several  wives. 
The  acquisition  of  the  present  German  Southwest 
Africa  by  Germany  was  begun  in  the  vear  1883.  The 
Bremen  merchant  Luderitz  acquired  the  bay  of  An^ 
Pe<)uena  and  a  few  strips  of  land  from  the  native 
chiefs;  in  1884  this  territory  was  placed  under  the- 
protection  of  the  German  Empire.  The  heir  to  the 
rights  of  Luderitz,  the  German  Colonial  Company  for 
Southwest  Africa,  obtained  more  land.  As  Maherero. 
the  supreme  chief  of  the  Herero,  had  formerly  sidea 
with  the  English  against  the  Germans,  he  was  forced, 
on  21  October^  1885,  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  protection 
and  amity  with  Germany,  and  to  acknowledge  the 
German  supremacy.  As  this  treaty  was  in  many  re- 
girds  obscure,  many  quarrels  arose  between  the 
German  Government  and  the  Herero  chiefs;  small 
uprisings  were,  however,  easily  quelled.  The  love  of 
freedom,  predominant  in  the  Herero,  numerous  injus- 
tices committed  by  the  whites,  extortions  on  the  part 
of  the  white  traders,  and  other  causes  finally  led  to  the 
great  insurrection  of  the  Herero  in  the  beginning  of 
1904,  which  soon  spread  throughout  the  colony.  It 
took  almost  three  years  to  subdue  the  sedition  and 
0eat  sacrifices  of  men  and  money  had  to  be  made. 
For  the  nation  of  the  Herero,  who  before  had  num- 
bered between  80,000  and  100^000,  the  revolt  re- 
sulted in  almost  complete  annihilation.  The  Herero 
who  had  been  taken  prisoners  were  accommodated  in 
camps,  where  hundreds  of  them  were  carried  ofif  by 
virulent  diseases.  After  peace  was  made,  the  ren^ 
nant  was  handed  over  to  officials,  farmers,  business 
and  private  houses,  as  servants. 

Missions  in  Damaraland  were  first  begun  by  Protest- 
anta.     Since  1844  the  Rheinisch-evangelische  Mis- 


sionLgcsellscIiaft  laboured  in  llereroland  without  in* 
terruption.  Before  the  insurrection  it  numbered  15 
stations  with  23  missionaries,  46  schools  with  875  boys 
and  1182  girls,  and  counted  8300  coloured  Christians. 
The  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  were  the  first  Catholic 
missionaries  who,  at  the  end  of  the  seventies,  made  the 
attempt  to  found  a  mission  among  tJie  Herero;  owing 
to  £he  intolerance  of  the  Protestants,  however,  they 
were  compelled  to  abandon  the  work  in  1881  (cf. 
Katholische  Missionen,  Freibuiv,  1882,  pp.  107-111). 
It  was  only  when  Gennan  rule  had  been  aefinitely  es- 
tablished, that  the  Catholic  mission  was  at  liberty  to 
work  in  this  field.  On  1  Au^t,  1892,  the  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  Cimbebasia  Inferior  was  erected,  and  imder 
it  was  placed  the  whole  of  Damaraland  and  Ovam- 
boland;  in  1896  the  territoiy  was  given  in  charge  of 
the  German  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate.  But  by 
the  Colonial  Government  they  were  forbidden  to  work 
among  the  Ovambo,  Hereros,  and  ICaffirs,  and  even 
after  tney  had  been  put  on  the  same  legal  footing  with 
the  Protestants  they  still  had  to  fight  against  odds. 
All  obstacles  were  finally  removed  in  S^tember, 
1905.  The  Prefecture  Apostolic  in  1908  numbered  9 
stations  with  22  fathers  and  18  brothers  (all  Oblates), 
10  sisters  (Franciscan  Sisters  from  Nonnenwerth); 
there  are  850  white,  210  black  Catholics ;  9  churches  or 
chapels,  10  schools  with  236  pupils,  1  trade  school 
with  14  pupils,  1  high  school  for  boys,  1  academy  for 
girls,  1  orphan  asylum,  and  2  hospitals. 
ScHiNz,  Deuiach-SHdweatafrika   (Oldenlmis,  1801);    Fban* 

S[>iB,  Nama  and  Damara  (Magdeburg,  1806);  Dove,  DetUoch' 
adweatafrika  (Gotha.  1896;  Berlin,  1003);  Scrwabe.  Mtt 
Schvoeri  und  Fflug  m  Deutach-Sudwestafrika  (Berlin,  1004); 
Paui«,  Die  Miaaion  in  unseren  Kolonien  (Dresden.  1905); 
Meter,  WirUchaft  und  Recht  der  Herero  (Berlin.  1906);  Ibub. 
Die  Herero  (GOtersloh,  1906);  Leutwkin,  Elf  Jahrt  Oouvemeur 
in  Deutseh'SUdweatafrika  (Berlin.  1906);  Die  Kaiholitchen  Mia^ 
eionen  (Freibunt.  190&-07),  XXXV.  176-183;  JahreeberiehU 
iiber  die  EntwicQung  der  deiUaehen  SchiUzgehieie  (Berlin). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Damaseenei  John,  Saint.    See  John  Damasctbnb, 

Saint. 

Damaseus,  in  Syria,  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the 
world.  According  to  Flavins  Josephus  it  was  founded 
by  Us,  ^ndson  S.  Sem;  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
at  the  tune  of  Abraham  (Gen.,  xiv,  15;  xv,  2)j  also  on 
the  pylons  of  Kamak,  among  the  Syrian  cities  cap- 
tured by  the  Pharaoh  Touthmes  III. 

Kingdom  of  Damascus. — ^Damascus  allied  itself 
with  Soba  against  David,  was  conquered  and  obliged 
to  receive  a  Jewish  garrison  (II  E[.,  viii,  5;  I  Paral., 
xviii,  6);  but  imder  Solomon  it  became  the  capital  of 
an  independent  kingdom,  established  by  Raion  or 
Rasin  (III  K.,  xi,  24).  From  this  time  Damascus 
was  freauentlv  at  war  with  the  kings  of  Israel,  while 
it  leaned  on  those  of  Juda,  who  sou^t  with  its  aid  to 
weaken  their  rivals  of  Samaria.  The  most  famous  of 
these  enemies  of  Israel  was  Hazael,  who  had  ascended 
the  throne  of  Damascus  with  the  help  of  Elijah  and 
Elisha  (III  K.,  xix,  17;  IV  K.,  viii,  28;  x,  32:  xiii, 
3).  His  sucoessors  were  less  fortunate.  Jeroboam 
II,  King  of  Samaria,  captured  Damascus  (IV  K., 
xiv,  28).  When  not  engaged  in  mutual  conflict 
the  kings  of  Damascus  and  Samaria  entered  into 
alliances  with  the  neighbouring  princes  against  the 
powerful  kings  of  Assyria;  hence  Damascus,  usually 
at  the  head  of  the  confederation,  is  often  mentioned 
in  cuneiform  inscriptions.  In  734  b.  g.  Damascus  and 
Samaria  nearly  nuned  Jerusalem.  But  Achaz,  King 
of  Juda,  invoked  the  help  of  the  Assyrian  King, 
'Hglath-jPileser  III  (Theglathphalaflar),  who  defeated 
the  alhes,  ci4>tured  Damascus  after  a  siege  of  two 
years,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Kingdom  of  Syria  (IV 
K.,  xvi,  9-12).  For  the  list  of  the  kings  of  Damas- 
cus see  Smith,  ''The  Assyrian  Eponym.  Canon"  191. 

Thk  Greek  City. — Thenceforth  Damascus  seems 
to  have  lost  its  autonomy.  Jeremias  (xlix,  27) 
threatens  it  with  new  chastisements,  a  proof  that  it 


DAMASOtTS 


612 


]>AKA8<m8 


had  risen  from  its  decay;  however,  it  appears  only 
occasionally  in  the  history  of  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and 
Romans.  After  the  battle  of  Issus  (333  b.  c.)  the 
city,  which  held  the  wives  and  treasures  of  Darius, 
was  betrayed  to  Parmenion.  It  soon  became,  next 
to  Antioch,  the  most  important  city  of  Syria.  From 
112  to  85  B.  c.  it  was  tne  capital  of  a  little  Gneco- 
Roman  kingdom,  but  fell  suooessivdjr  into  the  power 
of  Aretas  III,  King  of  Petra,  of  Tigranes,  King  of 
Armenia,  and  finally  of  the  Roman  general  Meteuus. 
In  64  B.  c.  Pompey  received  there  the  ambassadors 
and  gifts  of  the  neighbouring  kings;  in  the  following 
year  Syria  became  a  Roman  province.  Herod  the 
Great  buUt  a  theatre  and  a  gjrmnasium  at  Damascus, 
though  the  town  was  outside  nis  dominion.  Its  popu- 
lation, though  Syrian  by  race  and  language,  was  deep- 
ly affected  by  Grseco-Roman  culture,  and  made  rapid 
progress  in  trade  and  industry;  then,  as  now,  Damas- 
cus was  the  chief  commercial  emporium  for  the  nomad 
Arabs.  In  the  time  of  St.  Paul  there  were  in  Damas- 
cus about  50,000  Jews;  most  of  the  women  in  the 
upper  classes  of  society  had  embraced  this  creed.  It 
was  on  the  road  to  and  near  the  city  that  Saul,  the 
severe  persecutor  of  the  Christians,  recoenised  and 
worshipped  the  Jesus  whom  he  had  hated  so  much. 
Saul  was  brought  to  Damascus,  lodged  at  Juda's  in 
the  Via  Recta  (to-day  Souk  el-Taoull),  was  baptized 
by  Ananias  (who  is  thought  to  have  been  the  first 
Bishop  of  Damascus),  preached  Christ,  and  was 
obliged  to  flee  by  ni^t  to  Arabia  (Acts,  ix,  3  sqq., 
xxii,  6  sqa.,  xxvi,  12  sqq.;  Gal.  i,  17;  II  Cor.,  xi,  32); 
The  city  tnen  belonged  to  Aretas,  King  of  the  Arabs. 
Under  Nero  the  heathen  slaughtered  by  treachery 
10,000  Jews  in  the  gvmnasium  of  Herod.  After  the 
destruction  of  the  Nabatean  Kingdom  of  Petra  by 
Trajan,  Damascus  became  a  Roman  city.  Under 
Arcadius  the  great  temple  of  the  local  god,  Rimmon, 
was  transformed  into  the  magnificent  church  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist.  In  610  tne  city  was  used  by 
Chosroes  as  his  head-quarters  during  the  long  war  he 
then  b^an  against  Heraclius. 

The  Ske  of  Damascus. — ^Damascus  was  then  the 
metropolis  of  Phoenicia  Secunda,  or.  Libanensis,  with 
eleven  suffragan  sees;  it  was  subject  to  the  Patri- 
archate of  Antioch  and  held  the  sixth  rank  in  the 
hierarchy  (see  Vailh^,  in  Echos  d'Orient,  X,  95,  140). 
Lequien  (Oriens  christ.,  II,  833)  was  acquainted  (from 
the  first  to  the  sixteenth  century)  with  the  names  of 
only  fourteen  Greek  bishops,  among  them  St.  Peter, 
who  suffered  martyrdom  at  the  hands  of  the  Arabs  in 
the  eighth  century.  Numerous  Jacobite  bishops  are 
also  known  (Lequien,  II,  1423;  Revue  de  TOrient 
Chretien,  VI,  194;  Brooks,  The  Sixth  Book  of  the 
Select  Letters  of  Severus,  London,  1903,  II,  20,  57). 
Among  the  many  illustrious  men  bom  at  Damascus, 
we  must  mention  Nicholas,  a  Greek  writer  under 
Augustus,  Damascius,  a  heathen  philosopher  of  the 
sixQi  century,  John  Moschus,  the  author  of  the  charmr 
ing  **Pratum  spirituale",  St.  Sophronius,  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem  (634-638),  St.  Andrew,  Metropolitan  of 
Crete,  orator  and  hymnographer,  finally,  the  cele- 
brated Greek  theologian,  St.  John  Damascene. 

Early  in  635  Damascus  was  captured  by  the  Arabs 
under  Khalid  and  Abou  Obeidah.  Free  public  wor- 
ship was  allowed  to  the  Christians  in  several  churches, 
also  in  the  western  aisle  of  St.  John's,  the  eastern 
aisle  being  reserved  to  the  Mussulmans.  It  was  only 
at  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  that  Abd  el- 
Melek  obtained  from  the  Cluistians  the  use  of  the 
whole  building,  in  return  for  which  he  allowed  them 
four  churches.  From  660  to  753,  under  the  Ommayad 
caliphs,  Damascus  was  the  capital  of  the  Arabian 
empire;  at  that  date  Abou  Abbas  removed  the  seat  of 
government  to  Bagdad.  In  the  following  centuries, 
amid  broils  and  revolutions,  Damascus  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Toulounides  of  Egypt,  later  into  those  of 
the  Ikshidites  and  of  the  Fatimit<«.    In  H)75-1076 


it  was  taken  by  the  Seljuk  Turk  Azix.  In  1126  the 
crusaders,  commanded  by  Baldwin  of  Jerusalem,  de- 
feated Pnnoe  Toghtekin  near  and  south  of  the  city, 
but  were  obliged  to  retreat.  Nor  were  ihe  allwi 
princes,  Conrad  III  of  Germany,  Louis  VII  of  France, 
and  Baldwin  III  of  Jerusalem,  more  sucoessf  ul  in  their 
siege  of  Damascus  (1148),  owing  to  the  treason  of  the 
barons  of  Syria.  Nour-ed-Din,  Sultan  of  Aleppo, 
captured  Damascus  in  1158.  In  1177  Saladin  re- 
pulsed a  new  attack  of  the  Christian  army.  Damas- 
cus then  became  the  commercial,  industrial,  and 
scientific  centre  of  Syria;  it  had  a  school  of  medicine 
and  an  observatory  on  the  Djebd  Kaaioim.  Under 
Saladin 's  successors  it  had  to  sustain  several  sieges; 
in  1260  it  opened  its  gates  to  the  Mongols  of  Houla- 
gpu.  It  then  fell  into  the  hands  of  Kotouz,  Prince  of 
the  Mamelukes  of  Egypt,  whose  successor,  Bibars,  re- 
built its  citadel.  In  1300  it  was  plundered  and  paxtlr 
burnt  by  the  Tatars  commanded  by  Ghaszen  Khan. 
In  1399  Timur-Leng  put  to  death  almost  all  the  in- 
habitants, except  the  swordrcutlers.  These  he 
brought  to  Samarkand  and  Khorassan  where  they 
continued  to  make  the  beautiful  damascened  blades, 
the  secret  of  which  has  long  been  lost  at  Damascus. 
In  1516  Selim  I  conquered  Syria  from  the  Mamelukes; 
since  that  time  Damascus  has  belonged  to  the  Ottoman 
Empire.  Mention  should  be  made  of  the  Egyptian 
occupation  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  (1832-1840),  and  the 
frightful  slaughter  of  the  Christians  (July,  1860), 
which  caused  the  flight  of  many  thousands  and 
brought  about  the  occupation  of  Syria  by  a  French 
army. 

The  Turkish  City. — Damascus  (Arab.  Dimidc  es- 
Sham,  or  simply  e^-Sham),  the  eye  or  the  peari  of  the 
East  for  the  Arabs,  is  the  chief  town  of  the  vilayet  of 
Syria  and  the  second  city  in  the  Ottoman  Empire. 
Three  railways  start  thence  to  Beirut,  Mzerib,  and 
Mecca;  there  is  also  a  tramway  to  Hama.  Trade 
flourishes  throughout  the  province.  The  city  stands 
2267  feet  above  sea  level  and  enjoys  a  very  miJd 
climate,  owing  to  the  Barada,  which  runs  through  it, 
and  to  its  numerous  fountains  or  sprixu^.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  groves  and  gardens  of  the  Ghouta, 
which  stretch  about  ten  miles  south  and  east  and  in- 
clude twenty-nine  villages,  the  inhabitants  of  which 
are  devoted  to  fruit  culture  (oranges,  lemons,  etc, 
especiallv  plums  and  apricots).  Within  the  city  are 
the  tomos  of  Noured-Din,  Saladin,  and  Bibars,  850 
fountains,  64  hammams  (baths),  25  bazaars,  a  stock 
exchange  for  the  local  trade,  a  half-ruined  citadel,  248 
mosQues,  etc.  The  mosque  of  the  Ommayads  (an- 
ciently St.  John's  church)  was  burned  in  1893,  on  which 
occasion  many  manuscripts  and  works  of  art  were 
lost. 

Reugious  Conditions. — Damascus  is  a  Latin 
archiepisoopal  titular  see;  three  bishops  of  ihe  six- 
teenth century  are  mentioned  in  the  Revue  b^n^ 
dictine"  1907,  (82-85).  It  is  moreover  a  metropoli- 
tan see  for  the  Catholic  (also  for  the  non-Catholic) 
Melchite  Greeks,  and  for  the  Catholic  Syrians,  and 
finally  an  episcopal  see  for  the  Maronites.  The  popu- 
lation, including  the  rich  Eiuxipeanised  suburb  of  Es- 
Salayieh,  is  about  300,000.  Of  this  number  256,000 
are  Mussulmans,  20,000  non-Catholic  Melchite  Greeks, 
500  Protestants,  10,000  Jews,  1000  Armenian  and 
Syrian  Jacobites,  and  20,200  Catholics  (15,000  of 
whom  are  Melchite  Greeks,  2500  Syrians,  1500  Maron- 
ites, 400  Latins,  700  Armenians,  and  100  Chaldeans). 
Since  the  sixteenth  century  the  non-(}atholie  Greek 
Patriarchs  of  Antioch  have  lived  at  Damascus.  The 
Catholic  Greek  Patriarch  of  Antioch  also  resides  at 
Damascus  and  governs  his  diocese  through  a  titular 
bishop.  The  Syrian  Catholic  patriarch  has  recentiy 
transferred  his  residence  to  Damascus.  Hie  Gatbouc 
Greek  archdiocese  has  about  15,000  faithful,  ^ 
priests,  and  12  churches*  The  CatJiolic  Syrian  arch- 
diocese has  3000  faithful,  9  priests,  4  parishes,  o 


DAICA8U8 


613 


DAMA8US 


churehes.  The  Bfaronite  diocese  has  23,000  faithful, 
65  priests,  61  churches,  80  Baladite  monies  in  5  mon- 
asteries, and  150  Aleppine  monks  in  6  monasteries. 
There  are  in  Damascus  14  churches,  of' which  9  belong 
to  the  different  Catholic  rites.  There  are  also  14 
synagogues  and  1  Protestant  church.  The  Lazarists, 
who  replaced  the  Jesuits  at  the  time  of  their  suppres- 
sion, conduct  a  college  with  about  200  pupils.  The 
Jesuits  have  occupiedsince  1872  a  house  said  to  have 
been  that  of  St.  John  Damascene.  The  Franciscans 
have  the  Latin  parish  church  and  a  school  for  boys. 
The  Sisters  of  Charity  (1854)  have  several  schools,  an 
orphanage,  a  dispensary,  etc.  The  Mariamet  native 
8istQi:s  conduct  another  school.  The  Catholic  Greeks 
have  their  schools  for  boys  and  girls.  As  to  the  Prot- 
estants, the  Anglo- 
Syrians  possess  a  lios- 
pital  and  a  school,  the 
American  mission 
and  the  Irish  mission 
each  one  school.  The 
Mussulmans  have  a 
large  municipal  hos- 

Eital   and   a    leper's 
ospital. 

Von  Schubert,  Reise 
m  daa  Morgenland  (Er- 
Unsen.  1840).  UI,  276- 
304;  WiLBON,  The  Lands 
of  the  Bible  (Edinburgh, 
1647).  II.  325-369;  PoR- 
TBB,  Five  Yean  in  Da- 
nuucua  (London,  1871); 
Robinson.  Biblioal  Re- 
geardkee  in  Paleetine  (Lon- 
don. 1856),  III.  443-472; 
Sbstzen,  Rtisen  durch 
Syria  (Berlin,  1854).  I, 
264-285;  Thomaon.  The 
Land  and  the  Book  (Lon- 
don. 1886).  IIL  361-417; 
LoBTET,  La  Syrie  d'au- 
■  jourd'hui  in  Le  tour  du 
numde,  XLIV,  358-384; 
GutRiN,  La  Terre-Sainte 
(PariB,  1882).  I,  383-420; 
Sauvaire,  Description  de 
Damas  in  Journal  asia- 
tigue,  yeara  1894,  1895. 
1896;  Meibtermann, 
iVVrnveau  ffuide  de  Terre 
SainU  (Pane,  1907),  443- 
463;  Lbobndre,  s.  v.  in 
Did.  de  la  BibU  Jl.  121^ 
1231;  CuiNET,  Syrie, 
Liban  et  PaJUetine  (Paris, 
1898),  800-407;  Julubn, 
La  nouveile  mission  de  la 
c.  de  J.  en  Syrie  (Paris, 
1899),  II.  135-144;  Mis- 
siones  caiholica  (Rome, 
1907).  780,  804.  817. 
S.  VailhI:. 

•  Damasus  I,  Saint, 
Pope,  b.  about  304  ;d. 
11  December,  384. 
His  father,  Antonius,  was  probably  a  Spaniard; 
the  name  of  his  mother,  Laurentia,  was  not  known 
until  quite  recently.  Damasus  seems  to  have  been 
bom  at  Rome;  it  is  certain  that  he  grew  up  there  in 
the  service  of  the  church  of  the  martyr  St.  Lau- 
rence. He  was  elected  pope  in  October,  366,  by  a 
large  majority,  but  a  number  of  over-zeaJous  adher- 
ents of  the  deceased  Liberius  rejected  him,  chose  the 
deacon  Ursinus  (or  Ursicinus),  had  the  latter  irregu- 
larly consecrated,  and  resorted  to  much  violence  and 
bloodshed  in  order  to  seat  him  in  the  Chair  of  Peter. 
Many  details  of  this  scandalous  conflict  are  related  in 
the  nighly  prejudiced  **Libellus  Precum"  (P.  L., 
XIII,  83-107),  a  petition  to  the  civil  authority  on  the 
part  of  Faustinus  and  Marcellinus,  two  anti-Damasan 
presbyters  (cf.  also  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  Rer. 
Gest.,  XXVII,  c.  iii).  Valentinian  recognized  Damar 
Rus  and  banished  (367)  Ursinus  to  Cologne,  whence  he 
was  later  allowed  to  return  to  Milan,  but  was  forbidden 


Pope  St.  Damabub  I 
(Loggie  dl  Raffaelle,  Vatican.     Designed  by  Raphael) 


to  come  to  Rome  or  its  vicinity.  The  party  of  Hie 
antipope  (later  at  Milan  an  adherent  of  the  Anans  and 
to  the  end  a  contentious  pretender)  did  not  cease  to 
persecute  Damasus.  An  accusation  of  adultery  was 
laid  against  him  (378)  in  the  imperial  court,  but  he 
was  exonerated  by  Emperor  Gratian  himself  (Mansi, 
Coll.  Cone,  III,  62i8)  and  soon  after  by  a  Roman  synod 
of  forty-four  bishops  (Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Du- 
chesne, s.  v.;  Mansi,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  419)  which  also  ex- 
communicated his  accusers. 

Damasus  defended,  with  vigour  the  Catholic  Faith 
in  a  time  of  dire  and  varied  perils.  In  two  Roman 
synods  (368  and  369)  he  condemned  Apollinarianism 
and  Macedonianism ;  he  also  sent  his  legates  to  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  (381),  convoked  against  the 

aforesaid  heresies.  In 
the  Rpman  synod  of 
369  (or  370)  Auxen- 
tius,  the  Arian  Bishop 
of  Milan,  was  excom- 
municated; he  held 
the  see,  however, 
until  his  death,  in  374, 
made  wayfor  St.  Am- 
brose. The  heretic 
Priscillian,  con- 
demned by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Saragossa  (380) 
appealed  to  Damasus, 
but  in  vain.  It  was 
Damasus  who  induced 
Saint  Jerome  to  un- 
dertake his  famous 
revision  of  the  earlier 
Latin  versions  of  the 
Bible  (see  Vulgate). 
St.  Jerome  was  also 
his  confidential  secre- 
taiy  for  some  time 
(Ep.  cxxiii,  n.  10). 
An  important  Canon 
of  the  New  Testar 
ment  was  proclaimed 
by  him  in  the  Roman 
synod  of  374.  The 
Eastern  Church,  in 
thepereon  of  St.  Basil 
ofCiBsareaj  besou^t 
earnestly  the  aid  and 
encouragement  of  Da- 
masus against  trium- 
phant Arianism ;  the 
pope,  however,  cher- 
ished some  degree  of 
suspicion  against  the 
great  Cappadocian 
Doctor.  In  the  matter 
of  the  Meletian 
Schism  at  Antioch,  Damasus,  with  Athanasius  and 
Peter  of  Alexandria,  sympathized  witii  the  party  of 
Paulinus  as  more  sincerely  representative  oi  Nioene 
orthodoxy;  on  the  death  of  Meletius  he  sought  to 
secure  the  succession  for  Paulinus  and  to  exclude 
Flavian  (Socrates,  Hist.  EccL,  V,  xv).  He  sustained 
the  appeal  of  the  Christian  senators  to  Emperor  Grar 
tian  for  the  removal  of  the  altar  of  Victory  from  tiie 
Senate  House  (Ambrose,  Ep.  xvii,  n.  10),  and  lived 
to  welcome  the  famous  edict  of  Theodosius  I,  '^De 
fide  Catholica"  (27  Feb.,  380),  which  proclaimed  as 
the  religion  of  the  Roman  State  that  doctrine  which 
St.  Peter  had  preached  to  the  Romans  and  of  which 
Damasus  was  supreme  head  (Cod.  Theod.,  XVI, 
1,2). 

When,  in  379,  Illyricum  was  detached  from  the 
Western  Empire,  Damasus  hastened  to  safeguard  the 
authority  of  the  Roman  Church  by  the  appointment  of 
a  vicar  Apostolic  in  the  person  of  Aschofius,  Bishop  of 


DAMASUS 


614 


DABCBIBOBR 


Theasakmica;  this  was  the  origin  of  the  important 
papal  vicariate  lone  attached  to  that  see.  The  pri- 
macy of  the  Apostolic  See,  variously  favoured  in  the 
time  of  Damasus  by  imperial  acts"  and  edicts,  was 
strenuously  maintained  by  this  pope;  among  his  not- 
able utterances  on  this  subject  is  the  assertion  (Mansi, 
Coll.  Cone,  VIII,  158)  that  the  ecclesiastical  suprem- 
acy of  the  Roman  Church  was  based,  not  on  the  de- 
crees of  councils,  but  on  the  very  words  of  Jesus  Christ 
(Matt.,  xvi,  18).  The  increased  prestige  of  the  early 
papal  decretals,  habitually  attributed  to  the  reign  of 
Siricius  (384-99),  not  improbably  belongs  to  the  reign 
of  Damasus  ("Canones  Romanonmi  ad  Gallos^; 
Babut,  "La  plus  ancienne  d^r6tale",  Paris,  1904). 
This  development  of  the  papal  office,  especially  in  the 
West,  brought  with  it  a  great  increase  of  external 
grandeur.  This  secular  splendour,  however,  affected 
disadvantageously  many  members  of  the  Roman 
clergy,  whose  worldly  aims  and  life,  bitterly  reproved 
brjr  St.  Jerome,  provoked  (29  July,  370)  an  edict  of 
Eknperor  Valentmian  addressed  to  the  pope,  forbid- 
ding ecclesiastics  and  monks  (later  also  bishops  and 
nuns)  to  pursue  widgws  and  orphans  in  the  hope  of 
obtaining  from  them  gifts  and  legacies.  The  pope 
caused  the  law  to  be  observed  strictly. 

Damasus  restored  his  own  church  (now  San  Lorenzo 
in  Damaso)  and  provided  for  the  proper  housing  of  the 
archives  of  the  Roman  Church  (see  Vatican  Ar- 
chives). He  built  in  the  basilica  of  St.  Sebastian  on 
the  Appian  Way  the  (yet  visible)  marble  monument 
known  as  the  "Platonia"  (PlaUma,  marble  pave- 
ment) in  honour  of  the  temporary  transfer  to  that 
place  (258)  of  the  bodies  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  and 
decorated  it  with  an  important  historical  inscription 
(see  Northcote  and  Brownlow,  Roma  Sotterranea). 
He  also  built  on  the  Via  Ardeatma,  between  the  ceme- 
teries of  Callistus  and  Domitilla.  a  hasUicvla^  or  small 
church,  the  ruins  of  which  were  discovered  in  1902  and 
1903.  and  in  which,  according  to  the  "Liber  Pontifi- 
calis",  the  pope  was  buried  with  his  mother  and  sister. 
On  this  occasion  the  discoverer,  Monsignor  Wilpert, 
found  also  -the  epitaph  of  the  pope's  mother,  from 
which  it  was  learned  not  only  that  her  name  was 
Laurentia.  but  also  that  she  had  lived  the  sixty  years 
of  her  widowhood  in  the  special  service  of  God,  and 
died  in  her  eighty-ninth  year,  having  seen  the  fourth 
generation  of  her  descendants.  Damasus  built  at  the 
Vati(»ui  a  baptistery  in  honour  of  St.  Peter  and  set  up 
therein  one  of  his  artistic  inscriptions  (Carmen  xxxvi), 
still  preserved  in  the  Vatican  crypts.  This  subterra- 
nean region  he  drained  in  order  that  the  bodies  buried 
there  (ruxto  aepulcrum  heati  Petri)  might  not  be  af- 
fected by  sta^ant  or  overflowing  water.  His  ex- 
traordinary devotion  to  the  Roman  martyrs  is  now 
well  known,  owing  particularly  to  the  labours  of  Gio- 
vanni Battista  De  Rossi.  For  a  good  account  of  bis 
architectural  restoration  of  the  catacombs  and  the 
unique  artistic  characters  (Damasan  Letters)  in 
which  his  friend  Furius  Dionysius  Filocalus  executed 
the  epitaphs  composed  by  Damasus,  see  Northcote  and 
Brownlow,  ^'Roma  Sotterranea"  (2nd  ed.,  London, 
187^79).  The  dogmatic  content  of  the  Damasan 
epitaphs  (tituU)  is  important  (Northcote,  Epitaphs  of 
the  Catacombs,  London,  1878).  He  composed  also  a 
number  of  brief  evigramnuUa  on  various  martyrs  and 
saints  and  some  hymns,  or  Carminay  likewise  brief. 
St.  Jerome  says  (Ep.  xxii,  22)  that  Dainasus  wrote  on 
virginity,  both  in  prose  and  in  verse,  but  no  such  work 
has  been  preserved.  For  the  few  letters  of  Damasus 
(some  of  them  spurious)  that  have  survived,  see  P.  L., 
XIII,  347-76,  and  Jaflf^^  ^'Reg.  Rom.  Pontif."  (U^p- 
zig,  1885),  nn.  232-254. 

Th©  worka  of  Damasus  (cd.  Merenda,  Romp,  1754)  are  in 
P.  L.,  XIII,  lOd  flqq.  The  best  eclition  of  tiis  epifframmata  is 
that  of  Ihm  (licipzig,  1«9.'>);  cf.  Weymak  in  Rente  d'  ki»t.  et  de 
hU.  reliif.  (Paris,  1895).  I.  58-73.  Over  100  ar»»  n».ril>««<i  to 
him,  niofp  than  onc-lmlf  of  whirh  are  arcountM  g«'nuino.  S<»e 
also  lAUr  rotUiMilits,  i\\.  Duihehnk,  I,  212,  ami  pn-faiv,  cfl; 


Mabucchi,  //  papa  Damaao  (Rome.  1907);  IUdb  (aoiKOit^ 
oUc),  Danuuue,  Biachof  von  Bom  (FreitMirg,  1882);  KAvmiAXJi. 
ManuaU  d»  archeologia  criHiana  (Rome,  1008);  Babdkmhkwes, 
Patrologxe  (Freiburg,  1901),  370-71. 

Thomas  J.  Shaban. 


DamasuB  n.  Pope  (previously  called  Poppo).  a 
native  of  Bavaria  and  the  third  German  to  be  elevated 
to  the  See  of  Peter.   On  the  death  of  Clement  II,  Julv, 
1047,  the  Tusculan  faction  reasserted  its  power  m 
Rome,  andy  with  the  secret  aid  of  Boniface,  Margrave 
of  Tuscany,  restored  its  wretched  creature  Benedict 
IX,  who  continued  in  his  wonted  manner  to  disgrace 
the  papacy  for  a  further  period  of  eight  months  before 
disappearmg  entirely  from  history.     On  Chrifftnias 
Day,  1047,  an  embassy  sent  by  the  Roman  people 
brought  the  tidings  of  Clement's  death  to  Henr>'  HI, 
at  Polthe  in  Saxony,  and  besought  the  emperor  as 
Patridua  of  the  Romans  to  appoint  a  worthy  successor. 
The  envoys,  according  to  tteu-  instructions,  aume&ted 
as  a  suitable  candidate,  Halinard, Archbishop  ofXyon.-*, 
who  had  a  perfect  command  of  the  Italian  tongue 
and  was  popular  in  Rome.    Henry,  however,  in  Janu- 
ary, 1048,  appointed  Poppo,  Bishop  of  Brixen,   in 
Tyrol,  and  at  once  directed  the  Margrave  Bonijface  to 
conduct  the  pope^esignate  to  Rome.    Boniface  at 
first  refused,  alleging  tl^e  installation  of  Benedict,  but 
Henry's  decisive  threat  soon  reduced  him  to  obe- 
dience.    After  Benedict's  removal,  the  Bishop   of 
Brixen  at  length  entered  the  city  and  was  enthroned 
at  the  Lateran  as  Damasus  II.  17  July,  1048.     His 
pontificate,  however,  was  of  short  duration.     After 
the  brief  space  of  twenty-three  days,  he  died — a  vic- 
tim of  malaria — at  Palestrina,  wHither  he  had  gone 
shortly  after  his  installation  to  escape  the  summer 
heat  of  Rome.    The  pope  was  buried  in  S.  Lcnenxo 
fuori  le  mura. 

^^Liber  Pontif.,  ed.  DucHBeNE,  11,  274;  Jaft*.  Reoeata  RR.  PP., 
^J^'*,^*  ^^^  "^-i  H6FLKR.  Die  deutachen  PdptU  (B^Mi^burv. 
1839),  I.  269  >qq  ThoMAS  OkotS^I^ 

Damberger,  Joseph  Ferdinand,  church  historian, 
b.  1  March,  1795,  at  Passau,  Bavaria;  d.  1  April,  1859, 
at  Schaftlam.  After  completing  his  earlier  studies  in 
the  public  schools  of  his  native  town,  he  pursued  the 
stuchr  of  law  at  Landshut,  then  studied  theology  at 
Salzburg,  Landshut,  and  Mimich,  and  was  ordamed 
priest  in  1818.  While  at  the  Munich  Lyceum  he  had 
also  devoted  himself  very  assiduously  to  historical 
studies.  Until  1837  he  was  particularly  active  as  a 
preacher  at  Landshut  and  at  St.  Cajetan's,  Munich. 
His  first  historical  works  appeared  at  Ratisbon  in 
1831,  three  closely  related  narratives:  "Furstentafel 
der  Staatengeschichte"-  "Pttrstenbuch  Bur  Fdrsten- 
tafel  der  europaischen  Staatengeschichte";  "Sechzig 
eenealogische,  chronolonsche  und  statistische  Tabel- 
len  «ur  Fursten tafel  und  Fiirstenbuch'*. 

In  1837  he  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus,  completed 
his  novitiate  at  Brieg,  canton  of  Valais,  Switzerland, 
where  he  spent  about  ten  years,  partly  as  a  mission- 
preacher  and  partly  as  professor  of  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory at  Lucerne.  A  collection  of  his  mission  sermons 
was  printed  (Lucerne,  1842;  2nd  ed.,  1862),  but  was 
violently  attacked  (Missionsunfug  der  Jesuiten;  Bern, 
1842).  The  defeat  of  the  Sonderbund  (1847)  brought 
with  it  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Switzerland. 
Damberger  then  passed  several  years  at  Innstniick 
and  Ratisbon,  and  in  1853  became  confessor  at  the 
Convent  of  Schfiftlam  in  Bavaria,  where  he  died.  In 
these  years  he  published  liis  principal  work  in  fifteen 
volumes, ' '  Synchronistische  Cfeschichte  der  Kirche  und 
der  Welt  im  Mittelalter"  (Ratisbon,  1850-63).  The 
last  volume  was  finished  and  published  after  his  death 
by  Father  Daniel  Rattinger.  The  narrative  reaches 
the  year  1378.  For  its  day  it  was  an  important  piece 
of  work,  though  lacking  a  sufficient  degree  of  the  criti- 
cal quality.  It  reveab,  nevertheless,  close  applica- 
tion and  cxiensive  learning. 


DAlfilAK 


615 


DAV 


1*het«  ifl  a  btbHoKraphics*  notice  by  RATnNOER  in  the  fif- 
teentli  volume  of  the  Synchro,  .  Oeschichte;  see  Weqle:.  I>am- 
berger  in  AUgemeine  deutache  Biograpf^  (Leipzig,  1806);  Som- 
MBRVOOEX.  Bibl.  dela  c.  de  J.  (2nd  ed..  Paria  and  Bruaseb. 
ISOD.II.  1786  SQ4. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Damian,  Saint.    See  CoaMAs  and  Damian,  Saints. 
I>aiiiian,  Patriarch  of  Albxandria.    See  Mono- 


DamianisteB    or    Damianissinefl.      See    Poor 

Damien,  Father  (Joseph  de  Veusi^r),  missionary 

Sriefit,  b.  at  Tremeloo,  Belgium,  3  January,  1840;  d.  at 
Eolokai,  Hawaii,  15  April,  1888.  His  father,  a  small 
fanner,  sent  him  to  a  college  at  Braine-le-Comte,  to  pre- 
pare for  a  commercial  profession ;  but  as  the  result  of  a 
xniasion  given  by  the  Bedemptorists  in  1858,  Joseph  de- 
cided to  Decome  a  religious.    He  entered  the  novitiate 

of  the  Fathers  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus  and  Mary  at 
Louvain,  and  took 
in  religion  the  name 
ofDamien.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  re- 
li^ous  profession, 
7  Oct.,  1860.  Three 
years  later,  thou^ 
still  in  minor  orders, 
he  was  sent  to  the 
mission  of  the  Ha- 
waiian  Islands, 
where  he  arrived, 
19  March,  1864. 
Ordained  priest  at 
Honolulu  24  May, 
of  the  same  ^rear, 
he  was  later  given 
char^  of  various 
distnets  on  the 
island  of  Hawaii, 
and,  animated  with 
a  burning  seal,  his 
robust  constitution 
allowed  him  to  g^ve 
full  play  to  the  im- 
pulses of  his  heart.  He  was  not  only  the  missionarv 
of  the  natives,  but  also  constructed  several  chapels 
with  his  own  hands,  both  in  Hawaii  and  in  Molokai. 

On  the  latter  island  there  had  grown  up  a  leper  set- 
tlement where  the  Government  kept  8e^;regated  all 
persons  afflicted  with  the  loathsome  disease.  The 
Doard  of  health  supplied  the  unfortunates  with  food 
and  clothing,  but  was  unable  in  the  beginning  to  pro- 
vide them  witii  either  resident  physicians  or  nurses. 
On  10  May,  1873,  Father  Damien,  at  his  own  re- 
quest and  with  the  sanction  of  his  bishop,  arrived  at 
tne  settlement  as  its  resident  priest.  There  were  then 
600  lepers.  ''  As  long  as  the  lepers  can  care  ior  them- 
selves ,  wrote  the  superintendent  of  the  board  of 
health  to  Bishop  Maigret,  ''they  are  comparatively 
comfortable,  but  as  soon  as  the  dreadful  disease  ren- 
ders them  helpless,  it  would  seem  that  even  demons 
themselves  would  pity  their  condition  and  hasten  to 
their  relief."  For  a  long  time,  however.  Father 
Damien  was  the  only  one  to  bring  them  the  succour 
they  so  greatly  needed.  He  not  only  administered 
the  consolations  of  religion,  but  also  rendered  them 
such  little  medical  service  and  bodily  comforts  as  were 
within  his  power.  He  dressed  their  ulcers,  helped 
them  to  erect  their  cottages,  and  went  so  far  as  to  dig 
their  graves  and  make  their  coffins.  After  twelve 
years  of  this  heroic  service  he  discovered  in  himself 
'the  first  symptoms  of  the  disetise.  This  was  in  1885. 
He  neverthe!(»K8  n^ntiniied  his  charitable  ministra- 
tions, being  as.sisU'(|  at  this  period  by  two  other  priests 


QRAvm  OF  FiwTHBR  Damibn,  Island 
OF  Molokai 


and  two  lay  brothers.  On  28  March,  1888»  Father 
Damien  became  helpless  and  passed  away  shortly  after, 
closing  his  fif  teentn  year  in  the  service  of  the  lepers. 

Certain  utterances  conoeming  his  morality  called 
forth  Robert  Louis  Stevenson's  well-known  philippic 
against  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hyde,  wherein  the  memory  of 
the  Apostle  of  the  Lepers  is  brilliantly  vindicated.  In 
addition  a  correspondence  in  the  **  Pacific  Commercial 
Advertiser",  20  June,  1905,  completely  removes  from 
the  character  of  Father  Damien  every  vestige  of  sus^ 
picion,  proving  beyond  a  doubt  that  Dr.  Hyde's  in- 
sinuations rested  merely  on  misunderstandii^is. 

Tauvel,  Faiher  Damien  (London,  1904);  Cuffobd,  Faltker 
Damien  (London,  1800);  Stoddard,  Faiher  Damien^  Tht 
Martyr  of  Molokai  (San  Pranciaco,  1901);  Hatwb  in  **ThM 
ffawmian**  (Honolulu,  Deo.-Jan.,  1895-96);  Bacifi4S  Commer- 
eial  AdverHaer  (Honolulu,  20  June,  1905).  * 

Libert  H.  Boeynaemb. 

Damietta   (Gr.    Tamiathie,   Arab.   DoumdAt).  an 
tian  titular  see  for  the  Latins  and  the  Catnolic 


Melchite  Greeks,  in  Augustamnica  Prima.  Damietta. 
first  mentioned  by  Stephanus  Byzantius,  was  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Phatnitic  branch  of  the  Nile,  on 
the  r^t  bank ;  its  prosperity  seems  to  have  coincided 
with  the  decline  of  its  religious  metropolis  Pelusium. 
Only  four  bishops  are  known,  from  431  to  879.  Under 
Caliph  Omar  the  Arabs  took  it  by  treachery  and  suo- 
cesslully  defended  it  against  the  Greeks  who  tried  to 
recover  it,  particularly  m  739, 821:,  921  and  968.  The 
Arabs  also  repulsed  several  attacks  of  Amaury  I,  King 
of  Jerusalem.  It  was  finally  captured  bv  Jeitx  de 
Brienne,  1219,  after  a  siege  of  15  months;  of  its  70,000 
mhabitants  only  3000  survived.  St.  Fnmcis  of  iissisi 
visited  the  camp  of  the  crusaders  and  went  then  » to 
that  of  Sultan  Malek  Kemel  to  preach  the  Chrirtian 
Faith.  In  1221  the  Franks  were  defeated  and  oblic^ 
to  abandon  the  town.  In  Jime,  1249,  it  was  again « cap- 
tured by  St.  Louis,  who  transformed  into  a  church  Ihe 
magnificent  moscfue  El-Fatah  and  established  tl  ere 
a  LAtin  bishop,  GiUes;  but  having  been  taken  prisoner 
with  his  army,  April,  1250,  he  was  obiirasd  to  surren  ler 
Damietta  as  ransom.  In  1251  the  Sultan,  hearing 
that  the  pious  king  was  preparing  a  new  crusade, 
ordered  the  town  and  its  citadel  to  be  destroyed,  ec- 
cept  the  mosque  £1-Fatah.  Later  on  fishermen  built 
their  shelters  among  the  ruins;  in  this  way  the  mod- 
em town  has  gradually  arisen  The  site  of  ancient 
Damietta  is  erroneously  placed  by  some  historiaai 
at  Esbeh  el*Bordj,  six  miles  from  the  modem  town. 
Damietta  is  no  longer  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  but 
ten  miles  from  the  sea;  it  has  about  53,000  inhab- 
itants, of  whom  75  are  Catholic  M'»*chite  Greeks,  60 
Latins,  and  250  non-Catholic  Christians,  the  rest  Mus« 
sulmans.  Franciscans  have  resided  there  since  the 
time  of  St.  Francis,  and  Franciscan  nuns  conduct  a 
school  for  ^iiis.  Wealthy  inhabitants  of  Cairo  are 
wont  to  retire  to  Damietta  during  the  heated  season. 
The  harbour  is  of  little  importance.  Damietta  is  also, 
probably  since  the  fifth  century,  a  see  for  the  Mono- 
physite  Copts;  moreover,  one  of  the  non-Catholic 
Greek  metropolitans  subject  to  the  Patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria bears  the  title  of  Pelusium  and  Damietta.  In 
the  neighbouring  Mansourah,  famous  for  the  victory 
of  St.  D^uis,  there  are  about  1000  Catholics  and  sev- 
eral institutions. 

Lequirn.  Oriens  Christianua,  II,  589;  HI,  1147;  Vanblcb, 
HiBtoirt  de  Vegliae  d'AUxandrie  (Paria,  1677),  26  oq.:  Golubo- 
\1CH,  Serie  cronologica  dei  auperiori  dx  Terra  Santa  (Jerunalem, 
1898).  244  BO.;  Julubn.  VEftyp^  (UUe,  1891).  161-182; 
Miasione*  Caiholiea  (Rome,  1907),  351. 

S.  Vailh6. 

Dan  (Heb.  p,  Sept.  Adp),^(l)  The  fifth  son  of  Jacob, 
being  the  elder  of  the  two  sons  bom  to  him  by  Bala, 
the  handmaid  of  Rachel,  and  the  eponymous  ancestor 
of  the  tribe  bearing  the  same  name.  Etymologically, 
the  word  is  referred  to  the  Hebrew  root  fn  sig- 
nifying "to  rule"  pr  "judge",  and  in  the  passage, 


DANABA 


616 


DANABA 


Qen-j  idixy  17,  it  is  interpreted  "judge",  but  in  Gen. 
XXX,  6,  the  explanation  of  the  name  rests  rather  on  the 
passive  sense  of  the  word — the  child  Dan  being  repre- 
sented as  the  result  of  God's  judgment  in  favour  of 
Rachel.  In  accordance  with  the  meaning  expressed 
in  the  latter  passage,  Josephus  (Antiq.,  I,  xix,  7)  gives 
as  the  equivalent  of  the  name  Dan  the  Greek  MxpiTos. 
A  cognate  feminine  form  of  the  same  word,  likewise 
in  the  passive  sense,  is  recognized  in  Dina  (nj^), 
name  of  the  daughter  of  Jacob  by  Lia,  doubtless 
with  reference  to  tne  judgment  or  vindication  she  re- 
ceived at  the  hands  of  her  two  brothers  Simeon  and 
Levi  (Gen.,  xxxiv).  Apart  from  the  accoimt  con- 
nected with  his  birth  in  Gen.,  xxx,  the  Bible  gives 
very  little  information  concerning  Dan  the  son  of 
Jacob.  In  Gen.,  xxxv.  25,  his  name  is  mentioned 
together  with  those  of  tne  other  sons  of  Israel,  and  in 
Gen.,  xlvi,  which  contains  a  genealogical  list  of  their 
immediate  descendants,  we  read  (23),  "The  sons  of 
Dan :  Husim ' '.  This  last,  bein^  a  Hebrew  plural  form, 
refers  most  likely  not  to  an  individual,  but  to  a  clan  or 
tribe.  In  Numbers,  xxvi,  42,  we  find  "Suham"  in- 
stead of  "Husim".  In  Jacob's  blessing  (Gen.,  xlix), 
as  well  as  in  Deut.,  xxxiii,  22,  and  various  other  pas- 
sages, the  name  Dan  refers  not  to  the  son  of  the  patri- 
arch, but  to  the  tribe  of  which  he  was  the  acknowl- 
edged father. 

(2)  One  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  According 
to  the  census  related'  in  the  first  chapter  of  Numbers 
(a  section  ascribed  to  the  priestly  writer),  there  were 
reckoned  among  the  " sons  of  Dan"  in  the  second  year 
after  the  Exodus,  62,700  men  "able  to  go  forth  to 
war",  being  the  largest  nmnber  given  to  any  of  the 
tribes  except  that  of  Juda.  Confining  ourselves  to 
the  Biblical  data,  and  prescinding  from  all  criticism 
of  sources,  it  would  appear  from  these  figures  that  the 
tribe  must  have  suffered  a  considerable  diminution 
ere  its  establishment  in  Canaan,  where,  from  various 
indications,  it  appears  as  one  of  the  smallest  of  the 
twelve.  The  territory  occupied  by  the  tribe  lay  to 
the  south-west  of  Ephraim;  it  was  boubded  on  the 
south  by  Juda  and  on  the  west  by  the  Shephela. 
Whether  the  Danites  occupied  also  the  latter  or  were 
confined  to  the  mountainous  inland  district  is  uncer- 
tain. A  passage  of  the  Canticle  of  Debbora  (Judges, 
V,  17)  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  territory  ex- 
tended down  to  the  sea,  and  moreover,  among  the 
towns  enumerated  in  Josue,  xix,  40-48  (P.)  mention 
is  made  of  Acron  and  Joppe.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it 
was  doubtless  because  of  their  narrow  territorial  lim- 
its that  later  the  Danites  undertook  an  expedition 
northward  and  created  a  new  settlement  at  LaIs.  For, 
notwithstanding  the  narrative  contained  in  Josue,  xix, 
40-48,  indicating  with  detail  the  district  and  the  cities 
allotted  to  Dan  in  the  distribution  after  the  conquest, 
we  find  later  in  the  Book  of  Judges  (xviii,  1)  that  "  the 
tribe  of  Dan  sought  them  an  inheritance  to  dwell  in: 
for  unto  that  day  they  had  not  received  their  lot 
among  the  other  tribes".  This  was  perhaps  another 
way  of  conveying  the  idea  already  set  forth  in  the  first 
chapter,  \iz,  that  "the  Amorrhite  straitened  the  chil- 
dren of  Dan  in  the  mountain,  and  gave  them  not  place 
to  go  down  to  the  plain".  Being  thus  crampea  and 
restricted  in  their  territory,  they  resolved  to  seek  a 
home  elsewhere.  The  interesting  story  of  this  expe- 
dition is  told,  with  many  traits  characteristic  of  that 
period  of  Hebrew  civilization,  in  the  eighteenth  chap- 
ter of  Judges.  Having  previously  sent  spies  to  re- 
connoitre the  groimd,  tne  Danites  sent  a  detachment 
of  six  hundred  men  who  plundered  and  burnt  the  city 
of  Lais,  and  butchered  its  inhabitants,  after  which 
they  "  rebuilt  the  city  and  dwelt  therein  .  At  least  a 
remnant  of  the  tribe  must  have  remained  in  the  south, 
as  is  evidenced  in  the  story  of  Samson,  who  was  a 
Danite.  Several  references  to  the  activities  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan  in  the  early  period  of  the  monarchy  are 
found   in   the   Books  of  Chronicles.    Thus,   28,600 


armed  men  of  the  tribe  are  represented  as  taking  part 
in  the  election  of  David  in  Hebron  (I  Par.,  xii, 
35),  and  among  the  skilled  artists  sent  by  Hinun  of 
T3nre  to  Solomon  was  the  metal-worker  Hiram»  whoee 
mother  was  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  (II  Par.,  ii,  13  aa.). 

(3)  A  city  of  Palestine,  originally  Lais,  or  llesem, 
and  called  Dan  after  it  had  been  destroyed  and  rebuilt 
by  the  six  hundred  emissaries  from  the  tribe  of  that 
name  (Judges,  xviii).  Its  location  marked  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Palestine  as  did  Bersabee  the  south- 
em  extremity,  whence  the  popular  expression  **  from 
Dan  to  Bersabee"  used  to  designate  the  entire  extent 
of  the  country.  Althou^  nothing  now  lemains  of 
the  city  of  Dan,  its  situation  on  the  confines  of  N^b- 
thali  has  been  pretty  accurately  determined  by  means 
of  various  Scnptund  and  other  ancient  indications. 
That  Lais  was  a  Sidonian  settlement  at  a  distance 
from  the  parent  city  is  clear  from  Judges,  xviii,  7,  28, 
and  the  great  fertility  of  the  spot  is  affirmed  in  the 
same  chapter  (9,  12).  Josephus,  who  calls  the  town 
Adra,  and  elsewhere  Adpop,  places  it "  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Mt.  Libanus,  near  the  fountains  of  the  Liesser 
Jordan,  in  the  great  plain  of  Sidon,  a  day's  journey 
from  the  city''  (Antiq.,  V,  iii.  1).  According  to  Eluae- 
bins  and  St.  Jerome,  the  village  of  Dan  was  situated 
within  four  miles  of  Paneas  (Banias,  or  Cssarea- 
Philippi),  on  the  road  to  Tyre,  at  the  rise  of  the  Jor- 
dan. Its  proximity  to  Paneas  has  led  to  a  confusion 
of  the  two  towns  in  certain  ancient  works,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  Babylonian  Talmud;  and  a  few  modem 
scholars,  amon^  whom  is  G.  A.  Smithy  still  identify 
Dan  with  Banias,  but  the  generally  received  opinion 
places  it  at  Tell  el-Qadi,  ana  this  identification  nas  in 
its  favour,  amongother  refiaona,  the  practical  identity 
of  the  name,  as  ''Tell  el-Qadi "  signifies  the  "  hill  of  the 
Judge ' '.  Tliis  quadrangular  mound  is  situated  about 
a  mue  and  a  half  south-west  of  Mt.  Hermon,  and  to  the 
west  of  Banias.  Hie  site  and  surroundings  are  re- 
markably picturesque,  and  close  to  the  mound  on  the 
west  is  a  spring  from  which  clear,  cold  water  flows  in 
abundai\ce, '  forming  a  nahrf  or  torrent,  which  the 
Arabs  call  Nahr  LeddAn — probably  a  corruption  of 
ed-Ddn,  This  torrent  is  the  main  source  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  it  is  doubtless  the  "Lesser  Jordan"  men-^ 
tioned  by  Josephus. 

Dan  IS  mentioned  in  the  fourteenth  chapter  of 
Genesis  in  connexion  with  the  expedition  of  Abraham 
against  Chodorlahomor,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  the  nlaoe ' 
there  inferred  to  is  the  same  as  the  andcsit  Lais. 
Though  the  identification  is  affirmed  by  both  Eusebius 
and  .^rome,  many  modem  scholars  plaoe  the  Dan  of 
Genesis,  xiv,  in  the  vidnily  of  Galaad,  and  idraiti^it 
with  Dan-Yaan  mentioned  in  II  Kings,  zziv,  6.  The 
conquest  of  Lais  by  the  Danites,  referred  to  above 
under  (2),  is  related  in  Judges,  xviii.  Ihe  portion  of 
the  tribe  which  took  up  its  abode  there  was  addicted 
to  certain  forms  of  idolatry  from  the  beginning  (cf. 
Judges,  xviii,  30,  31),  and  it  was  in  this  frontier  town 
that  Jeroboam  set  up  one  of  the  ^Iden  calves  whidi 
were  intended  to  draw  the  Israehtes  of  the  Northern 
Kingdom  away  from  the  Sanctuaiy  in  Jerusalem  (III 
Kings,  xii,  29,  30;  IV  Kings,  x.  29). 

For  (1)  VioouRoux.  for  (2)  and  (3)  Lboknorb.  both  in  Diet 
de  la  BibU,  0.  v.;  abo  for  (1 )  and  (2)  Peaxe,  for  (3)  M ackzs,  both 
in  Hastinob,  Diet,  of  the  BxMe,  s.  v. 

James  F.  Dhibooll. 

Danaba,  a  titular  see  of  Phcenicia  Secunda.  Dan- 
aba  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  (V,  xv,  24)  as  a  town  in 
the  territory  of  Palmyra.  According  to  Peutingpr's 
table  (where  it  is  called  Danova)  it  was  a  Roman  mili- 
tary station  between  Damascus  and  Palmyra,  twenty 
mifes  from  Nesala.  Danaba  figures  in  an  Anti- 
ocbene  "Notitia  episcopatuum"  of  the  sixth  century 
as  a  suffragan  of  Damascus,  and  remained  so  till  per- 
haps the  tenth  century.  (See  Vailh6  in  "  Echos  d  'Ori- 
ent", X,  90  sqq.  and  139  sqq.)  Only  two  bishops  are 
known:  Theodore,  who  attended  the  Councfl  of  Chalce- 


DANCE 


617 


DANOX 


Death  and  trb  Sailor 


don  in  451,  and  subscribed  the  letter  of  the  bishops  of 
the  province  to  Emperor  Leo  I  in  458,  and  Eulogius, 
present  at  the  Second  Coimcil  of  Cbnstantinople  in  553 
(Lequien,  Or.  Christ,,  III,  847).  To-day  Danaba  is 
probably  represented  by  Hafer,  a  villaee  five  miles 
south-east  of  Sadad,  in  the  vilayet  oi  Damascus. 
About  300  Jacobite  Syrians  live  there,  most  <^  whom 
ha  ve  recently  beoi 
converted  to  Cath- 
olicism (Jullien, 
Sinai  et  Syrie, 
Lille,  1893,  199). 
-S.  FirrasDtR. 

Dance  of 
Death  (French, 
Dance  Macabre^ 
Germ.  Todtentonz). 
—The  "Dance  of 
Death''  was  origi- 
nally a  species  of 
spectacular  plav 
axin  to  the  English 
moralities.  It  has 
been  traced  back 
to  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth 
century.  The 
epidemics  so  fre- 
quent and  so  de- 
structive at  the 
time,  such  as  the  Black  Death,  brought  before  pop« 
ular  imagination  the  subject  of  death  and  its  uni- 
versal sway.  The  dramatic  movement  then  develop- 
ing led  to  its  treatment  in  the  dramatic  form,  in 
these  plays  Death  appeared  not  as  the  destroyer, 
but  as  the  messenger  of  God  summoning  men  to  the 
world  beyond  the  grave,  a  conception  ^miliar  both 
to  Holy  writ  and  to  the  ancient  poets.  The  danc- 
ing movement  of  the  characters  was  a  somewhat  lar 
ter  development, 
as  at  first  Death 
and  his  victims 
moved  at  a  slow 
and  dignified  gait. 
But  Death,  acting 
the  part  of  a  mes- 
senger, naturally 
took  the  attitude 
and  movement  of 
the  traditional 
messengers  of  the 
day.  namely  the 
fiddlers  and  other 
musicians,  and  the 
dance  of  death 
was  the  result. 

The  purpose  of 
these  plays  was  to 
teach  the  truth 
that  all  men  must 
die  and  should 
therefore  prepare 
themselves  to  ap- 
pear before  their 
Judge.  The  scene 
of  the  play  was  usually  the  cemetery  or  churchyard, 
though  sometimes  it  may  have  been  the  church  itself. 
The  spectacle  was  opened  by  a  sermon  on  the  cer- 
tainty of  death  delivered  by  a  monk.  At  the  close  of 
the  sermon  there  came  forth  from  the  charnel-house, 
usually  found  in  the  churchyard,  a  series  of  figures 
decked  out  in  the  traditional  mask  of  death,  a  close- 
fitting,  yellowi^  linen  suit  painted  so  as  to  resemble  a 
skeleton.  One  of  them  addresses  the  intended  victim, 
who  is  invited  to  accompany  him  beyond  the  grave. 
The  first  victim  was  usually  the  pope  or  the  emperor. 


Death  and  the  Kniqht 

Dance  of  Death- 
(From  the  woodcut  series, 


The  invitation  is  not  regarded  with  favour  and  vari- 
ous reasons  are  given  for  declining  it,  but  these  are 
found  insufiSicient  and  finally  death  leads  away  his 
victim.  A  second  messenger  then  seizes  the  hand  of  a 
new  victim,  a  prince  or  a  cardinal,  who  is  followed  by 
others  representing  the  various  classes  of  society,  the 
usual  number  being  twenty-four.  The  play  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  second 
sermon  reinforc- 
ing the  lesson  of 
the  representa- 
{tion. 

The  oldest 
traces  of  these 
plays  are  found  in 
Germany,  but  we 
have  the  Spanish 
text  for  a  similar 
dramatic  perform- 
ance dating  bade 
to  the  year  1360, 
''La  Danza  Gen- 
eral de  la  Muerte'\ 
We  read  of  similar 
dramatic  repre- 
sentations else- 
where: in  Bruges 
beforeDuke  PhiKp 
the  Good  of  Bur- 
Dbath  and  the  Married  Cocpui      gundyin  1449;  in 

1453  at  Besangon, 
and  in  France  in  the  Cimetidre  des  Innocents  near 
Paris  in  1424.  That  similar  spectacles  were  kno¥ni 
in  England  we  infer  from  John  Lydgate's  "  Dance  of 
Death"  written  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  In  Italy  besides  the  traditional  dance 
of  death  we  find  spectacular  representations  of  death 
as  the  all-conqueror  in  the  so-called  ''Trionfo  del- 
la  Morte".  The  eariiest  traces  of  this  conception 
may  be  found  in  Dante  and  Petrarch.  In  Florence 
(1559)    the   "tri- 

ir^^^S " ' ^^^^^^^'^^J^^Si/^p  i   umph  of  death" 

formed  a  part  of 
the  carnival  cele- 
bration. We  may 
describe  it  as  fol- 
lows: After  dark  a  - 
huge  waffon, 
draped  in  black 
and  white  and 
drawn  by  oxen, 
drove  through  the 
streets  of  the  city. 
At  the  end  of  the 
shaft  was  seen  the 
Angel  of  Death 
blowing  the 
trumpet  On  the 
top  of  the  wagon 
stood  a  great  figure 
^'^~^^^'^^^'W?i4j!^^^CTyNj^  of  Death  carrying 
^  -    '        ^  'I  '■  n  scythe  and  sur- 

rounded bycoffina. 
Around  the  wag- 
ons were  covert 
graves  which 
opened  whenever  the  procession  halted.  Men  dressed 
in  black  garmenta  on  which  were  painted  skulls 
and  bones  came  forth  and,  seated  on  the  edge  of 
the  graves,  sang  dirces  on  the  shortness  of  human 
life.  Before  and  behind  the  wagon  appeared  men 
in  black  and  white  bearing  torches  and  death  masks, 
followed  by  banners  displaying  skulls  and  bones  and 
skeletons  riding  on  scrawny  nags.  While  they  marched 
the  entire  company  sang  the  Miserere  with  trem- 
bling voices. 
Specimens  of  the  dramatic  dance  of  death  have  been 


Death  and  the  Plouohmam 
Hans  Holbein 

i,  the  Dance  of  Death) 


DANOIHO 


618 


DANCOMO 


pTOBcrvcd  ID  the  Alisfeld  Passion  Plays,  in  the  French 
AoraUty  entitled  ''Charity",  and  in  the  Neumarkt 
Passion  Play  which  opens  with  the  triumph  of  Death. 
As  the  painter's  art  developed,  the  dance  of  death  was 
in  a  way  made  permanent  by  being  painted  on  the  en- 
closing walls  of  cemeteries,  on  charnel-houses,  in  mor- 
tuary chapels,  and  even  in  churches.  These  repre- 
sentations are  found  in  most  of  the  countries  of  Eu- 
rope. One  of  the  most  famous  is  the  ''Triumph  of 
Death"  in  the  cemetery  of  Pisa,  painted  between  1450 
and  1500.  One  of  the  oldest  pictures  of  the  dance  of 
death  proper  is  that  in  the  Cimeti^re  des  Innocente  at 
Paris  (1425).  B&umker,  in  Herder's  "  Kirchenlexi- 
kon",  enumerates  seven  French  dances  of  death  dating 
back  to  the  fifteenth  centuiy,  three  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  three  of  the  seventeenth  century,  seven  of 
uncertain  date^  five  in  England,  and  four  in  Itaty. 
Within  the  linuts  of  the  old  German  Empire  there  still 
exist  some  thirty  painted  dances  of  death  scattered 
throughout  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland.  In 
manv  representations  underneath  the  several  couples 
are  found  a  rhymed  dialo^e  between  Death  andfhis 
victims,  bein^  the  invitation  of  the  former  and  the 
reply  of  his  victim. 

Charles  G.  Herbbrmann. 

With  the  development  of  his  art  the  dance  of  death 
naturally  became  a  popular  theme  for  the  engraver. 
Many  such  printo  were  produced  by  various  German 
artists,  but  the  most  famous  version  is  that  of  the 
younger  Holbein,  issued  in  1538  by  the  brothers 
Trechsel  at  Lyons.  It  appears  to  be  clear  from  the 
researches  of  Womum  and  Woltmann,  of  Paul  Mantz, 
of  W.  J.  Linton,  the  Rev.  G.  Davies,  C.  Dodgson,  and 
others,  that  the  drawings  were  undoubtedly  the  work 
of  Hans  Holbein  the  younger,  who  was  resident  in 
Basle  up  to  the  autumn  of  1526,  before  which  tinfe  the 
drawings  must  have  been  produced.  They  are  dis- 
tinctly in  his  manner  ana  of  extraordinarily  high 
merit.  There  is  no  evidence  that  Holbein  ever  cut  a 
wood  block  himself,  and  when  these  were  issued  it 
was  expressly  stated  that  the  artist  or  engraver,  who 
is  now  generally  accepted  as  Hans  LOtszelberger,  one  of 
the  greatest  of  German  engravers,  was  dead.  But 
little  is  known  of  his  career.  He  was  certainly  dead 
before  1526.  The  designs  appear  to  have  been  cut  on 
-  the  wood  eleven  years  before  the  book  was  published, 
and  their  issue  was  probably  held  back  ^  reason  of 
the  unsettled  state  ot  religious  opinion  in  Basle.  The 
series  comprises  forty-two  engravings,  the  subjects 
expressed  with  masterly  dramatic  power,  marvellous 
clearness,  and  marked  reticence  of  line.  Technically 
they  are  as  perfect  as  woodcuts  can  be.  There  are 
five  sets  of  proof  impressions  in  existence,  and  the  lit- 
tle book  passed  through  nine  editions  at  Lyons  and 
was  printed  also  in  Venice,  Augsburg,  and  Basle. 
There  have  been  many  reissues  and  reproductions  of 
it^  and  a  facsimile  of  the  first  edition  was  published  in 
Munich  in  1884. 

Besides  the  "  Dance  of  Death  "  Holbein  designed  a 
series  of  initials  consisting  of  an  alphabet  in  which  it 
is  the  motif.  Of  Holbein^  larger  "  Dance  of  Death  " 
more  than  one  hundred  editions  have  appeared.  Since 
Holbein  this  subject  has  been  treated  again  and  again, 
especially  by  German  engravers.  The  most  noted  of 
recent  dances  of  death  is  that  by  Alfred  Rethel,  1848, 
in  which  Death  is  represented  as  the  hero  of  the  Red 
Republic.  Both  the  conception  and  the  execution  of 
Rethel's  encravinos  are  highly  artistic  and  impressive. 

BAuMKKB  in  Kirdienlex.,  s.  v.  TodtcnUifu;  K&axtb,  Oesdi. 
der  chruaichen  Kunst  (Freiburg  im  Br..  189d-97).  II. 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Bandnff . — ^The  origm  of  dancing  is  to  be  sought  in 
the  natunu  tendency  to  employ  gesture  either  to  sup- 
plement or  to  replace  speech.  Strong  emotions,  m 
particular,  key  up  the  oigans  to  a  pitch  of  exaltation 
winch,  spontaneously  manifests  itself  through  more  or 


less  rhythmical  movements  that  constitute  ifvhat  iiia> 
be  considered  as  elementary  and  natural  dances.    Bui 
in  the  same  manner  as  speech  soon  developed  into 
poetry  and  song,  so  also  did  these  bodily  movemenu 
gradually  develop  into  the  art  of  dancing     Both 
spontaneous  and  artistic  dancing  may  be  described  ad 
''an  expression  of  the  feeling  by  movencieiite  of  the 
bodv  more  or  less  controlleaby  a  sense  of  xiiythm" 
(J.  Millar),  and  are  to  some  degree  practised  by  al] 
peoples.    The  Hebrews  were  no  exception  ;   their  tan- 
kage contains  no  less  than  eight  veros  to  express  the 
idea  of  dancing.    However,  many  of  the   allusions 
found  in  the  Bible  point  to  mere  spontaneous  expres- 
sions of  merriment  by  leaping,  circling,  or  otberwi^. 
Of  this  description  were  very  likely  the  dances  of  Mary 
and  the  women  of  Israel  after  the  croasiiie  of  the  Red 
Sea  (Exod.,  xv,  20).  of  the  people  aroimd  the  golden 
calf  (Exod.,  xxii,  19),  of  Jephte^s  daughter  cx>iiiing  to 
meet  her  father  after  the  latter's  viotorv  (Judges,  xi, 
34),  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities  on  the  way  of  the 
army  commanded  by  Holophemes  (Judil^,  iii,  lO),  even 
of  David  before  the  Ark  (II K.,  vi,  5, 22).    From  th&e 
various  places  it  might  be  inferred  l^at  dancing  was  a 
manifestation  of  joy  ordinarilv  exhibited  by  -women, 
and  we  know  how  David,  in  the  occurrence  above  re- 
ferred to,  excited  MichoPs  wonder.    In  later  ttxnes 
dancing  was  positively  looked  upon  as  unbeooming 
men;  such  also  was  the  opinion  m  Rome,  where  the 
saying  ran  that  a  man,  to  .indulge  in  dancing,  must  be 
either  intoxicated  or  mad. 

Dancing  as  an  art  was  made  subservient  to  various 
purposes.    Its  use  as  an  aid  to  heighten  the  splendour 
of  religious  celebrations  should  be  first  considered. 
Religious  dances  consisted  mostly  of  slow  and  stately 
processions  through  the  streets  of  the  dty  or  aiound 
the  altar.    Usually  they  were  performed  by  colleges 
of  priests;  but  occasionally  citizens  of  both  sexes  and 
all  ranks,  without  any  disparagement  to  the  gravity  <^ 
their  characters  or  dignity  of  position,  took  a  part  in 
these  exhibitions  (Liv.,  I,  xx;  Quintil.,  I,  ii,  18;  Mac- 
rob.,  Sat.  ii,  10).    All  religious  dances,  howevo*,  were 
not  performed  with  the  gravity  above  referred  to.    In 
Rome,  the  so/u,  carrying  the  sacred  shields  thrcnigh 
the  streets,  leapt  and  jumped  clumsily  ''like  stamping 
fullers ' '  (Senec.  Ep.  xv) .    The  Bible  describes  likewise 
the  priests  of  Baal  limping  (so  Heb. ;  D.  V. : ''  leaping  ") 
around  the  altar  (III  K.,  xviii,  26).     Throu^out  the 
East  sacred  dances  were  a  prominent  featuie  in  relig- 
ious worship.     In  Egypt  even  colleges  of  feoude  sing- 
ers and  dancers  were  annexed  to  certain  shrinea. 
That  dancine  was  also  an  accompaniment  of  the 
Jahweh  worship  is  probable  from  Judges,  xxi,  21,  for 
early  times,  and  clearly  evidenced  by  Pfis.  cxlix,  3,  and 
cl,  4,  for  the  epoch  following  the  captivity.    Tlie  texts 
seem  further  to  indicate  that,  in  tne  second  Temple, 
persons  engaged  in  dancing  and  singing  in  God's  hon- 
our formed  cnoirs  similar  to  those  of  uie  pagan  rites 
(Cic,  Phil.,  V,  6;  Vii^.,  Mn.,  VIII,  718;  Hor.,  Od., 
I,  i,  31). 

War  dances,  so  conunon  among  many  peoples,  and 
which  were  frequently  introduced  to  enhance  the 
pageants  of  public  festivities  among  the  Grreeks  and 
Romans,  have  left  no  trace  among  the  Hebrews  and 
their  nei^bours,  althoufili  the^  are  not  unknown  to 
modem  inhabitants  of  JPalestme  and  Arabia.  Mi- 
metic dances  were  as  little  known  in  the  East  as  those 
of  a  military  character.  T^ey  consisted  of  expressive 
movements  of  the  features,  body,  arms,  and  hands, 
executed  to  a  musical  accompaniment  and  meant 
vividly  to  represent  historical  or  fabulous  events  and 
the  actions  and  passions  of  well-known  characters. 
How  much  such  performances  were  relished  by  the 
Romans,  we  learn  from  many  passages  of  Latin 
writers,  such,  e.  g.,  as  Macrob.,  Sat.  ii,  7 ;  Suet., "  CaKg.", 
67,  "Nero",  54,  "Tit.",  7;  Ovid,  "An  Am.",  I,  595, 
etc.  Still  more  was  scenic  dancing  in  favourin  Rome 
and  Greece.    It  consisted  of  harmonious  movements 


DANDOLO 


619 


DANOOIiO 


principallv  of  the  armi>,  body,  antl  feci,  intciidod  to 
Blkoiw'  forth  all  the  flexibility,  agility,  ana  grace  of  the 
Huxnan  body.  Such  exhibitions  were  usually  given 
for  the  pleasure  of  the  guests,  at  great  banquets,  and 
performed  bv  professional  dancers  hired  for  the  occa- 
sion.   Female  dancers — there  were  also  male  dancers 

iwere  preferred.     They  were  generally  persons  of 

<K>nsiderable  beauty  and  indifferent  morals,  and  their 
performances  were  calculated  to  set  f orth^  even  at  the 
coat  of  modesty  for  which  they  cared  httle,  all  the 
charms  and  attractiveness  of  their  ^ceful  figures. 
Xhis  class  of  persons,  common  in  ancient  Greece  and 
Italy,  were  not  altogether  unknown  in  Palestine,  at 
least  in  later  times,  if  we  believe  the  indication  of 
£lcclus.,  ix,  4.    The  author  of  Eccles.,  impersonating 
Solomon,  relates  he  had  procured  for  his  own  enjoy- 
ment ''singing  men  and  singing  women '^  (ii,  8),  that 
is  to  say,  very  likely,  dancers,  for  singing  ana  dancing 
Tvere  scarcely  distinct.    At  any  rate,  the  performance 
of  Herodias'  daughter,  recorded  in  Matt.,  xiv,  6,  and 
the  pleasure  it  afforded  to  Herod  and  his  guests,  show 
how  Greek  and  Roman  corruption  had,  about  the 
time  of  Christ,  made  headway  among  the  higher 
elates  of  Palestine. 

Although  perhaps  less  common,  and  certainly  less 
elaborate  than  with  us,  social  dancing  appears  never- 
theless to  have  been  a  pleasurable  diversion  in  ancient 
times,  at  least  among  the  Jews.  For,  understood  in 
the  light  of  Judges,  xxi,  21,  such  statements  as  those  of 
Is.,  xvi,  10,  and  Jer..  xxv,  30,  indicate  that  the  vintage 
season  was  one  oi  public  merriment  exhibited  m 
dances.  Dancing  was  likewise  indulged  in,  even  by 
most  grave  persons  (Bab.  Talm.,  Ketuboth,  16b),  at 
weddings  and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  Men  and 
women  danced  apart,  as  is  still  the  custom  in  the  East. 
Social  dancing  has  undergone  considerable  develop- 
ment in  the  l^t  few  centuries,  both  as  to  prevalence 
and  elaborateness.  The  introduction  into  modem 
fashion  of  the  so-called  round  dances  has  quickened 
the  interest  of  the  old  question  anent  the  morality  of 
dancing.  As  an  exercise  of  physical  culture,  aside 
from  the  generally  linhealthf ul  conditions  of  dancing- 
halls,  dancing  may  have  advantages;  we  should  not 
wonaer,  therefore,  that  from  this  viewpoint  Plato 
recommended  it.  From  the  moral  standpoint,  relig- 
ious and  military  dancing  has  never  met  with  any 
criticism.  Mimetic  shows,  on  the  contrary,  mostly 
representing  love-stories  and  mythological  subjects, 
were  at  times  so  offensive  to  modesty  that  even  the 
pagan  emperors  deemed  it  their  duty  to  banish  them 
repeatedly  from. Italy.  In  no  wise  better,  as  has  been 
shown  above,  were  scenic  dances;  and  male  and  female 
dancers  were  in  Home  considered,  as  are  nowadays  in 
Egypt,  India,  and  Japan,  the  almehs,  the  bayaderes, 
and  the  geishas,  as  a  lower  and  degraded  class.  Ac- 
cording to  Roman  law,  such  persons  were  injames. 
Against  their  performances  the  Fathers  of  the  Church 
raised  a  strong^  voice.  The  Decretals  went  farther, 
forbidding  clerics  to  attend  any  mimic  or  histrionic 
exhibitions  and  enacting  that  any  cleric  taking  active 
part  in  them  should  forfeit  all  his  privil^cs,  and  that 
aU  persons  engaged  in  professional  dancing,  mimic  or 
histrionic  performances,  should  incur  irregularity  and 
be  thereby  forever  debarred  from  the  clerical  state  and 
rendered  incapable  of  receiving  orders.  As  to  social 
dancing,  now  so  much  in  vogue,  whilst  in  itself  it  is  an 
indifferent  act,  moralists  are  inclined  to  place  it  under 
the  ban,  on  account  of  the  various  dangers  associated 
with  it.  Undoubtedly  old  national  dances  in  which 
the  performers  stand  apart,  hardly,  if  at  all,  holding 
the  partner's  hand,  fall  under  ethical  censure  scarcely 
more  than  any  other  kind  of  social  intercourse.  But, 
aside  from  the  concomitants — place,  late  hours,  d^U 
leUf  escorting,  etc. — common  to  all  such  entertain- 
ments, round  dances,  although  they  may  possibly  be 
carried  on  with  decorum  and  modesty,  are  regarded 
by  moralists  as  fraught,  by  their  very  nature,  with 


the  great^t  danger  to  moraU.  To  Iheui  perhaiw,  but 
unquestionably  still  more  obviounly  to  masked  balls, 
should  be  applied  the  warning  of  the  oecond  Council  of 
Baltimore  against  *' those  fashionable  dances,  which, 
as  at  present  carried  on,  are  revolting  to  every  feeling 
of  delicacy  and  propriety '\  Needless  to  add  that 
decency  as  well  as  the  oft-repeated  decrees  of  particu- 
lar and  general  councils  forbid  clerics  to  appear,  in  any 
capacity  whatever,  on  public  dancing  floors. 

Head,  Characteristic  National  Dance*  (London,  1853);  Tan- 
TBAM,  Battem  ctutoma;  Rich,  Dictionary  of  Oreefc  and  Roman 
AntiquUiea  (London,  1884),  8.  v.  Saltatio,  etc.;  Darsnbsbo 
AND  SaouO,  Diclionnaire  d^a  anttquitU  grtcquee  et  TvnuUne% 
(P»ria):  Mabpxbo,  Hittoire  ancienne  dea  pewpUa  de  VOrient 
(Paris,  1806),  I,  126;  II.  220;  Dkimas,  Palaeatiniaehcr  Diunn 
(Leipsig,  1901);  Fbrrabia,  Bibtiotkeca  canonica  (Rome,  1886), 
ft.  V.  Choraa,  Clerieua^  Irrtffularitaa:  Acta  et  Decreta  Cone,  BaUir 
mor,  II,  Pastoral  Letter;  Deer.  n.  472. 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

Daadolo,  Enrico,  Doge  of  Venice  from  1192  to 
1205;  d.,  aged  about  a  himdred  years,  in  1205.  He  be- 
lon^d  tc  one  of  the  electoral  families  who  claimed 
descent  from  the  twelve  tribunes  by  whom  the  first 
doge  had  been  elected  in  697.  In  the  course  of  the 
twelfth  century  one  of  his  relations  was  Patriarch  of 
Grado  for  fifty  years  (Mon.  Germ.  Hist. :  Script.,  XIV, 
71).  Of  his  life,  we  only  know  the  r61e  he  played  in 
history,  but  he  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  uncom- 
mon pnysical  ana  mental  strength.  At  the  age  of 
almost  a  hundred  he  took  the  cross,  and  led  the  expe- 
dition against  Constantinople;  a  fearless  knight  and 
the  first  to  scale  the  walls  of  a  city,  he  was  also  a  dia* 
tinguished  diplomat,  and  his  influence  seems  lo  have 
been  predonunant  in  the  Fourth  Crusade.  He  is  first 
mentioned  as  taking  part  in  the  war  between  Venice 
and  the  Emperor  Manuel  Comnenus  in  1171.  The 
Venetians,  decimated  by  the  plague,  were  at  ChioSi 
and  Dandolo  was  sent  to  Constantinople  to  make  a 
treaty  of  peace.  According  to  a  tradition  quoted  by 
the  "Chronicle  of  Novgorod",  the  einperor  burnt  out 
his  eyes.  Andrea  Dandolo  (1307-1354),  a  descendant 
of  the  same  f amilv,  makes  the  statement  that  he  was 
partly  deprived  of  his  sight  in  the  service  of  his  coun- 
try (pro  salute  patrise  constanter  resistens,  visu  ali- 
qualiterobtenebratusest,  *  *  Chronic",  ed.  Muratori,  idi, 
298).  It  would  seem  that  in  spite  of  all  the  torture 
he  underwent  Dandolo  was  not  completely  deprived 
of  sight  (see  Luchaire  in  "Journal  des  Savants", 
1907,  p.  110).  In  1172  he  went  on  a  mission  to  Wil- 
liam II  of  Sicily,  then  once  more  to  CcMistantinople. 
In  1178  Dandolo  was  one  of  the  forty  electors  com- 
missioned, for  the  first  time,  to  elect  the  doge.  He 
himself  was  elected  doge  in  his  turn  (1  June,  1192). 
In  spite  of  his  advanced  age  he  displaved  great  activ- 
ity, put  an  end  to  the  commercial  quarrels  with 
Verona,  declared  war  against  the  inhabitants  of  Zara 
for  imiting  their  city  to  Hungary,  and  against  the 
Pisans,  who  had  attempted  to  establish  themselves  in 
Istria.  In  1198  he  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance 
with  the  Emperor  Alexis  III  of  Constantmople,  but  as 
early  as  1201  Venice  had  disagreementa  with  Alexis, 
who  broke  all  his  promises  and  g'anted  numerous 
privileges  to  the  Genoese  and  the  Pisans. 

At  this  time  (March,  1201)  the  leaders  of  the 
Fourth  Crusade  came  to  negotiate  with  Venice  for  the 
transport  of  the  troops  to  the  Orient;  Dandolo  him- 
self took  the  cross  as  well  as  several  other  Venetian 
nobles.  In  consequence  of  circumstances  not  yet 
clearly  explained,  the  crusade,  originally  directed 
against  Egypt,  was  turned  first  against  Zara  aiid 
then  against  Constantinople.  Streit  ( Venedi^  und  die 
Wendung  des  vierten  Kreuzzuges.  1877)  attnbutes  to 
Enrico  fiandolo  the  principal  r61e  in  the  intrigues 
which  preceded  these  events.  Riant  (Revue  des  ques- 
tions historiques,  XXIII,  109)  has  pointed  out  very 
truly  that  the  initiative  of  the  doge  was  strictly  Um- 
ited  by  the  Constitution  of  Venice.  If  Dandolo  di- 
rected the  negotiations  he  did  it  in  agreement  with  the 


DANIEL 


620 


DANIEL 


crjuncils  of  Veiiicc!.  With  this;  resorvatiou  it  may  Ix^ 
admitted  that  Daudolo  t.ook  the  leading  part  in  the 
negotiations  which  ended  in  the  capture  of  Constan- 
tinople. In  fact  it  was  to  the  interest  of  Venice  to 
re-establish  order  and  security  in  the  Byzantine  Em- 
pire. Dandolo  proposed  the  expedition  against  Zara 
(October,  1212)  to  the  crusaders,  as  a  way  to  pay  off 
their  debt  to  Venice.  In  the  council  of  war  held  after 
the  capture  of  Zara,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
Robert  de  Clare,  Dandolo  was  the  first  to  suggest  that 
the  preliminary  occupation  of  Greece  would  greatly 
facilitate  the  conquest  of  the  Hol^  Land.  Thereafter, 
during  the  entire  expedition,  his  influence  over  the 
leaders  of  the  Crusade  grew  from  day  to  day.    He 

g resided  at  the  council  of  war  held  at  the  Abbey  of 
an  Stefano,  23  June,  1203,  and  gave  the  wisest  ad- 
vice to  the  barons.  In  spite  of  nis  age  he  took  an 
active  part  in  the  operations  of  the  siege  of  Constan- 
tinople. While  the  barons  attacked  the  walls  in  the 
Blachemse  quarter,  Dandolo  directed  the  assault  of 
the  Venetians  against  the  sea  walls  and  hoisted  the 
gonfalon  of  St.  Mark  on  his  galley.  The  city  cap- 
tured, he  wished  to  force  Alexis  IV  to  keep  the  prom- 
ises nriade  to  the  crusaders.  Upon  his  refuscU,  Dan- 
dolo boldly  defied  him  and  aavised  the  barons  to 
tmdertake  a  second  siege  of  the  city.  In  the  council 
of  war,  1  March,  1204,  Dandolo  signed  with  them  the 
treaty  partitioning  the  empire  between  Venice  and 
the  crusaders. 

After  the  capture  of  the  city  he  had  Boniface  of 
Montferrat  driven  out  of  the  empire;  the  barons 
offered  liim  the  imperial  crown,  but  ne  loyally  refused 
it,  so  as  not  to  violate  the  Constitution  of  Vemce.  The 
new  emperor  Baldwin  gave  him  the  title  of  "Despot", 
and  he  settled  in  Constantinople.  In  1205  he  took 
part  in  the  disastrous  expedition  against  the  Bul- 
garians; he  died  shortly  afterwards  and  was  buried  in 
St.  Sophia.  Dandolo  by  his  skill  and  energy  estab- 
lished the  political  and  commercial  power  of  Venice  in 
the  Orient. 

For  bibliography  see  Crusades. 

Louis  Br£hier. 

Daniel,  the  hero  and  traditional  author  of  the  book 
which  bears  his  name.  This  name  (Heb.  i>  J<^:^  or  ^t^ri ; 
Sept.  Aai^i^X),  which  is  also  that  of  two  other  persons 
in  the  Old  Testament  [cf.  I  Paral.,  iii,  1 ;  I  Esq.,  viii, 
2,  and  II  Esd.  (Nehem.),  x,  6],  means  "God  is  my 
judge  ",  and  is  thus  a  fitting  appellation  for  the  writer 
of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  wherein  God's  judgments  are 
repeatedly  pronounced  upon  the  Gentile  powers. 
Nearly  all  that  is  known  concerning  the  Prophet 
Daniel  is  derived  from  the  book  ascribed  to  him.  He 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Juda  (i,  6),  and  was  of  noble, 
or  perhaps  of  royal,  descent  (i,  3;  cf.  Joseph  us.  An- 
tiquities of  the  Jews,  Bk.  X,  ch.  x,  §  1).  When  still  a 
youth,  probably  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  he  was 
carried  captive  to  Babylon  by  Nabuchodonosor  in  the 
fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Joakim  (605  B.  c).  There, 
with  thiee  other  youtns  of  equal  rank  named  Ananias, 
Misael,  and  Azarias,  he  was  entrusted  to  the  care  of 
Asphenez,  the  master  of  the  king's  eunuchs,  and  was 
educated  in  the  language  and  learning  of  the  "  Chal- 
deans", whereby  are  meant  the  professors  of  divina- 
tion, magic,  and  astrology  in  Babylon  (i,  3,  4).  From 
this  passage  Jewish  tradition  has  inferred  that  Daniel 
and  his  companions  were  made  eimuchs;  but  this 
does  not  necessarily  follow;  t)ie  master  of  the  eunuchs 
simply  trained  these  Jewish  youths,  amon^  others, 
with  a  view  to  their  entering  tne  king's  service  (i,  5). 
Daniel  now  received  the  new  name  of  Baltassar 
(Babyl.  Bal&^su-u^ur,  "Bel  protect  his  life"),  and,  in 
agreement  with  Ananias,  Misael,  and  Azarias^  who 
received  similarly  the  new  names  of  Sidrach,  Misach, 
and  Abdenago,  respectively,  asked  and  obtained  per- 
mission not  to  use  the  special  food  from  the  royal 
table  provided  for  those  under  training,  and  to  be 


liujiled  U»  vegetable  diet.  At  the  end  of  throe  years 
Daniel  and  his  three  companions  appeared  before  the 
king,  who  found  that  they  excelled  all  the  others  who 
had  been  educated  with  them,  and  thereupon  oro- 
moted  them  to  a  place  in  his  court.  Henceforth,  wnen- 
ever  the  prince  tested  them,  they  proved  superior  to 
"all  the  diviners,  and  wise  men,  that  were  in  ail  his 
kingdom"  (i,  7-20).  Soon  afterwards — either  m  the 
second  or  in  the  twelfth  year  of  Nabuchodonosor's 
reign — Daniel  gave  a  signal  proof  of  his  marv^ous 
wi^om.  On  the  failure  of  all  the  other  wise  men,  he 
repeated  and  interpreted,  to  the  monarch's  satisfac- 
tion, the  king's  dream  of  a  colossal  statue  which  was 
made  up  of  various  materials,  and  which,  on  being 
struck  by  a  stone,  was  broken  into  pieces,  while  the 
stone  ^w  into  a  mountain  and  filled  the  whole  earth. 
On  this  account,  Daniel  in  Babylon,  as  Joseph  of  old 
in  Egypt,  rose  into  high  favour  with  the  pnnce,  who 
not  only  bestowed  on  him  numerous  gifts,  but  also 
made  him  ruler  of  "the  whole  province  of  Babylon*' 
and  chief  gover- 
nor of  "all  the 
wise  men".  At 
Daniel's  request, 
too,  his  three 
friends  received 
important  pro- 
motions (ii). 
TTie  next  oppor- 
tunity afforded 
Daniel  to  give 
proof  of  his  wis- 
dom was  an- 
other dream  of 
Nabuchodono- 
sor which,  once 
more,  he  alone 
was  able  to  inter- 
pret. The  dream 
was  of  a  mighty 
tree  concerning 
which  the  king 
heard  the  com- 
mand given  that 
it  shomd  be  cut 
down,  and  that  "seven  times"  should  "pass  over" 
its  stump,  which  had  been  left  standing.    Tins,  ex- 

glained  Daniel,  portended  that  in  punishment  of 
is  pride  the  monarch  would  for  a  while  lose  his 
throne,  be  bereft  of  his  reason,  ima^ning  himself  an 
ox,  and  live  in  the  open  fields,  but  be  again  restored 
to  his  power,  finally  convinced  of  the  supreme  mi^t 
and  goodness  of  the  Most  High.  With  holy  freedom, 
although  in  vain,  the  Prophet  exhorted  the  king  to 
forestall  such  punishment  dv  atoning  for  his  sins  by 
deeds  of  mercy;  and  Daniel  s  prediction  was  fulfilled 
to  the  letter  (iv).  For  a  parallel  to  this,  see  Abyde- 
nas'  account  (second  century  b.  c.)  quoted  in  Efuse- 
bius  (Prffip.  Evang.,  IX,  xli). 

Nothing  is  expressly  said  as  to  what  became  of 
Daniel  upon  the  aeath  of  Nabuchodonosor  (561  b.  c); 
it  is  simply  intimated  in  Daniel,  v.  11  sqq.,  that  he 
lost  his  high  office  at  the  court  ana  lived  long  in  re- 
tirement. The  incident  which  brou^t  him  to  public 
notice  again  was  the  scene  of  revelry  in  Baltasar's 
palace,  on  the  eve  of  Cyrus's  conquest  of  Babylon 
(538  B.  c).  While  Baltasar  (Heb.  Belsh'a^car,  cor- 
responding to  the  Babyl.  Bal&tsu-u^ur,  "Bel  protect 
the  king'^  and  his  lords  feasted,  impiously  drinking 
their  wine  from  precious  vessels  which  had  been  taken 
from  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  there  appeared  the 
fingers  of  a  man  writing  on  the  wall:  "Mane,  Thecel, 
Phares".  These  mysterious  words,  which  none  of  the 
king's  wise  men  was  able  to  interpret,  were  explained 
by  Daniel,  who  at  length  had  been  summoned,  and 
wno  for  his  reward  became  one  of  the  three  chief  min- 
isters in  the  kingdom.    The  prophet,  now  at  least 


Daniel — Mxcbslangbix)  BuoNAaBori 
(Sistine  Chapel,  Rome) 


DARISL 


621 


DARDBL 


ei^ty  years  of  age.  remained  in  that  exalted  position 
under  Darius  the  Mede,  a  prince  possibly  to  be  identi- 
fied with  Darius  Hvstaspes  (485  B.  c.)-  Darius, 
moreover,  thought  of  settme  him  over  all  the  king- 
dom  (vi,  4),  when  Daniel's  feUow-^fficers,  fearing  sucn 
an  elevation,  sought  to  compass  his  ruin  by  convicting 
him  of  disloyalty  to  the  Grown.  They  secured  from 
the  king  a  decree  forbidding  any  one.  under  penalty  of 
being  cast  into  the  lions'  den,  to  ask  any  netition  of 
either  god  or  man,  except  the  monarch,  for  tnirty  dajrs. 
As  they  had  anticipated,  Daniel  nevertheless  prayed, 
three  times  a  day,  at  his  open  window,  towards  Jeru- 
salem. This  they  reported  to  the  king,  and  they 
forced  him  to  apply  the  threatened  punishment  to  the 
violator  of  the  decree.  Upon  Daniel's  miraculous 
preservation  in  the  lions'  den,  Darius  published  a 
decree  that  all  in  his  realm  should  honour  and  revere 
the  God  of  Daniel,  proclaiming  that  He  is  ''the  living 
and  eternal  God'\  And  so  Daniel  continued  to 
prosper  through  the  rest  of  the  reign  of  Darius,  and  in 
that  of  his  successor,  Cyrus  the  Persian  (vi). 

Such,  in  substance,  are  the  facts  which  may  be 
gathered  for  a  bio^phy  of  the  Prophet  Daniel  from 
the  narrative  portion  of  his  book  (i-vi).  Hardly  any 
other  facts  are  contributed  to  this  biography  from  the 
second,  and  inore  distinctly  apocalyptic,  portion  of  the 
same  work  (vii-xii).  The  visions  therein  described 
represent  him  chiefly  as  a  seer  favoured  with  Divine 
communications  respecting  the  future  punishment  of 
the  Gentile  powers  and  the  ultimate  setting  up  of  the 
Messianic  Kingdom.  These  mysterious  revelations 
are  referred  to  the  reigns  of  Darius,  Baltasar,  and 
Cyrus,  and  as  they  are  explained  to  him  by  the  Angel 
Gabriel  from  an  ever  clearer  disclosure  of  what  is  to 
happen  in  '*the  time  of  the  end".  In  the  deutero- 
canonical  appendix  to  his  book  (xiii-xiv),  Daniel  re- 
appears in  the  same  general  character  as  in  the  first 
part  of  his  work  (i-vi) .  Chapter  xiii  sets  him  forth  as 
an  inspired  youth  whose  superior  wisdom  puts  to 
shame  and  secures  the  punisnment  of  the  false  ac- 
cusers of  the  chaste  Susanna.  The  concluding  chap- 
ter (xiv),  which  tells  the  history  of  the  destruction  of 
Bel  and  the  dragon,  represents  Daniel  as  a  fearless 
and  most  successful  champion  of  the  true  and  living 
God.  Outside  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  Holy  Writ  has 
but  few  references  to  the  prophet  of  that  name. 
Ezechiel  (xiv,  14)  speaks  of  Daniel,  together  with  Noe 
and  Job,  as  a  pattern  of  righteousness  and,  in  chapter 
xxviii,  3,  as  the  representative  of  perfect  wisclom. 
The  writer  of  the  First  Book  of  the  Machabees  (ii,  60) 
refers  to  his  deliverance  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  lions, 
and  St.  Matthew  (xxiv,  15)  to  "the  abomination  of 
desolation,  which  was  spoken  of  by  Daniel  the 
prophet".  As  might  well  be  expected,  Jewish  tradi- 
tion had  been  busy  with  completing  the  meagre 
account  of  Daniel's  life  as  supplied  by  the  Sacred 
Scriptures.  Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the 
tradition  of  the  Jews,  accepted  by  many  Fathers  of 
the  Church,  which  states  that  he  was  made  a  eimuch 
in  Babylon.  Other  Jewish  traditions  represent  him  as 
refusing  divine  honours  proffered  to  him  by  Nabucho- 
donosor;  they  explain  the  reason  why  he  was  not 
forced  with  his  three  friends  to  worship  that  prince's 
statue  in  the  plain  of  Dura  (Dan.,  iii),  he  had  been 
sent  away  by  the  king,  who  wanted  to  spare  Daniel's 
life,  for  he  knew  full  well  that  the  prophet  would  never 
agree  to  commit  such  an  act  of  idolatiy;  they  give 
many  fanciful  details,  as  for  instance  concerning  what 
happened  to  Daniel  in  the  lions'  den.  Others  en- 
deavour to  account  for  what  they  assume  to  be  a  fact, 
viz.  that  Yahweh's  devout  prophet  did  not  return  to 
God's  land  and  city  after  the  decree  of  restoration 
issued  by  Cyrus;  while  others  again  affirm  that  he 
actually  went  back  to  Judea  and  died  there.  Hardly 
less  incredible  and  conflicting  legends  concerning 
Daniel's  life  and  place  of  burial  are  met  with  in  Arabic 
litoniliirt^  although  his  name  is  not  mentioned  in  the 


Koran.  During  the  Middle  Axes  there  wae  a  wid^ 
spread  and  persistent  tradition  that  Daniel  was  buried 
at  Susa,  the  modem  Shuster,  in  the  Persian  province  of 
Khuzistan.  In  the  account  of  his  visit  to  Susa  in 
A.  D.  1165,  Rabbi  Benjamin  of  Tudela  narrates  that 
Daniel's  tomb  was  shown  him  in  the  fagade  of  one  of 
the  synagogues  of  that  city;  and  it  is  shown  there  to 
the  present  day.  The  Roman  martyrology  assigns 
Daniel's  feast  as  a  holy  prophet  to  21  July,  and  ai>- 
parently  treats  Babylon  as  his  burial-place. 

ViGOUROUx,  La  BMe  et  lea  tUo§uverte9  modemet  (Paris.  1880), 
IV.  Bk.  Ill;  DBASE,  Danid,  HU  Life  and  Timea  (Londoo. 
18^).  See  also  the  commentaries  and  mtroductionB  in  bibtios- 
raphy  of  Dakxkl,  Book  of. 

Francis  £.  Gigot. 

Daaiel,  Anthony,  Huron  missionaiy,  b.  at  Dieppe, 
in  Normandy,  27  May,  1601,  slain  by  the  Iroquois  at 
Teanaosts,  near  Hillsdale,  Simcoe  Co.,  Ontario, 
Canada,  4  Julv,  1648.  After  two  years'  study  of 
philosophy  anci  one  of  law,  he  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  Rome,  1  Oct.,  1621.  Sent  to  Canada  in  1633, 
he  was  first  stationed  at  Cape  Breton,  where  his 
brother  Captain  Daniel  had  established  a  French  fort 
in  1629.  For  two  years  he  had  charge  at  Quebec  c^  a 
school  for  Indian  boys,  but  with  this  exception  he  was 
connected  with  the  Mission  at  Ihonatiria,  m  the  Huron 
country,  from  July,  1634,  until  his  death  fourteen  years 
later.  In  the  summer  of  1648.  the  Iroquois  made  a 
sudden  attack  on  the  mission  wnile  most  of  the  Huron 
braves  were  absent.  Father  Daniel  did  all  in  his 
power  to  aid  his  people.  Before  the  palisades  had 
been  scaled  he  hurried  to  the  chapel  where  the  women, 
children,  and  old  men  were  gathered,  gave  them  gen- 
eral absolution  and  baptized  the  catechumens.  Daniel 
himself  made  no  attempt  to  escape,  but  calmly  ad- 
vanced to  meet  the  enemy.  Seized  with  amazement 
the  savages  halted  for  a  moment,  then  recovering 
themselves  they  discharged  at  him  a  shower  of  ar- 
rows.  "The  victim  to  the  heroism  of  charity",  says 
Bancroft,  'Mied,  the  name  of  Jesus  on  his  lips;  tne 
wilderness  gave  him  a  grave;  the  Huron  nation  were 
his  mourners"  (vol.  II,  ch.  xxxii).  Here  Bancroft  is 
in  error.  The  lifeless  body  was  flung  into  the  bumlns 
chapel  and  both  were  consumed  together.  Daniel 
was  the  second  to  receive  the  martyr's  crown  among 
the  Jesuits  sent  to  New  France,  and  the  first  of  the 
missionaries  to  the  Hurons.  Father  Ragueneau,  his 
superior,  speaks  of  him  in  a  letter  to  the  general  of  the 
order  as  "a  truly  remarkable  man,  humble,  obedient, 
united  with  God,  of  never  failing  patience  and  in- 
domitable courage  in  adversity"  (Thwaites,  tr.  Re- 
lations, XXXIII,  253-269). 

PARKMA.N,  The  Jesuita  in  North  America  (Boeton,  1901), 
XXVI;  Bancroft,  Hiatorjf  of  The  United  Statee  (Boston,  1853), 
III.  138.  139:  Thwaites.  ecL  The  JeauU  Rdationa  (aevolancU 
1901),  XXXIX,  239;  index  vol.,  s.  v.;  Tanmer,  SoeieUu  Jeau 
tuque  militana  (Piseue,  1675);  Charucvoix,  Shba  tr.,  Hiatory 
of  New  France  (New  York.  1866),  II;  Cabsani,  Varenea  ttuatrea 
aUidiid,  1734),  I.  643;  Varonee  Iluatrea  de  la  C.  de  J,  {2  ed. 
Bilbao,  1889),  III,  491;  Rocheuontxix,  Lea  Jiauitea  et  la 
NaaveUe  Prance  au  XV tU  aOcU  (Paris.  1896),  II.  74;  Drkwb. 
Faati  Soe.  Jeau  (Prague,  1750),  III,  18:  Campbell.  Pioneer 
Prieata  of  North  AmeruM  (New  York,  1908),  150. 151;  BREBSAm, 
De€Uh  of  Father  ArUoine  Danid  in  Brkbsani,  Breve  Relatione 
(Maoemta,  1653),  III,  Chap.  iv. 

Edward  P.  Spiu^anis. 

Daniel,  Book  of. — In  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  in 
most  recent  Protestant  versions,  the  Book  of  Danid 
is  limited  to  its  proto-canonical  portions.  ^  In  the 
Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  many  other  ancient  and 
modem  translations  of  Holy  Writ,  it  comprises  both 
its  proto-  and  its  deutero-canonical  parts,  which  two 
sets  of  parts  have  an  eaual  right  to  oe  considered  as 
inspirea,  and  to  be  included  in  a  treatment  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel.  As  in  the  Vulgate  neariy  all  the 
deutero-canonical  portions  of  that  prophetical  writing 
form  a  kind  of  appendix  to  its  proto-canonical  con- 
tents in  the  Hebrew  text,  the  present  article  will  deal 
first  with  the  Book  of  Daniel  as  it  is  found  in  the 


DANIEL 


622 


DANIEL 


Hebrew  Bible,  and  next,  with  its  deutero-canonical 
portions. 

Pboto-Canonical  Portions. — (1)  Contents. — ^The 
Book  of  Daniel,  as  it  now  stands  in  the  ordinary 
Hebrew  Bibles,  is  generally  divided  into  two  main 
parts.  The  first  includes  a  series  of  narratives  which 
are  told  in  the  third  person  (chaps,  i-vi),  and  the  sec- 
ond, a  series  of  visions  which  are  described  in  th*^  first 
person  (chaps,  vii-xii).  The  opening  chapter  of  the 
first  series  may  be  considered  as  a  preface  to  the  whole 
work.  It  introduces  to  the  reader  the  Hebrew  heroes 
of  the  book,  Daniel  and  his  three  fellow-captives, 
Ananias,  Misael,  and  Azarias,  and  records  the  manner 
in  which  these  noble  youths  obtained  a  high  rank  in 
Nabuchodonosor's  service,  although  they  had  refused 
to  be  defiled  by  eating  of  the  royal  food.  The  second 
chapiter  relates  a  disquieting  dream  of  the  king  which 
Daniel  alone  was  able  accurately  to  set  forth  and  in- 
terpret. Nabuchodonosor's  dream  was  that  of  a  great 
statue  made  up  of  various  materials  and  broken  in 
pieces  by  a  small  stone  which  became  a  mountain  and 
nlled  the  whole  earth.  Daniel's  interpretation  was  to 
ihe  effect  that  the  several  parts  of  the  statue  with  their 
various  materials  symbolized  as  many  monarchies 
with  their  respective  power,  while  the  stone  which 
destroved  them  and  grew  into  a  great  mountain  pre- 
figiu«d  a  universal  and  everlastmg  kingdom  which 
would  break  in  'pieces  all  the  other  kingdoms,  and 
which,  of  course,  is  no  other  than  that  of  the  Messias. 

The  next  section  (iii,  1-30;  Vulgate,  iii,  1-23,  91- 
97)  narrates  how  Daniel's  three  companions,  having 
refused  to  worship  a  colossal  statue  set  up  by  Nabu- 
chodonosor,  were  cast  into  a  highly-heated  furnace  in 
which  they  were  preserved  unharmed,  whereupon  the 
king  issud  a  decree  in  favour  of  their  God  and  pro- 
moted them  to  places  of  dignity.  The  folio  wing  section 
(iii,  31-iv;  Vulgate,  iii,  98-iv)  contains  Nabuchodo- 
nosor's  letter  to  all  peoples  and  nations,  recounting 
his  dream  of  a  mighty  tree  hewed  down  at  God's 
bidding,  and  its  interpretation  by  Daniel,  together 
with  its  fulfilment  in  the  form  of  a  seven  years^mad- 
ness  which  befell  the  king,  and  the  recovery  from 
which  was  the  occasion  ofhis  thankful  letter.  The 
fifth  chapter  (Heb.  Bible,  v-vi,  1)  describes  Baltasar's 
profane  banquet,  the  mysterious  handwriting  on  the 
wall,  Daniel's  interpretation  of  that  writing,  and  the 
overthrow,  on  that  same  night,  of  Baltasar's  Idngdom. 
In  the  sixth  chapter  Daniel  is  represented  as  the  ob- 
ject of  the  special  favour  of  Darius  the  Mede,  and  also 
of  the  persistent  jealousy  of  the  other  officers  of  the 
Crown,  who  finally  succeed  in  havine  him  thrown  into 
the  lions'  den,  because  of  his  faithfulness  in  praying  to 
God  three  times  a  day ;  upon  Daniel's  miraculous  pres- 
ervation, Darius  decrees  that  all  in  his  kin^om 
should  "dread  and  fear  the  God  of  Daniel". 

The  second  main  part  of  the  book  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible  (vii-xii)  is  taken  up  with  four  visions  which 
Daniel  describes  in  the  first  person.  The  first  of  these 
visions  (ch.  vii)  is  referred  to  the  first  year  of  Baltasar's 
reign,  and  offers  a  close  parallel  to  the  dream  set  forth 
and  explained  in  the  second  chapter  of  the  book.  The 
nightly  vision  was  of  four  several  beasts  coming  out 
of  the  sea,  and  symbolical  of  the  Gentile  powers  judged 
in  due  time  by  "the  Ancient  of  days",  and  finallv  re- 
placed by  the  universal  and  everlasting  Messianic 
Idngdom.  Like  the  first,  the  second  vision  (ch.  viii) 
is  ascribed  to  the  reign  of  Baltasar,  and  represents 
worldly  powers  under  the  figure  of  animals.  Daniel 
sees  a  ram  with  two  horns  (the  Medes  and  the  Per- 
sians) pushing  victoriouslv  towards  the  west,  north, 
and  south,  until  it  is  struck  by  a  he-goat  (the  Greeks) 
with  a  great  bom  (Alexander)  between  its  eyes.  This 
great  horn  is  soon  broken  in  its  turn,  and  gives  place 
to  four  others  (the  Greek  kingdoms  of  Ecypt,  Syria, 
Macedonia,  and  Thraee),  from  one  of  which  grows  out 
a  ''little  hom"^  namely  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  This 
prince  is  not,  mdeed.  named  by  the  Angol  Gabriel, 


who  explains  the  vision  to  Daniel,  but  is  clearly  de^ 
ignated  by  the  description  of  the  doings  of  the  "littie 
horn"  against  the  host  of  heaven  and  its  phnoe  (God), 
desecratmg  "the  sanctuary",  interrupting  the  daily 
sacrifice  for  about  tturee  years  and  a  half,  and  finally 
"broken  without  hand". 

The  next  chapter  contains  the  prophecy  of  the  sev- 
ent^r  wed^,  which  is  referred  to  the  nrst  year  of 
Darius,  the  son  of  Assuerus.  As  Daniel  was  suppli- 
cating God  for  the  fulfilment  of  His  promises  of  mercy 
in  Jeremias,  xxix,  10  sq.,  or  xxv,  11,  he  was  favoured 
with  the  vision  of  the  Angel  Gabriel.  The  heavenly 
messen^  explained  to  him  how  the  seventy  years  U 
desolation  foretold  by  Jeremias  should  be  understood. 
They  are  seventy  weeks  of  years,  falling  into  three 
periods  of  seven:  sixty-two,  and  one  wedcs  of  years, 
respectively.  Tne  firot  period,  one  of  seven  weeks, 
or  forty-nine  vears,  will  extend  from  the  going  forth 
of  "the  worcl"  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  to 
"an  anointed  one,  a  prince".  During  the  second,  of 
sixty-two  weeks  or  four  hundred  and  thirty-four  years, 
the  Holy  Cjty  will  be  built,  though  "in  straitness  of 
times".  At  the  end  of  this  period  "an  anointed  one" 
will  be  cut  off,  and  the  people  of  a  prince  who  shall 
come  will  "destroy"  the  city  and  the  sanctuary;  he 
will  make  a  firm  covenant  with  many  fbr  one  week 
(or  seven  years),  and  during  a  half  of  this  week  he 
will  cause  sacrifice  and  oblation  to  cease  and  the  abom- 
ination of  desolation  to  be  set  up,  imtil  he  meet^s 
with  his  fate.  The  last  vision,  ascribed  to  the  third 
year  of  Cyrus,  is  recorded  in  chapters  x-xii.  Its  opening 
part  (x-xi,  1)  gives  a  description  of  the  vision  with  a 
reference  to  Media,  Persia,  and  Greece.  The  second 
part  (xi,  2-45)  announces  many  events  connected  with 
four  Persian  kings,  with  Alexander  and  his  successors;, 
and  more  particularly  with  the  deeds  of  a  king  of  the 
north,  i.  e.  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  against  Egypt,  the 
Jews,  the  Temple,  etc.,  imtil  he  should  come  to  an  end. 
The  conclusion  of  the  vision  (xii)  declares  how  Michael 
(the  guardian  angel  of  Israel)  will  deliver  the  people. 
Mention  is  made  of  a  resurrection  of  the  dead,  followed 
bv  rewards  and  punishments.  For  1290  days,  or 
about  three  and  one  half  years,  the  daily  sacrifice  will 
cease  and  the  abomination  of  desolation  will  be  set  up. 
Blessed  is  he  who  continues  steadfast  till  1335  da>'s. 

(2)  Object  and  Unity. — ^From  these  contents  it 
readily  appears  that  the  Book  of  Daniel  has  not  for 
its  object  to  give  a  summary  historical  account  of  the 
period  of  the  Babylonian  Exile,  or  of  the  life  of  Daniel 
himself,  since  both  its  parts  profess  to  give  only  a  few 
isolated  facts  connect^  with  either  the  Exile  or  the 
Prophet's  life.  From  the  same  contents  it  can  also 
be  readily  seen  that  the  object  of  that  sacred  writing 
is  not  to  record  in  substance  prophetical  addresses 
similar  to  those  which  make  up  the  works  ascribed  to 
distinct  prophets  in  the  Old-Testament  literature.  In 
res])eet  to  both  matter  and  form,  the  contents  of  the 
Prophecy  of  Daniel  are  of  a  peculiar  kind  which  has 
no  exact  parallel  in  Hohr  Writ,  except  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse of  St.  John.  In  Daniel.  aS  in  this  last  book  of 
the  Bible,  one  is  in  presence  of  contents  whose  general 
purpose  is  undoubtedly  to  comfort  Gkxl's  people  under 
the  ordeal  of  a  cruel  persecution,  chiefly  dv  meaos  of 
symbolical  visions  bearing  on  "the  time  of  the  end". 
This  is  the  obvious  purpose  of  the  four  viaions  re- 
corded in  the  second  part  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  (chapf^. 
vii-xii),  and  also  of  Nabuchodonosor's  dream  as  given 
and  explained  in  the  second  chapter  of  the  first  part 
of  that  inspired  writing:  the  persecution  therein  in 
view  is  that  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  the  Jews 
are  to  be  comforted  by  the  assured  prospect  both  of 
the  fate  that  awaits  their  oppressor  and  of  the  setting 
up  of  God's  universal  and  eternal  kingdonu  Nor  have 
the  narratives  in  chapters  iii-vi  a  different  general 
purpose:  in  each  and  m  all  of  them  the  generous  and 
constant  servants  of  the  true  God — Daniel  and  his 
fellow  captives — triumph  in  the  end,  while  their  oj>- 


DANIKL 


623 


DANIEL 


presBors,  however  mighty  or  numerous,  are  ultimately 
punished  or  made  to  acknowledge  and  promote  the 
glory  of  the  God  of  Israel.  This  apocalyptic  object  of 
uie  Book  of  Daniel  is  admitted  by  most  scholars  of  the 
present  day^  and  is  in  harmony  with  the  place  assigned 
to  that  sacred  writing  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  where  it 
ap|>ear8  not  among  'Hhe  Prophets",  or  second  great 
division  of  the  oripinal  text,  but  among  "the  Writ- 
ing", or  third  mam  division  of  that  text. 

As  apocalyptic  writings  usually  bear  the  impress  of 
compilation,  one  might  not  imnaturally  be  tempted 
to.  regard  the  Book  of  Daniel — whose  apocalyptic 
character  has  just  been  described — as  a  compilatory 
VfTork.  In  fact,  many  scholars  of  the  last  century — 
some  of  whom  were  Uatholic — have  set  forth  positive 
grotmds  to  prove  that  the  author  of  the  book  has  ao 
tually  put  together  such  dociunents  as  could  make  for 
his  general  purpose.  At  the  present  day,  however, 
the  opposite  view,  which  maintains  the  literary  unity 
of  the  Prophecy  of  Daniel,  is  practically  universal.  It 
is  felt  that  the  uniform  plan  of  the  book,  the  studied 
arrangement  of  its  subject-matter,  the  strong  simi- 
larity in  language  of  its  two  main  parts,  etc.  are  ar- 
guments which  tell  very  powerfully  in  favour  of  the 
hitter  position. 

(3)  AiUhonhip  and  Date  of  Comjwsitum. — Once  it 
is  admitted  that  the  Book  of  Daniel  is  the  work  of  one 
single  author,  there  naturally  arises  the  important 
question:  Is  this  sole  writer  the  Prophet  Daniel  who 
composed  the  work  during  the  Exile  (586-536  b.  c), 
or,  on  the  contrary,  some  author,  now  unknown,  who 
wrote  this  inspired  book  at  a  later  date,  which  can 
still  be  made  out?  The  traditional  view,  in  vigour 
chiefly  among  Catholics,  is  to  the  effect  that  the  whole 
work,  asfoumi  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  should  be  directly 
referred  to  Daniel,  whose  name  it  bears.  It  admits, 
indeed,  that  numerous  alterations  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  primitive  text  of  the  book  in  the  course 
of  ages.  It  maintains,  nevertheless,  that  both  the 
narratives  (chaps,  i-vi)  wherein  Daniel  seems  to  be 
described  by  some  one  else  as  acting  as  recorded,  and 
the  symbolic  visions  (chaps,  vii-xu)  wherein  he  de- 
scribe himself  as  favoured  with  heavenly  revelations, 
were  written,  not  simply  by  an  author  who  was  con- 
temporary wit^  that  prophet  and  livM  in  Babylon  in 
the  sixth  century  b.  c,  but  by  Daniel  himself.  Such 
difference  in  the  use  of  persons  is  regarded  as  arising 
naturally  from  the  respective  contents  of  the  two 
parts  of  the  book:  Daniel  employed  the  third  person 
m  recording  events,  for  the  event  is  its  own  witness; 
and  the  fiiit  person  in  relating  prophetical  visions, 
for  such  communications  from  above  need  the  per- 
sonal attestation  of  those  to  whom  they  are  imparted. 
Over  against  this  time-honoured  position  which 
ascribes  to  Daniel  the  authorship  of  the  book  which 
bears  his  name,  and  admits  570-636  b.  c.  hb  its  date 
of  composition,  stands  a  comparatively  recent  theory 
which  nas  been  widely  accepted  by  contemporary 
scholars.  Chiefly  on  tne  basis  of  historical  and  lin- 
guistic mounds,  this  rival  theory  refers  the  origin  of 
the  Book  of  Daniel,  in  its  present  form,  to  a  later 
writer  and  period.  It  regaras  that  apocalyptic  writ- 
ing as  the  work  of  an  unlmown  author  who  composed 
it  during  the  period  of  the  Machabees,  and  more  pre- 
cisely in  the  time  of  Antiochus  IV,  Epiphanes  (175- 
164  B.  c). 

The  following  are  the  extrinsic  testimonies  which 
conservative  scholars  usually  and  confidently  set 
forth  as  proving  that  the  Book  of  Daniel  must  be  re- 
ferred to  the  well-known  Prophet  of  that  name  and 
consequently  to  a  much  eariier  date  than  that  advo- 
cate by  their  opponents.  Christian  tradition,  both 
in  the  Kast  and  in  the  West,  has  been  practically 
unanimous  from  (Sirist's  time  to  the  present  day  in 
admitting  the  genuineness  of  the  Book  of  Daniel.  Its 
testimony  is  chiefly  based  on  Matthew,  xxiv,  15: 
"  When  uieref  ore  you  shall  see  the  abomination  of  des- 


olation, which  was  spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  propheli 
standing  in  the  holy  place:  he  that  readeth  let  him 
understand",  in  which  passage-  Christ  treats  Daniel's 
visions  as  true  oracles,  and  expressly  names  that 
Prophet  as  their  writer.  In  so  doing,  it  is  argued^ 
Christ  endorsed  and  confirmed  by  His  authority  the 
view  which  was  then  received  among  the  Jews,  and 
which  regarded  Daniel  as  the  author  of  the  book 
which  bears  his  name.  Jewish  tradition,  both  during 
and  before  Christ's  time,  bears  also  distinct  witness  to 
the  genuineness  of  the  Prophecy  of  Daniel.  In  his 
"Antiquities  of  the  Jews"  (Bk.  XI,  ch.  viii,  §5),  the 
learned  Jewish  priest  and  Pharisee,  Josephus  (about 
A.  D.  40-^100),  writes:  "When  the  Book  of  Daniel  was 
shown  to  Alexander  the  Great  (d.  b.  c.  323),  wherein 
Daniel  declared  that  one  of  the  Greeks  should  destroy 
the  empire  of  the  Persians,  he  supposed  that  himself 
was  the  person  intended ' '.  Before  the  Christian  Era, 
the  First  Book  of  the  Machabees  (written  very  eariy  in 
the  first  century  b.  c.)  shows  acquaintance  with  the 
Septuagint  version  of  the  Prophecy  of  Daniel  (cf. 
I  Mach.,  i,  54,  with  Dan.,  ix,  27;  I  Mach.,  ii,  59,  60, 
with  Dan.,  iii,  vi),  whence  it  is  inferred  (1)  that  at  that 
date  the  Book  of  Daniel  must  have  been  for  some  con- 
siderable time  rendered  into  Greek;  and  (2)  that  its 
composition  must  have  preceded  this  translation  by 
some  considerable  time  more,  so  that  its  origin  imder 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  is  hardly  probable.  Again,  the 
Sibylline 'Oracles  (Bk.  Ill,  verses  388  sqq.),  supposed 
to  have  been  written  about  170  b.  c,  contain  an  allu- 
sion to  Antiochus  IV,  and  to  the  ten  horns  of  Dan., 
vii,  7,  24,  and  therefore  point  to  an  earlier  date  than 
that  which  is  proposed  by  the  advocates  of  the  recent 
theory.  More  particularly  still,  the  Septuagint  trans- 
lation of  the  Pentateuch,  made  about  285  b.  c,  ex- 
hibits in  Deut.,  xxxii,  8,  a  doctrine  of  guardian  angels 
which  it  has  apparently  borrowed  from  the  Book  of 
Daniel,  and  thus  tends  to  prove  the  existence  of  that 
inspired  writing  long  before  the  time  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  Finally,  according  to  Josephus  (Ck>ntra 
Apion,  VIII),  the  Old  Testament  Canon  of  the  Jews  of 
Palestine,  which  has  always  included  Daniel  among 
"the  Writings",  was  closed  by  Esdras  (middle  of  the 
fifth  century  b.  c.)f  that  is  to  say,  at  a  date  so  near  the 
composition  of  the  book  that  its  genuineness  could 
then  be  easily  ascertained,  and  would  naturally  be  the 
reason  for  the  insertion  of  the  work  into  the  Pales- 
tinian Canon. 

To  strengthen  the  inference  drawn  from  these  ex- 
ternal testimonies,  conservative  scholars  appeal  to  the 
following  direct  and  indirect  intrinsio  grounds. 
Throughout  the  second  part  of  his  book  Daniel  speaks 
in  the  nrst  person  and  thereby  gives  himself  impucitly 
as  the  writer  cf  chapters  vii-xii.  Nay  more,  in  the 
words:  "Then  he  [Daniel]  wrote  the  dream  and  told 
the  sum  of  the  matters",  we  have  a  statement  which 
ascribes  expressly  to  him  the  writing  of  the  first  vision 
(chap,  vii)  and,  implicitly,  that  of  the  subtsequent 
visions,  which  are  indissolubly  bound  up  with  the 
opening  one.  Now,  if  the  visions  descnoed  in  the 
second  part  of  the  book  were  recorded  by  Daniel  him- 
self, the  same  thing  must  be  admitted  in  regard  to 
narratives  which  make  up  the  first  part  of  the  book 
(chaps,  i-vi),  because  of  the  acknowledged  unity  of 
the  work.  And  in  this  way  direct  intrinsic  evidence 
is  considered  as  making  for  the  Danielle  authorship. 
The  indirect  intrinsic  grounds  point  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, inasmuch  as  they  tend  to  show  that  the  author 
of  the  Book  of  Daniel  was  (1)  a  resident  in  Babylon; 
(2)  one  who  wrote  in  the  period  to  which  the  Prophet 
Daniel  belonged;  and  (3)  one  who  is  best  identified 
with  that  Prophet  himself.  The  first  of  these  posi- 
tions, it  is  said,  is  borne  out  by  the  close  acquaintance 
which  the  author  evinces  in  the  historical  portion  of 
the  work  (chaps,  i-vi)  with  the  manners,  customs,  his- 
tory, religion,  etc.  of  the  Babylonians!  the  minute 
details  he  refers  to,  the  local  colouring  of  his  descrip- 


danul 


624 


dabthl 


tions,  hiB  exact  references  to  facts,  are  such  as  only  a 
resident  in  Babylon  could  be  fairly  supposed  to  pos- 
sess. It  is  likewise  borne  out  by  a  comparison  of  the 
form  of  Daniel's  prophecies  in  chapters  vii-xii  with  the 
general  surroundings  of  one  livm^  in  Babylon  and 
with  the  Babylonian  monuments  m  particular:  the 
imagery  of  Daniel's  vision  in  the  seventh  chapter,  for 
instance,  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  found  on  monu- 
ments in  the  ruins  of  Ninive;  and  in  chapters  viii,  2 
(Ileb.  text),  and  x,  4,  the  river-banks  are  most  appropri- 
ately given  as  the  scenes  of  Daniel's  visions.  While 
thus  very  familiar  with  Babylonia,  the  author  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel  betrays  no  such  special  knowledge  of 
Persia  and  Greece  as  would  be  natural  to  expect  if, 
instead  of  living  in  the  sixth  century  b.  c,  he  had  been 
a  contemporary  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

This  absence  of  distinct  knowledge  of  the  times 
subsequent  to  the  Babylonian  period  has  sometimes 
been  urged  to  prove  the  second  position,  viz.  that  the 
writer  belonged  to  that  period,  and  to  no  other. 
Oftener,  however,  and  more  strongly,  the  linguistic 
features  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  have  been  brought 
forth  to  establish  that  second  position.  It  has  been 
affirmed,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  Hebrew  of  Daniel, 
with  its  numerous  Aramaisms,  bears  a  close  affinity  to 
that  of  Ezechiel,  and  is  therefore  that  of  the  period  of 
the  Exile ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  Aramaic 
portions  of  Daniel  (ii,  4~vii)  are  in  wonderful  agree- 
ment with  those  of  Esdras,  while  they  are  distin- 
guished by  many  Hebrew  idioms  from  the  language 
of  the  earliest  Aramaic  paraphrases  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. In  particular,  the  easy  transition  from  the 
Hebrew  to  the  Aramaic  (ii,  4),  and  the  reverse  (viii, 
1  sqq.),  is  explicable,  we  are  told,  only  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  writer  and  the  readers  of  the  book  were 
equally  familiar  with  both ;  this  free  handling  of  both 
languages  suits  not  the  Machabean  age  but  that  of 
Daniel,  or  of  the  Exile,  in  which  both  toneues  were 
naturally  in  equal  use.  The  intrinsic  groun«lB  making 
for  the  last  position,  viz.  that  the  author  of  the  Book 
of  Daniel  is  best  identified  with  the  Prophet  of  that 
name,  may  be  summed  up  in  this  simple  statement: 
while  no  other  seer  during  the  Babylonian  Exile  has 
been,  and  indeed  can  be,  named  as  the  probable 
recorder  of  the  visions  described  in  that  inspired 
writing,  Daniel,  owing  to  his  position  at  the  court  of 
Babvlon,  to  his  initiation  into  the  wisdom  of  the 
Chaldees,  and  to  the  problem  of  his  calling  as  God  had 
shown  it  to  him,  was  eminentlv  fitted  at  that  time  for 
writing  the  prophecies  which  had  been  imparted  to 
him  for  the  comfort  of  the  Jews  of  his  time  and  of 
subsequent  ages. 

Scholars  who  have  examined  closely  and  without 
bias  the  details  of  the  foregoing  external  and  internal 
evidence  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  this  evi- 
dence shows  that  rationalistic  critics  are  decidedly 
wrong  in  denying  totally  the  historical  character  of 
the  Book  of  Daniel.  At  the  same  time,  manj'-  among 
them  still  question  the  absolute  cogency  of  the  ex- 
trinsic and  intrinsic  grounds  set  forth  to  prove  the 
Danielic  authorship.  These  latter  scholars  rightly 
reject  as  untrue  the  statement  of  Josephus,  which  re- 
fers the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon  to  the  time 
of  Esdras;  and  in  the  well-known  bias  of  the  same 
Jewish  historian  for  magnifying  whatever  concerns  his 
nation  they  have  a  valid  reason  for  doubting  his  as- 
sertion that  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  were  shown  to 
Alexander  the  Great  when  this  prince  passed  through 
Palestine.  The  alleged  reference  to  Daniel's  expres- 
sions in  the  Septuagint  version  of  Deuteronomy  they 
easily  explain  as  a  later  gloss,  and  the  actual  acquaint- 
ance of  the  First  Book  of  the  Machabees  with  the 
Prophecv  of  Daniel  they  not  unnaturally  regard  as 
compatible  with  the  non-Danielic  authorship,  and  in- 
deed with  the  composition  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  in  the 
time  of  Antioohiis  IV.  As  regards  the  last  external 
testimony  in  favour  of  the  genuineness  of  that  sacred 


writing,  vis.  Christ's  words  oonoeming  Daniel  aod 
his  prophecy,  these  same  scholars  think  that,  without 
0oing  against  the  reverence  due  to  Christ's  Person,  and 
tne  credence  due  His  words,  they  have  a  ri^t  not  to 
consider  the  passa^  appealed  to  m  Matt.,  xdv,  15,  as 
absolutely  conclusive:  Jesus  does  not  say  explicitly 
that  Daniel  wrote  the  prophecies  that  hesr  his  name; 
to  infer  this  from  His  words  is  to  assume  something 
which  may  well  be  questioned,  vis.  that  in  referring 
to  the  contents  of  a  book  of  Holy  Writ,  He  neceasarily 
confirmed  the  traditional  view  of  His  day  concerning 
authorship;  in  point  of  fact,  many  scnolarB  whose 
behef  in  Christ's  truthfulness  and  Divinity  is  beyond 
ouestion — such  Catholics,  for  instance,  as  Father 
Souciet,  S.  J.,  Bishop  Hannebeiig,  Francois  Lenormant, 
and  others — have  thought  that  Christ's  reference  to 
Daniel  in  Matt.,  xxiv,  15,  does  not  bear  out  the  DanieUc 
authorship  as  it  is  claimed  by  conservative  schol&rs 
chiefly  on  the  basis  of  His  words. 

Having  thus  shown,  to  their  own  satisfactioD,  the 
inconclusive  character  of  the  external  evidence,  or 
mainstfi^  in  favour  of  the  traditional  view,  the  oppo- 
nents of  the  Danielic  authorship  endeavour  to  prove 
that  internal  evidence  points  decisively  to  Uie  late 
origin  which  they  ascribe  to  the  Book  of  Daniel. 
Briefly  stated,  the  following  are  their  princ^al  argu- 
ments. As  it  is  now  foimd  in  the  Hebrew  fiible,  the 
Book  of  Daniel  contains  historical  references  which 
tend  to  prove  that  its  author  is  not  an  eyewitness  of 
the  events  alluded  to,  as  would  be  the  case  if  he  were 
the  Prophet  Daniel.  Had  this  author  lived  during 
the  Exile,  it  is  argued,  he  would  not  have  stated  that 
*'  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Joakim,  king  of  Juda. 
Nabuchodonosor,  king  of  Babylon,  came  to  Jerusalem, 
and  besieged  it"  (Dan.,  i,  1),  since  this  conflicts  with 
Jeremias,  xxxvi,  9,  29;  he  would  not  have  repeatedly 
used  the  word  ''Chaldeans"  as  the  name  of  a  learned 
caste,  this  sense  being  foreign  to  the  Assyro-Babylonian 
language,  and  of  an  oriran  later  than  the  Exile;  he 
would  not  have  spoken  of  Baltasar  as  ''king"  (y,  1, 2, 
3,  5,  etc.,  viii,  1),  asHhe  "son  of  Nabuchodonosor" 
(v,  2,  18,  etc.),  since  it  is  ascertained  that  Baltasar 
was  never  king,  and  that  neither  he  nor  lus  father  had 
any  blood-relationship  to  Nabuchodonosor;  he  would 
have  avoided  trfb  statement  that  '^Darius  the  Mede 
succeeded  to  the  kingdom"  of  Baltasar  (v.  31),  since 
there  is  no  room  for  such  a  ruler  between  Nabonahid, 
Baltasar's  father,  and  Cyrus,  the  conqueror  of  Baby- 
lon; he  could  not  have  spoken  of  "the  Books"  (Dan., 
ix,  2 — Heb.  text),  an  expression  which  implies  that 
the  prophecies  of  Jeremias  formed  part  of  a  well- 
known  collection  of  sacred  books,  which  assuredly 
was  not  the  case  in  the  time  of  Nabuchodonosor  and 
Cyrus,  etc.  The  linguistic  features  of  the  book,  as  it 
exists  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  point  also,  it  is  said,  to  a 
date  later  than  that  of  Darnel:  its  Hebrew  is  of  the 
distinctly  late  type  which  followed  Ndiemias'  time; 
in  both  its  Hebrew  and  its  Aramaic  portions  there  are 
Persian  words,  and  at  least  three  Greek  words,  which 
of  course  should  be  referred  to  a  period  later  than  the 
Babylonian  Exile. 

Not  satisfied  with  the  merely  negative  inference 
that  the  Book  of  Daniel  was  not  composed  during  the 
Captivity,  the  opponents  of  the  Danielic  authorship 
strive  to  reach  a  positive  conclusion  as  to  the  date  of 
its  origin.  For  this  purpose,  they  examine  the  con- 
tents of  that  inspired  writing,  and  they  think  that  by 
viewing  both  its  parts  in  the  Hght  of  history,  they  are 
led  to  refer  definitely  its  composition  to  the  time  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.  It  can  oe  readilv  seen,  we  are 
told,  that  the  interest  of  the  visions  which  make  up 
the  second  part  of  Daniel  culminates  in  the  relations 
subsisting  between  the  Jews  and  Antiochus.  It  is 
this  prince  who  manifestly  is  the  subject  of  Dan., 
viii,  9-13,  23-25,  and  who  is  very  probably  "the  little 
horn  "  spoken  of  in  Dan.,  vii,  8, 20, 21 ,  26,  while  events 
of  his  reign  are  apparently  described  in  Dan.,  ix,  2^- 


danul 


625 


DAHXU. 


jST.  and  undoubtedly  so  in  xi,  21-45;  zii,  6,  7.  10>12. 
Wnoever  bears  this  in  mind,  it  is  an^ued,  is  lea  by  the 
analogy  of  Scripture  to  admit  that  the  book  belongs  to 
the  period  of  Antiochus.    The  rule  is  that "  even  when 
the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament  deliver  a  Divine 
message  for  far  distant  days,  they  have  in  view  the 
needs  of  the  people  of  their  own  day.    They  rebuke 
their  sins,  they  comfort  their  sorrows,  they  strengthen 
their  hopes,  they  banish  their  fears.    But  of  all  this 
there  is  no  trace  in  Daniel,  if  the  book  was  written  in 
the  time  of  C3rru8.    Its  message  is  avowedly  for  the 
time  of  the  end,  for  the  period  of  Antiochus  and  the 
M&chabees''.    And  this  inference  is  confirmed  by  the 
fact  that  the  narratives  told  in  the  first  part,  when 
studied  in  reference  to  the  events  of  Antiocnus's  reign, 
are  found  to  impart  lessons  especially  suited  to  the 
Jews  of  that  period.    The  question  of  eating  meat 
(Dan.,  i.  8  sqq.)  was  at  that  time  a  test  of  faith  (cf. 
I  Mach.,  i,  65  sq.;  II  Mach.,  vi,  18  sqq.;  vii).     The 
lessons   of  the   fiery  furnace    and   the  lions'   den 
(Dan.,  iii,  vi)  were  most  appropriate  in  the  time  of 
the  Machabees  when  the  Jews  were  ordered  on  the 
pain  of  death  to  worship  foreign  deities  (cf.  I  Mach., 
i,  43-54).    The  accounts  of  the  humbling  of  Nabu- 
chodonosor  (Dan.,  iv)  and  the  fate  of  Baltasar  (Dan., 
v)  were  also  particularly  calculated  to  comfort  the 
Jews  so  cruelly  oppressed  by  Antiochus  and  his  offi- 
cere.    Such  a  view  of  the  date  of  the  Book  of  Daniel 
is  in  harmony  with  the  apocalyptic  character  of  the 
whole  work,  and  can  be  confirmea,  it  is  said,  by  certain 
facts  in  the  external  history  of  the  book,  such  for  in- 
stance  as  its  place  among  "the  Writings"  in  the  Pales- 
tinian Canon,  the  absence  of  all  traces  of  Daniel's 
influence  upon  the  post-exilic  literature  before  the 
Machabean  period,  etc.    Despite  the  fact  that  some 
of  these  arguments  against  tne  Danielic  authorship 
have  not  yet  been  fully  disproved,  Catholic  scholars 
generally  abide  by  the  traditional  view,  although  they 
are  not  bound  to  it  by  any  decision  of  the  Church. 

(4)  Prophecy  ojthe  Seventy  Weeks. — Several  sections 
of  the  Book  of  Daniel  contain  Messianic  predictions 
the  general  import  of  w^hich  has  been  sufficiently 
pointed  out  in  setting  forth  the  contents  and  object 
of  that  inspired  writmg.  One  of  these  predictions, 
however,  claims  a  further  notice,  owing  to  the  special 
interest  connected  with  its  contents.  It  is  known  as 
the  prophecy  of  the  seventy  weeks,  and  is  found  in 
an  obscure  passage  (ix,  24-27),  of  which  the  following 
is  a  literal  rendering:  "24.  Seventy  weeks  [literally, 
heptads]  have  been  decreed  upon  thv  people  and  thy 
holy  city,  to  close  transgression  and  to  naake  an  end 
of  sins,  and  to  expiate  iniquity,  and  to  bring  in  ever- 
lasting righteousness,  and  to  seal  vision  and  prophet, 
and  to  anoint  a  most  holy  [literally:  holineaa  of  holi- 
nessef].  25.  Know  then  and  discern:  from  the  going 
forth  of  the  word  to  build  again  Jerusalera  until  an 
anointed  one,  a  prince,  [there  are]  seven  weeks,  and 
for  sixty-two  weeks  it  shall  be  built  again  [with]  broad 
place  and  moat,  and  that  in  straitness  of  times.  26. 
And  after  the  sixty-two  weeks  an  anointed  one  will 
be  cut  off  and  he  will  have  no  .  .  .  [Heb.  yp  |K1;  Sept. 
kqX  odK  #rrat];  and  the  people  of  a  prince  who  shall 
come  will  destroy  the  city  and  the  sanctuary,  and  the 
end  thereof  [will  be]  in  a  flood,  and  until  the  end  [shall 
he]  war,  a  sentence  of  desolations.  27.  He  will  make 
a  nrm  covenant  with  many  for  a  week,  and  for  half  a 
week  he  shall  cause  sacrifice  and  oblation  to  cease, 
and  instead  thereof  [1^3  f)j;,  a  more  probable  reading 
than  the  present  one:  5|i3  f)j;  'upon  the  wing']  the 
abomination  that  makes  desolate,  and  that  until  the 
consummation  and  that  w^hich  is  determined  be 
poured  upon  the  desolator." 

The  difficulty  of  rendering  this  passage  of  the  He- 
brew text  is  only  surpassed  by  that  of  interpreting  its 
contente.  Most  commentators  admit,  indeed,  that 
the  seventy  weeks  are  weeks  of  years,  which  fall  into 
three  periods  of  7,  62,  and  1,  weeks  of  years,  respec- 
IV.- 


tively,  but  they  are  still  at  variance  with  regard  to 
botii  the  exact  starting  point  and  the  precise  terminus 
of  the  seventy  weeks.  Most  of  them,  too,  regard  the 
prophecy  of  me  seventy  weeks  as  having  a  Messianic 
reference,  but  even  all  Catholic  interpreters  do  not 
agree  as  to  the  precise  nature  of  this  reference,  some 
among  them,  after  Hardouin,  S.  J.,  Calmet,  O.  S.  B., 
ete. ,  seeing  in  the  contents  of  the  prophecy  a  typical  ref« 
erenoe  to  Christ,  in  preference  to  the  literal  one  which 
has  been,  and  is  stul,  more  prevalent  in  the  Church. 
Briefly  stated,  the  following  are  the  three  principal 
interpretations  which  have  been  piven  by  Dan.,  ix, 
24-27.  The  first  is  the  ancient  view,  which  may  be 
called  traditional,  and  which  maintains  that  the 
prophecy  of  the  seventy  weeks  refers  directly  to  the 
appearance  of  Christ  in  the  flesh.  His  death,  His  es- 
tablishment of  the  New  Covenant,  and  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans.  The  second  is  that  oi 
most  recent  scholars,  chiefly  non-Catholic,  who  refer 
the  whole  passage  directly  to  the  time  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  with  (Cliristians  generally)  or  without 
(Rationsdists  at  large)  a  typical  reference  to  Christ. 
The  third  is  that  of  some  Fathers  of  the  Church  and 
some  recent  theologians  who  imderstand  the  prophecy 
in  an  eschatologicaT  sense,  as  a  prediction  of  tne  devel- 
opment of  the  Kingdom  of  God  from  the  end  of  the 
£jdle  to  the  fulfilment  of  that  kingdom  at  Christ's 
second  Advent. 

(5)  Text  and  PrincCpal  Ancient  Versuma. — One  of 
the  chief  reasons  of  the  obscurity  which  smroirnds  the 
interpretation  of  Dan.,  ix,  24-27,  is  foimd  in  the  im- 

g^ife^Tt  condition  in  which  the  original  text  of  the 
ook  of  Daniel  has  come  to  us.  Not  only  in  the 
Qhecy  of  the  seventy  weeks,  but  also  throughout 
its  Hebrew  (Dan.,  i-ii.  4;  viii-xii)  and  its  Arar 
maic  (ii,  4-vii)  sections,  tnat  text  betrays  various 
defects  which  it  is  easier  to  notice  and  to  point  out 
than  to  correct.  Linguistics,  the  context,  and  the 
ancient  translations  of  Daniel  are  most  of  the  time 
insufficient  guides  towards  the  sure  restoration  of  the 
primitive  r^ing.  The  oldest  of  these  translations 
18  the  Greek  version  known  as  the  Septuagint,  whose* 
text  has  come  down  to  us,  not  in  its  original  form,  but 
in  that  given  to  it  by  Origen  (died  about  a.  d.  254)  for 
the  composition  of  his  Hexapla.  Before  this  revision 
by  Origen,  the  text  of  the  Septuagint  was  regarded  as  so 
unreliable,  because  of  its  freedom  in  rendering,  and 
of  the  alterations  which  had  been  introduced  into  it 
etc.,  that,  during  the  second  century  of  our  era,  it 
was  discarded  by  the  Church,  which  adopted  in  its 
stead  the  Greek  version  of  Daniel  made  in  that  same 
century  by  the  Jewish  proselyte,  Theodotion.  This 
version  of  Theodotion  was  apparently  a  skilful  revi- 
sion of  the  Septuagint  by  means  of  the  original  text, 
and  is  the  one  embodied  in  the  authentic  edition  of 
the  Septuagint  published  by  Sixtus  V  in  1587.  In 
Dr.  H.  B.  Swete^s  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  Origen's 
revision  and  Theodotion's  version  are  conveniently 
printed  side  by  side  on  opposite  pages  (vol.  Ill,  pp. 
498  sqq.).  The  version  of  the  proto-canonical  por- 
tions of  the  Book  of  Daniel  in  the  Latin  Vulgate  is 
St.  Jerome's  rendering  from  practically  the  same  He- 
brew and  Aramaic  text  as  is  found  in  the  current 
Hebrew  Bibles. 

Deutero-Canonical  Portions. — ^The  Hebrew  and 
Aramaic  sections  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  thus  far  dealt 
\iith,  are  the  only  ones  found  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  and 
recognized  by  Protestants  as  sacred  and  canonical. 
But  besides  those  sections,  the  Vulgate,  the  Greek 
translations  of  Daniel  (Septuagint  and  Theodotion), 
together  with  other  ancient  and  modem  versions,  eon- 
tain  three  important  portions,  which  are  deutero- 
canonical.  These  are:  (1)  the  Prayer  of  Azarias  and 
the  Song  of  the  Three  Children,  usually  inserted  in  the 
third  chapter  between  the  twenty-third  and  the 
twenty-fourth  verses;  (2)  the  history  of  Susanna, 
foimd  as  ch.  xiii,  at  the  end  of  the  book;  (3)  the  his- 


DAKin. 


626 


DAHIXL 


tory  of  the  destruction  of  Bel  and  the  dragon,  termi- 
nating the  book  as  ch.  xiv.  The  first  of  these  frag- 
ments (Dan.,  iii,  24-00)  consists  of  a  prayer  in  which 
Azarias,  standing  in  the  midst  of  the  furnace,  asks 
that  God  may  deliver  him  and  his  companions,  Ana^ 
nias  and  Misael,  and  put  their  enemies  to  shame 
(verses  24-45);  a  brief  notice  of  the  fact  that  the 
Angel  of  the  Lord  saved  the  Three  Children  from  all 
harm,  whereas  the  flame  consumed  the  Chaldeans 
above  the  furnace  (46-50);  and  a  doxology  (52-56) 
leading  on  to  the  hymn  familiarly  known  as  the  **  Bene- 
dicite'^  (57-90).  The  second  fragment  (ch.  xiii)  tells 
the  history  of  Susanna.  She  was  the  faithful  wife  of 
a  wealthy  Jew  named  Joakim,  and  resident  in  Baby- 
lon. Accused  falsely  of  adultery  by  two  unworthy 
elders  w^hose  criminal  advances  she  had  repelled,  she 
was  sentenced  to  death  by  the  tribunal  before  which 
she  had  been  arraigned.  As  Susanna  waa  led  forth 
to  execution,  Daniel,  moved  by  God,  remonstrated 
with  the  people  upon  permitting  without  sufficient 
inquiry  the  condemnation  of  a  daughter  of  Israel. 
He  examined  himself  the  two  pretended  witnesses 
separately,  and  proved  their  testimony  to  be  self- 
contradictory.  In  fulfilment  of  the  I^w  of  Moses 
(Deut.,  xix,  18,  19),  the  two  elders  were  put  to  death, 
"and  Daniel  became  great  in  the  sight  of  the  people 
from  that  day,  and  thenceforward."  The  last  deutero- 
canonical  part  of  Daniel  (ch.  xiv)  contains  the  narra- 
tive of  the  destruction  of  Bel  and  the  dragon.  It  re- 
countfi  first  the  clever  manner  in  which  Daniel  unde- 
ceived the  kine,  Cyrus,  who  regarded  a  Babylonian 
idol,  called  Bel,  as  "a  living  god"  that  actually  ate 
ample  offerings,  whereas  these  were  really  consumed 
at  night  by  the  pa^an  priests  and  their  families:  in 
consequenoe,  these  impostors  were  put  to  death,  and 
Bel  arid  its  temple  destroyed.  It  records,  in  the  sec- 
ond place,  how  Daniel  caused  to  die  a  great  dragon 
that  the  Babylonians  worshipped,  and  that  the  king 
wished  him  to  adore  as  "a  living  god".  Enraged  at 
this,  the  people  forced  the  king^  to  deliver  Daniel  to 
them,  and  cast  the  Prophet  into  a  lions'  den.  Daniel 
'remained  there  unharmed  for  six  days,  and  fed  by  the 
prophet  Habacuc  who  was  miraculously  transported 
from  Judea  to  Babylon.  On  the  seventh  day,  the 
king  having  found  Daniel  alive  in  the  midst  of  the 
lions,  praised  aloud  the  God  of  Daniel  and  delivered 
the  Prophet's  accusers  to  the  fate  which  Daniel  had 
miraculouslv  escaped. 

The  Greek  is,  indeed,  the  oldest  form  under  which 
these  deutero-canonical  parts  of  the  Book  of  Daniel 
have  come  down  to  us;  out  this  is  no  decisive  proof 
that  they  were  composed  in  that  language.  In  fact, 
the  greater  probability  is  in  favour  of  a  Hebrew  or^- 
nal  no  longer  extant.  It  is  plain  that  the  view  which 
regards  these  three  fragments  as  not  oricinallv  written 
in  Greek  makes  it  easier  to  suppose  that  they  were 
from  the  beginning  integrant  parts  of  the  book.  Yet, 
it  does  not  settle  the  question  of  their  date  and  author- 
ship. It  is  readily  granted  by  conservative  scholars 
(Vigoiux)Ux,  Gilly,  etc.)  that  the  last  two  are  probably 
from  a  different  and  later  author  than  the  rest  of  the 
book;  while  it  is  maintained,  on  the  contrary,  by 
nearly  all  Catholic  writers,  that  the  Prayer  of  Azarias 
and  the  Song  of  the  Three  Children  caimot  be  dis- 
sociated from  the  preceding  and  the  following  context 
in  Dan.,  iii,  and  that  therefore  they  should  be  referred 
to  the  time  of  Daniel,  if  not  to  that  Prophet  himself. 
In  reality,  there  are  wellnigh  insuperable  difficulties  to 
such  an  early  date  for  Dan.,  iii,  24-90,  so  that  this 
fragment  also,  like  the  other  two,  should  most  likely 
be  ascribed  to  some  unknown  Jewish  author  who  lived 
long  after  the  Exile.  Lastly,  although  the  deutero- 
canonical  portions  of  Daniel  seem  to  contain  anachro- 
nisms, they  should  not  be  treated — as  was  done  by 
St.  Jerome — as  mere  fables.  More  sober  scholarship 
will  readily  admit  that  they  embody  oral  or  written 
traditions  not  altogether  devoid  of  historical  value. 


But,  whatever  may  be  thou^t  oonoeming  those  lit- 
erary or  historical  questions,  there  cannot  oe  the  least 
doubt  that  in  decreeing  the  sacred  and  canonical  char- 
acter of  these  fragments  the  Council  of  Trent  pro- 
claimed the  ancient  and  morally  unanimoua  belief  of 
the  Church  of  God. 

Commentariea: — Catholie:  Rohlino  (Mains,  1876);  Tko- 
CBON  (Paris.  1882) :  Fabrb  d'Envosu  (Paris.  1889) ;  Kmabck- 
BAUER  (Paris,  1801).  Protestant:  Meixhold.  (NdrdUngeD. 
1889);  Bevan  (Cambridge,  1892):  Behrmakn  (CS^^ftinfren. 
1894) ;  Prince  (New  York,  1899) ;  Driteb  (Cambridge,  19001 ; 
Marti  (Freiburs  im  Br.»  1901);  Wrxobt  (London,  1906). 
Introductions  to  the  Old  rMtamm/:— Catholic :  Rault  (4th  e<i.. 
Parifi,  1882):  Vigouroux  (5th  ed.,  Paris.  1888);  Corxelt 
(Paris.  1886);  Trocbomt-LesAtrb  (Paris,  1890);  Kavuk 
(4th  ed.,  FreibuTg  im  Br..  1899);  Gioot  (New  York,  1906). 
Protestant:  Kf.il  (tr.  E<UnbiiziKh.  1882) ;  Bleek-Wkixbacskjc 
(6th  ed.,  Berlin.  1893);  DnrvxR  (9th  ed.,  New  Yoric,  1899>; 
CoRNiLL  (tr.  New  York,  1906). 

Francis  E.  Gioot. 

Daniel,  Charles,  b.  31  Dec.,  1818,  at  Beauvais, 
France;  d.  1  Jan.,  1893,  at  Paris.  He  joined  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus  in  1841,  was  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the 
novitiate  at  Samt  Acheiii,  and  in  1867,  with  the 
assistance  of  Father  Gagarin,  founded  the  "Ktudes 
de  th^ologie  et  d'  histoire",  a  maeazine  that  soon 
became  a  monthly  publication.  Father  Daniel  edited 
it  with  ability  until  1870.  He  was  a  man  of  extensive 
and  accurate  learning,  of  unquestionable  taste,  and  he 
had  an  unusually  receptive  and  assimilative  mind.  He 
contributed  to  the  "Etudes"  many  articles  on  |>hflo- 
sophical  subjects:  "Optimism"  (1859),  "Positivism" 
(1860),  "Leibniz  and  Saisset"  (1861),  "The  Vatican 
Council"  (1869-1870);  "Protestantism:  the  Crisis  of 
Protestantism  in  France"  (1862),  "The  Organisation 
of  Protestants  in  France"  (1863);  biographies  of 
P^re  Beauregard  (1868),  Mme.  Swetchine  (1864),  Ch. 
Lenormand  (1860),  and  P.  L4on  Duooudray,  mart3rT 
of  the  Paris  Commune  (1892). 

Other  more  important  works  are:  "  Des  Etudes  elas- 
siques  dans  la  soci^t^  Chr^tienne"  (1853);  "Histoire 
de  la  bienheureuse  Marguerite  Marie  et  des  origines 
de  la  devotion  au  Sacr^Coeur"  (1865),  translated  into 
Italian,  Polish,  and  Chinese;  "La  vie  du  P.  Alexis 
CierCf  marin  et  J^sxiite"  (1876,  En^ish  tr.,  New 
York,  1880),  and  "Les  J^suites  instituteurs  de  la 
jeunesse  au  XVIP  et  au  XVIIP  si^le"  (1880).  His 
"Questions  actuelles:  religion,  philosophic,  lustoire, 
art  et  litt^rature  '*  is  preceded  by  a  sketch  of  the 
author  by  Fathers  Mercier  and  Fontaine,  S.  J. 
(Poitiers,  1895). 

pE  ScoRRAiLLB  in  Eludes  (1883),  I;  SoifMKBvooei..  BtbLdela 
c.  de  «/.,  IX,  supplement  and  a  notice  by  Mkrcier. 

J.  LlONNST. 

Daniel,  Gabriel,  historian  and  controversialist,  b. 
at  Rouen,  France,  8  Feb.,  1649;  d.  at  Paris,  23  June, 
1728.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Paris  in 
1667,  and  after  making  his  last  vows  at  Rennes,  1683, 
was  assigned  to  the  professed  house  of  Paris  ^ere  his 
extraorainary  talents  resulted  in  his  being  appointed 
historiographer  of  France  by  Louis  XIV.  Of  the  pub- 
lished writmgs  of  Father  Daniel,  consisting  of  philo- 
sophical, theological,  and  historical  treatises,  many 
have  been  translatea  into  German,  English,  Spanish, 
Italian,  and  Latin.  In  the  first  class  perhaps  the 
most  famous  was  the  oft-reprinted  "Voyi^  du 
monde  de  Descartes",  a  refutation  of  the  vortex  the> 
ory  of  that  philosopher.  His  refutation  of  Pascal's 
"Provincial  Xetters",  which  imderwent  several  re- 
visions and  reprints,  and  his  published  correspondence 
with  Natalis  Alexander  respecting  the  Dominican  and 
Jesuit  doctrines  of  Probabilism,  Grace,  Predestin- 
ation, etc.,  stand  out  conspicuously  among  his  the- 
ological works.  He  published  also  many  shorter 
works,  principally  against  the  Jansenists,  and  one 
volume  of  a  projected  course  of  theology  for  seminaries. 

But  it  is  as  the  author  of  the  celebrated  "Histoire 
de  France"  that  Father  Daniel  has  achieved  his  most 


DANIEL 


627 


DAVSARA 


lasting  fame.  This  work  in  seventeen  volumes  was 
tlie  fruit  of  his  ripest  years  and  was  the  most  complete 
and  accurate  history  of  France  that  had  then  appeared 
(1713).  It  is  still  valtiable,  though  overshadowed  by 
more  recent  works.  It  went  through  many  editions, 
and  an  abridgment  of  it  in  eight  volumes  made  by 
tbe  author  was  translated  into  German,  English,  and 
Italian.  Besides  this,  a  valuable  work  from  original 
sources,  the  "Histoire  de  la  milice  fran^atse'',  con- 
tributed much  to  Daniel's  reputation  as  a  scholar!;^ 
historian.  The  best  edition  of  his  great  history  la 
that  of  Paris  (1766-60>,  in  seventeen  quarto  volumes. 
SomaxTOonH  BibL  de  la  c.  de  J.,  II.  170^1816;  IX,  170; 
I>B  Backeb,  BUd.  dM  teritains  de  la  c.  de  J.,  I,  241-^9;  VII, 
225;  HuBTBB,  Nomenclator,  II,  1042.  and  passim. 

John  F.  X.  Murphy. 

Daniel,  John,  b.  1745;  d.  in  Paris,  3  October,  1823; 
son  of  Edward  Daniel  of  Durton,  Lancashire,  and  great- 
nephew  of  the  RjK.  Hugh  Tootell.  better  known  as  t)odd 
the  historian.  He  was  educated  first  at  Dame  Alice's 
School,  Fem^halgh,  and  then  at  Douai,  where  he  was 
ordained  pnest  and  made  professor  of  philosophy 
(1778)  ana  afterwards  of  theology.  When  the  presi- 
dent, Edward  Kitchen,  alarmed  by  the  French  Revo- 
lution, resigned  his  office  in  1702,  Daniel  was  appointed 
president,  and  was  soon  after,  with  his  professors  and 
students,  taken  prisoner  and  confined  first  at  Arras  and 
then  at  Dourlens.    They  were  taken  back,  27  Nov., 

1794,  to  the  Irish  College  at  Douai  and  in  February, 

1795,  were  allowed  to  return  to  England.  It  is  usu- 
ally stated  that  Mr.  Daniel  was  then  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  college  at  Crook  Hall  (since  removed  to 
Ushaw),  but  this  is  difficult  to  reconcile  with  contem- 
poriury  docmnents  in  the  Westminster  diocesan 
archives;  he  did  not  in  fact  take  up  residence  at  (>ook 
Hall,  but  retired  to  Lancashire  till  1802,  when  he  went 
to  Paris  in  order  to  recover  the  property  of  Douai  Col- 
lege and  other  British  establishments.  After  1815 
compensation  amounting  to  half  a  million  pounds  was 
paid  by  the  French  Government,  but  the  English 
Government  confiscated  this  money,  neither  returning 
it  to  France  nor  allowing  the  Engush  Catholics  to  re- 
ceive it.  Mr.  Daniel  was  the  last  de  facto  president  of 
Douai,  thoiigh  the  Rev.  Francis  Tuite  was  appointed 
titular  president,  to  succeed  him  in  prosecutmg  the 
claims.  Mr.  Daniel  wrote  an  "Ecclesiastical  History 
of  the  Britons  and  Saxons"  (London,  1815,  1824). 

Narrative  of  the  Seizure  of  Douay  College  in  Catholic  Magtunne 
(1834).  I:  GxLLOW.  Bibl.  Diet,  Bng.  Cath.  (London.  1885).  II; 
Cooper  in  Did.  Nat.  Bioq.  (london,  188«),  XIV,  merely  abbre- 
viating Gillow;  Kirk,  Btographiea  of  EiohteeiUh  Century  Cath' 
olice  (London.  1908);  MacmiUan^a  Maganne,  XLI.  245;  also 
seveml  unpublished  manuscript  sources  in  Westminster  Dio- 
cesan Arcmves  and  Ushaw  College  Archives. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Daniel  and  CompanionB,  Satnt,  Friars  Minor  and 
martyrs;  dates  of  birth  imknown;  d.  10  October, 
1227.  The  martvrdom  of  St.  Berard  and  his  com- 
panions in  1219  had  inflamed  many  of  the  religions 
of  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  with  the  desire  of 
preaching  the  Gospel  in  heathen  lands;  and  in  1227, 
the  year  following  St.  Francis's  death,  six  religious  of 
Tuscany,  Agnellus,  Samuel,  DonuKis,  I^eo,  Hugolinus, 
and  Nicholas,  petitioned  Brother  Elias  of  (Jortona, 
then  vicar-general  of  the  order,  for  permission  to 
preach  the  Gospel  to  the  infidels  of  Morocco.  The  six 
missionaries  went  first  to  Spain,  where  they  were  joined 
by  Daniel,  Minister  Provincial  of  Calabria,  who  be- 
came their  superior.  They  set  sail  from  Spain  and 
on  20  September  reached  the  coast  of  Africa,  where 
they  remained  for  a  few  days  in  a  small  village  inhab- 
ited mostly  by  Christian  merchants  just  beyond  the 
walls  of  the  Saracen  city  of  Ceuta.  Finally,  very  early 
on  Sunday  morning,  they  entered  the  city,  and  imme- 
diately began  to  preach  the  Gospel  and  to  denounce 
the  religion  of  Mahomet.  They  were  socm  appre- 
hended and  brought  before  the  ault.'iii  who,  thinking 
that  they  were  marl,  ordered  them  to  be  cast  into 


prison.  Here  they  remained  until  the  following  Sun- 
day when  iheiy  were  again  brou^t  before  the  sultan, 
who,  by  promises  and  threats,  endeavoured  in  vain  to 
make  them  deny  the  Christian  religion.  They  were 
all  condemned  to  death.  Each  one  approached 
Daniel,  the  superior,  to  ask  his  blessing  and  permit- 
sk>n  to  die  for  Christ.  Hiey  were  all  beheaded.  St. 
Daniel  and  his  companions  were  canonized  by  Leo  X 
in  1516.  Their  feast  is  kept  in  the  order  on  the 
thirteenth  of  October. 

Wadding,  Annalee  Aftnorum  (Rome,  1732),  II,  2&-30;  Acta 
SS.,  October,  VI.  384-392;  Paeeio  eanctorum  fratrum  Danielie, 
etc.  m  Anaiecta  Franciecana  (Ouaracchi.  1897),  III,  613-616; 
Leo,  Livte  of  the  SaivUa  and  Btesaed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St. 
Frttncu  (Taunton.  1886),  III,  29^-299. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Daniel  of  Winchester  (Danihel),  Bishop  of  the 
West  Saxons ;  and  ruler  of  the  See  of  Winchester  from 
705  to  744 ;  died  in  745.  The  prominent  position  which 
he  held  amonp  the  English  clergy  9f  his  time  can 
best  be  appreciated  from  the  fact  ffiat  he  was  the  inti- 
mate friend  of  St.  Aldhelm  at  Sherborne,  of  the  Ven- 
erable Bede  at  Jarrow  and  of  St.  Boniface  in  Germany. 
Daniel  was  consecrated  to  succeed  Bishop  Hedda  of 
Wessex  whose  vast  diocese  was  then  oroken  up. 
Dorsetshire,  Wiltshire,  Somerset,  and  Berkshire  be- 
came the  see  of  Sherborne  under  St.  Aldhelm,  while 
Daniel  retained  only  Hampshire,  Surrey,  and  Sussex, 
and  of  these  Sussex  soon  after  was  constituted  a  sep- 
arate diocese.  Daniel  like  Aldhelm  (q.  v.)  had  been 
educated  under  the  Irish  scholar  Maildubhat  Malmes- 
bury  and  it  was  to  Malmesbury  that  he  retired  in  his 
old  age  when  loss  of  sight  compelled  him  to  resign  the 
bishopric.  There,  no  doubt,  he  had  also  leamt  the 
scholarship  for  which  he  was  famous  among  his  con- 
temporaries and  which  made  Bede  turn  to  him  as  the 
man  best  able  to  supply  information  regarding  the 
church  history  of  the  south  and  west  of  Britain. 
Daniel,  however,  is  best  remembered  for  his  intimate 
connexion  with  St.  Boniface.  It  was  from  Daniel 
that  the  latter  received  commendatory  letters  when 
he  started  for  Rome,  and  to  Daniel  he  continually 
turned  for  counsel  during  his  missionanr  labours  in 
Germany.  Two  letters  of  the  Bishop  of  Winchester 
to  Boniface  are  preserved  (see  Hadoan  and  Stubbs, 
''Councils",  III,  304  and  343)  and  give  an  admirable 
impression  of  his  piety  and  good  sense.  In  the  second 
of  these  epistles,  which  was  written  after  his  loss  of 
sight,  Daniel  takes  a  touching  farewell  of  his  corre- 
spondent: ''Farewell,  farewdl,  thou  hundredfold 
dearest  one. ' '  Daniel  had  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome 
in  721  and  in  731  assisted  at  the  consecration  of  Arch- 
bishop Tatwine.  Ke  seems  never  to  have  been  hon- 
oured as  a  saint.  A  vision  recorded  in  "  Monumenta 
Moguntina",  No.  112,  perhaps  implies  that  he  was 
considered  to  be  lacking  in  energy;  none  the  less  it 
would  follow  from  William  of  Malmesbury 's  reference 
(Gest.  Pont.,  I,  357)  to  a  certain  stream  in  which 
Daniel  used  to  stand  the  whole  night  long  to  cool 
his  passions,  that  he  was  a  man  of  remarkable 
austerity. 

Stubbs  in  Diet.  Chriet.  Biog,  s.  v.;  Venableb  in  Diet.  Nat. 
Biog.,  fl.  v.;  Plummeb  ed.,  Bede,  Opera  Hietorica,  especially  Vol. 
II.  307-308;  Bright.  Chaptere  of  Early  Entj.  Ch.  HmL,  424. 426. 
The  materials  of  any  biography  must  be  drawn  mainly  from 
Bede,  William  of  Malmesbury,  and  Florence  of  Worcester.  Tbe 
correspondence  with  Boniface  has  been  most  recently  edited  w 
the  first  volume  of  Epistola  in  the  Monumenta  Germania  Hie* 
torioa.    See  also  Chevauer,  Bio-btbUographie. 

Herbert  Thurston. 
Daniel  the  Stylite.    See  Stylites. 

Dansara,  a  titular  see  inOsrhoene.  Stephauus  By* 
zantius  mentions  Dansara  as  a  town  near  Edessa 
(Orfa).  Procopius  (De  cedif.,  II,  6)  says  it  was  one  of 
the  castles  around  Theodoeiopolis  (Rhaesina),  which 
were  fortified  by  Justinian.  Dansara,  probably  at 
the  same  tim(»,  Iwcnrae  an  epiffcopal  see  suffragan  to 
Edessa,  for  it  fignros  in  the  "Notitiaepisoopatuum^of 


DANTS 


628 


DAN7B 


the  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  AnaBtasius  (Vailhd  in  Echos 
d'Orient,  X,  90  sqq.  and  139  8Qq.)i  and  its  bishop 
Nonnus  was  present  at  the  Fifth  (Ecumenical  Coimcit, 
held  at  Constantinople  in  553  (Lequien,  Or.  christ., 
II,  983).  The  see  must  have  disappesu^  on  account 
of  the  Arabian  invasions,  as  no  other  bishop  is  known. 
It  is  not  certain  that  it  was  still  in  existence  in  the 
tenth  century  (Vailhd  in  Echos  d'Orient,  X,  90  sqq.)- 
The  site  of  the  city  has  not  been  identified.  Its  name 
is  often  written  Dausara;  such  forms  as  Lansara,  etc. 
are  incorrect.  The  Latin  titular  see  has  recently  been 
suppressed.  S.  PferaiDiis. 

Dante  AHghieri,  Italian  poet,  b.  at  Florence,  1265; 
d.  at  Ravenna,  Itaty,  14  September,  1321.  His  own 
statement  in  the  "Paradise^'  (xxii,  112-117)  that  he 
was  bom  when  the  sun  was  in  Gemini,  fixes  his  birth- 
day between  18  May  and  17  June.  He  was  the  son 
of  Alighiero  di  Bellincione  Alighieri,  a  notarv  belong- 
ing to  an  ancient  but  decadent  Guelph  family,  by  his 
first  wife,  Bella,  who  was  possibly  a  daughter  of 
Durante  di  Scolaio  Abati,  a  Ghibelline  noble.  A  few 
months  after  the  poet's  birth,  the  victory  of  Charles 
of  Anjou  over  King  Manfred  at  Benevento  (26  Feb., 
1266)  ended  the  power  of  the  empire  in  Italy,  placed 
a  French  dynasty  upon  the  throne  of  Names,  and 
secured  the  predominance  of  the  Guelphs  in  Tuscany. 
Dante  thus  grew  up  amidst  the  triumphs  of  the 
Florentine  democracy,  in  which  he  ttx)k  some  share, 
fighting  in  the  front  rank  of  the  Guelph  cavalry  at  the 
battle  of  Campaldino  (11  June,  1289),  when  the 
Tuscan  Ghibellmes  were  defeated  by  the  forces  of  the 
Guelph  league,  of  which  Florence  was  the  head.  This 
victory  was  followed  by  a  reformation  of  the  Floren- 
tine constitution,  associated  with  the  name  of  Giano 
della  Bella,  a  great-hearted  noble  who  had  joined  the 
people.  By  tne  Ordinances  of  Justice  (1293)  all 
nobles  and  magnates  were  more  strictly  excluded 
from  the  government,  and  subjected  to  severe  penal- 
ties for  offences  against  plebeians.  To  take  any  part 
in  public  life,  it  was  necessary  to  be  enrolled  in  one  or 
other  of  the  "Arts"  (the  guilds  in  which  the  burghers 
and  artisans  were  banded  together),  and  accordmgly 
Dante  matriciilated  in  the  guild  of  physicians  and 
apothecaries.  On  6  July,  1295,  he  spoke  in  the  (Jen- 
eral  Council  of  the  Commune  in  favour  of  some  modi- 
fication in  the  Ordinances  of  Justice,  after  which  his 
name  is  frequently  found  recorded  as  speaking  or 
voting  in  the  various  councils  of  the  republic. 

Already  Dante  had  written  his  first  book,  the  "  Vita 
Nuova",  or  *'New  Life",  an  exquisite  medley  of 
lyrical  verse  and  poetic  prose,  telling  the  story  of  his 
love  for  Beatrice,  whom  he  had  first  seen  at  the  end 
of  his  ninth  year.  Beatrice,  who  was  probably  the 
daughter  of  Folco  Portinari,  and  wife  of  Simone  de' 
Bardi,  died  in  June,  1290,  and  the  "Vita  Nuova" 
was  completed  about  the  year  1294.  Dante's  love 
for  her  was  purely  spiritual  and  mystical,  tJie  amor 
amiciticB  denned  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas:  "That 
which  is  loved  in  love  of  friendship  is  loved  simply 
and  for  its  own  sake".  Its  resemblance  to  the  chiv- 
alrous worship  that  the  troubadours  offered  to  mar- 
ried women  is  merely  superficial.  The  book  is  dedi- 
cated to  the  Florentine  poet.  Guide  Cavalcanti,  whom 
Dante  calls  "the  first  of  my  friends",  and  ends  with 
the  promise  of  writing  concerning  Beatrice  "  what  has 
never  before  been  written  of  any  woman  ". 

At  the  beginning  of  1300  the  papal  jubilee  was 

S reclaimed  by  Boniface  VIII.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
>ante  was  among  the  pilgrims  who  flocked  to  Rome. 
Florence  was  in  a  disastrous  condition,  the  ruling 
Guelph  party  having  split  into  two  factions,  known 
as  Btanchi  and  Neri,  "Whites"  and  "Blacks",  which 
were  led  by  Vieri  de'  Cerchi  and  Corso  Donati,  re- 
spectively. Roughly  speaking,  the  Bianchi  were  the 
constitutional  party,  ^pporting  the  burgher  govern- 
ment and  the  (>rdiuanccfl  of  Justice;  the  Nen\  at  once 


more  turbulent  and  more  aristocratic,  relied  on  the 
support  of  the  popuh&oe,  and  were  strengthened  by 
the  favour  of  the  pope,  who  disliked  and  mistnisted 
the  recent  developments  of  the  democratic  policy  of 
the  republic.    The  discovery  of  a  plot  on  the  part  of 
certain  Florentines  in  the  papal  service  (18  April) 
and  a  ooUision  between  the  two  factions,  in  wnich 
blood  was  shed  (1  May),  brou^t  things  to  a  Crisis. 
On  7  May  Dante  was  sent  on  an  unimportant  em- 
bassy to  San  Gemignano.    Shortly  after  his  return 
he  was  elected  one  of  the  six  priors  who  for  two 
months,  together  with  the  gonfaUmierey  formed  the 
Signariay  the  chief  magistracy  of  the  repubhc     His 
term  of  office  was  from  16  June  to  15  August.     To- 
gether with  his  colleagues,  he  confirmed  the  anti- 
papal  measures  of  his  predecessors,   banished    the 
leaiders  of  both  factions,  and  offered  such  opposition 
to  the  papal  legate,  Cardinal  Matteo  d'Aociuasparta, 
that  the  latter  returned  to  Rome  a^  lata  Florenee 
under   an    interdict.    Guide   Cavalcanti    had    been 
among  the  exiled  Bianchi;  having  contracted  a  fatal 
illness  at  Sarzana,  he  was  allowed,  together  with  the 
rest  of  his  faction,  to  return  to  Florence,  where  ho 
died  at  the  end  of  August.    This,  however,  was  after 
Dante's  term  of  office  had  ended.     Enraeed  at  this 
partial  treatment,  Corso  Donati,  in  understandiDg 
with  his  adherents  in  Florence,  appealed  to  the  pope, 
who  decided  to  send  a  French  prince,  Charles  of 
Valois,  with  an  armed  force,  as  peacemaker.     We  find 
Dante,  in  1301,  prominent  among  the  ruling  Biandii 
in  Florence.    On  19  June,  in  the  Council  of  the  Hun- 
dred, he  returned  his  famous  answer,  Nihil  fiat,  to 
the  proposed  grant  of  soldiers  to  the  pope,  which  the 
Carviinal  of  Acauasparta  had  demanded  by  letter. 
After  28  September  he  is  lost  sight  of.     He  is  said  to 
have  been  sent  on  a  mission  to  tne  pope  at  the  begin- 
ning of  October,  but  this  is  disputed.     On  1  November, 
Charles  of  Valois  entered  Florence  with  his  troops,  and 
restored  the  Neri  to  power.    Corao  Donati  and  his 
friends  retiuned  in  triumph,  and  were  fully  revenged 
on  their  opponents.    Dante  was  one  of  the  first 
victims.    On  a  trumped-up  charge  of  hostility  to  the 
Church  and  corrupt  practices,  he  was  sentenced  (27 
January,  1302),  together  with  four  others,  to  a  heavy 
fine  and  perpetual  exclusion  from  office.  On  10  March, 
together  with  fifteen  others,  he  was  further  con- 
demned, as  contumacious,  to  be  burned  to  death, 
should  he  ever  come  into  the  power  of  the  Commune. 
At  the  beginning  of  April  the  whole  of  the  White 
faction  were  driven  out  of  Florence. 

A  few  years  before  his  exile  Dante  had  married 
Gemma  di  Manetto  Donati,  a  distant  kinswoman  of 
Corso,  by  whom  he  had  four  children.  He  never  saw 
his  wife  again ;  but  his  sons,  Pietro  and  Jacopo,  and 
one  of  his  daughters,  Beatrice,  joined  him  m  later 
years.  At  first,  he  made  common  cause  with  his 
fellow-exiles  at  Siena,  Arezzo,  and  Forli,  in  attempt- 
ing to  win  his  way  back  to  Florence  with  the  aid  of 
Ghibelline  arms.  Dante's  name  occurs  in  a  document 
of  8  June,  1302,  among  the  exiled  Bianchi  who  at  San 
Godenso  in  the  Apennines  were  forming  an  alliance 
with  the  Ubaldini  to  make  war  upon  the  Florentine 
Republic;  but,  in  a  similar  agreement  signed  at 
Bologna  on  18  June,  1303,  he  no  longer  appears 
among  them.  Between  these  two  dates  he  had  made 
his  resolution  to  form  a  party  by  himself  (Par.,  x^-ii, 
61-68),  and  had  sought  refuge  in  the  hospitality  of 
Bartolommeo  della  Scala,  the  lord  of  Verona,  where 
he  first  saw  Can  Grande  della  ScaJa,  Bartolommeo's 
younger  brother,  then  a  boy  of  fourteen  years,  who 
became  the  hero  of  his  later  days. 

Dante  now  withdrew  from  aU  active  participation 
in  politics.  In  one  of  his  odes  written  at  this  time, 
the  "Canzone  of  the  Three  Ladies"  fCanz.  xx),  he 
finds  himself  visited  in  his  banishment  by  Justice  and 
her  spiritual  children,  outcasts  even  as  he,  and  de- 
clares that,  since  such  are  his  companions  in  misfor- 


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tune,  ho  coimi«  his  exile  an  honour.  His  literary 
work  at  this  epoch  centres  round  his  rime,  or  lyrical 
poems,  more  particularly  round  a  series  of  fourteen 
canxoni  or  odes,  amatory  in  form,  but  partly  allegori- 
cal and  didactic  in  meaning,  a  splendid  group  of  poems 
which  connect  the  "Vita  Nuova"  with  the  "Divina 
Commedia*'.  E^rly  in  1304  he  seems  to  have  gone 
to  Bologna.  Here  he  began,  but  left  unfinish^,  a 
Latin  treatise,  "De  Vulgari  Eloquentift",  in  which  he 
attempts  to  discover  the  ideal  Italian  language,  the 
noblest  form  of  the  vernacular,  and  then  to  show  how 
it  should  be  employed  in  the  composition  of  lyrical 
poetry.  Even  in  its  unfinished  state,  it  is  a  most 
illummating  book  to  all  who  wish  to  understand  the 
metrical  form  of  the  Italian  canzone.  On  10  Mareh, 
1306,  the  Florentine  exiles  were  expelled  from  Bo- 
logna. In  August  we  find  Dante  at  Padua,  and 
some  weeks  later  in  Limigiana,  where,  on  6  October, 
he  acted  as  the  representative  of  the  Marquess  Fran- 
oeschino  Malaspina  in  making  peace  between  his 
family  and  the  Bishop  of  Luni.  About  this  time 
(130&-08)  he  began  the  "Convivio",  or  "Banquet", 
in  Italian  prose,  a  kind  of  popularization  of  Scholastic 
philosophy  in  the  form  of  a  commentary  upon  his 
fourteen  odes  already  mentioned.  Only  four  of  the 
fifteen  projected  treatises  were  actually  written,  an 
introduction  and  three  commentaries.  In  allegorical 
fashion  they  tell  us  how  Dante  became  the  lover  of 
Philosophy,  that  mystical  lady  whose  soul  is  love 
and  whose  body  is  wisdom,  she  "whose  true  abode  is 
in  the  most  secret  place  of  the  Divine  Mind". 

All  certain  traces  of  Dante  are  now  lost  for  some 
vears.  He  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Paris  some  time 
between  1307  and  1309,  but  this  is  open  to  question. 
In  November,  1308,  Heniy  of  Luxemourg  was  elected 
emperor  as  Henry  VII.  In  him  Dante  saw  apossible 
healer  of  the  wounds  of  Italy,  a  renovator  of  Cnristen- 
dom,  a  new  "Lamb  of  God"  (the  expression  is  the 
poet's)  who  would  take  away  the  sins  of  the  world. 
This  drew  him  back  again  into  the  tempestuous  sea 
of  politics  and  the  life  of  action.  It  was  probably 
in  1309,  in  anticipation  of  the  emperor's  coming  to 
Italy,  that  Dante  wrote  his  famous  work  on  the 
monarchy,  "De  Monarchic",  in  three  books.  Fear- 
ing lest  ne  "should  one  day  be  convicted  of  the 
charge  of  the  buried  talent",  and  desirous  of  "keej>- 
ing  vigil  for  the  good  of  the  world",  he  proceeds 
successively  to  show  that  such  a  single  supreme 
temporal  monarchy  as  the  empire  is  necessary  for 
the  well-being  of  the  world,  that  the  Roman  peo- 
ple acquired  universal  sovereign  sway  by  Divine 
ri^t,  and  that  the  authoritv  of  the  emperor  is  not 
dep^ident  upon  the  pope,  but  descends  upon  him 
directly  from  the  fountain  of  universal  authority, 
which  IS  God.  Man  is  ordained  for  two  ends:  blessed- 
ness of  this  life,  which  consists  in  the  exercise  of  his 
natural  powers^  and  is  figured  in  the  terrestrial  para- 
dise; blessedness  of  life  eternal,  which  consists  in  the 
fruition  of  the  Divine  aspect  in  the  celestial  paradise, 
to  which  man's  natural  powers  cannot  ascend  without 
the  aid  of  the  Divine  light.  To  these  two  ends  man 
must  come  by  diverse  means:  "For  to  the  first  we 
attain  by  the  teachings  of  philosophy,  following  them 
by  acting  in  accordance  with  the  moral  and  intellec- 
tual virtues.  To  the  second  by  spiritual  teachings, 
which  transcend  human  reason,  as  we  follow  them  by 
acting  according  to  the  theological  virtues."  But, 
although  these  ends  and  means  are  made  plain  to  us 
by  human  reason  and  by  revelation,  men  in  their 
cupidity  would  reject  them,  were  not  they  restrained 
by  bit  and  rein.  "  Wherefore  man  had  need  of  a  two- 
fold directive  power  according  to  his  twofold  end, 
to  wit,  the  Supreme  Pontiff,  to  lead  the  human  race 
in  accordance  with  things  revealed,  to  eternal  life; 
and  the  Emperor,  to  direct  the  human  race  to  temporal 
felicity  in  accordance  with  the  teachings  of  pnilos- 
ophy.''    It  is  therefore  the  special    duty    of  the 


emperor  to  establish  freedom  and  peace  ''on  this 
threshing  floor  of  mortality".  Mr.  Wicksteed  (whose 
translation  is  quoted)  aptly  notes  that  in  the  "De 
Monarchic"  "we  first  find  in  its  full  maturity  the 
general  conception  of  the  nature  of  man,  of  govern- 
ment, and  of  human  destiny,  which  was  afterwards 
transfigured,  without  being  transformed,  into  the 
framework  of  the  Sacred  Poem". 

The  emperor  arrived  in  Italy  in  September,  1310. 
Dante  had  already  announced  this  new  sunrise  for 
the  nations  in  an  enthusiastic  letter  to  the  princes^ 
and  peoples  of  Italy  (Epist.  v).  He  paid  homage  to 
Henry  in  Milan,  eany  in  1311,  and  was  much  gratified 
by  his  reception.     He  then  passed  into  the  Casentino, 

Srobably  on  some  imperial  mission.  Thence,  on  31 
[arch,  he  wrote  to  the  Florentine  Government  (Epist. 
vi),  "the  most  wicked  Florentines  within",  denounc- 
ing them  in  unmeasured  language  for  their  opposition 
to  the  emperor,  and,  on  16  April,  to  Henry  (Epist. 
vii),  rebukmg  him  for  his  delay,  urging  him  to  proceed 
at  once  against  the  rebellious  city,  'Hhis  dire  plague 
which  is  named  Florence  ".     By  a  decree  of  2  Septem- 


Tomb  of  Dantb 
(Church  of  Santa  Croce,  Florence) 

ber  (the  reform  of  Baldo  d'Aguglione),  Dante  is  in- 
cluded in  the  list  of  those  who  are  permanently 
excepted  from  all  amnesty  and  grace  oy  the  com- 
mune of  Florence.  In  the  spring  of  1312  he  seems 
to  have  gone  with  the  other  exiles  to  join  the  emperor 
at  Pisa,  and  it  was  there  that  Petrarch,  then  a  child 
in  his  eighth  year,  saw  his  great  predecessor  for  the 
only  time.  Reverence  for  his  fatherland,  Leonardo 
Bruni  tells  us,  kept  Dante  from  accompanying  the 
imperial  armv  that  vainly  besieged  Florence  in  Sep- 
tember and  October;  nor  do  we  know  what  became 
of  him  in  the  disintegration  of  his  party  on  the  em- 
peror's death  in  the  following  August,  1313.  A  vague 
tradition  makes  him  take  refuge  in  the  convent  of 
Santa  Croce  di  Fonte  Avellana  near  Gubbio.  It  was 
possibly  from  thence  that,  after  the  death  of  Clement 
V,  in  1314,  he  wrote  his  noble  letter  to  the  Italian 
cardinals  (Epist.  viii),  cr3ang  aloud  with  the  voice  of 
Jeremias,  urgingthem  to  restore  the  papacy  to  Rome. 
A  little  later,  Dante  was  at  Lucca  under  the  protec- 
tion of  Uguccione  della  Faggiuola,  a  Ghibelline  soldier 
who  had  temporarily  made  himself  lord  of  that  city. 
Probably  in  consequence  of  his  association  with 
Uguccione  the  Florentines  renewed  the  sentence  of 
death  against  the  poet  (6  Nov.,  1315),  his  two  sons 
being  included  in  the  condemnation.  In  1316  several 
decrees  of  anmesty  were  passed,  and  (although  Dante 
was  undoubtedly  excluded  imder  a  provision  of  2 
June)  some  attempt  was  made  to  get  it  extended  to 
him.  The  poet's  answer  was  his  famous  letter  to  an 
unnamed  Florentine  friend  (Epist.  ix),  absolutely 
refusiAg  to  return  to  his  country  under  shameful 
conditions.    He  now  went  again  to  Verona,  where  he 


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found  his  ideal  of  knightly  manhood  realizcxl  in  Can 
Grande  delia  Scala,  who  was  ruling  a  large  portion  of 
Eastern  Lombardy  as  imperial  vicar,  and  in  whom  he 
doubtless  saw  a  possible  future  deliverer  of  Italy.  It 
is  a  plausible  theory,  dating  from  the  fifteenth' century, 
that  identifies  Can  Grande  with  the  ''Veltro",  or 
greyhound,  the  hero  whose  advent  is  prophesied  at 
the  beginning  of  the  "Inferno",  who  is  to  effectuate 
the  imperial  ideals  of  the  "De  Monarchia",  and 
succeed  where  Henry  of  Luxemburg  had  failed. 

In  1317  (according  to  the  more  probable  chronol- 
ogy) Dante  settled  at  Ravenna,  at  the  invitation  of 
Guido  Novello  da  Polenta.  Here  he  completed  the 
"Divina  Commedia".  From  Ravenna  he  wrote  the 
striking  letter  to  Can  Grande  (Epist.  x),  dedicating 
the  ''Faradiso"  to  him,  commenting  upon  its  first 
canto,  and  explaining  the  intention  and  allegorical 
meaning  of  the  whole  poem.  A  letter  in  verse  (1319) 
from  Giovanni  del  Vingilio,  a  lecturer  in  Latin  at  the 
University  of  Boloena,  remonstrating  with  him  for 
treating  such  lofty  themes  in  the  vernacular,  inviting 
him  to  come  and  receive  the  laurd  crown  in  that  city, 


by  his  son  Jacopo  and  forwarded   by  him  to  Can 
Grande. 

The  "Divina  Commedia"  is  an  allegory  of  human 
life,  in  the  form  of  a  vision  of  the  world  beyond  the 
grave,  written  avowwUy  with  the  object  of  convertinf^ 
a  corrupt  society  to  righteousness:  "to  remove  thoee 
living  in  this  life  from  the  state  of  misery,  and  lead 
them  to  the  state  of  felicity '\  It  is  composed  of  a 
hundred  cantos,  written  in  the  measure  Known  as 
ilersa  riina,  with  its  normallv  hendecasyllabic  lines 
and  closely  finked  rhymes,  which  Dante  so  modified 
/from  the  popular  poetry  of  his  day  that  it  may  be 
regarded  as  his  own  invention.  He  is  relating^  nearly 
twenty  years  after  the  event,  a  vision  which  was 
gnuited  to  him  (for  his  own  salvation  when  leading 
a  sinful  fife)  during  the  year  of  jubilee,  1300,  in  which 
for  seven  days  (beginning  on  the  morning  of  Good 
Friday)  he  passed  throu^  heU,  purgatory,  and  para- 
dise, spoke  with  the  souls  in  each  realm,  and  heard 
what  the  Providence  of  God  had  in  store  for  himself 
and  the  world.  The  framework  of  the  poem  presents 
the  dual  scheme  of  the  "De  Monarchic    transfigured. 


Bronze  op  the  XV  Century 

(made  from  the  mask) 

(NationiU  Muneum,  Naples) 


Detail  from  the  Disputation 

(Ii>eal) 

(Raphael,  Vatican) 

Dante  Auguieri 


PoRTRArr  BY  Giotto  di  Boni>oxb 

(National  Museum,  Florence) 


led  Dante  to  compose  his  first  ''Eclogue",  a  delightful 
poem  in  pastonu  Latin  hexameters,  full  of  human 
kindness  and  gentle  humour.  In  it  Dante  expresses 
his  unalterable  resolution  to  receive  the  laur S  from 
Florence  alone,  and  proposes  to  win  his  correspondent 
to  an  appreciation  of  vernacular  poetry  by  the  gift  of 
ten  cantos  of  the  "Paradiso".  A  second  **  Eclogue'* 
was  sent  to  Giovanni  after  Dante's  death;  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  was  really  composed  by  the  poet. 
This  correspondence  shovra  that  in  1319  the  *'  Inferno" 
and  ''Purgatorio"  were  already  generally  known; 
while  the  ''Paradiso"  was  still  unfinished.  This  was 
now  sent  in  instalments  to  Can  Grande,  as  completed, 
between  1319  and  1321.  If  the  ''Qusestio  de  AquA  et 
Terrd''  is  authentic,  Dante  was  at  Verona  on  20  Jan- 
uary, 1320,  where  he  delivered  a  discourse  on  the 
relative  position  of  earth  and  water  on  the  surface  of 
the  globe;  but,  although  the  authenticity  of  this 
treatise  has  recently  found  strenuous  defenders,  it 
must  still  be  regarded  as  doubtful.  In  July,  1321, 
Dante  went  on  an  embassy  from  Guido  da  Polenta  to 
Venice.  Two  months  later  he  died,  at  Ravenna,  on 
the  feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  San  Francesco  in  that  city. 
Tlie  whole  of  the  "Divina  Commedia"  had  been  pub- 
lished, with  the  exception  of  the  last  thirteen  cantos 
of  the  *'  Paradiso",  wnich  were  afterwards  discovered 


Virgil,  representing  human  philosophy  acting  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  moral  and  intellectual  virtues, 
guides  Dante  by  the  light  of  natural  reason  from  the 
dark  wood  of  alienation  from  God  (where  the  beasts 
of  lust,  pride,  and  avarice  drive  man  back  from 
ascending  the  Mountain  of  the  Lord),  through  hell 
and  purgatory  to  the  earthly  paradi^,  the  state  of 
temporal  felicity,  when  spiritual  liberty  has  been 
regained  by  the  purgatorial  pains.  Beatrice,  repre- 
senting Divine  philosophy  illuminated  by  revelation, 
leads  him  thence,  up  through  the  nine  moving  heavens 
of  intellectual  preparation,  into  the  true  paradise,  the 
spaceless  and  timeless  empyrean,  in  which  the  blessed- 
ness of  eternal  life  is  found  in  the  fruition  of  the  sight 
of  God.  There  her  place  is  taken  by  St.  Bernard,  type 
of  the  loving  contemplation  in  which  the  eternal  lue 
of  the  soul  consists,  who  commends  him  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  at  whose  intercession  he  obtains  a 
foretaste  of  the  Beatific  Vision,  the  poem  closing  with 
all  powers  of  knowing  and  loving  fulfilled  ana  con- 
sumed in  the  union. of  the  understanding  with  the 
Divine  Essence,  the  will  made  one  with  the  Divine 
Will,  "the  Love  that  moves  the  sun  and  the  other 
stars". 

The  sacred  poem,  the  last  book  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
sums  up  the  knowledge  and  intellectual  attainment 
of  the  centuries  that  passed  between  the  fall  of  the 


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lioman  Empire  and  the  beginniug  of  the  KeuaiHsaiice; 
it  gives  a  complete  picture  of  Catholicism  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  in  Italy.     In  the  "Inferno'',  Dante's 
style  is  chiefly  influenced  by  Virgil,  and,  in  a  lesser 
ci^ree,  by  Lucan.     The  heir  in  poetry  of  the  great 
achievement  of  Bl.  Albertus  Magnus  and  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  in  christianizing  Aristotie,  his  ethical  scheme 
and  metaphysics  are  mainly  Aristotelean,  while  his 
machinery  is  still  that  of  popular  medieval  tradition. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  he  had  direct  acquaintance 
"with  any  other  account  of  a  visit  to  the  spirit  world, 
save  that  in  the  sixth  book  of  the  '*  iEneid ' .    But  over 
all-this  vast  fleld  his  dramatic  sense  played  at  will,  pic- 
turing human  nature  in  its  essentials,  laying  bare  the 
secrets  of  the  heart  with  a  hand  as  sure  as  that  of 
Shakespeare.     Himself  the  victim  of  persecution  and 
injustice,  burning  with  zeal  for  the  reformation  and 
renovation  of  the  world,  Dante's  impartiahty  is,  in 
the  main,  sublime.    He  is  the  man  (to  adopt  his  own 
phrase)  to  whom  Truth  appeals  from  her  unmutable 
throne;  as  such,  he  relentlessly  condemns  the  ''dear 
and  kind  paternal  image"  of  Brunetto  Latini  to  belli 
though  from  him  he  had  learned  "how  man  makes 
himself  eternal";    while  he  places  Constantine,  to 
whose  donation  he  ascril^es  the  corruption  of  the 
Church  and  the  ruin  of  the  world,  in  paradise.     The 
pity  and  terror  of  certain  episodes  in  the  "Inferno" — 
the  fruitless  magnanimity  of  Farinata  degli  Uberti, 
the  fatal  love  of  Francesca  da  Rimini,  the  fsdl  of  Guido 
daMontefeltro,  the  doom  of  Count  Ugolino — reach  the 
utmost  heights  of  tragedy. 

The  "Purgatorio",  perhaps  the  most  artistically 
perfect  of  the  three  canticles,  owes  less  to  the  beauty 
of  the  separate  episodes.  Dante's  conception  of 
purgatory  as  a  lofty  mountain,  rising  out  of  tne  ocean 
m  tne  southern  hemisphere,  and  leading  up  to  the 
Garden  of  Eden,  the  necessary  preparation  for  win- 
ning back  the  earthly  paradise,  and  with  it  all  the 
prerogatives  lost  by  man  at  the  fall  of  Adam,  seems 
peculiar  to  him ;  nor  do  we  find  elsewhere  the  purify- 
mg  process  carried  on  beneath  the  sun  and  stars,  with 
the  beauty  of  transfigured  nature  only  eclipsed  by  the 
splendour  of  the  angelic  custodians  of  the  seven  ter- 
races. The  meeting  with  Beatrice  on  the  banks  of 
Lethe,  with  Dante^  personal  confession  of  an  un- 
worthy past,  completes  the  story  of  the  **  Vita  Nuova  " 
after  the  bitter  experiences  and  disillusions  of  a  hfe- 
time. 

The  essence  of  Dante's  philosophyis  that  all  virtues 
and  all  vices  proceed  from  love.  The  "Purgatorio" 
shows  how  love  is  to  be  set  in  order;  the  "  Paradiso" 
shows  how  it  is  rendered  perfect  in  successive  stages 
of  illumination,  until  it  attains  to  union  with  me 
Divine  Love.  .  The  whole  structure  and  spiritual  aiv 
rangement  of  Dante's  paradise,  in  which  groups  of 
saints  make  a  temporary  appearance  in  uxe  lower 
spheres  in  token  of  the  "many  mansions",  is  closely 
dependent  upon  the  teachings  of  the  Pseudo-Diony- 
sius  and  St.  Bernard  concerning  the  different  offices 
of  the  nine  orders  of  angels.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
he  knew  the  "Celestial  Hierarchy"  of  Dionysius  at 
first  hand,  in  the  translation  of  Sootus  Erigena;  but 
^t.  Bernard's  "De  Consideratione"  certainly  influ- 
(«iced  him  profound^.  Dante's  debt  to  the  Fathers 
md  Doctors  of  the  Church  has  not  yet  been  investi- 

§ated  with  the  fullness  of  research  that  has  been 
evoted  to  elucidating  his  knowledge  of  the  classical 
writers.  His  theology  is  mainly  that  of  St,  Thomas 
Aquinas,  though  he  occasionally  (as  when  treating  of 
prmial  matter  and  of  the  nature  of  the  celestial  intelli- 
genoes)  departs  from  the  teaching  of  the  Angelical 
Doctor,  (in  particular  points,  the  influence  of  St, 
Gregory,  St.  Isidore,  St.  Anselm,  and  St.  Bonaventure 
may  be  traced ;  that  of  Boethius  is  marked  and  deep 
throughout.    His  mysticism  is  professedly  based  upon 


St.  Augustine,  St.  Bernard,  and  Richard  of  St.  Victor. 
ii^We  m  many  places  it  curiously  anticipates  that  of 


St.  Joliii  of  the  CroHB.  Mr.  Wicksteed  speaks  of 
"many  instances  in  which  Dante  gives  a  spiritual 
turn  to  the  physical  speculations  of  the  Greeks". 
Even  in  the  "Paradiso'' the  authority  of  Aristotle  is, 
next  to  that  of  the  Scriptures,  supreme;  and  it  is 
noteworthy  that,  when  questioned  by  St.  John  upon 
charity,  Dante  appeals  first  of  all  to  the  Stagirite  (in 
the  "Metaphysics")  as  showing  us  the  cause  for  lovinp 
God  for  Himself  and  above  all  things  (Par.,  xxvi, 
37-39).  The  harmonious  fusion  of  the  loftiest  mysh 
ticism  with  direct  transcripts  from  nature  and  the 
homely  circumstance  of  daily  life,  all  handled  with 
poetic  passion  and  the  most  consummate  art,  gives 
the  "Divina  Ommedia"  its  unique  character.  The 
closing  canto  is  the  crown  of  the  whole  work;  sense 
and  music  are  wedded  in  perfect  harmony;  the  most 
profound  mystery  of  faith  is  there  set  forth  in  supreme 
song  with  a  vivid  clearness  and  illuminating  precision 
that  can  never  be  surpassed. 


House  or  Dante,  Florence 

Dante's  vehement  denunciation  of  the  ecclesiastical 
corruption  of  his  times,  and  his  condemnation  of  most 
of  the  contemporary*  popes  (including  the  canonined 
Celestine  V)  to  hell  have  led  to  some  questioning  as  to 
the  poet's  attitude  towards  the  Church.  Even  in  the 
fourteenth  century  attempts  were  made  to  find  heresy 
in  the  "  Divina  Commedia",  and  the  "  De  Monarchic 
was  burned  at  Bologna  by  order  of  a  papal  legate. 
In  more  recent  times  Dante  has  been  hail^  as  a  pre- 
cursor of  the  Reformation.  His  theological  position 
as  an  orthodox  Catholic  has  been  amply  and  repeat- 
edly vindicated,  recently  and  most  notably  by  Dr. 
Moore,  who  declares  that  "there  is  no  trace  in  his 
writings  of  doubt  or  dissatisfaction  respecting  any 
part  of  the  teaching  of  the  Church  in  matters  e^  doc- 
trine authoritatively  laid  down".  A  strenuous  op- 
ponent of  the  political  aims  of  the  popes  of  his  own 
day,  the  beautiful  episodes  of  Caselia  and  Manfred 
in  the  "Purgatorio",  no  less  than  the  closing  chapter 
of  the  "De  Monarchic"  itself,  bear  witness  to  Dante's 
reverence  for  the  spiritual  power  of  the  papacy,  which 
he  accepts  as  of  Divine  origin.  Not  the  least  striking 
testimony  to  his  orthodoxy  is  the  part  played  by  the 
Blessed  Virgin  in  the  sacred  poem  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end.    It  is,  as  it  were,  the  working  out  in  in- 


DANTE 


632 


DAKTS 


s|)iced  poetry  of  ilie  sent-encc  of  Richard  of  St.  Victor: 
*•  TTirough  Mary  not  only  in  the  light  of  grace  given  to 
man  on  earth,  but  even  the  vision  of  God  vouchsafed 
to  souls  in  Heaven.  *' 

Our  earliest  account  of  the  life  and  works  of  Dante 
is  contained  in  a  chapter  in  the  "Croniche  Fiorentine" 
of  Giovanni  Villani  (d.  1348),  who  speaks  of  the  poet 
as  "our  neighbour".  There  are  six  commentaries 
extant  on  the  **Divina  Conmiedia",  in  whole  or  in 
part,  composed  within  ten  years  of  the  poet's  death. 
Throe  of  these — by  Graziolo  de'  Bambaglioli,  then 
chancellor  of  the  commune  of  Bologna;  an  uniden- 
tified Florentine  known  as  Selmi's  Anonimo,  and  Fra 
Guido  da  Pisa,  a  Carmelite — extend  to  the  "Inferno" 
alone:  those  by  Jacopo  Alighieri,  the  poet's  second 
son,  Jacopo  della  Lana  of  Bologna,  and  the  author 
of  the  "Ottimo  Commento"  deal  with  the  entire  poem. 
Graziolo  appears  as  the  first  defender  of  Dante's 
orthodoxy  (then  fiercely  assailed  in  Bologna);  the 
author  of^the  "Ottimo''  (plausibly  identified  with  a 
Florentine  notary  and  poet,  Andrea  Lancia)  professes 
to  have  actually  spoken  with  Dante,  and  gives  us 
various  interesting  aetaUs  concerning  his  life.  About 
1340  Dante's  elder  son,  Pietro  Alighieri,  set  himself 
to  elucidate  his  father's  work;  two  versions  of  his 
Latin  commentary  have  been  preserved,  jthe  later 
containing  additions  which  (if  reaUy  his)  are  of  con- 
siderable importance.  Some  time  after  1348,  Gio- 
vanni Boccaccio  (q.  v.)  wrote  the  first  formal  life  of 
Dante,  the  "Trattatello  in  laude  di  Dante",  the 
authority  of  which,  once  much  derided,  has  been 
largely  rehabilitated  by  more  recent  research.  His 
commentary  on  the  "Inferno"  is  the  substance  of 
lectures  delivered  at  Florence  in  1373.  A  few  years 
later  came  the  commentaries  of  Benvenuto  da  Imola 
and  Francesco  Buti,  which  were  originally  delivered 
as  lectures  at  Bologna  and  Pisa  respectively.  Ben- 
venuto's  is  a  living  book,  full  of  humour  and  actuality 
as  well  as  leaminc.  The  little  "Life"  by  Leonardo 
Bruni  (d.  1444),  the  famous  chancellor  of  the  Floren- 
tine Republic,  which  supplements  Boccaccio's  work 
with  fr^  information  and  quotes  letters  of  the  poet 
other  than  those  which  are  now  known,  and  the 
slighter  notice  by  Filippo  Villani  (c.  1404),  who  is  the 
first  commentator  who  refera  in  explicit  terms  to  the 
"Letter  to  Can  Grande",  bring  the  first  a^  of  Dante 
interpretation  to  an  appropriate  close.  The  title  of 
father  of  modem  Dante  scholarship  unquestionably 
belong  to  Karl  Witte  (1800-83),  whose  labours  set 
students  of  the  nineteenth  century  on  the  right  path 
both  in  interpretation  and  in  textual  research.  More 
recently,  mainly  through  the  influence  of  G.  A.  Scar- 
tazzini  (d.  1901),  a  wave  of  excessive  scepticism  swept 
over  the  field,  by  which  the  traditional  events  of 
Dante's  life  were  rejs^rded  as  little  better  than  fables, 
and  the  majority  of  his  letters  and  even  some  of  his 
minor  works  were  declared  to  be  spurious.  This  has 
now  happilv  abated.  The  most  pressing  needs  of 
Dante  scnolarship  to-day  are  more  textual  study  of 
the  "Divina  Commedia  ,  a  closer  and  more  thorough 
acquaintance  with  every  aspect  of  the  minor  worba, 
and  a  fuller  investigation  of  Dante's  position  with 
regard  to  the  great  philosophies  of  the  Middle  Ages — 
such  as  will  justify  or  restate  the  pregnant  opening  of 
the  epitaph  that  Giovanni  del  VirgiUo  composed  for 
his  tomb:  "Theologus  Dantes,  nuUius  domiatis 
expers  quod  foveat  daro  philosophia  sinu"  (Dante 
the  theologian,  skilled  in  every  branch  of  knowledge 
that  philosophy  may  cherish  in  her  illustrious  bosom). 

Dante  may  be  said  to  have  made  Italian  poetry, 
and  to  have  stamped  the  mark  of  his  lofty  and  com- 
manding personality  upon  all  modem  literature.  It 
can  even  oe  claimed  that  his  works  have  had  a  direct 
share  in  shaping  the  aspirations  and  destinies  of  his 
native  country.  His  influence  upon  English  letters 
b^ns  with  the  poetry  of  Chaucer,  who  hails  him 
worthily  in  the  "Monkes  Tale",  and  refers  his  readers 


to  him  as  "  thegrete  poete  of  Itailie  thai  highie  Dant". 
Eclipsed  for  a  while  in  Tudor  times  by  the  greater 
popularity  of  Petrarch,  he  was  afterwards  ignored  or 
contemned  from  the  Restoration  until  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  first  complete  translation  of 
the  "Divina  Conmiedia"  into  English,  the  work  of 
an  Irishman,  Henry  Boyd,  was  published  in  1802 
(that  of  the  "Inferno"  having  been  issued  in  1785). 
Dante  came  again  into  his  heritage  among  us  with  the 
great  flood  of  noble  poetry  that  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  witnessed.  The  eloquent  tributes 
rendered  to  him  by  Shelley  (in  "  Epip^chidion  ",  the 
"Triumph  of  Life",  and  "A  Defence  of  Poetry")  and 
by  Byron  (especially  in  the  "Prophecy  of  Dante"), 
as  after  them  by  Browningand  Tennyson,  need  not  be 
repeated  here.  Through  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  and 
the  Pre-Raphaelites,  he  has  been  a  fruitful  influence 
in  art  no  less  than  in  letters.  In  the  interpretation 
and  criticism  of  Dante,  English-speakii^  sdiolars  at 
present  stand  second  only  to  the  Italians. 

Never,  perhaps,  has  Dante's  fame  stood  so  high  as 
at  the  present  dfay — ^when  he  is  universally  reoo^oized 
as  ranking  with  Homer,  iEschyius,  Sophocles,  and 
Shakespeare,  among  the  few  supreme  poets  o(  the 
world.  It  has  been  well  observed  that  his  inspiration 
resembles  that  of  the  Hebrew  prophet  more  than  that 
of  the  poet  as  ordinarily  understood.  His  influence, 
moreover,  is  by  no  means  confined  to  mere  literature. 
A  distinffuished  Unitarian  divine  has  pointed  out  that 
the  modfem  cult  of  Dante  is  "a  sign  of  enlarging  and 
deepening  spiritual  perception  as  well  as  hteraiy  ap- 
preciation", and  that  it  is  one  of  the  chief  indications 
of  "the  renewed  hold  which  the  later  Middle  Ages 
have  gained  upon  modem  Europe"  (Wicksteed,  "tne 
Religion  of  Time  and  of  Eternity  ").  The  poet's  own 
son,  Pietro  Alighieri,  declared  that,  if  the  Faith  were 
extinguished,  Dante  would  restore  it,  and  it  is  note- 
wortliy  to-day  that  many  serious  non-Catholic  stu- 
dents of  life  and  letters  owe  a  totally  diflFerent  con- 
ception of  the  Catholic  religion  to  the  study  of  the 
"  Divina  Commedia ' '.  The  power  of  the  sacred  poem 
in  popularizing  Catholic  theology  and  Catholic  pmlos- 
opny,  and  rendering  it  acceptable,  or  at  .least  intel- 
ligible to  non-Catholics,  is  at  the  present  day  almost 
incalculable. 

The  place  of  honour  among  Dante  societies  belongs 
unquestionably  and  in  eveiy  sense  to  the  "Society 
Dantesca  Italiana",  an  admirably  conducted  associa- 
tion with  its  headquarters  at  Florence,  which  wel- 
comes foreign  students  among  its  members,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished for  its  high  and  liberal  scholarshiD.  In 
addition  to  courses  of  lectures  delivered  under  its 
auspices  in  various  Italian  cities,  it  publishes  a  quar- 
terly "BuUetino",  a  survey  of  contemporary  Dante 
literature,  and  has  b^un  a  series  of  critical  editions 
of  the  minor  works.  Of  these  latter,  volumes  dealing 
with  the  "De  Vuljgari  Eloquenti4"  and  the  "Vita 
Nuova",  by  Pio  Rajna  and  Michele  Barbi  respectively, 
have  already  appeared,  and  may  be  truly  said  to  mark 
an  epoch  in  the  critical  and  textual  study  of  Dante's 
Latin  and  Italian  writings  alike.  The  afflociation 
known  as  the  "Dante  Alighieri",  on  the  other  hand, 
is  essentially  a  national  and  political  society,  and  is 
only  indirectly  concerned  with  the  poet  whose  name 
it  bears.  Of  Dante  societies  other  than  Italian,  the 
"American  Dante  Society"  of  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, stands  first  in  importance.  The  small  but 
distinguished  "Oxford  Dante  Society"  does  work  of 
a  high  order  of  scholarship.  The  "  Dante  Society  of 
London"  is  noteworthy  for  its  large  number  of  mem- 
bers, and  publishes  its  sessional  lectures  in  volume 
form;  but  its  aims  appear  to  be  social  rather  than 
scholarly.  A  summary  of  some  of  the  woria  on 
Dante  will  be  found  below. 

The  bibliography  of  Dante  \a  so  vast  and  voluminoas  thjj 
it  is  only  po$i8ible  here  to  make  a  brief  selection  of  recent  snj 
general  workn.     Complete  editions:   Moork.  TuUe  U  Open  at 


DANTI 


633 


DANTINE 


i>cwae  Clast  ed.,  Oxford,  100a):    Wicxstbed.  Oeunbr,  Oebt. 

and  HLowELL  in  The  Temple  CUutsica,  Dante,  tr.  of  all  the  works, 

witii  Italian  texts  of  Divtna  Commedia,  Vita  Nuova,  Canzoniere 

or  R-iwne,  and  fuU  oommentariea  (London,  1890-1906).     £di- 

tiona  off  the  Divina  Commedia:  Scabtazzxni,  La  D.  C.  riveduta 

nei  teato  e  commerUala,  and  Prolegomeni  (4  vols.,  Leipsis.  1874- 

1890>;    Idem,  Edizione  minore  (2nd  ed.,  Milan,  1800);   CAaiNi, 

ixx  £>.  C.  eon  commerUo  (5th  ed.,  Florence.  1805);  Butlbr,  The 

Hell,   PuTffatory,  Paradise,  edited  with  translations  and  notes 

CLondon,   1885);   Vernok.   Readings  on  the  Inferno,  Purga- 

torio,      Paradiio     (London,     1894);      (Lord)     Vernon     and 

Pamizzi.  Le  prime  quaitro  edizioni  della  D.  C.  letterabnenU 

rimUunpate  (London,  1858).     Critical  editions  of  minor  works: 

WixxE,  De  Monarchid  (Leipzig,   1874):    Rajna.  De  Vulgari 

EtoituentiA  (Florence.  180d);    Barbi,    Vita  Nuova  (Florence, 

1007):     WicKSTKBD.   Eclogues   in   Dante    and    Giovanni  del 

Vim'iio  (London,  1001);    Albxni,  Dantia   Edagas    (Florence, 

IHctionaries  and  Concordances:    Totnbeb,  A  Dictionary  of 
Proper  Names  and  Notable  Matters  in  the  Works  of  DanU  (Ox- 
ford. 1808);    PoLETTO.  Dizionario  Danlesco  (Siena,  1885-^7); 
Fay,  Concordance  of  the  Divina  Commedia  (C^mbridse.  Bfassa- 
chusetts,   1888,  and  London.   1804);    Sheldon  and  White, 
Concorda$ua  delle  Overs  Italiane  m  prosa  e  del  Canzoniere  di 
I>€tnte  Aliqhieri  (Oxford,  1005).     Introductory:    Gardner,  A 
I>€*TUe    Pnmer    (London,    10<X)).     General:     Benvbnuto    da 
Imol^.    Comentum   super   Dantis   Aldigherii   Comadiam,   ed. 
Vernon  and  Lacaita  (Florence,  1887);   Bbrthikr.  La  D.  C. 
con  commenii  secondo  la  Soolastica  (Freiburg,  1802);  Gardner, 
Oante's  Ten  Heavens  (2nd  ed.,  London  and  New  York.  1000); 
HfBTTiNQER,  DonU^s  D.  C.  Its  Scops  and  Value,  ed.  Bowden 
(Lrondon.   1887);    Kraus.  Dante,  sein  L^ben  vnd  sein   Werk 
(Berlin,  1807);    Del  Lungo,  DelV  Esilio  di  Dante  (Florence, 
1881);  Idem.  Dal  Seedo  e  dal  Poema  di  Dante  (Bologna.  1808); 
Moore.   Textual  Criticism  of   the  D.  C.   (Cambridge,   1880); 
Idem.  Studies  in  Dante  (3  vols..  Oxford.  1806^1003);  Rica. 
L'vUimo  rifugio  di  Dante  Alighieri  (Milan,  1801);  Soibrillo. 
Alcuni  oapitoli  della  biografia  di  Dante  (Turin.  1806):    Wick- 
8TRED.  The  Early  Lives  of  Dante  (London  and  New  York,  1004); 
WiTTB,  Essays  on  Dante,  tr.  and  ed.  Lawrence  and  Wick- 
STEED   (London.   1808),  a  selection  from  Dante-Forschungen 
(Halle  and  Heilbronn.  1867-70);    Zinqarelli,  Dante  (Milan. 
1903).     History  of  Dante's  Times:    W.  F.  Butler.  The  Lom- 
bard Communes  (London.  1006);    Del  Lunoo,  Dino  Compagni 
e  la  sua  Cronica  (Florence,  1870-87);    Villari,  /  primi  due 
secali  delta  Storia  di  Firerne  (new  ed..  Florence,  1005),  tr.  of 
earlier  edition  (London,  1001):    Wicksteed  and  Selfb,  Vil- 
lani's  Chronicle,  selections  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1006). 

Oontemporary  Literature:  Kosbetti,  Early  Italian  Poets  (or 
Dante  and  His  Circle)  (1861);  Ga8pari,  Italian  Literature  to 
the  Death  of  Dante,  tr.  and  ed.  Oelsner  (London,  1001).  The 
translations  of  Cary  and  Lonopellow  have  been  instru- 
mental in  familiarizing  English  and  American  readers  with 
the  Divina  Commedia;  the  oest  recent  versions  are  those  of 
Norton  and  Haselpoot;  Carlyle'b  prose-rendering  of  the 
htfemo  is  particularly  meritorious.  Amon^  translations  of  the 
minor  works,  other  than  those  included  m  the  above  lists, 
Church's  of  the  De  Monarchid  and  Latham's  of  the  Letters 
call  for  special  notice.  EdmUND  G.  GARDNER. 


Daati,  Ionazio,  mathematician  and  cosmographer, 
b.  at  Penicia,  Italy,  1537;  d.  at  Alatri,  19  Oct.,  1586. 
As  a  boy  he  learned  the  rudiments  of  painting  and 
architecture  from  his  father  and  aunt,  but  mathemat- 
ics and  scielnce  were  his  favorite  studies.  He  received 
the  Dominican  habit  7  March,  1555,  changing  his  bap- 
tismal name  Pellegrino  to  Ignazio.  After  completing 
his  philosophy  and  theology  he  gave  some  time  to 
preaching,  out  soon  devoted  himself  zealously  to 
mathematics,  astronomy,  and  geography.  Aoout 
1567  he  was  invited  to  Florence  by  Cosmo  I,  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  who  wished  to  avail  himself  of  his  services  in 
reviving  mathematical  and  astronomical  studies  in  his 
newly  acquired  dominion.  About  the  same  time  Pope 
Sixtus  V,  who  belonged  to  the  Order  of  Preachers,  is 
said  to  have  commissioned  him  to  furnish  plans  for  the 
construction  of  a  Dominican  church  and  convent  at 
Bosco.  During  his  stay  in  Florence  Danti  taught 
mathematics  with  much  success  and  may  be  said  to 
have  prepared  the  way  for  Galileo  and  his  contem- 
poraries. He  resided  at  the  convent  of  Sta  Maria 
Novella,  and  desired  the  first  gnomon  on  the 
facade  of  its  church  in  1572.  He  was  chosen  to  direct 
the  building  of  a  canal  which  was  to  place  Florence  in 
communication  with  both  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Adriatic.  Cosmo  did  not  live  to  carry  out  his  project 
and  shortly  after  his  death  (1574)  Danti  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  the  University  of  Bologna. 
While  occupying  this  chair  he  spent  some  time  in  his 
native  city,  at  the  invitation  of  the  governor,  where 
he  prepared  niiifw  of  tho  Perugiaii  republic. 


On  account  of  his  mathematical  attainments  Greg 
ory  XIII  invited  him  to  Home,  appointed  him  pou- 
tincal  mathematician  and  made  him  a  member  of  the 
commission  for  the  reform  of  Uie  calendar.  He  also 
placed  him  in  charoe  of  the  painters  whom  he  had 
summoned  to  the  Vatican  to  continue  the  work  so 
brilliantly  begun  by  Raphael  during  the  reign  of  Leo 
X  and  at  the  same  time  desired  him  to  make  a  number 
of  maps  of  ancient  and  modem  Italy.  When  the 
pontiff  commissioned  the  architect  Fontana  to  repair 
the  Claudian  harbour  it  was  Danti  who  furnished  the 
necessary  plans.  While  at  Rome  Danti  published  a 
traiftlation  of  a  portion  of  Euclid  with  annotations 
and  wrote  a  life  of  the  architect  Vignola,  preparing  also 
notes  for  the  latter's  work  on  perspective.  In  recog- 
nition of  his  labours  Gregory,  in  1583,  made  him  Bishop 
of  Alatri  in  the  Campagna.  Danti  showed  himself  a 
zealous  pastor  in  his  new  office.  He  convoked  a  dio- 
cesan synod,  corrected  many  abuses,  and  showed 
great  solicitude  for  the  poor.  Shortly  before  his  death 
Sixtus  V  smnmoned  him  to  Rome  to  assist  in  the  erec- 
tion of  the  grand  obelisk  in  the  piazza  of  the  Vatican. 
Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  Danti  was  the 
author  of  "Trattato  del'  uso  e  della  fabbrica  dell'  as- 
trolabo  con  la  giunta  del  planifero  del  Raja";  "Le 
Scienze  matematiche  ridotte  in  tavole",  also  a  revised 
and  annotated  edition  of ''  La  Sfera  di  Messer  G.  Sacro- 
bosco  tradotta  da  Pier  Vincenzio  Danti". 

Vermiquou.  Elogio  di  Ignazio  Danti  in  Opuscoli  Letterari 
(Bologna.  1820),  III;  Inxii  in  Btografia  degli  Scrittori  Perugini 
(Perugia.  1828)  I,  366;  Marchess.  Memone  dei  piii  insigni  Pit- 
tori  Scultori  e  Architetti  Domenieani  (Bologna,  1870),  II,  351, 
tr.  Mekuan  (Dublin,  1852.) 

H.  M.  Brock*. 

ViNCENZo  Danti,  sculptor,  brother  of  Ignazio,  b.  at 
Perugia,  1530 ;  d.  24  May,  1576.  He  also  enjoyed  some 
reputation  as  a  goldsmith,  a  militanr  architect,  and  a 
poet.  The  statue  of  Pope  Julius  III  on  the  cathedral 
square  at  Perugia  is  one  of  his  early  works.  Later  he 
modelled  the  ''Decapitation  of  St.  John  the  Baptist" 
over  the  south  portal  of  the  baptistery  at  Florence,  and 
finished  Andrea  Sansovino's  noble  group  of  the  "Bap- 
tism of  Christ' '  over  the  east  ^te  of  the  same  baptisteiy . 
He  competed  against  Gellim  and  Gian  Bologna  for  the 
statue  of  Neptune  in  the  fountain  of  Piazza  della 
Signoria,  which  was  ultimately  given  to  an  inferior 
artist,  and  he  executed  a  marble  group  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Boboli  Gardens  in  Florence,  a  youth  raising 
and  attempting  to  carry  an  old  man  bound  hand  and 
foot.  This  is  supposed  to  be  an  allegory  of  the  victory 
of  honesty  over  deceit. 

LObkk.  History  of  Sculpture  (tr.  London,  1872);  Perkinbi 
Handbook  of  Italvan  Sculpture  (New  York.  1883). 

M.  L.  Handley. 

Dantine,  Maurus,  Benedictine  of  the  Congregar- 
tion  c^  Saint-Maur,  and  chronologist,  b.  at  Gourieux 
near  Namur,  Belgium,  1  April,  1688:  d.  in  the  mon- 
astery of  the  "  Blancs-Manteaux",  Paris,  3  November, 
1746.  Like  many  of  the  members  of  his  congregation 
he  was  one  of  the  so-called  Appelanta  who  in  1713  did 
not  accept  the  Bull  ''Unigenitus",  but  appealed  to  a 
general  council.  Dantine  s  chief  merit  is  tne  work  he 
did  in  chronology;  he  can,  in  reality,  be  called  one  of 
the  founders  of  this  important  branch  of  history,  on 
account  of  the  carefully  elaborated  plan  he  drew  up 
for  the  great  publication:  *'  L'Art  de  verifier  les  dates 
historiques,  des  chartes,  des  chroniques  et  autres 
monuments,  depuis  la  naissance  de  J.-C.".  He  did 
most  of  the  preparatory  work  for  this  publication, 
constructing  more  exact  chronological  tables  and  in- 
troducing a  better  method  for  calculating  historical 
dates.  On  account  of  illness,  however,  he  was  not 
able  to  continue  his  labours  and  was  obliged  to  leave 
their  completion  to  other  members  of  his  order,  his 
chief  successor  being  Clemencet.  Besides  this,  he  de- 
voted hims<'lf  to  thorough  linguistic  studies  and  as  a 


DANTISOUS 


634 


DABDANUS 


result  of  these  published  a  translation  with  commen- 
tary of  the  P&alms  under  the  title :  "  Les  psaumes  tra- 
duits  BUT  I'h^breu  avec  des  notes"  (Paris,  1739). 
This  work  attracted  so  much  attention  that  in  the 
same  year  a  second,  and  in  the  following  year  a  third, 
edition  became  necessary.  In  collaboration  with 
Dom  Carpentier  he  prepared  a  new  edition  of  the  great 
lexicon  originally  pubhshed  in  1678  by  Du  Cange,  and 
afterwards  contmued  by  the  Maurists,  its  first  Bene- 
dictine editor  being  Dom  Guesni^,  who  was  followed 
by  Nicolas  Toustain  and  Louis  Le  Pelletier.  The  edi- 
tion of  Dantine  and  Carpentier,  half  as  large  again  as 
that  of  Du  Cange,  appeared  in  six  volumes  at  P^ris, 
1733-36,  under  the  title:  **Gloasarium  ad  scriptores 
medise  et  infimse  latinitatis,  editio  locupletior  oper&  et 
studio  monachorum  O.  S.  B."  Dantine's  labours 
greatly  increased  the  value  of  this  admirable  work, 
which  is  not  only  of  the  utmost  imoortance  for  the 
knowledge  of  Latin,  but  is  also  a  ricn  source  for  the 
study  of  law  and  morals  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Tabbxn,  Histoire  litUraire  de  la  eongrSffotion  de  Saint- Maur, 
II,  865  sqa.;   Lama,  BMiotMque  de*  icrivains  de  la  congregation 
n^lda 


de  Saint-Maur,  481. 


Patricius  Schlager. 


DantiscuB,  John  von  Hofen.  See  Ermland, 
Diocese  of. 

Da  Ponte,  Lorenzo,  poet,  b.  at  Ceneda,  Italy, 
1749;  d.  in  New  York,  17  Aug.,  1838.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  Jew  and  was  at  first  named  Enunanuel  Cone- 
gliano.  When  he  was  fourteen  years  old  his  father  and 
the  other  members  of  the  family  embraced  Chris* 
tianity  and  were  baptized,  20  Aug.,  1763,  in  the  cath- 
edral of  Ceneda.  The  bishop  of  the  see,  Lorenzo  Da 
Ponte,  seeing  the  talents  of  the  lad,  gave  him  his  own 
name  and  sent  him  to  the  local  seminary  to  be  edu- 
cated. Here  Da  Ponte  remained  for  five  years,  and 
then  went  to  teach  in  the  University  of  Treviso. 
Political  complications  sent  him  to  Vienna,  where  he 
met  Mozart  and  composed  for  him  the  librettos  of  the 
operas  "Le  Nozze  di  Fiffliro",  "Don  Giovanni",  and 
"  Cosl  fan  tutte ' '.  He  did  not  remain  long  in  Vienna, 
but  went  to  London,  whence,  after  a  somewhat 
chequered  career,  he  emigrated  to  New  York.  Un- 
successful commercial  ventures  and  unprofitable  ef- 
forts to  establish  opera  in  that  city  followed,  and  he 
then  settled  down  as  a  teacher  of  Italian  with  a  nomi- 
nal connexion  with  Columbia  CoUege.  Da  Ponte  en- 
joys the  distinction  of  bein^  the  first  teacher  in  Ameiv 
ica  to  lecture  on  Dante 's  "  Divina  Commedia  ".  He  was 
buried  in  the  old  Catholic  cemetery  in  East  Eleventh 
Street,  and  as  the  grave  was  never  marked  it  cannot 
now  be  located.  His  daughter  married  Dr.  Henry 
James  Anderson,  for  many  years  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy  in  Columbia  College,  and  a 
prominent  Catholic  phUanthropist. 

Marcitesan,  DeUa  vita  e  delle  opere  di  Lorenzo  da  Ponte  (Tn^ 
viBO,  1900);  Gbovih,  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Mueicians  (Ion- 
don.  1904).  Ill;  U.  S.  Cath.  Hist.  Soc.  Hist.,  Records  and  Studies 
(New  York.  Nov.,  1907).  V,  Part  I. 

Thomas  F.  Mbehan. 

Darboy,  Georges,  Archbishop  of  Paris  and  eccle- 
siastical writer,  b.  at  Fayl-Billot,  near  Langres,  1813; 
killed  by  Communists  at  Paris,  24  May,  1871.  Or- 
dained priest  in  1836,  he  served  for  a  time  as  curate 
of  Notre- Dame  at  Saint-Dizier  and  as  professor  at  the 
Grand  S^minaire  of  Langres,  then  joined  Mgr.  Affre 
at  Paris,  1846,  where  from  "pr^tre  auxiliaire  k  la 
maison  des  Cannes*'  and  chaplain  of  the  Lyc6e  Henri- 
IV,  he  soon  rose  to  the  position  of  canon  of  Notre- 
Dame,  vicar-general  and  archdeacon  of  Saint-Denis, 
having  previously  l)ecn  made  prothonotary  Apostolic. 
In  18^  he  was  appointed  to  the  See  of  Nancy.  Dur- 
ing his  three  years  as  incumbent  of  that  see,  he  took 
a  special  interest  in  educational  matters,  established 
the  I*><)le  Saints L<k)pold,  enlargcni  the  Grand  S^minaire, 
and  wrote  (isn2)  his  famous  letter,  "8ur  la  ndcessit^ 


de  r^tude".    Promoted  by  an  imperial  decree  of  10 
January,  1863,  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Paris,  made 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Mgr.  Moriot,  he  ocmsecrated 
within  a  year  the  basilica  of  Notre-Dame,  then  com- 
pletely restored,  and  was  honoured  with  Uie  titles  of 
Grand  Almoner,  Senator,  and  Imperial  Councillor. 
Though  lacking  the  independence  of  Mgr.  Affre,  the 
administrative  skill  of  Mgr.  Sibour,  and  the  affability 
of  Cardinal  Moriot,  Darboy  was  a  learned,  conseien- 
tious,  and  respected  prelate.    With  the  help  of  such 
men  as  Buquet,  Isoard,  Lang^nieux,  Meignan,  and 
Foulon,  he  ^ve  a  new  impetus  to  the  somewhat  remias 
administration  of  his  aged  predecessor.    The  Gaili- 
canism  of  Darboy  made  him  unduly  subservient  to 
imperial  wbhes  and  caused  him  to  assume  a^inst  the 
exemptions  of  the  religious  an  attitude  which  Rome 
(1869)  compelled  him  to  abandon.    It  was  his  chief 
motive  for  siding,  during  the  Vatican  Council,  with 
the  minority  which  deemed  inopportune  the  definition 
of  papal  infallibility,  his  reasons  being  more  of  a  politic 
caf  than  of  a  theological  nature.     Darboy  was  one  of 
those  who  suggested  diplomatic  intervention  as   a 
means  of  ending  difficulties.    He  left  Rome  before  the 
final  vote  of  18  July,  1870,  and  expressed  sentiments 
which,  however,  he  generously  retracted  when,  several 
months  after  the  definition,  he  subscribed  to  it.     Dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Paris  Darboy^  showed  himself  a  true 
pastor  ana  won  the  admiration  of  all.    Arrested  4 
April,  1871,  by  order  of  the  Commime,  and  confined 
to  Mazas  Prison,  the  best  efforts  of  his  friends  failed 
to  save  him;  he  was  shot  at  Roquette,  24  May,  and 
died  blessing  his  executioners.    As  soon  as  order  could 
be  restored  a  national  funeral  was  celebrated  for  him 
and  the  other  victims  of  the  Commune.    The  Abb6 
Perraud  delivered  his  eulogy  at  Paris,  and  P^re  Didon 
at  Nancy.     Darboy  was  the  author  of  the  following 
works:  "(Euvres  de  saint  Denys  TArtopagite,  tradui- 
tes  du  grec"  (Paris,  1845) ;  "  Les  fenunes  de  la  Bible  " 
(Paris,  1846-9);  ''Lessaintes  femmes''  (Paris,  ISoO); 
"Lettres  k  Combalot''  (Paris,  1851);  "Jerusalem  et 
la  terre  sainte''  (Paris,  1852);  '' L'imitation  de  Jdsus- 
Christ,  traduction  nouvelle"  (Paris,  1852);  ''Statis- 
tique  religieuse  du  dioc^  de  Paris"  (Paris,  1856); 
"Saint  Thomas  Becket"  (Paris,  1858).    He  also  con- 
tributed to  the  "Correspondant"  (1847-1855)  and 
was  for  a  year  (1850)  director  of  the  "  Moniteur  Gatho- 
lique".     His  pastoral  works  (2  vols.,   Paris,    1876) 
were  edited  by  his  biographer,  Foulon. 

Foulon,  Histoire  de  la  vie  et  des  etwerea  de  Mgr  Darboy 
(Paris,  1889);  J&rome  in  UepiscowU  franpais,  Wje-JUOS 
(Paris,  1907),  390;  Pisani  (ibid.,  463)  givos  an  exhaustive  bibli- 
ography; Darboy  et  le  l^atnt-Sikge,  documents  inidits  in  Rre. 
d:hist.  et  de  lit.  retig.  (May-June.  1907). 

J.  F.  SOLUEB. 

Darbyists.    See  Plymouth  Brethren. 

Dardanofl,  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of  Helles- 
pont, suffragan  of  Cyzicus.  Four  or  five  bishops  are 
known,  from  431  or  451  to  879  (Lequien^  Or.  Christ., 
I,  775).  Dardanus  figures  in  ^'Notititue  episeopa- 
tuum ' '  as  late  as  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century.  The 
town  seems  to  have  been  situated  some  seven  miles 
south-west  of  the  Dardanelles,  near  Kelea  Boumou. 
However,  the  town  called  Dardanelles  (Gr.  Darda^ 
ndlia;  Turk.  Kaleh-i-Sultanieh,  ''imperial  fortress'*; 
and  commonly  Tchanak  Kaleh,  ''the  fortress  of  pot- 
tery*') is  the  modem  representative  of  the  ancient 
Dardanus.  It  is  an  important  port  on  the  straits  which 
unite  the  Marmora  with  the  Mediterranean  (Straits  of 
Dardanelles,  the  ancient  Hellespont).  The  popular 
tion  is  about  8000  (Turks,  Greeks,  Jews,  a  few  Arme- 
nians, and  Europeans).  The  little  Catholic  pari^  is 
conducted  by  a  secular  pr^t  and  the  school  is  under 
Georgian  Sisters,  Servants  of  Mary.  There  is  also 
an  American  Protestant  mission.  Dardanelles  is  the 
chief  town  of  a  saniak,  which  depends  direcUy  on  the 
Sublime  Porto,  and  Ls  st-rongly  fortified.  Every  ship 
entering  or  quitting  the  straiU  must  stop  at  Darda- 


DARDBL 


635 


DARHIS 


nelles  and  show  the  imperial  firman,  or  permit,  to  enter 
or*  leave.  Trade  is  rather  active.  Industry  is  repre- 
sented by  curious  earthenware.  Not  far  from  the 
town  is  the  hill  of  Hissaalik,  the  scene  of  some  of 
Schllemann's  important  excavations.  The  entire 
region  is  covered  with  interesting  ruins. 

CxjiNBT,  La  Turquie  (VAtie  (Paris.  18W),  III,  080  sqq. 

S.  P^TRID^S. 

Iterdel.  Jean,  Friar  Minor  of  the  French  province 
of  the  order,  chronicler  of  Armenia  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  adviser  and  confessor  to  King  Leo  V  (or  VI) 
of  Armenia.    Nothing  is  known  regarding  him  except 
w^hat  he  himself  tells  us  in  his  "Chronique  d'Arm6nie  , 
a  work  unknown  until  recent  times.    Dardel  was  bom 
at  Estampes,  and  became  a  Franciscan  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourteenth  century.    Not  earlier  than  1375 
he  'went  with  other  pil^imsto  Jerusalem  and  Mount 
Sinai.    Arriving  at  Cairo  he  found  the  unhappy  Leo, 
last  King  of  Armenia  (Cilicia),  who  after  a  nine-months 
siege  in  the  fortress  of  Gaban  was  made  prisoner  by 
the  Emir  of  Aleppo  and  brought  to  Jerusalem:  and 
from  there  sent,  together  with  his  family,  to  Cairo 
(July,  1375).    In  Cairo  Dardel  accepted  the  invitation 
of  tne  imprisoned  monarch  to  act  as  his  adviser,  con- 
fessor, and  secretary.    With  Dardel  was  a  companion 
named  Brother  Anthony  da  Monopoli.    Dardel  saw 
the  kin^  frequently  and  said  Mass  before  him,  a  privi- 
lege easily  obtained  from  the  sultan.    He  remained  at 
Cairo  till  1379,  and,  as  he  tells  us,  wrote  soine  of  the  let- 
ters which  the  king  sent  to  Europe  seeking  to  procure 
his  freedom.   Eventually  King  Leo  entrusted  him  with 
his  royal  seal  and  letters  of  credence,  and  sent  him  as 
ambassador  to  King  Peter  IV  of  Aragon,  and,  failing 
success  with  him,  to  all  the  other  kings  of  Christendom 
to  obtain  his  freedom.    Dardel  ana  his  companion, 
Brother  Anthony,   set   out   from   Cairo    11    Sept., 
1379,  and  reached  Barcelona,  1  March,  1380.    After 
traveling  over  half  of  Europe  he  barely  succeeded 
in  inducing  the  King  of  Aragon  to  send  an  embassy 
with  gifts  to  the  sultan.    Under  the  leadership  of  the 
pilgrim  Gian-Alfonso  di  Loric,  with  some  support 
from  John  I,  King  of  Castile,  the  release  of  King  Leo 
was  thus  secured,  and  he  arrived  at  Venice,  12  Decem- 
ber, 1382.    He  set  out  for  France,  paid  homage  there 
to  Clement  VII  (the  antipope),  and  then  went  on  to 
Spain  where  the  Kinp  of  Castile  received  him  royaJly. 
Clement  VII  appointed  Dardel  Bishop  of  Tortiboli 
in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  11  April,  1383,  as  a  reward 
lor  his  labours  on  behalf  of  the  Armenian  king.    He 
has  left  us  an  important  "Chronique  d*Arm6iile", 
hitherto  unknown  to  Orientalists.    It  was  discovered 
by  Canon  Ulysse  Robert,  who  came  across  the  MS.  in 
the  Library  of  D61e  in  France,  and  it  has  recently  been 
published  by  the  Institut  des  belles  lettres  of  France 
m  the  second  tome  of  the  *'  Recueil  des  Historiens  des 
(>oi8ades*'. 

Oripnal  text  in  Recant  des  Histariena  dee  Croiaades:  Docur 
menu  AmUniena  (PlariB.  1006),  II,  274-1038:  Armenian  veraion 
by  G.  Erqeamtz,  Jowhannu  Dardeli  Zhamanakagruthiun 
Hajoz  (St.  Petersburg,  1891);  Robert.  La  Chronique  d'Armhtie 
dm  Jean  Dardel,  evlque  de  Tortcholi  in  Archivea  de  l'Orie9U  Latin 
(188i).  II.  1-15;  Teza,  Leone  VI  e  frate  Giovanni  in  AUi  del  A. 
Jnstituto  Venetodiecieme,  LXVI,  ser.  VIII.  vol.  IX,  pt.  II,  322- 
328;  Mater  in  Romania  (July,  1907),  450-455. 

GiROI-AMO  GOLITBOVICH. 

Darerea,  Saint,  of  Ireland,  a  sister  of  St.  Patrick. 
Much  obscurity  attaches  to  her  history,  and  it  is  not 
easy  to  disentangle  the  actual  facts  of  her  history  from 
the  network  of  legend  which  medieval  writers  inter- 
wove with  her  acte.  However,  her  fame,  apart  from 
her  relationship  to  Ireland's  national  apoiitle,  stands 
secure  as  not  only  a  great  saint  but  as  the  mother  of 
many  saints,  mien  St.  Patrick  visited  Bredach,  as 
we  read  in  the  "Tripartite  Life",  he  ortlained  Aen^ 
mac  Ailill,  the  local  chieftain  of  Moville,  now  a  seaside 
resort  for  tho  citizens  of  Derry.  Whilst  there  he  found 
"the  three  deacon.^",  his  sistvor's  Koti8,  namely,  St. 


Reat,  St.  Nenn,  and  St.  Aedh,  who  are  commemorated 
respectively  on  3  March,  25  April,  and  31  August. 
St.  Darerca  was  twice  married,  her  second  husband, 
Ghonas,  founded  the  church  of  Bothrchonms,  now 
Binnion,  Parish  of  Clonmany,  in  the  barony  of  Inish- 
owen,  Cbunty  Donegal.  She  had  families  by  both 
husbands,  some  say  seventeen  sons,  all  of  whom, 
according  to  Colgan,  became  bishops.  FVom  the 
"Tripartite  Life  ofSt.  Patrick"  it  is  evident  that  there 
Were  four  sons  of  Darerca  by  Chonaa,  namely  four 
bishops,  St.  Mel  of  Ardagh,  St.  Rioc  of  Inisboffin,  St. 
Muinis  of  Forgney,  County  Longford,  and  St.  Maelchu. 
It  is  well  to  note  that  another  St.  Muinis,  son  of  Goltit, 
is  described  as  of  Tedel  in  Ararcliath. 

St.  Darerca  had  two  daughters,  St.  Eiche  of  Kil- 
dass  and  St.  Lalloc  of  Senlis.  Her  first  husband  was 
Restitutus  the  Lombard,  after  whose  death  she  mar- 
ried Chonas  the  Briton.  By  Restitutus  she  was 
mother  of  St.  Sechnall  of  Dunshai^hlin;  St.  Nectan 
of  Killunche,  and  of  Fennor  (near  Slane);  of  St. 
Auxilius  of  Killossey  (near  Naas,  County  Kildare); 
of  St.  Diarmaid  of  Druim-corcortri  (near  Navan) ;  of 
Dabonna,  Mogomon,  Drioc,  Luguat,  and  Coemed 
Maccu  Baird  (the  Lombard)  of  Cloonshaneville,  near 
Frenchpark,  County  Roseommon.  Four  other  sons 
are  assigned  her  by  old  Irish  writers,  namely  St. 
Crummin  of  Lecua,  St.  Miduu,  St.  Carantoc,  and  St. 
Maceaith.  She  is  identical  with  Liamania,  according 
to  Colgan,  but  must  not  be  confounded  with  St. 
Monennia,  <»*  Darerca,  whose  feaat  is  on  6  July.  St. 
Darerca  is  honoured  on  22  March,  and  is  the  patroness 
of  Valencia  Island. 

&rOKE8.  The  Tripartite  Life  ef  St,  Poltrick  (Rolls  Series,  Lon- 
don, 1887);  CouQ/Lti,  Trias  Thaumaturjja  (Lou vain,  1647); 
Archdall,  Monaeticon  Hibemieum,  ed.  Moran  (Dublin. 
1873-76);  Coloan.  Ada  Sanctorum  Hibemia  (Louvsin,  1646); 
Martyroiooy  of  Donegal  (Dublin,  1864);  O'Hanion,  Lives  of 
the  Irish  SainU  (Dublin,  1879),  III;  Hkalt,  Life  and  Writinaa 
of  St,  Patrick  (Dublin,  1905). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Dar-efl-Salaam.    See  Zanzibar. 

Dareate  de  la  Ohavanne,  Antoine-Elisabeth, 
historian  and  professor,  b.  in  Paris,  25  October,  1820; 
d.  at  Lucenay-l^s-Aix.  6  August,  1882.  Having  com* 
pleted  his  studies  in  tne  Ecole  Normaie  and  taken  his 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Literature,  he  taught  history  at 
the  lyceums  of  Versailles  and  Rennes  and  at  the 
College  Stanislas^  the  largest  Catholic  school  in  Paris. 
In  1^7  he  was  given  a  professorship  at  the  University 
of  Grenoble,  and  two  vears  after  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  history  at  tne  University  of  Lyons.  This 
latter  position  he  retained  for  twenty  years,  being 
dected  dean  of  the  faculty  of  literature  in  1865. 
While  dischar^ng  with  the  greatest  zeal  and  ability 
the  duties  of  his  position,  he  wrote  a  number  of  worlffl, 
several  of  which  received  an  award  from  the  French 
Academy.  Among  them  are:  "Eloge  de  Tui^t" 
(Paris,  1847);  "Histoire  de  radministration  en 
France  depuis  Philippe-Auguste"  (Paris,  1848,  2 
vols,  in  8vo);  "Histoire  des  classes  a^coles  en 
France  depuis  saint  Louis  jusqu'  k  Louis  XVI" 
(Paris,  1853) ;  **  Histoire  de  France  depuis  ses  origines 
jusqu' linos  jours"  (Paris,  1865-1873,  8vols.;2nded., 
1879, 9  vols.).  All  his  writings  are  clear,  accurate,  and 
complete  without  being  diffuse.  Although  somewhat 
imbued  with  Gallican ideas,  he  invariably  £es  justice  to 
the  Roman  CSiurch  and  the  popes,  in  1873  he  was 
appointed  rector  of  the  academy  at  Lyons,  but  was 
placed  on  the  unattached  list  in  1878,  because  of  his 
devotion  to  Catholic  interests,  and  the  active  part  he 
took  in  the  establishment  of  the  Catholic  University 
of  Lyons. 

Hkinkich,  Notice  bioaraphique  sur  M.  Dareate  de  la  Chavanns 
(Lyons,  1883). 

Louis  N.  Dela.marre 

Dark  AgeA,    See  Middle  Ages. 

DamiB,  a  metropoHtan  titular  see  of  Libya,  in 
Egypt.     Pt/)lomy  (IV,  4,  2;  5;  6)  and  Ammian.  Mar- 


DABEAS 


636 


DATX8 


oe)L,  (XXII.  16. 4)  locate  it  in  Pentapolis.  It  became 
the  civil  ana  later  the  religious  metropoliB  of  Libya  Se- 
cunda,  or  Inferior,  i.e.  Marmarica  (Hierocles,  '*  syneo- 
demua",  734,  3;  Lequien,  "Oriens.  chriat.",  II,  631; 
Qelzer,  "Geoi]gu  Cyprii  descriptio  orbLs  Romani'^ 
142).  Dame  is  anotner  form  ot  the  name;  Dardanis 
is  due  to  an  error.  Only  three,  perhaps  four,  bishops 
are  known,  from  the  fourth  or  sixth  century  to  about 
600.  The  city  is  now  known  as  Demeh  or  Demah, 
Temeh  or  Temah,  and  is  a  little  port  at  the  end  of  a 
bay  formed  by  the  Mediterranean,  where  the  French 
admiral  Gantbeaume  landed  in  1799.  It  is  situated 
east  of  Benghasi  in  the  vilayet  of  that  name  (Tripoli- 
tana),  and  has  20(X)  inhabitants,  who  live  by  fishing 
and  the  coasting  trade. 

S.    P6TRIDE8. 

Darras,  Joseph-Epiphane,  church  historian,  b.  at 
Troyes,  France,  1825;  d.  at  Paris,  Nov.  8,  1878.  He 
completed  his  classical  training  and  his  theological 
studies  in  the  Petit  S^minaire  and  the  Grand  S6mi- 
naire  of  Troyes,  in  the  former  of  which  he  became  a 
teacher  after  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood,  but  had 
to  resign  apropos  of  a  paneg^ic  on  the  Bishop  of 
Troyes,  Etienne-Antoine  de  Boulogne  (1809-1825), 
dis^-aced  by  Napoleon  I,  for  his  firm  attitude  on  the 
occasion  of  the  assembly  of  the  French  bishops  in 
1811.  He  then  became  tutor  of  Prince  Eugene  de 
Baufifremont,  devoted  himself  to  historical  studies, 
and  after  the  education  of  his  pupil  continued  to  live 
with  the  de  BaufTremont  familv.  He  was  a  zealous 
antagonist  of  Gallicanism  and  devoted  to  the  honour 
and  the  rights  of  the  Holv  See.  He  was  at  Rome 
during  the  Vatican  CJouncii  as  secretary  to  the  meet- 
ings of  the  French  bishops.  His  first  literary  work 
was  the  translation  of  Pallavicino's  "  Storia  del  Con- 
cilio  Tridentino"  for  the  Migne  collection.  To  the 
same  period  belongs  the  "L^cende  de  Notre-Dame" 
(Paris,  1848),  written  under  the  influence  of  Montal- 
embert.  The  early  theological  studies  of  Darrar  did 
not  include  a  good  foundation  in  ecclesiastical  history; 
this  defect  he  sought  to  make  good  by  private  studies. 
His  ''Histoire  g^n^rale  de  I'Eglise"  in  four  volumes 
appeared  at  Paris  in  1854  (14th  ed.,  1890).  It  follows 
toe  reigns  of  the  popes,  but  betra^rs  in  the  author  a 
lack  of  methodical  training  and  critical  skill,  defects 
noticeable  also  in  his  other  works.  In  the  following 
years  Darras  published  a  ''Histoire  de  St.  D6nis 
TArfepagite,  premier  6v^ue  de  Paris"  (Paris,  1863); 
a  "Histoire  ae  Notre  Seigneur  J^us-CJhrist"  (Paris, 
1864),  two  volumes,  and  a  '' Notice  biographique  de 
Mer.  Jager"  (Paris,  1868).  He  collaborated  with 
Collin  in  the  **  Grande  Vie  des  Saints ''  (Paris,  1873-75) 
twenty-five  volumes.  In  the  meantime  he  had  pre- 
pared the  material  for  his  chief  work;  "Histoire  de 
I'Eglise  depuis  la  creation",  the  first  twenty-five  vol- 
umes of  which  appeared  before  his  death  (Paris,  1875- 
77).  They  brought  the  narrative  down  to  the  twelfth 
century.  After  nis  death,  J.  Bareille  continued  the 
work  to  the  pontificate  of  Clement  VII  (volumes 
XXVI-XXXII,  Paris,  1879-84).  It  was  completed 
by  J.  Fdvre  to  the  pontificate  of  Leo  XIII,  inclusive 
(volumes  XXXIII-XLIV,  Paris,  1884-1907,  with  two 
volumes  of  Index).  This  work  discloses  the  defects 
mentioned  above.  For  a  sharp  criticism  of  it  by  the 
Bollandist  Charles  de  Smedt,  S.  J.,  see  the  latter's 
"Principes  de  la  critique  historique"  (Li^ge,  1885), 
137  sqq.,  285. 

PoiMlian  (Paris,  1879),  XXV,  80;  Hurter,  JVbm«icto/or, 
III,  1325,  1396:  DARRA8-BAREiLL.E-Fi:vRB,  Hiatoire  de  I'Eglute 
(Paris.  1888).  XLII.  376  sqq. 

J.   P.   KiRflCH. 

Darrell,  William,  theologian,  b.  1651,  in  Bucking- 
hamshire, England;  d.  28  Feb.,  1721,  at  St.  Omer^, 
Frano<\  He  was  a  member  of  the  ancient  Catholic 
family  of  I)arn*ll  of  Scotney  Castle,  Sussex,  being  the 
only  Mim  of  'n^onuus  Darrell  ami  his  wife,  ThomoKsin© 


Marcham.  He  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  7  Sept., 
1671,  was  professed  25  March,  1689.  He  wrote:  *iA 
Vindication  of  St.  Ignatius  from  Phanatidsm  and  of 
the  Jesuits  from  the  calumnies  laid  to  Uieir  charge  in 
a  late  book  (by  Heniy  Wharton)  entitled  The  Enthu- 
siasm of  theChurch  of  Rome"  (London,  1688) ;  ''Moral 
Reflections  on  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  of  every  Sun- 
day throughout  the  Year"  (London,  1711,  and  fre- 
auently  reprinted);  "The  Gentleman  Instructed  in 
le  conduct  of  a  virtuous  and  happy  life"  (lOUi  ed.. 
London,  1732;  frequently  reprinted  and  translated 
into  Italian  and  Hungarian);  "Theses  Theologies^'' 
(Litee,  1702);  "The  Case  Reviewed"  in  answer  to 
Leslie's  "Case  Stated"  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1717);  "A 
Treatise  of  the  Real  Presence"  (London,  1721).  He 
translated  "  Discourses  of  Cleander  and  Eudoxus  upon 
the  Provincial  Letters  from  the  French"  (1701). 
Jones  in  his  edition  of  Peck's  "Popery  Tracts "(1850). 
also  attributes  to  Father  Darrell:  "A  Letter  on  King 
James  the  Second's  most  gracious  Letter  of  Indul- 
gence" (1687);  "The  Layman's  Opinion  sent  ...  to 
a  considerable  Divine  ui  the  Church  of  England" 
(1687);  "A  Letter  to  a  Lady"  (1688);  "TTie  Vanity 
of  Human  Respects"  (1688), 

FoLBY.  Records  Eng.  Prov.  S.  J.  (London.  1878).  Ill,  477. 
VII.  i,  196;  Pkck.  Catalooue of  Popery  TratU  (1735).  od.  Jonm 
(Chetham  Society,  1859);  Gillow.  Bibl^  Diet.  Eng.  Catk. 
(Ixindon.  1886),  II;  Coopek  in  Diet,  Nat,  Bioa.  (London. 
1888),  XIV. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Darwinism.    See  Evolution. 

Dates  and  Dating. — ^In  classical  Latin  even  before 
the  time  of  Christ  it  was  usual  for  correspondents  to 
indicate  when  and  where  their  letters  were  written. 
This  was  commonly  done  by  such  words  as  dabam 
Romce  ante  diem  qwartum  Kalendaa  Janwrrias^  i.  e.  I 

five  or  delivered  this  at  Rome  on  December  29th. 
or  this  the  later  formula  was  daia  Rama  (eiven  at 
Rome).  Hence  data,  the  first  word  of  the  lonnula. 
came  to  be  used  for  the  time  and  place  therein  roeci- 
fied.  The  principle  that  imperial  decrees  and  diar- 
terp  must  be  "dated"  as  a  condition  of  validity,  i.  e. 
that  they  must  bear  upon  them  the  indication  of  the 
day  and  year  when  they  were  delivered,  may  be  traced 
back  to  tne  time  of  Constantine.  In  the  course  of  the 
Middle  A^s  this  principle  was  genardly  admitted, 
and  we  find,  for  example,  that  at  Colore  in  tbe 
twelfth  centurv  the  vaUdity  of  a  certain  mstrtunent 
was  contested  Because  it  lacked  a  date.  "Those  who 
have  seen  it  say  that  the  document  which  John 
brought  does  not  bear  the  dav  or  the  indiction  .  .  . 
now  the  Roman  decrees  lay  down  that  letters  which 
lack  the  day  and  the  indiction  have  no  binding  force." 
(Westdeutsche  Zeitschrift  fur  GeschichteTl,  377.) 
But  althouffh  this  principle  was  recognized  in  theory 
it  was  not  always  carried  out  in  practice.  Even  down 
to  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  not  only  royal 
and  imperial  letters  but  even  charters  (Urkunden), 
properly  so  called,  were  occasionally  through  the  care- 
lessness of  officials  sent  out  without  a  date.  (Bress- 
lau,'  Handbuch,  I,  891.)  In  this  matter  the  Italian 
chancery  officials  seem  to  have  been  much  more  care- 
ful than  those  of  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  same  is 
true  with  regard  to  the  correctness  of  the  dates  which 
do  apnear  in  official  documents,jespecially  those  of  the 
early  Middle  Ag^.  As  a  rule  the  charters  emanating 
from  the  chancery  of  the  Western  Emperors  are  mu£ 
more  liable  to  this  form  of  error  than  tnose  of  Uie  Holy 
See  (Bresslau,  ib.,  844).  But  even  the  bulls  of  such  a 
pontiff  as  Innocent  III  are  not  unfrequently  at  fault, 
and  as  Leopold  Delisle  has  shown,  an  erroneous  calcu- 
lation of  the  indiction  may  be  perpetuated  throu^  a 
whole  series  of  authentic  documents  (Bib.  de  I'^ole 
des  chartes,  18i>8,  p.  55).  In  an^r  case  it  remains 
certain  and  is  admitted  by  all  serious  writers  upon 
diplomatics  that  the  mere  fact  tliat  an  erroneous 
date  occurs  in  a  document,  es|)ecially  when  we  are 


DATES 


637 


DATBS 


dealing  with  the  earlier  Middle  Agc8,  cannot  by  it«elf 
be  accepted  as  a  proof,  or  even  a  presumption;  of  the 
spuriousness  of  the  document. 

The  Christian  Era. — ^The  point  of  main  interest  in 
this  connexion  is  to  determine  the  source  and  period  of 
the  introduction  of  our  present  system  of  dating  by 
the  Christian  Era.  Altnough,  as  explained  in  the 
article  CHRONOLoar,  General  (q.  v.),  the  monk 
known  as  Dionysius  Exiguus,  when  resident  in  Rome, 
c.  527,  seems  to  have  b^n  the  first  to  initiate  the 
practice  of  calculating  years  from  the  birth  of  Christ. 
and  althoufi^  it  was  undoubtedly  he  who  identified 
the  year  of  Christ's  birth  with  the  year  763  of  the 
foundation  of  Rome,  as  is  still  done  in  our  current 
ehronolo^,  nevertheless  it  was  not  until  long  after  the 
age  of  Dionysius  Exiguus  that  the  system  can^e  into 
common  use.  For  example  no  trace  of  it  will  be 
found  in  that  great  historian  of  the  Gallic  Chmrch,  St. 
^  of  Tours,  the  contemporary  of  our  St.  Augus- 


tine of  England ;  and  in  the  writing  of  Pope  St.  Greg- 
ory the  Great  the  Dionysian  Era  is  not  adopted.  It 
was  the  pope's  habit  to  date  his  letters  by  tne  regnal 
yetirs  of  the  emperor  and  letters  so  dated  mav  be  seen 
m  Bede's  "Ecclesiastical  History",  just  as  thejr  were 
copied  from  the  Roman  archives.  Apparently  it  was 
the  Englishman  Bede  himself  who  was  the  first  to 
bring  the  Dionysian  system  into  general  use,  for  it  was 
through  him  that  it  was  adopted  in  literature,  having 
been  employed  systematically  not  only  in  his  "I)e 
Temporum  Ratione"  but  especially  in  his  "Ecclesi- 
astical History".  What  is  more,  we  may  notice  the 
striking  fact  that  the  regular  employment  of  the 
Christian  Era  in  English  oiarters  began  just  at  the 
period  of  Bede's  pre-eminent  influence.  It  is  only 
from  about  the  year  679  that  we  are  able  to  appeal  to 
English  charters  of  indisputable  authenticity.  Tak- 
ing eight  such  documents,  the  eight  earliest  which  we 
can  quote  with  confidence  and  dated  respectively  679, 
692,  697,  732,  734,  736,  740,  759,  we  may  notice  says 
Professor  Earle  (Land  Charters,  Introduc,  p.  xxxiii) 
that  "  of  this  series  the  first  five  thou^  all  more  or 
less  dated,  whether  by  the  month  or  the  regnal  year, 
or  by  the  Indiction,  or  by  all  these  at  once,  have  not 
the  Anno  Domini.  On  tne  other  hand,  the  last  three 
agree  in  usin^  the  Christian  Era  and  from  this  time 
the  practice  is  continuous.  In  the  intervening  year 
whicn  breaks  this  series  into  two  parts  falls  the  death 
of  Bede  a.  d.  735."  Very  noteworthy  is  the  decree  of 
an  Ei^Iish  synod  held  in  816,  wherein  it  is  prescribed 
that  the  bishop  shall  put  the  acts  of  the  ssmod  into 
writing  and  date  them  by  the  Era  of  the  Incarnation. 
This  points  no  doubt  to  a  time  "when  ecclesiastics 
knew  the  era  well  enough  but  had  not  yet  acquired  the 
punctual  habit  of  using  itj'.  It  is  in  any  case  certain 
that  neither  in  the  papal  chancery  nor  m  that  of  the 
Western  Empire  was  tne  system  introduced  until  con- 
siderably later.  In  the  empire  it  only  became  general 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century,  while  although 
it  occurs  occasionally  in  papal  documents  of  the  time 
of  John  XIII  (965-972),  it  was  not  the  rule  before  the 
twelfth  century.  But  for  the  dating  of  papal  docu- 
ments and  for  the  so-called  "double  date  '  see  the 
article  Bxtlls  and  Briefs. 

Rbckonino  of  Years. — Before  the  Christian  Era 
was  generally  adopted  in  the  dating  of  documents 
various  other  systems  were  employed  at  different 
periods  and  in  different  countries.  The  best  known  of 
these  WM  the  counting  by  "indicUons".  The  indic- 
tion was  a  cycle  of  fifteen  years,  the  first  of  these  cycles 
being  conceived  to  have  started  at  apoint  three  years 
before  the  be^nning  of  the  present  Christian  Era.  It 
was  usual  to  mdicate  only  the  position  of  the  year  in 
the  current  indiction,  and  no  notice  was  taken  of  the 
number  of  cycles  already  completed.  Thus,  for  ex- 
ample, indidio  quarta  meant  the  fourth  year  of 
some  particular  indiction  and  not  the  fourth  cycle  of 
fifteen  years  aft^r  b.  c.  3 ;  from  which  it  follows  that 


merely  to  know  tlie  year  of  the  indiction  is  useless  for 
determining  the  absolute  date  of  any  document  unless 
we  know  owerwise  approximately  the  period  to  which 
the  document  belongs.  In  reckoning  the  beginning 
and  consequently  the  changing-point  of  the  indiction- 
cydes  four  different  systems  were  adopted :  the  in- 
didio GroBca  according  to  which  the  indiction  be^an  on 
September  1st;  the  tndictio  Casmrea  (or  indiction  of 
Bede)  b^^ing  September  24th ;  the  indidio  Romana 
beginning  December  25th  or  January  1st;  and  the  in- 
didio Senensis  beginning  September  8th.  The  indie- 
iio  Grmca  was  the  oldest  of  these  and  it  remained  in 
use  in  papal  buUs  until  1087  and  in  imperial  docu- 
ments until  832.  It  was  partly  supplanted,  especially, 
in  the  Carlovingian  sphere  of  influence,  by  Uie  indidio 
CcBsarea. 

Conciurently  with  the  year  of  the  indiction  it  was 
customary  both  in  papal  and  imperial  documents  to 
mention  the  regnal  year  of  the  pope  or  emperor.  So 
far  as  regards  the  emperors  this  was  prescribed  by 
Justinian  (Novella xlvii).  In  the  case  of  thepopes  we 
do  not  know  any  instance  earlier  than  787.  Uenerally 
speaking  (though  the  rule  admitted  of  many  excep- 
tions»  especially  later)  the  regnal  year  was  calculated 
from  the  day  of  coronation  or  consecration.  In  the 
official  acts  of  most  of  the  countries  of  Christendom, 
and  notably  in  England,  the  regnal  year  of  the  sov- 
ereign was  always  given  and  sometimes  this  was  the 
only  indication  of  ue  year.  As  a  continuous  system 
of  year  enumeration  the  oldest  era  in  practical  use 
appears  to  have  been  that  known  as  the  ''Era  of  the 
Martyrs"  or  "of  Diocletian"  (anni  Dioddiani).  Its 
startmg-point  was  the  accession  of  the  Emperor  Dio- 
cletian, 29  Aug.,  284.  The  Spanish  Era  (aera  Hispan- 
ica)  was  in  familiar  use  in  Spain  from  the  fifth  cen- 
tury down  to  late  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  adds  about 
thirty-eight  years  to  the  ordinaiy  numbering  of  the 
Christian  Era.  Where  Byzantme  influences  pre- 
vailed the  years  were  generally  numbered  from  the 
beginning  of  the  world  (ab  origine  mundi).  This  era 
was  calculated  from  1  September,  and  the  birth  of 
Christ,  which  is  the  point  of  departure  of  our  present 
chronology,  took  place  in  the  year  5509  of  the  Byzan- 
tine system.  Several  other  methods  of  reckoning,  of 
which  the  best  known  is  the  Era  of  the  Hegira  followed 
in  Mahommedan  countries,  have  also  prevailed  in 
various  localities,  but  they  cannot  be  discussed  in 
detail  here.  After  the  Christian  Era  had  been  uni- 
versally adopted  an  important  source  of  confusion  as 
regaitls  the  dating  of  documents  stiU  remained  in  the 
diversity  of  practice  about  the  beginning  of  the  year. 
For  the  details  of  this  the  reader  must  be  referred  to 
the  article  CHRONOLoaT,  General,  and  to  the  works 
^  mentioned  in  the  bibliography,  but  we  may  notice 
here  that  among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  as  also  at  many 
different  periods  in  the  papal  chancery,  the  new  year 
was  calculated  to  begin  on  December  25th.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  England  from  the  twelfth  century  on- 
wards, largely  under  Norman  influences,  the  years 
were  numbered  from  the  25th  of  March.  This  ar- 
rangement was  often  called  the  mos  Anglicanus  or 
computatio  AngUcana,  though  it  also  prevailed  in 
Florence,  Siena,  Pisa,  and  at  least  occasionally  in  . 
other  parts  of  the  Continent  as  well  as  in  many  pa^Md 
documents.  In  England  it  lasted  on  down  to  the 
eighteenth  century,  though  after  Elizabethan  times 
it  became  increasingly  common  in  the  dating  of  letters 
to  indicate  the  system  of  dating  adopted,  N.  8.  often 
standing  for  the  New  or  Continental  Style  in  which  the 
year  began  on  January  1st,  and  O.  S.  for  the  Old  Style 
m  which  the  year  was  counted  from  March  25th.  Fur- 
ther N.  S.  was  still  more  frequently  iised  for  dates 
which  followed  the  reformed  calendar  of  Gregory  XIII, 
as  explained  in  the  article  CHRONOLoaT,  Gensrau 

The  Reckoning  of  Days. — ^The  eariy  converts  to 
Christianity  in  the  West  not  unnaturally  retained  the 
method  of  indicating  the  days  of  the  month  wbicfa 


DAtTBRfo 


638 


DAmJA 


was  current  among  their  pagan  contemporaries.  Ac- 
cording to  this,  three  fixed  points  were  taken  in  each 
month,  the  kalends  on  the  first  day,  the  ides  on  the 
tMrteenth  (or  in  some  months  on  the  fifteenth),  and 
the  nones  on  the  ninth  day  before  the  ides,  and  conse- 
quently on  the  fifth  or  seventh.  The  dates  which  fell 
between  these  fixed  points  were  designated  by  the 
number  of  days  by  wnich  they  fell  short  of  the  next 
fixed  point.  Thus  the  twenty-fourth  of  May  was 
called  ante  diem  nonum  kalendiu  Jimias  (i.  e.  the  ninth 
day  before  the  kalends  of  June).  During  the  early 
Middle  Ages  this  system  was  retained  practically  un- 
altered except  that  the  long  Roman  form  was  some- 
'what  contraicted,  for  example  decimo  kalendas  JuUi 
was  written  instead  of  the  ante  diem  dedmum  kalendae 
Jtdiae. 

A  curious  arrangement  prevailed  at  Bologna  (it  was 
called  from  its  place  of  origin  the  con9uetudo  BononC- 
ensis)  and  extended  over  a  large  part  of  the  north 
of  Italy.  According  to  this  the  first  half  of  the  month 
was  numbered  forwards  and  called  mensis  intrans^  but 
the  last  half  of  the  month  was  called  mensis  exiens  and 
numbered  backwards,  as  in  the  Roman  system;  thus 
the  seventeenth  of  May  was  called  die  quinto  decimo 
exeuntis  mensis  Maii.  Our  present  system  of  num- 
bering the  days  straight  on  from  the  first  of  each 
month  besan  to  appear  in  the  sixth  century  and 
graduallv  oecame  more  prevalent  throughout  the 
Middle  Ages,  but  it  never  came  into  general  use  on 
account  m  tiie  custom  of  indicating  the  day  by  the 
feasts  of  the  local  calendar.  Not  only  did  the  com- 
mon festivals  serve  for  this  purpose,  but  the  Sundays 
were  also  often  used,  and  were  designated  by  the  first 
words  of  their  Introit  in  the  Mass.  For  instance  in 
Dominica  kHare  means  on  the  Sunday  whose  Introit 
begins  with  Latare  in  DominOf  i.  e.  the  fourth  Sun- 
day of  LfCnt.  Moreover  the  vigil  of  a  feast,  or  the 
previous  day,  or  the  octave,  or  a  specified  day  within 
the  octave,  were  all  familiarly  designated  by  their  re- 
lation to  the  feast,  e.  g.  in  pervigilio  Nativitatis  Bealai 
Maria;  postridie  Sancti  Laurentii;  in  octava  SH,  Laa~ 
rentii.  etc.  In  this  method  of  dating,  which  was  con- 
stantly employed  both  in  Latin  and  in  the  vernacular, 
the  use  of  the  English  word  tUas  for  octave  should 
be  noticed.  This  method  of  dating  by  saints'  days, 
as  will  be  readily  understood,  depended  much  upon 
local  conditions  and  was  always  apt  to  become  both 
complicated  and  inexact. 

Bresblau,  Handbueh  der  Urkundenlehre  (Leipzig,  1889);  I, 
818-874;  Giry.  Manuei  de  d%plomati9ue  (Paris.  1804),  83-^5 
and  677'-588;  Grotefkno,  TiucherUmch  der  Zeitrechnuriif,  2nd 
ed.  (Leiprxig,  1005).  This  is  a  convenient  abridgement  oi  the 
same  writer's  larger  work,  Zeilrechnuno  deg  deuUchen  Miltd- 
alien  und  der  Newteil  (Leipeig,  1891-1898);  SroKvia,  Manud 
d^histoire,  etc.  (Leyden.  1888-1803),  3  vols.,  see  especially  the 
introduction  to  Vol.  II.  This  is  a  work  of  most  prodigious  re- 
search containing  elaborate  tabular  statements  of  dates  and 
chronological  facts  connected  with  e\'ery  country  of  the  world. 
Oriental  and  American  as  well  as  European.  Bond.  Handy 
Book  for  Verifying  Dates  (Ix>ndon,  1875);  Earle,  ^4  Handbook 
to  the  Land  Charters  and  other  Saxonic  Documents  (Oxford,  1888), 
28^36.  The  older  manmds  of  chronology,  such  as  the  Bene- 
dictine Art  de  verifier  lee  dates  and  Ideler'b  Handbueh,  need  not 
be  more  fully  specified  here. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Daubree,  Gabribl-Augustb,  French  geologist,  b. 
at  Metz,  25  June,  1814 ;  d.  at  Paris,  29  May,  1896.  He 
studied  mining  ensineering  at  the  Ecole  Polytech- 
nique  in  Paris  and  in  1834  entered  the  Government 
service.  After  being  sent  on  commissions  to  Eng- 
land, Sweden,  and  Norway,  he  was  attached  to  the 
department  of  the  Lower  Khine.  He  was  a  close  ob- 
server of  geological  phenomena  and  during  this  time 
published  a  paper  on  the  ore  deposits  of  Scandinavia 
which  attracted  the  attention  of  Berzelius,  and  also 
issued  his  ^' Description  K^logique  et  min^ralogique 
du  d^part«ment  du  Bas-Rhin  .  His  appointment  as 
professor  of  geology  and  mineralogy  at  Strasburg  fur- 
nished him  with  a  laboratory  suitable  for  his  experi«- 
meatal  work  in  synthetic  geology,  begun  in  1849. 


ftiis  brilliant  experimental  researches  at  Straaburg, 
and  later  at  Pans,  extended  over  a  number  of  years 
and  have  served  to  make  him  famous  in  the  annals  of 
geology.  They  comprised  the  artificial  production  of 
minerals,  the  geological  action  of  superheated  aqueous 
vapour,  the  effect  of  mutual  abrasion^  the  influence  of 
pressure  and  strain  in  mountain-makmg,  etc.  During 
the  years  1857-^)1  he  made  a  detailed  study  of  the  hot 
spring  of  Plombi^res,  observing  at  the  same  time  the 
onemioal  action  of  thermal  waters.  In  1861  he  was 
aamitted  to  the  Academic  des  Sciences  and  succeeded 
Cordier  as  professor  of  geology  at  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History  in  Paris  and  curator  of  the  collec- 
tions; to  the  latter  he  made  extensive  additions,  par- 
ticularty  of  meteorites.  It  may  be  mentioned  in  this 
connexion  that  daubr^Iite  (CrS),  a  grayish  granular 
mineral  found  in  meteoric  iron,  was  named  after  him. 
From  1862  he  also  lectured  on  mineralogy  at  the 
Ecole  des  Mines  of  which  he  became  director  in  1872. 
Daubr^'s  career  was  a  long  and  active  one.  He  was 
one  of  the  foremost  of  Catholic  geologists,  and  was 
much  esteemed  for  his  amiability  and  nobility  of 
character.  One  of  his  friends  and  admirers  was  Doro 
Pedro,  Emperor  of  Braiil.  Besides  the  worics  already 
mentioned,  he  was  the  author  of:  ''Observations  mu- 
le m^tamorphisme^'  (Paris,  1858);  ''Etudes  synth^ 
tiques  de  g^H)logie  exp^rimentale"  (Paris,  1879); 
"Les  eaux  souterraines^'  (Paris,  1887);  "La  cbssifi- 
cation  des  m^t^rites  du  Museum'',  and  many  articles 
in  the  "Journal  des  savants"  and  the  "Revue  des 
deux  mondes". 


Lappabxmt  in   Revue  des  quett,   seientii 


•ierUiAques^ 
'ontotoov   ( 


XL.  89: 


ZiTTEL.  History  of  Geology  and  Palctontdlobv  (London,  1901); 
Knsllbr,  Das  Christenthum  u.  die  Vertret0t  der  neueren  AV 
turwissensehaft  (FreibtttB,  1904),  264. 

Hbnry  M.  Brock. 

Daughters  of  Calvary.    See  Calvabt,  Congre- 
gation OF  Our  Lady  op. 

Daughter!  of  Charity.   See  Chariit,  Sisters  of. 

Daughters  of  the  Passion.    See  Capughinesses. 

Daughters   of  the   Queen  of  Aaven.     See 

Queen's  Daughters,  The. 

Daulia,  a  titular  see  of  Greece.  Daulis,  later  Dau 
lia,  Dauleion,  often  Diauleia,  even  Davalia,  was  a 
town  of  Phocis.  on  the  Cephissus,  fifteen  Roman  mike 
north*east  of  Delphi.  It  is  mentioned  by  Hierocles 
(Synecd.,  643,  10),  and  at  the  end  of  the  sevenUi  cen- 
tury had  become  a  suffragan  of  Athens.  In  13d3  Talan- 
tion  was  cut  off  from  Daulia  and  made  a  distinct  see: 
this  was  a  town  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Knemis,  tl^  an- 
cient name  of  which  was  Atalante.  The  bishops  of 
Daulia  long  protested  aga^ifit  this  division;  at  last, 
about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  centur]^  the  two  sees 
were  reimited  as  "Daulia  and  Talantion";  they  re- 
mained so,  except  for  a  brief  period  about  1567.  In 
1653  the  double  see  was  made  an  archbishopric,  owing 
to  the  influence  of  a  Turkish  pasha,  but  after  two 
years  was  reduced  to  its  former  status.  Talanti<m 
was  then  commonly  named  in  tlie  first,  plaoe,  and  fi- 
nally was  the  only  name  in  use.  The  bishop  resided 
there,  as  Daulia  was  almost  in  ruins.  The  See  of 
Dauha  was  suppressed  in  1833,  when  the  Church  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Greece  was  organised  on  an  independ- 
ent basis.  We  know  about  fifteen  Greek  bishops  of 
Dauha,  the  first  of  whom,  Germanos,  died  in  919;  the 
last,  Neophytos  Metaxas,  died  as  Metropolitan  of 
Athens.  As  early  as  1205  Daulia  became  a  I^itin  see; 
many  of  the  bishops  are  known  from  the  thirteenth  to 
the  fifteenth  century,  among  them  one  William,  bearer, 
in  1384,  of  a  letter  from  Urban  VI  to  the  Patriarch 
Nilus,  concerning  the  reunion  of  the  Churches.  Since 
1441,  at  least,  tne  see  has  been  titular. 

BOU0QUKT,    L'itichi  de  Doviia-TalanUon  in  gelM  d'Orie^ 
(1907).  X,  295-290. 

S.  Pfrrainks, 


DAtlMSR 


639 


OAVCirPOftT 


I>ftiimer,  Georo  Friedrich,  German  poet  and  phi- 
losopher, b.  at  Nuremberg,  5  March,  1800;  d.  at  WOrz- 
burg,  14  December,  1&75.    He  was  educated  at  the 
RymnaBium  of  his  native  city,  at  that  time  directed  by 
the  famous  philosopher  H^eL    In  1817  he  entered 
the  University  of  Erlangen  as  a  student  of  theology, 
but  abandoiied  that  study  for  philosophy.    For  a 
number  of  years  Daumer  was  professor  at  the  gym- 
nasium of  Nuremberg;   owing  to  ill-health  he  was 
pensioned  in  1832  and  henceforth  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  literary  work.    While   at  Erlangen  he 
came  strongly  under  the  influence  of  Pietism.    Soon, 
however,  he  became  sceptical  and  exhibited  decided 
leanings  towards  pantheism.    From  an  orthodox  Prot- 
estant he  gradually  became  a  bitter  enemy  of  Christi- 
anity, ^ich  he  attacked  in  a  number  of  writings  and 
for  wnich  he  strove  to  substitute  a  new  religion  "of 
love  and  peace",  formulated  in  his  work  "Heligion 
des  neuwi  Weltalters"  (Hamburg,  1850\    Previous  to 
this  he  had  published  a  number  of  works,  all  of  a  dis- 
tinctly anti-theolo0cal  tendency,  of  which  the  more 
important  are:    "Philosophie,  Religion,  imd  Alter* 
tum"  (Nurembeig,   1833);    "Ziige  zu  einer  neuen 
Philosophie  der  Helicon  und  Keligionsgeschichte" 
(Nuremberg,  1835) ; "  Der  Feuer-  und  Molodidienst  der 
HebrSer"  (Brunswick,  1842);  "Die  Gieheinmisse  des 
christlichen  Altertums"  (Hamburg,  1847).     Shortly 
after  1850  Daumer  left  Nurembeig  and  settled  at 
Frankfort,  where  a  great  change  soon  came  over  him. 
In  1858  at  Mainz  he  publicly  embraced  the  Catholic 
Faith  and  thencefortn  became  its  zealous  defender. 
Among  the  works  written  after  his  conversion  are: 
"Meine  Konversion"  (Mainz,  1859);  ''Aus  der  Man- 
sarde*'  (1860-62);    "Das  Christentum  imd  sein  Ur- 
heber"  (Mainz,  1864);   "Das  Wunder,  seine  Bedeu- 
tung,    Wahrheit    und    Notwendigkeit"    (Ratisbon, 
1874).    The  last  mentioned  work  is  directed  ex- 
pressly against  the  opinions  of  David  Strauss. 

Undoubtedly  the  best  part  of  Daumer 'a  work  is  his 
poetry.  His  "Hafis"  (Hamburg,  1846;  a  second  col- 
lection, 1852)  contains  graceful  but  very  free  imitar 
tions  of  the  songs  of  the  famous  Persian  poet.  In 
fact,  these  poems  are  really  ori^al  productions,  and 
some  of  them  have  become  widely  known  through 
the  musical  settings  of  Brahms.  This  collection,  as 
well  as  "Mahomed  und  sein  Werk"  (Hamburg,  1848), 
is  distinctly  directed  against  the  hypocrisy  and  as- 
ceticism which  at  that  time  Daumer  believed  to  be 
inseparable  from  orthodox  Christianity.  Among 
other  poems  may  be  mentioned:  "Olorie  der  heiligen 
Jungfrau  Maria"  (Nurembeig,  1841);  "Frauenbilder 
und  Huldigungen"  (Leipzig,  1853);  "Marianische 
Legenden  imd  Gedichte"  (MUnster,  1859)  and 
"SchOne  Seelen"  (Mainz,  1862). 

The  autobiographical  works  cited  above;  Bibkenbibi., 
Georg  Fritdrich  Daumer  (Aschaffenburg,  1905). 

Akthur  F.  J.  Eemt. 

Daaversiteei  Jerome  de  la.    See  Montreal. 

D'Avenant,  Sir  Willlua,  poet  and  dramatist,  b. 
Feb.,  1605-6,  at  Oxford,  England;  d.  in  London,  7 
April,  1668.  He  was  the  second  son  of  John  D'Aven- 
ant,  a  prosperous  vintner  and  owner  of  an  inn  after- 
wards Known  as  the  Crown  Tavern,  where  Shakes- 
peare frecjuently  stayed.  The  story  which  would 
make  William  D'Avenant  the  natural  son  of  Shakes- 
peare seems  to  have  no  real  foundation,  thou^  he 
may  have  been  the  poet's  godson.  D'Avenant  was 
educated  at  the  grammar  school  of  All  Saints,  Oxford, 
and  went  for  a  short  time  to  Lincoln  CoU^.  Then 
he  became  page  to  Frances,  Duchess  of  Richmond, 
and  was  afterwards  taken  into  the  service  of  Fulke 
Greville,  Lord  Brooke.  In  1628  he  began  writing 
plays  and  ten  years  later  succeeded  Ben  Jonson  as 
Poet  Laureate.  He  took  up  warmlv  the  side  of  the 
king  in  the  Civil  War,  and  was  knighted  by  Charles  I 
in  1643.    After  the  king's  defeat,  in  1644,  he  took 


refuge  in  France  where  he  became  a  Catholic.  He 
was  employed  by  Queen  Henrietta  Maria  in  her  cor- 
respondence with  the  king  in  England,  and  was  faith- 
ful to  the  royal  cause  to  the  end.  More  than  once  he 
was  imprisoned  and  in  danger  of  losing  his  life,  but  was 
finally  released  in  1651.  In  1656  he  was  instrumental 
in  reviving  theatrical  performances  in  England  which 
had  ceased  since  1641.  After  the  Restoration  he  was 
patronized  by  Charles  II  and  continued,  to  the  end  of 
nis  life,  to  write  and  superintend  the  production  of 
plays.  His  poetical  work  consists  ot  the  epic  of 
''  Gondibert "  with  other  shorter  poems  (Chalmer,  Eng- 
lish Poets,  Iiondon,  1810,  vi),  together  with  nearly 
thirty  plays  (Edinbuigh,  1872-4,  5  vols.,  edited  by 
Maidment  and  Logan).  "  Gondibert "  is  an  unfimshed 
poem  in  fifteen  hundred  heroic  stanzas.  Modem 
critics  find  it  dull,  but  it  has  its  place  in  English  litera- 
ture as  marking  a  stage  in  the  movement  towards  the 
so-called  classical  school  of  poetry  which  culminated 
in  Dryden  and  Pope.  D'Avenant's  dramas  do  not 
rise  much  above  mediocrity,  but  they  are  considered 
''exceptionally  decorous  and  moral"  for  their  time. 

LsB  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v.;  Prefatory  Memoir  to  above 
edition  of  plays;  Downes.  Roscius  Atudicanua,  ed.  Kniqrt 
(London,  1$86);   Gillow,  Bt&I.  Diet,  of  Sng.  Cath.,  e.  v. 

K.  M.  Wabbbn. 

Davenport,  Christophbr,  also  known  as  Frax- 
cificuB  X  Sancta  Clara  and  sometimes  by  the  alias 
of  Francis  Hunt  and  Francis  Coventrt,  theologian, 
b.  1598,  at  Coventry,  England;  d.  31  May,  1680.  He 
was  the  son  of  Alderman  John  Davenport  and  Eliza- 
beth Wolley,  and  from  the  grammar  school  at  Cov- 
entry went  to  Dublin  where  he  spent  fifteen  months, 
leavmg  it  22  Nov.,  1611.  In  1613  he  and  his  brother 
John  proceeded  to  Merton  College,  Oxford,  entering 
as  "battelers"  and  taking  Cook's  commons;  but  the 
warden  required  them  to  enter  as  commoners  or  to 
leave  the  college;  whereon  in  1614  they  migrated  to 
Magdalen  Hall  Here  Christopher  became  B.  A-  on 
28  May,  his  Dublin  residence  being  allowed  to  count. 
(Oxford  University  Register.)  John  subsequently 
became  a  noted  Puritan  mvine  and  emigrated  to  New 
England,  where  with  a  band  of  colonists  he  founded 
the  city  of  New  Haven,  Connecticut  (1638).  Christo- 
pher was  converted  to  Catholicism  by  a  priest  livine 
near  Oxford  and  in  1616  went  to  Douay.  Attracted 
by  the  efforts  to  restore  the  English  Franciscan  Prov- 
ince,  he  joined  the  Flemish  Franciscans  at  Ypres,  7 
Oct.,  1617.  When  he  was  professed  (under  the  name 
of  Franciscus  k  Sancta  Clara)  he  joined  the  English 
Recollects  at  the  newlv-established  convent  of  St. 
Bonaventure  at  Douay  (18  Oct.,  1618).  He  was  sent 
to  the  University  of  Salamanca  in  Spain,  where  he 
took  his  degree  m  divinity  and  won  reputation  aa  a 
theologian.  Returning  to  Doiiay,  he  became  first 
professor  of  theology  at  St.  Bonaventure 's  and  filled 
the  office  of  guardian.  At  length  he  was  sent  to  Eng- 
land and  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Queen  Henrietta 
Maria,  in  which  capacity  he  attended  the  Court  and 
became  acquainted  with  King  Charles  I,  Archbishop 
lAud,  Montague,  Bishop  of  Norwich,  and  Goodman, 
Bishop  of  Gloucester,  inspired  with  the  idea  of  con- 
verting England  by  means  of  corporate  reunion,  he 
wrote  a  treatise  to  show  that  the  Thirty-nine  Articles 
were  susceptible  of  an  interpretation  more  in  accord- 
ance with  Catholic  teaching  than  was  usually  sup- 
posed. This  was  the  *'  Paraphrastica  Expositio  Artio- 
ulorum  Confessionis  AngUcanse",  published  as  an 
appendix  to  his  book,  ''Deus,  Natura,  Gratia",  in 
1634.  It  offended  many  Catholics  and  was  put  on 
the  Index  in  Spain,  though  a  condemnation  at  Rome 
was  averted  by  Panzani,  the  pope's  nimcio  in  London. 

On  19  June,  1637,  Davenport  waa  elected  provincial 
of  the  order»  an  office  to  wnich  he  was  suDeequently 
r»^Iected,  10  July,  1650,  and  4  June,  1665.  Alter  the 
Restoration  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Queen 
Catharine  of  Braganza,  and  returned  to  Londoiif 


DAVSHPOftT 


640 


DAVm 


irbere  he  spent  most  of  his  mnaiiiinK  years,  with 
occaaional  visits  to  Planders.  His  intellectual  ability 
and  attractive  manner  won  for  him  the  friendship  of 
many,  and  aided  in  reconciling  numerous  converts, 
among  whom  was  Anne,  Duchess  of  York.  He  lived 
to  celebrate  three  jubilees — of  religious  profession,  of 
the  priesthood,  and  of  the  mission.  His  works  are: 
"EpistoUimi,  continens  oonfutationem  duarum  prop- 
Ofiitionum  astrologicarum"  (Douay,  1626);  "Deus, 
Natura,  Gratia",  with  the  important  appendix  de- 
scribed above  (Lyons,  1634);  "Apologia  Episco- 
porum"  (Cologne,  1640);  "The  Practice  of  the  Pres- 
ence of  God'^  (Douay,  1642);  "Systema  Fidei" 
(Li^,  1648);  "De  Definibilitate  ControversisB  Im- 
maculatffi  Conceptionis  Dei  Genitricis  Opusculum'' 
(Douay,  1651);  "Paralipomena  Philosophica  de 
Mundo  Peripatetic©"  (Antwerp,  1652);  "An  Enchiri- 
dion of  Faith"  (Douay,  1665);  "Explanation  of  the 
Catholic  Belief"  (1656);  "Manuale  Missionariorum 
Regularium  prsecipue  Aiiglorum  Ordinis  Sancti  Fran- 
cisci"  (Douay,  1658,  1661);  "Fragmenta:  seu  His- 
toria  Minor.  Pro  vine.  Angl.  Fratrum  Minonun"; 
"Tractatus  de  Sch'ismate  praesertim  Anglicano"; 
"Vmdication  of  Roman  Catholics"  (1659);  "Liber 
Dialogorum"  (Douay,  1661);  "Problemata  Scholas- 
tica  et  controvereialia  speculativa";  "Corollarium 
Dialogi  de  Medio  Animarum  Statu";  "Religio  Philo- 
sophia  Peripati  discutienda"  (Douay,  .1662,  1667); 
"Opera  omnia  Francisci  k  S.  Clara"  (Douay,  1665- 
1667);  "Disputatio  de  antiqua  Provinci»  Pr«ce- 
dentia"  (1670);  "  Supplementum  Historite  Provinci® 
Angliffi"  (Douay,  1671). 

Anthony  A  Wood  Athena  Oxonienaea,  ed.  Buss  (London, 
1817),  III,  1221;  GiLLOw,  JBtW.  Diet.  Em.  Cath.,  a.  v.;  Oxford 
HiBTORiCAZi  SociisTT,  Oxfcrd  University  Reffiater  (Oxford,  1887), 
X,  374;  Perry  in  Diet.  Nat.  Bioa.  (London,  1888),  XIV; 
Foster,  Alumni  Oxonienaea  (Oxford,  1891).  I,  376;  Shahan, 
Chriatopher  Davenport  in  U.  8.  Cath.  Hiat.  Magazine  (Pbiladel- 
phU,  April,  1888).  II,  153. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Davenport,  Diocese  of  (Davenportensis),  erected 
8  May,  1881,  embraces  the  four  southern  tiers  of  coun- 
ties of  the  State  of  Iowa,  U.  S.  A.,  an  area  of  about 
22,873  square  miles.  From  the  time  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  down  to  1827  the  present  Diocese  of  Daven- 
port was  included  in  the  Diocese  of  New  Orleans; 
from  1827  to  1837  it  formed  part  of  the  Diocese  of  St- 
Louis;  and  from  1837  to  1881  it  belonged  to  the  Dio- 
cese of  Dubuque.  When  Bishop  Loraa  arrived  in 
Dubuque  in  April,  1839,  his  diocese  contained  two 
churches,  St.  Raphael's  in  Dubuque,  built  in  1836, 
and  St.  Anthony^s  in  Davenport,  built  in  1838.  In 
all  the  vast  territory  subject  to  him  there  was  but  one 
priest,  the  Rev.  Sainuel  Maczuchelli,  O.  P.,  who  had 
Deen  labouring  in  the  territorv  since  1835  and  under 
whose  direction  the  two  churches  referred  to  had  been 
built.  Bishop  Loras  brought  with  him  two  priests, 
the  Rev.  Joseph  Cretin,  afterwards  first  Bishop  of  St. 
Paul,  emd  the  Rev.  J.  A.  M.  Pelamourgues,  whom  the 
people  of  St.  Anthony's  parish,  Davenport,  and  indeed 
of  tne  whole  Diocese  of*^  Davenport,  venerate  as  their 
first  resident  pastor.  Father  Pelamour^es,  the  first 
citizen  of  Davenport  in  his  day,  a  leader  m  every  good 
work,  was  pastor  of  St.  Anthony's  from  1839  to  1868. 
Of  the  generous,  zealous  laity  associated  with  him  in 
his  work  in  those  early  days,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Antoine  Le 
Claire  deserve  special  mention.  Notable  among  their 
benefactions  was  the  donation  to  the  church  of  the 
block  of  eroimd  in  the  heart  of  the  city  on  which  St. 
Anthony^  church  was  built. 

Growth  of  Catholicism. — ^Bishop  Loras  and  his 
successors  in  the  See  of  Dubuque  did  much  to  pro- 
mote the  immigration  to  Iowa  of  German  and  Irish 
Catholics,  with  the  result  that  Iowa  has  a  large  Cath- 
olic rural  population.  Between  the  years  1840  and 
1850  the  number  of  resident  nastors  in  the  present 
Diocese  of  Davenport  increasea  from  one  to  five.    By 


the  year  1860  the  number  had  increased  to  thirteen, 
and  by  1870  to  twenty.  During  the  decade  foUowiofi 
1870  the  tide  of  Catholic  inmiigration  was  heavy,  ana 
at  the  time  of  its  formation,  in  1881,  the  diocese  con- 
tained seventy  priests  and  a  Catholic  population  esti- 
mated at  45,000.  Since  its  formation  the  diocese  has 
had  a  continuous,  healthy  growth. 

Bishops. — (1)  John  MIcMullen,  wasbominBaily- 
nahinich,  Co.  Down,  Ireland,  8  January,  1832,  and 
ordained  priest  in  Rome,  20  June,  1858.  He  was  con- 
secrated, 25  July,  1881,  at  Chicago,  where  at  the  time 
of  his  appointment  to  Davenport,  he  was  vicar-gen- 
eral. He  entered  with  zeal  and  vigour  into  the  work 
of  orgsmizing  the  new  diocese.  The  cause  of  Catholic 
education  was  his  especial  concern.  St.  Ambrose 
College  was  founded  by  him  in  September,  1^2.  His 
health  soon  faUed,  and  he  died  4  July,  1^. 

(2)  Henry  Cosorovb,  second  bishop,  was  Ixhh  at 
WUliamsport,  Pennsvlvania,  U.  S.  A.,  19  December, 
1834.  He  emigrated  to  Dubuque  in  1845  and  was  or- 
dained priest  7  August,  1857.  He  was  assigned  at 
once  to  St.  Marguerite's,  Davenport,  with  which 
church  he*  was  ever  afterwards  connected.  When 
Bishop  McMullen  went  to  Davenport,  he  chose  St. 
Marguerite's  for  his  cathedral  church  and  made  Father 
Co^grove  his  vicar-general.  Father  Cosg^ve  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Davenport,  14  Septeznber, 
1884,  and  for  more  than  twenty-two  years  gave  hifi 
best  efforts  to  the  cause  of  religion  m  his  diocese. 
Under  his  guidance  many  new  churches  were  erected; 
schools  and  other  institutions  established  or  en- 
larged. Worthy  of  special  mention  are  the  Sacred 
Heart  cathedral,  St.  Vincent's  home  for  orphans,  and 
St.  Ambrose  College. 

(3)  Two  years  before  his  death.  Bishop  Cosgrove, 
enfeebled  in  health,  was  siven  a  coadjutor  in  the  per- 
son of  his  vicar-general,  tne  Very  Rev.  James  Davis. 
Bishop  Davis  was  bom  in  Ireland  in  1852,  ordained 
priest  in  1878,  was  consecrated  coadjutor  to  Bishop 
Cosgrove,  30  Nov.,  1904,  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter 
became  Bishop  of  Davenport. 

Statistics. — ^The  religious  conmiunities  repre- 
sented in  the  diocese  include  the  Benedkstines,  who 
have  charge  of  four  parishes,  and  the  Redemptor- 
ists  who  hsLYe  one;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict, 
Sisters  of  Charity  B.  V.  M.,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St. 
V.  de  Paul,  Hospital  Sisters  of  St.  Frands,  School 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Pernetual 
Adoration,  Sisters  ck  the  Holy  Humflity  of  Mary, 
Sisters  of  Mary,  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Ststm 
of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  CroM.  The 
number  of  priests  in  1908  was  138,  and  the  nimiber 
of  Catholics  75,518.  The  diocese  then  contained  154 
chinches,  105  of  which  had  resident  pastors,  43  par- 
ochial schools,  9  hospitals,  7  academies  for  young 
ladies,  1  college  for  boys,  and  1  orphan  asylum. 

Church  Directory  (1840-1908);  Kempkeb,  History  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Iowa  (1884);  Ds  Cailly,  Lifeaf  Biahop  Loraa 
(New  York.  1897);  McGovkrn,  Life  of  Bishop  MeMtUUn 
(MUwaukee.  1888).  ^       «    « 

Wm.  P.  Shannahan. 

David  (Dbgui,  Dewi),  Saint,  Bishop  and  Con- 
fessor, patron  of  Wales.  He  is  usually  represented 
standing  on  a  little  hill,  with  a  dove  on  his  shoulder. 
From  time  immemorial  the  Welsh  have  worn  a  leek  on 
St.  David's  day,  in  memoiy  of  a  battle  against  the 
Saxons,  at  which  it  is  said  they  wore  leeks  in  their 
hats,  by  St.  David's  advice,  to  distinguish  them  from 
their  enemies.  He  is  commemorated  on  1  March. 
The  earliest  mention  of  St.  David  is  found  in  a  tenth- 
century  MS.  of  the  "  Annales  Cambriie",  which  assigns 
his  death  to  a.  d.  601.  Many  other  writera.  from 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  dowii  to  Father  Richaixl  Stan- 
ton, hold  that  he  died  about  544,  but  their  opinion  is 
based  solely  on  data  given  in  various  late  ''lives"  of 
St.  David,  and  there  seems  no  good  reason  for  setting 
aside  the  definite  stateraect  of  the  "Annaks  Cam- 


DAVID 


641 


DAVID 


briw",  which  is  now  generally  accepted.  Little  else 
that  can  claim  to  be  historical  is  known  about  St. 
David.  The  tradition  that  he  was  bom  at  Henvynyw 
(Vetu&-M«ievia)  in  Cardiganshire  is  not  improbable. 
He  wafi  prominent  at  the  Svnod  of  Brevi  (Llandewi 
Brefi  in  Cardiganshire),  whicn  has  been  identified  with 
the  important  Roman  nulitaiy  station,  Loventium. 
Shortly  afterwards,  in  569,  he  presided  over  another 
s^rnod  neld  at  a  place  called  Luctis  Victoria.  He  was 
Bishop  (probably  not  Archbishop)  of  Menevia,  the 
Roman  port  Menapia  in  Pembrokeshire,  later  known 
aa  St.  David's,  then  the  chief  point  of  departure  for 
Ireland.  St.  David  was  canonized  by  Pope  Callistus 
II  in  the  year  1120. 

This  is  all  that  is  known  to  histoty  about  the  patron  • 
of  Wales.  His  legend,  however,  is  much  more  elab- 
orate, and  entirely  tmreliable.  The  first  biography 
that  has  come  down  to  us  was  written  near  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century,  about  500  years  after  the  saint's 
death,  bv  Rhyg^arch  (Ricemarchus),  a  son  of  the 
then  Bishop  of  St.  David's,  and  is  chiefly  a  tissue  of 
mventions  mtended  to  support  the  claim  of  the  Welsh 
episcopate  to  be  independent  of  Canterbury.  Giraldus 
Cambrensis,  William  of  Malmesbury,  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth,  John  de  Tinmouth,  and  John  Capgrave 
all  simply  copy  and  enlarge  upon  the  work  of  Khygy- 
f  arch,  whilst  the  anonvmous  author  of  the  late  Welsh 
life  printed  in  Rees,  ''Cambro-British  Saints"  (Cott. 
MS.  Titus,  D.  XXII)  adds  nothing  of  any  value.  Ac- 
cording to  these  writers  St.  David  was  the  son  of  Sant 
or  Sandde  ab  Ceredig  ab  Cunedda,  Prince  of  Keretica 
(Cardiganshire)  and  said  by  some  to  be  King  Arthur's 
nephew,  though  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  calls  St.  David 
Kine  Arthur's  uncle.  The  saint's  mother  was  Nonna, 
or  Nonnita  (sometimes  called  Melaria),  a  daughter  of 
Gynyr  of  Caefgawch.  She  was  a  nun  who  had  been 
violated  by  Sant.  St.  David's  birth  had  been  foretold 
thirty  years  before  by  an  angel  to  St.  Patrick.  It 
took  place  at  ''Old  Menevia"  somewhere  about  a.  d. 
454.  I^rodigies  preceded  and  accompanied  the  event, 
and  at  his  baptism  at  Forth  dais  by  St.  Ellvis  of  Muns- 
ter,  ''whom  Divine  Providence  brought  over  from 
Ireland  at  that  conjuncture",  a  blind  man  was  cured 
by  the  baptismal  water.  St.  David's  early  education 
was  recdved'from  St.  lUtyd  at  Caerworftom  (Lan- 
wit  major)  in  Glamorganshire.  Afterwards  he  spent 
ten  years  studjjring  the  Holy  Scriptures  at  Witland  in 
Carmarthenshire,  under  St.  Paulinus  (Pawl  H£n), 
whom  he  cured  of  blindness  bv  the  sign  of  the  cross. 
At  the  end  of  t^is  period  St.  Paulinus,  warned  by  an 
an^el,  sent  out  the  young  saint  to  evangelize  the 
British.  St.  David  journeyed  throughout  the  West, 
founding  or  restoring  twelve  monasteries  (among 
which  occur  the  great  names  of  Glastonbury,  Bath, 
and  Leominster),  and  finallv  settled  in  the  Vale  of 
Ross,  where  he  and  his  monks  lived  a  life  of  extreme 
austerity.  Here  occurred  the  temptation  of  his 
monks  by  the  obscene  antics  of  the  maid-servants  of 
the  wife  of  Boia,  a  local  diieftain.  Here  also  his 
monks  tried  to  poison  him,  but  St.  David,  warned  by 
St.  Scuthyn,  who  crossed  from  Ireland  in  one  night  on 
the  back  of  a  sea-monster,  blessed  th^  poisoned  oread 
and  ate  it  without  harm.  From  hence,  with  St.  Teilo 
and  St.  Padam,  he  set  out  for  Jerusalem,  where  he 
was  made  bishop  bv  the  patriarch.  Here  too  St. 
Dubric  and  St.  Daniel  found  him,  when  they  came  to 
call  him  to  the  Synod  of  Brevi  "against  the  Pela- 
gians". St.  David  was  with  difficulty  persuaded  to 
accompany  them ;  on  his  way  he  raised  a  widow's  son 
to  life,  and  at  the  synod  preached  so  loudly,  from  the 
hill  that  miracidously  rose  under  him,  that  all  could 
hear  him,  and  so  eloquently  that  all  the  heretics  were 
confounded.  St,  Dubric  resigned  the  "Archbish- 
opric of  Caerleon",  and  St.  David  was  appointed  in  his 
stead.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  hola,  in  the  year 
569,  3ret  another  svnod  called  "Victory",  against  the 
Pelagians,  of  whicn  the  decrees  were  oonfiirmed  by  the 
IV.-41 


pope.  With  the  permission  of  King  Arthur  he  re- 
moved his  see  from  Caerleon  to  Menevia,  whence  he 
fovemed  the  British  Church  for  many  years  with  ereat 
oliness  and  wisldom.  He  died  at  the  great  a^  of  147, 
on  the  day  predicted  by  himself  a  week  earher.  His 
bodv  is  said  to  have  been  translated  to  Glastonbury 
in  the  year  066. 

It  is  impossible  to  discover  in  this  story  how  much, 
if  any,  is  true.  Some  of  it  has  obviously  been  invented 
for  controversial  purposes.  The  twelve  monasteries, 
the  temptation  by  the  women,  the  attempt  on  his  life, 
all  suggest  an  imitation  of  the  life  of  St.  Benedict. 
Wilder  legends,  such  as  the  Journey  on  the  Sea- 
Monster,  are  commonplaces  of  Celtic  hagiology. 
Doubtless  Ehysprfarch  and  his  imitators  collected 
many  floating  local  traditions,  but  how  much  of 
these  had  any  historical  foimdation  and  how  much 
was  sheer  imagination  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  decide. 
Annalee  Carwria,  ed.  ab  Itbel  in  RcXU  Seriea  (London, 
I860),  Z-Hi  Acta  SS.,  March.  I,  3SH17;  Buhez  Santez  Nonn,  ed. 
SiONNBT  (JPaiu,  1837);  Chaux>neb,  Britannia  Sanda  (Lon- 
don, 1745),  I,  140-^;  Hole  in  Diet.  Chriat,  Biog.  JLondon, 
1877),  I,  791-93;  Bradlet  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  b.  v.:  Giraldus 
Caiibbenss,  Opera,  ed.  Brbwbb  in  RolU  Seriea  (London, 
1863),  III.  375-404;  Haddan  and  Stubbs.  CmtndU  and  Ecde- 
aiaeliceU  docutnenta  reUxtituj  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (Oxford. 
1869),  I.  121,  143,  148;  Livea  of  the  Cambro-Britiah  Saint*,  ed. 
Rbes  (LUuidovery,  Wales.  1853),  la^-44.  402-48:  Montalem- 
BERT,  Lea  mmnea  d'OcdderU  (Paris,  1866),  III.  48-56:  Nede> 
LEC,  Cambria  Saera  (London,  1879),  446-479:  Rbes,  Eaaay  on 
the  Welah  Sainta  (London,  1836),  43,  162.  191,  193;  Stanton, 
Menology  of  BngUmd  and  WaUa  (London.  1887),  9:^-93,  203; 
Wkabton,  Anglia  Sacra  (London.  1691),  II.  628-53. 

Leslie  A.  Sr.L.  Toke. 

David,  Armand,  miasionary  priest  and  zoologist,  b. 
1826;  d.  1900.  He  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
Mission  in  1848,  having  already  displayed  ^at  fond- 
ness for  the  natural  sciences.  Ordained  m  1862,  he 
was  shortly  afterwards  sent  to  Peking,  and  b^an  there 
a  collection  of  material  for  a  museum  of  natural  his- 
tory, mainly  zoological,  but  in  which  botany  and  geol- 
ogy and  pal»ontology  were  also  well  represented. 
At  the  request  of  the  French  Government  unportant 
specimens  from  his  collection  were  sent  to  Paris  and 
aroused  the  greatest  interest.  The  Jardin  des  Plantes 
commission^  him  to  undertake  scientific  journeys 
through  China  to  make  further  collections.  He  suc- 
c^edin  obtaining  many  specimens  of  hitherto  un- 
known animals  and  plantis,  and  the  value  of  his  com- 
prehensive collections  for  the  advance  of  systematic 
zoology  and  espjecially  for  the  advancement  of  animal 
geography  received  universal  recognition  from  the 
scientific  world.  He  himself  summed  up  his  labours 
in  an  address  delivered  before  the  International  Scien- 
tific Congress  of  Ca^olics  at  Paris  in  April,  1888.  He 
had  found  in  China  altc^ether  200  species  of  wild  ani- 
mals, of  which  63  were  hitherto  unknown  to  zoologists  ; 
8(^7  species  of  birds,  65  of  which  had  not  been  de- 
scribed before.  Besides,  a  large  collection  of  reptiles, 
batrachians,  and  fishes  was  made  and  handed  over  to 
specialists  for  further  study,  also  a  large  number  of 
moths  and  insects,  many  of  them  hitherto  unknown, 
were  brou^t  to  the  museum  of  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes.  What  Father  David's  scientific  journeys 
meant  for  botany  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that 
among  the  rhododenarons  which  he  collected  no  lesu 
than  mty-two  new  species  were  found  and  among  the 
pritmda  about  forty,  while  the  Western  Mountains 
of  China  furnished  an  even  greater  number  of  hitherto 
unknown  species  of  gentian.  The  most  remarkable  of 
hitherto  mJoiown  animals  found  by  David  was  a  spe- 
cies of  bear  (urmts  melanoleucuSf  the  black-white  bear) 
which  is  a  connecting  link  between  the  oats  and 
bears.  Another  remarkable  animal  found  by  him 
received  the  scientific  name  of  elapkuna  davidi- 
anus.  Of  this  animal  the  Chinese  say  that  it  has  the 
horns  of  the  stag,  the  neck  of  the  camel,  the  foot  of  the 
cow,  and  the  tail  of  the  ass.  It  had  disappeared  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  preserved  in  the  ^irdens  of  the 
Emperor  of  China,  but  David  succeeded  in  securing  a 


DAVID 


642 


DAVID 


specimen  and  sent  it  to  Europe.  In  the  midst  of  his 
work  as  a  naturalist  Father  David  did  not  nc^ect  his 
missionarjr  labours,  and  was  noted  for  his  careml  devo- 
tion to  his  relieious  duties  and  for  his  obedience  to, 
every  detail  of  his  rules. 

Bbbthold,  KcUholiache  Studietit  Die  Fonchungareiaen  des 
frarudnachen  Miasiondn  und  Naturfanchen  Armand  Damd 
(WQnburs.  187S);  Revue  dee  Deux  Mondea  (1861):  Annalea  de 
la  Congrigatum  de  la  Miaaion  (Paris,  1901).  XLVI:  Canard 
SderUifique  Jntematumal  dea  Catholiquea  (Paris,  1888). 

James  J.  Waush. 

David,  Gheeraert  (or  Gerard)  ,  son  of  John  David, 
painter  and  illuminator,  b.  at  Oudewater,  South  Hol- 
land, c.  1450,  d.  13  August,  1523,  at  Bruges,  where  he 
had  been  admitted,  14  January,  1484,  as  master-painter 
into  the  Guild  of  St.  Luke,  of  which,  after  filling  minor 
offices,  he  was  elected  dean  in  1501.  It  is  not  known 
where  he  learned  his  art,  probably  at  Haarlem.  On  the 
completion  of  his  apprenticeship,  he  no  doubt,  as  was 
the  custom,  travelled  to  improve  himself,  working  as 
an  assistant  under  various  masters  wherever  he  found 
employment.  He  probably  travelled  to  Italy,  as  his 
works  show  traces  of  Florentine  and  Venetian  influ- 
ence. Their  landscape  backgrounds  prove  that  he 
knew  the  valley  of  the  Meuse.  On  his  way  to  Flan- 
ders he  would  not  have  failed  to  visit  Louvain  and 
study  the  works  of  his  fello w-coimtr3rman,  Dirk  Bouts, 
nor  to  halt  a  while  at  Ghent  to  admire  the  polyptych 
of  the  Van  Eycks.  At  Bruges  he  found  the  churcnes 
full  of  paintings  by  all  the  ereat  masters,  and  one  of 
these,  Hans  Memling,  still  living,  ne  probably 
worked  imder  him  until  he  himself  received  commis- 
sions, for  which  he  had  not  long  to  wait.  In  1496  he 
married  Cornelia  Cnoop,  daughter  of  the  dean  of 
the  guild  of  eoldsmiths,  by  whom  he  had  one  daughter, 
Barbara.  Gheeraert  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Our 
Lady,  at  the  foot  of  the  tower.  He  was  not  one  of 
the  greatest  masters,  nor  did  he  strike  out  any  new 
line  uke  Van  der  Goes,  but  he  gathered  up  all  the  best 
traditions  of  his  predecessors,  to  which  ne  faithfully 
adhered  all  through  his  life.  His  saints  and  angefs 
compared  with  those  of  Memling  are  more  sedate. 
One  new  type  he  created,  the  charming  figure  of  the 
Child  Jesus,  which  made  a  lasting  iinpression  on  the 
succeeding  generation  of  painters.  His  portraits  are 
very  good,  his  brocaded  stuffs,  embroidery,  and  jew- 
ellery have  never  been  surpassed,  and  his  landscapes 
are  remarkably  fine.  His  works  show  that  he  was  a 
great  religious  painter;  he  was  also  a  pious  and  chari- 
table man.  One  of  his  finest  painting,  the  *'  Virgo  in- 
ter Virgines",  now  in  the  museum  at  Rouen,  was  pre- 
sented by  him  in  1609  to  the  Carmelite  nuns  of  Sion  at 
Bruges,  to  whom  he  lent  a  large  sum  of  money  free  of 
interest.  Gheeraert  excelled  in  miniature-paintins 
and  illumination,  which  arts  his  wife  also  practised 
with  success.  David's  principal  works  are  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London  (2),  National  Gallery, 
Dublin  (1),  Town  Gallery,  Bruges  (5),  Town  Gallery, 
Rouen  (1),  Museum,  Sigmaringen  (2),  Imperial  Gal- 
lery, Vienna  (1). 

We  ALE,  Gerard  David,  Painter  and  lUuminator  (London, 
1805);  BoDE>mAUBEN,  Eberkard  von,  Gerard  David  ttnd  aeine 
Sehule  (Munich.  1905). 

W.  H.  Jambs  Wbale. 

David  Cni  or  n^l,  beloved),  Kino.— In  the  Bible 
the  name  David  is  borne  only  by  the  second  king  of 
Israel,  the  great-grandson  of  Boaz  and  Ruth  (Ruth, 
iv,  18  sqq.).  He  was  the  youngest  of  the  e^t  sons 
of  Isai,  or  Jesse  (I  Kings,  xvi,  8;  cf.  I  Par.,  ii,  13),  a 
small  proprietor,  of  the  tribe  of  Juda,  dwelling  at 
Bethlehem,  where  David  was  bom.  Our  knowledge 
of  David's  life  and  character  is  derived  exclusively^ 
from  the  pages  of  Sacred  Scripture,  viz.,  I  K.,  zvi; 
III  K.,  ii;  I  Par.,  ii,  iii,  x-xxix;  Ruth,  iv,  18-22, 
and  the  titles  of  many  Pbahns.  According  to  the 
usual  chronology,  David  was  bom  in  1085  and  reigned 
Vom  1055  to  1015  b.  c.    Recent  writers  have  been 


induced  by  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  to  date  his  retgn 
from  30  to  50  years  later.  Within  the  limits  imposed 
it  is  impossible  to  give  more  than  a  bare  ouUine  of  the 
events  of  his  life  and  a  brief  estimate  of  his  character 
and  his  significance  in  the  histoiy  of  the  chosen  people. 
as  king,  psalmist,  prophet,  and  type  of  the  Measias 

The  history  of  David  faUs  naturally  into  three 
periods:  (1)  before  his  elevation  to  the  tlurone;  (2)  his 
reign,  at  Hebron  over  Juda,  and  at  Jerusalem  over  ail 
Israel,  until  his  sin;  (3)  his  sin  and  last  yeacs.  He 
first  app^jB  in  sacred  history  as  a  shepherd  lad, 
tending  his  father's  flocks  in  the  fields  near  Betble^ 
hem,  ''ruddy  and  beautiful  to  behold  and  of  a  comely 
face''.  Samuel,  the  Prophet  and  last  of  the  judges, 
had  been  sent  to  anoint  nim  in  place  of  Saul,  whom 
God  had  rejected  for  disobedience.  The  relations  of 
David  do  not  seem  to  have  reco^i^ted  the  significance 
of  this  unction,  which  marked  him  as  the  successor  to 
the  throne  after  the  death  of  Saul. 

During  a  period  of  iUness,  when  the  evil  spirit 
troubled  Saul,  David  was  brought  to  court  to  soothe 
the  king  by  plaving  on  the  harp.  He  earned  the 
gratitude  of  oam  and  was  made  an  armour-bearer, 
but  his  stay  at  court  was  brief.  Not  long  afterwards, 
whilst  his  three  elder  brothers  were  in  the  field,  fitt- 
ing under  Saul  against  the  Philistines,  David  was  sent 
to  the  camp  with  some  provisions  and  presents;  there 
he  heard  the  words  in  which  the  giant,  Goliath  of 
Geth,  defied  all  Israel  to  single  combat,  and  he  volun- 
teered with  God's  help  to  slay  the  Philistine.  His 
victory  over  Goliath  brought  about  the  Fout  of  the 
enemy.  Saul's  Questions  to  Abner  at  this  time  seem 
to  imply  that  he  nad  never  seen  David  before,  though, 
as  we  have  seen,  David  had  already  been  at  court 
Various  conjectures  have  been  made  to  explain  this 
difficulty.  As  the  passage  which  suggests  a  contra- 
diction m  the  Hebrew  text  is  omittedby  Septuagint 
codices,  some  authors  have  accepted  the  Greek  text 
in  preference  to  the  Hebrew.  Others  suppose  that 
the  order  of  the  narratives  has  become  confused  in 
our  present  Hebrew  text.  A  simpler  and  more  likely 
solution  maintains  that  on  the  second  occasion  Saul 
asked  Abner  only  about  the  family  of  David  and  about 
his  eariier  life.  Previously  he  had  given  the  matter 
no  attention. 

David's  victory  over  Goliath  won  for  hifa  the  tender 
friendship  of  Jonathan,  the  son  of  SauL  He  obtained 
a  permanent  position  at  court,  but  his  great  popularity 
and  the  imprudent  songs  of  the  women  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  king,  who  on  two  occasions  attempted 
to  kill  nim.  As  captain  of  a  thousand  men,  he  en- 
countered new  dangers  to  win  the  hand  of  Merob, 
Saul's  eldest  daughter,  but,  in  spite  of  the  king's 
promise,  she  was  given  to  Hadriel.  Michol,  SauPs 
other  daughter,  loved  David,  and,  in  the  hope  that 
the  latter  might  be  killed  by  the  Philistines,  her  father 
promised  to  give  her  in  marriage,  provided  David 
should  slay  one  hundred  Philistines.  David  succeeded 
and  mamed  Michol.  This  success,  however,  made 
Saul  fear  the  more  and  finally  induced  him  to  order 
that  David  should  be  killed.  Through  the  interven- 
tion of  Jonathan  he  was  spared  for  a  time,  but  Saul's 
hatred  finally  obliged  him  to  flee  from  the  court. 

First  he  went  to  Ramatha  and  thence,  with  Sam- 
uel, to  Naioth.  Saul's  further  attempts  to  murder 
him  were  frustrated  by  God's  direct  interpositioa 
An  interview  with  Jonathan  convinced  him  that  rec- 
onciliation with  Saul  was  impossible,  and  for  the 
rest  of  the  reign  he  was  an  exile  and  an  outlaw.  At 
Nobe,  whither  he  proceeded,  David  and  his  com- 
panions were  harboured  bv  the  priest  Achimelech, 
who  was  afterwards  accused  of  conspiracy  and  put  to 
death  with  his  fellow-priests.  FitHn  Nobe  David 
went  to  the  court  of  Achis,  king  of  Geth,  where  he 
escaped  death  by  feigning  madness.  On  his  return 
he  became  the  head  of  a  band  of  about  four  hundred 
men,  some  of  them  his  relations,  others  distressed 


DAVID 


643 


DAVID 


debtors  and  malcontents,  who  saUiered  at  the  cave, 
or  stronghold, of  Odollam  (AdulTam).  Not longafter 
their  number  was  reckoned  at  six  hundred.  David 
delivered  liie  dty  of  Ceila  from  the  Philistines,  but 
'was  a^ain  obliged  to  flee  from  Saul.  His  neict  abode 
was  the  wilderness  of  Ziph,  made  memorable  bv  the 
visit  of  Jonathan  and  by  the  treachery  of  the  Ziphites, 
'vrho  sent  word  to  the  King.  David  was  savea  from 
capture  by  the  recall  of  Saul  to  repel  an  attack  of  the 
Philistines.  In  the  deserts  of  Engaddi  he  was  again 
in  great  danger,  but  when  Saul  was  at  his  mercy,  he 
generously  spared  his  life.  The  adventure  with 
Nabal.  David's  marriage  with  Abigail,  and  a  second 
refusal  to  slay  Saul  were  followed  by  David's  decision 
to  offer  his  services  to  Achis  of  Geth  and  thus  put  an 
end  to  Saul's  persecution.  As  a  vassal  of  the  Philis- 
tine king,  he  was  set  over  the  city  of  Sice!^,  whence 
he  made  raids  on  the  neighbouring  tribes,  wasting 
their  lands  and  sparing  neither  man  nor  woman. 
By  pretending  that  these  expeditions  were  against  his 
own  people  of  Israel,  he  secured  the  favour  of  Actus. 
When,  however,  the  Philistines  prepared  at  Aphec  to 
wage  war  against  Saul,  the  other  princes  were  un- 
wimng  to  trust  David,  and  he  returned  to  Siceleg. 
Dxiring  his  absence  it  had  been  attacked  by  the 
Amalecites.  David  pursued  them,  destroyed  their 
forces,  and  recovered  ail  their  booty.  Meanwhile  the 
fatal  battle  on  Mount  Gelboe  (Qilboa)  had  taken 
place,  m  which  Saul  and  Jonatiian  were  slain.  The 
touching  elegy,  preserved  for  us  in  II  KiogB,  i,  is 
David's  outburst  of  grief  at  their  death. 

By  God's  command,  David,  who  was  now  thirty 
years  old,  went  up  to  Hebron  to  claim  the  kingly 

Eower.  The  men  of  Juda  accepted  him  as  king,  uid 
e  was  again  anointed,  solemnly  and  publicly. 
Through  the  influence  of  Abner,  the  rest  of  Israel  re- 
mained faithful  to  Isboseth,  the  son  of  SauL  Abner 
attacked  the  forces  of  David,  but  was  ddfeated  at 
Gabaon.  Civil  war  continued  for  some  time,  but 
David's  power  was  ever  on  the  increase.  At  Hebron 
six  sons  were  bom  to  him:  Amnon,  Cheleab,  Absalom, 
Adonias,  Saphathia,  and  Jethraam.  As  the  result  of  a 
quarrel  with  Isboseth,  Abner  made  overtures  to  bring 
all  Israel  under  the  rule  of  David;  he  was,  however, 
treacherously  murdered  by  Joab  without  the  king's 
consent.  Isboseth  was  murdered  by  two  Benjamites, 
and  David  was  accepted  by  all  Israel  and  anointed 
king.  His  reign  at  Hebron  over  Juda  alone  had 
lasted  seven  years  and  a  half. 

By  his  successful  wars  David  succeeded  in  making 
Israel  an  independent  state  and  causing  his  own  name 
to  be  respected  by  all  the  surrounding  nations.  A 
notable  exploit  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  was  the 
conquest  of  the  Jebusite  city  of  Jerusalem,  which  he 
made  the  capital  of  his  kingdom,  "  the  city  of  David", 
the  political  centre  of  the  nation.  He  built  a  palace, 
took  more  wives  and  concubines,  and  begat  other  sons 
and  daughters.  Having  cast  off  the  yoke  of  the 
Philistines,  he  resolved  to  make  Jerusalem  the  religious 
centre  of  his  people  by  transporting  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant  (q.  v.)  from  Cariathiarim.  It  was  brought 
to  Jerusalem  and  placed  in  the  new  tent  constructed 
by  the  kin^.  Later  on,  when  he  proposed  to  build  a 
'(^mple  for  it,  he  was  told  by  the  prophet  Nathan,  that 
God  had  reserved  this  task  for  his  successor.  In  re- 
ward for  his  piety,  the  promise  was  made  that  God 
would  build  hmi  up  a  house  and  establish  his  kingdom 
forever. 

No  detailed  account  has  been  preserved  of  the  vari- 
ous wars  undertaken  by  Davicf ;  only  some  isolated 
facts  are  given.  The  war  with  the  Ammonites  is 
recorded  more  fully  because,  whilst  his  army  was  in 
the  field  during  this  campaign,  David  fell  into  the  sins 
of  adulteiy  ana  murder,  bringing  thereby  great  calam- 
ities on  himself  and  his  people.  He  was  then  at  the 
height  of  his  power,  a  ruler  respected  by  all  the  nations 
from  the  Euphrates  to  ibe  Nile.    After  his  sin  with 


Bethsabee  and  the  indirect  assassination  of  Unas,  her 
husbandj  David  made  her  his  wife.  A  year  elapsed 
before  his  repentance  for  the  sin,  but  his  contntion 
was  so  sincere  that  God  pardoned  him,  though  at  the 
same  time  announcing  the  severe  penalties  tnat  were 
to  follow.  The  spirit  in  which  David  accepted  these 
penalties  has  made  him  for  all  time  the  mooel  of  peni- 
tents. The  incest  of  Amnon  and  the  fratricide  of 
Absalom  (q.  v.)  brought  shame  and  sorrow  to  David. 
For  three  years  Absalom  remained  in  exile.  When  he 
was  recalled,  David  kept  him  in  disfavour  for  two 
years  more  and  then  restored  him  to  his  former  dig- 
nity, without  any  sien  of  repentance.  Vexed  by  his 
father's  treatment,  Absalom  devoted  himself  for  the 
next  four  years  to  seducing  the  people  and  finally  had 
himself  proclaimed  kins  at  liebron.  David  was  taken 
by  surprise  and  was  forced  to  flee  from  Jerusalem. 
Tne  circumstances  of  his  flight  are  narrated  in  Scrip- 
ture with  great  simplicity  and  pathos.  Absalom's 
disregard  of  the  counsel  of  Achitophel  and  his  con- 
sequent delay  in  the  pursuit  of  the  king  made  it 
possible  for  the  latter  to  gather  his  forces  and  win  a 
victoiy  at  Manahaim,  where  Absalom  was  killed. 
Davicf  returned  in  triumph  to  Jerusalem.  A  further 
reb^on  under  Seba  at  the  Jordan  was  quickly  sup- 


At  this  point  in  the  narrative  of  II  Kings  we  read 
that  "there  was  a  famine  in  the  days  of  David  for 
three  years  successively",  in  punishment  for  Saul's 
sin  against  the  Gabaonites.  At  their  request  seven  of 
Saul%  race  were  delivered  up  to  be  crucified.  It  is 
not  possible  to  fix  the  exact  oate  of  this  famine.  On 
other  occasions  David  showed  great  conipassion  for 
the  descendants  of  Saul,  especially  for  Miphiboseth, 
the  son  of  his  friend  Jonathan.  After  a  brief  mention 
of  four  expeditions  against  the  Philistines,  the  sacred 
writer  records  a  sin  of  pride  on  David's  part  in  his  reso- 
lution to  take  a  census  of  the  people.  As  a  penance 
for  this  sin,  he  was  allowed  to  choose  either  a  famine, 
an  unsuccessful  war.  or  pestilence.  David  chose  the 
third  and  in  three  days  70,000  died.  When  the  an^l 
was  about  to  strike  Jerusalem,  God  was  moved  to  pity 
and  stayed  the  pestilence.  David  was  commanded  to 
offer  sacrifice  at  the  threshing-floor  of  Areuna,  the  site 
of  the  future  temple. 

The  last  days  of  David  were  disturbed  by  the  ambi- 
tion of  Adonias,  whose  plans  for  the  succession  were 
frustrated  by  Nathan,  the  prophet,  and  Bethsabee, 
the  mother  of  Solomon.  The  son  who  was  bom  after 
David's  repentance  was  chosen  in  preference  to  his 
older  brotners.  To  make  sure  that  Solomon  would 
succeed  to  the  throne,  David  had  him  publicly 
anointed.  The  last  recorded  words  of  the  aged  kins 
are  an  exhortation  to  Solomon  to  be  faithful  to  God, 
to  reward  loyal  servants,  and  to  punish  the  wicked. 
David  died  at  the  age  of  seventy,  having  reined  in 
Jerusalem  thirty-three  years.  He  was  buried  on 
Mount  Sion.  St.  Peter  spoke  of  his  tomb  as  still  in 
existence  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  when  the  Holy 
Ghost  descended  on  tne  Apostles  (Acts,  ii,  29).  David 
is  honoured  by  the  Church  as  a  saint.  He  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Roman  Martyrology  on  29  December. 

The  historical  character  of  the  narratives  of  David's 
life  has  been  attacked  chiefly  by  writers  who  have  dis- 
regarded the  purpose  of  the  narrator  in  I  Par.  He 
passes  over  those  events  that  are  not  connected  with 
the  history  of  the  Ark.  In  the  Books  of  Kings  all  the 
chief  events,  good  and  bad,  are  narrated.  Tne  Bible 
records  David's  sins  and  weaknesses  without  excuse 
or  palliation,  but  it  also  records  his  repentance,  his 
acts  of  virtue,  his  generosity  towards  Saul,  his  great 
faith,  and  his  piety.  Critics  who  have  harshly  crit- 
icized his  character  have  not  considered  the  difficult 
circumstances  in  which  he  lived  or  the  manners  of  his 
a^.  It  is  uncritical  and  unscientific  to  exaggerate 
his  faults  or  to  imagine  that  the  whole  history  is  a 
series  of  myths.    The  life  of  David  was  an  important 


DAVID 


644 


DATID 


epoeh  in  the  history  of  Israel.  He  was  the  real  found- 
er td  the  monarchy,  the  head  of  the  dynasty.  Chosen 
by  Qod  "as  a  man  according  to  Hjs  own  heart", 
Dttvid  was  tried  in  the  school  of  suffering  during  the 
days  of  exile  and  developed  into  a  military  lea&r  of 
renown.  To  him  was  due  the  complete  organization 
of  the  army.  He  ^ve  Israel  a  rapital,  a  court,  a 
flreat  centre  of  religious  worship.  Tne  little  band  at 
Odollam  became  tne  nucleus  of  an  efficient  force. 
When  he  became  King  of  all  Israel  there  were  339,600 
men  under  his  command.  At  the  census  1,300,000 
were  eniunerated  capable  of  bearing  arms.  A  stand- 
ing army,  consisting  of  twelve  corps,  each  of  24,000 
men,  took  turns  in  serving  for  a  month  at  a  time  as  the 
garrison  of  Jerusalem.  The  administration  of  his 
palace  and  his  kingdom  demanded  a  large  retinue  of 
servants  and  officials.  Their  various  offices  are  set 
down  in  I  Par.,  xxvii.  The  king  himself  exercised  the 
office  of  judge,  though  Levites  were  later  appointed 
for  this  purpose,  as  well  as  other  minor  officiaJs. 

When  the  Ark  had  been  brought  to  Jerusalem, 
David  undertook  the  organization  of  religious  wor^ 
ship.  The  sacred  functions  were  entrusted  to  24,000 
Levites;  6000  of  these  were  scribes  and  judges,  4000 
were  porters,  and  4000  singers.  He  arranged  the 
various  parts  of  the  ritual,  allotting  to  each  section  its 
tasks.  The  priests  were  divided  into  twenty-four 
families;  the  musicians  into  twenty-four  choirs.  To 
Solomon  had  been  reserved  the  privil^e  of  building 
God's  house,  but  David  made  ample  preparations  for 
the  work  by  amassing  treasures  and  materials,  as  well 
as  by  transmitting  to  his  son  a  plan  for  the  building 
and  all  its  details.  We  are  told  m  I  Par.  how  he  ex- 
horted his  son  Solomon  to  carry  out  this  great  work 
and  made  known  to  the  assembled  princes  the  extent 
of  his  preparations. 

The  prominent  part  played  by  song  and  music  in 
the  worship  of  the  temple,  as  arranged  by  David,  is 
readily  explained  by  his  poetic  and  musical  abilities. 
His  skill  in  music  is  recorded  in  I  Kings,  xvi,  18  and 
Amos,  vi,  5.  Poems  of  his  composition  are  found  in 
II  Kinas,  i,  iii,  xxii,  xxiii.  His  connexion  with  the 
Book  of  Psalms,  many  of  which  are  expressly  attri- 
buted to  various  incidents  of  his  career,  was  so  taken 
for  eranted  in  later  days  that  many  ascribed  the  whole 
Psalter  to  him.  The  authorship  of  these  hymns  and 
the  question  how  far  they  can  oe  considered  as  sup- 
plying illustrative  material  for  David's  life  will  be 
treated  in  the  article  Psalms. 

David  was  not  merely  king  and  ruler,  he  was  also  a 
prophet.  "  The  spirit  of  the  Lord  hath  spoken  by  me 
and  his  word  by  my  tongue"  (II  Kmgs,  xxiii,  2)  is  a 
direct  statement  of  prophetic  inspiration  in  the  poem 
there  recorded.  St.  Peter  tells  us  that  he  was  a 
prophet  (Acts,  ii,  30).  His  prophecies  are  embodied 
m  the  Psalms  he  composea  that  are  literally  Mes- 
sianic and  in  "Davids  last  words"  (II  K.,  xxiii). 
The  literal  character  of  these  Messianic  Psalms  is  in- 
dicated in  the  New  Testament.  They  refer  to  the 
suffering,  the  persecution,  and  the  triumphant  d^ 
li verance  of  Christ,  or  to  the  prerogatives  conferred  on 
Him  by  the  Father.  In  addition  to  these  his  direct 
prophecies,  David  himself  has  always  been  regarded 
as  a  type  of  the  Messias.  In  this  the  Church  has  but 
followed  the  teaching  of  the  Old  Testament  Prophets. 
The  Messias  was  to  be  the  ^reat  theocratic  king; 
David,  the  ancestor  of  the  Messias,  was  a  king  aooorS- 
ing  to  God's  own  heart.  His  qualities  and  nis  veiy 
name  are  attributed  to  the  Messias.  Incidents  in  the 
life  of  David  are  regarded  by  the  Fathers  as  fore- 
shadowing the  life  of  Christ;  Bethlehem  is  the  birth- 
plaoe  of  both;  the  shepherd  life  of  David  points  out 
Christ,  the  Good  Shepherd ;  the  five  stones  chosen  to 
slay  G^oliath  are  typical  of  the  five  wounds;  the  be- 
trayal by  his  trusted  counsellor,  Achitophel,  and  the 
passage  over  the  Cedron  remind  us  of  Christ's  Sacred 
Fusion.    Many  of  the  Davtdio  Pkalros,  as  we  learn 


from  the  New  Testament,  are  clearly  typical  of  the 
future  Messias. 

TON  HniiMBL^VBB,  CuTwuB  SeHphurm  Saam:  In  iArm  Sam- 
uelu  (Pkui5, 1886);  Id.,  /n  IPOral,  (Puia,  ig05);  HvRSN^rcx. 
Thealoqia  Bibliea:  Vehu  Teatamentum  (FreiburBt  1008).  17&- 
214;  MAKroBNOT  in  Vioouroux,  Dielumnaire  de  la  BtbU,  s.  v.: 
WinnfANN  in  Lnieon  Biblieum  (Paris,  1907);  Schemz  and 
Kaulsn  in  Kirch€nUx,  The  subkct,  with  the  bibUocniphy.  b 
treated  in  all  the  recent  Biblical  dictiooaries.  See  also  Gigot. 
Outlines  of  Jewish  History  (New  York,  1897) ;  Mkionak.  Dari^. 
ro»\  psaltnisU,  vrophHs  (Faxis.  1889);   Wkms,  David  ttnd  sftn*' 


Zeit  (MOnater.  1880). 


John  Go&bett. 


David  of  AogBbnrg  (db  Augusta),  medieval  Ger- 
man mystic,  b.  probably  at  Augsburg,  Bavaria,  eariy 
in  the  thirteenth  century;  d.  at  Augsbui^g,  19  No\'*, 
1272.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  Onler  probably  at 
Ratisbon,  where  a  monastery  of  this  order  was  in  ex- 
istence as  early  as  1226;  the  Franciscan  monastery  at 
Augsburg  was  not  erected  until  1243.  At  Ratisbon 
David  mled  the  position  of  master  of  novices  and 
wrote  for  the  spiritual  benefit  of  the  latter  his  cele- 
brated "  Formula  Novitiorum  ".  Whether  the  distin- 
r*  hed  Franciscan  preacher  Berthold  of  Ratisbon 
\r.)  was  one  of  his  pupils  is  at  least  very  doubtful 
In  1246  Berthold  and  David  were  appointed  inspec- 
tors of  the  convent  of  Niedermtlnster  at  Ratisbon. 
From  about  1250  David  accompanied  Berthold  on  his 
missionary  tours  and  most  probably  took  part  in  the 
preaching  himself;  he  also  had  a  share  in  the  proceed- 
ings of  tne  In(juisition  a^^nst  the  Wsddenses.  On 
the  day  of  David's  death  it  is  said  that  Berthold,  who 
was  preaching  in  a  distant  place,  stopped  in  the  midst 
of  his  sermon  and  ouoted,  in  reference  to  his  friend 
who  had  Just  passea  away,  the  following  lines  of  the 
hymn,  "Iste  Confessor": — 

Qui  plus,  prudens,  humilis,  pudicus, 
Sobnam  auxit  sine  labe  vitam 
— etc.     David  wrote  both  in  Latin  and  German.    For 
a  long  period  his  Latin  works  were  attributed  to  others, 
at  times  to  St.  Bernard  of  Clcurvaux  and  St.  Bona  ven- 
ture, &  proof  of  the  high  esteem  in  which  they  were 
held.    The  most  striking  case  of  this  mistaken  ascrip- 
tion is  that  of  the  "Formula  Novitiorum"  which  m 
addition  to  two  letters  of  David  form  three  books:  (1 ) 
''De  Compositione  hominis  exterioris"  (treats  of  the 
external  life  of  the  member  of  an  order)-    (2)  "I>e 
Reformatione  hominis  interioris";    (3)  **Ue  septem 
processibus  religioeorum''.    This  work,  of  whidb  the 
different  parts  often  appeared  separately,  is  a  rational 
and  progressive  introduction  to  monastic  and  mysti- 
cal life.     It  was  first  published  under  the  name  of  St 
Bonaventure  (Brescia,  1486;  Venice,  1487;  Antwerp, 
1501;  Colore,  1618);  it  appeared  also  in  the  editio 
VaUeana  of  the  works  of  St.  Bonaventure  (Rome, 
1588^6),  and  consequently  in  all  of  the  reprints  of 
this  edition.    It  also  appeared  in  the  "Magna  Biblio- 
theca  veterum  Patrum"  (Oologne,  1618),  vol.  XIII,  in 
the  "Maxima  Bibliotheca  vet.  Patr,"  (Lyons,  1675), 
vol.  XXV,  and,  in  part,  among  the  doub^ul  works  of 
St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  CLXXXIII, 
col.  1189.    The  Latin  edition  published  at  Augsbuiifi; 
in  1696  was  issued  in  German  at  the  same  place  in 
1597.    The  latest  and  by  far  the  best  edition  is  that 
which  appeared  at  Quaraochi  (1889),  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  which  the  woriE  is  positively  ascribed  to 
Brother  David  of  Augsburg;  a  list  of  370  manuscripts 
is  also  given.    David's  treatise  "  De  hsered  paupenim 
de  Lugduno"  was  erroneously  issued,  in  an  incom- 
plete form,  by   Martdne   and   Durand  (Thesaurus 
novus  anecdot.,  V,  1777  st^q.)  under  the  name  of  the 
Dominican  Yvonnet;  but  it  has  been  proved  by  Pfeif- 
fer  and  Preger  to  be  one  of  David's  writing  and  the 
full  text  was  edited  by  Preger  for  the  first  tune.    Ex- 
tracts from  David's  "  Expositio  Regulse",  an  explana- 
tion of  the  monastic  rules  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  have 
been  edited  by  E.  Lerapp. 

Attention  was  first  called  to  David's  German  writ- 
ings by  Pfeiffer,  who  in  1845  published  the  foUowiog 


DAVID 


645 


DAVID 


ei^t  treatifles  and  afichbed  them  to  ^avid:  (1)  ''Die 
Bieben  Vorreceln  der  Tu&end'';  (2)  ''Der  Spiegel  der 
Tugend";  (3)  ''Christi  Leben  unser  Vorbild''  (to  this 
treatise  HeifFer  found  later  a  continuation  five  times 
lajqger  tiian  the  part  published);  (4)  "Die  vier  Fit- 
tiche  geistlicher  Betrachtung";  (5)  ''Von  der  An- 
Bchauung  Gottes";  (6)  ''Von  der  Erkenntnis  der 
Wahriieit;  (7)  "Von  der  unergrOndlichen  FOlle 
Gottes;  (8)  "Betrachtungen  und  Gebete".  Preger 
raised  doubts  as  to  the  correctness  of  ascribing  these 
tractates,  with  exception  of  the  first  three,  to  David, 
but  his  attack  proved  a  failure  and  PfeiJffer's  views 
have  been  successfully  defended  by  Hecker  and  TeU 
linegg.  It  must,  however,  be  acknowledged  that  the 
eignm  contains  much  that  was  common  property  in 
the  Bliddle  Ages.  David's  German  treatises  are  fine  ex- 
amples of  German  prose  and  assure  him  a  permanent 
place  in  the  history  of  German  literature.  Like  the 
radiance  of  a  gently  burning  flame  they  attract  the 
heart  and  spirit  of  the  reader  to  the  beautiful  and  the 
Divine.  Tney  turn  the  mind  from  vice  and  error  with 
most  convincing  eIoc[uence  and  kindle  in  it  the  love  of 
God.  In  these  writm^,  as  in  the  treatises  for  nov- 
ices, David  is  at  all  times  the  circumspect  mystic, 
averse  to  fantastic  ecstasy  and  exaggeration.  A  sober 
go<>d  sense  pervades  his  profounayet  animated  ex- 
positions, wnich  have  nothing  in  common  with  the 
vagaries  of  the  German  nwstics  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, although  David's  influence  on  the  latter  is  not  to 
be  denied.  His  writings  exerted  some  influence  also 
on  the  "Schwabenspiegel"  (Swabian  Mirror),  the 
well-known  compilation  of  civil  law  used  in  Southern 
Germany,  which  appeared  about  1268.  Personally 
David  belonged  to  the  earlier  school  of  mystics. 

pFEifTEH,  Deulaehe  Mysttker  des  XIV,  Jakrhunderts  (Leiprig, 
1845-57),  I;  Idkm  in  Haupt,  Zeiltchrift  fUr  dtuUehea  AUertum 
(l^psig,  1853),  IX,  1  aqq.;  Prcobb,  Chsch.  der  deutacken 
Mystik  %m  M.  A.  (Leipzig,  1874-93).  I.  268  aqq.;  Denifle  in 
Historisch-jaoliliache  BliUter,  LXXV.  679  sqq.;  Lempp  in  ZeU- 
gchriftfiirKirchenifeseh.  (1898),  XIX.  345  sqq.;  David  of  Acos- 
BURQ,  De  exteriona  et  inlerioria  /lominia  eompottiione  lUm  III 
(Quaracchi,  1899).  Introduct..  4  sqq.;  Qer.  tr.  by  Thomas  Villa- 
nova,  Wegipeiser  zur  chriat.  VoUkammenheit  von  D.  von  4..  with 
supplemsntary  matter:  Preger,  Der  Tractat  dea  D.  von  A,  aber 
die  Waldenaer  in  Abhandlungen  der  k.  Akademie  der  Wiaa. 
(Munich,  1878),  cl.  III.  vol.  XIV,  Pt.  II,  183-235.  also  pub- 
lished separately;  Rieder,  Dtia  Leben  Berihalda  vcn  Regen^rg 
(Freiburg.  1901),  10-16;  Michael,  Qeach.  dea  deiUscken  Volkea 
vam  Xlii.  Jahrhundert  bis  zum  Ausgang  dea  M.  A.  (Freiburg 
im  Br.,  1897-),  II,  III,  passim;  Tblunboo,  David  von  Aug  Aura, 
deaaen  deiUache  Sehriften  auf  thre  Bchtheit  unteraudU  (St.  Paul, 
1904,  1905),  not  completed;  Hsckbb,  Kritiache  BeiirOge  »u  />. 
wm  A.  Pera(fnliehkeit  und  Schriften  (Hamburg.  1905). 

Michael  Bihi* 

David  of  Dinant,  a  pantheistic  philosopher  who 
lived  in  the  first  decades  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
Very  little  is  known  about  his  life.  It  is  not  certain 
whether  he  was  bom  at  Dinant  in  Belgium,  or  at 
Dinan  in  Brittany.  He  is  believed  to  have  lived  fcM* 
some  time  at  the  Roman  Court  under  Innocent  III. 
He  was  a  magislery  or  teacher,  perhaps  at  Paris;  at 
any  rate,  it  was  at  Paris  that  his  work,  entitled  "Qua- 
temuli"  (little  note-books),  was  condemned  by  a  pro- 
vincial coimcil  in  1210,  a  condemnation  which  was 
confirmed  in  1215  by  a  letter  of  Cardinal  Robert  Cour- 
Qon,  papal  legate.  From  a  work  ascribed  to  Albert 
the  Great,  *'Compilatio  de  Novo  Spiritu*',  in  the 
Munich  Library  (MS.  lat.  311,  fol.  92  b),  we  learn  fur- 
ther that  in  consequence  of  the  condemnation,  David 
fled  from  France,  and  so  escaped  punishment.  When 
and  where  he  died  is  unknown;  all  we  are  warranted 
in  saying  is  that  he  died  after  the  year  1215.  Besides 
the  **Quatemuli'',  condemned  in  the  council  of  1216, 
and  oraered  to  be  burned  "before Christmas",  another 
work  entitled  ''De  Tomis,  seu  Divisionibus"  is  men- 
tioned. It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  this  was 
merely  another  title  for  the  "  Quatemuli ' '.  The  effect 
of  the  order  issued  by  the  council  was  to  cause  all  the 
writing  of  David  to  disappear.  Whatever  Is  known, 
therefore-  about  his  dortHnes  is  derived  from  the 


assertions  of  his  contemporaries  and  opponents,  chiefly 
Albert  the  Great  and  St.  Thomaa  From  these  sources 
we  learn  that  David  was  a  Pantheist.  He  identified 
God  with  the  material  substratum  of  all  thin^,  ma- 
teria  prima  (St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  I,  Q.  iii,  a.  8). 
He  reduced  all  reality  to  three  categories,  namely 
bodies,  minds,  and  eternal  separate  substances.  The 
indivisible  substrate  or  constituent  of  bodies  is  matter 
(yle) ;  of  minds,  or  souls,  intellect  (turns) ;  and  of  eter^ 
nal  separate  substances,  €rod  (Deu8).  These  three, 
matter,  intellect,  and  God,  are  one  and  the  same. 
Consequently  all  things,  material,  intellectual,  and 
spiritual,  have  one  and  the  same  essence — God  (St. 
Thomas,  In  II  Sent.,  dist.  xvii,  Q.  i;  Albert  the 
Great,  Sum.  TheoL,  II.  Tract,  jrii,  Q.  Ixxii,  a.  2). 

The  phraseoloKsr,  wnich  must  be  David's  own,  as 
well  as  the  title  Soore  mentioned,  "  De  Tomis  *',  sug- 
fSBta  at  once  the  influence  of  John  Scotus  Eriugena,  an 
influence  which  cannot  be  denied.  Eriusena's  work 
must  have  been  widely  known  and  reaain  the  first 
decades  of  the  thirteenth  century,  as  is  evident  from 
many  undeniable  facts.  Whether  David  was  influ- 
enced also  by  Amalric  of  Chartres  (see  Amalricianb) 
is  a  matter  of  debate.  Albert,  who  was  a  contempo- 
rary of  David,  sa3rB  that  David  merely  renewed  the  her- 
esy of  Alexander,  ''who  taught  that  God  and  intellect 
and  matter  are  one  substance".  It  is  impossible  to 
determine  whom  Albert  here  means  by  Alexander,  "a 
disciple  of  Xenophanes";  probably  the  reference  is  to 
some  Arabian  work  that  went  imder  the  name  of  a 
Greek  philosopher.  There  were  several  works  of  that 
kind  current  m  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Some  critics,  however,  put  forward  the  sur- 
mise that  David's  immediate  source  was  Avicebron's 
"Fons  Vitffi",  or  the  woric  "De  Unitate",  written  by 
Archdeacon  Gundisalvi  of  Segovia,  who  was'  weU 
vereed  in  Arabian  philosophical  literature.  What- 
ever the  source,  the  doctrines  were,  as  all  our  authori- 
ties concur  in  describing  them,  the  expression  of  the 
most  thoroughgoing  pantheism.  This  of  itself  would 
justify  the  drastic  measures  to  which  the  Council  of 
Paris  had  recourse.  There  were,  moreover,  ciroum- 
stances  which  rendered  summary  condemnation  neces- 
sary. On  the  one  hand  the  University  of  Paris  was 
bdng  made  the  scene  of  an  organized  attempt  to  foist 
the  Arabian  pantheistic  interpretation  of  Greek  philos- 
ophy on  the  schools  of  Latm  CThristendom.  Texts, 
translations,  and  commentaries  were  introduced  every 
day  from  Spain,  in  which  doctrines  incompatible  with 
GSuistian  dogma  were  openly  taught.  On  the  other 
handy  there  was  the  popular  movement  in  the  South 
ci  France  which  found  its  principal  expression  in  the 
Aibi^naian  heresv,  while  in  learned  and  ascetic  com- 
mumties  in  the  North,  the  anti-hierarohical  mysti- 
cism of  the  Calabrian  Joachim  of  Floris  was  being 
combined  with  the  more  speculative  pantheistic 
mysticism  of  John  Scotus  Eriugena.  In  view  of  these 
conditions  the  condemnation  of  the  errors  of  David 
of  Dinant,  the  complete  extirpation  of  the  sect  of 
Amalricians  to  which  he  apparently  belonged,  and 
the  unwonted  harshness  of  St.  Thomas's  reference  to 
him  cannot  be  judged  untimely  or  intemperate. 

St.  Thomas  and  Albxrt  tbb  Gbbat,  loo.  dt.;  Chartular, 
Univ.  Paria.,  ed.  Dbniplb,  I,  70,  71;  Baroenhbwbb,  Die 
paeudoariatoteliache  Schrift  Hher  daa  reine  Oute  (Freiburg.  1882), 
214  sqq.;  UKBERWi!:a-HEiNZS,(?e«cA.  drrPAt/..9th  ed^  II.  226: 
BXtjukeb,  Jahfh.  f.  Phil.  u.  apek.  Theol.  (1893);  UaurBau, 
Hiai,  da  la  j^H.  acol.  (Paris,  1880),  II,  i,  73  Bqq.;  de  WuLr, 
Hiat.  da  la  phU.  midihfale,  225  sqq.;  Turneb.  Hxatory  of  PhUoa- 
Ofhy  (BoBtOD,  1903),  807  sqq. 

William  Turnbb. 


David  8eotas,a  medieval  Irish  chronicler,  date  of 
birth  unknown;  d.  1139.  Early  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury there  was  at  Wtlrzburg  an  ecclesiastic  and 
teacher  known  as  David.  His  surname  Scotus  shows 
that  he  very  probably  came  from  Ireland;  perhaps 
from  Wales,  if  he  is  identical  with  the  homonymous 


DAVIX8 


646 


DAWSON 


Bishop  of  Bangor  (see  bdow).  Accordiiuz  to  Ekke- 
hard  (Chronioon,  ed.,  Mon.  Genn.  Hist.:  Script.,  VI, 
243),  Emperor  Henry  V  received  him,  was  charmed 
with  his  virtue  and  knowledge,  and  made  him  one  of 
the  imperial  chaplains.  With  other  scholars  David 
accompanied  the  kin^  on  his  expedition  to  Italy  in 
1100,  and  was  appomted  royal  historiographer  for 
the  occasion.  His  work  in  three  books  is  now  known 
only  from  excerpts  of  it  in  later  historians,  especially 
in  Ekkehard  (op.  cit.  above)  and  William  of  Malme»- 
bunr.  The  latter  (Gesta  r^um  Anglorum,  in  P.  L., 
CLXXIX,  1375)  says  that  David  described  the  expe- 
dition with  partialitv  for  the  king.  A  certain  David 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Bangor  in  Wales,  4  April, 
1120;  according  to  Maimesburv  (loc.  cit.)  he  was  none 
other  than  the  chaplain,  David  Scotus.  As  bishop  he 
took  part  in  several  English  synods,  and  probablv 
died  in  1 139,  since  his  successor  was  then  consecrated. 
But  it  is  not  easv  to  reconcile  with  the  foregoing,  the 
statement  of  a  later  historian  (Trithemius,  Annales 
Hirsaugienses,  I,  349),  that  David  became  a  monk 
under  St.  Macharius  in  the  monastery  of  St.  James 
in  WUrzburg,  as  this  abbey  was  not  founded  until 
1140. 

Tout  Id  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.jj.  v. ;  Fabbiciub,  BMiatheca  Latvna 
(Flobxnce.  1858),  1. 433;  Bubtbb,  Namendatar,  (3rd  ed.  Inna- 
bniok.  1906),  II.  63. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Davies,  William,  Venerable,  martyr^  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  of  the  priests  who  suffered  under 
Queen  Elizabeth,  b.  in  North  Wales,  i>robably  at  Crois 
in  Yris,  Denbighshire,  date  uncertain;  d.  at  Beau- 
maris, 27  July,  1593.  He  studied  at  Reims,  where  he 
arrived  6  April,  1582  just  in  time  to  assist  at  the  first 
Mass^  of  the  venerable  martyr  Nicholas  Garlick.  He 
receiVed  tonsure  and  minor  orders  23  Sept.,  1583,  to- 
gether with  seventy-three  other  English  students. 
Ordained  priest  in  April,  1585,  belaboured  with  won- 
derful zeal  and  success  in  Wales  till  March,  1591-2, 
when  he  was  arrested  at  Holyhead  with  four  students 
whom  he  was  sending  via  Ireland  to  the  English  Col- 
lege at  Vdladolid.  He  was  thrown  into  a  loathsome 
dungeon  in  Beaumaris  Castle  and  separated  from  his 
companions,  having  frankly  confessed  that  he  was  a 
priest.  After  a  month  his  sanctity  and  patience 
gained  him  some  relaxation  of  his  close  confinement 
and  he  was  able  to  join  the  students  for  an  hour  in  the 
dav,  and  even  to  celebrate  Mass.  By  degrees  the 
jiulor  became  so  indulgent  that  they  mieht  have  es- 
caped had  they  so  willed.  The  fame  of  the  priest's 
sanctity  and  wisdom  brought  Catholics  from  all  parts  to 
consult  him  and  Protestant  ministers  came  to  dispute 
with  him.  At  the  assizes  he  and  his  companions  were 
condemned  to  death,  on  which  the  martyr  intoned  the 
"  Te  Deum ' ',  which  the  others  took  up.  The  injustice 
of  the  sentence  was  so  apparent  that  to  still  the  peo- 
ple's murmurs  the  judge  reprieved  the  condemned  till 
the  queen's  pleasure  shoula  be  known.  Sent  to  Lud- 
low, to  be  examined  by  the  Council  of  the  Marches, 
Father  Davies  had  to  submit  to  fresh  assaults  by  the 
ministers.  Here  too  he  foiled  the  artifices  of  his  ene- 
mies who  took  him  to  the  church  under  pretext  of  a 
disputation,  and  then  be^an  the  Protestant  service. 
He  at  once  began  to  recite  the  Latin  Vespers  in  a 
louder  voice  than  the  ministers',  and  afterwards  pub- 
licly exposed  the  trick  of  which  he  had  been  a  victim. 
From  Ludlow  he  was  sent  to  Bcwdley,  where  he  had  to 
share  a  foul  dungeon  with  felons,  and  from  thence  to 
other  prisons,  until  at  last  he  was  sent  back  to  Beau- 
maris, where,  to  their  mutual  consolation,  he  rejoined 
his  young  companions.  For  some  six  montlis  he  lived 
with  them  the  life  of  a  religious  community,  dividing 
the  time  between  prayer  and  study,  "  witli  so  much 
comfort  to  themselves  that  they  seemed  to  be  rather 
in  heaven  than  in  prison''.  At  the  summer  assizes  it 
was  decided  that  the  priest  must  die  as  a  traitor,  though 
be  was  offered  his  life  if  he  would  go  but  once  to 


church.  In  spite  of  the  open  oppodtioii  of  the  people, 
who  honoured  him  as  a  saint,  tne  cruel  sentence  was 
carried  out  and  he  was  hanged,  drawn,  and  Quartered 
at  Beamnaris.  As  he  put  the  rope  round  nis  neck, 
the  martyr  said:  ''Thy  yoke,  O  Lord,  is  sweet  and 
Thy  burden  is  light."  His  cassock  stained  with  his 
blood  was  bought  by  his  companions  and  preserved  as 
a  relic.  They,  thou^  condemned  to  imprisonment 
for  life,  manag^  in  tmae  to  escape,  and  the  jroungest 
found  his  way  at  last  to  VaUadolid,  where  he  re- 
ootmted  the  whole  story  to  Bishop  Yepes,  who  wrote  it 
in  his  "Historia  particular  de  la  Persecucion  en  In- 
glaterra ' '.  There  is  now  a  chapel  in  Anglesey  built  as 
a  memorial  to  the  martyr. 

Challonsb,  Mianonary  Prieata  (London,  1741):  Oxijlow, 
Bibl,  DieL  Bng.  Cath.,ll,  a.  v.;  Douoy  Diartm  (London,  1878); 
YKPKB,Hiat.  de  la  Peraeeueion  en  tngUtterra;  Camm.  /n  tkt 
Brave  Daya  of  Old  (London,  1890). 

Bedk  Camm. 

DiKvila  Padilla  (AauariN),  a  native  of  the  City  of 
Mexico,  b.  1562;  d.  1604.  At  the  a^  of  sixteen  he 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Mexico  as  master  of 
arts  and  soon  after  entered  the  Dominican  Order. 
He  held  tiie  chairs  of  philosophy  and  theology  at 
Puebla  and  Mexico.  He  was  successively  defini  tor  and 
procurator  of  the  Mexican  province  of  his  order  and 
was  sent  to  Rome  and  Maorid  as  its  representative. 
In  1601  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Santo  Domingo,  whae 
he  died.  Ddvila  Padilla  was  not  a  prolific  writer. 
He  left,  however,  one  veiy  important,  though  unfor- 
tunately rare,  work,  the  "Historia  de  la  Fundacion  y 
Diacurso  de  la  Provincia  de  Santiago  de  Mexico'' 
(Madrid,  1596;  Brussels,  1625).  Benstain  mentions 
a  third  edition  of  1634.  While  not  free  from  mis- 
take^ it  still  stands  as  the  foremost  chronicle  of  the 
Dominican  Order  and  its  missions  in  America  up  to 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

NioolXs  Antonio,  Bibliotheca  hiapana  ntraa  ^  «d.,  Madrid. 
1733-1738);  LsdN  t  FInbui,  Bptiome  de  la  Bthlioteea  oriental 
y  occidental  (2d  6d.,  Madrid.  1737);  EkiniARA,  Biblioteea  mexi- 
oana  (Mexico.  1756):  Beristain  de  Souea.,  BiUxoUoa  htapamy 
amerieana  (2d  ed.,  Mexico,  1883);  Ycazbai/CKTA.  BiUiografia 
.mexicana  (Mexico.  1886);  Diccionario  univeraal  de  Hialona  y 
Cfaoffrafia  (Mexico);  Gil  Goneales  DXvxla,  Teatro  eeieaidatieo 
de  la  primt/iiw  Jgleaia  de  laa  Indiaa  oceidentaUa  (Madrid,  1654  X 

Ad.  F.  Bandelieb. 

Da  Vinci,  Leonardo.    See  VmcL 

Davis,  Jambs.    See  Davenport. 

Davy,  Jacques.    See  Duperron,  Cardinal^. 

Dawson,  ^neas  McDonnell,  author,  b.  in  Soot- 
land,  30  July,  1810;  d.  in  Ottawa,  Canada.  29  Dec,, 
1894.  He  studied  at  the  seminary  of  Paris  and  was 
ordained  priest  in  1835.  Until  1840  he  laboured  on 
the  mission  of  Dumfries,  Scotland,  and  subeecjuently 
in  Edinbuigh.  Before  emigrating  to  Canada  m  18J>5 
he  had  charge  successively  of  the  Counties  of  Fife, 
Kinross,  and  Clackmannan,  during  all  this  time  ren- 
dering valuable  service  to  the  cause  of  the  Church. 
On  his  arrival  in  Canada  he  was  given  the  parish  of 
St.  Andrew's,  Ottawa,  and  later  became  preacher  at 
the  cathedral.  Father  Dawson  was  a  lecturer  c^  re- 
pute and  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  provincial 
press.  He  is  the  author  of  "The  Temporal  Sover- 
eignty of  the  Pope"  (Ottawa  and  London,  1860),  the 
first  book  printed  and  published  in  Ottawa;  "St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul:  A  Biography"  (London,  1865);  ''Seven 
Letters  together  with  a  Lecture  on  the  Colonies  of  Great 
Britain"  (Ottawa,  1870);  "The. Late  Hon.  Thomas 
D'Arcy  McGee.  A  Funeral  Oration  "  (Ottawa,  1870)  ; 
"Our  Strength  and  Their  Strength:  The  Northwest 
Territory  and  Other  Papers,  Chiefly  Relating  to  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada"  (Ottawa,  1870)— the  fiist  title 
heads  a  refutation  of  Qoldwin  Smith's  anti-elerical 
views;  under  the  last  comes  a  series  of  poems,  dts- 
courses,  lectures,  critical  reviews;  "Pius  IX  and  his 
Time"  (London,  1880).  He  translated  from  the 
French:  (1)  "  Maftre  Pierre.    Conversations  on  Moral- 


.DAX 


647 


DXAOONS 


ity,  by  M.  Delcasott"  (Paris,  1836);  (2)  "The  Parish 
Prieet  and  His  Parishioners,  or  Answer  to  Popular 
Prejudices  against  Religion,  by  M.  B.  D'Ezauvulez" 
(Glasgow,  1842),  reviewed  in  "The  Tablet",  Lon- 
don, 12  Feb.,  1842;  (3)  Letters  of  same  author  on 
the  Spanish  Inquisition  (London,  1848);  (4)  "Count 
Josepn  de  Maistre's  celebrated  work  on  the  Pope" 
(London,  1850), and  his  "Soirees  de  8. P^tersbourg'* 
(London,  1851),  "an  excellent  and  careful  transuir 
tion.  .  .  .  Another  instance  of  enlightened  z^ 
from  one  of  the  small  band  of  Scottish  Catholics" 
("The  Tablet",  London,  23  Nov.,  1850).  A  list  of 
his  poems  and  other  works  is  given  in  the  "Proceed- 
ing and  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada" 
(1894,  XII,  23),  of  which  he  was  a  member. 

MoBOAJf,  Bibliotheca  Canadenaie,  or  Manual  of  Canadian 
Literature  (Ottawa,  1867};  Jamks,  Bil>lu>ffraphy  of  Canadian 
Poetry  (Toronto.  1899);  Public  TeUimonial  to  the  Rev.  M.  MeD, 
Dawaon  (Ottawa,  1890);  Tanouat.  lUpertoire  OHUral  du 
CUrgi  Canadien  ((Juebec.  1868).  In  thia  Tanffuay  inaccurately 
gives  the  date  of  Father  Dawson's  birth  as  18130. 

Edward  P.  Spillanb. 

Daz.    See  Aire. 

Day,  Georqb,  Bishop  of  Chichester;  b.  m  Shrop- 
shire, Eneland,  c.  1501 ;  d.  2  August,  1556.  He  was 
graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1520-1  and  admitted  Fel- 
low of  St.  John's,  19  September,  1522.  Though  ap- 
parently always  a  Catholic  in  belief,  Day  submitted 
like  too  many  others  to  the  assumption  by  Henry 
VI II  of  ecclesiastical  supremacy.  He  was  made  Mas- 
ter of  St.  John's  in  1537,  Vic6-C)hancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity, and  Provost  of  King's  College  (though  not  a 
fellow  of  it)  by  special  exercise  of  the  royal  authority, 
in  1538.  Consecrated  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1543 
by  Cranmer,  he  firmly  opposed  the  spread  of  the  Ref- 
ormation under  Edward  VI.  He  answered  in  a  Cath- 
olic sense  Cranmer 's  written  questions  on  the  ''Sacra- 
ment of  the  Altar",  defended  the  Catholic  doctrine  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  voted  against  the  bills  for 
Communion  under  both  kinds,  and  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  new  Prayer  Book.  In  his  own  diocese  his 
g reaching  was  so  effective  that,  in  October,  1550,  the 
buncil  felt  it  necessary  to  send  "  Dr.  Cox,  the  king's 
almoner,  to  appease  the  people  by  his  good  doctrine, 
which  are  troubled  through  the  seditious  preaching 
of  the  Bishop  of  Chichester  and  others",  and,  in  the 
following  December,  Day  was  brought  before  the 
Council  to  answer  for  his  disregard  of  an  injunction  to 
have  **  all  the  altars  in  every  church  taken  down,  and 
in  the  lieu  of  them  a  table  set  up", — ^himself  preaching 
on  the  occasion,  if  possible  in  his  cathedral.  After  re- 
peated interrogations,  his  final  answer  was  that  ''he 
would  never  obey  to  do  this  thing,  thinking  it  a  less 
evil  to  suffer  the  body  to  perish  tnan  to  corrupt  the 
soul  with  that  thing  that  his  conscience  would  not 
bear".  For  this  "contempt"  he  was  imprisoned  in 
the  Fleet,  and  after  further  questionings  was  deprived 
of  his  bishopric  in  October,  1551.  From  the  Fleet  he 
was  transferred  in  June  of  1552  into  the  keeping  of 
Bishop  Goodrich  of  Ely,  then  Lord  Chancellor,  in 
whose  custody  he  remained  until  the  death  of  Edward 
VI.  Queen  Mary  restored  him  at  once  to  his  dimity, 
besides  naming  him  her  almoner.  In  re-establishing 
the  ancient  worship  she  had,  however,  to  proceed  cau- 
tiously. Thus  oontemporarv  chroniclers  record  that 
Cranmer  conducted  Edward's  funeral  ''without  any 
cross  or  light",  and*"  with  a  communion  in  Engliidi' , 
though  "the  Bishop  of  Chichester  preached  a  good 
sermon ' '.  Day  again  preached  at  Mfary's  coronation. 
His  previous  sufferings  prove  the  sincerity  of  his  con- 
version from  the  schism,  and  his  reconciliation  to  the 
Church  had  doubtless  already  been  privately  effected. 
His  formal  absolution  and  confirmation  in  his  bishop* 
ric  by  Cardinal  Pole,  as  Papal  Legate,  is  dated  31 
January,  1555.  His  death  occurred  only  a  year  and  a 
half  later  and  he  was  buried  in  Chichester  cathedral. 
Privy  Council  Ads,  III,  IV  (London,  1801);  Gabqubt  and 
Bishop,  Edward  Viand  the  Common  Prayer  fi'\ok  (TiOndon,  1890); 


Camdbn  Societt,  Grey  Friar**  and  Wriotheiley'a  Chroniclea 
(London,  1852-1877):  ^wk,  Annals  (London.  1615),  11;  £st> 
oouST.  Anoiuxm  Ordinations  (London,  1873);  Qxllow,  Bibi. 
Diet  Bng.  Cath.,  s.  v.;  Oaibdmer,  Bny.  Church  in  the  Six- 
teenth Century  (London,  1902). 

G.  E.  Phillips. 

Day,  Sir  John  Charles,  jurist,  b.  near  Bath,  Eng- 
land, 1826;  d.  13  June,  1908,  at  Newbury.  He  was 
educated  at  Rome  and  at  PVibourg,  finally  with  the 
Benedictines  at  Downside,  who  prepared  him  to 
graduate  with  honours  at  the  London  UniverBity  and 
attain  subsequent  distinction  at  the  Bar.  He  was 
called  to  the  Middle  Temple,  1849;  took  silk,  1872; 
Bencher  of  tiie  Middle  Temple,  1873;  raised  to  the 
Bench  as  Judge  of  the  Queen's  Bench  Division  of 
High  Court  of  Justice  ana  knighted,  1882;  resigned, 
1901;  created  Privy  Councillor,  1902.  His  first  ten 
vears  at  the  Bar  were  a  constant  struggle,  and  then 
his  book,  "Common  Law  Procedure  Acts",  brought 
him  fame  and  fortune.  As  a  judge  his  severe  sen- 
tences, especially  for  crimes  of  violence,  made  him 
the  terror  of  evudoers,  among  whom  he  was  in  con- 
sequence nicknamed  "Day  of  Reckoning"  and  "  Judjg- 
ment  Day".  He  was  also  eminent  as  an  art  connois- 
seur and  his  collection  of  pictures  by  painters  of  the 
Harbison  School  was  one  of  the  best  in  England.  In 
1888-90  he  served  as  a  judge  on  the  famous  Pamell 
Special  Commission.  Two  of  his  sons,  Henry  and 
Arthur,  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  a  third, 
Samuel,  selected  the  law.  Judge  Day  sdso  edited 
Roecoe's  "Evidence  at  Nisi  Prius"  (1870). 

The  Tdklet  (London,  20  June,  1908);  Th»  Catholic  Timss 
(London,  19  June.  1908);  The  Cathclie  Who*s  Who  (London, 
1908). 

Thomas  F.  Meehak. 
Day  of  Judgment.    See  Juboment,  Day  of. 

Deacon8. — The  name  deacon  (SuCicomu)  means 
only  minister  or  servant,  and  is  employed  in  this 
sense  both  in  the  Septuagint  (thoueh  only  in  the  Book 
of  Esther,  e.  g.  ii,  2;  vi,  3)  and  in  the  New  Testament 
(e.g. Matt., XX, 28;  Romans xv, 25:  Eph., iii, 7;  etc.). 
But  in  Apostolic  times  the  word  began  to  acquire  a 
more  definite  and  technical  meaning.  Writing  about 
A.  D.  63,  St.  Paul  addresses  "all  the  saints,  who  are 
at  Philippi,  with  the  bishops  and  deacons"  (Phil.,  i, 
1).  A  lew  years  later  (I  Tim.,  iii,  8  sq.)  he  impresses 
upon  Timothy  that  "deacons  must  be  chaste,  not 
double  tongued.  not  given  to  much  wine,  not  greedy 
of  filthy  lucre,  nolding  the  mystery  of  the  faith  in  a 
pure  conscience ' '.  He  directs,  further,  that  they  must 
"first  be  proved:  and  so  let  them  minister,  havine  no 
crime",  and  he  adds  that  they  should  be  "the  hus- 
bands of  one  wife:  who  rule  well  their  children,  and 
their  own  houses.  For  they  that  have  ministered  well, 
shall  purchase  to  themselves  a  good  degree,  and  much 
confidence  in  the  faith  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus ' '.  This 
passage  is  worthy  of  note,  not  only  because  it  describes 
the  qualities  desirable  in  candidates  for  the  diaconate, 
but  also  because  it  suggests  that  external  administrar 
tion  and  the  handling  of  money  were  likely  to  form 
part  of  their  functions. 

Origin  and  Early  History  op  the  Diaconate. — 
According  to  the  constant  tradition  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  the  narrative  of  Acts,  vi,  1-6,  which  serves  to 
introduce  the  account  of  the  martyrdom  of  St. 
Stephen,  describes  the  first  institution  of  the  office 
of  deacon.  The  Apostles,  in  order  to  meet  the  com- 
plaints of  the  Hellenistic  Jews  that  "their  widows 
were  neglected  in  the  daily  ministrations  [^uiJcoWo]". 
called  together  "the  multitude  of  the  disciples  anci 
said:  It  is  not  reason  that  we  should  leave  the 
word  of  God  and  serve  [Jiaicowr]  tables.  Wherefore, 
brethren,  look  ye  out  among  you  seven  men  of  sood 
reputation,  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  wisdom,  whom 
we  may  appoint  over  this  business.  But  we  will  give 
ourselves  continually  to  prayer,  and  to  the  ministry 
of  tho  word  [rj  Siaxovi^L  rov  \670w].     And  the  saying 


DXA00H8 


648 


DXAOONS 


was  liked  by  all  the  multitude.  And  they  chbee 
Stephen,  a  man  full  of  faith,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost'' 
(with  six  others  who  are  named).  These  they  placed 
*' before  the  apostles;  and  they,  praying,  imposed 
hands  upon  them."  Now.  on  the  ground  that  the 
Seven  are  not  expressly  called  deacons  and  that  some 
of  them  re.  g.  St.  Stephen,  and  later  Philip  (Acts,  xxi, 
8)]  preacned  and  ranked  next  to  the  Apostles,  Protes- 
tant commentators  have  constantlv  nused  objections 
a^nst  the  identification  of  this  choice  of  the  Seven 
with  the  institution  of  the  diaconate.  But  apart  from 
the  fact  that  the  tradition  among  the  Fathers  is  both 
unanimous  and  early — e.  g.,  St.  IrensBUS  (Adv.  Hser., 
Ill,  xii,  10  and  IV,  xv,  1)  speaks  of  St.  Stephen  as  the 
first  deacon — the  similarity  between  the  functions  of 
the  Seven  who  ''served  the  tables*'  and  those  of  the 
early  deacons  is  most  striking.  Compare,  for  example, 
both  with  the  passage  from  the  Acts  and  with  I  Tmfi., 
iii,  8  sq.,  quoted  above,  the  following  sentence  from 
Hennas  (Sun.,  IX,  26):  "They  that  have  spots  are 
the  deacons  that  exercised  their  office  ill  and  plundered 
the  livelihood  of  widows  and  orphans  and  made  gains 
for  themselves  from  the  ministrations  which  they  had 
received  to  perform.  *'  Or,  again,  St.  Ignatius  (Ep. 
ii  to  the  Trallians):  ''Those  who  are  deacons  of  the 
mysteries  of  Jesus  (Christ  must  please  all  men  in  all 
ways.  For  they  are  not  deacons  of  meats  and  drinks 
romy]  but  servants  jf  the  church  of  God";  while  St. 
Clement  of  Rome  (about  a.  d.  95)  clearly  describes  the 
institution  of  deacons  along  with  that  of  bishops  as 
being  the  work  of  the  Apostles  themselves  (£p.  Clem., 
xlii).  Further,  it  should  be  noted  that  ancient  tradi- 
tion limited  the  number  of  deacons  at  Rome  to  seven 
(Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  xliii),  and  that  a  canon  of 
the  Council  of  Neo-Csesarea  (325)  prescribed  the  same 
restriction  for  all  cities,  however  large,  appealing  di- 
rectly to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  as  a  precedent.  We 
seem,  therefore,  thoroughly  justified  in  identifying  the 
functions  of  the  Seven  with  those  of  the  deacons  of 
whom  we  hear  so  much  in  the  Apostolic  Fathers  and 
the  early  councils.  Established  primarUy  to  relieve 
the  bishops  and  presbyters  of  their  more  secular  and 
invidious  duties,  notaoly  in  distributing  the  alms  of 
the  faithful,  we  need  not  do  more  than  recall  the  larse 
place  occupied  by  the  agapse,  or  love-feasts,  in  the  early 
worship  01  the  Cnurch,  to  understand  how  readily  the 
duty  of  serving  at  tables  may  have  passed  into  the 
privilege  of  serving  at  the  altar.  They  became  the 
natural  intermediaries  between  the  celebrant  and  the 
people.  Inside  the  Church  they  made  public  an- 
nouncements, marshalled  the  congregation,  preserved 
order,  and  tiie  like.  Outside  of  it  they  were  the 
bishop's  deputies  in  secular  matters,  and  especially  in 
the  relief  oi  the  poor.  Their  subordination  and  gen- 
eral duties  of  service  seem  to  have  been  indicated  by 
their  standing  during  the  public  assemblies  of  the 
Church,  while  the  bishops  and  priests  were  seated.  It 
should  be  noticed  that  along  with  these  functions 
probably  went  a  large  share  in  the  instruction  of  cate- 
chumens and  the  preparation  of  the  altar  services. 
Even  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (viii,  38)  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Baptism  is  administered  by  the  deacon  Philip. 
An  attempt  has  recently  been  made,  though  re- 
garded by  many  as  somewhat  fanciful,  to  trace  the 
origin  of  the  diaconate  to  the  organization  of  those 
primitive  Hellenistic  Christian  communities,  which  in 
the  earliest  age  of  the  Church  had  all  things  in  com- 
mon, being  supported  by  the  alms  of  the  faiuifvil.  For 
these  it  is  contended  tnat  some  steward  (ceconomus) 
must  have  been  appointed  to  administer  their 
temporal  affairs.  (See  Leder,  Die  Diakonen  der 
Biscnftfe  und  Presbyter,  1905.)  The  full  presentment 
of  the  subject  is  somewhat  too  intricate  and  confused 
to  find  place  here.  We  may  content  ourselves  with 
noting  that  less  difficulty  attends  the  same  writer's 
theory  of  the  derivation  of  the  judicial  and  atlminia- 
Untive  functions  of  the  archdeacon  from  the  duties 


Imposed  upon  one  selected  member  of  the  diaconal 
college,  who  was  called  the  bishop's  deacon  {diaamus 
episcopi)  because  to  him  was  committed  the  temporal 
administration  of  funds,  and  charities  for  which  the 
bishop  was  primarily  responsible.  This  led  in  time  to 
a  certain  judicial  and  legal  position  and  to  a  surveil- 
lance of  tne  subordinate  clergy.  But  for  all  this  see 
Archdeacon. 

Duties  op  Deacons. — 1.  That  some,  if  not  all, 
members  of  the  diaconal  college  were  everywhere 
stewards  of  the  church  funds  and  of  the  alms  collected 
for  widows  and  orphans  is  beyond  dispute.  W^e  find 
St.  Cyprian  speaking  of  Nicostratus  as  having  de- 
frauded widows  and  orphans  as  well  as  robbed  the 
Church  (Cypr.,  Ep.  xlix,  ad  Comelium).  Such  pecu- 
lation was  all  the  easier  because  the  offerings  passed 
through  their  hands,  at  any  rate  te  a  laree  a^ree. 
Those  gifts  which  the  people  brought  and  whidi  were 
not  made  directly  te  the  bishop  were  presented  to  him 
through  them  (Apost.  Const.,  II,  xxvii),  and  on  the 
other  hand  they  were  to  distribute  the  oblations 
{tUSoytat)  which  remained  over  after  the  Liturgy  had 
been  celebrated  among  the  different  orders  of  the 
clergy  according  to  certain  fixed  proportions.  It  was 
no  doubt  from  such  functions  as  these  that  St.  Jerome 
calls  the  deacon  meMorum  et  vidmiTum  minitter 
(Hieron.  Ep.  ad.  Evang.).  They  sought  out  the  sick 
and  the  poor,  reporting  to  the  bishop  upon  their  needs 
and  foUowine  his  direction  in  all  things  (Apost.  Const., 
Ill,  xix,  and  xxxi,  xxxii).  They  were  also  to  invite 
aged  women,  and  probably  others  as  well,  to  the 
agapee.  Then  with  regard  to  the  bishop  they  were 
to  relieve  him  of  his  more  laborious  and  less  import- 
ant functions,  and  in  this  way  they  came  to  exercise 
a  certain  measure  of  jurisdiction  in  the  simpler  cases 
which  were  submittecl  to  his  decision.  Similariy  they 
sought  out  and  reproved  offenders  as  his  deputies.  In 
fine,  as  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  declare  (II,  xliv). 
they  were  to  oe  his  ''ears  and  eyes  and  mouth  ana 
heart",  or,  as  it  is  laid  down  elsewhere,  "his  soul  and 
his  senses''  (fvx^  xal  aX&07fais)  (Apost.,  Const.,  Ill, 
xix). 

2.  Again,  as  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  further  ex- 
plain in  some  detail,  the  deacons  were  the  guardians  of 
order  in  the  church.  They  saw  that  the  faithful  oc- 
cupied their  proper  places,  that  none  gossiped  or  slept. 
They  were  to  welcome  the  poor  and  aged  and  to  take 
care  that  they  were  not  at  a  disadvantage  as  regards 
their  position  in  church.  They  were  to  stand  at  the 
men's  gate  as  janitors  to  see  that  during  the  Liturgy 
none  came  in  or  went  out,  and  St.  Chrysostom  says  in 
general  terms:  ''if  anyone  misbehave  let  the  deacon 
be  summoned''  (Horn,  xtiv,  in  Act.  Apost.)-  Besides 
this  they  were  largely  employed  in  the  direct  ministry 
of  the  altar,  preparing  the  sacred  vessels  and  bringing 
water  for  the  ablutions,  ete.,  though  in  later  time<; 
many  of  these  duties  devolved  upon  clerics  of  an  in- 
ferior grade.  Most  especially  were  they  conspicuous 
by  their  marshalling  and  directing  the  congregation 
during  the  service.  Even  to  the  present  day,  as  will 
be  remembered,  such  announcements  as  Ite  missa  eM, 
Fledamua  gentuif  Procedamus  in  pace^  are  always  made 
by  the  deacon;  though  this  function  was  more  pro- 
nounced in  the  early  ages.  The  following  from  the 
newly  discovered  "Testament  of  Our  Lonr',  a  docu- 
ment of  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  may  be  quoted 
as  an  interesting  example  of  a  proclamation  sudi  as 
was  made  by  the  deacon  just  before  the  Anaphora: 
"  Let  us  arise ;  let  each  know  his  own  place.  Let  the 
catechumens  depart.  See  that  no  unclean,  no  care- 
less person  is  here.  Lift  up  the  eyes  of  your  hearts. 
Angels  look  upon  us.  See,  let  hma  who  is  without 
faith  depart.  Let  no  adulterer,  no  angry  man  be  here. 
If  anyone  be  a  slave  of  sin  let  him  depart.  See,  let  us 
supplicate  as  children  of  the  light.  Let  us  supplicate 
our  Lord  and  God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ." 

3.  The  special  duty  of  the  deacon  to  read  the  Gospel 


bxAOoiis 


64^ 


biAObits 


seems  to  have  been  recognized  from  an  early  period, 
but  it  does  not  at  first  appear  to  have  been  so  diBtinc- 
tive  as  it  has  since  become  in  the  Western  Church* 
Sozomen  says  of  the  church  of  Alexandria  that  the 
Gospel  might  only  be  read  by  the  archdeacon,  but  else- 
where ordmary  deacons  performed  that  office,  while 
in  other  churches  again  it  devolved  upon  the  priests. 
It  may  be  this  relation  to  the  Gospel  which  lecl  to  the 
direction  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (VIII,  iv), 
that  the  deacons  should  hold  the  book  of  the  Gospels 
open  over  the  head  of  a  bishop-elect  during  the  cere- 
mony of  his  consecration.  W  ith  the  reading  of  the 
Gospel  should  also  probably  be  connected  the  occa- 
sional, though  rare,  appearance  of  the  deacon  in  the 
office  of  preacher.  The  Second  Council  of  Vaison 
(529)  declared  that  a  priest  might  preach  in  his  own 
parish,  but  that  when  ne  was  ill  a  deacon  should  read 
a  homily  by  one  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  urging 
that  deacons,  being  held  worthy  to  read  the  Gospel, 
were  a  fortiori  worthy  of  readirg  a  work  of  human 
authorship.  Actual  preaching  by  a  deacon,  however, 
despite  the  precedent  of  the  deacon  Philip^  was  at  all 
periods  rare,  and  the  Arian  Bishop  of  Antioch,  Leon- 
tius,  was  censured  for  letting  his  deacon  Aetius  preach 
(Philostorgius,  III,  xvii).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
greatest  preacher  of  the  East  Syrian  Church,  Ephraem 
Syrus.  is  said  by  nearly  all  the  original  authorities  to 
have  oeen  only  a  deacon,  though  a  phrase  in  his  own 
writings  (0pp.  Syr.,  Ill,  467,  d)  throws  some  doubt 
upon  3ie  fact,  fiut  the  statement  attributed  to  Hi- 
larius  Diaconus,  nunc  neque  diaconi  in  jtovulo  prcedi- 
cant  (nor  do  the  deacons  now  preach  to  the  people), 
undoubtedly  represents  the  orainary  rule  both  in  the 
fourth  century  and  later. 

4.  With  regard  to  the  great  action  of  the  Liturgy  it 
Bcems  clear  that  the  deacon  held  at  all  times,  both  in 
East  and  West,  a  very  special  relation  to  the  sacred 
vessels  and  to  the  host  and  chalice  both  before  and 
after  consecration.  The  Council  of  Laodicea  (can.  xxi) 
forbade  the  inferior  orders  of  the  clergy  to  enter  the 
diaconicum  or  touch  the  sacred  vessels,  and  a  canon  of 
the  First  Council  of  Toledo  pronounces  that  deacons 
who  have  been  subjected  to  public  penance  must  in 
future  remain  with  the  subdeacons  and  thus  be  with- 
drawn from  the  handling  of  these  vessels.  On  the 
other  hand,  though  the  suodeacon  afterwards  invaded 
their  functions,  it  was  originally  the  deacons  alone 
who  (a)  presented  the  offerings  of  the  faithful  at  the 
altar  and  especially  the  bread  and  wine  for  the  sacri- 
fice, (b)  proclaimed  the  names  of  those  who  had  con- 
tributed (Jerome,  Com.  in  Ezech.,  xviii),  (c)  carried 
away  the  remnants  of  the  consecrated  elements  to  be 
reserved  in  the  sacristy,  and  (d)  administered  the 
Chalice,  and  on  occasion  also  the  Sacred  Host,  to  com- 
mimicants.  A  question  arose  whether  deacons  might 
■give  Communion  to  priests  but  the  practice  was  for- 
bidden as  unseemly  by  the  First  Council  of  Nicaea 
(Hefele-Leclercq,  I,  610-614).  In  these  functions, 
which  we  may  trace  back  to  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr 
<Apol.,  I,  Lsv,  Ixvii;  cf.  Tertullian,  De  Spectac.,  xxv, 
and  Cyprian,  De  Lapsis,  xxv),  it  was  repeatedly  in- 
sisted, in  restraint  of  certain  pretentions,  that  the  dea- 
con's office  was  entirely  subordinate  to  that  of  the 
celebrant,  whether  bishop  or  priest  (Apost.  Const., 
VIII,  xxviii,  xlvi;  and  Hefele-Leclercq,  I,  291  and 
612).  Althou^  certain  deacons  seem  locally  to  have 
usurped  the  power  of  offering  the  Holy  Sacrifice 
(offerre),  this  abuse  was  severely  repressed  in  the 
Council  of  Aries  (314),  and  there  is  nothing  to  support 
the  idea  that  the  deacon  in  any  proper  sense  was  held 
to  consecrate  the  chalice,  as  even  Onslow  (in  Diet. 
Christ.  Ant.,  I,  530)  fully  allows,  though  a  rather  rhe- 
torical phrase  of  St.  Ambrose  (De  Offic.  Min ,  I,  xli) 
has  suggested  the  contrary.  Still  the  care  of  the 
chalice  has  remained  the  deacon's  special  province 
down  to  modem  times.  Even  now  in  a  high  Mass  the 
rubrics  direct  that  when  the  chalice  is  offered,  the 


deacon  is  to  support  the  foot  of  the  chalice  or  the  ami 
of  the  priest  and  to  repeat  with  him  the  words:  Of- 
ferimua  tibiy  Dominef  ccUicem  satularist  etc.  As  a  care^ 
ful  study  of  the  firat  ''Ordo  Romanus*'  shows,  the 
archdeacon  in  the  papal  Mass  seems  in  a  sense  to  pre- 
side over  the  chalice,  and  it  is  he  and  his  fellow-deacons 
who,  after  the  people  have  Communicated  under  the 
form  of  bread,  present  to  them  the  cdlicem  mininterid'- 
lem  with  the  Precious  Blood. 

5.  The  deacons  were  also  intimately  associated  with 
the  administration  of  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism. 
They  were  not,  indeed,  as  a  mle  allowed  themselves  to 
baptize  apart  from  ^ve  necessity  (Apost.  Const., 
Vn,  xlvi  expressly  rejects  any  inference  that  might 
be  drawn  from  Philip's  baptism  of  the  eunuch),  but 
inquiries  about  the  candidates,  their  instruction  and 
preparation,  the  custody  of  the  chrism — ^which  the 
deacons  were  to  fetch  when  consecrated — and  occa- 
sionally the  actual  administration  of  the  sacrament  as 
the  bishop's  deputies,  seem  to  have  formed  part  of 
their  recognized  functions.  Thus,  Saint  Jerome  writes ; 
"sine  chrismate  et  episcopi  jussione  neaue  presbyteri 
ne(^ue  diaconi  jus  habeant  baptizanai"  (Without 
chrism  and  the  command  of  the  oishop  neither  pres- 
byters nor  deacons  have  the  right  of  baptizing. — "  Dial, 
c.  Luciferum* ',  i  v) .  Analogous  to  this  chai^ge  was  their 
position  in  the  penitential  system.  As  a  rule  their 
action  was  only  intermediary  and  preparative,  and  it 
is  interesting  to  note  how  prominent  is  the  part  played 
by  the  archdeacon  as  intercessor  in  the  form  for  the 
reconciliation  of  penitents  on  Maimdy  Thursday  still 
printed  in  the  Roman  Pontifical.  But  certain  phrases 
m  early  documents  suggest  that  in  cases  of  necessity 
the  deacons  sometimes  absolved.  Thus,  St.  Cyprian 
writes  (Ep.  xviii,  1)  that  if  "no  priest  can  be  found 
and  death  seems  imminent,  sufferers  can  also  make  the 
confession  of  their  sins  to  a  deacon,  that  by  laying  his 
hand  upon  them  in  penance  they  may  come  to  the 
Lord  in  peace"  (ut  manu  eis  in  pcenitentiam  impositA 
veniant  ad  dominum  cum  pace).  Whether  in  this 
and  similar  cases  there  can  have  been  question  of 
sacramental  absolution  is  much  debated,  but  certain 
Catholic  theologians  have  not  hesitated  about  return- 
ing an  affirmative  answer.  (See,  e.  g.,  Rauschen, 
Eucharistie  und  Buss-Sakrament,  1^8,  p.  132.) 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  Middle  Ages  con- 
fession in  case  of  necessity  was  often  made  to  the 
deacon;  but  then  it  was  ec^ually  made  to  a  lay- 
man, and,  in  the  impossibility  of  Holy  Viaticum, 
even  grass  was  devoutly  eaten  as  a  sort  of  spiritual 
communion. 

To  sum  up,  the  various  fimctions  discharged  by  the 
deacons  are  thus  concisely  stated  by  St.  Isidore  of  Se- 
ville, in  the  seventh  century,  in  his  epistle  to  Leude- 
fredus:  "To  the  deacon  it  belongs  to  assist  the  priests 
and  to  serve  [ministrare^  in  all  that  is  done  in  the  sacra- 
ments of  Christ,  in  baptism,  to  wit,  in  the  holy  chrism, 
in  the  paten  and  chalice,  to  bring  the  oblation  to  the 
altar  and  to  arrange  them,  to  lay  the  table  of  the  Lord 
and  to  drape  it,  to  carry  the  cross,  to  declaim  {prcedi- 
care]  the  Gospel  and  Epistle,  for  as  the  charge  is  given 
to  lectors  to  declaim  the  Old  Testament,  so  it  is  given 
to  deacons  to  declaim  the  New.  To  him  also  pertains 
the  office  of  prayers  [oflicium  precum]  and  the  recital 
of  the  names.  It  is  he  who  gives  warning  to  open  our 
ears  to  the  Lord,  it  is  he  who  exhorts  with  his  cry,  it  is 
he  also  who  announces  peace"  (Migne,  P.  L.,  LXjCXH 
895).  In  the  earlv  period,  as  many  extant  Christian 
epitaphs  testify,  the  possession  of  a  good  voice  was  a 
qualification  expected  in  candidates  for  the  diaconate. 
Uulda  nectareo  promebat  meUa  canore  was  written  of 
the  deacon  Redemptus  in  the  time  of  Pope  Damasus, 
and  the  same  epitaphs  make  it  clear  that  the  deacon 
had  then  much  to  do  with  the  chanting,  not  only  of 
the  Epistle  and  Gospel,  but  also  of  the  Psalms  as  a 
solo.  Thus  of  the  archdeacon  Deusdedit  in  the  fifth 
century  it  was  written: — 


DXAOONS 


650 


DK400NS 


Hie  levitarum  primus  in  ordine  vivens 
Davidici  cantor  carminis  iste  fuit. 
But  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  in  the  council  of  695 
abolished  the  privileges  of  the  deacons  in  regard  to  the 
chanting  of  Psalms  (Duchesne,  Christian  Worshipj  vi), 
and  regular  cantors  succeeded  to  their  functions. 
However,  even  as  it  is,  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
chants  in  the  Church's  liturgy  &re  confided  to  the 
deacon,  notably  the  prcBcanium  paachale,  better  known 
as  the  Exsultet,  the  consecratoiy  prayer  by  which  the 
paschal  candle  is  blessed  on  Holy  Saturday.  This  haa 
been  often  praised  as  the  most  perfect  specimen  of 
Gregorian  music,  and  it  is  sung  throughout  by  the 
deacon. 

Dress  and  Number  op  Deacons. — ^The  early  de- 
velopments of  ecclesiastical  costume  are  very  ob- 
scure and  are  complicated  by  the  difficulty  of  identi- 
fying securely  the  objects  indicated  merely  by  a  name. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  both  in  East  and  West  a 
stole,  or  orarium  (dfpdptop).  which  seems  to  have  been 
in  substance  identical  with  what  we  now  understand 
by  the  term,  has  been  from  an  early  period  the  dis- 
tinctive attire  of  the  deacon.  Both  m  East  and  West, 
also,  it  has  been  worn  by  the  deacon  over  the  left 
shoulder,  and  not  round  the  neck,  like  that  of  a  priest. 
Deacons,  according  to  the  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo 
(633),  were  to  wear  a  plain  stole  (orarium — orarium 
quia  oral,  id  est,  jpnxdicai)  on  the  left  shoulder,  the 
right  being  left  free  to  typify  the  expedition  with 
which  they  were  to  dischai^  their  sacred  functions. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  as  a  curious  survival  of  an 
ancient  tradition  that  the  deacon  during  a  Lenten 
high  Mass  in  the  Middle  Ages  took  off  his  chasuble, 
rolled  it  up,  and  placed  it  over  his  left  shoulder  to 
leave  his  nj^t  arm  free.  At  the  present  day  he  still 
takes  off  his  chasuble  during  the  central  part  of  the 
Mass  and  replaces  it  with  a  broad  stole,  in  the  East 
the  Council  of  Laodicea,  in  the  fourth  century,  forbids 
subdeacons  to  wear  the  stole  (dfpdpiop),  and  a  passage 
in  St.  John  Chrysostom  (Hom.  in  Fil.  Prod.)  refers  to 
the  light  fluttering  draperies  over  the  left  shoulder  of 
those  ministering  at  the  altar,  evidently  describing  the 
stoles  of  the  deacons.  The  deacon  still  wears  his  stole 
over  the  left  shoulder  only,  although,  except  in  the 
Ambrosian  Rite  at  Milan,  he  now  wears  it  under  his 
dalmatic.  The  dalmatic  itself,  which  is  now  regarded 
as  distinctive  of  the  deacon,  was  originally  confined  to 
the  deacons  of  Rome,  and  to  wear  such  a  vestment  out- 
side of  Rome  was  conceded  by  early  popes  as  a  special 
privilege.  Such  a  grant  was  apparently  made,  for  ex- 
ample, by  Pope  Stephen  II  (752-757)  to  Abbot  Fulrad 
of  St-Denis,  allowing  six  deacons  to  array  themselves 
in  the  stole  dalmaticce  decoris  (sic)  when  dbcharging 
their  sacred  functions  (Braun,  Die  liturgische  Gewan- 
dung,  p.  251 ) .  According  to  the  "  Liber  Pontificalis ' ', 
Pope  St.  Sylvester  (314-335)  constituit.  ut  diaconi 
datmaiicis  in  ecclesia  uterentur  (ordained  that  dea- 
cons should  use  dalmatics  in  church),  but  this  state- 
ment is  quite  unreliable.  On  the  other  hand  it  is 
practically  certain  that  dalmatics  were  worn  in  Rome 
both  by  the  pope  and  by  his  deacons  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  fourth  centuiy  (Braun,  op.  cit..  p.  249).  As  to 
the  manner  of  weanng,  after  the  tentn  century  it  was 
only  in  Milan  and  Southern  Italy  that  deacons  carried 
the  stole  over  the  dalmatic,  but  at  an  earlier  date,  this 
had  been  common  in  many  parts  of  the  West. 

As  regards  the  number  of  deacons,  much  variation 
existed.  In  more  considerable  xities  there  were  nor- 
mally seven,  according  to  the  type  of  the  Church  of 
Jerusalem  in  Acts,  vi,  1-6.  At  Rome  there  were 
seven  in  the  time  of  Pope  Cornelius,  and  this  remained 
the  rule  until  the  eleventh  century,  when  the  number 
of  deacons  was  increased  from  seven  to  fourteen. 
This  was  in  accord  with  Canon  xv  of  the  Council  of 
Neo-Cjpsarea  incorporated  in  the  "Corpus  Juris". 
The  "Testament  of  Our  Lord"  (I,  34)  speaks  of 
twelve  priests,  seven  deacons,  four  subdeacons,  and 


three  widows  with  precedence.  Still  this  rule  did  not 
remain  constant.  In  Alexandria,  for  example,  even 
as  early  as  the  fourth  centuxy,  there  must  apparently 
have  been  more  than  seven  deacons,  for  we  are  told 
that  nine  took  the  part  of  Arius.  Other  regtilations 
seem  to  suggest  three  as  a  common  number.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  nearly  every  local  use  had  its  own  cus- 
toms as  to  the  number  of  deacons  and  subdeacons  Uiat 
might  assist  at  a  pontifical  Mass.  The  number  of 
seven  deacons  and  seven  subdeacons  was  not  infre^ 
quent  in  many  dioceses  on  days  of  great  solemnity. 
But  the  great  distinction  between  the  diaconate  in  the 
early  ages  and  that  of  the  present  day  lay  probably  in 
this,  that  in  primitive  times  the  diaconate  was  com- 
monly regarded,  possibly  on  account  of  the  knowledge 
of  music  which  it  demanded,  as  a  state  that  was  per- 
manent and  final.  A  man  remained  a  simple  deacon 
all  his  life.  Nowadays,  except  in  the  rarest  cases  (the 
cardinal-deacons  sometimes  continue  permanently  as 
mere  deacons),  the  diaconate  is  simply  a  stage  on  the 
road  to  the  priesthood. 

Sacramental  Character  op  the  Diaconate. — 
Although  certain  theologians,  such  as  Cajetan  and 
Durandus,  have  venturedto  doubt  whether  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Order  is  received  by  deacons,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  are  now  gen- 
erally held  to  have  decided  the  point  against  them. 
The  council  not  only  lays  down  that  order  is  truly  and 
properly  a  sacrament,  but  it  forbids  under  anathema 
(Sess.  aXIII.  can.  ii)  that  anyone  should  deny  "  that 
there  are  in  the  Church  other  orders  both  greater  and 
minor  by  which  as  by  certain  steps  advance  is  made 
to  the  priesthood'',  and  it  insists  that  tJ^e  ordaining 
b^op  does  not  vainly  say,  "receive  ye  the  Holy 
Ghost",  but  that  a  character  is  imprinted  by  the  rite 
of  ordination.  Now,  not  only  do  we  find  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  as  noticed  above,  both  prayer  and  the 
laying  on  of  hands  in  the  institution  of  the  Seven,  but 
the  same  sacramental  character  suggestive  of  the  im- 
parting of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  conspicuous  in  the  ordina- 
tion rite  as  practised  in  the  Early  Church  and  at  the 
present  day.  In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  we 
read:  "A  deacon  thou  shalt  appoint,  O  Bishop,  laying 
thy  hands  upon  him,  with  all  the  presbytery  and  the 
deacons  standing  b^  thee*  and  praying  over  him, 
thou  shalt  say:  Almidity  God  .  .  .  let  our  sup- 
plication come  unto  Thy  ears  and  make  Tliy  face  to 
shine  upon  this  Thy  servant  who  is  appointed  unto 
the  office  of  a  deacon  [e^t  iioKoviap]  ana  fill  him  with 
the  Spirit  and  with  power,  as  thou  didst  fill  Stephen,  the 
martyr  and  follower  of  tne  sufferings  of  Thy  Christ." 

The  ritual  of  the  ordination  of  deacons  at  the  present 
day  is  as  follows:  The  bishop  first  asks  the  archdea- 
con if  those  who  are  to  be  promoted  to  the  cfiaconatc 
are  worthy  of  the  office  and  then  he  invites  the  clergy 
and  people  to  propose  any  objection  which  they  may 
have.  After  a  short  pause  the  bishop  explains  to  the 
ordinandi  the  duties  and  the  privileges  of  a  deacon, 
they  remaining  the  while  upon  their  knees.  When  he 
has  finished  his  discourse,  they  prostrate  themselves, 
and  the  bishop  and  cler^  recite  the  litanies  of  the 
Saints,  in  the  course  of  which  the  bishop  thrice  imparts 
his  benediction.  After  certain  other  prayers  in  which 
the  bishop  continues  to  invoke  the  giace  of  God  upon 
the  candidates,  he  sings  a  short  preface  which  ex- 
presses the  joy  of  the  Church  to  see  the  multiplication 
of  her  ministers.  Then  comes  the  more  essential  part 
of  the  ceremony.  The  bishop  puts  out  his  right  hand 
and  lays  it  upon  the  head  oif  each  of  the  ordinandi, 
saying:  " Receive  the  Holy  Ghost  for  strength,  and  to 
resist  the  devil  and  his  temptations,  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord".  Then  stretching  out  his  hand  over  all  the 
candidates  together,  he  savs :  "  Send  down  upon  them, 
we  beseech  Thee,  O  Lorcf,  the  Holy  Ghost  by  which 
they  may  be  strengthened  in  the  faithful  discnarge  of 
the  work  of  Thy  ministry,  through  the  bestowal  of 
Thy  sevenfold  grace  ".    After  this  the  bishop  delivers 


DBAOOtfESSia 


661 


DEACON88B13 


to  the  deacuns  the  iiuignia  of  the  order  which  thoy 
h&ve  received,  to  wit,  the  stole  and  the  dalmatic,  ao- 
conapanying  tiiem  with  the  formuls  which  express 
their  special  significance.  Finally  he  makes  all  itxe 
candidates  toudi  the  book  of  the  Gospebi  saying  to 
them:  '^ Receive  the  power  of  reading  the  Gospd  in 
the  Church  of  God,  both  for  the  livine  and  for  the  dead 
in  the  name  of  the  Lord".  Althoum  the  actiial  form 
of  words  which  accompanies  the  laying  on  of  the 
bishop's  hands,  Accipe  SpirUum  Sanctum  ad  robuTf 
etc.,  cannot  be  traced  further  back  than  the  twelfth 
oentuiy^  the  whole  spirit  of  the  ritual  is  ancient,  and 
some  of  the  elements,  notablv  the  conferring  of  the 
stole  and  the  prayer  which  follows  the  delivery  of  the 
book  of  the  Gospels,  are  of  much  older  date.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  in  the  "Decretum  pro  Aimenis''  of 
Pope  Eugene  IV  the  delivery  of  the  Gospels  is  spoken 
of  as  the  ^'matter"  of  the  ouaconate,  Diaconatus  vero 
per  libri  evanqdiarum  daiionem  (jtraditur). 

In  the  Russian  Church  the  candidate,  after  having 
been  led  three  times  around  the  altar  and  kissed  each 
corner,  kneels  before  the  bishop.  The  bishc^  lays  the 
end  of  his  omophorion  upon  his  neck  and  marks  the 
sign  of  the  cross  three  times  upon  his  head.  Then  he 
lays  his  hand  upon  the  candidate's  head  and  savs  two 
prayers  of  some  length  which  speak  of  the  conferring 
of  tine  Holy  Ghost  and  of  strength  bestowed  upon  the 
ministers  of  the  altar  and  recall  the  words  ot  Christ 
that  he  "who  would  be  first  among  you  become  as  a 
servant''  (duiicoi>of):  then  there  are  delivered  to  the 
deacon  the  insignia  of  his  office,  which,  besides  the 
stole,  include  the  liturgical  fan,  and  as  each  of  these 
IS  given  the  bishop  calls  aloud,  A^cof,  "worthy", 
in  a  tone  increasing  in  strength  with  each  repetition 
(see  Maltzew,  Die  Sacramente  der  orthodox-katholi- 
Bchen  Kirche,  318-333). 

In  modem  times  the  diaconate  has  been  so  entirely 
regarded  as  a  stage  of  preparation  for  the  priesthood 
that  interest  no  longer  attaches  to  its  precise  duties 
and  privileges.  A  deacon's  functions  are  now  prac- 
tically reduced  to  the  ministration  at  high  Mass  and  to 
exposing  the  Blessed  Sacrament  at  Benediction.  But 
he  may,  as  the  deputy  of  the  parish  priest,  distribute 
the  Communion  in  case  of  need.  Of  the  condition  of 
celibacy  see  the  article  Cblibacy  of  the  Cuergt. 

Deacons  otttbidb  the  Cathouo  Church. — It  is 
only  in  the  Church  of  England  and  in  the  Episcopal 
communions  of  Scotland  and  North  America  that  a 
deacon  receives  ordination  by  the  imposition  of  hands 
of  a  bishop.  In  conseouence  of  such  ordination,  how- 
ever, he  IS  considerea  empowered  to  perform  any 
sacred  office  except  that  of  consecrating  the  elements 
and  pronouncing  absolution,  and  he  habitually 
preaches  and  assists  in  the  communion-service. 
Among  the  Lutherans,  however,  in  Gennanv  the 
word  deacon  is  generally  applied  to  assistant,  though 
fully  ordained,  mimsters  who  aid  the  minister  in 
charge  of  a  particular  cure  or  parish.  However,  it  is 
also  used  in  certain  localities  for  lay  helpera  who  take 
part  in  the  work  of  instruction,  finance,  district- 
visiting,  and  relieving  distress.  This  last  is  also  the 
use  of  the  word  which  is  common  in  many  Nonoon- 
formist  communions  of  England  and  America. 

8xn>L  in  KirtAenlex.t  b,  v.  Dtacon;  Idem,  Dwr  Diaamai  in 
der  kath.  Kirt^  (Ratwbon,  1884):  Okbxx>w  in  Did.  of  Christ, 
ArUig.f  s.  v.  Deacon:  Zoeckler,  Diakonen  und  Evanoeliaten  in 
Bibhaehe  und  Kirehenhiatoriseke  Studien  (Munich.  1803),  II; 
Bkudxr,  Verfaaaunff  der  KircKe  (Fraibure.  1004),  348  sgq.; 
Lamothb-Tsnbt,  Le  Diaconat  (Pazis,  1900);  Leder,  Die  Dxa- 
konen  der  Biuhdfe  und  Prttibyter  (Stuttgart.  1005);  AcHeus 
in  ReaJUneyk.  f.  prot.  Theoi.,  s.  v.  Diakonen;  Tromassin,  VetiM 
et  Nova  Bed.  Dteipl..  Part  I.  Bk.  II;  Hspblb-Lrclsroq,  Lee 
ConeHee,  I,  610-^14:  BCOnz  in  Kraus,  Real-Bncyk.^  a.  v. 
Diakon;  Gaspabri,  TraeUituM  Canonicue  de  Saerd  Ordinaticne; 
Wrbns,  Jua  DeertUdivm^  II. 

Herbert  Thttrston. 

Doaconessei. — ^We  csvoot  be  sure  that  any  formal 
recognition  of  deaoonessji  as  an  institution  of  conse- 
crated women  aiding  the  clergy  is  to  be  found  in  the 


New  Testament.  There  ,1b  indeed  the  mention  of 
Phebe  (Rom.,  xvi,  1),  who  is  called  MKowot,  but 
this  may  simply  mean,  as  the  Vul^te  renders  it,  that 
she  was  "in  the  ministiy[i.  e.  service]  of  the  Church'', 
without  implving  any  omdal  status.  Again  it  is  not 
improbable  that  the  ''widows"  who  are  spoken  of  at 
large  in  I  Tim.,  v,  3-rlO,  may  really  have  been  deacon- 
esses, but  here  again  we  have  nothing  conclusive. 
That  some  such  functionaries  were  appointed  at  an 
earl^  date  seems  probable  from  Pliny's  letter  to 
Trajan  concerning  t-ne  Christians  of  Bithynia  (Ep.  x, 
97,  A.  D.  112).  l^ere  he  speaks  of  obtaining  informa- 
tion by  torture  from  two  anciUcB  quas  ministry  dice* 
hantur,  where  a  technical  use  of  word»  seems  to  be  im- 
t»lied.  In  anv  case  there  can  be  no  question  that  be- 
fore the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  womea  were  per- 
mitted to  exercise  certain  definite  functions  in  the 
church  and  were  known  by  the  special  name  of  juIjcdmk 
or  duuAptrvtti, 

History  and  Consbcration.— Most  Catholic  schol- 
ars incline  to  the  view  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to 
draw  a  clear  distinction  in  the  early  Church  between 
deaconesses  and  widows  (x^o^)*  The  Didascalia, 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  and  kindred  documents  tm- 
doubtedly  recognize  them  as  separate  classes  and  they 
prefer  the  deaconess  to  the  widow  in  the  duty  of 
assisting  the  derg^.  Indeed  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions (III,  6)  enjom  the  widows  to  be  obedient  to  the 
deaconesses.  It  is  probable  also,  as  Funk  maintains, 
that  in  the  earlier  period  it  was  only  a  widow  who 
could  become  a  deaconess,  but  undoubtedly  the  strict 
limits  of  age,  sixty  years,  which  were  at  first  pre- 
scribed for  widows,  were  relaxed,  at  least  at  certain 
periods  and  in  certain  localities,  in  the  case  of  those  ap- 
pointed to  be  deaconess;  for  examine,  the  Council  of 
TruUo  in  602  fixed  the  age  at  forty.  Tertulliaa 
speaks  with  reprobation  of  a  girl  of  twenty  in  ffiduaiu 
ab  epiKopo  couocatam,  by  which  he  seems  to  mean  or- 
dained as  a  deaconess.  There  can  again  be  no  ques- 
tion that  the  deaconesses  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies had  a  distinct  ecclesiastical  standing,  thou^ 
there  are  traces  of  much  variety  of  custom.  Accord- 
ing to  the  newly  discovered  *'  Testament  of  Our  Lord  " 
(o.  400),  widows  had  a  place  in  the  sanctuaiy  during 
the  celebration  of  the  litui^,  they  stood  at  the  ana- 
phora behind  the  presbyters,  they  communicated  after 
the  deacons,  and  before  the  readers  and  subdeacons, 
and  strange  to  say  they  had  a  charge  of,  or  superin- 
tendence over,  the  deaconesses.  Further  it  is  certain 
that  a  ritual  was  in  use  for  the  ordination  of  deacon- 
esses by  the  laying  on  of  hands  which  was  closely 
modelled  on  the  ritual  for  the  ordination  of  a  deacon. 
For  example  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  say:  ''Con- 
oeming  a  deaconess,  I  Bartholomew  enjoin,  O 
Bishop,  thou  shalt  lay  thy  hands  upon  her  with  all  the 
Presbytery  and  the  Deacons  and  the  Deaconesses  and 
thou  shalt  say:  Eternal  God,  the  Father  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  the  Creator  of  man  and  woman,  that 
didst  fill  with  the  Spirit  Maiy  and  Deborah,  and  Anna 
and  Huldah,  that  didst  not  disdain  that  thine  only  be- 
gotten Son  should  be  bom  of  a  woman;  Thou  that  in 
uie  tabernacle  of  witness  and  in  the  temple  didst 
appoint  women  guardians  of  thy  hol}r  gates:  Do  Thou 
now  look  on  this  thy  handmaid,  who  is  appointed  unto 
the  office  of  a  Deaconess  and  grant  unto  her  the  holv 
Spirit,  and  cleanse  her  from  w  pollution  of  the  flesh 
and  of  the  spirit,  that  she  may  worthily  accomcdish 
the  work  committed  unto  her,  to  thy  glory  and  the 
praise  of  thy  Christ."  Comparing  this  form  with  that 
given  in  the  same  work  for  the  ordination  of  deacons 
we  may  notice  that  the  reference  to  the  outpouring  of 
Holy  Ghost  in  the  latter  case  is  much  more  strongly 
woided:  "fill  him  with  the  spirit  and  with  power  as 
thou  didst  fill  Stephen  the  martyr  and  follower  of  the 
sufferings  of  thy  Christ''.  Moreover,  in  the  case  <^ 
the  deacon,  praver  is  made  that  he  ''may  be  counted 
worthy  of  a  ni^er  standing",  a  clause  which  not  im- 


DIBAOOKXSSXS 


652 


DCAdONtSSn 


probably  has  reference  to  the  possibility  of  advance  to 
a  higher  eoolesiastical  dignity  as  priest  or  bbhop,  no 
such  praise  being  used  in  the  case  of  the  deaconess. 

The  subject  of  the  precise  status  of  deaconesses  is 
confessedly  obscure  and  confused,  but  two  or  three 
points  at  any  rate  seem  worth  insisting  on.  In  the 
nrst  place  there  were  no  doubt  influences  at  work  at 
one  time  or  other  which  tended  to  exaggerate  the 
position  of  these  women-helpers.  This  tendency  has 
found  expression  in  certain  docimients  which  have 
come  down  to  us  and  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  gauge 
the  value.  Still  there  is  no  more  reason  to  attach 
importance  to  these  pretensions  than  there  is  to  re- 
gard seriously  the  spasmodic  attempts  of  certain  dea- 
cons (a.  v.)  to  exceed  their  powers  and  to  claim,  for 
example,  authority  to  consecrate.  Both  in  the  one 
and  the  other  case  the  voice  of  the  Church  made  itself 
heard  in  conciliar  decrees  and  the  abuse  in  the  end 
was  repressed  without  difficulty.  Such  restrictive 
measures  seem  to  be  found  in  the  rather  obscure  11th 
canon  of  Laodicea,  and  in  the  more  explicit  19th  canon 
of  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  which  last  distinctly  lays 
down  that  deaconesses  are  to  be  accoimted  as  lay  per- 
sons  and  that  they  receive  no  ordination  properly  so 
called  (Hefele-Lecleroq,  Conciles,  I,  618).  In  the 
West  there  seems  always  to  have  been  considerable 
reluctance  to  accept  the  deaconesses,  at  uiy  rate  under 
that  name,  as  a  recognized  institution  of  the  Church. 
The  CouncU  of  Nismes  in  394  reproved  in  general  the 
assiunption  of  the  levitical  ministry  by  women,  and 
other  decrees,  notably  that  of  Orange  in  441  (can.  26), 
forbid  the  ordaining  of  deaconesses  altogether.  It 
follows  from  what  has  been  said  that-the  Qiurch  as  a 
whole  repudiated  the  idea  that  women  could  in  any 

S roper  sense  be  recipients  of  the  Sacrament  of  Order. 
Tone  the  less  in  the  East,  and  among  the  Syrians  and 
Nestorians  much  more  than  among  the  Greeks 
(Hefele-Lecleroq,  Conciles,  II,  448),  the  ecclesiastical 
status  of  deaconesses  was  greatly  exaggerated. 

Another  source  of  confusion  has  also  been  introduced 
by  those  who  have  interpreted  the  word  diaconisoBj  on 
the  analogy  of  pre^byterce  and  prefbytideaj  emscopoB  and 
episcopiasoB^  as  the  wives  of  deacons  who,  living  apart 
from  their  husbands,  acquired  ipso  fado  an  ecclesias- 
tical character.  No  doubt  such  matrons  who  generous- 
ly accepted  this  separation  from  their  husbands  were 
treated  with  special  distinction  and  were  supported  by 
the  Church,  but  if  they  became  deaconesses,  as  in 
some  cases  they  did,  they  had,  like  other  women^  to 
fulfil  certain  conditions  and  to  receive  a  spedal  con- 
secration. With  regard  to  the  duration  of  the  order 
of  deaconesses  we  note  that  when  adult  baptism  be- 
came unconmion,  this  institution,  which  seems  pri- 
marilv  to  have  been  devised  for  tne  needs  of  women 
catechumens,  gradually  waned  and  in  the  end  died  out 
altogether.  In  the  time  of  Justinian  (d.  666)  the  dea- 
conesses still  held  a  position  of  importance.  At  the 
church  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople  the  staff  con- 
sisted of  sixty  priests,  one  hundred  deacons,  forty 
deaconesses  and  ninety  subdeacons;  but  Balsamon, 
Patriarch  of  Antioch  about  1070  a.  d.,  states  that 
deaconesses  in  anv  proper  sense  had  ceased  to  exist  in 
the  Church  though  the  title  was  borne  by  certain  nims 
(Robinson,  Ministry  of  Deaconesses,  p.  93),  while 
Matthew  Blastares  declared  of  the  tenth  century  that 
the  civil  legislation  concerning  deaconesses,  which 
ranked  them  rather  among  the  clergy  than  the  laity, 
had  then  been  abandoned  or  forgotten  (Mime,  P.  G., 
CXrX,  1272).  In  the  West  in  spite  of  the  hostile 
decrees  of  several  councils  of  Gaul  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries,  we  still  find  mention  of  deaconesses  con- 
siderably after  that  date,  though  it  is  difficult  to  say 
whether  the  title  was  more  than  an  honorific  name 
attributed  to  consecrated  virgins  and  widows.  Thus 
we  read  in  Fortunatus  that  St.  Radegund  was  ''or- 
dained deaconess''  by  St.  Medard  (about  a.  d.  640 — 
Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXXVIII.  602).    So  also  the  ninth 


Ordo  Romanus  mentions,  as  forming  part  of  the  papal 
procession,  the  "femin»  diaoonissse  et  presbyteriaBC 
quse  eodem  die  benedicantur",  and  d%€uxm%»9a  are 
mentioned  in  the  procession  of  Leo  HI  in  the  ninth 
century  (Duchesne,  Lib.  Pont.,  II,  6),  Further,  the 
An^o-Saxon  Leofric  missal  in  the  eleventh  centiuy  still 
retained  a  praver  ad  diaconiBsam  faciendam,  which  ap- 
pears in  the  K)rm  Exavdi  Domine,  common  to  both 
deacons  and  deaconesses.  The  only  surviving  relic  o( 
the  ordination  of  deaconesses  in  the  West  seems  to  be 
the  delivery  by  the  bishop  of  a  stole  and  maniple  to 
Carthusian  nuns  in  the  ceremony  of  their  profession. 

Functions  of  Deaconesses. — ^There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  in  their  first  institution  the  deaconesses 
were  intended  to  dischar^  those  same  diaritabie 
offices,  connected  mainly  with  the  temporal  well-being 
of  their  poorer  fellow-Christians,  which  were  per- 
formed for  the  men  by  the  deacons.  But  in  one  par- 
ticular, viz.  the  instruction  and  baptism  of  catechu- 
mens, their  duties  involved  service  of  a  oioie  spiiituai 
kind.  The  universal  prevalence  of  baptism  by  im- 
mersion and  the  anointing  of  the  whole  body  which 
preceded  it,  rendered  it  a  matter  of  proprietv  that  in 
this  ceremony  the  functions  of  the  deacons  should  be 
discharged  by  women.  The  Didascalia  Apostolorum 
(III,  12;  see  Funk,  Didascalia,  etc.,  i,  208^  explidtJy 
direct  that  the  deaconesses  are  to  perform  this  func- 
tion. It  is  probable  that  this  was  the  starling-point 
for  the  intervention  of  women  in  naany  other  ritual 
observances  even  in  the  sanctuary.  The  Apostolic 
Constitutions  expressly  attribute  to  them  the  duty  of 
guarding  the  doors  and  maintaining  order  amongst 
tnose  of  their  own  sex  in  the  church,  and  they  alw 
(II,  c.  26)  assign  to  them  the  office  of  acting  as  inter- 
mediaries between  the  dergv  and  the  women  of  the 
congregation;  but  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  laid  down 
(Const.  Apost.,  Vin,  27)  that  '^  the  deaconess  gives  no 
blessing,  she  fulfils  no  function  of  priest  or  deacon", 
and  there  can  be  no  dotibt  that  the  extravagances  pei^ 
mitted  in  some  places,  especially  in  the  (lurches  of 
Syria  and  Asia,  were  in  contravention  of  the  canons 
generally  accepted.  We  hear  of  them  presiding  over 
assemblies  of  women,  reading  the  epistle  and  Uospel, 
distributing  the  Blessed  Eucnarist  to  nuns,  lighting 
the  candles,  burning  incense  in  the  thuribles,  adorning 
the  sanctuary,  and  anointing  the  sick  (see  Hefele- 
Lecleroq,  11,  448).  All  these  thinoB  must  be  regarded 
as  abuses  which  ecclesiastical  l^islation  was  not  long 
in  repressing. 

Deaconesses  in  Pbotbstant  Cobcuitnionb.— 
Outside  the  Catholic  Church  the  name  of  deaconesses 
has  been  adopted  for  a  modem  revival  which  has  had 
great  vogue  in  Germany  and  to  some  extent  in  the 
United  States.  It  was  b^:un  in  1833  by  the  Lutheran 
■Pastor  Fliedner  at  Kaiserswerth  near  Dtisseldorf. 
His  first  inspiration  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  Quakeress  Elizabeth  Fry,  and  through  the  cele- 
brated Miss  Florence  Nightingale,  who  organized  a 
staff  of  nurses  in  the  Crinoean  war  and  who  had  pre- 
viously been  trained  at  Kaiserswerth,  the  revival  at  a 
later  date  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention  in  Eng- 
land. The  main  work  of  deaconesses  is  the  tending  of 
the  sick  and  poor,  instruction  and  district  visiting,  but 
with  more  subordination  to  parish  needs  than  is  usu- 
ally compatible  with  the  life  of  an  Anglican  sisterhood. 
In  the  United  States  more  particularly,  community 
life  is  usually  not  insisted  upon,  but  a  good  deal  of 
attention  is  given  to  traiiiing  and  intellectual  develop- 
ment. Both  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and  in  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  and  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  of  America,  deaconesses  are  *' admitted"  in 
solemn  form  by  the  bishop  with  benediction  and  the 
laying«on  of  hands.  In  Germany  the  movement  haa 
taken  such  hold  that  the  Kaiserswerth  organization 
alone  claims  to  number  over  16,000  sisters,  but  it  is 
curious  that  relatively  to  the  population  the  institu- 
tion is  most  p(^>ular  in  Catholic  districts,  where  pn)b- 


DSAD 


653 


DSAD 


ably  the  familiar  spectacle  of  Catholic  nuns  has  accus- 
tomed the  people  to  the  idea  of  a  community  life  for 
women. 

PcRMANKDEK  aod  HuNOHAUBEN  in  Kirt^tcntex.,  III.  1675- 
1602;  Kbaits.  B.  Bneye.  d,  Christ.  AUertkwn.,  %.  v.  Diakoni^ 
•m,  I,  358-361:  and  Vidua,  II,  947-051;  Hefblb-Lbclxbc. 
CancOet  (Paris,  1907).  I,  615  sq.,  and  especially  II.  447-452, 
where  the  subject  is  treated  very  fully,  but  not  without  inac- 
cumdes;  Onblow  in  Diet.  Christ,  AiUiq,,  a.  v.  DtaconeBtX 
WoHoswoRTB,  The  Ministry  of  Orace  (London.  1001),  264-282; 
RoBiMsoN,  The  Ministry  of  Deaconesses  CLondon,  1808); 
SchXfer,  Die  Weib.  Diak&nie  (Hamburg,  1887-1804):  Zbcrar- 
SKCK,  Dtenst  der  Frau  in  d.  erst,  Christ.  Jahrh.  (QAttingen, 
1002);  Goun,  Dienst  der  Frau  in  d.  Christ.  Kirche  (LetpsiK. 
1905);  AcHEUs  in  R.  B.  f.  Prot.  Theol.,  IV,  616-62():  RAvillk,  Le 
KSle  des  Veuves  etc.  Bihliothhftue  des  Hautes  Etudes  et  Sciences 
Heliffieuses,  V,  231-251;  Church  Quarterty  lUview  (1800). 

Herbi»t  Thurston. 
Dead,  Baptism  for  the.    See  Baptism. 

Beadt  Praters  for  the. — ^This  subject  will  be 
Ti^ated  under  the  following  three  heads:  I.  General 
Statement  and  Proof  of  Catholic  Doctrine;  II.  Ques- 
tions of  Detail;  III.  Practice  in  the  British  and  Irish 
Churches. 

I.  General  Statement  and  Proof. — Catholic 
teaching  regarding  prayers  for  the  dead  is  bound  up 
inseparably  with  the  doctrine  of  purgatoiy  (q.  v.)  and 
the  more  general  doctrine  of  the  communion  of  saints 
(q.  v.),  which  is  an  article  of  the  Apostles'  Creed.  The 
definition  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXV),  ''that 
purgatory  exists,  and  that  the  souls  detained  therein 
are  helped  by  the  suffrages  of  the  faithful,  but  espec- 
ially by  the  acceptable  sacrifice  of  the  altar",  is  merely 
a  restatement  \n  brief  of  the  traditional  teaching 
which  had  already  been  embodied  in  more  than  one 
authoritative  formula — as  in  the  creed  prescribed  for 
converted  Waldenses  by  Innocent  III  in  1210  (Den- 
zineer,  Enchiridion,  n.  373)  and  more  fully  in  the 
profession  of  faith  accepted  for  the  Greeks  by  Michael 
Palaeologus  at  the  Second  (Ecumenical  Council  of 
Lyons  in  1274  (ibid.,  n.  387).  The  words  of  this 
profession  are  reproduced  in  the  decree  of  union  sub- 
scribed by  the  Greeks  and  Latins  at  the  Council  of 
Florence  in  1439:  "[We  define]  likewise,  that  if  the 
truly  penitent  die  in  the  love  of  God,  before  they  have 
made  satisfaction  by  worthy  fruits  of  penance  for 
their  sins  of  commission  and  omission,  their  souls  are 
purified  by  pureatorial  pains  after  death;  and  that 
for  relief  from  t^ose  pains  they  are  benefited  by  the 
suffrages  of  the  faithful  in  this  life,  that  is,  by  Masses, 
prayers  and  almsgiving,  and  by  the  other  offices  of 
piety  usually  performed  by  the  faithful  for  one  another 
according  to  the  practice  [instxtuta]  of  the  Church" 
(ibid.,  n.  588).  Hence,  under  "suffrages"  for  the 
dejid,  which  are  defined  to  be  legitimate  and  effica- 
cious, are  included  not  only  formal  supplications,  but 
every  kind  of  pious  work  that  may  be  offered  for  the 
spiritual  benefit  of  others,  and  it  is  in  this  comprehen- 
sive sense  that  we  speak  of  prayers  in  the  present  arti- 
cle. As  is  clear  from  this  general  statement,  the  Church 
does  not  recognize  the  limitation  upon  which  even 
modem  Protestants  often  insist,  that  prayers  for  the 
dead,  while  legitimate  and  commendable  as  a  private 
practice,  are  to  be  excluded  from  her  public  offices, 
llie  most  efficacious  of  all  prayers,  in  Catholic  teach- 
ing, is  the  essentially  public  office,  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass. 

Coming  to  the  proof  of  this  doctrine,  we  find,  in  the 
first  place,  that  it  is  an  integral  part  of  the  great  gen- 
eral truth  which  we  name  the  communion  of  saints, 
lliis  truth  is  the  counterpart  in  the  supernatural  order 
of  the  natural  law  of  human  solidarity.  Men  are  not 
isolated  imits  in  the  life  of  grace,  any  more  than  in 
domestic  and  civil  life.  As  children  in  Christ's  King- 
dom they  are  as  one  family  under  the  loving  Father- 
hood of  God ;  as  members  of  Christ's  mystical  body 
they  are  incorporated  not  only  with  Him,  their  com- 
mon Head,  but  with  one  another,  and  this  not  merely 
by  visible  social  bonds  and  externa!  co-operation,  but 


by  the  invisible  bonds  of  mutual  love  and  sympathy, 
and  by  effective  co-operation  in  the  inner  life  of  grace. 
Each  IS  in  some  degree  the  beneficiary  of  the  spiritual 
activities  of  the  others,  of  their  prayers  and  good 
works,  their  merits  and  satisfactions;  nor  is  this  de- 
gree to  be  wholly  measured  by  those  indirect  ways  in 
which  the  law  of  solidarity  works  out  in  other  cases, 
nor  by  the  conscious  and  explicit  altruistic  intentions  of 
individual  agents.  It  is  wider  than  this,  and  extends 
to  the  bounds  of  the  mysterious.  Now,  as  between 
the  living,  no  Christian  can  deny  the  reality  of  this 
far-reachmg  spiritual  communion;  and  since  death, 
for  those  wno  die  in  faith  and  grace,  does  not  sever 
the  bonds  of  this  communion,  why  should  it  interrupt 
its  efficacy  in  the  case  of  the  dead,  and  shut  them 
out  from  benefits  of  which  they  are  capable  and  may 
be  in  need?  Of  very  few  can  it  be  hoped  that  they 
have  attained  p^ect  holiness  at  death ;  and  none  but 
the  perfectly  holy  are  admitted  to  the  vision  of  God. 
Of  few,  on  the  other  hand,  will  they  at  least  who  love 
them  admit  the  despairing  thought  that  they  are  be- 
yond the  pale  of  grace  and  mercy,  and  condemned  to 
eternal  separation  from  God  and  from  all  who  hope  to 
be  with  God.  On  this  ground  alone  it  has  been  truly 
said  that  purgatoiy  is  a  postulate  of  the  Christian 
reason;  and,  granting  the  existence  of  the  purgatorial 
state,  it  is  eoually  a  postulate  of  the  Christian  reason 
that  the  souls  in  purgatory  should  continue  to  share 
in  the  communion  of  saints,  or,  in  other  words,  be 
helped  by  the  prayers  of  their  brethren  on  earth  and  in 
heaven.  Christ  is  King  in  purgatory  as  well  as  in 
heaven  and  on  earth,  and  He  cannot  be  deaf  to  our 
prayers  for  our  loved  ones  in  that  part  of  His  Kingdom, 
whom  He  also  loves  while  He  chastises  them.  For 
"  our  own  consolation  as  well  as  for  theirs  we  want  to 
believe  in  this  living  intercourse  of  charity  with  our 
dead.  We  would  believe  it  without  explicit  warrant 
of  Revelation,  on  the  strength  of  what  is  otherwise  re- 
vealed and  in  obedience  to  the  promptings  of  reason 
and  natural  affection.  Indeed,  it  is  largely  for  this 
reason  that  Protestants  in  growing  numbers  are  giving 
up  to-day  the  joy-killing  doctrine  of  the  Reformers, 
and  reviving  Catholic  teaching  and  practice.  As  we 
shall  presently  see,  there  is  no  clear  and  explicit  war- 
rant tor  prayers  for  the  dead  in  the  Scriptures  recog- 
nized by  Protestants  as  canonical,  while  they  do  not 
admit  the  Divine  authority  of  extra^Scriptural  tradi- 
tion.   Catholics  are  in  a  better  position. 

Arguments  from  /Scn'pfwre.— -Omitting  some  pas- 
sages in  the  Old  Testament  which  are  sometimes  in- 
voked, but  which  are  too  vague  and  uncertain  in  their 
reference  to  be  urged  in  proof  (v.  g.  Tobias,  iv,  18; 
Ecclus.,  vii,  37;  etc.),  it  is  enough  to  notice  nere  the 
classical  passage  in  II  Machabees,  xii,  40-46.  When 
Judas  and  his  men  came  to  take  away  for  burial  the 
bodies  of  their  brethren  who  had  fallen  in  the  battle 
agsunst  Gorgias,  "they  foimd  under  the  coats  of  the 
slain  some  of  the  donaries  of  the  idols  of  Jamnia, 
which  the  law  forbiddeth  to  the  Jews:  so  that  all 
plainly  saw,  that  for  this  cause  they  were  slain.  Then 
they  all  blessed  the  just  judgment  of  the  Lord,  who 
had.  discovered  the  things  that  were  hidden.  And 
so  betaking  themselves  to  prayers,  they  besought 
him,  that  the  sin  which  had  been  committed  might 
be  foreotten  .  .  .  And  making  a  gathering,  he 
[Judas]  sent  twelve  [al.  two]  thousand  drachms  of 
silver  to  Jerusalem  for  sacrifice  to  be  offered  for  the 
sins  of  the  dead,  thinking  well  and  religiously  concern- 
ing the  resurrection  (for  if  he  had  not  hoped  that  they 
that  were  slain  should  rise  again,  it  woulcl  have  seemed 
superfluous  and  vain  to  pray  for  the  dead),  and  be- 
cause he  considered  that  they  who  hsui  fallen  asleep 
in  godliness,  had  great  grace  laid  up  for  them.  It  is 
therefore  a  holy  and  wnolesome  thought  to  pray  for 
the  dead,  that  they  may  be  loosed  from  sins."  For 
Catholics  who  accept  this  book  as  canonical,  this  pas- 
sage leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.     The  inspired  au- 


DEAD 


654 


DXAD 


Uxor  expressly  approves  Judas's  action  in  this  particu- 
lar casCi  and  recommends  in j^neral  terms  the  practice 
of  prayers  for  the  dead.  There  is  no  contradiction 
in  the  particular  case  between  the  conviction  that  a 
sin  had  been  committed,  calling  down  the  penalty  of 
death,  and  the  hope  that  the  sinners  had  nevertheless 
died  in  godliness — an  opportunity  for  penance  had 
intervened. 

But  even  for  those  who  deny  the  inspired  authority 
of  this  book,  unequivocal  evidence  is  here  furnished  of 
the  faith  and  practice  of  the  Jewish  Church  in  the 
second  century  b.  c. — that  is  to  say,  of  the  orthodox 
Church,  for  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees  denied  the  res- 
urrection (and,  by  implication  at  least,  the  general 
doctrine  of  immortality),  and  it  would  seem  from  the 
argument  which  the  author  introduces  in  his  narrative 
that  he  had  Sadducean  adversaries  in  mind.  The  act 
of  Judafi  and  his  men  in  praying  for  their  deceased 
comrades  is  represented  as  if  it  were  a  matter  of  course : 
nor  is  there  anything  to  suggest  that  the  procuring  ot 
sacrifices  for  the  dead  was  a  novel  or  exceptional  thing; 
from  which  it  is  fair  to  conclude  that  tne  practice — 
both  private  and  lituigical — goes  back  beyond  the  time 
of  Judas,  but  how  far  we  cannot  say.  It  is  reasonable 
also  to  assume,  in  the  absence  of  positive  proof  to  ^e 
contrary,  that  this  practice  was  maintained  in  later 
times,  and  that  Christ  and  the  Apostles  were  familiar 
with  it;  and  whatever  other  evidence  is  available  from 
Talmudic  and  other  6oiu*ces  strongly  confirms  this  as- 
sumption, if  it  does  not  absolutely  prove  it  as  a  fact 
(see,  V.  g.,  Luckock,  "After  Death",  v,  pp.  50  sq.). 
This  is  worth  noting  because  it  helps  us  to  under- 
stand the  true  significance  of  Christ's  silence  on  the 
subject — if  it  be  neld  on  the  incomplete  evidence  of 
the  Gospels  that  He  was  indeed  alto^ther  silent—  • 
and  justifies  us  in  regarding  the  Christian  practice  as 
an  inheritance  from  orthodox  Judaism. 

We  have  said  that  there  is  no  clear  and  explicit 
Scriptural  text  in  favour  of  prayers  for  the  dead,  ex- 
cept the  above  text  of  II  Machabees.  Yet  there  are 
one  or  two  sayings  of  Christ  recorded  by  the  Evan^- 
ists,  which  are  most  naturally  interpreted  aa  contain- 
ing an  implicit  reference  to  a  purgatorial  state  after 
death;  and  in  St.  Paul's  Epistles  a  passage  of  similar 
import  occurs,  and  one  or  two  other  passs^es  that 
bear  directly  on  the  question  of  pravers  for  the  dead. 
When  Christ  promises  forgiveness  for  all  sins  that  a 
man  may  commit  except  the  sin  against  the  Holy 
Ghost,  which  "shall  not  be  forgiven  him,  neither  in 
this  world,  nor  in  the  world  to  come"  (Matt.,  xii,  31- 
32),  is  the  concluding  phrase  nothing  more  than  a 
periphrastic  equivalent  for  "never"?  Or,  if  Christ 
meant  to  emphasize  the  distinction  of  worlds,  is  "the 
world  to  come"  to  be  understood,  not  of  the  life  after 
death,  but  of  the  Messianic  age  on  earth  as  imagined 
and  expected  by  the  Jews?  Both  interpretations 
have  been  proposed;  but  the  second  is  far-fetched  and 
decidedly  improbable  (cf.  Mark,  iii,  29);  while  the 
first,  though  admissible,  is  less  obvious  and  less  natural 
than  that  which  allows  the  implied  question  at  least 
to  remain:  May  sins  be  forgiven  in  the  world  to  come? 
Christ's  hearers  believed  in  this  possibility,  and,  had 
He  Himself  wished  to  deny  it,  He  would  hardly  have 
used  a  form  of  expression  which  they  would  naturally 
take  to  be  a  tacit  admission  of  their  belief.  Precisely 
the  same  argument  applies  to  the  words  of  Christ  re- 

farding  the  debtor  who  is  cast  into  prison,  from  which 
e  shall  not  go  out  till  he  has  paia  the  last  farthing 
(Luke,  xii,  59). 

Passing  over  the  well-known  passage,  I  Cor.,  iii,  14 
sq.,  on  which  an  areument  for  purgatory  may  be 
baaed,  attention  may  be  called  to  another  curious  text 
in  the  same  Epistle  (xv,  29),  where  St.  Paul  arsjues  thus 
in  favour  of  the  resurrection:  "Otherwise  what  shall 
they  do  that  are  baptized  for  the  dead,  if  the  dead  rise 
not  again  at  all?  Why  are  they  then  baptized  for 
tliem?"    Even  assuming  that  the  practice  here  re- 


ferred to  was  superstitious,  and  that  St.  Paul  menfy 
uses  it  as  the  basis  of  an  argumenhLtn  ad  hominBrn,  the 
passage  at  least  furnishes  historical  evidence  of  the 
prevalence  at  the  time  of  belief  in  the  efficacy  ci 
works  for  the  dead;  and  the  Apostle's  reserve  in  do4 
reprobating  this  particular  practice  is  more  readily 
intelligible  if  we  suppose  him  to  have  recognised  the 
truth  of  the  principle  of  which  it  was  merely  an  abuse. 
But  it  is  probable  that  the  practice  in  question  was 
something  in  itself  legitimate,  and  to  which  the  Apostle 
raves  his  tacit  approbation.  In  his  Second  E^stle  to 
Timothy  (i,  1^18 :  iv,  19)  St.  Paul  speaks  of  Oneai- 
phorus  m  a  way  tnat  seems  obviously  to  imply  that 
the  latter  was  ah-eady  dead:  "The  Lozd  ^ve  laa^ 
to  the  house  of  Onesiphorus" — as  to  a  family  in  need 
of  consolation.  Then,  after  mention  of  loyal  servieeB 
rendered  by  him  to  the  imprisoned  Apostle  at  Rozne, 
comes  the  prayer  for  Onesiphorus  himself,  "The  Lord 
grant  unto  nim  to  find  mercy  of  the  Lord  in  that  day" 
(the  day  of  ju(k;ment) ;  finally,  in  the  salutation,  "uie 
household  of  Onesiphorus"  is  mentioned  onoe  more, 
without  mention  ot  the  man  himself.  Hie  question 
is,  what  had  become  of  him?  Was  he  dead,  as  one 
would  naturally  infer  from  what  St.  Paul  writes?  Or 
had  he  for  any  other  cause  become  separated  perma- 
nently from  his  family,  so  that  prayer  for  them  should 
take  account  of  present  needs  wmle  prayers  for  him 
looked  forward  to  the  day  of  judgment?  Or  could  it 
be  that  he  was  still  at  Rome  when  the  Apostle  wrote, 
or  gone  elsewhere  for  a  prolonged  absence  from  hcMne? 
The  first  is  by  far  the  easiest  and  most  natural  hypoth- 
esis; and  if  it  be  admitted,  we  have  here  an  instance 
of  prayer  by  the  Apostle  xor  the  soul  of  a  deceased 
benefactor. 

Arguments  from  Traditum, — ^The  traditional  evi- 
dence in  favour  of  prayers  for  the  dead,  which  has 
been  preserved  (a)  in  monumental  inscriptions  (es- 
pecially those  of  the  catacombs),  (b)  in  tne  ancient 
utumes,  and  (c)  in  Christian  literature  generally,  is 
so  abundant  that  we  cannot  do  more  in  this  article 
than  touch  very  briefly  on  a  few  of  the  more  important 
testimonies. 

(a)  The  inscriptions  in  the  Roman  Catacombs  ran^ 
in  date  from  the  first  century  (the  earliest  dated  u 
from  A.  D.  71)  to  the  early  part  of  the  fifth ;  and  though 
the  majority  are  imdated,  archaeologists  have  been 
able  to  fix  approximately  the  dates  of  a  great  many  by 
comparison  with  those  that  are  dated.  The  greater 
numoer  of  the  several  thoysand  extant  belong  to  tJie 
ante-Nicene  period — the  first  three  centuries  and  the 
early  part  of  the  fourth.  Christian  sepulchral  inscrip- 
tions from  other  parts  of  the  Church  are  few  in  number 
compared  with  those  in  the  catacombs,  but  the.  wit- 
ness of  such  as  have  come  down  to  us  agrees  with  that 
of  the  catacombs.  Many  inscriptions  are  exceedinMy 
brief  and  simple  (pax,  in  pace,  etc.),  and  mi^t  be 
taken  for  statemeints  rather  than  prayers,  were  it  not 
that  in  other  cases  they  are  so  frequently  and  so  nat- 
urally amplified  into  prayers  (pax  tibi,  etc.).  Hiere 
are  prayers,  called  acdamatcryy  which  are  considered 
to  be  the  most  ancient,  and  in  which  there  is  the  simple 
expression  of  a  wish  for  some  benefit  to  the  deceased, 
without  any  formal  address  to  God.  The  benefits 
most  frequently  prayed  for  are:  peace,  the  good  (i.  e. 
eternal  salvation),  light,  refreshment,  life,  eternal  life, 
union  with  God,  witn  Christ,  and  with  the  angels  and 
saints — e.  g.  pax  (tibi,  vobis,  bpiritui  tuo,  in  jbter- 

NTJM,  TIBI  CUM  ANGELIS,  CUM  SANCTIS);  SPIRITU8  TDI78 
IN  BONO  (srr,  VI VAT,  QUIESCAT);  iETEBNA  LUX  TIBI;  IN 
REFRIGERIO  ESTO;  SPIRITUM  IN  REFRIGERIUH  8U8CIPIAT 
DOMINUS;  DEUS.r^TIBI  REFRIGERET;  VIVAS,  VIVA- 
TIS  (in  DEO,  IN  yt^  IN  flPIRFrO  SANCTO,  IN  PACE,  IN 
JBTSRNO,   INTER  ^"^aANCTOS,  CUM  MARTTRIBUS).— For 

detailed  references  see  Eorsch,  ''Die  Acclamationen*' 


DBAD 


665 


DXAD 


vivors  address  their  petitions  directly  to  God  the 
Father,  or  to  Christ,  or  even  to  the  angels,  or  to  the 
saints  and  martyrs  collectively,  or  to  some  one  of 
them  in  particukur.  The  benefits  prayed  for  are  those 
alread]^  mentioned,  with  the  addition  sometimes  of 
liberation  from  sin.  Some  of  these  prayers  read  like 
excerpts  from  the  liturgy:  e.  g.  set  pater  omnipotens, 

ORO,     MISSRERE     LABORUM     TANTORUM,     MISBRB(r6) 

ANiMiB  NON  j>iQ(na)  FBRENTis  (Dc  Rossl,  Inscript. 
Christ.,  II  a,  p.  ix).  Sometimes  Uie  writers  of  the 
epitaphs  request  visitors  to  pray  for  the  deceased: 
e.  g.  QUI  LEOJS,  ORA  PRO  BO  (CorDus  Inscript.  Lat., 
X,  n.  3312),  and  sometimes  again  tne  dead  themselves 
ask  for  prayers,  as  in  the  w^-known  Greek  epitaph 
of  Abercius  (see  Abercius,  Inscriptign  of),  m  two 
Burnlar  Roman  epitaphs  dating  from  the  middle  of  the 
second  century  (De  Rossi,  op.  cit.,  II  a,  p.  xxx, 
Kirsch,  op.  cit.,  p.  51),  and  in  many  later  inscriptions. 
That  pious  people  often  visited  the  tombs  to  pray  for 
the  dead,  and  sometimes  even  inscribed  a  pra^r  on 
the  monument,  ia  also  clear  from  a  variety  of  indica- 
tions (see  examples  in  De  Rossi,  ''Roma  Sotteranea", 
II,  p.  15).  In  a  word,  so  overwhelming  is  the  wit- 
ness of  the  early  Christian  monuments  in  favour  of 
prayer  for  the  dead  that  no  historian  any  longer  denies 
that  the  practice  and  the  belief  whicn  the  practice 
implies  were  imiversal  in  the  primitive  Church. 
There  was  no  break  of  continuity  m  this  respect  be- 
tween Judaism  and  Christianity. 

(b)  The  testimony  of  the  early  liturgies  is  in  har- 
mony with  that  of  the  monuments.  Without  touch- 
ing the  subject  of  the  origin,  development,  and  rela- 
tionships of  the  various  liturgies  we  possess,  without 
even  enumerating  and  citing  them  siiqgly,  it  is  enough 
to  say  here  that  all  without  exception — X^estorian  and 
Monophysite  as  well  as  Catholic,  those  in  Syriao,  Ar- 
menian, and  Coptic  as  well  as  those  in  Ckeek  and 
Latin — contain  the  commemoration  of  the  faithful 
departed  in  the  Mass,  with  a  prayer  for  peace,  light, 
retreshment,  and  the  like,  and  m  many  cases  expressly 
for  the  remission  of  sins  and  the  eff acement  of  sinful 
stains.  The  following,  from  the  Syriac  Liturgy  of  St. 
James,  may  be  quoted  as  a  typical  example:  "We 
commemorate  all  the  faithful  dead  who  have  died  in 
the  true  faith  .  .  .  We  ask,  we  entreat,  we  pray 
Christ  our  God,  who  took  their  souls  and  spirits  to 
Himself,  that  by  His  many  compassions  He  will  make 
them  worthy  of  the  pardon  of  their  faults  and  the  remia- 
sion  of  their  sins"  (Syr.  Lit.  S.  Jacobi,  ed.  Hammond, 
p.  75). 

(c)  Turning  finally  to  early  literary  sources,  we  find 
evidence  in  the  apocryphal  "Acta  Joannis",  composed 
about  A.  D.  160-170,  that  at  that  time  anniversaries  of 
the  dead  were  commemorated  by  the  application  of 
the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  (Lipsius  and  Bonnet, 
"  Acta  Apost.  Apocr.",  1, 186).  The  same  fact  is  wit- 
nessed by  the  "Canons  of  Hippolytus"  (ed.  Achelis, 
p.  106),  by  Tertuilian  (De  Cor.  Mil.,  iii,  P.  L.,  II, 
79),  and  by  many  later  writers.  Tertiillian  also  testi- 
fies to  the  regularity  of  the  practice  of  praying  pri- 
vately for  the  dead  (De  Monogam.,  x,  P.  L.,  II,  942); 
and  of  the  host  of  later  authorities  that  may  be  cited, 
both  for  public  and  private  prayers,  we  must  be  con- 
tent to  refer  to  but  a  few.  St.  Cyprian  writes  to  Coiv 
nelius  that  their  mutual  prayers  and  good  offices  ought 
to  be  continued  after  either  should  be  called  away  by 
death  (Ep.  Ivii,  P.  L.,  III.  830  sq.),  and  he  tells  us 
that  before  his  time  (d.  258)  the  African  bishops  had 
forbidden  testators  to  nominate  a  priest  as  executor 
and  guardian  in  their  wills,  and.  had  decreed,  as  the 
penalty  for  violating  this  law,  deprivation  after  death 
of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  and  the  other  oflices  of  the 
Church,  which  were  regularly  celebrated  for  the  re- 
pose of  each  of  the  faitJiful;  hence,  in  the  case  of  one 
Victor  who  had  broken  the  law,  "no  offering  might  be 
made  for  his  repose,  nor  any  prayer  offered  in  the 
Church  in  his  name''  (Ep.  Ixvi,  P.  L.,  IV,  399).    Ap- 


nobius  speaks  of  the  Christian  churches  as  "con- 
venticles  in  which  .  .  .  peace  and  pardon  is  asked 
for  aU  men  ...  for  those  still  living  and  for  those 
already  freed  fr(»n  the  bondage  of  the  body''  (Adv. 
Gent.,  IV,  xxxvi,  P.  L.,  V,  1076).  In  his  funeral 
oration  for  his  brother  Satyrus  St.  Ambrose  beseeches 
God  to  accept  propitiously  his  "brotherly  service  of 
priestly  sacrifice"  (fratemum  munus,  sacrificium 
sacerdotis)  for  the  deceased  (''  De  Excessu  Satyri  fr.", 
I,  80,  P.  L.,  XVI,  1316);  and,  addressing  Valen- 
tinian  and  Tlieodosius,  he  assures  them  of  happiness 
if  his  prayers  shall  be  of  any  avail :  he  will  let  no  day 
or  night  go  past  without  remembering  them  in  his 
pravers  and  at  the  altar  C'De  Obitu  Valent.",  78, 
ibid.,  1381).  Ab  a  further  testimony  from  the  West- 
em  Church  we  may  quote  one  of  the  many  passages 
in  which  St.  Augustine  speaks  of  prayers  for  tne  dead: 
''The  uniyenud  Church  observes  this  law,  handed 
down  from  the  Fathers,  that  prayers  should  be  offered 
for  those  who  have  died  in  the  communion  of  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  Christ,  when  they  are  commemorated  in 
their  proper  place  at  the  Sacrifice"  (Serm.  dxxii,  2, 
P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  936).  As  evidence  of  the  faith  of 
the  Eastern  Church  we  may  refer  to  what  Eusebius 
tells  us,  that  at  the  tomb  of  Constantine  ''a  vast 
crowd  of  people  together  with  the  priests  of  God 
offered  their  prayers  to  God  for  the  Emperor's  soul 
with  tears  and  great  lamentation"  (Vita  Const.,  IV, 
bad,  P.  G.,  XX;  1226).  Aerius,  a  priest  of  Pontus, 
who  flourished  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tuiy,  was  branded  as  a  heretic  for  denying  the  ledti- 
macy  and  efficacy  of  prayers  for  the  cfead.  St.  £pi- 
phanius,  who  records  and  refutes  his  views,  represents 
the  custom  of  praying  for  the  dead  as  a  duty  imposed 
by  tradition  (Adv.  Haer.,  Ill,  bucx,  P.  G.,  XLII, 
504  sq.),  and  St.  Chrysostom  does  not  heoltate  to 
speak  of  it  as  a  "law  laid  down  by  the  Apostles" 
(Hom.,  iii,  in  Phiiipp.,  i,  4,  P.  G.,  LXII,  203). 

Objectiona  alleged. — ^No  rational  difficulty  can  be 
urged  against  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  prayers  for  the 
dead;  on  the  contrary,  as  we. have  seen,  the  rational 

g resumption  in  its  favour  is  strong  enough  to  induce 
elief  in  it  on  the  part  of  manv  whose  rule  of  faith  does 
not  allow  them  to  prove  with  entire  certainty  that  it 
is  a  doctrine  of  Divine  revelation.  Old-time  Protes- 
tant objections,  based  on  certain  texts  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  on  the  parable  of  Dives  and  Lazarus 
in  the  New,  are  admitted  by  modem  commentators 
to  be  either  irrelevant  or  devoid  of  force.  The  saving 
of  Ecclesiastes  (xi,  3)  for  instance,  "if  the  tree  faJl  to 
the  south,  or  to  the  north,  in  what  place  soever  it  shall 
fall,  ^ere  shall  it  be",  is  probably  intended  merely  to 
illustrate  the  general  theme  with  which  the  writer  is 
dealing  in  the  context,  vis.  the  inevitableness  of  nat- 
ural law  in  the  present  visible  world.  But  even  if 
it  be  imderstood  oi  the  fate  of  the  soul  after  death,  it 
can  mean  nothing  more  than  what  Catholic  teaching 
affirms,  that  the  final  issue — salvation  or  danmation 
— is  determined  irrevocably  at  death ;  which  is  not  in- 
compatible with  a  temporary  state  of  purgatorial  puri- 
fication for  the  saved.  The  imagery  of  the  parable  of 
Lazarus  is  too  uncertain  to  be  made  the  basis  of  dog- 
matic inference,  except  as  r^ards  the  general  truth  of 
rewards  aod  punishments  after  death ;  out  in  any  case 
it  teaches  merely  that  one  individual  may  be  admitted 
to  happiness  immediately  after  death  while  another 
may  be  cast  into  hell,  without  hinting  anything  as  to 
the  proximate  fate  of  the  man  who  is  neither  a  Lazarus 
nor  a  Dives. 

II.  QuBSTiONS  OP  Detail. — Admitting  the  general 
teaching  ih&t  prayers  for  the  dead  are  efficacious,  we 
are  naturally  led  on  to  inquire  more  particularly:  (1) 
What  prayers  are  efficacious?  (2)  For  whom  and  how 
far  are  they  efficacious?  (3)  How  are  we,  theoreti- 
cally, to  conceive  and  explain  their  efficacy?  (4) 
What  disciplinary  laws  has  tne  Church  imposed  regard- 
ing her  public  offices  for  the  dead?— We  shall  state 


DEAD 


666 


DBAD 


briefly  what  is  needful  to  be  said  in  answer  to  these 
questions,  mindful  of  the  admonition  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  to  avoid  in  this  matter  those  ''more  difficult 
and  subtle  questions  that  do  not  make  for  edification" 
(Sess.  XXV). 

(1)  The  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  has  always  occupied 
the  foremost  place  among  prayers  for  the  dead,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  testimonies  quoted  above;  but  in 
addition  to  the  Mass  and  to  private  prayers,  we  have 
mention  in  the  earliest  times  of  almsgiving,  especially 
in  connexion  with  funeral  agapoSf  and  of  fasting  for 
the  dead  (Kirsch,  Die  Lehre  von  der  Gemeinsdiaft 
der  Heiligen,  etc.,  p.  171 :  Cabrol,  Dictionnaire  d'ar- 
ch^ologie,  I,  80S-830).  Believing  in  the  communion 
of  saints  in  which  the  departed  faithful  shared,  Chris- 
tians saw  no  reason  for  excluding  them  from  any  of 
the  offices  of  piety  which  the  living  were  in  the  habit 
of  performing  for  one  another.  The  only  development 
to  DC  noted  in  this  connexion  is  the  application  of  In- 
dulgences (q.  V.)  for  the  dead.  Indulgences  for  the 
living  were  a  development  from  the  ancient  peniten- 
tial discipline,  and  were  in  use  for  a  consideraole  time 
before  we  have  any  evidence  of  their  being  formally 
applied  for  the  dead.  The  eariiest  instance  comes 
from  the  year  1457.    Without  entering  into  the  sub- 

i'ect  here,  we  would  remark  that  the  appUcation  of 
ndulgences  for  the  dead,  when  properly  imderstood 
and  explained,  introduces  no  new  principle,  but  is 
merely  an  extension  of  the  general  principle  under- 
lying the  ordinajv  practice  of  prayers  and  good  works 
for  the  dead.  The  Church  claims  no  power  of  abwln- 
ing  the  souls  in  purgatory  from  their  pains,  aa  on  earth 
she  absolves  men  from  sins.  It  is  only  per  modum 
suffragiif  i.  e.  by  way  of  prayer,  that  Indulgences  avail 
for  the  dead,  the  Church  adding  her  official  or  corpor- 
ate intercession  to  that  of  the  person  who  performs 
and  offers  the  indulgenced  work,  and  beseeching  Qod 
to  apply,  for  the  relief  of  those  souls  whom  the  offerer 
intends,  some  portion  of  the  superabundant  satisfao- 
tions  ot  Christ  and  His  saints,  or,  in  view  of  those  same 
satisfactions,  to  remit  some  portion  of  their  pains,  in 
what  measure  may  seem  good  to  His  own  infinite 
mercy  and  love. 

(2)  To  those  who  die  in  wilful,  unrepented  mortal 
sin,  which  implies  a  deliberate  turning  away  from  God 
as  the  last  end  and  ultimate  good  of  man,  Catholic 
teaching  holds  out  no  hope  of  eventual  salvation  by  a 
course  of  probation  after  death.  Eternal  exile  from 
the  face  of  God  is,  by  their  own  choice,  the  fate  of  such 
unhappy  souls,  and  prayers  are  unavailing  to  reverse 
that  awul  doom.  This  was  the  explicit  teaching  of 
Christ,  the  meek  and  merciful  Saviour,  and  the  Church 
can  but  repeat  the  Master's  teaching  (see  Hell).  But 
the  Church  does  not  presume  to  judge  individuals, 
even  those  for  whom,  on  other  grounds,  she  refuses  to 
offer  her  Sacrifice  and  her  prayers  [see  below,  (4)], 
while  it  may  happen,  on  the  contrary,  that  some  of 
those  for  whom  ner  oblations  are  made  are  amon^  the 
number  of  the  damned.  Wliat  of  such  prayers?  If 
they  cannot  avail  to  the  ultimate  salvation  of  the 
damned,  may  it  at  least  be  held  that  they  are  not 
entirely  unavailing  to  procure  some  alleviation  of 
their  sufferings,  some  temporary  rejrigeria,  or  moments 
of  mitigation,  as  a  few  Fathers  and  theologians  have 
suggested?  All  that  can  be  said  in  favour  of  this 
speculation  is,  that  the  Church  has  never  formally 
reprobated  it.  But  the  great  majority  of  theologians, 
following  St.  Thomas  (In  Sent.  IV,  xlv,  g.  ii,  a.  2), 
consider  it  rash  and  unfounded.  If  certain  words  in 
the  Offertory  of  the  Mass  for  the  Dead,  "Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  deliver  the  souls  of  all  the  faithful  departed 
from  the  pains  of  hell,  and  the  deep  abyss",  seem 
originally  to  have  suggested  an  idea  of  deliverance 
from  the  hell  of  the  damned,  this  is  to  be  understood 
not  of  rescue,  but  of  preservation  from  that  calamity. 
The  whole  requiem  Office  is  intensely  dramatic,  and 
in  this  particular  prayer  the  Church  suppliant  is  figured 


as  accompanying  the  departed  soul  into  the  presenoe 
of  its  Judge,  and  pra^g,  ere  yet  sentence  is  pro- 
nounced, lor  its  deliverance  from  t^e  sinner's  doom. 
On  the  other  hand,  prayers  are  needless  for  the  blesed 
who  already  enjoy  the  vision  of  God  face  to  face. 
Hence  in  the  Eariy  Church,  as  St.  Augustine  expressly 
assures  us  (Serm.  ccbcxv,  5,  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  129,V', 
and  as  is  otherwise  abundantly  clear,  prajrers  were  not 
offered  for  martyrs,  but  to  them,  to  obtain  the  benefit 
of  their  intercession,  martyrdom  being  considered  as 
act  of  perfect  charity  and  winning  as  such  an  imme- 
diate entrance  into  glory.  And  the  same  is  true  of 
saints  whom  the  Church  has  canonized;  they  no 
longer  need  the  aid  of  our  prayers  on  earth.  It  is  only, 
then,  for  the  souls  in  purgatory  that  our  prayers  are 
really  beneficial.  But  we  do  not  and  cannot  know 
the  exact  degree  in  which  benefits  actually  accrue  to 
them,  collectively  or  individually.  The  distributioo 
of  the  fruits  of  tne  communion  of  saints  among  the 
dead,  as  among  the  Uviug,  rests  ultimately  in  the 
hands  of  God — ^is  one  of  the  secrets  of  His  economv. 
We  cannot  doubt  that  it  is  His  will  that  we  should 

Eray  not  only  for  the  souls  in  puipitory  collectively, 
ut  individually  for  those  with  whom  we  have  been 
bound  on  earth  by  special  personal  ties.  Nor  can  we 
doubt  the  general  efficacy  of  our  rightly  disposed 
prayers  for  our  specially  chosen  ones  as  well  as  for 
those  whom  we  leave  it  to  Him  to  choose.  This  is 
sufficient  to  inspire  and  to  guide  us  in  our  offices  of 
charitv  and  piety  towards  the  dead;  we  may  con- 
fidently commit  the  application  of  their  fruits  to  the 
wisdom  and  justice  of  (Jod. 

(3)  For  a  theoretical  statement  of  the  manner  in 
which  prayers  for  the  dead  are  efficacious  we  must 
refer  to  the  articles  Merit  and  Satisfaction,  in  which 
the  distinction  between  these  terms  and  their  techni- 
cal meanings  will  be  explained.     Since  merit,  in  the 
strict  sense,   and  satisfaction,  as  inseparable  from 
merit,  are  confined  to  this  life,  it  cannot  be  said  in  the 
strict  sense  that  the  souls  in  purgatory  merit  or  satisfy 
by  their  own  personal  acts.     But  the  purifying  and 
expiatory  value  of  their  discipline  of  suffering,  techni- 
cally called  aatis^assiOf  is  often  spoken  of  ia  a  loose 
sense  as  satisfaction.    Speaking  of  satisfaction  in  the 
rigorous  sense,  the  living  can  offer  to  God,  and  by 
impetration  move  Him  graciously  to  accept,  the  satis- 
factory value  of  their  own  good  works  on  oehalf  of  the 
souls  in  purg^atory,  or  in  view  of  it  to  remit  some  part 
of  their  discipline;  in  this  sense  we  may  be  said  to 
satisfy  for  the  dead.     But  in  order  that  the  personal 
works  of  the  living  may  have  any  satisfactoxy  value, 
the  agents  must  be  in  the  state  of  grace.     The  prayers 
of  the  just  are  on  this  account  more  efficacious  in  as- 
sisting the  dead  than  the  prayers  of  those  in  sin, 
though  it  does  not  follow  that  the  general  impetratoiy 
efficacy  of  prayer  is  altogether  destroyed  by  sin.    God 
may  hear  the  prayers  of  a  sinner  for  others  as  wdl  as 
for  the  supplicant  himself.     The  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
however,  retains  its  essential  efficacy  in  spite  of  the 
sinfulness  of  the  minister;   and  the  same  is  true,  in 
lesser  degree,  of  the  other  prayers  and  offices  offered 
by  the  Chureh's  ministers  in  her  name. 

(4)  There  is  no  restriction  by  Divine  or  ecdeeias- 
tical  law  as  to  those  of  the  dead  for  whom  private 
prayers  may  be  offered — except  that  ihev  may  not  be 
offered  formally  either  for  the  blessed  in  heaven  or  for 
the  damned.  Not  only  for  the  faithful  who  have 
died  in  external  communion  with  the  Chureh,  hutfor 
deceased  non-Catholics,  even  the  imbaptiaed,  wbo 
may  have  died  in  the  state  of  grace,  one  is  free  w 
offer  his  personal  prayers  and  good  works;  nor  does 
the  Chureh's  prohibition  of  her  public  offices  for  those 
who  have  died  out  of  external  communion  with  her 
affect  the  strictly  personal  element  in  her  ministers 
acts.  For  all  such  she  prohibits  the  pMic  offering  o| 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Maas  (and  of  other  litur^ 
offices) ;  but  theologians  commonly  teach  that  a  pn^w 


DEAD 


657 


DEAD 


Is  not  forbidden  to  offer  the  Mass  in  private  for  the 
repose  of  the  soul  of  any  one  who,  jud^ng  by  probable 
evidence,  may  be  presumed  to  have  diea  in  faith  and 
gr&ce,  provided,  at  least,  he  does  not  say  the  special 
requiem  Mass  with  the  special  prayer  m  whicn  the 
deceased  is  named,  since  this  would  give  the  ofifering 
£t  public  and  official  character.  This  prohibition  does 
Aot  extend  to  catechumens  who  have  died  without 
l>eing  able  to  receive  baptism  (see,  v.  g.,  Lehmkuhl, 
**Theol.  Moralis".  II,  n.  175  sq.).  For  other  cases  in 
^vrhich  the  Cliurcn  refuses  her  public  offices  for  the 
dead,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  Burial, 
Orribtian.    (See  also  Mass;    Indulgence;    Pub- 

OATORT.) 

III.  PRACTTCB  IN  THE  BRITISH  AND  IrISH  (IIhURCHES. 

— ^The  belief  of  our  forefathers  in  the  efficacy  of  prayers 
for  the  dead  is  most  strikingly  shown  by  the  liturgy 
and  ritual,  in  particular  by  the  collects  at  Mass  and 
by  the  burial  service.  See,  for  instance,  the  praters 
in  the  Bobbio  Missal,  the  Durham  Ritual,  Leofric's 
MiBsal,  the  Salisbury  Kite,  the  Stowe  Missal,  etc.  But 
it  should  also  be  noted  that  this  belief  was  clearly 
formulated,  and  that  it  was  expressed  by  the  peopfe 
at  large  in  numerous  practices  and  customs.  Thus, 
Venerable  Bede  declares  that  '*8ome  who  for  their 
good  works  have  been  preordained  to  the  lot  of  the 
elect,  but  who,  because  of  some  bad  deeds  stained  with 
which  they  went  forth  out  of  the  body,  are  after  death 
^  seized  upon  bjr  the  flames  of  the  pur^torial  fire,  to  be 
"  severely  chastised,  and  either  are  bemg  cleansed  until 
the  day  of  judgment  from  the  filth  of  their  vices  by 
this  long  trial,  or,  being  set  free  from  punishment  by 
the  prayers,  the  alms-deeds,  the  fasts,  the  tears  of 
faithful  friends,  they  enter,  undoubtedly  before  that 
time,  into  the  rest  of  the  blessed"  (Homily  xlix,  ed. 
Mart^e,  Thes.  Anecd.,  p.  326). 

Tlie  Coimcil  of  Calcuth  (816)  ordained  that  at  a 
bishop's  death  the  bell  of  every  parish  church  should 
call  tne  people  together  to  sii^  thirty  Psalms  for  the 
soul  of  the  depart^  (Wilkins,  Cx>ncilia,  1, 171).  In  the 
Missal  of  Leofric  (d.  1072)  are  found  special  prayers 
varying  according  to  the  condition  and  sex  of  the  de- 
parted. Archbishop  Theodore  (d.  690),  in  the  peni- 
tential ascribed  to  him,  and  St.  Dunstan  (d.  988),  in 
his  *' Concordia",  explsun  at  length  the  commemora- 
tion of  the  departed  on  the  third,  seventh,  and  thir- 
tieth day  after  death.  The  month's  mina  (mo-neth's 
mynde)  m  that  age  signified  constant  prayer  for  the 
'  dead  person  diuring  the  whole  month  following  his 
decease.  In  every  church  was  kept  a  " Book  of  Life", 
or  register  of  those  to  be  prayed  for,  and  it  was  read 
at  the  Offertoiv  of  the  Mass.  This  catalogue  was  also 
known  as  the  ** bead-roll"  and  the  prayers  as  "bidding 
the  beads".  The  "death-bill"  was  a  list  of  the  dead 
which  was  sent  around  at  stated  times  from  one 
monastery  to  another  as  a  reminder  of  the  agreement 
to  pray  for  the  departed  fellow-members.  Inese  rolls 
were  sometimes  richly  illustrated,  and  in  passing  from 
one  religious  house  to  another  they  were  nlled  in  with 
verses  in  honour  of  the  deceased.  The  laity  also  were 
united  in  the  fellowship  of  prayer  for  the  dead  through 
the  guilds,  which  were  organized  in  every  parish,  lliese 
associations  enjoined  upon  their  members  various  du- 
ties in  behalf  of  the  departed,  such  as  taking  part  in 
the  burial  services,  offenng  the  Mass-penny,  and  giving 
assistance  to  the  alms-folks,  who  were  summoned  at 
least  twice  a  day  to  bid  their  beads  at  church  for  the 
departed  fellows  of  the  guild.  Among  other  good 
works  for  the  dead  may  oe  mentioned:  the  "soul- 
shot",  a  donation  of  money  to  the  church  at  which 
the  funeral  service  took  place,  the  "doles",  i.  e.  alms 
distributed  to  the  poor,  the  sick,  and  the  aged  for  the 
benefit  of  a  friend's  soul;  the  founding  of  chantries 
(q.  V.)  for  the  support  of  one  or  more  priests  who  were 
to  offer  Mass  daily  for  the  founder's  soul;  and  the 
"certain",  a  smaller  endowment  which  secured  for  the 
donor's  special  benefit  the  recitation  of  the  prayers 
IV.— 42 


usually  said  by  the  priest  for  all  the  faithful  departed. 
The  universities  were  often  the  recipients  of  benefac* 
tions,  e.  g.  to  their  libraries,  the  terms  of  which  in- 
cluded prayers  for  the  donor's  soul;  and  these  obliga- 
tions are  set  down  in  the  university  statutes.  These 
various  forms  of  charity  were  practised  not  only  by 
the  common  people  but  also,  and  on  a  very  generous 
scale,  by  the  nobUity  and  royalty.  Besicies  the  be- 
quests they  made,  they  often  provided  in  their  will 
for  granting  freedom  to  a  certain  number  of  bondmen, 
and  left  lands  to  the  Church  on  condition  that  the 
anniversary  of  their  death  should  be  kept  by  fasting, 
prayer,  and  the  celebration  of  Masses.  For  a  more 
complete  account  see  Lingard,  "History  and  Antiq- 
uities of  the  Anglo-Saxon  (^urch",  ch.  ix;  and 
Rock,  "The  Church  of  Our  Fathers"  (London,  1852), 
II,  III. 

Strange  as  it  must  seem  to  any  one  acquainted  with 
the  history  of  Ireland,  various  attempts  have  been 
made  to  prove  that  in  the  early  Irish  Church  the  prac- 
tice of  praying  for  the  dead  was  unknown.  Notable 
among  these  is  Ussher's  "Discourse  of  the  Religion 
anciently  professed  by  the  Irish  and  British"  (1631; 
Vol.  IV  of  "Complete  Works",  Dublin,  1864).  Cf. 
Killen,  "The  Ecclesiastical  Histoiy  of  Ireland"  (Lon- 
don, 1875),  I;  and  Cathcart,  "The  Ancient  British 
and  Irish  Churches  "(London,  1894).  The  weakness 
of  Ussher's  argument  has  been  shown  by  several 
Catholic  writers,  e.  g.  Lanigan,  "Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory of  Ireland"  (Dublin,  1829),  II,  330  sq.;  and 
Brennan,  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland"  (Dublin, 
1864),  appendix.  More  careful  study  has  convinced 
competent  non-Catiiolic  writers  also  that  "to  pray  for 
the  d^kd  was  a  recognized  custom  in  the  ancient 
Celtic  as  in  every  other  portion  of  the  primitive 
Church"  (Warren,  The  Liturgy  and  Ritual  of  the 
Celtic  Church,  Oxford,  1881).  This  statement  is 
borne  out  by  various  documents.  The  Synod  of  St, 
Patrick  ("Synodus  alia  S.  Patricii"  in  Wilkins,  "Con- 
cilia") declares,  ch.  vii:  "Hear  the  Apostle  saying: 
'there  is  a  sin  unto  death;  I  do  not  say  that  for  it 
any  one  do  pray'.  And  the  Lord:  'Do  not  give  the 
holy  to  dogs  .  For  he  who  did  not  deserve  to  receive 
the  Sacrifice  during  his  life,  how  can  it  help  him  after 
his  death?"  The  reference  to  the  custom  of  offering 
Mass  for  the  departed  is  obvious;  the  synod  discrimi- 
nates between  tnose  who  had  observed,  and  those  who 
had  neglected,  the  laws  of  the  Church  concerning  the 
reception  of  the  Eucharist. 

Still  more  explicit  is  the  declaration  found  in  the 
ancient  collection  of  canons  known  as  the  "  Hibemen- 
sis"  (seventh  or  eighth  century):  "Now  the  Church 
offers  to  the  Lord  in  many  ways;  firstly,  for  herself, 
secondly  for  the  Commemoration  of  Jesus  Christ  who 
says,  'Do  this  for  a  commemoration  of  me',  and 
thirdly,  for  the  souls  of  the  departed"  (Bk.  II,  ch.ix; 
Wasserschleben,  "Die  irische  Kanonensammlung", 
2nd  f^d.,  Leipzig,  1885).  In  the  fifteenth  book  of  the 
"Hibemensis",  entitled  "On  Care  for  the  Dead", 
there  is  a  first  chapter  "On  the  four  ways  in  which  the 
living  assist  the  aead".  Quoting  from  Origen,  it  is 
saiduiat "  the  souls  of  the  departed  are  released  in  four 
ways:  by  the  oblations  of  priests  or  bishops  to  God, 
by  the  prayers  of  Saints,  by  the  alms  of  Christians,  by 
the  fasting  of  friends".  There  follow  eight  chapters 
entitled:  (2)  On  those  for  whom  we  should  offer;  (3) 
On  sacrificing  for  the  dead;  (4)  On  prayer  for  the 
dead ;  (5)  On  fasting  for  the  dead ;  (6)  On  almsgiving 
for  the  dead;  (7)  On  the  value  of  a  redeemed  soul; 
(8)  On  not  seeking  remission  after  death  when  it  has 
not  been  sou^t  for  in  life;  (9)  On  the  care  of  those 
who  have  been  snatched  away  by  sudden  death 
(Wasserschleben,  op.  cit.).  Each  of  these  chapters 
cites  passages  from  the  Fathers — ^Augustine,  Gr^ory, 
Jerome — ^thus  showing  that  the  Irish  maintainea  the 
belief  and  practice  of  the  Early  Ch u rch .  That  prayers 
were  to  be  offered  only  for  those  wlio  dv\\  in  the  Faith 


DEAD 


658 


DEAD 


is  evident  from  certain  prescriptions  in  St.  Cummian's 
PenitentiEil  according  to  whicn  a  bishop  or  abbot  was 
not  to  be  obeyed  if  he  commanded  a  monk  to  sing 
Mass  for  deceased  heretics ;  likewise,  if  it  befell  a  priest 
singing  Mass  that  another,  in  reciting  the  names  of  the 
dead,  included  heretics  with  the  Catholic  departed, 
the  priest,  on  becoming  aware  of  this  was  to  perform  a 
week's  penance.  In  the  Leabhar  Breac,  various  prac- 
tices in  behalf  of  the  faithful  departed  are  commended. 
**  Hiere  is  nothing  which  one  does  on  behalf  of  the  soul 
of  him  who  hajs  died  that  doth  not  help  it,  both  prayer 
on  knees,  and  abstinence  and  singing  requiems  and 
fre()uent  blessings.  Sons  are  bound  to  do  penance  for 
theu-  deceased  parents."  (Whitley  Stokes,  Introd.  to 
"Vita  Tripartita'')*  ^t  is  not,  then,  surprising  that 
the  Irish  Culdees  of  the  eighth  century  had  as  part  of 
their  duty  to  offer  "intercessions,  in  the  shape  of 
litanies,  on  behalf  of  the  living  and  the  dead''  (Rule 
of  the  Culdees,  ed.  Reeves,  Dublin,  1864,  p.  242).  The 
old  Irish  civil  law  (Senchus  Mor,  a.  d.  438-441)  pro- 
vided that  the  Church  should  offer  requiem  for  all 
tenants  of  ecclesiastical  lands.  But  no  such  enact- 
ments were  needed  to  stir  up  individual  piety. 

Devotion  to  the  souls  departed  is  a  cnaracteristic 
that  one  meets  continually  in  the  lives  of  the  Irish 
saints.  In  the  life  of  St.  Ita,  written  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  century,  it  is  related  that  the  soul  of 
her  uncle  was  released  from  purgatory  through  her 
earnest  prayers  and  the  charity  which,  at  her  instance, 
his  eight  sons  bestowed  (Colgan,  Acta  SS.  Hibemise, 
pp.  65-70).  St.  Pulcherius  (Mochoemog),  in  the  sev- 
enth century,  prayed  for  the  repose  of  the  soul  of  Ro- 
nan,  a  chieftain  of  Ele,  and  recommended  the  faithful 
to  do  likewise.  In  the  life  of  St.  Brendan,  quoted, 
singularlv  enough,  by  Ussher,  we  read,  "that  the 
prayer  of  the  living  doth  profit  much  the  dead".  In 
the  "Acta  S.  Brendani",  edited  by  Cardinal  Moran, 
the  following  prayer  is  given  (p.  39) :  "  Vouchsafe  to 
the  souls  of  my  father  and  mother,  my  brothers,  sis- 
ters, and  relations,  and  of  my  friends,  enemies  and 
benefactors,  living  and  dead,  remission  of  all  their 
sins,  and  particularly  those  persons  for  whom  I  have 
undertaken  to  pray. 

At  the  death  of  St.  Coliunbanus  (615),  his  disciple. 
St.  Gall,  said:  "After  this  night's  watch,  I  understood 
by  a  vision  that  my  master  and  father,  Columbanus, 
to-day  departed  out  of  the  miseries  of  this  life  into  the 
joys  of  paradise.  For  his  repose,  therefore,  the  sacri- 
fice of  salvation  oueht  to  be  offered ":  and  "at  a 
mgnal  from  the  bell  [the  brethren]  entered  the  oratory, 
prostrated  themselves  in  prayer  and  began  to  say 
masses  and  to  offer  earnest  petitions  in  commemora- 
tion of  tibe  blessed  Colimibanus"  (Walafrid  Strabo, 
Vita  B  Galli,  I,  Cap.  xxvi).  Cathcart  (op.  cit.,  332) 
cites  only  the  words  narrating  the  vision,  and  says: 
"they  show  conclusively  that  neaven  was  the  imme- 
diate home  after  death  of  all  the  early  Christians  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland."  But  the  truth  is  that 
prayins  for  the  dead  was  a  traditional  part  of  the  relig- 
ious li^.  Thus,  when  St.  Gall  himself  died,  a  bishop 
who  was  his  intimate  friend  offered  the  Holy  Sacrifice 
for  him — "pro  carissimo  salutares  hostias  immolavit 
amico"  (ibid.,  ch.  xxx).  The  same  is  recorded  of  St. 
Columba  when  he  learned  of  the  death  of  Coliunbanus 
of  Leinster  (Adaranan,  Vita  S.  Col.,  Ill,  12).  These 
facts  are  the  more  significant  because  they  show  that 
prayers  were  offered  even  for  those  who  had  been 
models  of  holy  living.  Other  evidences  are  furnished 
in  donations  to  monasteries,  ancient  inscriptions  on 
mivestones,  and  the  requests  for  prayers  with  which 
ihe  writers  of  manuscripts  closed  their  volumes. 
These  and  the  like  pious  practices  were  after  all  but 
other  means  of  expressing  what  the  faithful  heard 
day  by  day  at  the  memento  for  the  de^din  the  Mass, 
when  prayer  was  ofored  for  those  "wB\have  gone 
before  us  wilL  the  sign  of  faith  and  rest  u^N^e  sleep 
of  peace"  (Stowe  Missal).     (See  Salmon.  " 


cient  Irish  Church",  Dublin.  1897;  BcUerikdm, 
"G«sch.  d.  katholischen  Kirche  in  Iiiand",  Midns, 
1890, 1,  and  bibliography  there  given.) 

In  sdoition  to  works  mentioned  in  the  text  see,  among  tbeo* 
logians:  Bellarmine,  De  Purgatorio,  Bk.  II;  Pkbboxe,  Pn*- 
lectionea  Theol.,  De  Deo  Creatore,  n.  683  sq.;  Jongmann,  Dt 
NoviMimia,  n.  104  so.;  Chr.  Pcsch,  Prae<eoeum«»  DogwuA^ 
IX.  n.  607  aq.;  also  Bernard  and  Bodb,  Commuiaoti  dn 
SaxnU  in  Diet,  de  OUoloaie  caih.\  Gibbons,  The  Faith  of  Oit 
Fathera  (Baltimore,  1871),  xvi.  To  the  htstorical  aathon- 
ties  mentioned  should  be. added  Ateberoks,  Oesekicku  6^ 
chrisUichen  Eaehatolooie  innerhidb  der  vomietiniadun  Zeit  (Fm- 


bun  im  Br.,  1806).  Cf.  also  Oxenham,  Catholic  Etchaiolouy 
(2nd  ed.,  London,  1878).  ii:  and  among  An^cans,  Luckock 
After  Death  (new  ed.,  London, "ISOS).  P^rt  I;    and  Fujunu, 


An< 


The  Spirita  in  Prison  and  other  Studiea  on  the  Life  after  Ikatk 
(popular  ed.,  London,  1905),  ix. 

P.  J.  Toner. 
Dead,  Resukrsction  of  the.    See  Resvrret- 

TION. 

Deadi  Service  for  the.    See  Burial;  Reqttiem. 

Dead  Sea,  the  name  given  to  the  lake  that  lies  on 
the  south-eastern  border  of  Palestine.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment makes  frequent  reference  to  it  under  a  variety  of 
titles;  once  only,  however,  by  its  present  one.  The 
Vulgate's  rendering  of  Josue  (iii,  16}  reads,  mart 
solUitdinia  (quod  nunc  vocaiur  Martuwn)  translated 
in  the  D.  V.  '*the  sea  of  the  wilderness  (which  now 
is  called  the  Dead  Sea)".  In  the  Hebrew  Bible  the 
verse  reads  rhorm  nT\pn  DN  and  in  the  Septua- 
gint  T^f  $d\aaffav  'Apa^,  Bdharvav  dX6f,  which  the 
A.  V.  gives  thus:  "towards  the  sea  of  the  plain,  even ' 
the  salt  sea";  and  the  R.  V.,  ''the  sea  of  tne  Arabah. 
even  the  salt  sea".  In  Joel  (u,  20)  the  prophet 
speaks  of  "the  east  sea";  and  the  apocrsrpbal  Fourth 
Book  of  Esdras  (v,  7)  speaks  of  the  mare  Sodotniii' 
cum — the  Sodomitish  Sea.  Josephus,  Pliny,  and  other 
profane  writers,  among  other  names,  called  it  the 
Lake  of  Asphalt;  'A<r^aXr?r»  M/4iny  and  Locus  Asphal- 
iites.  The  present-day  inhabitants  of  its  vicinity  calJ 
it  Bahr  Lwi— the  Sea  of  Lot. 

The  Dead  Sea  is  the  final  link  of  the  chain  of  rivers 
and  lakes  that  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  Tak- 
ing its  rise  on  the  southern  slopes  of  Mt.  Hennon,  the 
Jordan  in  its  southern  course  first  spreads  out  into 
Lake  Merom,  emerging  from  which  it  flows  into  the 
Lake  of  Tiberias,  whence  it  descends  into  the  Dead 
Sea.  To  convey  a  proper  idea  of  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  Dead  Sea  travellers  often  compare  it  to  the  Lake 
of  Geneva.  The  resemblance  between  Uie  two  is 
striking  in  almost  every  particular.  The  great  lake  of 
the  Holy  Land  is  fortjr-seven  miles  long  and  about  ten 
miles  across  at  its  widest  part.  Its  area  is  approxi- 
mately 360  square  miles.  The  surface  of  the  water  is 
1292  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  which 
is  only  a  few  miles  to  the  west.  This  extraordinary 
feature  alone  singles  out  the  Dead  Sea  from  all  other 
bodies  of  water.  A  low-lying  peninsula  about  ten 
miles  wide,  called  el-Lisan,  "the  tongue",  which  runs 
out  from  the  south-eastern  shore  to  within  three  miles 
of  the  opposite  shore,  divides  the  sea  into  two  unequal 
parts.  The  northern  and  larger  part  is  very  deep, 
reaching  at  one  point  a  depui  of  1310  feet,  lli^ 
southern  bay  is,  on  the  contrary,  very  shallow,  aver- 
agpg  hardly  a  depth  of  thirteen  feet.  In  two  places 
it  \b  Dossible  to  cross  from  the  peninsula  to  the  oppo- 
site snore  by  means  of  two  fords  which  are  known 
to  the  Arabs. 

The  water  in  the  Dead  Sea  is  salt.  Every  day  the 
Jordan  and  other  affluents  oour  into  it  over  six  and 
one  half  million  tons  of  fresn  water.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  outlet  to  the  ocean,  and  the  sole  agent  where- 
by this  increase  is  dis{)06ed  of  is  evaporation.  The 
power  of  the  sun's  rays  in  this  great  pit  is,  however,  so 
mtense  that  save  for  a  small  nuctuation  between  the 
wet  and  dry  seasons,  the  level  of  t^e  sea  does  not 
change,  despite  the  great  volume  that  is  added  to  it. 
In  the  water  that  remains  after  evaporation  solid  mat- 
ters make  up  26  per  cent  of  the  whole;  7  per  cent  be- 


DEAF 


659 


D£AN 


in^  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  the  rest  being 
cliiefly  chlorides  of  magnesium,  calcium,  and  deriva- 
tives of  bromium.  The  chloride  of  magnesium  eives 
tlie  water  a  very  loathsome  taste;  the  chloride  of  cal* 
cium  an  oily  appearance.  The  specific  gravity  of  the 
\ea.ter  is  1. 166.  The  presence  of  so  much  salt  explains 
iTvell  the  weird  name  of  the  sea,  since  save  for  a  few 
microbes,  no  organic  life  can  exist  in  it.  Even  fish 
from  the  ocean  perish  when  put  into  it.  The  human 
body  will  not  sink  below  the  surface.  Bathing,  how- 
ever, in  the  Dead  Sea  can  hardly  be  styled  a  pleasure, 
as  the  water  is  very  irritating  to  the  skin  and  eyes. 
Ttere  is,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  no  foundation  for  the 
statement  sometimes  made,  that  birds  cannot  fly 
across  the  water,  as  occasionally  sea-birds  can  be  seen 
resting  on  its  surface.  From  time  to  time  large  quan- 
tities of  bitumen  rise  to  the  surface  from  the  bottom. 
Hitumen  is  also  found  along  the  shores  and  is  referred 
to  in  Genesis  (xiv,  10)  where  it  speaks  of  the  puteos 
tnvUos  bituminia — "many  pits  of  slime".  This  fea- 
ture caused  the  ancients  to  speak  of  the  sea  as  the 
''Lake  of  Asphalt''. 

The  Dead  Sea  is  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 
mostly  as  a  boundary.  Its  formation  comes  into  dis- 
cussion in  the  Book  of  Genesis  (xiv,  3)  where,  speak- 
ing of  the  kings  against  whom  Chodorlahomor  fought, 
the  text  says:  All  these  came  together  into  the 
woodland  vale,  which  is  now  the  salt  sea".  Accord- 
ing to  the  geologists  who  have  explored  the  region,  the 
formation  of  this  depression  ot  the  earth's  surface 
does  not  date  from  any  historical  period,  but  from  the 
later  tertiary  or  early  quaternary  period.  Their  the- 
oiy  is  that  at  some  remote  time  the  western  part  of 
this  region,  owing  to  some  profound  disturbance  of  the 
strata,  sank  far  oelow  the  eastern  part,  thus  causing 
the  great  dissimilarity  of  the  strata  of  the  two  sides  (» 
the  sea.  Besides  this,  the  beds  of  gypsum,  marl,  flint, 
and  alluvium  found  at  different  heights  all  along  the 
Jordan  vallev  indicate  at  that  one  time  the  entire  valley, 
from  the  Lake  o(  Tiberias  to  the  Dead  Sea,  was  a  lake. 
Just  what  were  the  conditions  at  the  time  of  the  de- 
struction of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha  is  only  a  matter  of 
conjecture.  But  the  words  of  the  text,  taken  as  they 
stand,  prove  that  in  the  great  catastrophe  there  was  an 
inundation  from  the  sea.  The  mooted  question  as  to 
the  sites  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha  does  not  properly 
enter  into  this  article. 

It  is  a  very  strange  sight  that  this  region  presents  to 
the  eye,  especially  when  seen  from  some  height.  On 
the  eastern  and  western  sides  great  mountains  rise  up 
in  some  places  sheer  from  the  water.  To  the  north, 
the  silvery  line  of  the  Jordan  can  be  traced  as  far  as 
the  eve  can  reach.  To  the  south,  the  hills  of  soUd  salt, 
callea  Jebel  Usdum — ^Mt.  Sodom — and,  on  a  clear  day, 
mountains  close  to  the  Red  Sea  may  be  seen.  Now 
all  is  deserted  and  dead.  No  vegetation  or  sign  of 
human  occupation  greets  the  traveller.  In  other  days 
the  scene  was  different.  Vessels  plied  the  surface  of 
the  sea  and  many  people  lived  near  its  shores.    The 

grophecies  of  Esecniel  (xlvii)  and  of  Zacharies  (xiv, 
)  give  one  subject  of  thought  on  the  scene  here 
when  the  life-giving  streams  pouring  forth  from  the 
Temple  will  have  transformed  it  anew. 

SsiXTB.  Hist.  Oeoq.  of  the  Holy  Land  (London,  1895);  Bux.X4, 
Memoir  on  the  Phyncal  Geology  and  Geography  of  Arabia  Petraa^ 
PaUatxne,  etc.  (London,  1886,  Mount  Seir,  1889);  Lynch,  Nar- 
rative of  the  U.  8.  Expedition  to  ...  the  Dead  Sea  (Washington, 
1849);  OH^cial  Report  of  the  U,  8.  Expedition,  etc.  (Waahinffton, 
1852):  DR  LuYNES,  Voyaoe  <f  ExplorcUion  h  la  Mer  Morte 
(1875);  Lartet,  Geolooie,  in  Vol.  Ill  of  the  collection  of  Due  de 
Luyneo;  de  Saulct,  Voyaoe  autour  de  la  Mer  Morte  (1853); 
Tribtbam,  The  Land  of  hrael  (London,  1882);  Viooroux, 
Manuel  Biblique  (Paris.  1901),  I,  678;  Lee  Livree  SainU  et  la 
critique  ratiorudiete,  5th  ed.,  IV,  311;  Gautier  in  Ency,  Bib- 
lica,  I,  col.  1042. 

Joseph  V.  Mollot. 


Deaf,  Education  of  the. 
TU£  Deaf. 


See  Education  of 


Deunbolatory.    See  Ambulatory. 


Dean  (Gk.  B^xa,  ten ;  Lat.  cfecanua),  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal administrative  officials  of  a  diooese.  The  term 
was  first  used  to  denote  a  militaiy  officer  having  au- 
thority over  ten  soldiers;  in  the  fourth  century  it  came 
to  be  used  as  a  title  for  certain  minor  officials  in  the 
imperial  household.  A  completely  civil  aspect  was 
given  to  the  office  in  An^o-Saxon  times  in  England, 
ihe  dean  having  jurisdiction  within  his  distnct  or 
tithing  for  trials  of  first  instance. 

In  me  monastic  life  we  find  the  term  used  by  St. 
Benedict  (Rule,  c.  zxi)  to  denote  a  monk  who  was 
I^aced  over  ten  other  monks,  his  dutv  being  to  see  that 
their  work  was  property  done  and  that  they  observed 
the  rules  of  the  house  in  which  they  were  living.  The 
custom  which  the  monks  thus  introduced  soon  found 
its  counterpart  in  diocesan  pastoral  work.  The  early 
Christian  communities  wei^  always  desirous  of  uniting 
themselves  to  the  urban  bishop,  but  for  people  who 
lived  far  away  from  the  city  communication  with  the 
bishop  was  not  always  easy;  hence  they  were  provided 
for  by  the  appointment  of  a  priest  or  deacon  whose 
position  was  sometimes  permanent,  sometimes  tem- 
porary. These  ecclesiastics  were  merely  assistants  to 
the  bishop  and  in  the  early  fourth  centuiy  became 
known  as  chorspiscam*  Special  decrees  were  made 
concerning  them  at  uie  Councils  of  Ancyra  (314)  and 
Antioch  (341).  The  churefiKopiy  though  frequently 
having  the  char^  of  several  parishes,  were  neverthe- 
less always  subject  to  the  bishop  of  the  city  from 
whom  they  received  their  jurisdiction.  They  could 
only  confer  minor  orders.  Most  of  them  were  simple 
priests,  but  they  had  extensive  faculties.  (See  Gill- 
mann,  "Die  Chorbischafe  im  Orient",  Munich,  1903.) 
For  the  Eas))  the  office  of  chorepiscopus  was  abolished 
at  the  Council  of  Laodioea  (between  343  and  381)  be- 
cause episcopal  rights  had  been  usurped  by  many  who 
held  the  office;  in  their  place  (can.  Ivii)  were  substi- 
tute cireut^ores,  visUatores,  But  it  was  only  in  and 
after  the  eighth  century  that  it  finally  disappeared  in 
the  East,  though  yet  customarv  among  the  Jacobites. 
In  the  West,  during  and  after  the  tenth  century,  there 
appeared  another  representative  officer,  the  arch- 
deacon, who  took  the  chief  burden  in  administering 
the  temporal  affairs  of  the  diocese  and  enjoyed,  after 
the  bishop,  the  greatest  consideration.  He  was  pres- 
ent at  coimcils  as  the  representative  of  the  bishop,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  bishop  he  became  the  administrar 
tor  of  the  diocese,  to  which  he  usually  succeeded. 

The  immlediate  administrative  necessities  of  the 
numerous  rural  parishes  were  provided  for  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  several  archpnests,  who  represented 
either  the  bishop  or  the  archdeacon,  and  were  origi- 
nally the  priests  having  charge  of  baptismal  churches. 
In  the  West,  after  the  restoration  of  the  vita  carumica 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighth  century,  their  number 
and  influence  grew.  They  were  charged  with  the  su- 
pervision of  ecclesiastical  life  and  conduct,  with  the 
execution  of  episcopal  commands,  and  were  wont  to 
convoke  more  or  less  frequently  the  clerey  of  their 
district  (capUula  ruralia,  cancdiay  calendcB),  They 
made  a  yearly  report  to  the  bishop.  It  is  to  these 
ancient  offices  that  the  modem  dean  has  succeeded 
(see  S&gmUller,  Entwickelung  des  Archipresbyterats, 
1898).  There  are  at  present  two  classes  of  deans: 
deans  of  chapters  (cathedral  or  collegiate)  and 
deans  of  parocnial  districts.  The  latter  act  as  repre- 
sentatives of  the  bishop  in  certain  matters,  as  heads 
of  a^regations  of  parishes,  either  urban  or  rural. 
The  oSan  is  also  known  by  the  name  of  vicar  forane 
{mcarius  foraneua). 

Rural  Denna. — ^In  the  Catholic  Church  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  dean  has  only  delegated  jurisdiction, 
restricted  to  a  particular  area  and  to  certain  matters 
specified  by  the  bishop.  His  powers  are  generally 
oetermined  by  the  diocesan  statutes,  by  custom,  or  by 
special  mandate  of  the  bishop.  In  countries  where 
canon  law  is  in  full  forc^  deans  have  power  to  dis* 


DEAN 


660 


DBATH 


pense  and  absolve  in  certain  cases.  They  can  also  in- 
stitute an  inquiry  or  informative  process  to  be  after- 
wards transmitted  to  the  bishop.  Furthermore,  they 
are  to  see  that  the  churches  in  their  district  are  wdl- 
ordered  both  in  spiritual  and  in  temporal  affairs^  and 
they  can  gxoni  leave  of  absence  to  priests  for  short 
periods.  They  also  have  charge  of  the  solemn  instal- 
lation of  parish  priests,  care  for  them  in^^ve  illness, 
and  provide  for  their  decent  burial.  'Riey  possess 
also,  m  some  places,  certain  honorary  rights,  e.  g.  pre- 
cedence, and  occasionally  some  distinction  in  dr^. 
In  countries  where  canon  law  is  not  in  full  vigour  the 
powers  and  rights  of  rural  deans  vary  greatly ;  in  fact, 
each  diocese  may  be  said  to  have  its  own  peculiar  cus- 
toms and  regulations.  In  some  English  dioceses  the 
deans  merely  preside  at  the  monthly  conference;  in 
otherjs  the  bishop  gives  them  faculties  to.  dispense  in 
certain  cases,  and  they  have  care  of  the  temporalities 
of  the  churches  in  their  districts  when  there  is  a  change 
of  rector.  In  Ireland  the  deans  can  grant  certain  dis- 
pensations, and  absolve  from  reserved  sins;  they  also 
nave  to  guard  against  the  growth  of  abuses  amons 
the  clergy.  They  transmit  to  the  clergy  the  orders  of 
the  bishop  and  render  to  him  an  annual  account  as  to 
the  state  of  the  parishes  in  their  care.  Quite  similar 
are  the  provisions  of  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of 
Baltimore  (cap.  iv,  nos.  27-30)  for  the  office  of  dean  in 
the  United  States. 

Deans  of  CAaoter«.-— The  first  dignitary  of  a  chapter 
is  variously  styled.  Sometimes  he  is  called  archdea- 
con, or  archpriest;  in  other  places  he  is  called  the  pro- 
vost or  dean.  The  office  is  m  the  appointment  otthe 
pope.  The  dean  takes  precedence  of  all  the  other 
members  of  the  chapter  in  choir  and  processions  and 
other  similar  functions,  and  also  during  the  capitular 
deliberations.  His  rights  or  prerogatives  are  to  cele- 
brate Mass  when  the  bishop  is  prevented  from  so 
doing.  He  also  administers  the  last  sacraments  to  the 
ordinary  and  celebrates  the  funeral  Mass.  During 
Divine  Office  he  gives  the  signal  to  commence  etc., 
and  he  also  corrects  mistakes  and  remedies  abuses  at 
variance  with  the  diocesan  decrees  and  local  approved 
custom.  He  is  bound  to  be  present  in  choir  and  to 
give  a  good  example  to  the  cnapter,  both  in  his  be- 
haviour and  in  the  manner  in  which  he  recites  or  sin^s 
the  various  portions  of  the  Divine  liturgy. 

In  modem  Catholic  universities  the  dean  is  an  officer 
chosen  by  the  professors  of  his  faculty  to  represent 
them  as  a  body,  to  preside  over  their  meetings,  and 
to  supervise  the  regularity  of  the  ordinaxy  academic 
exercises.  His  authority  is  based  partly  on  the  papal 
documents  of  foundation,  partly  on  the  enactments  of 
the  university  authorities,  and  partly  on  custom. 

The  following  are  the  decanal  offices  now  existing  in 
the  Church  of  England;  honorary  deans,  e.  g.  the  dean 
of  the  Chapels  Royal;  dean  of  peculiars,  i.  e.  having 
jurisdiction  but  no  cure  of  souls;  provincial  dean,  an 
office  always  held  by  the  (Protestant)  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don; deans  of  chapters,  who  rule  over  the  canons  of 
cathedral  or  collegiate  churches,  and  are  bound  to  be 
in  residence  for  eight  months  in  the  year;  rural  deans 
who  act  as  deputies  for  the  bishop  or  archdeacon.  In 
the  English  universities  (Cambri^,  Oxford),  the  dean 
has  the  care  of  the  discipline  of  the  college  and  the  ar- 
ranging of  the  chapel  services. 

(See  also  Archdeacon;  Archpriest;  Deacon; 
Vicar-General.  For  the  office  of  Dean  of  the  Sacred 
College,  see  Cardinal.) 

Baroiluat,  PraUct.  Jut,  ecd.  (24th  ed..  Paris,  1907); 
Deahates,  Memento  Juris  eccl.  (Paris,  1897);  TnOMAaaiN, 
Vetiis  ac  nova  ecc.  discipl.,  Ill,  lib.  II;  Benedict  XIV,  De 
nmodo  duBceaand,  III,  3;  Bouw,  De  oapitulia  (Paris,  1862); 
WSBNZ.  Jtu  decretalium,  II,  1013  sqq.;  von  Schereb,  Hand- 
bueh  d.  Ktrchcnrechts  ((Jras,  1886).  I,  618-22;  Rev.  cath.  de 
Louvain,  1863.  Ill;  Phillimore,  Eccl.  Laws  of  the  Church  of 
Endand  (liondon,  1873).  See  the  Acta  et  Decreta  of  the  Synods 
of  VVeetminster,  Maynooth  (1900).  the  Third  Plenary  Council 
of  Baltimore  (1884),  and  the  important  Acts  of  the  Roman 
Council  of  1725;  Canon  Law,  Rural  Deans  in  Am.  Eccl.  Rev, 
(Philadelphia,  1890).  90-^7.  David  DunfoRD. 


Dean,  Rubal.    See  Dban. 

Dean,  William,  Venerable,  b.  in  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, date  uncertain,  martyred  28  August,  1588.  lie 
studied  at  Reims  and  was  ordained  priest  at  Soissona,  21 
December,  1581,  together  with  me  martyrB  Georp.- 
Haydock  and  Robert  Nutter.  Their  ordination  coin- 
cided with  the  time  that  the  news  of  Campion's  martjn"- 
dom  reached  the  college.  Dean  said  his  first  Mass  9  Jan- 
uary and  left  for  En^and  25  January,  1581.  He  U 
called  by  Champney  "a  man  distinguished  by  the  8o»iini- 
ness  of  his  morals  and  learning  .  He  was  banished 
with  a  number  of  other  priests  in  1585,  put  ashore  on  thi 
coast  of  Normandy,  and  threatened  with  death  if  Le 
dared  to  go  back  to  England.  Nevertheless  he  quickiv 
returned  to  his  labours  there  and  was  acain  arrest(vl. 
tried,  and  condemned  for  his  priesthood,  22  August, 
1588.  The  failure  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  in  spite  of  the 
loyaltv  manifested  by  English  Catholics  at  that  crisi>. 
brought  about  a  fierce  persecution  and  some  twcDty- 
seven  mar^rs  suffered  that  year.  Six  new  gibbets  vrf'r*- 
erected  in  London,  it  is  said  at  Leicester's  instigation, 
and  Dean,  who  had  been  condemned  with  five  other 
priests  and  four  laymen,  was  the  first  to  suffer  on  the  gal- 
lows erected  at  Mile  End.  With  him  suffered  a  layman, 
the  Venerable  Henry  Webley,  for  relieving  and  assist- 
ing him.  At  the  martyrdom  Dean  tried  to  speak  to 
the  people,  ''but  his  mouth  was  stopped  by  some  that 
were  in  the  cart,  in  such  a  violent  manner  that  they 
were  like  to  have  prevented  the  hangman  of  hk 
wages".  Seven  martyrs  suffered  on  the  same  day. 
Leicester  died  on  5  September,  within  a  week  of  their 
execution. 

Challonbr,  Mienonary  Priests  (1741),  I,  209;  8row,  An- 
nales  (1615).  749;  Douay  Diaries:  MoBBis.  Troubles  of  Our 
Catholic  Forefathers,  II.  72.  166.  157. 

Bede  Camm. 
Deanery.    See  Dean. 

Dease,  Thomas,  b.  in  Ireland^  1668;  d.  at  Galway, 
1651.  He  sprang  from  an  ancient  Irish  family  atone 
time  possessing  considerable  landed  property  in  Cavan 
and  Westmeatn.  In  youth  he  acquired  some  profi- 
ciency in  the  Irish  language,  in  which  lan£;uage  he 
wrote  some  poems.     Having  determined  to  Become  a 

Eriest,  he  proceeded  to  Pans,  where  sHer  ordination 
e  spent  the  first  years  of  his  priesthood.  During  tbw 
time  he  became  rector  of  the  Irish  Seminary,  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  present  Irish  College.  In  1622  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Meath,  returning  to  Ireland  the 
same  year.  In  spite  of  persecution  and  penal  laws  he 
continued  loyal  to  England  and  preached  loyalty  to 
his  fiock.  He  regarded  with  disfavour  the  CJonfedera- 
tion  of  Kilkenny,  and  resisted  all  the  aiguments  and 
entreaties  of  the  primate  to  join  it.  This  conduct 
brought  him  toleration,  if  not  favour,  from  the  Gov- 
ernment, though  it  made  him  unpopular  with  his 
Catholic  fellow-countrymen.  And  it  specially  an- 
noyed the  nuncio,  Rinuccini,  who  charged  him  with 
having  sown  the  seeds  of  enmity  between  the  Con- 
federate generals  Preston  and  O'Neill.  The  news  of 
Dease's  death  was  therefore  received,  in  1648,  bv  the 
nuncio  with  little  regret.  But  the  news  turned  out 
false,  and  the  nuncio  writing  to  Rome  reported  that 
the  bishop  still  lived  "to  try  the  patience  of  the 
good". 

Brady,  Episcopal  Succession  (Rome.  1876);  Meghan,  IriJih 
Hierarchy  in  the  Seventemth  Century  (Dublin,  1872');  Gilslkt, 
History  of  Irish  Affairs  (Dublin,  1880);  Botlb,  The  Irish  Col- 
lege  in  Paris  (Dublin,  1901);   Hutton,  The  Embassy  to  Irdand 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Death,  Preparation  for. — Spiritual  writers  are 
as  one  in  declaring  that  ordinarily  the  only  adequate 
preparation  for  death  is  a  righteous  life.  It  is  a  com- 
monplace with  them  that  the  tendency  to  think  of  this 
preparation  as  a  set  exercise  without  much,  if  any, 
reference  to  one's  previous  career  represents  a  miser- 
able error.    There  Is  no  way,  of  cournej  to  combat  the 


DXATH 


661 


DBAtfi 


obvioufiness  of  this  position.  Nevertheless,  in  what 
foUows  here  we  are  contemplating  that  array  of  ac- 
tions, mental  and  moral  attitudes,  ministrations,  etc. 
mrhid^  aie  commonly  rated  as  the  proximate  making 
ready  for  the  coming  of  the  supreme  moment.  No 
matter  how  carefully  conformed  to  the  law  of  God  and 
the  precepts  of  the  Church  one's  life  may  have  been, 
no  Christian  will  want  to  enter  eternity  without  some 
immediate  forearming  against  the  terrors  of  that  last 
passage.  We  shall  deal  first  with  the  case  of  those 
to  whom  the  dread  summons  comes  after  an  illness 
wliich  has  not  bereft  them  of  consciousness.  The 
Roman  Ritual  is  explicit  in  its  injunction  to  the  pastor 
to  hasten  to  the  beaside  of  the  sick  person  at  the  first 
intimation  that  one  of  his  flock  is  ill.  This  he  is  to  do 
without  even  waiting  for  an  invitation:  "Cum  pri- 
mum  noverit  quempiam  ex  fidelibus  curse  suae  com- 
■oissis  s^rotare,  non  exspectabit  ut  ad  eum  vbcetur, 
sed  ultro  ad  eum  accedaf  (I,  cap.  iv).  Indeed,  it  is 
impossible  to  unduly  accentuate  the  importance  of 
this  timely  coming  of  the  priest  to  offer  opportune 
spiritual  succours  to  the  one  who  is  iU.  Practically, 
in  the  actual  conditions  of  modem  life,  it  must  often 
happen  that  the  priest  can  only  know  of  this  need  for 
his  services  through  information  furnished  by  the  rela- 
tives or  friends  of  the  sick  person.  They,  therefore, 
have  a  very  definite  obligation  in  this  matter.  Too 
often  there  is  a  mistaken  interpretation  of  the  claims 
of  affection  or,  even  worse,  a  weakly  surrender  to  a 
lamentable  human  respect,  and  so  the  minister  of 
God  is  sent  for,  if  at  all,  only  when  the  patient  is  un- 
conscious, and  death  is  imminent.  For  the  Catholic 
Christian,  getting  ready  for  death  is  not  simply  the 
being  submitted  passively  to  the  administration  of 
certain  religious  rites.  It  is,  as  far  as  may  be,  the 
conscious,  deliberate  employment  of  prayer;  the  form- 
ing or  deepening  of  a  special  temper  of  soul  and  ac- 
ceptance of  such  sacramental  help  as  will  fit  the 
human  spirit  to  appear  with  some  confidence  before 
its  Judge.  Hence  tne  failure  to  call  the  clergyman  in 
time  may,  far  from  being  an  exhibition  of  tenderness 
or  consideration,  be  the  most  irreparable  of  cruelties. 
To  be  sure  it  is  not  always  necessary  that  the  patient 
should  be  told  that  his  case  is  past  remedy ;  even  when 
the  approach  of  death  is  fairly  discernible,  and  even 
when  such  distressing  information  must  for  any  reason 
be  conveyed,  there  is  room  for  the  exercise  of  a  great 
deal  of  prudence  and  tact.  It  may  be  that  the  sick 
person  will  have  important  affairs  to  set  in  order,  and 
that  a  hint  of  the  probability  of  a  fatal  issue  of  his 
illness  will  be  the  only  adequate  stimulus  to  quicken 
him  into  a  discharge  of  his  obligations.  In  such 
instances  it  may  be  not  only  a  kindness  but  a  duty 
to  impart  such  knowledge  straightforwardly,  but 
gently.  It  is  plain  that  a  special  measure  of  delicacy 
IS  necessary  when  this  office  falls  to  the  attending 
priest  to  perform.  Beyond  question  il  is  of  para- 
mount importance  that  all  such  matters  as  the  dis- 
position or  temporalities,  payment  of  debts,  satisfac- 
tion of  burdens  of  restitution,  etc.  should  have  been 
settled  so  as  to  leave  an  undivided  attention  for  the 
momentous  considerations  which  are  to  engage  the 
mind  of  the  one  who  is  presently  to  pass  through  the 
portals  of  death  into  eternity. 

So  far  as  priestly  assistance  goes  the  first  step  in  the 
process  of  preparation  for  death  is  the  receiving  of  the 
patient's  confession  and  the  conferring  of  sacramental 
absolution.  Indeed ,  inasmuch  as  it  oners  the  ordinary 
means  of  reconciliation  with  God,  it  is  the  most  indis- 
pensable factor  in  helping  the  soul  to  qualify  for  its 
departure  from  the  body.  The  Roman  Ritual  (I,  cap. 
iv,  8)  indicates  that  the  priest  is  to  draw  upon  all  the 
resources  of  his  prudence  and  charity  in  order  to  ob- 
tain a  confession  from -the  sick  person,  even  though 
the  danger  apprehended  be  as  yet  remote.  The  con- 
fession need  not  necessarily  be  of  the  sort  that  is 
described  as  general,  unless,  of  course,  the  reasons 


exist  that  would  make  it  obligatory  at  any  other  time 
of  life  as  well.  It  will  often  be  useful  where,  with  due 
regard  to  the  remaining  strength  of  the  stricken  peni- 
tent, it  is  possible  to  make,  at  least  in  some  sense,  this 
general  avowal  of  the  sins  of  one's  life.  Whether  there 
be  question  of  a  general  confession  or  merely  the  ordi- 
nary one,  the  clergyman  has  often  to  remember  that 
in  this  trying  juncture  the  Divine  precept  exacting 
entirety  in  the  recital  of  offenses  admits  of  more  than 
usually  benignant  interpretation.  Where  the  person 
is  incapable  of  sustained  mental  effort  without  serious 
prejudice  to  his  failing  powers,  the  priest  need  give 
himself  no  scruple  about  being  satisfied  with  incom- 
plete, or  less  s^cific,  forms  of  accusation.  The  law 
of  integrity  is  not  to  be  rigorously  urged  under  such 
circumstances.  Even  when  nothing  but  the  most 
general  acknowledgment  of  one's  sLnSil  condition  can 
be  obtained,  it  is  incontrovertible  that  in  the  premises 
this  is  a  valid  substitute  for  a  more  detailed  confes- 
sion. After  the  confession  comes  the  reception  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist  as  viaticum  (per  modum  viatici). 
"Sacred  writers",  according  to  the  Catechism  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  "called  it  'the  Viaticum',  as  well 
because  it  is  the  spiritual  bread  by  which  we  are  sup- 
X)orted  in  our  mortal  pilgrimage,  as  also  because  it 
prepares  for  us  a  passage  to  eternal  glory  and  happi- 
ness." The  concordant  teaching  of  theologians,  as 
well  as  the  inference  from  the  uniform  discipline  of  the 
Churoh,  is  that  there  is  a  Divine  precept  binding  one 
to  rec€}ive  the  Holy  Eucharist  when  in  danger  of  death. 
At  this  time  the  communicant  is  exempt^  from  the 
traditional  natural  fast.  The  Council  of  Constance 
witnesses  to  the  custom  of  the  Chureh  in  this  matter, 
and  the  Roman  Ritual  (I,  cap.  iv,  4)  says:  "potest 
quldem  Viaticum  brevi  morituris  dari  non  jejunis". 
This  privilege  may  be  enjoyed  repeatedly  by  the  dying 
person  during  the  Ulness.  Strictly  speaking,  it  is  not 
extended  to  persons  whose  danger  of  death  comes 
from  a  cause  other  than  sickness,  such  as  soldiers 
about  to  engage  in  battle  or  criminals  about  to  be 
executed,  otill,  even  they,  as  appears  from  a  declara- 
tion of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Propaganda,  21 
July,  1841,  may  receive  the  Viaticum  even  though 
they  are  not  fasting,  if  they  find  any  considerable 
difficulty  in  observing  the  law.  So  far  as  is  possible, 
nothing  should  be  omitted  which  can  help  to  confer 
upon  the  administration  of  the  Viaticum  becoming 
solemnity.  This  is  jUI  the  more  desirable  in  that 
sometimes  the  demeanor  of  those  who  are  present  on 
such  occasions,  and  even  of  the  sick  person,  is  not 
such  as  to  betray  any  very  alert  sense  of  the  Presence 
that  has  come  to  hallow  this  last  stage  of  life's  journey. 
It  is  needless  to  add  that  whatever  the  enlightened 
zeal  of  the  priest  or  the  careful  piety  of  the  bystanders 
can  suggest  ought  to  be  done  to  awaken  in  the  com- 
municcmt  a  special  degree  of  fervour,  a  more  than 
ordinarily  penetrating  faith  and  ardent  love  on  the 
occasion  of  what  may  be  his  final  eating  of  the  Bread 
of  Life. 

There  follows  the  Sacrament  of  Extreme  Unction, 
or  anointing,  as  it  is  popularly  designated.  Here  the 
clergyman  may  find  himself  confronted  with  prej- 
udices which  in  spite  of  reiterated  explanations  seem 
to  have  an  extraordinary  vitality.  His  announce- 
ment that  he  purposes  to  anoint  the  sick  person  is 
often  accepted  by  the  patient  and  his  friends  as  the 
reading  of  the  death-warrant.  It  is  necessary  to  point 
out  that  the  Sacrament  of  Extreme  Unction  gives 
health  not  only  to  the  soul,  but  also  sometimes  to  the 
body.  The  basis  for  the  teaching  is  of  course  to  be 
found  in  the  well-known  utterance  of  St.  James  (v,  14, 
15):  "Is  any  man  sick  among  you?  Let  him  bring 
in  the  priests  of  the  church,  and  let  them  pray  over 
him,  anointing  him  with  oil  in  the  name  of  the  Lord. 
And  the  prayer  of  faith  shall  save  the  sick  man;  and 
the  Lord  shall  raise  him  up;  and  if  he  be  in  sins,  they 
shall  be  forgiven  him."    Anciently  it  was  the  custom 


DEATH 


662 


DEATH 


to  conter  thk  sacrament  before  the  Viaticum;  the 
maintenance  of  the  existing  usage  has  been  prescribed 
by  the  Roman  Ritual  (V,  cap.  i,  2).  Although  the 
existence  of  a  precept  to  receive  this  sacrament  cannot 
be  establisheci,  still  the  failure  to  avail  oneself  of  its 
efficacy  out  of  sheer  sloth  would  be  a  venial  sin.  It 
cannot  be  administered  more  than  once  during  the 
same  illness,  unless,  after  some  notable  betterment 
which  has  either  certainly  or  probably  taken  place,  a 
new  danger  should  supervene.  In  chronic  diseases, 
therefore,  such  as  tuberculosis,  it  will  often  happen 
that  the  sacrament  may  and  ought  to  be  repeated  be- 
cause of  the  recurrence  of  what  is,  morally  speaking, 
a  new  dan^r.  According  to  the  discipline  in  vogue 
in  the  Latin  Church,  the  unctions  essential  to  the 
validity  of  the  sacrament  are  those  of  the  organs  of 
the  five  senses — the  eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  moutn,  and 
hands.  There  is  a  diversity  in  the  custom  as  to  the 
unctions  to  be  added  to  those  already  enumerated; 
in  the  United  States,  besides  the  parts  mentioned, 
only  the  feet  are  anointed.  The  sick-room  ought  to 
be  made  ready  for  the  visit  of  the  priest  on  the  occa- 
sion of  his  giving  the  last  sacrament ;  it  can  at  least  be 
cleaned  and  aired.  On  a  table  covered  with  a  white 
cloth  there  ought  to  be  a  lighted  blessed  candle,  a 
crucifix,  a  glass  of  water,  a  spoon,  a  vessel  containinfi| 
holy  water,  and  a  towel.  According  to  the  rubric  en 
the  Roman  Ritual  the  priest  is  to  remind  those  who 
are  present  to  pray  for  the  sick  person  during  the 
anointing,  and  it  suggests  that  the  Seven  Penitential 
Psalms  with  the  litanies  might  be  employed  for  this 
purpose.  Extreme  imction,  like  other  sacraments, 
produces  sanctifying  grace  in  the  soul.  It  has,  how- 
ever, certain  results  proper  to  itself.  Of  these  the 
principal  one  seems  to  be  the  getting  rid  of  that  Bpir- 
itual  torpor  and  weakness  whicn  are  the  baneful  output 
of  actual  sin,  and  which  would  be  such  a  serious  handi- 
cap in  this  supreme  moment.  From  the  viewpoint 
of  the  Christian,  the  struggle  to  be  maintained  with 
the  devil  is  now  more  formidable  than  ever,  and  a 
special  endowment  of  heavennsent  strength  is  neoes- 
saiy  for  the  soul's  final  victory.  Tlie  anointing  is 
orclinarily  succeeded  by  the  conferring  of  ^e  Apos- 
tolic benediction,  or  ''last  blessing'',  as  it  is  com- 
monly called.  To  this  blessing  a  pTenaty  indulgence 
is  attached,  to  be  gained,  however,  only  at  the  nour 
of  death,  i.  e.  it  is  given  nunc  pro  tunc.  It  is  con- 
ferred in  virtue  of  a  special  faculty  granted  to  the 
bishops  and  by  them  delegated  ^uite  generally  to 
their  priests.  The  conditions  requisite  for  gaining  it, 
are  the  invocation  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus  at  least 
mentally,  acts  of  resignation  by  which  the  dying  per- 
son professes  his  willingness  to  accept  all  his  suffenngs 
in  reparation  for  his  sins  and  submits  himself  entire^ 
to  the  will  of  God. 

The  cardinal  disposition  of  soul  at  the  approach  of 
death  are:  a  frequent  eliciting  of  the  acts  of  faith, 
hope,  love,  and  contrition;  a  striving  towards  a  more 
and  more  perfect  conformity  with  the  will  of  God; 
and  the  constant  maintaining  of  a  penitential  spirit. 
The  words  of  St.  Augustine  are  in  point:  "However 
innocent  your  life  may  have  been,  no  Christian  ought 
to  venture  to  die  in  any  other  state  than  that  of  the 
penitent."  As  the  hour  of  the  agony  approaches,  the 
clergyman,  according  to  the  Roman  Ritual,  is  to  be 
called  tor  pronounce  the  pathetically  beautiful  "Re- 
commendation of  a  departing  soul".  Where  ihe 
presence  of  the  priest  cannot  for  any  reason  be  had, 
these  prayers  ought  not  to  be  omitted;  they  are  now- 
adays easily  obtainable  in  the  vernacular  and  ought 
to  be  recited  by  those  who  watch  beside  the  death- 
bed. The  dying  person  should  be  invited  to  join  in 
these  petitions,  without,  however,  harassing  or  fati- 
guing nim.  As  the  person  is  about  to  expire,  the 
Ritual  directs  those  wno  are  by  to  pray  more  earnestly 
than  ever;  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus  is  to  be  invoked, 
and  such  cjsiculations  as  the  following  whispered  in  his 


ear:  "Into  thy  hands.  Lord,  1  commend  my  spirit"; 
"O  Lord,  Jesus  Christ,  receive  my  spirit";  *'Holy 
Mary,  pray  for  me  " ;  "  Mary  Mother  of  grace.  Mother 
of  mercy,  do  thou  protect  me  from  the  enemy  and 
receive  me  at  the  hour  of  my  death". 

When  death  is  apprehended  as  imminent  after  a 
sudden  seizure  even  in  the  act  of  sin,  an  accident, 
attempted  suicide,  and  the  like,  and  the  person  is 
meanwhile  deprived  of  consciousness,  the  method  of 
proceeding  is  as  follows:  Conditional  absolution  is 
imparted.  Viaticum  of  ooutse  is  omitted,  as  it  is  like- 
wise when  the  person,  though  in  possession  of  his 
senses,  is  subject  to  an  almost  unintermittent  vomit- 
ing. Extr^ne  unction  and  the  last  blessing  are  given 
as  usuaL  In  such  an  extremity,  when  the  person  is 
unable  to  make  a  confession,  extreme  unction  may 
prove  to  be  the  most  effective  and  necessary  means  oif 
salvation. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  recent  investigations 
have  made  it  plain  that  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  de- 
termine even  within  a  considerable  mai^in  the  precise 
moment  of  death.  Father  Ferreres,  S.  J.,  in  his  work, 
gathers  as  the  conclusion  of  his  researches  that  the 
only  absolutely  certain  sigp  of  death  is  decomposition. 
The  practical  value  of  this  statement  is  that  absolu- 
tion and  extreme  unction  may  be  given  conditionally 
for  some  time  after  the  person  would  have  hithertx) 
been  reputed  to  be  dead.  In  what  has  been  said,  it 
is  taken  for  eranted  that  the  person  to  be  gotten  ready 
for  death  is  baptized.  If  this  is  not  so,  or  if  there  be 
a  doubt  about  it,  either  as  to  fact  or  validity,  then  of 
course  baptism  must  first  be  administered,  either  ab- 
solutely or  conditionally,  as  the  case  warrants,  after 
some  instruction  on  the  principal  truths  of  religion. 
Baptism  may  be  conferred  conditionally  on  those  who 
are  unconscious  in  as  far  as  they  can  be  presumed  to 
have  the  desire  of  receiving  it.  It  is  perhaps  worth 
while  to  add  here  that,  when  there  is  question  of  the 
dying,  it  is  the  mind  of  the  Church  that  her  minister 
should  avail  himself  of  any  sort  of  probability,  no 
matter  how  slight,  in  order  to  be  able  to  give  absolu- 
tion, at  least  conditionally.  He  then  applies  with 
great  amplitude  the  principle,  Sacramenta  propter 
Mmdnes.  Practically,  therefore,  the  only  case  in 
which  the  priest  in  these  circumstances  may  not  ab- 
solve is  when  the  person  refuses  the  sacraments,  or  is 
manifestly  discerned  to  have  a  perverse  disposition  of 
soul. 

Lingard,  in  his  "Antic[uities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Church",  gives  a  description  of  the  discipline  in  force 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  the  medieval  period  with 
regard  to  the  preparation  of  the  dying  for  the  end. 
He  says:  "At  the  first  appearance  of  danger,  recourse 
was  had  to  the  ministry  of  the  parish  priest  or  of  some 
distinguished  clergyman  in  the  neighbourhood.  He 
was  bound  to  obey  the  summons  and  no  plea  but  that 
of  inability  could  justify  his  negligence.  Attended 
by  his  inferior  clergy,  arrayed  in  the  habits  of  their 
respective  orders,  he  repaired  to  the  chamber  of  the 
sick  man,  offered  him  the  sacred  rites  of  religion  and 
exhorted  him  to  prepare  his  soul  to  appear  bSore  the 
tribunal  of  his  Creator.  The  first  duty  which  he  was 
bound  to  require  from  his  dying  disciple  was  the  ar- 
rangement of  his  temporal  concerns.  Till  provision 
had  been  made  for  the  payment  of  his  debts  and  the 
indemnification  of  those  wnom  he  had  injured,  it  was 
in  vain  to  solicit  the  succours  of  religion;  but  as  soon 
as  these  obligations  had  been  fulfilled  the  priest  was 
ordered  to  receive  his  confession,  to  teacn  him  to 
form  sentiments  of  compunction  and  resignation,  to 
exact  from  him  a  declaration  that  he  died  in  peace 
with  all  mankind,  and  to  pronounce  over  him  the 
prayer  of  reconciliation.  Thus  prepared  he  might 
with  confidence  demand  the  .Sacrament  of  Extreme 
Unction.  With  consecrated  oil  the  principal  parts  of 
the  body  were  successively  anointed  in  the  form  of  a 
cross;   each  unction  was  accompam'ed  with  an  ap* 


DXBBORA 


663 


DEBT 


propiiate  prayer  and  the  promiae  of  St.  James  was 
renewed,  'that  the  prayer  of  faith  should  save  the  sick 
m  an.  ana  if  he  be  in  sins  they  should  be  forgiven  * .  The 
administration  of  the  Eucharist  concluded  these  relig- 
ious rites  at  the  termination  of  which  the  friends  of 
the  sick  man  ranged  themselves  around  his  bed.  re- 
ceived the  presents  which  he  distributed  among  tnem 
as  memorisua  of  his  affection,  and  gave  him  the  kiss 
of  peace  and  bade  him  a  last  and  melancholy  farewelL" 
Dr.  Lingard  mentions  a  curious  attitude  with  regard 
to  extreme  unction  as  prevalent  among  the  illiterate 
Anglo-Saxons  of  this  tmie.  He  says,  "It  [extreme 
unctionj  appears  to  have  been  sometimes  received 
with  reluctance  by  the  illiterate  from  an  idea  that  it 
was  a  kind  of  ordination  which  induced  the  obligation 
of  continency  and  abstinence  from  flesh  on  those  who 
afterwards  recovered.  The  clergy  were  ordered  to 
preach  against  the  erroneous  notion."  (See  Viati- 
cum; Extreme  Unction.) 

O'Kanb,  Notes  on  the  Rvhrica  of  the  Roman  Riiwd  (New  York. 
1883);  MoRiARTT,  Aao<n<^um«  (DuUin,  1884):  Faber,  jiptriiua/ 
Confenneea  (Baltimore,  1804);  Catechtrnt  of  Me  Council  of  Trent, 
tr.  by  Donovan  (New  York,  1905);  Noldin,  Sumtna  TheologuB 
Moralit  Unnsbnick,  1904);  O'Mallet  and  Walsh,  Essays  in 
Paatoral  Medicine  (New  York,  1907);  Stano.  Pastoral  Theology 
(3rd  ed..  New  York,  1903);  Lbhmkuhl,  ThetAoqia  Moraits 
(I*>eibuncimBr.,  1887):  Rituals  Rotnanum  (Ratiebon,  1888); 
Lf  noard.  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church  (Baltimore, 
1^51);   FERRERBS.  Death,  Real  and  Apparent  (St.  Louia,  1906). 

Joseph  F.  Dblant. 

Debbora,  prophetess  and  judge;  she  was  the  wife 
of  Lapidoth  and  was  endowed  by  (jod  with  prophetic 
gifts  which  secured  for  her  the  veneration  of  the  di- 
vided Israelitic  tribes  and  gave  her  great  authority 
over  them.  Her  wisdom  was  first  displayed  in  set- 
tling litigious  matters  submitted  to  her:  "She  sat 
under  a  pidm-tree.  which  was  called  by  her  name,  be- 
tween Rama  and  iBethel,  in  Mount  Ephraim,  and  the 
children  of  Israel  came  up  to  her  for  all  judgment" 
( Judgesi  iv,  5).  Debbora  was  thus  a  j  udge  in  tne  ordi- 
nary sense  of  the  word.  In  the  case  of  tine  other  per- 
sons whose  history  is  recorded  in  the  book  of  Judges, 
the  title  seems  to  be  given  them  as  ''deliverers  and 
leaders"  of  the  chosen  people,  no  mention  bein^  made 
of  ordinary  judicial  functions;  but  it  was  rather  the 
confidence  inspired  by  Debbora  in  the  discharge  of  such 
functions  which  enabled  her  to  bring  about  Qie  deliv- 
erance of  the  nation,  which  was  then  suffering  under 
the  oppression  of  the  Ohanaanitee. 

The  main  army  of  the  enemy  was  rendered  partic- 
ularly formidable  by  the  fact  that  it  possessed  nine 
himdred  iron  chariots.  It  was  commanded  by  Sisara, 
whose  headquarters  were  at  Haroseth,  probably  iden- 
tical with  the  actual  el  Haritiyeh,  between  Haifa  and 
Nazareth,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nahr  Muquatt'a 
(Ciaon)  in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  Occupying  this 
position  in  the  centre  of  the  coimtry,  the  Chanaanites 
could  harass  the  tribes  to  the  north  and  south,  and 
render  it  very  difficult  for  them  to  unite  in  a  common 
effort.  For  "twenty  years"  the  enemy  had  "griev- 
ously oppressed"  the  children  of  Israel,  when  Deb- 
bora declared  it  was  God's  will  that  His  people  should 
be  freed.  This  will  of  God  she  first  made  known  to 
Barac,  who  dwelt  in  C^edes  of  NephthaU,  to-day 
Qedeis,  one  of  the  principal  ruins  of  Northern  Galilee, 
^e  chained  him  to  gather  and  lead  to  Thabor,  a 
mountain  to  the  east  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  an 
army  of  ten  thousand  men,  promising  him  that  God 
would  deliver  into  his  hand  Sisara  and  the  Chanaanite 
army.  Barac  undertook  to  carry  out  those  instruc- 
tions only  on  the  condition  that  the  prophetess  herself 
should  accompany  him.  She  agreed  to  do  so,  fore- 
telling, however,  that  the  glory  of  ridding  the  land  of 
Sisara  would  belong  to  a  woman.  This  prophecy  re- 
fers not  to  Debbora  herself,  but  to  Jahel  whose  story 
is  told  in  the  last  part  of  the  fourth  chapter.  Deb- 
bora, however,  did  certamly  share  in  the  glory  of 
Barac    The  call  to  battle  was  not  merely  issued  to 


the  northern  tribes  of  Nephthali  and  Zabulon;  the 
"Canticle  of  Debbora",  given  in  chapter  fifth,  praises 
the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin,  in  the  midst  of 
which  the  propnetess  had  Uved,  as  well  as  the  tribes  of 
West  Manasses  and  Issachar,  for  furnishing  their  con- 
tingents, while  it  reproves  Ruben,  Gad,  and  Aser  for 
their  refusal  to  take  part  in  the  contest.  Juda  and 
Simeon  were  apparently  not  called  upon. 

In  the  battle  of  Thalx>r,  which  marked  an  era  in  the 
history  of  Israel,  Debbora  had  an  important  part. 
She  indicated  the  time  to  attack  the  enemy,  ana  en- 
couraged Barac  to  go  down  boldly  from  the  mountain 
to  fight  in  the  plain  notwithstanding  the  advantages 
which  the  chariot  troops  gave  the  (]^anaanites  on  level 
ground.  God  justified  this  assurance  which  He  had 
inspired  by  the  prophetess.  A  violent  rain  storm 
swelled  the  torrent  ot  Ciaon  and  rendered  the  ground 
unfit  for  the  movements  of  the  dreaded  chariots.  A 
panic  seized  upon  Sisara's  army,  and  its  rout  was  com- 
plete. The  general  himself  died  at  the  hands  of  Jahel. 
The  "Canticle  of  Debbora"  is  in  the  sacred  text  at- 
tributed to  Barac  and  Debbora.  This  very  early 
poem  is  one  of  the  most  precious  documents  for  the 
history  of  the  period  of  the  Judges.  The  faith  in  the 
God  of  Sinai  of  the  still  loosely  connected  tribes  finds 
vivid  expression  in  the  song.  It  strikingly  describes 
the  distress  of  the  land  "  untu  Debbora  arose,  a  mother 
arose  in  Israel",  and  the  heroic  fight  for  freedom 
to  which  she  aroused  her  countrymen.  After  the 
deliverance  "the  land  rested  for  forty  years".  We 
are  not  told  what  part  was  taken  by  Debbora  in  the 
affairs  of  her  country  during  this  period  of  peace; 
but  it  is  likely  tiiat  her  influence  was  increased  oy  the 
glorious  event  to  which  her  name  ever  remained 
attached. 

LAOBANOE.Z^Ztvre  des  Juges  (Paris,  1903);  db  Hummelaukb, 
Commentarius  in  libros  Judicum  ei  Ruth  (Paris,  1888);  Palis  in 
Vio.  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  b.  v.;  von  Orelu  in  Reakncyk.fUrprot, 
TheoL,B,v.  ,„    «    ^ 

W.  S.  Rbillt. 
De  Bollandt.    See  Bollandists. 

Debt  (debiium),  that  which  is  owed  or  due  to  an- 
other; in  ^neral,  anything  which  one  person  is  under 
an  obligation  to  pay  or  render  to  another.  In  a  wide 
sense  ^  the  word  this  obligation  may  arise  from  a 
variety  of  sources.  Thus  we  say  that  one  who  has 
received  a  favour  from  another  lies  under  a  debt  of 
gratitude  to  make  him  some  return  for  it.  The  super- 
fluous wealth  of  the  rich  is  due  to  the  poor;  it  is  a  debt 
to  the  payment  of  which,  according  to  the  expression 
of  many  Fathers  and  theologians,  the  poor  have  a 
right,  not  of  justice  but  of  charity.  W^e  here  take  the 
word  in  the  ordinary  and  strict  sense,  according  to 
which  it  signifies  something  which  is  due  to  another  in 
justice.  We  treat  the  matter,  too,  from  the  ethical 
rather  than  from  the  legal  point  of  view,  and  so  we  con- 
sider debts  of  honour  as  true  debts  though  they  cannot 
be  enforced  in  the  civil  court. 

A  debt  arises  not  merely  from  a  contract  of  borrow- 
ing; something  may  be  due  to  another  in  justice  for 
many  different  reasons,  but  all  these  may  be  reduced 
to  two.    When  one  has  wilfully  caused  unjust  dam- 

Xto  another,  he  is  bound  to  make  good  the  loss 
ch  he  has  inflicted,  and  when  he  finds  himself  in 
possession  of  what  belongs  to  another,  he  must  restore 
the  property  to  its  owner.  Justice  requires  this,  that 
each  one  should  have  his  own,  and  one  who  has  suf- 
fered loss  imjustly  at  the  hands  of  another  has  not  his 
own,  as  long  as  ihe  loss  is  not  made  good,  any  more 
than  one  whose  property  is  unjustly  detained  by  an- 
other. A  state  of  indebtedness,  then,  of  one  to  an- 
other arises  from  either  of  these  two  roots,  as  theo- 
logians call  them.  A  debt  must  be  paid  to  the  owner 
of  the  property  or  to  one  who  has  the  right  to  receive 
payment  for  him.  Sometimes,  however,  the  true 
owner  is  imknown,  and  then  payment  must  be  made 
to  the  poor  or  to  charitable  purposes.    At  any  rate^ 


DBCALOGUE 


664 


DtOAPOLIS 


one  who  is  the  unjust  cause  of  wrong  to  another  can- 
not be  allowed  to  become  a  gainer  By  injustice,  and 
inasmuch  as  society  is  injured  by  injustice,  if  repara- 
tion cannot  be  made  to  the  individual  who  has  been 
wronged,  it  must  be  made  to  society,  and  this  cannot 
be  done  better  than  by  paying  the  debt  to  charitable 
purposes  or  to  the  poor.  In  general,  debts  must  be 
paid  as  they  become  due,  or  at  tne  time  and  in  the  man- 
ner agreed  upon.  If  the  debtor  is  unable  to  meet  his 
obligations  at  the  proi)er  time  he  will  be  made  a  bank- 
rupt, his  property  will  vest  in  the  official  receiver  or 
trustee,  and  will  be  distributed  among  the  creditors  in 
proportion  to  their  claims.  Certain  debts,  however, 
nave  priority  over  others  by  law.  In  England  the 
order  among  these  is  as  follows:  rates  and  taxes;  the 
wages  or  salary  of  any  clerk  or  servant  not  exceeding 
fifty  pounds  in  respect  of  services  rendered  during  four 
months  prior  to  the  receiving  order;  wages  of  any 
labourer  or  workman  not  exceeding  twenty-five 
pounds  for  services,  whether  time-  or  piece-work,  ren- 
dered during  two  months  prior  to  the  date  of  the  re- 
ceiving order.  If  the  assets  are  sufficient  for  the  pur- 
pose these  debts  must  be  paid  in  full  before  all  others, 
otherwise  they  will  abate  equally  among  themselves. 
In  the  United  States  the  National  Bankruptcy  Act  of 
1898,  as  amended  in  1903,  gives  priority  to  certain  debts 
in  the  following  order:  all  taxes  legally  due  and  owing 
by  the  bankrupt  to  the  United  States,  State,  County, 
District,  or  Municipality;  costs  of  preserving  the  es- 
tate subsequent  to  filing  the  petition;  the  fihng  fees; 
the  costs  of  administration:  wages  due  to  workmen, 
clerks,  or  servants  which  nave  been  earned  within 
three  months  before  the  date  of  the  commencement  of 
proceedings,  not  exceeding  three  hundred  dollars  to 
each  claimant;  and  finally  debts  owing  to  any  person 
who  by  the  laws  of  the  States  or  of  the  United  States 
is  entitled  to  priority.  Similarly,  the  debts  of  a  per- 
son lately  deceased  must  be  paid  by  the  executor  or 
administrator  in  the  order  prescribed  by  law.  Ac- 
cording to  English  law  funeral  expenses  and  the  ex- 
penses of  probate  or  taking  out  administration  come 
first.  Then  the  debts  of  the  deceased  in  the  following 
order:  Crown  debts;  debts  having  priority  by  statute; 
debts  of  record;  debts  by  specialty  and  simple  con- 
tract. Similarly  also  in  the  United  States,  after  costs 
of  administration  and  funeral  expenses  the  debts  due 
to  the  general  government  come  next.  Then  follow 
other  debts  similar  to  those  mentioned  above  as  hav- 
ing prioritv  in  English  law,  but  the  order  is  not  identi- 
cal in  all  the  States. 

In  certain  circumstances  the  obligation  of  paying  a 
debt  ceases.  This  will  be  the  case  when  a  creditor 
freely  condones  the  debt,  as  of  course  he  may  do  if  he 
chooses.  Moreover,  physical  or  moral  impossibility 
excuses  the  debtor  from  paying  the  debt  as  long  as  the 
impossibility  lasts.  If  a  man  has  no  money  and  no 
nieans  of  getting  any,  he  is  excused  on  the  ground  of 
impossibility  from  paying  his  debts.  Even  if  he 
could  not  pay  without  reducing  himself  and  his  family 
to  beggary,  it  will  be  held  morally  impossible  for  him, 
as  long  as  those  conditions  last,  to  satisfy  his  obliga- 
tions. Even  justice  must  take  account  of  other  vir- 
tues and  obligations.  (How  far  a  discharge  in  bank- 
ruptcy excuses  from  payment  of  debts  in  full  out 
of  subseauently  acquired  property  is  laid  down  in 
the  article  Bankruptcy.)  The  popes  have  some- 
times for  just  cause  iLseii  their  authority  as  the 
supreme  heads  of  Christian  society  to  grant  partial 
remissions  or  compositions  for  debts  due  to  unknown 
creditors.  One  of  the  clauses  of  the  Bulla  Cruciatce 
granted  to  the  Spanish  dominions  confers  such  a  privi- 
lege on  the  recipient  on  certain  conditions.  Wnen  a 
debt  is  barred  by  lapse  of  time,  the  civil  authority  re- 
fuses its  help  to  enable  the  creditor  to  recover  what  is 
due  to  him,  but  the  debtor  is  not  freed  in  conscience; 
he  is  still  under  a  moral  obligation  to  pay  his  debt. 
Finally,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  by  ecclesiafitical 


law  those  who  have  incurretl  heavy  debts  which  they 
are  unable  to  pay  are  prohibited  from  entering  a  relig- 
ious order,  at  feast  if  they  have  been  reduced  to  that 
state  through  grave  fault  of  their  own. 

Ballerini.  Opus  MoraU  (Prato.  1892).  Ill;  LEHifKrHL. 
ThetOogia  Moralta  (Freibuts,  1898),  I;  Slatbb,  A  Mamtd.  o/ 
Moral  Theolon  (New  York.  1008).  I. 

T.  Slater. 

Decaloffue  (Greek  hUa,  ten,  and  X^ot,  word;,  thf 
term  employed  to  designate  the  collection  of  precepts 
written  on  two  tables  of  stone  and  given  by  God  to 
Moses  on  Mount  Sinai.  The  injunctions  and  prohi- 
bitions of  which  it  is  composed  are  set  forth  in  Exodus 
(xx,  1-17)  and  in  Deuteronomy  (v,  6-21).  The  dif- 
ferences discemible  in  the  style  of  enumerating  them 
in  Exodus  as  contrasted  with  Deuteronomy  arc  not 
essential  and  pertain  rather  to  the  reasons  alleged 
for  the  precepts  in  either  instance  than  to  the  pre- 
cepts themselves.  The  division  and  ordering  of  the 
commandments  in  use  in  the  Catholic  Church  is  that 
adopted  by  St.  Aiieustine  (Qupstionea  in  Exodum,  q. 
71).  That  which  is  commonly  in  vogue  amongst 
Protestants  seems  to  have  Origen  for  its  sponsor.  He 
regarded  Exodus,  xx,  3-6,  as  containing  two  distinct 
commandments  and  in  this  hypothesis  in  order  to 
keep  the  nimiber  ten,  verse  xvii  would  have  but  one. 
The  practice  now  universally  adhered  to  among  Catho- 
lics is  just  the  reverse.    See  Commandmlentb  of  God. 

ViaovROUX,  Manuel  bMique  (Paris,  1901):  Gigot,  Sp^i. 
hUrodud.  to  the  Old  Testament  (New  York,  1001). 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 

DecaaoB  LoyaniensiB.    See  Tapper,  Ruarp. 

DecapoHs  (from  Gr.  A^jcb,  ten,  and  ir6\is,  dty),  tfje 
name  ^ven  in  the  Bible  and  by  ancient  writers  to  a 
region  m  Palestine  lying  to  tiie  east  and  south  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee.  It  took  its  name  from  the  confedera- 
tion of  the  ten  cities  that  dominated  its  extent.  The 
Decapolis  is  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament  three 
times:  Matt.,  iv,  25;  Mark,  v,  20;  vii,  31.  Joaephus. 
Ptolemy,  Strabo,  Pliny,  and  other  ancient  geographers 
and  historians  make  frequent  reference  to  it. 

At  the  disruption  of  the  army  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  after  his  burial  at  Sidon,  great  numbers  of  his 
veterans,  their  occupation  gone,  settled  down  to  a  life 
of  peace.  The  coast  towiis  being  already  peopled, 
many  of  the  Greeks  sought  homes  farther  inland. 
There  they  either  laid  out  new  cities  or  rebuilt  and 
transformed  older  ones.  In  218  b.  c,  according  to 
Polybius,  several  of  these  towns  were  looked  upon  as 
strong  fortresses.  As  long  as  the  Seleucidee  niled  in 
the  North  and  the  Ptolemies  in  the  South,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Greeks  remained  paramount  in  S3Tia;  but 
when,  with  the  rise  of  the  Romans,  the  power  of  the 
descendants  of  Alexander's  soldiers  weakened,  the 
Greek  cities  were  in  sore  straits.  Especially  peril- 
otis  was  the  plight  of  these  towns  in  Palestine  after  the 
successful  rise  of  the  Machabees.  In  the  years  64-(».'i 
B.  c,  however,  Pompey  overran  Syria  and  made  it  a 
Roman  province.  The  Grecian  cities,  being  regarded 
as  bulwarks  of  Roman  rule  agsunst  any  native  upris- 
ings, were  granted  many  favours.  They  enjoyed  the 
ri^t  of  comage,  preserved  their  municipal  freedom, 
and  were  allowed  a  certain  sway  over  the  near-by 
country. 

It  was  after  Pompey's  conquest  that  the  league  of 
the  Decapolis  was  formed.  There  is  no  record  of  the 
year,  ana  although  most  likely  it  was  soon  after  the 
coming  of  Pompey,  yet  it  may  not  have  been  until 
Henxrs  time.  The  earliest  list  of  the  ten  cities  of 
the  Decapolis  is  Pliny's,  which  mentions  Scythopoli*, 
Pella,  Hippo,  Dion,  Gerasa,  Philadelphia,  Kaphana, 
Canatha,  and  Damascus.  Later,  Ptolemy  enumerates 
eighteen  cities,  thus  showing  that  the  term  Decapolis 
was  applied  to  a  region.  The  importance  of  this 
lea^e  was  greatly  strengthened  by  the  advantageous 
positions  of  the  principal  towns.    Scythopolis,  the 


Of  cAsuom 


665 


DECHAMP8 


eapiiAl  of  the  D^capolis,  lav  at  the  head  of  the  plain  of 
£]sdraelon,  to  the  W^t  of  the  Johl^,  ^UAf dldg  the 
natural  portal  from  the  sea  to  the  great  interior  plat^ 
eau  of  Basan  and  GalaiLd.  The  other  cities  wete  situ- 
ated to  the  eafit  of  the  Jordan  on  the  great  routes  along 
'which  passed  the  commeroe  of  the  whole  country. 
To-day  the  cities  of  the  Decapolis,  with  the  exception 
of  DamascuSi  are  deserted  and  in  ruins.  Yet  even  in 
their  ruined  state  they  offer  a  strildng  contrast  to  the 
near-by  cities  of  the  Semites.  Their  temples,  theatres 
and  forums  buUt  on  a  lavish  scale,  give  even  to  this 
day  clear  indication  of  the  genius  of  the  people  who 
bxult  them. 

Among  the  cities  of  the  Decapolis  of  special  interest 
are:  Damaacus,  so  often  referred  to  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testament ;  Gadara,  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  whose 
inhabitants  were  the  Gerasens  of  the  Evangelists — 
the  TaSapripQp  of  one  reivding  of  Matt.,  viii,  2S^whose 
swine  were  driven  by  the  devil  into  the  sea:  and  Pella, 
the  city  in  the  vallev  of  the  Jordan  to  which  the  Chris- 
tians  withdrew  at  the  first  siege  of  Jerusalem. 

Smith  in  Encue.  Biblica  (New  York.  1809),  1,  and  HiaUnicai 
Geoaraphy  of  Holy  Land  (1806).  c.  28;  Conder,  Hat%dbook  to  the 
Btole;  JcMKPBUS,  Autobiography,  66,  74;   Idem,  History  of  the 


Jewiak  War,  ix,  7. 


Joseph  V.  Mollot. 


De  Oawnont,  Armaih)  Nompar.    See  La  Forcb. 
Deceit.    See  Fraud. 

Dechampfly  Adolphb,  Belgian  statesman  and  pub- 
licist, brother  of  Cardinal  Dechamps,  b.  at  Melle  near 
Ghent,  17  June,  1807,  d.  at  Manage,  19  July,  1875. 
He  entered  public  life  about  1830  and  soon  became 
popular  through  his  brilliant  contributions  to  several 
CathoUc  newspapers.  Having  founded  with  his  friend 
de  Decker  "La  Revue  de  Bruxelles",  he  advocated  in 
that  paper  a  system  of  parliamentary  government 
which  was  termed  "  government  of  the  centres  * '.  The 
ministries  were  to  be  composed  of  Catholics  and  Lib- 
erals and  to  be  supported  by  the  moderate  elements  of 
the  two  parties.  The  scheme  was  not  without  merit 
under  the  circumstances,  and  it  worked  suoessfully  for 
some  vears,  but  no  great  political  shrewdness  was 
needed  to  foresee  that,  unless  the  Catholics  were  will- 
ing to  surrender  their  principles,  thev  must  sooner  or 
later  part  company  with  the  Liberals.  In  1834  De- 
champs  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Representa- 
tives, where  lus  talent  as  an  orator  and  his  practical 
sagacity  soon  secured  him  a  prominent  position.  In 
1^6  he  participated  very  actively  in  the  discussion  of 
the  bill  on  the  organization  of  the  communes,  and  in 
1839  he  opposed  the  treaty  with  Holland.  The  weat 
Powers  had  imposed  that  treaty  on  Belgium  and  Hol- 
land in  1834,  but  the  latter  had  delaved  accepting  it 
in  the  hope  that  she  might  eventually  obtain  better 
conditions.  Dechamns.  with  many  others,  held  that 
by  this  dday  Hollana  had  forfeited  her  right  to  the 
advantages  granted  her  by  the  Powers  and  they  urged 
the  Government  to  appeal  to  arms  rather  than  to  sur- 
render any  part  of  Belgian  territory.  This  warlike 
policy,  however,  would  nave  been  unwise  in  view  of 
the  opposition  of  the  Powers,  and  peace  was  finally 
signea  with  Holland. 

The  most  remarkable  event  of  Dechamps's  political 
career  is  perhaps  the  leading  part  he  played  in  the  pass- 
ing of  the  bill  on  elementary  instruction.  Up  to  1842 
there  had  been  no  elementary  pubHc  schools  in  Bel- 
gium, although  there  were  numerous  schools  organized 
under  the  direction  of  the  clergy.  One  of  the  pro- 
visions of  the  new  bill  enacted  that  religious  instruc- 
tion was  to  form  an  essential  part  of  public  education 
and  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  cleigy.  The  bill 
was  passed  almost  unanimously  by  the  votes  of  both 
Catholics  and  Liberals.  From  1843  to  1848  Dechamps 
was  a  member  of  several  ministries  and  showed  him- 
self a  competent  admimstrator.  After  the  defeat  of 
his  party  in  1848  he  became  the  l*^adcr  of  the  Catholic 


minority  in  the  Chamber  of  Representatives  and  to> 
tained  that  position  for  several  years.  In  1864  he 
retired  ffom  politics  and  engaged  in  financial  enter- 
prises, but  his  ventures  prov^  unfortunate.  The  fol- 
lowing are  his  most  important  works:  "Le  second 
Empire"  (Brusseb,  18o9);  "Le  second  Empire  et 
I'Angleterre"  (Brussels,  1865);  "Jules  Cdsar;  I'em- 
pire  jug6  par  I'empereur"  (Brussels,  1865);  "La 
France  et  rAllemame"  (Brussels,  1865);  "La  Con- 
vention de  Gastein^  (Brussels,  1865);  "Les  partis  en 
Belgique  et  le  nouveau  r^gne"  (Brussels,  1866); 
"L^^ole  dans  ses  rapports  avec  I'Eglise,  I'Etat  et  la 
liberty"  (Brussels^  1869);  "Le  prince  de  Bismarck  et 
I'entrevue  des  trois  empereurs"  (Brussels,  1873). 

Htmans,  Hisioire  Parlementaire  de  la  Belffique  (Brusselfl, 
1878-82);  Q0BI.ET  d'Alviella,  CinguarUe  aju  de  liberti.  La 
vie  poliitQue  (Bnuseb,  1880);  Thonibscn,  La  Bdgiqxie  aoua 
Liapold  ler  (Lou vain,  1861);  Ktmjlss,  La  Belgique  CorUempo- 
raine  (BnuseU,  1884).  • 

PlERRB  MaRIQUE. 

Dechampa.  Victor  Auoustin  Isidore,  Cardinal, 
Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  and  Primate  of  Belgium ;  b. 
at  Melle  near  Ghent  6  Dec,  1810;  d.  29  Sept,  1883,  at 
Mechlin.  He  and  his  brothers  made  rapid  progress  in 
science  under  their  father's  direction.  One,  Adolphe, 
entered  on  a  political  career.  Victor  pursued  his 
ecclesiastical  studies  first  at  the  seminary  of  Toumai 
and  then  in  the  Catholic  University  be^un  at  Mechlin 
and  afterwards  transferred  to  Liouvain.    Ordained 

£riest  20  Dec.,  1834,  he  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
[ost  Holy  Redeemer  in  1835,  and  made  nis  vows  13 
June,  1836.  The  next  four  years  he  spent  at  Wittem 
as  prefect  of  students  and  lector  in  dogmatic  theolc^y. 
In  1840  he  began  his  missionary  life  and  in  1842  was 
nominated  rector  at  Lidge.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  founding  of  the  Confraternity  pf  the  Holy  fam- 
ily, which  he  considered  his  most  salutaiy  work.    In 


and  saw  the  wondemil  effects  of  the  Tractarian  move- 
ment. In  1849  he  was  nominated  oonsultor  general 
of  his  congregation,  and  took  up  his  residence  at 
Pagani  near  Naples  just  when  Pius  IX  was  in  exile 
at  Gaeta.  He  had  several  audiences  with  the  pope 
and  was  instrumental  in  arranging  the  transfer  of  the 
superior  general  from  Pagani  to  Rome.  This  was  not 
effected  tOl  1855^  when  Pius  IX  invited  Father  De- 
champs  to  the  first  general  chapter  held  in  Rome. 
The  question  of  his  appointment  to  the  See  of  Li^ge 
was  considered  in  1852,  but  the  pope,  touched  by  his 
personal  appeal,  did  not  insist.    In  1865  Dechamps 


oecame  Bishop  of  Namur,  whence  he  was  transferred 
in  1875  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Mechlin  and  made 
primate.  At  all  times  devoted  to  the  Church  and  the 
pope,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
pontifical  zouaves,  and  persuaded  General  Lamori- 
ci§re  to  offer  his  services  to  Pius  IX.  But  his  promi- 
nence in  the  history  of  his  country  and  of  the  Church 
is  due  to  his  battle  tor  Catholic  schools  and  his  defence 
of  papal  infallibility  before  and  during  the  Vatican 
Council.  Manning  and  Dechamps  were  indefatigable ; 
and  they  became  cardinals  in  the  same  consistory,  15 
March,  1875.  Dechamps  worked  to  the  very  end. 
He  said  Mass  on  28  Sept.,  1883,  and  died  the  day  fol- 
lowing in  the  arms  of  a  Redemptorist  who  happened 
to  be  present.  He  was  buried,  as  he  had  desired,  by 
the  side  of  Venerable  Passerat  at  Rumilliers. 

The  complete  works  of  Dechamps,  revised  by  him- 
self, were  i>ublished  in  seventeen  volumes  at  Mechlin. 
In  presenting  fourteen  of  the  seventeen  volumes  to 
Leo  XIII  on  7  Feb.,  1879,  the  author  writes:  '*  There  is 
one  thing  that  consoles  me,  Holv  Father,  in  sending 
you  my  poor  works:  they  are  all  consecrated  to  the 
truths  of  our  holy  Faith.  . . .  Volume  I  is  consecrated 
to  the  tniths  of  faith;  II  to  Our  Lord  Jesiw  Christ; 
V  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary;   III  and  IV  to  the 


DECIT7S 


666 


DEOKEB 


Church  and  St.  Peter:  VI  to  the  pope  and  his  infalli- 
bility; VII^VIIL  ana  IX  to  the  refutation  of  modem 
errors :  X,  Xl,  XII,  XIII,  and  XIV  to  my  preaching 
as  bishop  and  to  acts  by  which  I  govemea  my  dio- 
cese." Of  the  remaining  volumes,  XV^  ''Melanges", 
deals  with  many  important  questions ;  XVI  and  X  VII 
contain  letters  on  questions  in  philosophy,  theology, 
and  other  subjects.  Cardinal  Dechampe*s  brother, 
Adolphe,  was  made  Prime  Minister  of  Belgium,  4  April, 
1843.  He  was  also  minister  of  public  works,  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  30  July,  1845,  to  12 
June,  1847. 

Saintrain,  Vie  du  Cardinal  Deckampa,  C,  SS.  R.  An^tevique 
de  Malines  et  Primat  de  Belgique  (Toumai.  1884);  Lejeune, 
U Archieonfririe  de  la  Sainte  FamUle,  eon  hiatoire  et  «e«  fruits 
CBrages,  1894):  Bibliagraphie  catholique,  XVII,  110;  XX.  282; 
XXVI.  151:  XXVII,  272;  Van  Weddinobn.  Revue  ghthtde 
(1881).  XXklV.  793. 

•  J.  Magnier. 

Dedus  (Caius  Messius  Quintus  Trajanus  Db- 
cius),  Roman  Emperor  249-251.  He  was  bom, 
date  uncertain,  near  Sirmium  in  Pannonia  of  a  Roman 
or  a  Romanized  family.    Practically  nothing  is  known 

about  his  career,  but 
the  greater  part  of  his 
life  seems  to  have  been 
passed  in  the  army. 
He  was  the  first  of  the 
great  soldier-emperors 
from  the  Danubian 
provinces  under  whom 
the  senatorial  regime 
ended  and  the  govern- 
ment became  an  ab- 
solute monarchy.  No 
sooner  was  his  position 
as  emperor  made  cer- 
tain by  the  defeat  of 
Philip  at  Verona,  than 
Decius  commenced  to 
put  into  effect  exten- 
sive plans  for  the  re- 
organization of  the 
empire.  Problems  of 
administration,  inter- 
nal as  well  as  external, 
at  once  claimed  his  at- 
tention. To  the  latter 
he  principally  devoted 
his  own  enei^es  and 


EmpEBOR   DEdXTS 

(CapitoUne  Museum.  Rome) 


consequently  the  greater  part  of  his  reign  was 
spent  at  the  head  of  the  legions  attempting  to  repel 
the  Gothic  invaders  from  the  Balkan  lands.  After 
several  campaigns  during  which  he  gave  no  evi- 
dence of  military  genius  he  met  with  a  signal  defeat 
in  the  marshes  of  the  Dobrudscha  in  which  he  lost  his 
life.  This  overthrow,  attributed  by  some  writers  to 
the  treachery  of  some  of  the  Roman  generals,  was  so 
complete  that  the  emperor's  body  was  never  recov- 
ered. In  the  administration  of  the  internal  affairs  of 
the  empire,  Decius  showed  himself  to  be  an  unstates- 
manlike  theorist.  He  conceived  the  unpractical  pol- 
icy of  reforming  the  morals  of  his  time  oy  a  forcible 
r^toration  of  the  old  religion.  He  revived  the  obso- 
lete office  of  censor  as  a  sop  to  the  senatorial  party, 
permitted  them  to  name  its  first  incumbent,  whom  ne 
mvested  with  the  most  autocratic  powers  in  matters 
of  civil  service  and  over  the  private  lives  of  the  citi- 
zens. Oblivious  of  the  changes  wrought  by  time  and 
the  march  of  ideas,  he  pinned  his  faith  to  the  almost 
abandoned  paganism  of  old  Rome  as  the  solution  of 
the  problems  of  his  time.  Such  sweeping  reforms 
necessarily  brought  into  prominence  the  growing 
power  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  made  it  clear  that 
any  attempt  to  realize  or  enforce  the  absolutism  of 
earlier  Roman  politics  must  necessarily  be  futile  as 
long  as  any  considerable  body  of  citizens  professing 


the  Christian  creed  was  allowed  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion.  Belief  in  the  freedom  of  conscieiu» 
and  the  higher  estimate  of  religion  found  amon^  the 
Christians  could  find  no  part  in  such  schemes  as  tho^ 
of  Decius  and  would  necessarily  prove  an  insupenl  !e 
obstacle  to  the  complete  realization  of  his  pb:L<. 
Various  reasons  have  been  assigned  for  the  emperor  s 
hatred  of  Christianity,  some  seeing  in  it  an  evidence 
of  innate  cruelty,  others  a  desire  to  be  avenged  on 
the  friends  of  his  predecessor;  but  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  main  motives  lor  his  hostility  were 
political,  conceived  not  in  the  form  of  fanaticism  but 
m  purposes  of  political  expediency.  The  scope  of  the 
anti-Cnristian  legislation  of  EKecius  was  broader  thiin 
that  of  his  predecessors  and  much  more  far-reachine 
in  its  effects.  The  text  of  his  edicts  has  not  sur\'ivei 
but  their  general  tenor  can  be  judged  from  the  maimer 
in  which  they  were  executed,  llae  object  of  the  em- 
peror was  not  the  extermination  of  the  Christians,  bm 
the  complete  extinction  of  Christianity  itself.  Bishops 
and  priests  were  imconditionally  punished  with  death. 
To  all  others  was  given  an  opportunity  tc  recant  and, 
to  ensure  the  abandonment  of  Christiajiity,  all  were 
compelled  to  submit  to  some  test  of  their  loyalty  to 
Paganism,  such  as  the  offering  of  sacrifice,  the  pouring 
of  libations,  or  the  burning  of  incense  to  the  iJol>\ 
The  unexpectedness  of  the  attack,  coupled  with  the 
fact  that  an  appalling  amount  of  laxity  and  corruption 
had  manifest^  themselves  during  the  lon£  peace 
which  the  Church  had  iust  enjoyed,  produced  the  most 
deplorable  effect  in  the  Christian  fold.  Multitudes 
presentCKl  themselves  to  the  magistrates  to  express 
their  compliance  with  the  imperial  edict  and  to  these 
apostates  tickets  were  issued  attesting  the  fact  that 
they  had  offered  sacrifice  (sacrtficcUt)  or  burned  in- 
cense {thurificati),  while  others,  without  actually  per- 
forming these  rites,  availed  themselves  of  the  venality 
of  the  magistrates  to  purchase  certificates  attesting 
their  renimciation  (fibdUUict),  These  defection^, 
though  numerous,  were  more  than  counterbalanced 
by  the  multitudes  who  suffered  death,  exile,  confisca- 
tion, or  tortm^  in  all  parts  of  the  empire.  The  Decian 
persecution  was  the  severest  trial  to  which  the  Church 
up  to  that  time  had  been  subjected  and  the  loss  suf- 
fered by  the  Church  in  consequence  of  apostasy  was 
almost  as  damaging  as  the  losses  by  martyrdom.  The 
problem  of  deciding  on  what  conditions  the  hj^^^ 
should  be  admitted  to  the  church  and  what  weight 
was  to  be  attached  to  the  pardon  of  confessors,  pro- 
duced the  bitterest  dissensions  and  led  directly  to  two 
dangerous  schisms. 

Duchesne,  Histoire  aneienne  de  VSgUee  (Paris,  1906),  I. 
367-368;  Allard,  Hiatoire  dea  peraSetaiona  pendant  la  prmiirt 
nwUii  du  UI*  sitde  (Paris,  18a5-90:  2Dd  ed.  1892);  Gbegg. 
The  Decian  Peraecution  (Edinburgh,  1897). 

P.  J.  Healt. 

Decker,  Hans,  a  German  sculptor  of  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  Very  little  is  recorded  conccm- 
ing  Decker,  but  that  his  home  was  in  Nuremberg.  His 
name  is  mentioned  in  a  register  for  the  year  14-19,  and 
certain  early  productions  m  the  years  1432  and  H37 
are  attributed  to  him.  Though  nis  carving  in  stone 
is  rather  rough,  he  stands  alone  among  his  contem- 
poraries for  his  energy  and  realism.  The  few  works 
known  to  us  appear  to  inaugurate  a  new  style.  ,Hi5 
principal  sculptures  are  the  colossal  statue  of  bl 
Christopher  with  the  Child  Christ  on  his  shoulder,  at 
the  south-west  portal  of  the  church  of  St.  Sebald,  a 
memorial  of  the  Schlftsselfeld  family,  and  the  gi«Jt 
"  Entombment ' ',  dated  1446,  in  the  chapd  of  St.  Wolf- 
gang, in  the  church  of  St.  Egidius.  Hie  group  is  com- 
posai  of  eight  figures  of  heroic  proportions  powerfuJ/v 
disposed.  In  the  body  of  CJhrist  the  handling  is  h^f^* 
but  there  is  a  distinct  attempt  at  correct  anatomy. 
The  head  is  noble  and  manly;  Ikfary  is  full  of  gnet; 
John  raises  his  Master's  arm  to  kiss  it.  The  draper* 
ies  are  simple  and  finely  arranged.    This  work  is  not 


DSOORATIONB 


667 


DK0O&4TION8 


only  a  masterpiece  in  itflelf ,  but  is  so  full  of  the  new 
na^turalistic  tendency,  that  it  may  be  said  to  open  the 
second  epoch  of  sculpture  in  Nuremberg. 

I^Obkb,  History  of  Sculphtre  {London,  1872);  BonM.Oe9eh. 
€Ur  tUtiUchen  PUuHk  (Berlin.  1887);  Naox.ex,  KHmsOer-Letieim 
C$€uziid&.  1836):  MOlixr,  KUnsOer-Lexicon  (Stuttgart.  1857); 
O^tAtMche  Bioffrnphie  (Leipsig,  1877). 

M.  L.  Handlbt. 

X>6Coratioii8,  Papal.    See  Deoorationb,  Fohto^ 

SecorationB,  Pontifical,  the  titles  of  nobility, 
orders  of  Christian  knighthood  and  other  marks  of 
lioxiour  and  distinction  which  the  papal  court  confers 
upon  men  of  unblemished  character  who  have  in  any 
"way  promoted  the  interests  of  society,  the  Qiurch, 
axio  tne  Holy  See.  The  titles  range  aU  the  wav  from 
prince  to  baron  inclusive,  and  are  bestowed  by  the 
pope  as  temporal  sovereign.  The  title  ordinarily  con- 
feired  is  that  of  count  prefixed  to  the  family  name, 
Mrhich  title  is  either  merely  personal  or  transferable  by 
right  of  primogeniture  in  the  male  line.  Bishops 
assistant  at  the  throne  are  de  jvre  Roman  counts. 
There  is  another  title  which  is  usually  called  Count 
Palatine,  but  the  true  designation  is  Count  of  the 
Sacred  Palace  of  Lateran,  which  is  attached  to  many 
offices  in  the  papal  court.  The  papal  orders  of 
knighthood,  ranking  according  to  their  importance 
and  dignity,  are:  (1)  Supreme  Order  of  Christ;  (2) 
Order  of  Pius  IX;  (3)  Order  of  St.  Gregory  the 
Great;  (4)^  Order  of  St.  Sylvester:  (5)  Order  of  the 
Golden  Militia,  also  called  of  tne  Golden  Spur; 
(6)  Order  of  The  Holy  Sepulchre  (semi-official  note 
of  the  Cardinal  Chancellor  of  Equestrian  Orders,  "Os- 
aervatore  Romano",  12  Feb.,  1905). 

Pius  X  decreed  that  the  Orders  of  Christ  and  the 
Golden  Militia  should  have  only  one,  the  other  four 
orders,  three  grades  or  classes  ("Multum  ad  excitan- 
doB  *' ;  7  Feb.,  1905) ;  that  occasional! v,  but  very  rarely, 
in  matters  of  special  importance  and  by  special  papal 
permission,  a  commander  eminently  distinguished 
might  be  allowed  to  wear  the  badge  (smaller  size  than 
that  of  the  first  class)  on  the  left  breast.  According 
to  critical  lustoriaDS,  these  orders  do  not  antedate  the 
Crusades.  Aft^r  the  CrusEides,  the  kings  of  Europe 
founded  and  placed  under  the  protection  of  tne 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  or  the  Saints,  orders  of  chivalry. 
Of  these,  some  were  intended  to  protect  their  king- 
doms from  the  incursions  of  the  infidel,  and  were  m 
reality  religious  military  orders;  others  were  designed 
as  a  aesirable  and  honourable  recompense  for  eminent 
services  to  Idn^  and  country.  The  lavish  and  indis- 
criminate creation  of  knights  of  the  latter  orders  led 
in  course  of  time  to  a  loss  of  prestige  and  desire  on  the 
part  of  men  of  eminent  merits  to  be  knighted.  The 
Koman  pontiffs,  in  their  dual  capacity  of  spiritual  and 
temporal  rulers,  either  founded  or  approved,  or  re- 
modelled and  restored  to  their  pristine  glory,  the  six 
papal  orders  afore-mentioned. 

Supreme  Order  of  Christ — ^The  Supreme  Order  of 
Christ  is  of  Portuguese  origin  (see  Christ,  Order  of 
THE  Knights  of).  The  papal  and  Portuguese  order 
are  one  and  the  same,  for  a  two-fold  reason ;  the  pope 
is  the  head  of  every  religious  order  and  can  admit  to 
solemn  profession  in  any  order  without  the  permission 
of  its  superior  general,  and,  further,  in  the  bull  of  ap- 
provals he  reserved  to  himself  and  his  successors  the 
right  to  create  knights  of  the  order,  a  right  which  was 
exercised  by  the  popes  and  recognized  by  the  kings  of 
Portugal.  The  decoration  is  a  long  red  cross,  bor- 
dered with  a  narrow  gold  band,  whose  extremities  are 
of  a  trapezoidal  form,  surmounted  by  a  royal  crown, 
which,  m  turn,  is  surmounted  by  a  military  trophy 
attached  to  the  ribbon.  Upon  the  centre  or  the  long 
red  cross  is  superimposed  a  small,  simple,  white  en- 
amelled Latin  cross.  The  white  upon  the  red  ^rmbol- 
izes  the  triumph  of  the  Immaculate  Lamb  of  God,  by 
His  blood,  over  the  world  of  sin.    Until  within  a  few 


yean  ago,  this  decoration  was  worn  suspended  by  a 
red  ribbon  which  endreled  the  wearer's  neck.  Pope 
Pius  X,  in  memoiy  of  the  ancient  collar  composed  cd 
alternate  swords  and  tiaras  which  the  knights  of  old 
wore,  decreed  that  the  decoration  should  henceforth 
be  worn  suspended  from  a  collar  composed  of  shidds 
bearing  alternately  the  cross  of  tlie  order  and  the 
papal  emblems  connected  with  golden  knots.  The 
**  plaque *',  or  badge,  worn  on  the  breast,  is  a  silver 
eightnrayed  star  ornamented  with  jewels,  bearine  on 
its  centre  the  cross  of  the  order,  which  is  encireled  by 
a  crown  of  gold  oak  leaves  wound  with  a  green  fillet. 
The  uniform  is  of  a  bri^t  scarlet  with  facincs  of  white 
cloth  and  rich  gold  embroideries  on  the  collar,  breast 
and  cufTs  (Moroni,  Diz.,  XVIII,  216).  Knee  breedies 
of  white  smooth  silk  with  gold  side  stripes,  shoes  of 
white  silk  with  eold  buckles,  hat  with  white  plumes 
and  ornamented  with  a  knot  of  twisted  ^Id  cord 
terminating  in  tassels  of  gold,  and  a  sword  with  a  gold 
ornamented  mother-of-pearl  hilt  and  pendant  tassels 
of  twisted  eold  cord  complete  this  ofiicial  costume 
(Pius  X,  3  May.  1905).  The  official  dress  of  a  pro- 
fessed  knigjit  of  this  order  when  it  was  a  reUgious 
military  body  was  white. 

Order  of  Piue  /X.— This  had  for  its  founder  (17 
June,  1847)  the  pope  whose  name  it  bears.  Its  object 
is  to  fittingly  reward  noble  and  conspicuous  deeds 
which  merit  well  of  Church  and  society,  and  to  stim- 
ulate others  to  follow  the  illustrious  example  set  them. 
At  first  it  comprised  only  two  classes,  knights  of  the 
first  class,  who,  upon  receiving  the  decoration,  were 
made  nobles  with  hereditary  succession,  and  knights 
of  the  second  class,  whose  title  of  nobUi^  was  per- 
sonal. Shortly  after  (17  June,  1849,  "(3um  homi* 
num  mentes")  the  order  was  divided  into  four  classes, 
viz.:  (1)  Knights  of  the  Great  Ribbon;  (2)  Command- 
ers with  the  Badge;  (3)  Commanders,  and  (4) 
Knights.  Knights  of  the  Great  Ribbon  wear  a  wide 
ribbon  extending  from  the  left  shoulder  saltier-wise  to 
the  right  side  wnere  from  a  rosette  attached  to  tlie 
ribbon  the  star  of  the  order  is  suspended.  They  also 
wear  on  the  breast  the  large  badge  set  with  dia- 
monds. Commanders  wear  the  decoration  at  the  nedk. 
Commanders  with  the  Badge,  besides  the  star  at  tihe 
neck,  wear  a  badge  of  smaller  design  than  the  laige 
plaque  on  the  breast,  and  simple  knights  wear  the 
star  on  the  left  breast.  The  decoration  is  an  ei^t- 
pointed  blue  enamelled  star.  The  spaces  between  the 
rays  are  filled  in  with  undulating  golden  flames.  On 
the  centre  ia  ^  white  enamelled  medallion  on  whidi 
is  engraved  the  words  piub  ix  and  aroimd  it,  in  a 
golden  circle,  are  stamped  in  characters  of  blue,  the 
motto,  virtuti  bt  merito.  The  reverse  is  identical 
with  the  obverse  side  except  that  the  inscription 
ANNO  1847  is  used  instead  of  pius  ix.  There  are  two 
forms  of  badges.  One  is  a  large  silver  medal  similar 
to  the  star,  and  the  other  is  of  the  same  design  but 
larger  and  adorned  with  brilliant  gems.  The  ribbon 
of  the  decoration  b  dark  blue  silk  bordered  with  red. 
The  official  costume  (rarely  worn)  is  a  dark  blue  even- 
ing dress  coat  closed  in  front  bv  one  row  of  gold  but- 
tons. The  collar  and  cuffs  and  breast  of  the  coat  are 
covered  with  golden  embroideries  more  or  less  elab- 
orate, according  to  the  grade  or  class  of  the  wearer. 
Golden  epaulettes,  white  trousers  with  gold  side 
stripes,  a  bicomered  hat  with  white  plumes,  complete 
the  ofiicial  dress.  This  order  may  be  conferred  also 
upon  non-Catholics. 

Order  of  St.  Gregory  the  ^reflrf.— Gregory  XVI 
founded  this  order  to  reward  the  civil  and  militaiy 
virtues  of  subjects  of  the  Papal  States  by  brief  **Quod 
Summis",  1  Sept.,  1831,  and  placed  it  under  the  par 
tronage  of  the  great  ^ope  whose  name  it  bears.  It 
has  two  divisions,  civil  and  military,  and  each  division 
is  divided  into  four  classes,  viz.:  (1)  Grand  Cross 
Knights  of  the  First  Class;  (2)  Grand  Cross  Knigjits 
of  the  Second  Class;  (3)  Commanders,  and  (4)  simple 


DSOORATIOVS 


668 


DS0ORATIOV8 


Knights.  The  decoration  is  a  bifiircated  or  eight- 
pointed  red  enamelled  gold  cross,  in  the  centre  of 
which  is  a  blue  medallion  on  which  is  impressed  in 

fold  the  image  of  St.  Gregoty,  and  at  the  side  of  his 
ead  near  the  right  ear  is  a  dove;  in  a  circle  around  the 
uoiage  appears  in  ^Iden  letters ''  S.  Gr^gorius  Magnus  ". 
On  the  reverse  side  is  the  device,  "Pro  Deo  et  Prin- 
cipe'', and  in  the  centre  around  it,  greoorius  xvi. 
p.  M.  ANNO.  1.  The  badge  is  the  cross  of  the  order 
surrounded  with  silver  rays.  The  ribbon  of  the  order 
is  red  with  orange  borcfers.  The  cross  worn  by  a 
knipht  of  the  military  division  is  surmounted  by  a 
military  trophy;  the  cross  of  a  knight  of  the  civil 
division  is  surmounted  by  a  crown  of  gold  oak  leaves. 
The  costume  of  ceremony  is  a  dress  coat  of  dark  green 
open  in  front,  and  covered  on  breast  and  back  with 
embroideries  in  the  form  of  oak  leaves.  White 
trousers  with  silver  side  stripes,  a  bicomered  omar 
mented  hat,  and  the  usual  knightly  sword,  complete 
the  costume,  which  is  rarelv  worn. 

Order  of  at.  Sylvester,  before  the  Regvlations  of  Pius 
X. — This  was  the  Order  ot  the  Golden  Militia  under  a 
new  name.  Prior  to  the  year  1841  it  was  known  as 
the  Militia  of  the  Golden  Spur  or  Golden  Militia,  and 
though  it  is  not  historically  established  who  among 
the  many  supposed  founders  is  the  true  one,  yet  it 
imdoubtedly  is  the  oldest  and,  at  one  time,  was  one  of 
the  most  prized  of  the  papal  orders.  Faculties 
granted  to  tne  Sforza  f amilv  (Paul  III  **  Hinc  est  quod 
nos*',  14  Apr.,  1539),  to  the  College  of  Abbreviators 
(Leo  X  Const.  14  ''Summi'O  and  to  bishops  assistant 
at  the  ttirone  (Julius  III,  6  Apr.,  1557)  to  create 
Knights  of  the  Golden  MUitia  resulted  in  lavish  be- 
stowed and  diminished  prestige  of  the  decoration. 
Pope  Gregory  XVI  (''Quod  hominum  mentes",  31 
Oct.,  1841),  retaining  the  ancient  name,  placed  the 
order  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Sylvester  (one  of 
its  alleged  founders),  withdrew  all  faculties  to  whom 
and  by  whomsoever  given,  and  forbade  the  use  of  the 
title  or  the  decoration  to  all  knights  created  by  other 
than  by  papal  Brief.  The  better  to  restore  it  to  its 
ancient  glory  and  splendour,  he  limited  the  number  of 
commanders  to  one  hundred  and  fiftv  and  knights  to 
three  hundred  (for  Papal  States  only),  and  appointed 
the  Cardinal  of  Apostolic  Briefs  as  Chancellor  of  the 
Order,  with  the  duty  of  preserving  the  name,  grade, 
number  and  date  of  admission  of  each  knight.  He 
divided  it  into  two  classes,  commanders  and  knights. 
The  former  wore  the  laree  sized  decoration  suspended 
at  the  neck,  the  latter  tne  small  sized  one  on  the  left 
side  of  the  breast.  The  decoration,  according  to  the 
Gre^rian  Brief,  was  an  eight-pointed  gold  cross  with 
an  image  of  St.  Sylvester  wearing  the  tiara  on  its 
white  enamelled  centre,  and  around  this  centre  a  blue 
enamelled  circle  bearing  in  letters  of  gold  the  inscrip- 
tion SANC.  SYLVESTER  P.  M.  On  the  reverse  side,  in 
golden  characters,  was  stamped  mdcccxli  oregorius 
XVI  REfflTTTUiT.  A  goldcn  spur  hun£  suspended  from 
the  sides  of  the  bifurcated  foot  of  the  cross  of  the 
order  to  mark  the  unity  of  the  Sylvestrine  order  with 
that  of  the  Golden  Militia.  The  ribbon  of  the  decora- 
tion was  of  silk  composed  of  five  strands,  three  of 
which  were  red,  and  two  black.  Commanders  wore 
the  decoration  at  the  neck,  tlie  knights  on  the  breast. 
The  ribbon  of  the  former  was  larger  than  that  of  the 
latter,  the  cross  of  the  former  was  also  more  elegant 
than  that  of  the  latter.  The  official  costume  was  a 
red  evening  dross  coat  with  two  rows  of  gold  buttons 
with  green  collar  and  facing.  The  gold  embroideries 
of  the  coat  were  of  a  more  ornate  design  for  command- 
ers than  for  knights.  White  trousers,  with  cold  side 
bands,  hat  with  white  plumes  and  a  sword  with  a  silver 
hilt  and  also  ^It  spurs,  completed  this  rarely  used 
costume.  Knights  of  both  classes  wore  around  the 
neck  a  gold  chain  from  which  was  suspended  a  tiny 
^r^ldenspur  commeniorat  iveof  the  ancient  order  of  that 
denomination.     Pius  X  (Motu  Proprio,  ''Multum  ad 


ezdtandas'',  7  Feb.,  1905)  divided  the  Syivestrine  min 
two  orders  of  knighthood,  one  retaining  the  name  of  St. 
Sylvester  and  the  other  taking  the  ancient  name  of  the 
order,  i.  e.  Order  of  the  Golden  Militia,  or  Golden  Spur. 

Order  of  St,  Sylvester,  since  the  ReguUUions  of  Piui 
X. — The  order  now  has  three  classes  of  kni^ts:  (\) 
Knights  Grand  Cross,  (2)  Commanders,  and  (3)iCnigfat^. 
The  present  decoration  is  a  gold  cross  of  white  enam- 
elled surface,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  impveased  the 
image  of  St.  Sylvester  P.  M.,  surrounded  by  a  blue 
enamelled  circle  bearing  the  inscription  in  letters  of 
pold  8ANC.  SYLVESTER  P.  M.  On  the  opposite  side. 
m  the  centre,  are  the  pontifical  emblems  with  the  date 
of  the  Gregorian  restoration,  mocccxxxxi,  and  that 
of  the  Pius  X  renovation,  mdccgcv,  impressed  in 
characters  of  gold  upon  a  blue  circle.  The  badge  is 
the  cross  of  the  order  attached  to  a  silver  star.  The 
new  costume  consists  of  a  black  (formerly  red)  CfKit 
with  one  row  (formerly  two)  of  gilt  buttons,  and 
cuffs  and  collar  of  black  velvet  embroidered  in  gold: 
black  trousers,  with  gold  stripes,  a  bicomered  hat  of 
rough  silk  adorned  with  papal-coloured  cockade,  and 
finally  a  sword  with  a  hilt  of  mother-of-pearl  orna- 
mented with  gold  and  worn  suspended  from  a  gilt  belt. 
The  ribbon  of  the  decoration  is  black  silk  hoidered 
with  red.  Simple  knights  wear  the  cross  on  the  left 
breast  of  the  tunic.  Commanders  wear  a  larger  cro<s> 
suspended  by  the  ribbon  of  the  order  encircling  the 
necK,  and  the  Knights  of  the  Grand  Cross  wear  a  crov^ 
of  largest  form  pendant  from  the  right  shoulder  and 
the  badge  on  the  left  side  of  the  breast.  The  hat  of 
the  commander  is  adorned  with  a  black,  that  of  the 
grand  cross  knight  with  a  white,  plume. 

The  Order  of  the  Golden  Militta,  or  the  Golden  Spur.— 
Pius  X,  in  commemoration  of  the  high  prestige  to 
which  this  order  had  attained  long  years  before  it  was 
absorbed  into  the  Gregorian  Order  of  St.  Sylvester, 
and  as  a  souvenir  of  the  golden  jubilee  of  the  dogmatic 
definition  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  B.  V. 
M.,  cave  back  to  it  the  separate  existence,  name  and 
grade  of  ancient  days,  and  rendered  it  still  more  illus- 
trious by  placing  it  under  the  patronage  of  the  Imma- 
culate Conception.    To  this  order  are  to  be  admitted 
only  those  who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  an 
eminent  degree,  and  either  by  feat  of  arms,  or  by  their 
writings,  or  by  any  other  conspicuous  work,  have 
spreaa  tne  CatnoUc  Faith,  and  by  their  bravery  have 
safeguarded,  or  by  their  learning  made  illustrious,  the 
Church  of  God.    To  insure  its  continued  hi^  grade 
of  excellence  and  desirability,  its  founder  limited  it  to 
one  class  and  one  hundred  Imights  for  the  entire  world 
C'Multum  ad  excitandos",  7  Feb.,  1905).     It  can  be 
conferred  on  those  already  knighted  in  the  highest 
orders,  even  that  of  Christ,  as  well  as  on  those  who 
have  never  received  any  order  of  knighthood.    The 
honour  is  bestowed  by  a  ''Motu  Proprio"  (Pope's 
own  motion)  and  as  such  is  expedited  through  the 
secretariat  of  State,  and  free  from  all  chancery  fees. 
The  decoration  is  an  eight-pointed  or  bifurcated  yel- 
low enamelled  gold  cross,  with  a  gold  trophy  on  top 
and  pendent  from  the  inner  sides  of  its  bifurcated  foot 
a  gold  spur.    On  a  small  white  medal  in  the  centre  of 
the  cross  the  word  maria  surrounded  b^  a  golden 
circle,  and  on  the  reverse  side  in  the  centre  is  stamped 
the  year  mdccccv  and  in  the  surrounding  circle  the 
inscription  Pius  x  RESTrrun'.    The   badge  is  the 
cross  upon  the  rays  of  a  silver  star.    TTie  ribbon  used 
for  botn  decoration  and  badge  is  red  bordered  with 
white.    Tlie  knights  of  to-day  do  not  wear  the  ancient 
collar.    The  cross  is  worn  suspended  by  the  ribbon  of 
the  order  which  encircles  the  neck.    The  badge  is  at- 
tached by  the  ribbon  to  the  left  breast  of  the  tuiuc. 
The  present  officii  dress  consists  of  a  red  tunic  vm 
two  rows  of  gilt  buttons,  the  collar  and  cuffs  of  which 
are  black  velvet  embroidered  with  threads  of  gold,  Ion?. 
black  cloth  trousers  with  gold  side  stripes;  epaulettes 
ornamented  with  gold  fringes  and  surmounted  on  top 


r 


L  »f:^K^.j 

mi 

i 

w 

1 

PONTIFICAL  DECORATIONS 

1.  SUPREME  ORDER  OF  CHRIST 

2.  ORDER  OF  ST.  GREGORY  THE  GREAT  (CIVIL  DIVISION) 

3.  ORDER  OF  THE  HOLY  SEPULCHRE 


4.  ORDER  OF  PIUS  IX 

5.  ORDER  OF  ST.  SYLVESTER 

6.  PRO  ECCLESIA  ET  PONTIPICE 


DECORATIONS 


669 


DE0ORATIOK8 


with  emblems  of  the  order,  gold  bduib,  oblong  two- 
peaked  hat  fringed  with  gold  ana  adorned  with  a 
gold  knob  displaying  papal  colours,  a  sword  whose 
hilt  is  a  gilt  cross  and  scabbard  black,  and  finally  a 
gilt  sword  belt  with  red  fringe.  All  former  conces- 
sions of  noble  titles,  even  that  of  comit  palatine  to 
Knights  of  the  Golden  Spm*,  were  reyoked  b}r  Pope 
Pius  X,  who  desired  to  have  the  personal  merit  and 
worth  of  the  knights  their  sole  and  only  title  to 
honour  and  respect  among  men. 

Order  of  The  Holy  Sejndchre. — St.  James,  first  Bishop 
of  Jerusalem,  the  Empress  St.  Helena,  Charlemagne, 
Grodf rey  of  Bouillon  and  Baldwin  I,  are  among  the  re- 
puted u)U  nders  of  this  order.  According  to  the  opinion 
of  critical  historians,  the  order  is  a  branch  of  the 
Knights  of  S.  John  of  Jerusalem  which  was  approved 
(1113)  by  Pope  Pascal  II.  Whoever  may  have  been 
its  real  founder,  it  is  certain  that  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury there  was  another  order  following  the  Rule  of 
St.  Basil  that  proceeded  on  a  line  of  action  parallel 
with  that  of  Knights  of  Jerusalem.  XJpon  the  fall  of 
the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  the  ICnights  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  were  driven  out  of  Palestine,  and 
some  of  them  settled  at  Peruaa.  Gradually  the 
order  lost  its  prestige,  and  was  by  Pope  Innocent  VHI 
(1489)  united  to  the  Knights  Hospitallers.  Pope 
Alexander  VI  (1496)  restored  (H^lyot  says,  insti- 
tuted) this  Older  that  by  offering  a  most  desirable  and 
honourable  distinction  as  a  reward  for  the  great  la- 
bour, fatigue  and  expense  of  a  journey  to  the  Holy 
Land,  he  might  incite  wealthy  and  noble  Europeans 
to  visit  and  aid  the  holy  places.  He  reserved  to  him- 
self and  his  successors  the  title  and  office  of  supreme 
head;  but  empowered  the  Franciscan  Custodian  of 
Mount  Sion,  the  Commissary  Apostolic  of  the  Holy 
Land — as  lone,  and  no  longer  than,  the  Jerusalem 
Latin  Patriarchate  remained  vacant — to  confer  in  the 
name  of  the  pope  the  Knighthood  of  the  Holy  Sep- 
ulchre upon  worthy  persons.  Popes  Alexander  VII 
(1665)  and  Benedict  XIII  (1727)  confirmed  the  privi- 
lege. Benedict  XIV  (''In  Supremo  Militantis  Ec- 
clesiip  ",  17  Jan.,  1746)  remodelled  the  rules  of  the  order, 
fixed  the  forms  by  which  the  Franciscan  Custodian 
should  he  guided  in  bestowing  the  decoration,  renewed 
its  ancient  privilcjges  (similar  in  part  to  those  granted 
to  the  Golden  Mihtia),  and  granted  to  the  Kni^ts  the 
right  to  use  the  title  of  C!ount  of  the  Sacred  Palace  of 
Lateran.  Pius  IX,  upon  the  restoration  of  the  Latin 
Jerusalem  Patriarchate  (1847),  withdrew  the  Alexan- 
drine faculty,  and  gave  it  to  the  new  patriarch  and 
his  successors.  The  patriarchs  alone  can  in  future 
create  Knights  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  this  they 
do  not  of  their  own  right,  but  in  the  name  and  by 
virtue  of  the  pope's  authority.  It  was  required  that 
a  knight  should,  except  in  an  exceptional  case,  give 
an  alms  of  100  sequins  in  gold  (equal  to  $2(X))  towards 
the  Holy  Places.  This  money  was  by  decree  (S.  C.  P. 
F.,  1847)  ordered  to  be  turned  over  to  the  patriarch 
for  the  needs  of  the  Holy  Land.  Pope  Pius  IX  (*'  Cum 
multa",  Jan.  24,  1868)  remodelled  and  approved  the 
ancient  statutes,  and  divided  the  order  into  three 
(practically  four)  classes:  (1)  Grand  Cross  Knights, 
(2)  Commanders,  and  (3)  Knights. 

Commanders  of  conspicuous  ability  and  eminent 
virtue  were,  in  rare  cases,  and  by  special  papal  faculty, 
permitted  to  wear  the  badge  on  the  breast,  and  so 
constituted  a  grade  between  the  grand  cross  knight 
and  the  commander.  Pius  X  (''Quam  multa  te 
Ordinemque",  3  May,  1907)  fixed  the  number  of 
grades  at  three,  granted  the  privilege  of  affixing  a 
military  trophy  to  the  cross,  approved  the  creation  of 
patriarchal  representatives  in  other  lands,  as  the  good 
of  the  order  may  demand,  prescribed  the  uniform  for 
them,  reserved  to  himself  and  successors  the  title  of 
grand  master,  and  appointed  the  Latin  Patriarch  of 
Jerusalem  his  lieutenant  and  fidministrator  in  the  be- 
stowing of  this  papal  decoration.    He  also  arranged 


that  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  the  patriarch  and 
the  vacancy  of  the  see,  the  powers  of  the  patriarch 
as  papal  lieutenant  and  administrator  of  tne  Order 
of  Holy  Sepulchre  should  by  law  devolve  upon  the 
cardinal  secretanr  of  state.  The  decoration  is  a  large 
red  enamelled  gold  cross,  with  a  narrow  border  of  gold, 
and  surmount^  by  a  royal  crown.  Prior  to  the  last 
century  the  cross  was  simply  gold  without  the  red 
enamel.  The  form  of  the  cross  is  what  is  called  "poten- 
tiate", that  is,  crutched  or  gibbet-shaped.  The  four 
extremities  are  shaped  as  the  laige  cross  and  four  small 
red  enamelled  crosses  of  simple  form  are  attached.  The 
ribbon  is  of  black  watered  silk.  A  mulberry  trophy 
connects  the  cross  with  the  ribbon.  The  plaque  or 
badge  is  an  eight-pointed  or  rayed  silver  star,  on 
whose  centre  is  the  red  cross  encircled  by  the  two 
green  enamelled  branches,  one  oak  and  the  other 
laurel.  The  collar,  worn  only  on  solemn  occasions, 
is  composed  of  little  Jerusalem  crosses,  and  rings  of 
burnished  gold.  Knights  of  the  first  class  wear  the 
^and  cross  suspended  from  the  wide  black  watered 
silk  ribbon  running  saltier-wise  from  the  right  shoul- 
der to  the  left  side,  and  the  bad^  on  the  breast. 
Commanders  carry  the  cross  and  ribbon  fastened  at 
the  neck.  Knights  wear  the  bad^e  on  the  left  breast. 
.  Patriarchal  representatives,  besides  the  usual  deco- 
rations, are  permitted  to  wear  the  grand  cross  promi- 
nently placed  on  the  breast  of  the  uniform,  but  on  the 
right  side  of  the  breast  of  the  civil  dress.  The  cos- 
tume is  a  white  evening  dress  coat  witJi  collar,  cuffs 
and  breast  facings  of  black  velvet  with  gold  embroid- 
eries, epaulet  of  twisted  gold  cord,  wtn\j&  trousers 
with  gold  side  stripes,  a  sword  and  plumed  hat.  Pius 
X  added  to  the  costume  a  large  white  woolen  mantle 
with  a  red  Jerusalem  cross  on  the  left  breast.  The 
knights  rarely  don  this  official  robe;  ^ey  content 
themselves  with  wearing  the  decorations  on  the  civil 
dress.  This  decoration  may  be  conferred  upon  ladies 
who  are  then  styled  Dames  or  Matrons  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  The  dames  wear  the  insignia  of  their 
grade,  no  matter  what  firade  it  may  be,  always  on  the 
left  side  of  the  breast  (Leo  XIII,  3  Aug.,  1888). 

In  addition  to  these  principal,  there  are  other  minor 
papal  distinctions,  of  which  some  are  temporary  and 
others  permanent.  Permanent  minor  decorations  are 
the  medals:  (1)  The  Pro  Ecclesia  et  Pontifice,  (2) 
Benemerenti,  (3)  The  Holy  Land.  The  medal  Pro 
Ecclesia  et  Pontifice  was  instituted  by  Pope  Leo  XIII 
(17  July,  1888,  "Quod  Singulari")  in  memory  of  his 
golden  sacerdotal  jubilee,  and  bestowed  on  those 
women  and  men  who  had  merited  well  by  aiding  and 
promoting,  and  by  other  excellent  ways  and  means 
assisted  in  making  the  jubilee  and  the  Vatican  Expo- 
sition successful.  This  decoration  was  made  a  per- 
manent distinction  only  in  October,  1898  (Giobbio, 
see  below).  Its  object  is  to  reward  those  who  iu  a 
general  way  deserve  well  of  the  pope  on  account  of 
services  done  for  the  Cliurch  and  its  head.  The 
medal  is  of  gold,  silver  or  bronze.  Tlie  decoration  is 
not  subject  to  chancery  fees.  The  menial  is  a  cross 
made  octangular  in  form  by  fieurs-<ie-lis  fixed  in  the 
angles  of  the  cross  in  a  special  manner.  The  extrem* 
ities  of  the  cross  are  of  a  slightly  patonce  form. 
In  the  centre  of  the  cross  is  a  small  medal  with  an 
image  of  its  founder,  and  encircling  the  image  are 
the  words  leg  xiu  p.  m.  anno  x  (tenth  year  of  hia 

Pontificate).  On  the  obverse  side  are  the  papal  em* 
lems  in  the  centre,  and  in  the  circle  surrounding 
the  emblems  the  motto  pro  deo  et  pontifice  is 
stamped.  On  the  obverse  surface  of  the  branches  of 
the  cross  are  comets — which  with  the  fleurs-de-lis  form 
the  coat  of  arms  of  the  Pecci  family.  On  the  reverse 
side  are  stamped  the  words,  pridis  (left  branch) ;  kau 
(top  branch) ;  januar.  (right  branch) ;  1888  (at  the 
foot).  The  ribbon  is  purple,  with  delicate  lines  of 
white  and  yellow  on  each  border.  The  decoration  is 
worn  on  the  right  side  of  breast. 


DSOBEE 


670 


DKO&STiliS 


BenemerenU  Medals,— Pope  Gregory  XVI  (1832)  in- 
stituted two  medalB  which  ne  called  merit-medals  to 
reward  dvil  and  militaty  daring  and  courage.  Tlie 
military  medal  bean  on  one  side  the  ima«e  of  the 
founder^  and  on  the  other  side  an  angel  holding  a 
scroll  with  the  word  bbnismerenti,  surmounted  bv  the 
papal  emblems  (sometimes  this  medal  is  found  en- 
circled by  a  crown  of  laurels).  It  is  worn  on  the 
breast  suspended  by  a  white  and  yellow  ribbon.  The 
civil  merit-medal  has  engraved  on  its  face  surface  only 
the  word  bbnemerenti,  surrounded  by  a  crown  of 
oak  leaves.    The  ribbon  is  of  the  papal  colours. 

Medal  of  the  Holy  Land. — ^This  was  designed  by  Leo 
Xni  (Dec.  S.C.P.F.  2  May,  1901),  who  empowered  the 
Custodian  of  the  Holy  Land  to  bestow  it  upon  pilgrims 
who  presented  a  certificate  of  good,  moral  Cnnstian 
life  from  their  parish  priest  and  a  genuinely  religious 
intention  in  making  the  journey  to  tne  Holy  Land.  It 
serves  as  a  testimonial  and  souvenir  of  the  pilgrimage. 
The  decoration  is  a  cross  similar  to  that  of  tne  Knights 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  save  that  the  four  small  crosses 
are  crutched  instead  of  being  simple  of  form.  A 
medallion  with  the  inscription  led  xiu  crbavit.  anno 
M.C.M.  occupies  the  centre  of  the  large  cross.  On  each 
branch  of  the  lar^  cross  are  graven  figures  of  the 
Annunciation,  Nativity,  Baptism  of  Christ,  and  Last 
Supper  respectively.  On  the  crutched-snaped  ex- 
tremities are  the  words,  christi  amor  crucifixi 
TRAXiT  NOB.  On  the  reverse  side  of  the  cross,  the 
figure  of  Christ  appears  in  the  centre  of  the  medallion. 
(m  the  branches  are  representations  of  the  Agony  in 
tiie  Garden,  Flagellation,  Crowning  with  Thorns  and 
Crucifixion,  and  on  the  extremities  of  the  branches  the 

words  SIGNUM  SACRI  ITINERIS  HIERSOLIMITANI.      It  is 

worn  on  the  left  breast  suspended  from  a  red  ribbon 
with  four  small  blue  transverse  bars  bordered  with 
white,  which  in  turn  are  edged  with  dark  yellow.  There 
are  Uiree  classes  of  medab:  gold,  silver,  and  bronze, 
adapted  to  the  condition  of  pilgrims  and  the  services 
they  have  rendered  to  the  Holy  Land.  The  recipient 
must  pay  the  cost  of  the  medal  and  bestow  an  alms  of 
at  least  two  dollars  towards  the  maintenance  of  the 
Holy  Places.  Each  year  the  custodian  must  inform 
the  "Propaganda  how  many  decorations  have  been  be- 
stowed and  the  amoimt  of  the  alms  given  (Dec.  S.  C. 
P.F.,  10  June,  1901). 

Popes  Pius  VII  and  Pius  IX  conferred  special  dec- 
orations which  were  temporary  and  not  permanent. 
The  former  bestowed  a  medal  for  military  bravery, 
and  another  for  zeal  and  courage  in  stamping  out  the 
brigandage,  which  had  taken  such  hold  m  the  Papal 
States  during  the  seven  years  of  the  French  occupa- 
tion. The  latter  conferred  the  Mentana  and  Castel- 
fidardo  medals  upon  the  papal  and  French  soldiers 
who  came  to  his  help  at  those  places. 

Pontifical  decorations  are  bestowed  either  by  motu 
propriOf  and  then  forwarded  by  the  secretary  of  state, 
or  upon  petition,  when  they  are  expedited  through  the 
chancery.  The  most  certain  and  expeditious  mode  of 
procuring  the  coveted  decoration  is  by  a  petition 
from  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  the  person  to  be  hon- 
oured. The  petition  must  state  the  name,  age,  coun- 
try, in  short,  a  brief  history  of  the  life  of  the  applicant, 
bringing  out  in  relief  the  eminent  labours  or  work  in 
science,  literature,  arts,  controversial  or  other  religious 
writings,  or  generous  and  selfHsacrificingeifts  or  en- 
dowments made  or  done  for  society,  the  Church  or  its 
head,  which  are  deemed  worthy  of  papal  recognition 
and  reward.  Hiis  petition  must  be  endorsed  by  the 
ordinary  of  the  applicant.  The  endorsement  of 
another  than  the  diocesan  bbhop  will  not  suffice.  The 
petition  is  sent  to  an  agent  at  Rome,  who  presents  it  to 
the  cardinal  chancellor  of  the  orders,  who  not  only 
registers  the  petition  and  the  endorsement  of  it  by  the 
bisnop.  but  also  seeks  information  from  other  sources 
as  to  tne  character  of  the  party  and  his  eminent  good 
works. 


MoKONi.  hu.,  XI.  G  Hq( 
LXIV, ''"  '" 


RONi.  biz.,  XI.  G  Hqq.;  XVIIl.  210  sqq. :  XLIX  81  •iqo.: 
,  01  oqq. ;  LXVIII.  238  aqq.  Qiobbio.  Lesumi  di  dtjdo- 
ecdenaatioa  (Rome,  1899),  Part  I.  lib.  I,  cmi>.  x,  art,  iv, 


514  saq.;  ANDRt-WAONER^  Diet,  de^  ^^H  ^^'""^TiiiS***,  U^*  ^ 

qq.;  1908,  646  sq.     F« , 

omtiqna  Me  iifm.  for  1905. 1907,  and  1908;    Pii  IX  P.  M.  Ada, 


501 ;  IV;  361;  Battandieb,  Ann.  Pant.  Cath.,  1901.  483  «qq.; 
1902.  468  sqq.;  1908,  646  aq.     For  list  of  toufi^U  of  all  the  dee- 


Part  I.  43  flq,,  195  sq. ;  I V.  391  aq. ;  Bernabcomi.  Acta  Gregtmi 
papm  XV'/.I.48;  III.  170  aq.;  AnaUda  BedetiaMiea  {Komt. 
1906).  90  eq.;  1007. 180:  Leonu  XIIL  Poni.  Max,  Ada  (Rotae), 
VIU,2«).282;  Xil.  7i.  P.  M.  J.  RoCK. 

Decree  (Lat.  decretumf  from  decemo,  I  judge),  in  a 
general  sense,  an  order  or  law  made  by  a  superior  au- 
thoritv  for  the  direction  of  others,    in  ecd^iastic&l 
use  it  has  various  meanings.    Any  papal  Bull,  Brief,  or 
Motu  Proprio  is  a  decree  inasmuch  as  these  docu- 
ments are  legislative  acts  of  the  Holy  Father.    In  this 
sense  the  term  is  quite  ancient.    Pope  8iricius  speaks 
(£p.  i,  ad  Himer^  c.  ii)  of  the  decrtta  generalia  of 
Pope  Liberius.    Tne  Roman  Congregations  are  em- 
powered to  issue  decrees  in  matters  which  come  under 
their    particular    jurisdiction.    Each    ecdesiastind 
province,  and  also  each  diocese  may  issue  decrees  in 
their  periodical  synods  within  their  sphere  of  author- 
ity.   The  word  is  also  used  to  denote  certain  roecified 
collections  of  church  law,  e.  g.  The  Decree  of  uratian 
(Decretum  Gratiani).    In  respect  of  the  general  legis- 
lative acts  of  the  pope  there  is  never  doubt  as  to  the 
universal  extent  of  tne  obligation;  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  decrees  of  a  General  Council,  e.  g.  those  of 
the  Vatican  Council.    The  Council  of  Trent  was  the 
first  to  apply  the  term  indiscriminately  to  rulings  con- 
cerning faith  and  discipline  (decreia  de  fide,  de  reforma- 
tione).    The  decrees  of  the  Roman  Congregations 
(q.  V.)  are  certainly  binding  in  each  case  submitted  for 
judgment.    But  there  are  varying  opinions  as  to 
whether  such  judgment  is  to  be  taken  as  a  rule  or  gen- 
eral law  applying  to  all  similar  cases.    The  common 
opinion  is  tnat  when  the  decisions  are  enlaz]gements  of 
the  law  {dedaratio  extensiva  leffia)  the  decisions  do  not 
bind  except  in  the  particular  case  for  which  the  decree 
is  made.    If,  however,  the  decision  is  not  an  enlarge^ 
ment,  but  merely  an  explanation  of  the  law  {dedaratio 
compreheneiva  legie),  such  decree  binds  in  similar 
cases.    The  decrees  of  a  national  council  may  not  be 
promulgated  until  they  have  received  the  i^mroval  of 
the  pope.    The  decrees  of  a  provincial  synod  have  no 
force  until  they  have  been  approved  by  Home.    This 
approval  is  twofold:  ordinary  {inJormA  commumj, 
and  specific  (in  formd  apecifioA),    Tne  former  means 
that  tnere  is  nothing  which  needs  correction  in  tbe  de- 
crees of  the  svnod,  and  they  thereby  have  force  in  the 
province.    Tliis  is  the  approval  generally  given  to 
such  decrees.    If  approval  is  given  in  formd  specified 
the  decrees  have  the  same  force  as  if  the^  emanated 
from  the  Apostolic  See,  though  they  are  binding  only 
in  the  provmce  for  which  they  are  niade.    The  (focrees 
of  a  diocesan  bishop  deal  witn  the  administration  and 
good  order  of  his  diocese.    If  they  are  made  during  a 
lynod,  they  are  diocesan  laws,  are  usually  known  as 
'^diocesan  statutes",  or  "synodal  statutes",  and  bind 
until  revoked  by  the  bishop  or  his  successor.    If  the 
decrees  are  extrarsynodal,  tney  have  force  only  during 
the  lifetime  of  the  bishop  or  until  he  revokeB  them 
himself.     For  the  so-called  "Deeretum  Gelasiaiium 
see  Gblasiub  I,    For  the  use  of  judicial  decreia  ip 
canonical  procedure  see  Permaneder  in  Kirchenlexi- 
kon,  III,  1442-44.     (See  CoNffrrrunoNS,  Ecclesi- 
astical; Eescrifts.) 

Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Churth  (London,  1906):  Smh^; 
ElemeiUa  of  Bcdesiastical  Law  (New  York.  1886);  Benwic» 
XIV.  De  Synodo  ditecewnd;  Bouix,  De  Principiia  Jvris  Caftoif 
id;  Fbbbabib,  Theoria  et  pracit  regtminit  duMeaom. 

David  Dunfobd. 

Becreasi  EoouysiASTicAL.     See  CoNsrmrnoNS, 

EcCUaBIASTICAI* 

Decretals,  Papal. — I.  DEFiNmoN  and  Eariti 
Hmtort. — (1)  In  the  wide  sense  of  the  term  de^f- 
taJUs  (i.  e.  ejndola  decretalis)  signifies  a  pontifical  Ifitw 


DE0BSTAL8 


671 


DEOBSTALS 


containing  a  decretum,  or  pontifical  decision.     (2)  In  a 
narrower  sense  it  denotes  a  decision  on  a  matter  of  dis- 
cipline.    (3)  In  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  it 
means  a  rescript  (rescriptum),  i.e.  an  answer  of  the 
pope  when  he  nas  been  appealed  to  or  his  advice  has 
been  sought  on  a  matter  of  discipline.    Papal  decre- 
tals, therefore,  are  not  necessarily  general  laws  of  the 
Church.    But  frequently  the  pope  ordered  the  recipi- 
ent of  his  letter  to  oonmiunlcate  the  papal  answer  to 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  the  district  to  which  he 
belonged;  and  it  was  their  duty  then  to  act  in  con- 
formity with  that  decree  when  analogous  cases  arose. 
It  is  generally  stated  that  the  most  ancient  decretal  is 
the  letter  of  Pope  Saint  Siricius  (384-398)  to  Hime- 
rius.  Bishop  of  Tarragona  in  Spain,  datii^  from  385; 
but  it  would  seem  theit  the  document  of  the  fourth 
century  known  as  "Canones  Romanorum  ad  Qallos 
episcopos  "  is  nothineelse  than  an  epuiola  decretalU  of 
his  predecessor,  PopeDamasus  (366-384),  addressed  to 
the  bishops  of  Gaul  (Babut,  La  plus  andenne  d^cr^tale, 
Paris,  1904).    The  decretals  ought  to  be  carefully  dl»- 
tinjguished  from  the  canons  of  tne  councOs;  from  the 
•pistoladogmaticcR,  i.  e.  the  pontifical  documents  touch- 
ing on  Catholic  doctrine;  from  the  eov^ituHoneSf  or 
pontifical  documents  given  matu  proprioj  that  is,  docu- 
ments issued  by  the  pope  without  his  being  asked  to 
do  so  or  consulted  upon  a  subject.     (4)  Finally,  under 
the  name  decretals  are  known  certain  collections,  con- 
taining especially,  but  not  exclusively,  pontifical  de- 
cretals.   These  are  the  canonical  collections' of  a  later 
date  than  the  "Decretum"  of  Gratian  (about  1160). 
The  commentators  on  these  collections  are  named  de- 
cretalists,  in  contradistinction  to  the  decretists,  or 
those  who  commented  upon  the  "Decretum"  of  (rra- 
tian.     Eventually  some  of  these  collections  received 
official  recognition;  they  form  what  is  now  known  as 
the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici".    An  account  will  be 
g^iven  here  of  the  collections  of  decretals,  but  par- 
ticularlv  of  those  of  Gregory  IX. 

II.  l^m  ''QUINQUE  COMPILATIONES  ANTIQUiB  De- 

crbtaiium". — ^The  "Decretum"  of  Gratian  was  con- 
sidered in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  as  a  corpus 
juris  canondd,  i.  e.  a  code  of  the  ecclesiastical  laws  tnen 
lu  force.  As  such,  however,  it  was  incomplete;  more- 
over, many  new  laws  were  made  by  succeeding  popes ; 
whence  the  necessi^  of  new  collections  (see  Corpus 
Juris  Canonici).  Five  of  these  collections  exhibited 
pontifical  l^slation  from  the  "Decretum"  of  Grar 
tian  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  IX  (1160-1227). 
These  are  known  as  the  ''Quinc^ue  compilationes  an- 
tique''. On  account  of  their  importance  they  were 
made  the  text  of  canonical  instruction  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Bologna,  and,  like  the  ''  Decretum"  of  Gratian, 
were  glossed,  i.  e.  notes  bearing  on  the  explanation 
and  interpretation  of  the  text  were  added  to  tne  manu- 
scripts. The  first  collection,  the  "Breviariumextrar 
vagantium ' ',  or  summary  of  the  decretals  not  contained 
in  the  "Decretum"  of  Gratian  {vaganUs  extra  Deere- 
ium)f  was  the  work  of  Bernard  of  Pavia  (q.  v.)  and 
was  compiled  1 187-1 191.  It  contains  papal  decretals 
to  the  pontificate  of  Clement  III  inclusive  (1187- 
1191).  The  compilation  known  as  the  third  ((Jompi- 
latio  tertia),  written  however  prior  to  the  second  col- 
lection (Compilatio  secunda),  contains  the  documents 
of  the  first  twelve  years  of  the  pontificate  of  Innocent 
III  (8  Januaiy,  1198 — 7  Januaty,  1210)  Tdiich  are  of  a 
later  date  than  those  of  the  second  compilation,  the 
latter  containing  especially  the  decretals  (^  Clement 
m  and  Cdestine  III  (1191-1198).  The  ''CompUatio 
tertia"  is  the  oldest  official  collection  of  the  legislation 
of  the  Roman  Church;  for  it  was  composed  by  Cardi- 
nal Petrus  ColUvacinus  of  Benevento  by  order  of  Inno- 
cent III  (1198-1216),  by  whom  it  was  approved  in  the 
Bull  "Devotioni  vestrae"  of  28  December,  1210. 

The  second  compilation,  also  called  ''Decretales 
medifD  •'  or  "Decretales  intermedics'',  was  the  work  of 
a  private  individual,  the  Englishman  John  of  Wales 


(de  Walesio,  Walensis,  or  Galensis).  About  1216  aa 
tmknown  writer  formed  the  "Compilatio  quarta",  the 
fourth  collection,  containing  the  decretals  of  the  pon- 
tificate of  Innocent  III  which  are  of  a  later  date  than 
7  Januaiy,  1210,  and  the  canons  of  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  held  in  1215.  Finally,  the  fifth  compilation 
is,  like  the  third,  cm  official  code,  compiled  by  order  of 
Honorius  III  (1216-1227)  and  approved  by  this  pope 
in  the  Bull  "Novsb  causarum''  (1226  or  1227).  It 
must  also  be  noted  that  several  of  these  collections 
contain  decretals  anterior  to  the  time  of  Gratian,  but 
not  inserted  by  him  in  the  **  Decretum".  Bernard  of 
Pavia  divided  his  collection  into  five  books  arranged 
in  titles  and  chapters.  The  first  book  treats  of  per- 
sons possessing  jurisdiction  {judex) y  the  second  of  the 
civil  legal  processes  (/u<fi«tum),  the  third  of  clerics  and 
regulars  {cieTus)^  the  fourth  of  marriage  (connvbiurn)^ 
the  fifth  of  delinquencies  and  of  criminal  procedure 
(crimen).  In  the  four  other  collections  the  same  logi- 
cal division  of  the  subject-matter  was  adopted.  (For 
the  text  see  Friedberg,  Quinque  compilationes  an- 
tious,  Leipzig,  1882.) 

III.  The  Dbcretai^  of  Greoort  IX. — Gregoiy 
IX,  in  1230,  ordered  his  chaplain  and  confessor,  St. 
Rajonond  of  Pefiaforte  (Pennafort),  a  Dominican,  to 
fonn  a  new  canonical  collection  destined  to  replace  all 
former  collections.  It  has  been  isaid  that  the  pope  by 
this  measure  wished  especiallyto  emphasize  his  power 
over  the  Universal  Church.  The  papacy  had,  indeed, 
arrived  at  the  zenith  of  its  power.  Moreover,  a  pope 
less  favotu*ably  circimistanced  would,  perhaps,  not 
have  thought  of  so  important  a  measure.  Neverthe- 
less, the  utility  of  a  new  collection  was  so  evident  that 
it  is  needless  to  seek  other  motives  than  ^ose  which 
the  pope  himself  gives  in  the  Bull  "Rex  pacificus"  of 
6  September.  1234,  viz.,  the  inconvenience  of  recurring 
to  several  collections  containing  decisions  most  diverse 
and  sometimes  contradictory,  exhibiting  in  some 
cases  faps  and  in  others  tedious  length;  moreover,  on 
several  matters  the  l^islation  was  uncertain. 

St.  Raymond  executed  the  work  in  about  four 
vears,  and  followed  in  it  the  method  of  the  aforesaid 
"Quinque  compilationes  antiquae".  He  borrowed 
from  them  the  order  of  the  subject-matter,  the  division 
into  five  books,  of  the  books  into  titles,  and  of  the 
titles  into  chapters.  Of  the  1971  chapters  which  the 
Decretals  of  Gfregory  IX  contain,  1771  are  taken  from 
the  "Quinnue  compilationes  antiquse",  191  are  due  to 
Gr^ory  Ix  himself,  7  are  taken  from  decretals  of  In- 
nocent III  not  inserted  in  the  former  collections,  and  2 
are  of  unknown  origin.  They  are  arranged,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  according  to  the  order  of  the  ancient  collec- 
tions, i.  e.  each  title  opens  with  the  chapters  of  the 
first  collection,  followed  by  those  of  the  second,  and  so 
on  in  regular  order :  then  come  those  of  Innocent  III, 
and  finally  those  of  Gregory  IX.  Almost  all  the  ru- 
brics, or  headings  of  the  titles,  have  also  been  bor- 
rowed from  these  collections,  but  several  have  been 
modified  as  regards  detail.  Tliis  method  considerably 
lightened  St.  Raymond's  task.  However,  he  did  more 
than  simply  compile  the  documents  of  former  collec- 
tions. He  left  out  383  decisions,  modified  several 
others,  omitted  parts  when  ho  considered  it  prudent  to 
do  so,  filled  up  the  gape,  and,  to  render  his  collection 
complete  and  ooncoraant,  cleared  up  doubtful  points 
of  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  law  by  adding  some  new 
decretals.  He  indicated  by  the  words  et  infra  thepas- 
sages  excised  by  him  in  the  former  collections.  They 
are  called  partes  decisce.  The  new  compilation  bore  no 
special  title,  but  was  called  "Decretales  Gregorii  IX" 
or  sometimes  "Compilatio  sexta",  i.  e.  the  sixth  collec- 
tion with  reference  to  the  "  Quinque  compilationes  an- 
tiqu»".  It  was  also  called  "Collectio  seu  liber  ex- 
tra'*, i.  e.  the  collection  of  the  laws  not  contained 
{vaqarUes  extra)  in  the  "Decretum"  of  Gratian. 
Hence  the  custom  of  denoting  this  collection  by  the 
letter  X  (i.  e.  extra). 


DECRETALS 


672 


DEORETALS 


Quotations  from  this  collection  are  made  by  indi- 
cating tiiie  number  of  the  chapter,  the  name  the  work 
gqea  by  (X),  the  number  of  tne  book,  and  that  of  the 
title.  Usually  the  heading  of  the  title  and  sometimes 
the  first  words  of  the  chapter  are  quoted;  for  instance, 
"c.  3,  X,  III,  23'*,  or  "c.  Odoardus,  X,  De  solutioni- 
bus.  Ill,  23",  refers  to  the  third  chapter,  commencing 
with  the  word  Odoardus,  in  the  Decretals  of  Gre^iy 
IX,  book  III,  title  23,  which  is  entitled  "De  solutiom- 
bus".  If  the  number  of  the  chapter  or  of  the  title  is 
not  indicated  it  will  easily  be  learned  on  consulting 
the  alphabetical  indexes  of  the  rubrics  and  of  the 
introductory  words  of  the  chapters,  which  are  to  be 
found  in  all  editions  of  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici''. 
Gregory  IX  sent  this  new  collection  to  the  Univeraities 
of  Boloma  and  Paris,  and,  as  already  stated,  decliured, 
by  thelBull  "Rex  pa^ificus"  of  5  September,  1234, 
that  this  compilation  was  the  official  code  of  the  canon 
law.  All  its  decisions  have  the  force  of  law,  whether 
they  be  authentic  or  not,  whatever  the  juridical  value 
of  the  texts  considered  in  themselves,  and  whatsoever 
the  original  text.  It  is  a  unique  {umca)  collection: 
all  its  decisions  were  simultaneously  promulgated,  ana 
are  e(][ually  obligatory,  even  if  they  appear  to  contain, 
or  if  m  f^t  they  do  contain,  antinomies,  i.  e.  contra- 
dictions. In  this  peculiar  case  it  is  not  possible  to 
overcome  the  difficulty  by  recourse  to  the  principie 
that  a  law  of  later  date  abrogates  that  of  an  earlier 
period.  Finally,  it  is  an  exclusive  collection,  that  is 
to  say,  it  abrogates  all  the  collections,  even  the  official 
ones,  of  a  later  date  than  the  *'  Decretum  "  of  Gratian. 
Some  authors  (Schulte,  Laurin)  maintain  that  Greg- 
ory IX  abrogated  even  those  laws  prior  to  Gratiairs 
time  which  tne  latter  had  not  included  in  his  "  Decre- 
tum", but  this  opinion  is  contested  by  several  others 
(von  Scherer,  Schneider,  Wemz,  etc.).  The  oontro- 
versy  is  no  longer  of  practical  interest. 

The  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX  differ  widely  from  our 
modem  codes.  Instead  of  containing  in  one  concise 
statement  a  legislative  decision,  they  generally  con- 
tain, in  the  beginning,  an  account  of  a  controversy, 
the  allegations  of  the  parties  in  dispute,  and  a  demand 
for  the  solution  of  the  question.  This  is  the  species 
facti  or  the  pars  historica  and  has  no  juridical  value 
whatever.  The  enacting  part  of  the  chapter  {pars 
disposUiva)  alone  has  the  force  of  law.  It  is  this  part 
which  contains  the  solution  of  the  case  or  the  state- 
ment of  the  rule  of  conduct.  The  rubrics  of  the  titles 
have  the  force  of  law  when  their  sense  is  complete,  as 
for  instance,  Ne  sede  vacarUe  aliquid  innovetur  (Let 
there  be  no  innovation  while  the  see  is  vacant).  This 
is  because  the  headings  form  an  integral  part  of  the 
official  code  of  the  laws.  However,  the^r  ought  always 
to  be  interpreted  according  to  the  decisions  contained 
in  the  chapters.  The  historical  indications  concern- 
ing each  chapter  are  often  far  from  being  exact,  even 
since  they  were  corrected  in  the  Roman  edition  of 
1582.  It  may  be  regretted  that  St.  Raymond  did  not 
have  recourse  to  the  original  documents  themselves, 
of  which  a  large  number  must  have  been  at  his  dis- 
posal. Tlie  summaries  (summaria)  which  precede  the 
chapters  are  the  work  of  the  canonists  andi^may  assist 
in  tne  elucidation  of  the  text.  The  partes  deciscB  are 
sometimes  of  like  use,  but  never  when  these  parts  were 
designedly  omitted  from  a  desire  to  extinguish  their 
legal  force  or  because  they  contain  decisions  irrecon- 
cilable with  the  actual  text  of  the  law. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  former  canonical  collections, 
the  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX  were  soon  glossed.  It 
was  customary  to  add  to  the  manuscript  copies  tex- 
tual explanations  written  between  the  lines  (glossa 
inierlinearis)  and  on  the  margin  of  the  page  (glossa 
marginalis).  Explanations  of  the  subject-matter 
were  also  added.  The  most  ancient  glossarist  of  the 
Decretals  of  Gregory  IX  is  Vincent  of  Spain;  then 
follow  Godcfridus  de  Trano  (d.  1245),  Bonaguida 
Aretinus  (thirteenth  century),  and  Bernard  of  Botone 


or  Parmensis  (d.  120^i),  the  author  of  the  ''GlustA 
ordinaria",  i.  e.  of  that  ^oss  to  which  authoritative 
credence  was  generally  given.  At  a  later  date  some 
extracts  were  added  to  the  "Glossa  ordinaria"  from 
the  "  Novella  sive  oommentarius  in  decretales  epistol&s 
Qregorii  IX"  by  Giovanni  d'Andrea  (Johannes 
Anoree).  After  uie  invention  of  printing,  the  Decre- 
tals of  Gregory  IX  were  first  published  at  Strasburg 
from  the  press  of  Heinrich  Eggssteyn.  Among  the 
numerous  editions  which  followed  special  mention 
must  be  made  of  that  published  in  1582,  in  (BdOms 
populi  romani,  by  order  of  Gregory  XIII.  The  text 
of  this  edition,  revised  by  the  Corredores  Romani,  a 
pontifical  commission  established  for  the  revision  of 
the  text  of  the  "Corpus  Juris",  has  the  force  of  law, 
even  when  it  differs  from  that  of  St.  Raymond.  It  is 
forbidden  to  introduce  any  change  into  that  text 
(Brief  "Gum  pro  munere",  1  July,  1580).  Among 
the  other  editions,  mention  may  be  made  of  that  by 
Le  Conte  (Antwerp,'  1570),  of  pnor  date  to  the  Roman 
edition  and  containing  the  partes  deciscs;  that  of  the 
brothers  Pithou  (Paris,  1687) ;  that  of  BOhmer  (Halle, 
1747),  which  did  not  reproduce  the  text  of  the  Roman 
edition  and  was  in  its  textual  criticism  more  audacious 
than  happy;  the  edition  of  Richter  (Leipzig,  1839); 
and  that  of  Friedberg  (Leipasig,  1879-1881).  AH  these 
authors  added  critical  notes  and  the  partes  deeisa. 

To  indicate  the  principal  commentators  on  the 
Decretals  would  necessitate  the  writing  of  a  history 
of  canon  law  in  th^  Middle  Ages.  Mere  mention  will 
be  made  of  Innocent  IV  (d.  1254),  Enrico  de  Segusio 
or  Hostiensis  (d.  1271),  the  "Abbas  antiquus"  (thir- 
teenth century),  Johannes  Andreae,  already  men- 
tioned, Baldus  de  Ubaldis  (d.  1400),  Petrus  de  Ancha- 
rano  (d.  1416),  Franciscus  de  Zabarellis  (d.  1417), 
Dominicus  a  Sancto  Geminiano  (fifteenth  century). 
Joannes  de  Imola  (d.  1436),  Nicol6  Tudesco,  al^ 
called  the  "Abbas  Sicuius",  or  "Modemus",  or 
"  Panormitanus ' '  (d.  1453).  Among  the  modem  com- 
mentators, Manuel  Gonzalez  Tellez  and  Fagnanus 
may  be  oonsulted  advuitageously  for  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  text  of  the  Decretals.  The  Decretals 
of  Gregory  IX  still  form  the  basis  of  canon  law  so  far 
as  it  has  not  been  modified  by  subsequent  collections 
and  by  the  general  laws  of  the  Church  (see  Corfus 
JuBis  Canonici). 

IV.  Later  Collections  of  Decretals. — ^The 
decretals  of  the  successors  of  Gregory  IX  were  also 
arranged  in  collections,  of  which  several  were  official, 
notabiv  those  of  Innocent  IV.  Gregory  X.  and  Nich- 
olas III,  who  ordered  their  aecretals  to  be  inserted 
among  those  of  Gregory  IX.  In  addition  to  these, 
sever^  unofficial  collections  were  drawn  up.  The 
inconveniences  which  Gregory  IX  had  wished  to 
remedy  presented  themselves  again.  For  this  reason 
Boniface  VIII  made  a  new  collection  of  decretals 
which  he  promulgated  by  the  Bull  "Sacrosancts"  of 
3  March,  1298.  This  is  the  "Sextus  Liber  Decre- 
talium";  it  has  a  value  similar  to  that  of  the  Decre- 
tals of  Gregory  IX.  Boniface  VIII  abrogated  all  the 
decretals  of  the  popes  subsequent  to  the  appearance 
of  the  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX  which  were  not  in- 
cluded or  maintained  in  force  by  the  new  collection ; 
but  as  this  collection  is  of  later  date  than  that  of 
Gre^ry  IX,  it  modifies  those  decisions  of  the  latter  col- 
lection which  are  irreconcilable  with  its  own.  Clement 
V,  also,  undertook  to  make  an  official  oolloction,  but 
death  prevented  him  from  perfecting  this  work.  His 
collection  was  published  b^  John  XXII  on  25  October, 
1317,  under  the  title  of  "  Liber  Septimus  Decretalium  ", 
but  it  is  better  known  imder  the  name  of  "Constitu- 
tiones  Clementis  V"  or  "Clementinae".  This  is  the 
last  official  collection  of  decretals.  The  two  following 
collections,  the  last  in  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici  , 
are  the  work  of  private  individuals.  They  are  called 
"Extravagantes^^  because  they  are  not  mduded  in 
the  official  collections.    The  first  contains  twenty 


DiaBBHTM 


673 


raDIOATION 


Goiistitutiom  of  John  XXII,  and  is  named  ''  Extrava- 
g&ntes  Joannis  XXir'*  the  second  is  colled  "Ex- 
travagantes  communes'  and  cotitains  the  decretals  of 
different  popes  commonly  met  with  in  the  manuscripts 
and  editions.  They  were  brought  to  their  present 
form  by  Jean  Chappuis  in  1500  and  1503.  (See 
Corpus  Juris  Oakonici;  Extra vagamtes;  Dkcre- 

TALa.) 

LiwuBiiff.  hUmdwtio  in  corpus  ptHs  eofymid  (Frnbun,  1889); 
ScBNBioER,  Die  l^dvrt  van  den  Kinhen'nehUquMen  {2nd  ed., 
Ratiabon.  1802);  Schulte,  OeschxdiU  der  Quellen  und  der  Litera- 
tur  des  kanoniaehen  Reehts  (Btuttmrt,  187&-1880):  Taunton. 
The  Law  cf  the  Church  ILondoa,  1906) ;  the  manualB  of  ouion 
>aw  cijjfos  ScuBBER,  Wernz,  SaomCllkr,  Smith. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Decretmn  0«la8uuiiim.    See  Qblasius. 

Decretnm  Gratiani,  Sec  Corpus  Juris  Can- 
ONici;  Dbcrbtals,  Papal. 

Decretnm  of  Oratian.  See  Corpus  Juris  Can- 
oNici;  Decrbtam,  Papal. 

D6dication«  a  term  which,  though  sometimes  used 
of  persons  who  are  consecrated  to  God's  service,  is 
more  property  applied  to  the  ''setting  aside"  of  places 
for  a  special  and  sacred  purpose  (cf .  Hastings,  Diet,  of 
the  Bible).  The  Christian,  indeed,  believes  that  God 
is  everywhere  and  that  the  Divine  Imnaensity  fills  all 
space;  but  this  faith  does  not  exclude  the  idea  of  re- 
serving a  special  spot  in  which  the  creature  may  hold 
communion  with  his  Creator  and  worship  Him.  That 
the  setting  saide  of  tiiis  ha^owed  place  was  ever  done 
with  a  certain  show  and  ceremony  is  evident  from  the 
examples  of  Jacob  (Gen.,  xxviii,  18),  of  Moees  (Lev., 
viii,  10),  and  above  all,  of  Solomon  (III  Kings,  viii). 
This  precedent  of  the  CHd  Law  was  too  obvious  to  be 
overlooked  in  the  New,  and  we  may  be  sure  that  the 
modem  custom  was  consecrated  b}r  Apostolic  usage. 
Ill  a  fragment  of  a  martyrolo^  ascribea  to  St.  Jerome 
(cf.  D'Ach^iy,  Spicilegium  IV)  this  passage  occurs: 
"  Romse  dedicatio  primie  Eoclesite  a  beato  Petro  con- 
structe  et  consecrat»".  It  is  not  strange,  however, 
that  owing  to  the  persecutions  of  the  finit  three  cen- 
turies, references  to  the  dedication  of  churches  are  ex- 
tremely rare.  The  first  authentic  accounts  of  this 
kind  are  furnished  by  Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  X,  iii,  iv; 
De  VitA  Const.,  IV,  xliii,  in  P.  G.,  XX),  and  Sosomen 
(Hist.  EccL,  II,  xxvi  in  P.  G.,  XLVII)  in  regard  to  the 
cathedral  of  Tyre  (314)  and  Constantino's  church  at 
Jerusalem.  The  well-known  historical  document  en- 
titled "Peregrinatio  Silvia;"  (Etheria)  has  a  full  de- 
scription of  the  celebration  of  the  dedicatorv  festival  of 
the  church  of  Jerusalem  as  it  was  witnessed  by  our  pil- 

E rim-authoress  in  the  fourth  century  (cf.  Cabrol, 
ivre  de  la  pridre  antique,  p.  311).  Here  it  will 
suffice  to  emphasise,  in  connexion  with  the  dedication 
of  churches,  (1)  the  ritual  employed,  (2)  the  minister, 
(.3)  necessity  and  effects,  and  (4)  festival  and  its  days. 
1.  In  the  beginning  the  dedication  ceremony  was 
very  simple.  A  letter  of  Pope  Vigilius  to  the  Bishop  of 
Bracara  (538)  states:  "Consecrationem  cujuslibet  ec- 
desiie,  in  qu&  non  ponuntur  sanctuaria  (reliquisB) 
celebritatem  tantum  sciraus  esse  missarum"  (We 
know  that  the  consecration  of  any  church  in  which 
brines  (relics)  are  not  pj^oed  consists  merely  in  the 
celebration  of  Masses).  That  the  primitive  ceremonial 
consisted  mainly  in  the  celebration  of  Mass,  where 
there  were  no  relics,  is  also  shown  from  the  old  "Ordines 
Romani"  (cf.  Mabillon,  *' Museum  Italicum*',  II,  in  P. 
L. ,  LXXVIII,  857).  Where  relics  were  used  the  cere- 
mony of  translating  and  depositing  them  under  the 
altar  formed  a  notable  feature  of  the  dedication  rite 
(cf.  "Ordo  of  St.  Amand"  in  Duchesne,  "Christian 
WoTBhlp",  London,  1903,  Appendbc;  ''Ordo  of  Ver- 
ona'* in  Bianchini,  ed.,  "Lib.  Pont.",  III).  The  first 
complete  formulary  is  found  in  the  Gelasian  Sacrament- 
ary  (in  P.  L.,  LXXIV),  which  embodies  the  Roman 
liturgical  usages  of  the  seventh  century.  Here  the 
lV,-43 


rite  consists  of  prayers,  sprinklings  with  hol^r  water, 
and  Uessings.  8o  uuickly,  however,  was  this  ritual 
elaborated  that  in  tne  ninth  century  it  attained  the 
completeness  which  it  enjcmi  at  the  present  time  (cf. 
the  eighth-Ksentury  ''Liber  Sacramentorum''  in  P.  L., 
LXXVIII;  ''Ordines  Romani", ed.  Mart^  <'De  Ant. 
Eccl.  Rit.'*,  Ill ;  Daniel,  "Cod.  lit.",  I).  The  modem 
dedioatorjr  ceremonial  aasimies  two  forms  according  as 
a  church  ia  simply  blessed  or  solemnly  ocmsecrated. 
In  the  former  case  tiie  function  consists  of  prayers, 
m>rinklines  of  holy  water,  and  Mass  (cf .  Roman  Ritual ; 
Sohuhe,  ^'Benedioenda",  p.  155,  etc).  The  solemn 
rite  of  coBsecratioti  is  described  in  the  article  Conse- 
cration. 

2.  The  solemn  ceremony  of  dedication,  or  consecra- 
tion is  fioond  in  the  Roman  Pontifical  and  isperformed 
de  jure  by  a  bishop  (see  Consecration).  Tiie  simpler 
rite,  which  is  siven  in  the  Roman  Ritual,  is  generally 
reserved  to  bimops,  but  may  be  also  undertaken  by  a 
priest  with  episcopal  del^^ation. 

3.  All  chuivhes,  public  oratories  and  semi-public,  if 
destined  for  Divine  worship  in  ferpetuum,  must  be  at 
least  blessed  heiote  the  Sacred  Mysteries  can  be  regu- 
larly cdebrated  in  them  (Cong,  of  Rites,  Sept.,  1871). 
Purely  private  or  domestic  oratories  mav  not  be  thus 
dedicated,  but  simply  blessed  with  the  Benedictio  loci 
(cf .  Roman  Ritual  or  Missal)  on  each  occasion  Mass  is 
said  in  them.  As  a  rule  the  principal  churches  in  every 
district  should  be  consecrated  in  the  solemn  manner, 
but  as  certain  conditions  are  reauired  for  licit  conse- 
cration that  are  not  alwi^  feasible  (cf.  Irish  Eodesi- 
astical  Record,  April;  1908,  p.  430)  the  ordinary  simple 
dedication  rite  is  regavdea  aa  practically  adequate. 
Both  forms  render  the  pboe  sacred,  and  contribute,  as 
sacramentals,  to  the  sanctifioation  of  the  faithful,  but 
they  differ  in  this  t^at  while  a  church  that  is  conse- 
crated must,  if  polluted,  be  reconciled  by  a  bishop,  a 
church  that  is  simply  blessed  may  be  recondlea  in 
similar  circumstances  by  a  priest  (ci.  Roman  Ritual). 

4.  Another  difference  in  the  effects  of  the  two  forms 
of  dedication  is  that  a  consecrated  church  is  entitled 
to  celebrate  eaoh  year  the  anniversary  feast  of  its  con- 
secration, which  IS  to  be  held  as  a  double  of  the  first 
dasB  with  an  octave,  by  all  the  priests  attached  to  the 
church.  A  church  that  is  only  blessed  has  no  right  to 
this  anniversary  feast  unless  per  aeddenSf  that  is,  when 
it  is  included  in  the  special  indult  granted  for  the  simul- 
taneous celebration  of  the  anmversaries  of  all  the 
churches  in  a  district  or  diocese.  In  this  case  tiiie 
Office  and  Mass  must  be  celebrated  in  every  church, 
within  the  limits  of  the  indult  independently  of  their 
consecration  (Cong,  of  Rites,  n.  3863).   Though  any 

•  day  may  be  selected  for  the  dedication  of  a  church,  yet 
the  Roman  Pontifical  sug^ts  those  '^  Sundays  and 
Bolenm  festive  days"  which  admit  the  dedicatory 
Office  and  Mass,  as  well  as  the  anniversary  celebration. 
In  addition  to  the  aUthoritieB  cited  the  foUowinc  may  be 
usefully  consulted*.  Catalani,  C^mmenlarium  in  Fontificale 
Romanum  (Paris,  1S50);  Ferbaris,  Bibliotheca,  s.  v.  Eoaeeia 
(Pktris,  1865);  Da  Hbrdt,  Praxia  Pontifloalie  (Louvain.  1905); 
BEiufAJU>,  Le  PontifiaU  (Paris,  1902).  II;  Mamt.  De  Lode 
Sacrie  (Paris.  1904):  Schulte.  Benedicenda;  Coneecronda  (New 
York,  1906).  very  full  on  ceremonial. 

Patrick  Morrisroe. 

DeAcfttion,  Feast  of  the  (Scriptural),  also  called 
the  Feast  of  the  Machabees  and  Feast  of  Lights  (Jo- 
scphus  and'Talmudic  writLDgs),  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament  (I  Mach.,  iv,  56),  and  in  the  New  (John,  x, 
22).  It  was  instituted  by  Judas  Machabeus  (64  b.  c.)  t  > 
be  celebrated  yearly  on  the  2dth  day  of  the  month 
Kislew  and  during  its  octave,  in  commemoration  of 
the  purification  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  which  had 
been  polluted  b^  Antiochus  Epiphanes  on  that  day 
three  years  previously  (I  Mach.,  iv,  41-64:  II  Mach., 
vi,  2).  Unlike  the  great  Hebrew  annual  feasts,  it 
could  be  celebrated  not  only  in  the  temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem, but  also  in  the  synagogues  of  all  places.  It  was 
observed  with  manifestations  of  joy  siidi  as  i 


DSDUOnOV 


674 


panied  the  Feast  of  Tabemacles,  during  the  celebra- 
tion of  which  the  dedication  of  the  first  temple  had 
taken  pUce.  During  the  celebration  of  the  feast 
mourning  and  fasting  were  not  allowed  to  begin.  The 
Jews  assembled  in  the  temple  and  synagogues  bearing 
branches  of  trees  and  palms  and  singing  psalms;  the 
Hallel  (Pss.  cxiii-cxviii)  being  sung  every  day.  The 
joyful  character  of  the  feast  was  also  miaQifested  by 
illuminations,  whidi  may  have  been  suggested  by  the 
'lighting  of  the  lamps  of  the  candlestick"  when  the 
temple  service  was  nnst  restored  (I  Mach.,  iv,  50-61), 
or,  according  to  very  early  Midrashim,  by  liie  miracu- 
lous biuning  throu^out  the  first  celebration  of  the 
feast  of  a  vial  of  oil  found  in  the  temple.  Since  the 
first  century  a  general  illumination  of  Hebrew  houses 
has  been  customary,  every  house  having  at  least  one 
light,  and  some,  according  to  the  school  of  the  rabbis, 
having  one  light  for  each  person  in  ihe  house  on  the 
first  night  and  twice  the  number  on  each  succeeding 
night;  others  again,  having  eidit  lights  the  first  nig)it 
and  a  lesser  number  each  ni^t  thereafter.  Modem 
Hebrews  keep  the  feast  on  12  Dec.,  with  strictness,  but 
do  not  forbid  servile  work.  At  the  daily  moniing 
prayer  a  different  portion  of  Numbers  vii  is  read  in 
the  Synagogue. 

LxoHTitxyr,  Mora  Hthraiem  (Oxford.  ISM)),  8.  v.;  The  JemUh 
Encuchpedia,  a.  v.  Hanukkak,  the  Hebrew  niune  of  the  feast; 
SchCher,  a  Hist  of  the  Jewtah  Pwp^,  etc.,  2nd  ed.  of  Ens.  tr., 
I,  217,  for  oomplete  bibliogmphy. 

Arthur  L.  McMahon. 

Dedaction  (Lat.  de  dwcere^  to  lead,  draw  out,  de- 
rive from;  especially,  the  function  of  deriving  truth 
from  truth).  I.  As  an  aigument  or  reasoning  process: 
that  kind  of  mediate  inference  by  which  from  truths 
already  known  we  advaiioe  to  a  knowledge  of  other 
truths  necessarily  implied  in  the  former;  the  mental 
product  or  result  of  that  process.  II.  As  a  method: 
the  deductive  method,  by  which  we  increase  our 
knowledge  through  a  series  of  such  inferences. 

I.  The  typical  expression  of  deductive  inference  is 
the  syllogism.  The  essential  feature  of  deduction  is 
the  necessary  character  of  the  connexion  between  the 
antecedent  or  premises  and  the  consequent  or  oonclu- 
non.  Granted  the  truth  of  the  antecedent  judg- 
ments, the  consequent  must  follow;  and  the  firmness 
of  our  assent  to  the  latter  is  conditioned  by  that  of 
our  assent  to  the  foimer.  The  antecedent  contains 
the  ground  or  reason  which  is  the  motive  of  our  assent 
to  the  consequent;  the  latter,  therefore,  cannot  have 
greater  firmness  or  certainty  than  the  former.  This 
relation  of  necessary  sequence  constitutes  the  formal 
aspect  of  deductkm.  It  can  be  realised  most  cleariy 
when  the  argument  is  expressed  s^rmbolieally,  either 
in  the  hypothetical  form  '*  If  anything  (S)  is  M  it  is  F ; 
but  this  S  is  M ;  therefore  this  S  is  F,  or  in  the  cate- 
gorial  form, ''  Whatever  (S)  is  M  is  P;  but  this  S  is  M ; 
therefore  this  S  is  P''.  The  material  aq)ect  of  the  de- 
ductive argument  is  the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  judg- 
ments which  constitute  it.  If  these  be  certain  and 
evident  the  deduction  is  called  dem(mtltraii4m^  the 
Aristotelian  dir6dci^tt.  Since  the  conclusion  is  neces- 
sarily implied  in  the  premises,  these  must  contain 
some  abstract,  general  principle,  of  which  the  con- 
clusion is  a  special  application;  otherwise  the  con- 
clusion could  not  be  necessarily  derived  from  them; 
and  all  mediate  inferences  must  be  deductive,  at 
least  in  this  sense,  that  they  involve  the  recognition  of 
some  universal  truth  and  cb  not  proceed  directly  from 
particular  to  particular  without  the  intervention  of 
the  universal. 

II.  When,  starting  from  general  principles,  we  ad- 
vance by  a  series  of  deductive  steps  to  the  discovery 
and  proof  of  new  truths,  we  employ  the  deductive  or 

Snthetic  method.  But  how  do  we  become  certain  of 
ose  principles  which  form  our  starting-points?  (1) 
We  may  accept  them  on  authoritv — as,  for  example. 
Christians  accept  the  deposit  of  Christian  revelation 


on  Divine  authority — and  proceed  to  draw  out  their 
implications  by  the  deductive  reasoning  which  las 
shaped  and  moulded  the  science  of  theolo^.  Or  (2) 
we  ma^  apprehend  them  by  intellectual  mtuition  as 
self-evident,  abstract  truths  concerning  the  nature  of 
thought,  of  being,  of  matter,  of  quantity,  number, 
etc.,  and  .thence  proceed  to  build  up  the  deductive 
sciences  of  logic,  metaphysics,  mathematics,  etc. 
D6wn  throu^  the  Middle  Ages  enlightened  thought 
was  fixed  almost  exclusively  on  those  two  groups  of 
data,  both  sacred  and  profane;  and  that  accounts  for 
the  fulness  of  the  scholastic  development  of  deduction. 
But  (3)  besides  beinp  and  quantity,  the  universe  pre- 
sents change,  evolution,  regular  recurrences  or  repeti- 
tion of  particular  facts,  from  the  careful  observation 
and  analvsis  of  which  we  may  ascend  to  the  discovery 
of  a  thira  great  class  of  general  truths  or  laws.  This 
ascent  from  the  particular  to  the  general  is  called  in- 
ductbn,  or  the  inductive  or  analytic  method.  Goni- 
paratively  little  attention  was  paid  to  this  method 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  Apparatus  for  the  accurate 
observation  and  exact  measurement  of  natural  phe- 
nomena was  needed  to  sive  the  first  real  impetus  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  phjrsical,  natural,  or  inductive 
sciences.  In  these  departments  of  research  the  mind 
approaches  reality  from  the  side  of  the  concrete  and 
piarticidar  and  ascends  to  the  abstract  and  general, 
while  in  deduction  it  descends  from  the  general  to  the 
particular.  But  althou^  the  mind  moves  in  oppo- 
site directions  in  both  methods,  neverUieless  the 
reasoning  or  inference  prpper,  employed  in  induction, 
is  in  no  sense  different  from  deductive  reasoning,  for 
it  too  implies  and  is  based  on  abstract,  necessary 
truths. 

MxRCiKH,  Lqgiaue  (Louvaia,  1006);  Dk  Wvlv.  SckcUuHeitm 
(Hd  and  New  (DubUn,  London.  New  York,  1907). 

P.  CJorFEY. 

Deeii  Abbbt  op,  a  once  famous  Scotch  monasten-. 
According  to  the  Celtic  legend  St.  Columcille,  his  dis- 
ciple Drostan,  and  others,  went  from  Hy  (lona)  into 
Budian  and  established  an  important  missionaiy 
centre  at  Deer  on  the  banks  of  the  Uae  on  lands  given 
him  by  the  mormaer  or  chief  of  the  district  whose  son 
he  had  by  his  prayers  freed  of  a  dangerous  ilbess. 
This  happened  probably  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
sixth  centu^.  Columcille  soon  after  cantinued  his 
missionary  journeys  and  left  Drostan  as  abbot  at 
Deer.  Drostan  died  here  about  606.  The  legend  re- 
ceives confirmation  from  the  fact  that  the  parish  d 
Aberdour  v^ierated  St.  Drostan  as  patron.  In  later 
years  the  Normans  had  little  sympathv  with  the 
Celtic  institutions,  so  we  find  the  Earl  of  Buchan  in 
1219  founding  the  Cistercian  abbev  of  New  Deer  about 
two  miles  westward  of  Columcille's  foundation,  grant- 
ing  to  the  new  abbey  a  portion  of  the  lands  of  Old 
D^r,  the  rest  going  to  the  maintenance  of  a  parochial 
church.  In  1551  the  son  of  the  Earl  Marischal  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle  Robert  Keith  as  titular  Abbot  of  Deer 
holding  the  abbey  lands  in  commendam.  The  flour- 
ishing monastery  soon  fell  a  prey  to  the  Scottish  Re- 
formers. Among  its  treasures  is  the  venerable  docu- 
ment known  as  the  "Book  of  Deer*'.  This  is  one  of 
the  oldest  monuments  of  Scottish  literature,  and  was 
ably  edited  in  1869  for  the  Spalding  dub  by  its  secre- 
tary, Dr.  John  Stuart.  It  had  become  known  to 
scholars  in  1858  when  it  was  found  in  the  University 
of  Cambridge.  It  was  then  also  discovered  that  the 
university  had  come  into  its  possession  in  1715  among 
the  boolcs  of  Dr.  John  Moore,  Bishop  of  Norwich, 
which  had  been  purchased  by  George  I  and  presented 
by  him  to  the  university;  how  Bishop  Moore  had  ob- 
tained it  is  not  known.  The  manuscript  is  a  small, 
nearly  square  octavo  numbering  eighty-six  folios  of 
piurchment,  written  on  both  sides  of  the  leaf  in  a  dark 
brown  ink,  in  a  hand  wonderfully  dear  and  legible. 
Tlie  pages  had  been  ruled  with  a  sharp  pointed  instru- 


DXr AMATION 


675 


DBFINinON 


lueot  and  the  letters  had  been  placed  under  the  lines, 
not  on  them.  It  contains  the  nist  six  diapten  of  the 
Gospel  ci  St.  Matthew,  a  part  of  the  fifth  chapter  of 
St^  bark,  the  entire  Gospd  of  St.  John,  a  part  of  the 
office  for  visiting  the  sick  and  the  Apostles'  Creed. 
The  text  is  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  with  some  pecul- 
iarities oommon  to  Irish  Bible  editions,  and  is  written 
in  the  weU>known  minuscule  lettering  of  the  Irish 
scribes;  the  initial  letters  wem  greatly  enlarged  and 
ornamented  with  patches  of  oofour  in  dragonesque 
forms,  and  the  pages  have  ornamental  borders. 
There  are  also  full  portraits  of  the  Evangelists.  The 
Book  then  contains  entries  in  the  Gaelic  tongue,  the 
moat  important  being  that  giving  an  account  of  the 
foundation  of  the  Abbey  o£  Deer.  The  author  was 
probably  a  member  of  that  community  and  liv^  per- 
ha;ps  in.  the  ei^th  oentuiy .  He  gives  no  clue  to  his 
identity,  but  simis  himself  a  poor  wretch  and  asks  for  a 
blessing.  The  last  document  in  the  Book  is  a  Latin 
charter  from  the  great  and  good  King  David. 

MoHTAUumsBar,  Mcnksofthe  Weat  (N«w  York,  1806),  U.  63; 
The  hiah  Bedeaitutieal  Record  (1892).  865;  O'Hanjlon,  Uvea 
of  the  Irish  Saints  (Dublin,  1875).  VI,  389;  BsixasHEnf ,  Oest^. 
der  kaik.  Kirehg  m  SchotOMd  (MaiDB.  1888),  1. 193  and  jMMim 
(tr.  HvMTSii'BLAiR);  Janadschsk,  Orig,  Cisi.  (1877).  I,  223; 
Skenb,  Ceilie  ScoUand,  It, 

Francis  Mershman. 

Daf  amtftioii.    See  Rbputation. 

Defect.    See  Ibrsgularity. 

Dtf  ender  of  the  Faith.    See  Henrt  VIII. 

Defender  of  the  Mettimoniel  Tie  (Defetuor  main- 
mofm),  an  o&mA  whose  duty  is  to  defend  the  mar- 
riage-bond m  the  prooedure  prescribed  for  the  hearing 
of  matriaionial  eauses  whien  involve  the  validity  or 
nullity  of  a  marriage  already  oontraeted.  Benedict 
XIV,  by  his  Bull  ^Dei  Miaeiatione'',  3  November, 
1741,  introduoed  this  official  into  the  marriage  pro- 
cedure to  guard  against  abuses  occurring  from  the 
ordinary  procedure.  An  annulment  of  a  marriage 
might  lesult  from  the  appearance  of  only  one  of  the 
mairied  eouple  who  desued  freedom  to  enter  upon  a 
new  marriage,  while  the  other  was  apathetic  and  con- 
niving at  the  annulmoity  or  at  times  unable  or  indis- 
posed to  incur  expense  to  uphold  the  marriage-tie,  es- 
pecially if  it  implied  an  app«d  to  a  hi^er  court.  Per- 
haps, too,  the  judicial  decision  mi^t  mduce  change  of 
opinion  without  sufficient  warrant.  Scandal  arose 
from  the  frequency  of  dissolution  of  marriages  with 
the  freedom  to  enter  new  contracts.  The  Bull  ''Dei 
Miseratione"  recjuires  that  in  each  diocese  the  ordi- 
nary shall  appoint  a  defender  of  marriage,  upright  in 
character,  and  learned  in  the  law,  an  ecclesiastic  if 
possible,  a  layman  if  necessary.  The  bishop  may  sus- 
pend him  or  remove  him  for  cause,  and,  if  he  is  pre- 
vented from  taking  part  in  the  prooeduie,  substitute 
one  with  th6  requisite  qualifications.  He  must  be 
summoned  to  any  trial  in  which  there  is  question,  be- 
fore a  competent  judge,-  of  the  validity  or  nullity  of  a 
marriage,  and  any  prooeedinc;  will  be  null  if  he  is  not 
dxily  cited.  He  must  have  the  opportunity  to  exam- 
ine the  witnesses,  and,  orally  or  in  writing,  to  brin^  for- 
ward whatever  arguments  may  favour  the  validity  of 
the  marriage.  He  must  be  cited  even  though  the 
party  interested  in  the  defence  of  the  marriage  be 
present,  and  all  the  acts  of  the  court  are  always  to  be 
accessible  to  him,  and  at  any  time  he  has  a  right  to 
bring  forward  new  documents  or  witnesses  favourable 
to  tTO  marriage.  On  assuming  his  office  he  must  take 
an  oath  to  f  mfil  its  duties  and  he  is  expected  to  renew 
the  oath  in  each  ease.  If  the  judge  decides  in  favour 
of  the  marriage  the  defender  takes  no  further  action 
unless  its  opponent  appeals  to  a  higher  court.  Here  a 
defender  undertakes  ane^  the  defence  of  its  validity. 
If  the^  judge  of  first  instance  decides  against  the  validity 
of  the  marriage  and  no  one  else  appeals,  the  defender 
of  marriage  is  requirsd  by  the  Bull  ''Dei  Miseratione" 


in  all  cases  to  appeal  to  the  higlier  court.  If  the  first 
two  courts  agree  upon  the  uuTltty  of  a  marriage  the 
defender  need  not  appeal,  unless  his  eonscienoe  tsUs 
him  that  a  serious  mistaks  was  made.  If  he  feels  it 
his  duty  to  appeal  a  new  marriage  may  not  be  con- 
tracted till  his  plea  is  heard.  The  decision  in  matri- 
monial cases  is  never  absolutely  final ;  so  that  if  new, 
serious  reason  appears  for  the  validity  of  a  marriage, 
it  must  be  judicially  investigated. 

This  legislation  was  extended  and  enforced  in  the 
United  States  by  an  Instruction  of  Propaganda  in  1883, 

?ublished  with  the  "Acts  and  Decrees  of  the  Third 
lenary  OouncO  of  Baltimore''.  Thou^  the  Bull 
"Dei  Miseratione''  does  not  require  it,  the  practice  of 
the  Roman  Congregations  extends  the  intervention  of 
the  defender  .to  cases  of  true  marriages  not  consimi- 
n^ated  where  the  Holy  See  is  reouested  to  grant  a  dis- 
pensation for  a  new  marriage.  The  obluatioti  of  the 
defender  to  appeal  from  the  decision  of  nrst  instance, 
adverse  to  the  validity  of  a  marriage,  has  been  modi- 
fied by  the  Holy  See  in  several  cases,  where  the  inva- 
lidity depends  lipon  facts  indisputably  proven,  throu^ 
the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office  (5  June,  1889) 
whose  decree  was  declared  (16  June,  1894)  to  extend 
to  the  whole  Church.  Where  the  decree  "Tametsi" 
of  the  0>uncil  of  Trent  was  binding,. requiring  the 
presence  of  the  parish  priest  for  the  validity,  if  only  a 
civil  ceremonv  was  used,  the  bishop  may  declare  the 
marriage  null  without  the  participation  of  the  de- 
fender. In  view  of  the  new  matrimonial  legislation 
contained  in  the  decree  "Ne  Temere"  of  Pius  X  this 
also  holds  anywhere  if  a  marriage  is  attempted  only 
before  a  civil  authoritv  or  non-Catholic  minister  of 
religk)n.  Yet  if  an  ecdesiastical  form  had  beeci  used, 
and  the  nullity  from  dandesttnity  waa  questioned,  his 
presence  is  jeauired;  but  if  the  impediment  of  dan- 
destinity  clearly  appears  he  need  not  appeal.  This  is 
true  also  if,  through  absence  of  ecdesiaatieal  dispensa- 
tion, there  is  an  impediment  of  disparity  of  worship, 
or  of  consanguinity,  or  of  affinity  from  lawful  inter- 
oourse,  or  of  spiritual  relation^ip,  or  of  certain  pre- 
vious legitimate  marriage  still  existing.  In  these 
cases  the  ordinary  may,  with  the  participation  of  the 
defender,  declare  the  marriage  null,  and  the  defender 
is  not  required  to  appeal.  This,  however,  was  de- 
clared bv  the  Holy  Office  (27  May,  1901)  to  be  imder- 
stood  only  of  cases  in  which  certainly  and  cleariy  the 
impediment  is  proven;  otherwise  the  defender  must 

Eroceed  to  the  higher  court.  The  defender  is  ex- 
orted  to  exercise  his  office  gratuitously,  but  he  may 
be  compensated  from  fees  imposed  by  the  oourt  or 
from  other  diocesan  rssources. 

Bbnewct  XIV,  BuU  *'JMi  Mvufratume**  <8  Nov.,  17411). 
in  BuUar.  Mam..  XVI,  48  aq.;  Cpfledanea  S.  Cong,  de  Prop. 
Fide.  noB.  1572,  1573,  .1576;  Gabpajuu,  Ve  Matrimonio  (Fsltib, 
1004),  ch.  viii.;  Laurbnttus,  Ms/.  Jur.  Etd.  (Freiburgi  1908), 
V.  no.  150;  Smith,  Elammta  of  Eed>.Lauf  (New  York.  1886).  II: 
Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (Londcvi.  1006):  Babbibky, 
Le  D^enseur  du  lien  matr.  m  Revue  dee  Sciences  Ecdes.  (May- 
June,  1899);  BouDtNHON,  Le  MariaQe  Rdigieux  (Paris,  lOCX^. 

R.  L.  BUBTSELU  ' 

Defensor  Ecclesia.    See  ADvocATtrs.EccLESLfi. 

Definitioii,  TtiEOLoaiCAL. — The  Vatican  Council 
(Sess.  iv,  cap.  iv)  solemnlv  taught  the  doctrine  of 
papal  infallibility  in  the  following  terms:  "The  Ro- 
man Pontiff,  when  he  speaks  ex  camedrA,  that  is  to  say, 
when  m  the  exercise  of  his  office  of  pastor  and  teacher 
of  all  Christians  he,  in  virtue  of  his  supreme  Apostolic 
authoritv.  defines  that  a  doctrine  on  faith  or  morals  is 
to  be  held  by  the  whole  Church,  by  i^e  assistance  of 
Qod  promise  to  him  in  the  person  of  Blessed  Peter, 
has  that  infallibilitv  with  which  it  was  the  wiU  of  Our 
Divine  Redeemer  that  His  Church  should  be  furnished 
in  defining  a  doctrine  on  faith  or  morals. ' '  From  tiiis 
teaching  we  detain  an  authoritative  notion  of  the 
meaning  of  definition  in  its  theological,  as  distinct 
from  its  philosophical,  or  canonical,  sense.  It  is  an 
irrevocable  decision,  by  which  the  supreme  teaching 


DSFIMITOE 


676 


DsramoB 


authority  in  the  Church  decides  a  question  appertain- 
ing to  faith  or  morals,  and  which  binds  ttie  whole 
Cburch.  From  this  explanation  it  will  be  seen  that 
four  conditions  are  required  for  a  theological  defini- 
tion. 

(1)  It  must  he  a  decisum  by  the  aupreme  teaching  aur 
tharity  in  the  Church. — ^There  are  two  organs  of  su- 
preme doctrinal  authority,  viz.:  Ihe  pope,  speaking  in 
his  official  capacity  of  jiastor  and  teacher  ot  all  Chris- 
tians, and  the  bishops  of  the  Catholic  Church  dis- 
persed throughout  the  world  or  assembled  in  a  general 
ooimcil.  The  pope,  as  successor  of  St.  Peter,  has  de- 
finitive authonty,  in  the  exercise  of  which  he  speaks 
neither  as  a  private  individual,  nor  as  a  mere  theolo- 
gian, nor  as  Bishop  of  the  Diocese  of  Rome,  nor  as 
Metropolitan  of  the  Roman  Province,  nor  as  Primate 
of  Italy,  nor  as  Patriarch  of  the  Western  Church,  nor 
as  head  of  any  Roman  Congregation,  but  as  supreme 
pastor  of  the  whole  Church.  The  bishops  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  assembled  wiUi  the  pope  in  a  general  coun- 
cil have  the  same  doctrinal  authoritv  with  which  the 
pope  is  endowed ;  and  so  have  the  bishops  dispersed 
throu^out  the  Catholic  world  when,  in  conjunction 
with  &e  pope,  they  teach  a  doctrine  of  faith  or  morals 
to  be  irrevocably  held  by  all  Christians.  These  two 
supreme  teaching  authonties  are  the  or^ns  of  active 
infallibility  from  which  alone  a  theological  definition 
can  proceed. 

(2)  The  deeinon  muet  concern  a  doctrine  of  faith  or 
morale. — ^Faith  means  the  speculative  doctrines  of 
revelation;  morals,  the  practical  doctrines  of  revela- 
tion. Faith  is  what  we  have  to  believe,  morals  what 
WQ  have  to  do,  in  order  to  obtain  eternal  life.  Both 
faith  imd  morals  are  parts  of  the  deposit  whidi  Christ 
left  for  iSbe  guidance  of  His  Church ;  so  far  as  the  obli- 
gation of  assent  is  concerned,  there  is  no  difference  be- 
tween them;  the  distinction  is  made  for  the  sake  of 
convenience  rather  than  for  the  sake  of  any  substan- 
tial difference  between  them  so  far  as  they  are  the  ob- 
jects of  active  infallibility.  Doctrines  of  faith  or 
morab  which  are  formally  revealed  are  called  the  di- 
rect object  of  infallibility,  whfle  doctrines  which  are 
only  virtually  revealed,  or  are  only  intimately  con- 
nected with  revelation,  such  as  d(^;matic  or  moral 
facts,  aro  called  the  indirect  object  of  infallibility. 
The  Church  has  authority  to  issue  definitions  in  con- 
nexion with  both  the  direct  and  the  indirect  objects  of 
active  infallibility.  It  is  not,  however,  de  fide  that  the 
Church  has  infallible  authority  over  the  indirect  doc- 
trines of  faith  and  morals,  thou^  it  cannot  be  denied 
without  theological  censure. 

(3)  The  decmon  muM  bind  the  Univereal  ChurA. — 
Decrees  which  bind  only  a  part  of  the  Church  aro  not 
definitions;  but  only  those  which  command  the  assent 
of  all  the  faithful.  It  is  not.  however,  abeolutelv 
necessary  that  the  decree  should  be  directly  sent  or  ad- 
dressed to  the  whole  Church ;  it  is  quite  sufficient  if  it 
is  made  clear  that  the  supreme  teaching  authority 
means  to  bind  the  Universal  Church.  Thus,  St.  Leo 
addressed  his  famous  dogmatic  definition  to  Flavian, 
yet  it  was  rightly  considered  as  binding  the  Universal 
Chim^;  and  Pope  Innocent  sent  his  decree  to  the 
African  Chureh  alone,  yet  St.  Augustine  exclaimed: 
Cauea  finita  eet,  uHnam  aliquando  fimaiur  error! 
(Serm.  li,  de  Verb.  Ap.,  c.  vii). 

(4)  The  decitAon  muti  he  irrevocable  or,aeitie  called, 
definitive. — ^Arguments  contained  in  conciliar  defini- 
tions are  proposed  by  the  supreme  teaching  authority 
in  the  Churdi,  they  concern  faith  and  morals,  and  th^ 
bind  the  Universal  Church;  yet  they  are  not  defini- 
tione,  because  thev  lack  this  fourth  condition — ^they 
are  not  definitively  proposed  for  the  assent  of  the 
whole  Churdi.  Two  things  are  implied  by  the  state- 
ment that  a  decree,  to  be  a  definition,  must  be  final  and 
irrevocable.  The  decree  must  be  the  last  word  of  su- 
preme teaching  authority;  there  must  be  no  possibil- 
ity of  re-opening  the  question  in  a  spirit  of  doubt;  the 


decree  must  settle  the  matter  for  ever.  Hie  decree 
must  also,  and  in  consequence  of  its  final  nature,  bmd 
the  whole  Chureh  to  an  irrevocable  internal  emeoi. 
This  assent  is  at  least  an  assent  of  ecdesiastieal  faith; 
and  in  doctrines  which  are  formally  revealed  it  is  alio 
an  assent  of  Divine  faith.  When  the  definitioa  com- 
mands an  irrevocable  assent  of  Divine  faith  as  well  aa 
of  ecclesiastical  faith,  the  defined  dooma  ia  said  to  be 
de  fide  in  the  technical  sense  of  this  pnraae.  It  k  well 
to  note  that  the  definitive  nature  of  a  decree  does  not 
prevent  the  defined  doctrine  from  being  examined 
anew  and  defined  again  by  the  pope  or  a  genoal  coun- 
cil ;  what  it  excludes  is  a  re-openii»  of  the  question  in  9 
spirit  of  doubt  about  the  truth  or  the  doctrine  which 
has  been  already  definitivel^r  settled. 

It  has  been  sometimes  said  that  it  ia  impossible  to 
know  whether  or  not  a  theological  definition  has  been 
issued;  but  very  few  words  are  needed  to  show  that 
the  assertion  is  without  foundation.  At  times,  doubt 
will  remain  about  the  definitive  nature  of  a  decree,  but 
as  a  rule  no  possibility  of  doubt  is  consistent  with  the 
terminolog}r  of  a  definitive  decree.  Thus  in  the  doc- 
trinal teaiSinff  of  a  general  council,  anathema  attached 
to  condemned  errors  is  a  certain  si^  of  an  infallible 
definition.  Words  also  like  those  m  which  Pius  IX 
solemnly  defined  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception of  the  Blessed  Virgin  give  irrefutable  proof  of 
the  definitive  nature  of  the  decree:  "  By  the  authonty 
of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  of  the  Blessed  Apostles 
Peter  and  Paul,  and  by  Our  own  authority,  We  oeclare, 
pronoimce  and  define  the  doctrine  .  .  .  to  be  revealed 
by  God  and  as  such  to  befirmly  and  immutahiy  held  by 
all  the  faithful. "  No  set  form  of  worda  is  necessary ; 
any  form  which  deariy  indicates  that  thefourreauisite 
conditions  are  present  suffices  to  show  that  ihe  decree 
is  a  definitk>n  m  the  strict  sense.  It  should  be  noted 
that  not  everything  contained  in  a  definition  is  infal- 
libly defined.  Thus,  aigua?ents  from  Scripture,  tradi- 
tion, or  theologjical  reason,  do  not  come  under  the  ex- 
eroise  of  definitive  authority.  Incidental  statements, 
called  obiter  dictOf  are  also  examples  of  non-definitive 
utterances.  Only  the  doctrine  itself,  to  which  those 
arguments  lead  and  ^diich  these  obiter  dicta  illustrate, 
is  to  be  considered  as  infallibly  defined.  (See  Infal- 
UBiUTT ;  CBNauRss,  THBOiiOGiCAi. ;  DooMATic  Facts  ; 

BSATinCATION  AND  CANONISATION ;  FaITH.) 

HuNTKB,  OuUinei  of  DagmoHe  TheUom  (New  Yofk,  18B6),  I; 
WiLBBLU  AND  ScANNBix.  A  Monuol  0f  CoihoUc  T^WoMf  (Ne« 
York.  1808).  I;  Dbnunoeii,  Bwhindion  (Freiburs.  1890). 

J.  H.  Harxt. 


Deliiiitor  (in  Canon  Law),  an  official  in  secular 
deaneries  and  in  certam  retimous  otders.  Among 
regulars,  a  definitor  is  appointed  as  a  counsellor  c^  the 
provincial  or  general  superior  with  certain  determinate 
TOwere.  (See  Dbpinitobs  in  Rkuqxoub  OsnEBS.) 
Dioceses  are  usually  divided  into  deaneries,  and  these 
deaneries  are  again  sub-divided  into  districts  which 
are  sometimes  «dled  definiUanee.  Over  each  district 
is  placed  an  official  styled  definitor,  who  oversees  the 
administration  of  ecclesiastical  prc^rty  and  also 
gives  aid  to  the  dean  in  the  more  unportant  duties  of 
his  office.  Such  definitors  are  elected  by  the  rural 
chapters  with  the  bishop's  approval,  or  in  some  cases 
are  directly  appointed  by  the  ordinary.  AncientlT, 
their  principal  duty  was  to  care  for  and  divide  the 
revenues  of  a  prebend  between  the  heirs  of  the  de- 
ceased and  the  new  occupant,  and  likewise  to  deter 
mine  what  proportion  of  income  belonged  to  outo)ing 
and  incoming  beneficiaries  of  a  church.  The  definitor 
acts  as  the  representative  of  the  dean  when  thebtter 
is  absent  or  incapacitated  by  illness  or  inBgulari^- 
It  is  his  duty  to  announce  to  the  bishop,  likewise,  the 
death  of  the  dean  and  conduct  preparations  for  ue 
election  <rf  a  successor.  It  is  to  be  observed  that 
definitora  are  in  no  sense  necessary  offieiais  of  a  dio- 
cese, and  that  the  duties  here  assigned  to  them  are 


MsmnxoES 


677 


DEQRADATIOV 


sometimeB  ful£Ued  by  othere.  .In  some  decanal  or 
rural  chs^tets  the  title  given  to  the  d^nitor  is  cham- 
berlain or  treasuret. 

1.AUIUBNTXU8.  Insiitulumes  Jur,  Ecd.  (Freiburij^  1003).   Cor- 
tnts  Juris  Canonici,  o.  4,  X.X  24  (c.  xiii.  Cone.  Ticin.,  an.  850). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Definitonf  (in  Hsltoious  Orders),  generally 
speaking,  Uie  governing  council  of  an  order.  Bergier 
describe  them  aa  those  chosen  to  represent  the  oraer 
in  eeneral  or  provincial  chapters,  but  this  is  not  alto- 
gether correct,  for  the  usage  varies  in  different 
orders.  With  the  Dominicans  all  who  are  sent  to 
represent  the  provinces  in  a  general  chapter  are  defini- 
tors ;  amongst  the  Chmiac  monks  there  existed  a  simi- 
lar regulation  (though  normally  in  the  Benedictine 
Order  definitors  have  no  place).  .  On  the  other  hand, 
in  the  Frandscan  Order,  definitors  are  elected  by  the 
general  and  provincial  cnapters  to  assist  the  general  or 
provihctal  superiors  in  the  government  of  the  order 
and  a  similar  rule  exists  amongst  the  Carmelites  and 
the  Henpits  of  9t.  Augustine.  But  in  this  case  it 
would  seem  that  the  dennitors  form  a  sort  of  execu- 
tive committee  of  the  chapter,  since  they  are  subject  to 
the  legislative  enactments  of  the  chapter.  Definitors, 
strictly  so  called,  have  a  decisive  vote  in  congregation 
equally  with  the  general  or  provincial  superior;  in 
this  they  differ  from  mere  consultors  such  as  exist  in 
some  orders  and  in  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Nor  may  the 
general  or  provincial  superior  act  in  matters  of  greater 
nnoment  without  taking  the  vote  of  the  definitors.  A 
definitor,  however,  has  the  ri^t  to  vote  only  when 
present  in  congregation.  When  called  to  ^ve  his 
opinion  in  congregation  he  is  bound  in  conscience  to 
speak  candidly  according  to  his  own  judgment,  even  if 
he  knows  his  opinion  to  be  contrary  to  that  of  the 
other  definitors,  and  if  he  fails  to  do  so  in  matters  of 
gravity,  he  is  held  to  sin  gravely.  Yet  when  the  vote 
is  taken,  he  is  bound  to  sign  the  declaration  of  the 
majority,  though  he  has  the  right  to  insist  upon  a 
minori^  report.  In  some  orders,  e.  g.  the  Capuchin, 
the  junior  definitor  gives  his  opinion  first,  that  he 
may  not  be  influenced  bv  the  seniors;  but  in  other 
ordiers  the  senior  speaks  first.  Again,  in  some  orders 
the  local  superiors  are  appointed  by  the  definiton;  in 
others  they  are  dected  by  the  local  commimity. 
Thus,  amongst  the  Franciscans,  the  provincial  supe- 
ricMT  is  selected  by  the  provincial  chapter,  subject  to 
confirmation  by  the  minister  general  and  hi^  defini- 
tors, whereas  the  superiors  of  houses  are  appointed 
directly  by  the  provincial  definitors:  whilst  amongst 
the  Dominicans  aU  local  superiors  are  elected  by  the 
local  community. 

Bebgikb,  Dietumnain  ds  iMologis  (Touknuse.  1819),  II; 
FlATUB,  PrigUctionca  Juris  Regularia  (Tuumai,  1890). 

Father  Cuthbert. 

Defonnity.    See  Irreoularitt. 

Deger,  Ernst,  historical  painter,  b.  in  Bockenem, 
Hanover,  15  Apnl,  1809;  d.  in  Dtisseldorf,  27  Jan., 
1885.  Idttle  is  known  concerning  his  cariy  life.  In 
1828  he  went  to  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  to 
begin  the  study  of  art  under  Professor  Wach,  and  was 
there  so  impressed  by  pictures  of  the  DOsseldorf 
School  that  he  placed  himself  under  Schadow,  the  di- 
rector' <rf  the  Dtisseldorf  Academy.  Deger,  says  Dr. 
Bams,  ''lived  in  religion,  had  a  profound  conviction  of 
the  nobility  of  his  art,  and  painted  what  he  felt,  be- 
lieved and  hoped."  He  was  only  twenty-one  when 
his  "  Piet^"  brought  him  fame,  and  thenceforth  he  de- 
voted himself  to  religious  painting.  In  1837  he  went 
to  Italv  with  Ittenbach  and  the  Mdller  brothers  to 
study  ue  frescoes  by  the  old  masters  in  Florence  and 
Rome.  Overbeck,  leader  of  the  German  pre-Raphael- 
ites  and  head  of  the  "Kazarene  School",  gave  advice 
and  enooura^ment  to  these  young  zealots,  and  Deger 
especially  gamed  much  from  contact  with  this  master. 
Deger  was  intrusted  with  the  most  important  frescoes 


in  the  church  of  St.  Apollinaris  (Bemagen),  and,  fully 
equipped  after  his  four  years'  study,  he  returned  from 
Rome  in  1843  and  b^^  the  work.  In  eight  yeans  he 
finished  a  noble  series  of  paintinjgs,  representing 
the  events  in  the  life  of  Christ;  these  Apollinaris 
frescoes,  the  most  remarkable  productions  of  the 
*'  Nazarites",  mark  the  zenith  of  the  German  school  of 
religious  painting,  called  by  Cardiaal  Wiseman  "the 
restorer  of  Christian  taste  throi^out  all  Europe." 

In  1851  Frederick  William  iV,  King  of  Prussia, 
commissioned  Deger  to  paint  twelve  scenes  in  the 
chapel  of  the  castte  of  Stolzenfels  (Coblenz),  and  for 
tliis  D^r  chose  subjects  illustrating  the  redemption 
of  mankind.  When  this  monumental  work  was  fin- 
ished, Deger  settled  permanently  in  DOsseldorf,  com- 
menced again  to  paint  in  oil,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life  on  easel  pictures,  chieflv  Madonnas.  Of  these  the 
most  beautiful  are  the  iclyllic  "Madonna  'mid  the 
Green"  and  the  inspiring  "R^ina  Cceli".  He  fre- 
quently visited  Munich  where  he  painted  a  "Vii«in 
and  Child"  and  an  "Ascension"  for  the  Maximiua- 
neum  of  that  city.  In  1857  and  1859  two  of  his  nota- 
ble canvases,  both  religious  subjects,  were  hun^  in  the 
Paris  Salon.  Deger  was  made  professor  in  the  Munich 
Acaden^  of  Fine  Arts,  a  member  of  the  Berlin  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts,  and,  in  1869,  professor  in  the  DOssel- 
don  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  His  style  was  vigorous, 
direct,  and  smiple;  his  handling  careful  and  precise; 
his  drawing  ana  power  of  characterization  masterful; 
and  his  colour  rich  and  harmonious.  D^ger  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  in  ridding  German  art  of  its  6cp- 
roque  element  and  in  stimulating  its  votaries  to  poetry, 
loftiness,  and  profoimd  conviction.  Two  of  his  nota- 
ble works  are  "Adam  and  Eve",  in  the  Raczynski 
Gallery,  Berlin,  and  the  "Virgin  and  Child",  in  St. 
Andrew's  Chapel,  DOsseldorf. 

Atkinson,  School  of  Modem  Art  in  O^rmany  (liondon); 
Bans,  Ernst  Deger^  the  Religious  Painter  in  Bennger*s  Magazine 
(New  York.  Sept.,  1907);  yon  KdmoBwiNTBii,  DUsseUorfer 
KUnstler  (Leipsic,  1854):  Wisgman,  Die  Kunstakademie  su 
DUsseldorf  (DOneldorf.  1866). 

Leigh  Hunt. 

Degradation  (Lat.  depradatio),  a  canonical  penalty 
by  which  an  ecclesiastic  is  entirely  and  perpetually  de- 
prived of  all  office,  benefice,  dignity,  and  power  con- 
ferred on  him  by  ordination;  and  by  a  special  oere- 
monv  is  reduced  to  the  state  of  a  layman,  losing  the 
privileges  of  the  clerical  state  and  bemg  given  over  to 
the  semar  arm.  Degradation,  however,  cannot  de- 
prive an  ecclesiastic  of  the  character  conferred  in  or- 
dination, nor  does  it  dispense  him  from  the  law  of  celi- 
bacy and  the  recitation  of  the  Breviary.  Degradation 
is  twofold:  verbal,  i.  e.  the  mere  sentence  ofdegrada- 
tion ;  and  real  or  actual,  1.  e.  the  execution  of  that  sen- 
tence. They  are  not  two  distinct  penalties,  but  parts 
of  the  same  canonical  punishment.  Degradation  is  a 
perpetual  punishment,  and  the  cler^^yman  so  punished 
has  never  any  right  to  release  from  it.  It  diners  from 
deposition  in  so  far  as  it  deprives,  and  always  totally, 
of  all  power  of  orders  and  jurisdiction  and  also  of  the 
privile^  of  the  ecclesiastical  state,  thus  in  all  things 
subjecting  the  delinquent  to  civil  authority.  While  a 
bishop,  even  before  his  consecration,  can  inflict  deposi- 
tion or  pronounce  a  sentence  of  verbal  degradation 
and  can  reinstate  those  so  punished,  it  is  only  a  conse- 
crated bishop  who  can  inflict  actual  degradation,  and 
only  the  Holy  See  which  can  reinstate  ecdesiastics 
actually  defi;raded. 

Solemn  degradation  owes  its  origin  to  the  military 
practice  of  thus  expelling  soldiers  from  the  army;  the 
Church  adopted  this  institution  in  order  to  remove 
grievouedy  delinquent  clerics  from  the  ecclesiastical 
order.  The  first  mention  of  clerical  degradation  ia 
found  in  the  eighty-third  Novel  of  Justinian;  sub- 
sequently it  was  adopted  with  its  external  solemnities 
by  early  medieval  councils  a.s  a  repressive  measure 
against  heretics.    It  did  not  originally  differ  from  de« 


678 


ABOOLUB 


poeition,  and  degraded  eoclesiafitics  were  Btill  privi- 
1^^  and  remained  exclusively  subject  to  ecclesias- 
tical jurisdiction.  The  laity,  however,  complained 
that  churchmen,  even  when  degraded,  securea  in  this 
way  impunity  for  their  crimes.  Hence  Innocent  III 
(c.  viii,  Decrim.  falsi,  X,  v,  20)  made  it  a  permanent 
rule  that  clerical  offenders,  after  degradation,  should 
be  handed  over  to  the  secular  power,  to  be  punished 
according  to  the  law  of  the  land.  Degradation  cannot 
be  inflicted  except  for  crimes  clearly  designated  in  the 
law,  or  for  any  other  enormous  crime  when  deposition 
and  excommimication  have  been  applied  in  vain,  and 
the  culprit  has  proved  incorrigible.  According  to  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIII,  c.  iv,  De  ref.)  a  bishop, 
when  inflicting  degradation  on  a  priest,  must  have  with 
him  six  mitred  abbots  as  associate  judges,  and  three 
such  prelates  for  the  degradation  of  a  deacon  or  sub- 
deacon.  If  abbots  cannot  be  had,  a  like  number  of 
church  dignitaries  of  mature  age,  and  skilled  in  canon 
law;  may  take  their  place.  AH  these  must  give  their 
vote,  which  is  decisive,  and  must  be  unanimous  for  the 
imposition  of  so  grave  a  penalty. 

The  ceremony  of  actual  de^adation  consists  chieflv 
in  bringing  before  the  ecclesiastical  superior  the  cul- 
prit vested  in  the  robes  corresponding  to  his  order;  in 
gradually  di  vestmg  him  of  his  sacred  vestments,  be^n- 
ning  With  the  last  he  received  at  his  ordination; 
fimuly,  in  surrendering  him  to  the  lay  judge  (who  must 
always  be  present)  with  a  plea  for  lenient  treatment 
and  avoidance  of  bloodshed.  The  words  pronounced 
by  the  ecclesiastical  superior  during  the  ceremony, 
also  other  rubrical  details,  are  laid  down  by  Boniface 
VIII  (c.  Degradatio,  ii,  de  pcenis,  in  VI)  and  by  the 
Roman  Pontifical  (pt.  lit,  c.  vii).  Degradation  is  now 
rarely,  if  ever,  inflicted;  dismissal,  with  perpetual  de- 
privation, takes  its  place. 

For  bibliography  see  DEPoainoN. 

S.  Luzio. 

Degrees,  Academic.    See  Arts;  University. 

Deharbe,  Joseph,  theologian,  catechist,  b.  at 
Strasburg,  Alsace,  11  April,  1S%;  d.  at  MariarLaach,  8 
November,  1871.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1817  and  after  teaching  for  eleven  years  at  the  Jesuit 
College  at  Brieg,  Switzerland,  he  became  in  1840  a  mis- 
sionary and  catechist  in  Cothen.  With  Father  Roh, 
8.  J.,  he  established  at  Lucerne  in  1845  the  Academy 
of  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  When  in  1847  a  persecution 
broke  out  against  the  Jesuits  in  Switzerland,  Deharbe 
barely  esca^ni  with  his  life.  After  that  he  was  chiefly 
engaged  in  giving  missions  in  Germany.  As  a  cate- 
chist in  Cothen  he  felt  very  keenly  the  lack  of  a  good 
catechism  and  was  encouraged  by  his  superior.  Father 
Devis,  to  compose  a  serviceable  textbooK,  but  always 
hesitated,  feeling  himself  incompetent.  His  superior, 
knowing  Deharbe's  spirit  of  obedience,  simply  com- 
manded him  to  undertake  the  task.  As  a  model  he 
took  the  Mainz  catechism  of  1843  and  made  use  also 
of  other  good  textbooks,  notably  of  Bossuet's  cate- 
chism. He  completed  his  first  catechism,  called 
"  Katholischer  Katechismus  oder  Lehrbegnflf ",  in 
1847-  In  1848  it  appeared  anonymously  at  Katisbon 
and  immediately  won  universal  approval.  Bishop 
Blum  of  Limbuiig  introduced  it  officially  into  his  dio- 
cese in  the  same  year;  the  following  year  the  Bishops 
of  Trier  and  Hildesheim  did  likewise  for  their  sees. 
In  1850  the  Bavarian  bishops  resolved  to  introduce  a 
common  catechism  for  the  whole  kingdom,  and  ac- 
cepted Deharbe's  catechism,  which  was  then  introduced 
in  1853.  Other  German  dioceses  adopted  it  as  follows : 
Cologne,  1854;  Mainz  and  Paderbom,  1855;  Fulda, 
1868;  Ermland,  1861;  Cukn,  1863;  Gnesen-Poeen, 
1868.  At  the  same  time  it  spread  outside  of  Ger- 
many, in  Switzerland,  Austriarllungary,  and  the 
United  States.  It  was  translated  in  1851  into  Mc^^ 
yar,  then  into  Bohemian,  Italian,  and  French;  into 
Swedish  and  Marathi,  1801;  into  Polish  and  Lithu- 


anian, 1862;  into  Engiiah,  1863;  into  Sovenian.  I8S8; 
into  Danish,  1869;  and  later  repeatedly  Into  Spanish 
and  Portuguese.  It  was  reintroduced  into  BavarL» 
in  1908;  and  it  is  still  in  use  in  most  German  dtooeses, 
in  Denmark  and  Sweden,  in  Brazil,  Chile,  East  India, 
and  in  many  schools  of  the  United  States.  In  a  re- 
vised form,  Austria  adopted  it  in  1897.  Deharbe  him- 
self prepared  and  published  at  Batisbon  tour  eztrafts 
of  his  first  work,  entitled:  (1)  ''JECathoIischer  Kate- 
chismus" (1847);  (2)  ''Kleiner  katholischer  Kate- 
chismus" (1^7);  (3)  "AnfangBsrande  der  katho- 
lischen  Lehre  fur  die  kleinen  SdiUler"  (1847);  (4) 
"Kleiner  katholischer  Katechismus"  (1849-^50).  Ac- 
cording to  Father  Linden,  S.  J.,  Deharbe'a  catechism 
possesses  theological  correctness,  brevity  of  sentences, 
preciseness  of  expression,  deamess,  and  good  order; 
according  to  the  saiiie  authority  its  defects  consist  in 
redundance  of  memoiy-matteri  abetractness  of  ex- 
pression, incomplete  sentences.  It  is  to  Dehflffbe's 
credit  that  in  his  catechism  he  preserved  catechetical 
tradition,  but  abandoned  the  Canisian  division,  ar- 
ranging the  text-matter  under  chapters  on  Faith, 
Commandments,  and  Means  of  .Grace.  Deharbe's 
catechisms  have  been  freouently  edited  and  revised. 
His  other  works,  all  publianed  at  Ratisbon,  are:  "Die 
vollkommene  Liebe  Gottes"  (1855);  "Erid&nuiK  des 
katholischen  Katechismus"  (4  vols.,  1857-^,  fifth  ed., 
1880 — );  "  Kurzeres  Handbuch  sum  Religionsunter- 
richte"  (1865-68,  sixth  ed.,  Linden  ed.,  1^). 

Spiiuao-MBMMBa,  Method  of  Chrittiaa  Doctruu  (CJariniwri. 
1901);  LiNDRN.  Der  mittien  Dekarheaehe  KaUchiamua  (lUtia- 
bon,  1900);  Thalhofkb,  BfUwieklttngdee  katholiachen  Kate- 
ehiemtu  in  Deuteehlmtd  (SVflihurK.  1809);  Rourns  and  Pn»- 
TBR,  ReaUneuklopOdU  dm   Eniehtmife  und  UiUernchUwmau 

i Mains,  1874).  passim;    Kbibo,  Katechetik  (Freiburs,  1907); 
Ierder,  KonvenatumeUxikcn,  t.  v.;  Baxbb,  Meihodtk  (Wlkn- 
bui«.  1897). 

Framcis  L.  Kkhmb. 
De  Hondt,    See  Peter  Canusius,  Blessed. 

Deicohia  (Dichuil),  Saint,  elder  brother  of  St.  Gall, 
b.  in  Leinster,  Ireland,  c.  590;  d.  at  Lure,  France,  18 
January,  625.  Having  studied  at  Bangor  he  was  se- 
lected as  one  of  the  twelve  disciples  to  accompany  St. 
Columbanus  in  his  missionaiy  enterprise.  After  a 
short  stay  in  England  he  journeyed  to  Qaul,  in  576, 
and  laboured  witn  St.  Columbanus  in  Austrasia  and 
Burgundy.  At  Luxeuil  he  was  unwearied  in  his  min- 
istrations, and  yet  was  always  serene  and  even  joyous. 
When  St.  Columbanus  was  expelled  by  Thieny,  in 
610,  St.  Deicolus,  then  ei^ty  years  of  age,  deter- 
mined to  follow  his  master,  but  was  fbroea,  after  a 
short  time,  to  give  up  the  journey,  and  settled  in  a 
deserted  place  called  Lutre,  or  Lure  (French  Jura),  in 
the  Diocese  of  Besan^on,  to  which  he  had  been  directed 
by  a  swineherd.  Till  his  dea^,  he  was  thenceforth 
the  apostle  of  this  district,  where  he  was  given  a  little 
churcn  and  a  tract  of  land  by  Berthelde,  widow  of 
Weifar,  the  lord  of  Liur.  Soon  a  noble  abbey  was 
erected  for  his  manv  disciples^  and  the  Rule  of  St. 
Columbanus  was  ad.opted.  Numerous  miracles  are 
recorded  of  St.  Deicolus,  including  the  sus|)ension  of 
his  cloak  on  a  sunbeam  and  the  taming  of  wild  beasts. 
Clothaire  II,  King  of  Bummdy,  recognized  the  vir- 
tues of  the  saint  and  considerably  enriched  the  Abbey 
of  Lure,  also  granting  St.  Deicolus  the  manor,  woods, 
fisheries,  etc.  of  the  town  which  had  grown  around 
the  monastery.  Feeling  his  end  approaching,  St. 
Deicolus  gave  over  the  government  of  his  abbey  to 
Columbanus,  one  of  his  young  monks,  and  spent  his 
remaining  days  in  prayer  and  meditation.  His  feast  is 
celebrated  on  18  Januarv.  So  revered  was  his  menK>ry 
that  his  name  (Dichuil),  under  the  slightly  disguised 
form  of  Deel  and  Deela,  is  still  borne  by  most  of  the 
children  of  the  Lure  district.  His  Acts  were  writ- 
ten by  a  monk  of  his  own  monaateiy  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. 

Co  1X3 AN,  Ada  Sandortim  Htbemia  (Lou\*ain,  1<M5):  HabiI/- 
ix>N,  Annal,  Bmedid;  0'Hanix>n,  lAvea  cf  <A«  hiah  iSomIs,  I; 


DBVEftVS 


679 


O'l^Ainuonr,  Down  and  Connor  (Dublin.  1880),  11;    &iokeb, 
Barift  ChriaUan  Art  in  Ireland  (London*  1887). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

DetfcffUB.    See  Disk. 

I>el  gratia;  Dei  et  ApoatoUca  Sedia  mtia  (By 
the  graee  of  God;  By  the  grace  of  God  and  the  Afios- 
tolie  See),  fonnube  added  to  the  titles  of  eodesiastical 
dignitaries.    The  first  (AT.  Dei  gratiA  Epiacojaus  N,) 
has  been  used  in  that  form  or  in  certain  equivalents 
sinoe  the  fifth  century.    Among  the  signatures  of  the 
Councfls  of  Ephesus  (431)  and  Chaloedon  (451)  we , 
find  names  to  which  are  added:  Dei  aratiAj  per  graHam ' 
I>ei,   Dei  mieeratione  Epiacopua  Jv.   (Mansi,   Sacr. 
Cone. Coll.,IV,1213; VII,  137, 139, 429KiqO.  Though 
afterwards  employed  oocasionally,  it  dia  not  become 
prevalent  imtu  tne  eleventh  oentnij.    The  second 
form  (N.  Dei  et  Apoatoluxe  Sedis  gratiA  Epiacopus  N,) 
is    ourrent  sinoe   the   deventh  centuiy;  but  came 
into  general  use  by  archbishops  and  bishops  only 
since  the  twdfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.    The  first 
f ommla  expresses  the  Divine  origin  of  the  episcopal 
office*  the  second  exhibits  the  imion  of  the  bishops 
and  tneir  submissbn  to  the  See  of  Rome.    Temporal 
rulers  rinoe  King  Pepin  the  Short,  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, also  made  use  of  the  first  formula :  from  the  fif- 
teenth it  was  employed  to  signify  complete  and  inde- 
pendent sovereignly,  in  contradistinction  to  tiie  sov- 
ereignty conferred  by  the  choice  of  the  people.    For 
this  reason  the  bishops  in  some  parts  of  Soutnem  Ger- 
many (Baden^  Bavaria,  WOrtembere)  are  not  al- 
lowed to  use  it,  but  must  say  instead:  Dei  Miaerc^ 
tione  et  ApoatoUeoB  Sedia  gratiA. 

BiNTBBDt  in  Kathotik  (1823).  VII.  129  sqq.;  Idem.  Dmh- 
wQnUgktiiten  (Maim,  1838).  I;  TBoUAamx,  Ditcipline  da 
VigliM  (Bar-le-Duo.  1864).  I;  Permansdbb  in  KirchenUx,,  8.  v. 
Dei  armd;  Hefblb   In  Kvrchenlex^  a,  v.  ApoataHcm  Sedia 

FbANCXS  J.  SCHAKFER. 

Delim  (Lat.  Deua,  God),  the  term  used  to  denote 
certain  doctrines  apparent  in  a  tenden<^  of  thought 
and  criticism  that  manifested  itself  principally  in  Eng- 
land towards  the  latter  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Ilie  doctrines  and  tendency  of  deism  were,  however, 
by  no  means  entirely  confined  to  England,  nor  to  the 
seventy  jrears  or  so  during  which  most  of  tiie  deistical 
productions  were  ^ven  to  the  world;  for  a  similar 
spirit  of  criticism  aimed  at  the  nature  and  content  of 
traditional  religious  beliefs,  and  the  substitution  for 
them  of  a  rationalistic  naturalism  has  frequently  ap- 
peared in  the  course  of  religious  thought.  Thus  there 
nave  been  French  and  German  deists  as  well  as  Eng- 
lish:  while  Pagan,  Jewish,  or  Mohammedan  deistis 
mimt  be  found  as  weU  as  Christian.  Because  of  the 
inoividuaiistic  standpoint  of  independent  criticism 
which  they  adopt,  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
class  togeihor  the  representative  writers  wno  contrib- 
uted to  the  literature  of  English  deism  as  forming 
any  one  definite  school,  or  to  group  toother  the  posi- 
tive teachings  contained  in  their  writings  as  any  one 
^^stematic  expression  of  a  concordant  philosophy. 
'Die  deists  were  what  nowadays  would  be  called 
f  reethink^iB,  a  name,  indeed,  by  which  tiiey  were  not 
infrequently  known;  and  they  can  only  be  classed  to- 
getl^  whoUy  in  the  main  attitude  that  they  adopted, 
vi2.  in  agreeing  to  cast  off  the  trammels  of  authorita- 
tive relipious  teaching  in  favour  of  a  free  and  purely 
rationalistic  speculation.  Many  of  them  were  frankly 
materialistic  in  their  doctrines;  while  the  French 
thinkers  who  subsequently  built  upon  the  foimdations 
laid  by  the  En^ish  deists  were  almost  exclusively  so. 
Othera  rested  content  witii  a  criticism  of  ecclesiastical 
authority  in  teaching  the  inspiration  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,  or  the  fact  of  an  external  revelation  of  su- 
pernatural truth  given  by  God  to  man.  In  this  last 
point,  while  there  is  a  considerable  divergence  of 
method  and  procedure  observable  in  the  wntingn  of 


the  various  deists,  all^  at  least  to  a  very  lai^  extent, 
seem  to  concur.  Deism,  in  its  evcury  manifestation, 
was  opposed  to  the  current  and  traditional  teaching  of 
revealed  religion. 

In  En^and  the  deistical  movement  seems  to  be  an 
almost  necessary  outcome  of  the  political  and  religious 
conditions  of  the  time  and  country.  The  Renaissance 
had  fairiy  swept  away  the  later  scholasticism  and  with 
it^  very  largely,  the  constructive  philosophy  of  the 
Middle  Am.  The  Protestant  Reformation,  in  its 
open  revolt  against  the  authority  of  the  Catholic 
Cnurch,  had  inaugurated  a  slow  revolution,  in  which 
all  rdigious  pretensions  were  to  be  involved.  The 
M>le  as  a  substitute  for  the  living^  voice  of  the  Church 
and  the  State  rdigion  as  a  substitute  for  Catholicism 
mi^t  stand  for  a  time;  but  the  very  mentality  that 
brou^t  them  into  beine  as  substitutes  could  not  logi- 
cally rest  content  with  tnem.  The  principle  ai  private 
judgment  in  matters  of  religion  had  not  run  its  full 
course  in  accepting  the  Bible  as  the  Word  of  God.  A 
favourable  oppoHunity  would  spur  it  forward  once 
more;  and  from  such  grudging  acceptance  as  it  ^ave 
to  the  Scriptures  it  would  proceed  to  a  new  examina- 
tion and  a  final  rejection  of  tlieir  claims.  The  new 
life  of  the  empiri(»u  sciences,  the  enormous  enlarge- 
ment of  the  physical  horizon  in  such  discoveries  as 
those  of  astronomy  and  geography,  the  philosophical 
doubt  and  rationalistic  method  of  Descartes,  the  ad- 
vocated empiricism  of  Bacon,  the  political  changes  of 
the  times — all  these  things  were  factors  in  the  prepara- 
tion and  arrangement  of  a  stage  upon  which  a  criti- 
cism levelled  at  revelational  religion  mi^t  come  for- 
ward and  play  its  part  with  some  chance  of  success. 
And  ^ougn  ihe  fiist  essays  of  deism  were  somewhat 
vefled  and  intentionally  indirect  in  their  attack  upon 
revelation,  with  the  revolution  and  the  civil  and  relig- 
ious liberty  ccmsequent  upon  it,  with  the  spread  of 
the  critical  and  empirical  spirit  as  exemplified  in  the 
plulosopfay  of  Locke,  the  time  was  ripe  for  the  full  re- 
nearsal  of  the  case  against  Christianity  as  expounded 
by  the  Establii^ment  and  the  sects.  The  wedge  of 
private  judgment  had  been  driven  into  authority.  It 
had  ah^idy  split  Protestantism  into  a  great  number  of 
conflicting  sects.  It  was  now  to  attempt  the  wreck  of 
revealed  raligion  in  any  shape  or  form. 

The  deisti^  tendency  passed  throu^  several  more 
or  less  clearly  defined  phases.  All  the  forces  possible 
were  mustered  against  its  advance.  Parliaments  took 
cognisance  of  it.  Some  of  the  productions  of  the  de- 
ists were  publicly  burnt.  The  oishops  and  dergyof 
the  Establishment  were  strenuous  in  resisting  it.  For 
every  pamf^et  or  book  that  a  deist  wrote,  several 
''answers"  were  at  once  put  before  the  public  as  anti- 
dotes. Bishops  addressed  pastoral  letters  to  their 
dioceses  warmng  t^e  faithful  of  the  danger.  Wool- 
ston's  "Moderator"  provoked  no  less  than  five  such 
pastorals  from  the  Bishop  of  London.  All  that  was 
ecclesiastically  official  and  respectable  was  ranged  in 
opposition  to  the  movement,  and  the  deists  were  held 
up  to  seneral  detestation  in  the  strongest  terms. 
When  the  critical  principles  and  f  reethougbt  spirit  fil- 
tered down  to  the  middle  classes  and  the  masses,  when 
such  men  as  Woolston  and  Chubb  put  pen  to  paper,  a 
perfect  storm  of  counter-criticism  arose.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  not  a  few  educated  and  cultured  men  were 
really  upon  the  side  of  a  broad  toleration  in  matten  of 
relu^on.  The  "wit  and  ridicule"  by  which  the  Eari 
of  Shaftesbury  would  have  all  tested  meant,  as  Brown 
rightly  notes,  no  more  than  urbanity  and  good  nature. 
But  Shaftesbury  himself  would  by  no  means  allow  that 
he  was  a  deist,  except  in  the  sense  in  which  the  term  is 
interchangeable  with  theist ;  and  Herbert  of  Cherbury, 
by  far  the  most  cultured  representative  of  the  move- 
ment, is  noted  as  having  been  the  most  moderate  and 
the  least  opposed  of  them  aXL  to  the  teachings  of  Chris- 
tianity. One  phase  through  which  deism  may  be  said 
to  have  passea  was  that  of  a  critical  examination  of 


nnsif 


680 


DBSM 


the  first  principles  of  religion.  It  asserted  its  rigbt  to 
perfect  tolerance  on  the  part  of  aQ  men.  Freethought 
was  the  right  of  the  individual;  it  was,  indeed,  but 
one  step  in  advance  of  the  received  prineii^  of  private 
judgment.  Such  representatives  of  deion  as  Toland 
andCollins  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  this  stage.  So 
far,  while  critical  and  insisting  on  its  rights  to  com* 
plete  toleration,  it  need  not  be,  though  as  a  mfl;tter  of 
fact  it  undoubtedly  was,  hostile  to  religion.  A  seoond 
phase  was  that  in  which  it  criticised  the  moral  or  ethi- 
cal part  of  religious  teaching.  The  Eari  ci  Shaftes- 
bury, for  example,  has  muc^  to  iirge  against  the  doc- 
trine of  future  rewards  and  punishments  as  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  moral  law.  Such  an  attitude  is  obviously 
incompatible  with  the  accepted  teaching  of  the 
Churches.  Upon  this  follows  a  critical  examination 
of  the  writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  a 
particular  regard  to  the  verification  of  prophecy  and 
to  the  miraomous  incidents  therein  recorded.  Antony 
Collins  performed  the  first  part  of  this  task,  while 
Woolston  gave  his  attention  principally  to  the  latter, 
applving  to  Scriptural  records  the  principles  i>ut  for- 
ward bv  Blount  in  his  notes  to  ^le  '' ApoUonius  Ty- 
ansBus''.  Lastly,  there  was  the  stage  in  which  nat- 
ural religion  as  such  was  directly  opposed  to  revealed 
religion.  Tindai,  in  his  "Christianity  as  old  as  the 
Creation",  reduces,  or  attempts  to  reduce,  revelation 
to  reason,  making  the  Christian  statement  of  revebir 
tional  truths  either  superfluous,  in  that  it  b  contained 
m  reason  itself,  or  positively  harmful,  in  that  it  goes 
beyond  or  contradicts  reason. 

It  is  thus  clear  that,  in  the  main,  deism  is  no  more 
than  an  application  of  critical  principles  to  religion. 
But  in  its  positive  aspect  it  is  something  more,  tor  it 
offers  as  a  substitute  for  revealed  truth  that  body  of 
truths  which  can  be  built  up  by  the  unaided  efforts  of 
natural  reason.  The  term  deism,  however,  has  come 
in  the  coimse  of  time  to  have  a  more  specific  meaning. 
It  is  taken  to  signify  a  peculiar  metapnysical  doctrine 
supposed  to  have  been  maintained  bv  all  the  deists. 
They  are  thus  grouped  together  roughly  as  members 
of  a  c^uasi-philosophical  scnool,  the  chief  and  distin- 
guishms  tenet  of  which  is  the  relationship  asserted  to 
obtain  oetween  the  universe  and  God.  God,  in  this 
somewhat  inferential  and  constructive  thesis,  is  held 
to  be  the  first  cause  of  the  world,  and  to  be  a  personal 
God.  So  far  the  teaching  is  that  of  the  theists,  ba  con- 
trasted with  that  of  atneists  and  pantheists.  But, 
further,  deism  not  only  distmguishes  the  worid  and 
God  as  effect  and  cause ;  it  emphasizes  the  transoendr 
ence  of  the  Deity  at  the  sacrifice  of  His  indwelling  and 
His  providence.  He  is  apart  from  the  creation  which 
He  brought  into  being,  and  unconcerned  as  to  the  de- 
tails of  its  working.  Having  made  Natiu^,  He  allows 
it  to  run  its  own  course  without  interference  on  His 
part.  In  this  point  the  doctrine  of  deism  differs 
clearly  from  that  of  theism.  The  verbal  distinction 
between  the  two,  which  are  originally  convertible 
terms— deism,  of  Latin  origin,  being  a  translation  of 
the  Greek  theism — seems  to  have  been  introduced  into 
Eh^ish  literature  by  the  deists  themselves,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  denomination  of  naturalists  by  which  they 
were  commonly  known.  As  naturalism  was  the  epi- 
thet generally  given  to  the  teaching  of  the  followers  of 
the  Spinozistic  philosophy,  as  well  as  to  the  so-called, 
atheists,  deism  seemed  to  its  professors  at  once  to  fur- 
nish a  disavowal  of  principles  and  doctrines  which 
tiiey  repudiated,  and  to  mark  off  their  own  position 
clearly  from  that  of  the  theists.  The  word  seems, 
however,  to  have  been  first  employed  in  France  and 
Italy  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  for  it 
occurs  in  the  epistle  dedicatory  prefixed  to  the  secoml 
volume  of  Viret's  "Instruction  Chr^tienne'*  (1563), 
where  the  reforming  divine  speaks  of  some  persons 
who  had  calle<l  themselves  by  a  new  name — deists.  It 
was  principally  upon  account  of  their  methods  of  in- 
vestigation and  their  criticism  of  the  traditional  Prot- 


estant religious  teaching  that  they  had  also  come  tc 
to  be  called  rationalists,  opposing,  as  has  been  noioted 
out,  the  findings  of  unaided  reason  to  the  tnitos  held 
on  faith  as  having  come  from  God  through  external 
revelation.  Whether  it  was  by  ignoring  this  alto- 
gether, or  by  attempting  actively  to  imite  it  and 
prove  its  worthleasness,  rationalism  was  the  obvious 
term  of  their  procedure.  And  it  was  also,  in  v^y 
much  the  same  manner,  bv  their  claiming  the  freedom 
to  discuss  on  these  lines  the  doctrines  aet  forth  in  the 
Bible  and  tau^t  by  the  Chivches,  that  they  earned 
for  themselves  the  no  less  commonly  given  title  of 
Treethinkers. 

There  are  notable  distinctions  and  diveri^Dces 
among  the  English  d^sts  as  to  the  whole  content  of 
truth  given  by  reason.  The  most  important  of  these 
distinctions  is  undoubtedly  that  by  which  they  are 
classed  as  "mortal"  and  ''immortal"  deists;  for, 
while  many  conceded  t^  philosophical  doctrine  of  a 
future  life,  the  rejection  of  future  rewards  and  punish- 
ments OfUried  with  it  for  some  the  detiial  of  the  im- 
mortality of  the  human  soul.  The  five  articles  laid 
down  by  Lord  Herbert  of  CSierbui^,  however,  with 
their  expansion  into  six  (and  the  addi^n  of  a  seventh ) 
by  Giarles  Blount,  may  be  taken— and  eflpectallythe 
former — as  the  formal  professions  of  deism.  They 
contain  the  following  doctrines:  (I)  that  iheste  existe 
one  supreme  God,  (2)  who  is  chiefly  to  be  worshipped; 
(3)  that  the  principal  part  of  such  worship  consists  m 
piety  and  virtue;  (4)  that  we  must  repent  of  our  sins 
and  that,  if  we  do  so,  God  will  pardon  us;  (5)  that 
there  are  rewards  for  good  men  and  punishments  for 
evil  men  both  here  and  hereafter.  Blount,  while  he 
enlarged  dightly  upon  each  of  these  doctrines,  broke 
one  up  into  two  and  added  a  seventh^  in  which  he 
teaches  that  God  governs  the  world  by  His  providence. 
Tliis  can  hardly  be  accepted  as  a  doctrine  conunon  to 
the  deists;  while,  as  has  been  said,  future  rewards  and 
pimishments  were  not  allowed  by  them  all.  In  gen- 
eral they  rejected  the  miraculous  dement  in  Scripture 
and  ecclesiastical  tradition.  They  would  not  admit 
that  there  was  any  one  " peculiar  people",  audi  as  the 
Jews  or  the  Christians,  singjled  out  for  the  reception  of 
a  truth^measage,  or  chosen  to  be  the  reeipients  of  any 
special  grace  or  supernatural  gift  of  God.  They  de- 
nied the  doctrine  ot  the  Trinity  and  altogether  refused 
to  admit  any  mediatorial  character  in  the  person  of 
Jesus  Christ.  The  atonement,  the  doctrine  of  the 
'^ imputed  righteousness"  of  Christ — especially  popu- 
lar with  orthodoxy  at  the  time — shared  the  fate  of  all 
Christological  doctrines  at  their  hands.  And  above 
all  things  and  upon  every  occasion — but  with  at  least 
one  notable  exception — they  raised  their  voices  against 
ecclesiastical  autnority.  Tney  never  tired  of  inveigh- 
ing against  priestcraft  in  every  shape  or  form,  and 
they  went  so  far  as  to  assert  that  revealed  religion  was 
an  imposture,  an  invention  of  the  priestly  caste  to  sub- 
due, and  so  the  more  easily  govern  and  exploit,  the  ig- 
norant. 

As  deism  took  its  rise,  in  the  lomcal  sequence  of 
events,  from  the  principles  asserted  at  the  Protest- 
ant Kef ormation,  so  it  ran  its  short  and  violent  course 
in  a  development  of  those  principles  and  ended  in  a 
philosophical  scepticism.  For  a  time  it  caused  an 
extraordinary  conomotion  in  all  circles  of  thou^t  in 
England,  provoked  a  very  large  and,  in  a  sense,  inter- 
esting pd^emical  literature,  and  penetrated  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest  strata  of  society.  Then  it  fdl 
flat,  whether  because  the  controversy  had  lost  the 
keen  interest  of  its  acuter  stage  or  because  people  in 
general  were  drifting  with  the  current  of  criticism 
towards  the  new  views,  it  would  be  difficult  io  say. 
With  most  of  the  arguments  of  the  deists  we  are  now- 
adays quite  familiar,  thanks  to  the  efforts  of  modern 
freethought  and  rationalism  to  keep  them  before  uw 
public.  Though  caustic,  often  clever,  and  sometimes 
extraordinarily  blasphemous,  we  open  the  shabby  little 


DIMM 


681 


wiian 


books  to  find  ihein  for  the  most  part  out-of-date,  cqibt 
tzionplaoe,  aad  dull.    And  while  several  of  the  ''ror 
plies"  they  evoked  may  still  be  reckoned  aa  standard 
Tvorka  of  apologetios,  the  majority  of  them  belong,  in 
moie  senses  than  one,  to  the  writmgs  of  a  bygone  age* 
'Wlien  Viscount  BoHngbroke's  works  were  published 
posthumousl^r  in  1754,  and  even  when»  six  years  pre- 
viously, David  Hume's  *'  Essay  on  the  Human  Under;- 
Bt&ndmg"  was  given  to  the  public,  little  stir  was 
ca.UBed.    Bolingbroke's  attacks  upon  revealed  reli^- 
ion^  aimed  from  the  standpoint  oi  a  sensationalistic 
Hieory  of  knowledge,  were,  as  a  recent  writer  puts  it, 
"insufferably  wearisome";  nor  could  all  his  cynicism 
ajid  satire,  any  more  than  the  scepticism  of  the  Scot- 
tiah  philosopher,  renew  general  interest  in  a  contro- 
versy that  was  practicaUy  dead.    The  deistieal  con- 
troversy traceable  to  the  ^ilosophy  of  Hobbes  and 
Locke  is  pre-eminently  an  English  one,  and  it  is  to  the 
JSngiish  deists  that  reference  is  usually  made  when 
there  is  question  of  deism.     But  the  same  or  a  similar 
movement  took  place  in  France  also.    '^  In  the  eight^ 
eenth  century",  says  Ueberweg,  "the  prevailing  char- 
acter of  French  philosophy  .  .  .  was  that  of  opposi- 
tion to  the  received  dogpnas  and  the  actual  conoitions 
in  Church  and  State>  and  the  efforts  of  its  representa- 
tives were  chiefly  directed  to  the  establishment  of  a 
new  theoretical  and  practical  philosophy  resting  on 
naturalistic  principles"  (Gesch.  d.  Philosophie,  Ber- 
Uq,  1901,  III,  237).    Men  like  Voltaire,  and  even  the 
nutterialistic  Encydopaodists,  exemplify  a  tendency  of 
philosophic  thought  which  has  verv  much  in  common 
with  wnat  in  England  ended  in  deism.    It  had  the 
same  basis,  the  theory  of  knowledge  propounded  by 
Xjocke  and  subseouently  pushed  to  an  extreme  point 
by  Condillac,  and  the  general  advance  of  scientific 
thoui^t.    From  Voltaire's  criticisms  of  ecdesiasttcal 
organization  and  theology,  his  unwearying  attacks 
upon  Christianity,  the  BiQe,  the  Church,  and  revela- 
tion, the  tendency  turned  towards  pantheism  and 
materisdism.    Rousseau  would  have  a  religion  of  na- 
ture substituted  for  the  traditional  forms  of  revela^ 
tion,  and  bring  it,  as  he  would  bring  philosophy  and 
politics,  to  the  point  of  view  of  individualism.     Helve- 
tius  would  have  the  moral  system  based  upon  the 
principle  of  present  self-interest.    And  thus,  as  in 
England  the  loacal  development  of  deism  ended  in 
the  scepticism  of  Hume,  so  in  France  it  came  to  rest 
in  the  materialism  of  La  Mettrie  and  Holbach. 

Beference  has  been  made  above  to  several  of  the 
more  important  representatives  of  English  deism. 
Ten  or  twelve  writers  are  usually  enumerated  as  note- 
worthy contributors  to  the  literature  and  thought  of 
the  movement,  of  whom  the  following  brief  sketches 
may  be  given. — Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  (1581- 
1648),  a  contemporary  of  the  pnilosopher  Hobbes, 
was  the  most  learned  of  the  deists  ana  at  the  same 
time  the  least  disposed  to  submit  Christian  revelation 
to  a  destructive  criticism.  He  was  the  founder  of  a 
rationalistic  form  of  religion — the  religion  of  nature — 
which  consisted  of  no  more  than  tne  residuum  of 
truth  common  to  all  forms  of  positive  religion  when 
their  distinctive  characteristics  were  left  aside.  The 
profession  of  faith  of  Herbert's  rationalism  is  summed 
up  in  the  five  articles  given  above.  His  principal  con- 
tnbutions  to  deistical  literature  are  the  '^Tractatus  de 
Veritate  prout  distinguitur  a  Revelatione,  a  Verisimili, 
a  Poesibui  et  a  Falso"  (1624);  ''De  Religione  Genti- 
lium  Errorumque  apud  eos  Causis"  (1645,  1663); 
"De  Religione  Laici^'. 

S\arles  Blount  (1654-93)  was  noted  as  a  critic  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  His  methods  of 
attack  upon  the  Christian  position  were  characterized 
by  an  indireetneas  and  a  certain  duplicity  that  has 
ever  since  come  to  be  in  some  <%Rp'^  associated  with 
the  whde  deistical  movement.  The  notes  that  he  ap- 
pended to  his  translation  of  ApoUonius  are  calculated 
to  weaken  or  destroy  credence  in  the  miracles  oi 


Clurist,  for  some  of  which  he  actually  suggests  explanar 
tioivs  upon  natural  grounds,  thus  argumg  against  the 
trustworthiness  of  the  New  Testament.  In  a  similar 
Eianner,  by  cspployin^  the  argument  of  Hobbes  against 
the  Mosaic  authorship,  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  by  at- 
tacking the  miraculous  events  therein  recorded,  he  had 
impeached  tiie  accuracy  and  veracity  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. He  rejects  utterly  the  doctrine  of  a  media- 
torial Christ  and  contends  that  such  a  doctrine  is  sub- 
versive of  true  religion ;  while  the  many  falsehoods  he 
perceives  in  tjie  traditional  and  positive  forms  of 
Christianity  he  puts  down  to  the  political  invention 
(for  purposes  of  power  and  of  easy  government)  of 
priests  and  religious  teachers.  The  seven  articles  into 
which  Blount  es^anded  the  five  articles  of  Lord  Her- 
bert have  been  noticed  above.  His  notes  to  the  trans- 
lation of  Philostratus'  ''Life  of  ApoUonius  lyanceus" 
were  published  in  1680.  He  wrote  also  the  ''Anima 
Mun(fi"  (1678-9);  "Religio  Laici".  practically  a 
translation  of  Lord  Herbert's  book  ot  the  same  title 
(1683);  and  "The  Oracles  of  Reason"  (1893). 

John  Toland  (1670^1722),  while  originally  a  be- 
liever in  Divine  revelation  and  not  opposed  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity,  advanced  to  the  rationalistic 
position  with  strong  pantheistic  tendencies  by  taking 
away  the  supernatural  element  from  religion.  His 
principal  thesis  consisted  in  the  argument  that  "there 
IS  nothing  in  the  Gospels  contrary  to  reason,  nor  above 
it:  and  that  no  Christian  doctrine  can  properly  be 
caiUed  a  mysterv. "  This  statement  he  made  on  the 
assumption  that  whatever  is  contrary  to  reason  is  uq- 
true,  and  whatever  is  above  reason  is  inconceivable. 
He  contended,  therefore,  that  reason  is  the  safe  and 
only  guide  to  truth,  and  that  the  Christian  reli^on 
lays  no  claim  to  being  mysterious.  Toland  also  raised 
questions  as  to  the  Canon  of  Scripture  and  the  origins 
of  the  Church.  He  adopted  the  view  that  in  the  Eariy 
Church  there  were  two  opposing  factions,  the  liberal 
and  the  Judaizing;  and  ne  compared  come  eighty 
spurious  writings  with  the  New  Testament  Scriptures, 
in  order  to  cast  doubt  upon  the  authenticity  and  relia- 
bility of  the  canon.  His  "Amyntor"  evoked  a  reply 
from  the  .celebrated  Dr.  Clarke,  and  a  consideraole 
number  of  books  and  tracts  were  published  in  refuta- 
tion of  his  doctrine.  The  chief  works  for  which  he 
was  responsible  are: — "Christianity  not  Mysterious" 
(1696);  "Letters  to  Serena"  (1704);  "Pantheisti- 
con"  (1720);  "Amyntor"  (1699);  "Nazarenus" 
(1718). 

Antony  AMey  Cooper,  third  Earl  of  Shaftesbury 
(1671-1713),  one  of  the  most  popular,  elegant,  and 
ornate  of  these  writers,  is  «;nerally  classed  among  the 
deists  on  account  of  his  "Characteristics".  He  him- 
self would  not  adroit  that  he  was  such,  except  in  the 
sense  in  which  deist  is  contrasted  with  atheist;  of  him 
Bishop  Butler  said  that,  had  he  lived  in  a  later  age, 
when  Christianity  was  better  understood,  he  womd 
have  been  a  good  Christian.  Thus,  in  a  preface  that 
Shaftesbury  contributed  to  a  volume  of  the  sermons 
of  Dr.  Whichcot  (1698),  he  "finds  fault  with  those  in 
this. profane  a^e,  that  represent  not  only  the  institu- 
tion of  preaching,  but  even  the  Gcwpel  itself,  and  our 
holy  religion,  to  be  a  fraud '  \  There  are  also  passages 
in  "Several  Letters  Written  by  a  Noble  Lord  to  a 
Young  Man  in  the  University"  (1716)  in  which  he 
shows  a  very  real  regard  for  the  doctrines  and  practice 
of  the  Christian  religion.  But  the  "  Characteristics  of 
Men,  Matters,  Opmions,  and  Tknes"  (1711-1723) 
gives  dear  evidence  of  Shaftesbury's  deistical  tenden- 
cies. It  contains  frequent  criticisms  of  Christian  doc- 
trines, the  Scriptures,  and  revelation.  He  contends 
that  this  last  is  not  only  useless  but  positively  mi»- 
chievous,  on  account  of  its  doctrine  of  rewards  and 
puoishments.  The  virtue  of  morality  he  makes  to 
<sonsist  in  a  oonformity  of  our  affections  to  our  nat- 
ural sense  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful,  to  our  natural 
estimate  of  the  worth  of  men  and  things.    The  Goe- 


DXI8BI 


682 


DXIBM 


pd|  he  asserts  with  Blount,  was  only  the  fruit  of  a 
sdheme  on  the  part  of  the  clergy  to  secure  their  own 
aggrandizement  and  enhance  their  power.  With  such 
professions  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  his  statem^it 
that  he  adheres  to.  the  doctrines  and  rnvsteries  of  re- 
ligion; but  this  becomes  clear  in  the  light  of  the  fact 
that  he  shared  the  peculiar  politioo-reugious  view  of 
Hobbes.  Whatever  the  absolute  power  of  the  State 
sanctions  Ib  good;  the  opposite  is  bad.  To  oppose 
one's  private  religious  convictions  to  the  religion  sanc- 
tioned by  the  State  is  of  the  nature  of  a  revolutionary 
act.  To  accept  the  established  state  religion  is  the 
duty  of  the  citizen.  Shaftesbury's  more  important 
contributions  to  this  literature  are  the  '^Chanurteris- 
tics"  and  the  "Several  Letters",  mentioned  above. 

Antony  CoUins  (1676-1729)  caused  a  considerable 
stir  by  the  publication  (1713)  of  his  ''Discourse  of 
Freethinking,  occasioned  by  the  Rise  and  Growth  of  a 
Sect  call'd  Freethinkers".  He  had  previously  con- 
ducted an  argimient  against  the  inunateriality  and 
inunortality  of  the  soul  and  against  hiunan  liberty. 
In  this  he  had  been  answered  by  Dr.  Samuel  ClariLe. 
Tlie  ''Discourse"  advocated  unprejudiced  and  unfet- 
tered enquirv,  asserted  the  right  of  human  reason  to 
examine  ana  interpret  revelation,  and  attempted  to 
show  the  uncertamty  of  prophecy  and  of  the  New 
Testament  record.  In  anotner  work  Collins  puts 
forth  an  argument  to  prove  the  Christian  religion 
false,  though  he  does  not  expressly  draw  the  conclu- 
sion indicated.  He  asserts  that  Christianity  is  de- 
pendent upon  Judaism,  and  that  its  proof  is  the  ful- 
fihnent  of  the  prophetic  utterances  contained  in  tiie 
Old  Testament.  He  then  proceeds  to  point  out  that 
all  such  prophetic  utterance  is  allegoricat  in  nature  and 
cannot  be  considered  to  furnish  a  real  proof  of  the 
truth  of  its  event.  He  further  points  out  that  tiie 
idea  of  the  Messiah  among  the  Jews  was  of  recent 
growth  before  the  time  of  Christ,  and  that  the  He- 
brews may  have  derived  many  of  their  theological 
ideas  from  their  contact  with  other  peoples,  sucn  as 
the  Ep^tians  and  Clialdeans.  In  particular,  when 
his  wntings  on  prophecy  were  attacked,  he  did  his  ut- 
most to  discredit  the  book  of  Daniel.  The  ''Dis- 
course on  the  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the  Christian 
Religion"  (1724)  called  forth  a  great  number  of  an- 
swers, principal  among  which  were  those  of  the  Bishop 
of  Licnfield,  Dr.  Chandler  ("Defence  of  Christianity 
from  the  Prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament"),  and  Dr. 
Sherlock  ("The  Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy").  It 
was  in  Clollins' "  Scheme  of  Literal  Prophecy"  that  the 
antiquity  and  authority  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  were 
discussed.  TTie  "prophecies"  were  made  to  be  a 
record  of  past  and  contemporary  events  rather  than  a 
prevision  of  the  future.  But  the  "Scheme"  was 
weak,  and  thou^  it  was  answered  bv  more  than  one 
critic,  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  addea  much  weight  to 
the  ''Discourse".  Altogether  Collins'  attacks  upon 
prophecy  were  considered  to  be  of  so  serious  a  nature 
that  they  called  forth  no  less  than  thirty-five  replies. 
Of  his  works,  the  following  may  be  noticed,  as  bearing 
especially  upon  the  subject  of  deism:  "Essay  Con- 
cerning the  Use  of  Reason  in  Theolo^"  (1707); 
"Discourse  of  Freethinking"  (1713);  "Discourse  on 
the  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the  Christian  Religion" 
(1724) ;  "  The  Scheme  of  Literal  Prophecy  Considered" 
(1727). 

Thomas  WooUUm  (1669-1733)  appeared  as  a  mod- 
erator in  the  acrimonious  controversy  that  was  being 
waged  between  Collins  and  his  critics  with  his  "MocP 
erator  between  an  Infidel  and  an  Apostate".  As  Col- 
lins had  succeeded  in  allegorizing  the  prophecies  of  the 
Old  Testament  until  nothing  remained  of  them,  so 
Woolston  tried  to  allegorize  away  the  miracles  of 
Christ.  During  the  years  1728-9,  six  discourses  on 
the  miracles  of  Our  Lord  came  out  in  three  parts,  in 
which  Woolston  asserted,  with  an  extraordinary  vio- 
lence of  language  and  blasphemy  that  could  only  be 


attributed  to  a  madman,  that  the  mirades  of  Christ, 
when  taken  in  a  literal  and  historicat  sense,  are  false, 
absurd,  and  fictitious.  Tliey  must  therefore,  he  uiges, 
be  received  in  a  mystical  and  allegorical  sense.  In 
particular,  he  aigued  at  great  length  against  the  mira- 
cles of  resurrection  from  the  dead  wrou^t  by  Christ, 
and  against  Ihe  resurrection  of  Oirist  Himadf .  The 
Bishop  of  London  issued  five  pastoral  letters  against 
him,  and  many  eodesiBstics  wrote  in  refutation  of  hia 
work.  The  most  noteworthy  rM>ly  to  his  doetrines 
was  "  Tlie  Tnral  of  the  Witnesses  **  (1729)  by  Dr.  Sheiv 
lock.  In  172&-30,  Woc^ston  published  "  A  Defense  of 
his  Discourse  agamst  the  Bidiops  of  London  and  St 
David's",  an  extremely  weak  production. 

Matthew  Ttndal  (1657-1733)  gave  to  the  contro- 
vert the  work  that  soon  became  known  as  the  "  De- 
ists' Bible".  His  "Christianity  as  Old  as  the  Crea- 
ticm"  was  published  in  his  extreme  old  age  in  1730. 
As  ita  sub-title  indicates,  its  aim  was  to  show  that  the 
Gospel  is  no  more  than  a  republication  of  the  Law  of 
Nature.  This  it  undertakes  to  wank^  plain  by  eviscer- 
ating the  Christian  religion  of  all  that  is  not  a  mere 
statement  of  natural  reugion.  External  revdation  is 
declared  to  be  needless  and  useless,  indeed  impossible, 
and  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  to  be  full  of 
oppositions  and  contradictions.  The  work  was  taken 
as  a  serious  attack  upon  the  traditional  position  of 
Christianity  in  England,  as  is  evinced  by  the  hostile 
criticism  it  at  once  provoked.  The  Bishop  of  London 
issued  a  pastoral;  Waterland,  Law,  Conybeare,  and 
others  replied  to  it,  Conybeare's  "  Defence  "  creating  a 
considerable  stir  at  the  time.  More  than  any  other 
work,  "Christianitv  as  Old  as  the  Creation"  was  the 
occasion  of  the  writing  of  Butler's  well  known  "An- 
alc^". 

Thomas  Morgan  (d.  1743)  makes  professions  of 
Christianity,  the  usefulness  of  revelation,  etc.,  but 
criticizes  and  at  the  same  time  rejects  as  revda^onal 
the  Old  Testament  history,  both  as  to  its  pereonages 
and  its  narratives  of  fact.  He  advances  the  theoiy 
that  the  Jews  "accomodated"  the  truth,  and  even 
goes  so  far  as  to  extend  this  ^accomodation"  to  the 
Apostles  and  to  Christ  as  wdl.  His  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  Church  is  similar  to  that  of  Toland,  in 
that  he  holds  the  two  elements,  Judainng  and  libend, 
to  have  resulted  in  a  fusion.  His  principal  work  is 
"The  Moral  Philosopher,  a  Dialogue  between  Fhilft- 
lethes,  a  Christian  Deist,  and  Theophanes,  a  Christian 
Jew"  (1737,  1739,  1740).  This  was  answered  by  Dr. 
CThapman,  whose  reply  called  forth  a  defence  on  the 
part  of  Morgan  in  "  The  Moral  Philosopher,  or  a  farther 
Vindication  of  Moral  Truth  and  Reason". 

Thomas  Chubb  (167&-1746),  a  man  of  humble  origin 
and  of  poor  and  elementary  education,  by  trade  a 
glove-maker  and  tallow-chandler,  is  the  most  plebeian 
representative  of  deism.  In  1731  he  publisned  "A 
Discourse  Concerning  Reason"  in  which  he  disavows 
his  intention  of  opposing  revelation  or  servine  the 
cause  of  infidelity.  But  ^  The  True  Gospel  of  Jesus 
Christ",  in  which  Lechler  sees  "an  essential  moment 
in  the  historical  development  of  Deism",  announces 
Christianity  as  a  life  rather  thai)  as  a  collection  of  doc- 
trinal truths.  The  true  gospel  is  tiiat  of  natural  rdif - 
ion,  and  as  such  Chubb  treats  it  in  his  woric  In  hu 
posthumous  works  -a  sceptical  advance  is  made.  Ihese 
were  published  in  1748,  and  after  the  "Remaiks  on 
the  Scriptures"  contain  the  author's  "Fazewel  to  His 
Readers".  This  "Farewel"  embraces  a  number  of 
tracts  on  various  religious  subjects.  A  marked  ten- 
dency to  scepticism  r^arding  a  particular  providopce 
pervades  them.  The  efficacy  of  prayer  as  wdl  as  the 
future  .state,  is  called  in  Question.  Areuments  are 
urged  against  prophecy  ana  miracle.    T^ere  are  fifty 

fages  devoted  to  those  agunst  the  Resurrection  alone, 
'inally,  Christ  is  presented  as  a  mere  man,  who 
founded  a  religious  sect  among  the  Jews.  Chubb  pul^ 
hshed  also  '^  The  Supremacy  of  the  Father"  X1715)  voA 


DMITT 


683 


^  Tracts ' '  (1730).  He  is  also  responsible  for  the  senti- 
txieats  of  "  Hie  Case  of  Deisin  Fsariy  Stated '',  an  anon-- 
yxnous  tract  which  he  revised. 

Henry  St.  John,  ViseowU  Bdin^xroke  (1678-1751), 
belong?  to  the  deists  chiefly  by  reason  of  his  posthu- 
mous works.  They  are  ponderously  cynical  m  style 
and  generally  dull  and  uninteres^g,  containing  ar^- 
ments  against  the  truth  and  value  of  Scriptuml  his* 
tory,  atid  asserting  that  Christianity  is  a  system 
foisted  upon  the  unlettered  by  the  cunning  of  the 
clergy  to  further  their  own  ends. 

Pefen  AnfiH  (1093-1769)  was  the  author,  among 
d4;her  works,  of  ''Judging  for  Ouiselves,  or  Freethink- 
ing  the  great  Duty  of  Religion"  (1739),  "The  Resur- 
rection of  Jesus  Oonsidered"  (1744),  '' Supematurals 
Ehcamlned*"  (1747),  and  nine  numbers  of  the  ''Free 
Bnquirer"  (1761).  In  the  second  of  these  worics  he 
demes  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  and  accuses  Holy 
Writ  of  fraud  and  imposture. 

Henry  Dodwetl  (d.  1748),  who  wrote  "Christianity 
not  Founded  on  Argument",  is  also  generally  reck- 
oned, with  Annet,  as  among  the  representative  deists. 
(See  God;  PROvroBNCB;  Rahonalibic;  ScBPnciSM; 
Thbihm.) 

Leland,  a  View  of.  A«  Principal  DeittictU  Wriien  (London, 


1754).  0;  &r9BSN,  Hiakny  of  En^h  Thouchi  in  the  BifJOeenth 
Cenhny  (London,  1S76);  Skbiaxw*  Ophicmaeku,  or  Demn  Re- 
veaUd  CUmdon,  1749):  Fakbab,  A  Critieal  Hiatory  of  Fne 
ThouffiU  ttondon.  18d3);  Hunt,  A  Hiatory  of  RtOgioua  TKougfU 
in  Bngland  (London,  1870),  I;  Lbchubr,  OMchitikte  dea  engfia- 
ehen  Mamma  (Stuttgftrt,  1841);  OwAooiMB,  Hiatoire  dea  Sectea 
religieuaea  qui  ae  aont  niea  (Paru»  1828).  45;  Lanos,  QeachichU 
dea  Materialiamua  (Leipzig,  I860):  Hobbes.  Leviathan  (Lon- 
don, 1661):  Locks,  Worka  (London,  1853):  Cz<arkb,  Worka 
(London,  1738);  BaRXU«BT,  Alcivhnm,  or  the  Minute  PhUoo- 
ophar  (London,  1732).  See  abo  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  s.  vv. 
Berkeley,  348  sqq.;  Clarke,  443;  HM>ea,B7i  Leland,  17;  Locke, 
27;Skaion,da3. 

Francis  Avblinq. 

Ddtr  (Fr.  d^iU;  L.  L.  deitaa;  Lat.  deus,  divus, 
"the  divine  nature",  "godhead",  "god").— The 
original  meaning  of  the  word  is  shown  in  the  San- 
skrit dyaus,  gen.  divc^Sy  root  dtv,  which  root  ap- 
pears in  an  adjective  formation  as  efetxx,  "bright'', 
"heavenly" — ^attributes  of  God — Whence  devan,  "the 
bright  bemgs",  or,  as  a  noun  substantive,  dyau9.  In 
its  substantive  form,  dyaus  is  either  mascuHne — e.  ^. 
"heaven",  "sky" — or  feminine,  as  Heaven  (personi- 
fied). Hence,  in  the  Avesta  da^m,  "evil  spirit"; 
Lith.  dffoa,  "a  god";  Gael  and  Irish  dw,  "god";  O. 
Teut.  tiu;  A.  S.  Tiw  (e.  g.  Tuesday,  i.  e.  Tvwesday) ; 
Gr.  Z«^  (gen.  At4t) ;  Lat.  Juniter  (i.  e.  Jotypater).  From 
the  same  root  we  have  the  Lat.  names  of  deities: 
Diana,  Janus,  Juno,  Dis,  the  genitive  Jovis  {Dioms), 
and  the  word  dies. 

The  present  article  is  confined  to  the  non-Christian 
notion  of  the  Deity.  Tlie  (Christian  idea  is  set  forth 
under  tie  title  God.  The  data,  therefore,  are  drawn 
from  the  new  science  of  the  history  of  religions.  They 
embrace  written  records,  customs,  laws,  life,  language. 
The  earliest  documents  of  history  show  that  religion 
had  long  existed  at  the  time  of  their  composition. 
For  a  long  time  some  deity  had  been  adored,  had  re- 
ceived sacrifices,  and  no  one  could  recall  the  beginning 
of  these  ancient  rites.  Many  histories  of  religion 
published  in  recent  years  are  made  up  of  hypotheses 
pure  and  simple;  often  far  removed  from  tne  facts 
on  which  they  are  based ;  often  absolutely  arbitrary. 
The  scientific  spirit  demands  statements  of  facts 
verified  beyond  dispute  or  inductions  in  accord  with 
facts.  Thus  viewed,  the  history  of  religions  shows  on 
the  subject  of  the  Deity:  (1)  as  an  actual  fact,  the 
mingling  of  polytheistic  and  monotheistic  elements ;  (2) 
that  the  farther  back  we  go  in  the  history  of  religious 
thought,  the  purer  becomes  the  notion,  so  that  traces 
of  a  primitive  monotheism  are  forced  upon  us;  (3) 
that  the  ghofit-theory,  advanced  by  Spencer  and  other 
writers,  to  account  for  the  origin  of  the  Deity  is 
narrow,  partial,  and  unscientific. 


Religion,  in  its  most  general  sense,  is  a  univeraai 
phenomenon  of  mankind.  The  assertion  of  Lubbock, 
that  tribes  exist  who  have  no  notion  of  the  Deity,  is 
refuted  by  lyior  and  Roskoff .  At  times  this  concep- 
tion appears  lofty  and  pure,  again  it  is  comparativeff 
crude  and  involved  in  a  mass  of  superstitious  fancy. 
Yet,  however  imperfect  and  chiidish  the  expressioa 
may  seem,  it  represents  the  highest  idea  of  the  Deity 
which  the  mind,  for  the  time  and  under  the  cir* 
cumstances,  grasped. 

I. — Religious  life  amons  savage  peoples  of  to-day, 
as  among  pagan  nations  before  Christianity,  resem- 
bles the  entan^ed  confusion  of  a  forest  where  trees, 
brambles,  and  creepers,  of  all  ages  and  sizes,  are  to  be 
seen  interlacing,  supporting  and  crushing  each  other 
with  their  earthy  growths,  while,  above  the  topmost 
branches,  is  caught  a  glimpse  of  the  blue  sky  of 
heaven,  llie  religion  of  paganism  in  general  is  Poly- 
theism, which  has  been  accounted  for  by  theo- 
ries of  Animism,  Fetishism,  Naturism,  and  the  con- 
crete forms  of  Anthropomorphism  and  Idolatnr. 
The  advocates  of  these  various  theories  i^ould  be 
classed  as  theorists  rather  than  historians.  Taking 
the  theory  of  evolution  as  a  common  starting-point, 
they  hold  that  man  arose  from  the  brute  and  that 
.he  is  a  brute  gradually  transformed.  They  differ 
only  in  the  cause  and  nature  of  the  religious  develop- 
ment which  resulted  in  the  notion  of  the  Deity.  Here 
we  re|ect  all  presuppositions  and  deal  only  with  the 
histoncal  aspect  of  the  problem.  In  the  words  of 
Waitz,  the  primitive  man  of  modem  anthropology  is  "  a 
pure  fiction,  however  convenient  a  fiction  he  may  be". 

Paganism  presents  not  a  doctrine,  but  a  grouping  of 
customs  and  teachings  different  and  often  opposed, 
an  incoherent  mass  of  beliefs  with  various  origins. 
Close  analysis  enables  the  student  to  separate  the 
doctrinal  streams  and  trace  them  to  their  proper 
sources.  The  luminous  truth  presented  by  this  study 
is  the  corruption  of  religious  ideas  on  the  nature  of 
the  Deity  by  the  tangled  confusion  of  human  growth. 
Sir  A.  C.  Lyall  (Asiatic  Studies,  Ser.  II,  p.  234), 
while  rejecting  the  theory  of  a  primitive  revelation, 
admits  that  "beyond  doubt  we  find  many  beliefs  and 
traditions  running  downward,  spreading  at  a  level 
much  below  their  source".  The  causes  which  con- 
tributed to  produce  this  tangled  profusion  in  the 
pagan  conception  of  the  Deity  are: — 

(1)  DeifiaOian  of  nature  and  her  powers  and  of  sen- 
sible objects.  Gf  necessity  the  result  was  an  inex- 
haustible variety  of  deities.  As  time  went  on,  the 
divine  assumed  thousands  of  fanciful  and  fortuitous 
images  and  forms.  Deification  of  the  powers  of  nature 
led  nrst  to  the  worship  of  the  elements.  One  divinity 
of  the  heavens  stood  in  contrast  with  one  of  the  earth. 
Fire,  as  the  warming,  nourishing,  consuming,  and  des- 
troying power,  was  early  worsh^ied  as  a  separatedeity. 
Hence  the  Vestal  Virgins  in  Rome,  the  Vedio  Agnif 
the  Fire-worshippers  of  Mazdeism,  and  the  saored  fire 
of  Shintoism.  So  also  moisture  or  water,  not  only  in 
general,  but  in  its  concrete  forms,  e.  g.  sea.  lake,  river, 

Spring,  cloud;  and  thus  was  had  a  fourtn  elemental 
eity.  In  the  East,  Astrolatry,  or  Sabeeism,  i.  e.  the 
worship  of  the  stars  that  illumine  the  earth,  developed, 
above  all  the  worship  of  the  sun.  Where  soil  and 
vegetation  was  rich,  the  earth  was  regarded  as  a  nurs- 
ing mother,  and  Geolatry  in  many  forms  arose.  In 
the  Vedic  hymns  we  can  trace  the  transition  from 
natural  phenomena  into  natural  deities — e.  g.  Agni, 
i.  e.  fire,  Varuna,  i.  e.  heaven,  Indra,  i.  e.  the  rain-clouds 
— but  even  then  doubts  spring  up,  and  the  poetic 
writers  ask  themselves  whether,  after  all,  there  are 
such  things  as  the  Devas.  In  Homer  and  Hesiod  the 
forces  of  nature  are  conceived  as  persons,  e.  g. 
tJranos,  i.  e.  heaven;  Nyx,  i.  e.  night;  Hypnos,  i.  e. 
^eep;  Oneiros,  i.  e.  dream;  Oceanos,  i.  e.  ocean;  the 
answer  of  Achilles  to  the  river  Scamander  "in  human 
form,  confessed  before  his  eyes"  (Iliad,  XXI),  and  his 


DMITT 


684 


bKTT 


prayer  to  the  winds  Boreas  and  Zephyrus,  that  they 
kindle  the  flames  on  the  funeral  pyre  of  Patroclus 
(Iliad,  XXIII).  Observation  of  the  fact  that  in  nar 
ture  two  energies — one  active  and  generative,  the 
other  passive  and  feminine — combine,  led  men  to  as- 
sociate heaven  and  earth,  sun  and  moon,  day  and 
night,  as  common  primal  and  motherly  deities  co-op- 
erating in  the  production  of  being.  Hence  the  dis- 
tinction of  male  divinities — e.  g.  heaven,  ether,  sun — 
and  of  female  divinities — e.  g.  earth,  air,  moon. 
From  this  only  a  step  to  the  deification  of  the  genera- 
tive principle  and  the  worship  of  the  phcdlua. 

(2)  Anthropomorphosia, — The  powers  of  nature  were 
at  first  worshipped  without  form  or  namo,  afterwards 
humanised  and  r^arded  as  persons.  Thus  Gaia,  of 
ancient  Pelasgic  worship,  appears  as  Rhea  in  Cretan 
traditions,  as  the  Cybele  of  Asia  Anterior,  as  Hera  in 
Arcadia  and  Samoa,  as  the  goddess  of  nature  Aphro- 
dite, as  Demeter.  In  Rome  the  Bona  Dea  of  mvstic 
rite,  whose  proper  name  was  not  to  be  spoken,  was  later 
akin  to,  or  identified  with,  a  number  of  Greek  or  Italian 
deities.  De  la  Saussaye'  writes  of  ancient  Babylono- 
AaBjnaxi  religion:  ''Among  the  influential  words 
which  could  avert  or  expel  evil,  the  most  prominent 
were  the  names  of  the  gpneat  gods;  but  these  names 
were  considered  to  be  secret,  and  therefore  people  ap- 
pealed to  the  god  himself  to  pronoimce  them."  In 
Samothraoe  the  Cabiri,  i.  e.  great  and  mi^ty  dei- 
ties, the  supreme  powers  of  nature,  were  adored  at 
first  without  specinc  names.  In  old  Latium  the  pon- 
tifices  concealed  the  names  of  the  gods.  Herodotus 
says  the  Pelasgian  deities  were  nameless.  In  the  Vedic 
hymns  the  sacrificial  tree,  to  which  the  sacrifices  were 
attached,  is  thus  addressed :  '*  Where  thou  knowest,  O 
T^,  the  sacred  names  of  the  gods,  to  that  place  make 
the  oflferingB  eo."  According  to  de  la  Ssuissaye  the 
deities  of  the  Kig-Veda  are  but  slightly  individualized. 
To  the  fonnless  gods  of  nature  succeeded  the  deities  of 
Homeric  imagination,  in  human  shape  and  with  hu- 
man feedings.  In  the  judgment  of  Herodotus  it  was 
Homer  and  Hesiod  who  settled  the  theogony  of  the 
Greeks — ^in  fact  laid  the  basis  of  the  later  Hellenic 
religion.  The  Greeks  lavished  the  rich  stores  of  their 
intellectual  life  upon  their  deities,  humanized  and 
severed  them  from  natural  phenomena.  Hence  the 
whole  of  nature  was  pervaded  by  a  family  of  deities 
descending  from  the  elements  as  primal  gods,  the  in- 
dividual members  of  which  family  were  of  kin  to  one 
another  and  in  mutual  relations  of  higher  and  lower, 
older  and  younger,  male  and  female,  stronger  and 
weaker;  so  that  man,  feeling  himself  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  deities,  discovered  in  the  course  of  nature, 
and  in  her  various  phenomena,  their  actions,  histories, 
and  manifestations  of  their  will.  The  conception  of 
these  deities  was  anthropopathic,  in  their  motives  and 
passions  they  were  more  powerful  and  more  perfect 
men,  they  had  a  human  bodv  and  a  human  counte- 
nance, human  thoughts  and  feelings;  they  resided  in 
the  clouds  or  on  a  hish  mountain;  they  dwelt  in  a 
heavenly  pidace.  Sucn  an  idea  is  incoherent  and  con- 
tradictory. In  reality  the  Deit^  was  nature.  If  its 
inanimate  forms  were  personified  and  worshipped, 
whv  not  animals  and  plants — e.  g.  tree-worship? 

(S)  Human  Apotheoais  is  another  cause  and  eoually 
prolific  in  later  pagan  times.  Plutareh  (in  his  "  Rom- 
ulus") enters  at  length  into  the  question,  how  the 
soul,  when  separated  from  the  body,  advances  into 
the  state  of  heroism,  and  from  a  hero  develops  into  a 
demon  and  from  a  demon  becomes  a  god.  To  Cicero 
the  doctrine  of  Euhemerism  is  the  core  and  fundar 
mental  principle  of  the  mysteries  (de  Nat.  Deor.,  Ill, 
zzi).  With  the  Greeks  it  had  been  a  custom  to  hon- 
our renowned  or  well-deserving  men  as  heroes  after 
death,  e.  g.  Herakles,  Theseus;  but  to  pay  divine 
hmiours  to  the  living  never  entered  into  their  minds  in 
early  times.  Heroes  or  saintly  men  were  regarded 
(a)  as  sons  of  the  gods,  e.  g.  in  Hesiod;  (b)  as  incarna- 


tions of  the  great  gods.  The  growth  of  popular  Polv- 
theism  in  modem  India  is  due  to  the  fact  that  tAe 
Brahmins,  by  their  doctrine  <A  divine  embodiments 
(avatara),  create  holy  men  into  deities  actually  wor- 
shipped. Thus  the  older  gods  of  India,  L  e.  nature- 
personifications,  are  in  turn  obscured  by  the  swarm  of 
earth-bom  deifications.  Cdebrooke  saye  that  the 
worship  of  deified  heroes  is  a  later  phase  DOi  to  be 
found  m  the  Vedas,  thou^  the  heroes  themaelveB  not 
yet  deified  are  therein  mentionad  oecaeioiiaUy.  (c) 
The  hero  was  identified  with  one  of  the  great  gods. 
Thus  hero-worship  was  strange  to  the  early  Romans. 
Romulus,  according  to  Plutansh,  was  not  worshipped 
as  a  hero  property  speaking,  but  as  a  gpd,  and  that  after 
he  had  been  identified  with  the  Sabine  god  Quirinus. 
(d)  Hero-worship  property  speaking,  e.  g.  in  the 
Odyss^.  (e)  Apotheosis. — ^Plutarch  tells  us  that 
Lysander  (d.  394  B.  c.)  was  the  first  man  to  wiiom  the 
Greeks  erected  altars  and  offered  sacrifices  as  to  a  god. 
FameU  states  that  one  of  the  most  fruitful  ofishoots  of 
the  older  Hellenic  system  was  hen>-worahi|>.  And 
Pliny  writes,  '*  Of  all  ways  of  paying  due  thanks  to  men 
of  great  desert,  the  most  time-honoured  is  to  enrol  them 
as  eoda ' '.  The  Jaina  faith,  an  offshoot  of  Buddhism,  is 
noUiing  but  the  worship  of  deified  men.  In  Egjrpt  di- 
vine honours  were  paid  to  kings  even  during  their  life- 
time. Cicero  makes  a  formal  profession  of  Euhemer 
ism.  "  Knowest  that  thou  art  a  god?"  he  represents  the 
elorified  Scipio  addressing  himself  in  a  dream  (de  Rep. 
VI,  xxiv).  Men  and  women  after  death  had  been 
raised  to  be  gods:  therefore  he  would  have  bis  daugh- 
ter Tullia  eiuiltea  to  the  same  honour,  as  having  best 
deserved  it,  and  he  would  dedicate  a  temi>le  to  her 
(ep.  ad  Att.,  xii).  The  Christian  apologmts,  who 
stood  face  to  face  with  Heathendom,  positively 
declared  that  aU  the  deities  of  Paganism  were  dei- 
fied men.  Among  the  Romans  the  worship  of  the 
genius  was  to  men  the  deification  of  znannood,  as 
that  of  Juno  was  to  women  the  deification  of  woman- 
hood. Pliny  saw  in  this  belief  a  formal  sdf-deifica- 
tion,  proceeding  upon  the  theory  that  the  genius,  or 
Juno,  was  nothing  else  than  the  spiritual  element  of 
man,  or  woman.  Not  only  the  individual,  but  every 
place  and,  above  all,  the  Roman  people  and  Rome 
itself  had  its  genius.  The  time-honoured  worshq>  of 
the  latter  was  naturally  associated  with,  and  passed 
into,  a  worship  of  the  emperor.  Thus  pre-Christian 
heathenism  culminated  in  the  worship  of  Augustus. 
In  the  Book  of  Wisdom  the  various  stages  in  thepro- 
cess  of  human  deification  are  clearly  described  (Wis- 
dom, xiv). 

(4)  St.  Augustine  (Civ.  Dei,  IV,  ii)  discusses  the 
opinion  of  Roman  writers  that  all  the  manifold  sods 
and  goddesses  of  the  Romans  were  in  the  final  analyBis 
but  one  Jupiter,  for  these  deities  melt  away  into  €»ch 
other  on  closer  inspection.  Thus  we  have  a  single 
god,  who  by  the  dissection  of  his  nature  into  various 
aspects  of  his  poweos,  and  by  the  personifying  of  hu 
individual  powers,  has  been  resolved  into  a  multipli- 
city of  deities.  The  Romans  thus  broke  up  the  idea 
of  deity  by  hypostasisin^  particular  powers,  modes  of 
operation,  physical  functions,  and  properties.  By  this 
process  not  only  events  in  nature  and  in  human  life, 
out  their  various  phases,  qualities,  and  cireumstanoes 
were  considered  apart  as  endowed  with  proper  per- 
sonalities, and  worshipped  as  deities.  Thus  in  the  life 
of  a  child,  Vaticanus  opens  his  mouth,  Cunina  guards 
the  cradle,  Educa  and  Potina  teach  mm  to  eat  and 
drink,  Fabulinus  to  speak,  Statalinus  helps  him  to 
stand  up,  Adeona  and  Abeona  watch  over  his  first 
footsteps.  Since  every  act  required  a  god,  there  was 
scarcely  any  limit  to  the  inventive  work  of  the  ima- 
gination. And  St.  Augustine  tells  us  (Civ.  Dei,  IV. 
viii)  that  the  Roman  farmer  was  in  the  hands  of  a  host 
of  deities  who  assisted  him  at  each  stage  of  plouf^ungi 
hoeing,  sowing,  and  reaping.  Under  such  conditions 
we  can  understand  how  easily  the  cultured  Roman 


DUVT 


685 


dutt 


eouM  embrace  the  {uuitheism  of  Stoic  philosophy, 
teaching  the  one  oreatiYe  all-ruling  power  of  Nature — 
itself  a  peraoniiioation — and  at  the  same  time  pennit 
the  ignorant  to  personify  and  wonhip  as  oistinct 
deities  the  various  acts  and  phases  by  which  this 
power  was  manifested. 

(5)  A  poUHeal  element  enters  into  the  muHiplication 
of  deities  in  the  Pagan  world.  To  make  a  nation, 
several  tribes  must  unite.  Each  has  its  god,  and  the 
nation  is  apt  to  receive  them  all  equally  in  its  Pan-' 
theon.  Or  in  time  of  war  the  victorious  nation  was 
not  content  to  impose  laws  and  tribute  upon  the  con- 
quered; it  must  displace  the  conquered  deities  by  its 
own.  A^un,  where  ancient  nations,  each  having  its 
own  religion  and  m3rthologv,  were  brought  by  com- 
merce into  close  contact,  tne  deities  who  showed  a 
certain  similarity  were  identified,  and  even  their 
names  were  adopted  bv  one  language  from  another. 
According  to  Max  MUUer,  Dui^  and  Siva  are  not 
natural  devek^mients,  nor  mere  corruptions  of  Vedic 
deities,  but  importatons  or  adaptations  from  without. 
A  striking  illustration  is  furnished  in  the  history  of 
Rome.  In  the  earlier  times  the  chief  deities  were 
general  nature-powers  or  mere  abstractions  of  the  State 
or  family.  They  had  no  real  nersonality.  Thus  the 
Lares  came  from  Etmria,  the  enief  of  them  being  the 
LarFamiliaris,  the  divine  head  of  the  family,  the  per- 
sonification of  tile  creative  power  assuring  the  duration 
oi  the  family;  Vesta,  the  fire  of  the  domestic  heartii, 
the  protectress  of  the  family,  became  identified  later 
with  the  Greek  Hestia.  Afterwards,  when  Rome 
spread  out  into  a  world-power,  it  received  into  its 
Pantheon  the  deities  of  the  nations  conquered  by  its 
armies.  Again,  the  political  element  becomes  a  more 
potent  factor  when  deities  are  created  by  human  enact- 
ment. Thus,  in  ancient  Rome  the  pontifices  had  the 
ri^t  and  care  of  making  new  deities.  And  in  China 
to-day  the  Qovemment  orders  posthumous  honours 
and  titles  and  deifications  of  men,  gives  tides  and  re- 
wards to  deities  for  supposed  public  service,  and  exer- 
cises a  control  over  JBuddhist  incarnations.  The 
Emperor  of  China  uses  the  monopoly  of  deification  as 
a  constitutional  prerogative,  like  the  right  of  creating 
peers. 

(6)  A  final  explanation  can  be  found  in  language. 
The  words  employed  by  the  mind  to  designate  spirit- 
ual facts  are  all  drawn  from  conscious  individual  ex- 
perience. In  the  beginning  man  naturally  expressed 
the  power  and  attributes  of  the  deity  m  different 
words  drawn  from  nature  and  from  life.  According  to 
de  la  Saussaye  the  opinion  is  even  expressed  in  the 
Rig- Veda  that  the  many  names  of  the  gods  are  only 
different  ways  of  denoting  a  single  being.  Now  the 
tendency  of  language  is  to  become  civstalllEed. 
Words  praduidly  lose  their  etymolodcal  force,  and 
their  original  meaning  is  forgotten.  They  stand  out 
as  cfistinct  and  independent  facts  in  our  mental  life. 
What  was  at  first  a  sign  becomes  itself  an  object. 
Thus  in  the  Vedic  religion  the  Sun  has  many  names — 
Suiya,  Savitri,  Mitra,  Pushan,  Aditya.  Each  of  these 
names  grew  by  itself  into  some  kind  of  active  person- 
ality after  its  original  meaning  had  been  foigotten. 
Originally  all  were  meant  to  express  one  and  the  same 
object  viewed  from  different  points;  e.  g.  Sur^ 
meant  the  Sun  as  offspring  of  the  sky;  Samtri  the  Sun 
as  quickener  or  enlivener :  Mitra  the  bright  Sun  of  the 
mom;  Pu»Aantiie  Sun  ot  the  shepherds;  Faruna  was 
tiie  sl^  as  all-embracing;  Aditya  the  sky  as  boundless. 
In  this  sense  the  Hindu  gods  have  no  more  right  to 
substantive  existence  than  E6b  or  Nyx;  they  are 
fwmina,  not  numina;  i.  e.  words,  not  deities.  So  also 
in  Eevpt  the  Sun  is  Horua  in  the  morning,  Ra  at  mid- 
day, Turn  in  the  evening,  Osiris  during  the  night.  In 
another  manner  language  may  lead  into  error,  as  when 
Bancroft  remarks  that  m  many  of  the  American  lan- 
guages the  same  word  is  used  for  storm  and  god. 
firittton  writes,  ''The  descent  is  almost  imperceptible 


which  leads  to  the  peraonification  of  wind  as  god**. 
Goldieher  states  that  the  Ba^iiiami  in  Central  Amea 
use  the  same  term  for  storm  and  deity.  The  Akra 
people  on  the  Qold  Coast  of  Africa  say,  ''Will  God 
cameV  for  **  Will  it  rain?"  Here  we  have  the  same 
word  with  two  meanings.  Thus  the  Odjis,  or  AAaxk- 
tis,  call  the  deity  by  the  same  word  as  the  sky,  but 
mean  a  personal  god  who  created  all  things  and  is  the 
giver  of  all  good  things. 

All  pama  religions  have  soomoiphic,  or  partially 
eoomor^c,  idols,  deities  in  tiie  shape  of  lower  anir 
mals.  £}specially  is  this  true  of  the  Egyptian  deities. 
But  it  is  the  sphere  of  totem-lore  or  mytnology  to  ex- 
plain these  strange  metamoiphoees,  wluch  scandalised 
philosophers,  and  which  Ovid  set  in  verse  for  the  cul- 
tured <n  his  time. 

n. — The  human  race  has  at  all  times  and  in  divers 
ways  sou^t  to  express  the  notion  of  the  deity.  The 
history  of  religions,  however,  lays  bare  another  trutii, 
vis.,  that  the  farther  back  we  go  in  the  histoiy  of  re- 
ligious thou^t,  the  purer  becomes  the  notion  of  the 
deity.  In  uie  Rig- Veda,  tiie  most  ancient  of  the 
Hindu  sacred  books,  traces  of  a  primitive  monotheism 
are  cleariy  shown.  The  Deity  is  called  **  the  only  ex- 
isting bein^"  who  breathed,  calmly  self-contained,  in 
the  beginning  before  there  was  sky  or  atmosphere, 
day  or  nig^t, lidit  or  darkness.  This  being  is  not  the 
barren  philoeophical  entity  found  in  the  later  Upanis- 
hads,  for  he  is  called  "our  Father '^  ''our  Creator'', 
omniscient,  who  listens  to  prayers.  Father  Calmette 
maintAJns  that  the  true  God  is  taught  in  the  Vedas. 
Again,  ''That  which  is  and  is  one,  tiie  poets  call  in 
various  ways'',  and  it  is  declared  to  exist  ^in  the  form 
of  the  unborn  being ".  Traces  of  a  nature-religion  are 
found  in  the  Vedas.  To  a  later  date,  however,  must  be 
ascribed  the  mjrthology  of  the  Vedic  hymns  in  which 
the  "  bright  ones  "  (the  heavens  and  earth,  the  sun  and 
moon,  with  various  elemental  powers  of  storm  and 
wind)  are  the  only  distinctly  recognised  deities.  D'Har- 
lez,  F.  C.  Cook,  and  Phillips  hold  that  the  moral  and 
spiritual  basis  is  older.  Fictet,  A.  B.  Smith,  Baner- 
gia,  E3iingwood,  Wilson,  Muir  do  not  hesitate  to  de- 
clare that  the  loftier  conceptions  of  the  Vedas  are 
unquestionably  the  earlier,  and  tiiat  th^  show  dear 
traces  of  a  primitive  monotheism.  The  use  d  differ- 
ent divine  names  in  the  Vedas  does  not  warrant  us  in 
concluding  without  other  evidence  that  different 
deities  are  desienated.  On  this  basis  we  could  con- 
dude,  with  Tide,  that  the  Jews  at  different  times 
worshipped  three  different  gods,  e.  g.  Elohim,  Yah- 
weh,  Adonai.  The  use  of  the  different  names  may  be 
due  to  personification  of  natural  forces  or  to  crystal- 
lisation of  language,  but  such  a  use  marks  a  later  stags 
in  religious  thoumt.  Why  could  not  these  names 
originally  be  employed  to  express  the  many  perf eo- 
tions  and  attributes  of  the  great  God?  Thus  tite 
Vedic  poet  writes,  "Agni,  many  are  the  names  of 
Thee,  the  Immortal  One";  and,  "The  father  adoring 
gives  many  names  to  Thee,  O  Agni,  if  thou  shouldst 
take  pleasure  therein".  Of  the  Egrptian  deity  Ra  it  is 
written,  "  His  names  are  manifold  and  unknown,  even 
the  gods  know  them  not".  Famell  states  that 
"many  deities,  some  of  whom  were  scarody  known 
outside  a  narrow  area,  were  invoked  as  iroXw^nr/M,  all 
possible  titles  of  power  beins  summed  up  in  one 
word".  Thus,  the  farther  back  we  go  in  the  history 
of  the  Indian  people,  the  purer  becomes  the  form  oif 
religious  belief.  Idolatiy  is  shown  to  be  a  degenerar 
tion.  "  It  is  true",  says  Sir  A.  C.  Lyall, "  that  in  India, 
as  elsewhere,  the  idea  of  one  Supreme  Being,  va^udy 
imagined,  stands  behind  all  the  phantawmagoria  of 
supernatural  personages".  A  luminous  prooTof  this 
inference  is  f umished l>y  an  analysis  of  the  word  Jupi- 
ter, Jupiter  in  Latin  is  Zeus  pater  in  Greek  and  is 
^aiM  pitar  in  Sanskrit.  The  Teutonic  form  is  Tiu, 
The  meaning  is  "  Heaven-Father".  The  designation  of 
the  Deity  in  all  these  branches  of  the  Aiy  an  family 


DEZTT 


DBmr 


points  to  a  time,  5000  years  ago  or  earlier,  when  the 
Aiyan£|,.before  their  dispersion,  before  they  spoke  Sai>- 
sknt,  Greek,  Latin,  or  German,  muted  in  caliing  on 
the  Deitv  as  Hie  Heaven-Father.  In  the  Vedas  Dyau*- 
pUar  is  found,  but  even  in  these  documents  Dyaus  is 
already  a  fading  star;  he  is  crowded  out  by  Indra, 
Rudra,  Agni,  and  other  purely  Indian  deities.  In  the 
Vedas  Dyaus  has  two  forms;  a  masculine  and  a  femi- 
nine. But  the  Vedic  Dyu  or  Dyaus-pUar  is  fiist  of  all 
a  masculine,  while  in  later  Sanskrit  only  it  becomes 
exclusively  a  feminine.  Hence  it  is  not  true  to  say 
that  the  name  originally  was  a  feminine  to  designate 
heaven,  and  that  the  nation  afterwards  changed  it 
into  a  proper  name  to  express  the  Deity. 

The  Gatnas,  the  most  ancient  hymns  of  the  Avesta, 
form  the  kernel  about  which  the  sacred  literature  of 
the  Iranians  clustered  in  an  aftergrowth.  They  in- 
culcate belief  in  Ahura  Maada,  the  self-existent  omni- 
potent being.  He  is  the  all-powerful  Lord  who  made 
neaven  and  earth,  and  all  that  is  therein,  and  who 
governs  everything  with  wisdom.  Tiele  says  that  the 
sole  really  personal  being  is  Ahura,  and  that  the  two 
spirits  in  antagonism  are  below  him  (Elem.  of  the 
Science  of  Rel.,  Ser.  I,  p.  47).  The  opposition  of 
Ahriman  is  of  a  later  date.  Pfleiderer  ndds  that 
oriranally  he  was  a  good  spirit  created  by  Ahura  (Phil, 
of  Rel.,  Ill,  p.  84).  llie  Amesha-Spentos  of  the 
Gat^tas  have  tne  nature  of  abstract  ideas  or  quali- 
ties, i.  e.  attributes  of  Ahura;  afterwards  they  formed 
a  kind  of  celestial  council.  L.  H.  Mills  (New  Worid, 
March,  1895)  holds  that  the  spiritual,  unique  nature  of 
Ahura  is  attested  beyond  question,  and  he  unites  wi^ 
d'Hariez,  Darmesteter,  and  Tiele  in  teaching  that  the 
primitive  form  of  Iranian  belief  was  monotheistie. 
The  Pa^nism  of  Greece  and  Rome,  with  its  family  of 
deities  m  human  shapes  and  with  human  passions, 
bears  upon  its  face  evident  marks  of  degradation  and 
corruption.  Thus  a  critical  study  of  the  Aryan  be- 
Kefs  convinces  the  student  that  in  them  we  find  no  il- 
lustration of  an  evolution  from  a  primitive,  low,  to  a 
later,  and  higher,  form.  *The  religion  of  the  Indo- 
European  race",  writes  Darmesteter  (Contemp.  Rev., 
Oct.,  1879),  *' while  still  united,  reoogniaed  a  supreme 
God,  an  organising  God,  ahnighty,  omniscient,  moral. 
The  conception  was  a  heritage  of  the  past.'^ 

The  same  truth  is  evident  from  a  study  of  the  relig- 
ions of  Egypt  and  of  China.  In  the  most  ancient 
monuments  of  Egjrpt  the  simplest  and  most  precise 
conception  of  one  God  is  expressed;  He  is  one  and 
alone;  no  other  beings  are  with  Him;  He  is  the  only 
being  living  in  truth ;  He  is  the  self-existing  one  who 
made  all  tnings,  and  He  alone  has  not  been  made. 
Brugsch  accepts  this  view,  but  calls  it  Pantheism. 
The  ethical  element  in  the  Deity,  however,  is  adverse 
to  this.  Renouf  finds  a  similar  Pantheism,  but  pre- 
fers the  word  Henotheism.  De  la  Saussaye  admits 
that  '^one  can  maintain  that  Egyptian  Monotheism 
and  Pantheism  have  never  been  denied  bv  any  serious 
enquirer,  though  the  majority  do  not  look  on  them  as 
general  and  original".  The  sublime  portions  of  the 
Egyptian  religion  are  not  the  comparatively  late  re- 
sult of  a  process  of  purification  from  earlier  and 
grosser  forms.  In  the  outlines  of  History  of  Religion 
Tiele  so  taught;  but  in  a  later  work,  Egyptian  Religion, 
he  expresses  the  contrary  opinion.  Lieblein,  Ed. 
Meyer,  and  Renouf  admit  degeneration  in  Egyptian 
religion.  Thus  de  Roug6,  Tiele,  Pierret,  Ellingwood, 
Rawlinson,  Wilkinson  hold  that  belief  in  one  Supreme 
Deity,  the  Creator  and  Lawgiver  of  men,  is  a  truth 
oleany  expressed  in  that  ancient  civilisation,  and 
Polytheism  is  an  aftergrowth  and  corruption.  The 
popular  religion  of  China  rests  on  the  worship  of  nat- 
ural powers  and  of  ancestral  spirits.  Underneath, 
however,  is  the  conviction  of  the  existence  of  a  hi^er 
creative  power,  which,  according  to  Edkins  (Religions 
in  China,  p.  95),  is  a  tradition  'handed  down  from  the 
earliest  period   of   their   history.    D'Harles   (New 


Worid,  Dec.,  1893)  and  F.  M.  James  (New  World, 
June,  1899)  teach  that  the  primitive  Chinese  wor- 
shipped Shaog-Ti,  tihe  Supreme  Lord,  one,  invisible, 
spixitual,  the  only  true  god.  Dr.  Ijoggfi  (Religion  of 
Ghina,  p.  18)  aaserta  that  Ti  was  the  one  supreme  ob- 
ject of  homage  as  far  back  as  we  can  go,  and  unites 
with  d'Haiiei,  Faber,  H^>pel  in  deciaiug  that  5000 
veara  aeo  the  Chinese  were  monotikeists.  Lenwrnsnt 
oases  tne  Babylono-Asoyrian  r^mcMi  on  aa  origmsl 
^  monotheism.  He  claims  to  have  disoovered  a  reliable 
trace  of  this  in  the  word  llu  (el  in  Babd)  which  isaaid 
originally  to  mean  '^the  only  god".  De  la  Saussaye 
advances  as  an  objection  that  ''this  word  is  nothing 
else  than  the  name  for  the  conception  of  God,  just  like 
the  Indian  Deva  and  other  epithets  of  the  same  sort", 
yet  he  holds  that  "the  goddesses  of  Babylono-Asey- 
lian  relinon  are  really  only  one  and  the  same  thing 
under  different  names,  and  these  agpiin  must  be  looked 
on  partly  as  titles". 

Kven  among  the  lowest  and  most  barbarous  tribes 
illustrations  en  the  same  truth  are  found.  ^Nothing 
in  savage  religion",  writes  A.  Lang,  ''is  better  vouched 
for  than  the  beUef  in  a  Being  whom  narrators  of  eveiy 
sort  call  a  Creator,  who  holds  all  things  in  His  power, 
and  who  makes  for  ri^teousness."  The  aborigines 
of  Canada  call  Him  Andouagne,  according  to  Father 
Le  Jeune.  This  Being  is  seldom  or  never  addfessed  in 
prayer.  The  fact  of  aa  otiose  or  unworsfaipped  Su- 
preme Being  is  fatal  to  some  modem  theories  on  the 
origin  and  evolution  of  the  deity.  Tyior  admits  that 
a  Supreme  Being  is  known  to  African  natives,  but 
ascribes  it  to  Islam,  or  to  Christian  influence.  If  this 
were  so.  we  should  expect  to  find  prayer  and  sacrifice. 
Fraser  nolds  that  the  deity  was  inv^ited  in  despair  of 
magic  as  a  power  out  of  whicn  something  could  be  got. 
But  how  could  the  savage  expect  anything  from  a 
deity  he  did  not  address  in  prayer?  Speaoer  teaches 
that  the  deity  was  a  development  out  of  ancestraJ 
spirits.  But  the  Maker  of  things,  not  approached  in 
pra]^er  as  a  rule,  is  said  to  exist  where  ancestor 
spirits  are  not  leporMi  to  be  woishinped.  William 
Strachey,  writii>g  from  Virginia  in  loll,  says  that 
Okeus  was  only '  'a  magisterial  deputy  of  the  great  God 
who  governs  all  the  world  and  makes  the  sun  to  shino 
.  .  .  Turn  they  call  Ahone.  Tlie  good  and  peaceable 
god  requires  no  such  duties  [as  are  paid  to  Okeus]  nor 
needs  to  be  sacrificed  to,  for  He  mtendeth  all  gpod 
unto  them;  He  has  no  image."  Winslow  writes  from 
New  EngUnd  in  1622  that  the  ^  Eiehtan  is  a  being 
of  ancient  credit  among  the  natives.  He  made  all  the 
other  gods.  Canadians,  Algonaulns,  Viisinians,  and 
the  natives  of  Massachusetts  had  a  Great  Spirit  before 
the  advent  of  the  Christian  missionaries. 

The  Australian  mystery-rites  reveal  a  moral  creative 
being  whose  home  is  in  or  above  tiie  heavens,  and  his 
name  is  Maker  (Baiame),  Master  (Biamban),  and  Father 
(Papang).  The  Benedictine  monks,  of  Australia  say 
that  the  natives  believe  in  an  omnipotent  Being,  the 
creator  of  heaven  and  earth,  whom  they  call  Motopon. 
llie  Australian  will  say,  ''No,  not  seen  him  [i.  e. 
Baiame],  but  I  have  felt  lum".  Waitz  tdls  us  that  the 
religious  ideas  of  the  African  tribes  are  so  high  that  if 
we  do  not  like  to  call  them  monotheistic,  we  mav  say 
at  least  that  they  have  come  very  near  the  boundaries 
of  true  monotheism.  ^  However  d^;raded  these  peo- 
ple maybe,"  writes  Livingstone  (Missionarv  Travels, 
p.  168),  "there  is  no  need  teUing  iliem  of  the  exis- 
tence of  God  or  of  a  future  life.  These  two  truths 
are  universally  admitted  in  Africa.  If  we  speak  to 
them  of  a  dead  man,  thev  reply:  He  is  gone  to 
God."  Among  savage  tribes,  where  the  suprcm^' 
Being  is  regaraed  as  too  remote  and  impassive,  he  is 
naturally  supplied  wiUi  a  deputy.  Thus,  e.  g.,  Ahone 
has  Okeus,  Kiehtan  has  Hobancok,  Boyma  has  Grog- 
oragally,  Baiame  has  Tundun,  or  in  phiCOB  Daramulun, 
Nypukupon  in  West  Africa  has  Bobowissi.  Some- 
times, as  in  Australia^  Uiese  active  deputies  are  sods  ot 


raiTT 


687 


tl&e  supreme  Being.  In  other  caaes — e.  g.  Finniili 
N^um,  Zulu  Unkulunkului  and  Algonquin  Atahocan — 
^iis  being  is  quite  ne^ected  in  favour  of  spirits  who 
receive  sacrifices  of  meat  and  grease.  In  north-west 
central  Queensland  Roth  desccibes  Mulkari  as  ''a 
benevolent  omnipresent  supernatural  being,  whose 
h<Mne  is  in  the  skies".  In  Australia  the  supreme  Be- 
ing cannot  have  been  evolved  out  of  ghost-wofshipy 
for  the  natives  do  not  worship  ancestral  spirits.  Sir 
A.  B.  Ellis  has  repudiated  his  theory  of  bonowin^j^  a 
god  in  the  case  of  the  Tshi-speaking  races.  Waits 
also  denies  that  the  higher  religious  beliefe  of  the 
Australians  were  borrowed  from  Christianitv.  His 
position  is  sustained  by  Howitt,  Palmer,  Dawson, 
Hidley,  GUnther,  and  Greenway,  who  studied  the  na- 
tives on  the  spot.  The  esoteric  and  hidden  nature  of 
the  beliefs,  the  usual  though  not  universal  absence  of 
prayer^ow  their  indigenous  and  ancient  source. 

In  ''The  Golden  Bough"  (2d  ed.),  Fraserhas  raised 
the  question,  whether  magic  has  not  everywhere  pre- 
ceded reliffjk>n.  Yet  amoi^  the  blacksof  Australia,  the 
most  backward  race  known,  we  find  abundant  testi- 
mony of  a  belief  speculative,  moral,  emotional,  but 
not  practical.  These  deities  are  not  propitiated  by 
aacrifice  and  v^y  seldom  by  prayer,  yet  thef  are 
makefs,  friends,  and  judges.  In  tne  conception  of  them 
the  ethical  element  predominates.  An  all-knowing  Be- 
ing observes  and  rewards  the  conduct  of  men;  Me  is 
named  with  reverence  if  named  at  all ;  His  abode  is  in 
the  heavens;  He  is  Maker  and  Lord  of  all  tlun^ ;  His 
lessons  soften  the  heart.  Mariner  save  concerning  the 
Tongan  deity  Ta-li-y-Tooboo:  ''Of  his  origin  they 
had  no  idea,  rather  supposinghim  to  be  eternal",  m 
Guinea  the  natives  worship  *^The  Ancient  One",  ''The 
Ancient  One  in  Skyland",  "Our  Maker",  '*Our 
Father",  "Our  Great  Father".  Wilson  writes  that 
their  belief  in  one  supreme  Being  who  made  and  upholds 
all  things  is  univeisal.  In  America  the  same  truth 
obtains.  To  the  Indians  God  is  "  The  Great  Spirit ". 
With  some  the  idea  of  the  Deity  is  very  lofty;  again  it 
is  found  in  cruder  and  lower  expression.  Darwin's 
description  of  the  Patagonians  as  having  veiy  low 
religious  beliefs  is  refuted  by  Giacomo  Bove.  The 
Pawnees  worship  A-tC-ua  ta-kaw-a,  i.  e.  our  Father  in 
all  places,  or  Ti-ra-wa,  i.  e.  the  Spirit-Father,  with  whom 
they  expect  to  five  after  deatn.  The  Zunis  speak  of 
the  deity  as  AwonawUona.  i.  e.  the  All-Father.  The 
Indians  of  Missouri  worship  "Old  Man  Immortal", 
"  the  Great  Spirit", "  the  Great  Mystery".  The  Tinne 
of  British  America  have  the  term  Nayeweri^  i.  e.  "  He- 
who-creates-by-thought".  The  Algonquin  speaks  of 
KiUhe-Mando  who  created  the  world  "by  an  act  of 
his  wUl".  If  the  supreme  Being  in  barbarous  tribes  is 
r^arded  qs  otiose  and  inactive,  so  as  to  become  a 
mere  name  and  a  by-word,  it  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
He  has  been  thrust  mto  the  backgroimd  by  the  com- 
petition either  of  ancestral  spirits — e.  g.  Unkulunkulu 
of  the  Zulus— or  of  friendly  and  helpful  spirits — ^as, 
e.  g.,  the  Australian  Baiame  and  Mungau-ngaur. 
Thus  in  West  Africa  the  natives  believe  in  Motown, 
who  created  by  breathing;  he  is  long  since  dead  and 
they  pay  him  no  worship.  From  a  study  of  savage 
tribes  Mr.  Lang  holds  that  first  in  older  of  evolution 
came  belief  in  a  supreme  Being  by  some  way  only  to 
be  gueraed  at  (to  nim  St.  Paul's  e]q>lanation  is  the 
most  probable);  that  this  beUef  was  subsequently 
obscured  and  overlaid  by  belief  in  ghosts  and  in  a  pan- 
theon €i  lesser  deities;  that  in  many  cases  the  savi«e 
creative  Being  has  a  deputy,  often  a  demiuige,  who 
exercises  authority;  that  wnen  tins  is  the  case,  where 
ancestor-worship  is  the  worldng  religion,  the  deputy 
easily  comes  to  be  envisaged  as  the  nnt  man.  if  to 
this  we  add  the  tradition,  universal  both  among  civ- 
ilised— e.  g.  Hindus,  Greeks,  Romans — and  savage 
nations,  tlutt  fonnerly  heaven  was  nearer  to  man  than 
it  now  is,  that  the  Creator  Himself  gave  lessons  of 
wisdom  to  human  beings,  but  afterwaids  withdrew 


from  ihiem  to  heaven,  where  He  now  dwells,  the  line  of 
reasoning  will  be  even  more  cogent. 

Therefore  we  can  consider  as  conclusions  well  estab- 
lished: (I)  That  the  farther  back  we  go  in  the  lustozy 
of  any  rdlgion,  the  purer  becomes  the  conception  of 
the  deity,  hence  the  fact  of  primitive  purity;  (2)  That 
everywhere  evident  traces  are  found  of  the  corruption 
of  the  primitive  betief,  hence  the  fact  of  degeneracy; 
(3)  That  all  nations  point  in  tradition  to  the  time 
when  the  Deity  was  nearer  to  man,  hence  traces  of 
primitive  revelation.  lyior  concedes  that  "the  de- 
aeneration-theory,  no  doubt  in  some  instances  with 
uumess,  may  claim  these  beliefs  as  mutilated  and  per* 
verted  remains  of  a  higher  religion"  (Primitive  Cul* 
ture,  ed.  1871,  p.  305). 

III.  The  moaem  science  of  anthropology  proposes 
an  explanation  of  its  own  for  the  origm  and  existence 
of  the  Deity.  It  is  called  the  anthropological  theoiv. 
Its  principal  advocates  are  lyior  and  Spencer.  In 
purpose  they  agree,  i.  e.  to  show  that  the  Deity  has  no 
real  existence  outside  the  mind  of  men;  in  method 
only  thejr  differ.  With  Tylor  the  method  is  bioloacal, 
and  we  have  Animism;  with  Spencer  it  is  psychologi- 
cal, and  we  have  what  is  termed  the  ^ost-theoiy. 
According  to  S{)encer,  primitive  man  derived  the  con- 
ception of  spirit  from  refiections  on  phenomena  of 
sle^,  dreams,  shadow,  trance,  and  hallucination.  In 
these  experiences  the  ghosts  of  the  departed  came  to 
him,  he  jgrew  to  dread  them,  and  so  worshipped  them. 
From  the  departed  souls  of  his  kindred,  first  wor- 
shipped, the  idea  was  gradualhr  extended;  they  then 
became  gods;  finally,  one  of  these  deities  in  imagina- 
tion  became  supreme  and  was  regarded  as  the  one  only 
God. 

It  is  a  fact  that  ancestor- worship  is  found  in  various 
nations;  in  Ghina,  Indisk  ancient  Greece  and  Rome  it 
is,  or  was,  an  organisea  system.  Here  it  formed  the 
basis  of  family  reugian  and  of  civil  law.  The  Ilomans 
had  their  dii  manes,  i.  e.  divine  aneestral  spirits  ("Eos 
leto  dates  divos  habento" — Laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables  as  cited  by  Ocero  in  "  De  Leg.",  II,  ii,  22).  As 
lor  famUiaria,  the  first  ancestor  was  considered  the 
protector  and  genius  of  the  house.  In  Greece  the  an- 
oesljal  spirits  of  families  became  $eol  xarp^,  u  e. 
paternal  gods.  How  the  ancestor  watches  over  the 
race  is  ^own  in  the  "Antigone".  In  India  we  find  the 
pitris,  the  companions  of  the  devas,  and  later  above 
the  aevas.  In  ancient  Persia  the  fravashU  helped 
Ahura  Mazda  in  all  his  works.  The  son^  of  the  <SAtA^ 
iTifijvdescribe  the  ancestral  festivals  of  China.  With 
the  Slavs  was  deeply  rooted  the  belief  in  vampires,  the 
souls  of  dead  people,  who  suck  the  blood  from  the 
living.  Amonfl  some  savage  nations  the  malignfuit 
cdiaracter  of  ghosts  prevails  and  gives  rise  to  magic. 
On  these  facts  Spencer  constructs  a  theory  to  ex- 
plain the  origin  and  development  of  the  deity  among 
all  nations.  The  theoiy  is  purely  materialistic  and 
unscientific 

(1)  Superior  or  supreme  beings  are  found  amonjg 
races  who  do  not  worship  anoestral  spirits.  It  is 
not  shown,  it  is  denied  by  Waitz,  it  is  not  even  al- 
leged by  Spencer,  that  the  Australians  steadily  propi* 
ttate  or  sacrifice  at  all  to  any  ghosts  of  dead  men.  The 
Dieri  of  Gentral  Australia  pray  for  rain  to  the  Mura 
Mura,  a  jbkxxI  spirit,  not  a  set  of  remote  ancestral 
spirits.  Thus  the  Australians  and  Andamanese  wor- 
ship a  relatively  supreme  Being  and  Maker,  and  do 
not  worship  ghosts. 

(2)  The  Zulus  are  anoestor-worshippens:  yet  the 
recent  dead  parent,  L  e.  the  father  of  the  family 
actually  worsmppin^  is  far  above  all  others.  Thus 
the  supreme  anoestru-spirit  changes  with  each  ^genera- 
tion. If,  therefore,  ancestors  are  forgotten  m  pro- 
portion as  they  recJBde  from  their  U\ang  descendants, 
now  can  we  on  Spencer's  h3rpothe8is  maintain  that, 
as  they  gradually  r^^ede  into  the  past,  they  develop 
into  the  conception  of  a  supreme  Deity  and  Creator? 


Dsirt 


HAO 


Dsm 


And  how  can  we  explain  that  savages  can  forget  the 
very  names  of  their  great  grandfathers  and  yet  re- 
member traditional^rsons  from  ^neration  to  generar 
tion?  Tlie  Blacks  of  Australia  will  often,  by  peculiar 
devices,  avoid  mentioning  the  names  of  Uie  dead,  a 
practice  hostile  to  the  development  of  ancestor-wor- 
ship; yet  these  same  people  have  a  belief  in  a  deity 
and  in  a  future  state  of  some  kind.  The  Wathi-Wathi 
call  this  being  Tha-tha-pali;  the  Tarta-thi  call  him 
Tulong. 

(3)  The  otiose,  raiworshipped  supreme  Being,  often 
credited  with  the  charge  of  future  rewards  arid  punish- 
ments among  ancestor-worshipping  people,  cannot  be 
explained  in  Spencer's  theory.  On  the  contraiy,  it 
shows  the  corruption  of  Theism  by  Animism.  '*  Among 
the  negroes  of  Central  Africa'',  writes  de  la  Saussaye, 
'*we  find  belief  in  a  Highest  God,  the  Creator  of  &e 
world ;  but  of  course  this  God  is  not  worshipped,  since 
as  a  general  rule  negroes  worship  cruel  dreaded  gods 
much  more  than  friendly  gods.  Worship  of  ancestors 
is  also  general.  In  Dahomey  and  Ashantee  huge  human 
hecatombs  are  offered  to  deceased  rulers".  The  Kaf- 
firs acknowledge  a  deity,  Molunga,  but  neither  adore 
nor  pray  to  him.  The  Zulu  religion,  now  almost  ex- 
clusively ancestor-worship,  seems  to  contain  a  broken 
and  almost  obliterated  element  of  belief  in  a  high,  un- 
worshipped  Deity  presiding  over  a  future  life.  "Die 
Zulu  Unkulunkulu  made  things,  as  the  Australian 
Baiame.  Unlike  them,  he  is  subject  to.  the  competi- 
tion of  ancestral  ghosts,  the  more  recent  the  more  pow- 
erful, in  receipt  of  prayer  and  sacrifice.  Hence  ne  is 
neglected,  by  many  beKeved  to  be  dead  or  the  mere 
shadow  of  a  children's  tale.  Or  this  being  exists  in 
repose,  remote  from  men  with  whom  he  acts  throu^  a 
deputy  or  deputies. 

(4)  Spencer,  to  support  his  theojy,  appeals  to 
the  crude  lac^aees  of  savages;  he  says  they  are 
unable  to  say,  **!  dreamed  that  I  saw",  instead 
of  "I  saw".  Now,  In  many  savage  speculations  are 
found  ideas  as  metaphysical  as  in  Hegel.  Again, 
the  Australian  languages  have  the  noun  sleep  ana 
the  verb  to  see.  They  make  an  essential  distinc- 
tion between  waking  hallucinations  and  the  hallucina* 
tions  of  sleep;  anyone  can  have  the  latter,  only  a 
wizard  the  former.  Furthermore,  Spencer  contra- 
dicts himself:  he  ci-edits  these  low  savages  with  great 
ingenuity  and  strong  powers  of  abstract  reasoriine — an 
admission  fatal  to  ms  premises.  Afiain  Spencer  nolds 
that  the  idea  of  the  Deity  was  formed  after  the  analogy 
of  human  rulers.  But  whence  comes  the  great  God  in 
tribes  which  have  neither  chief  nor  king  nor  distinction 
of  rank,  e.  g.  the  Fuegians,  Bushmen,  Australians? 
The  Deity  cannot  be  a  reflection  from  human  kings 
where  there  are  no  kings.  Furthermore,  Spencer's  aA- 
sumption  is  false,  viz.  that  deities  improve  morally  and 
otherwise  according  to  the  rising  grades  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  culture  and  civilization.  Usually,  the  reverse 
is  the  case.  "In  its  highest  aspect",  writes  A.  Lang, 
"that  simplest  theology  of  Australia  is  free  from  the 
faults  of  the  popular  theology  in  Greece.  The  God 
discourses  sin,  He  does  not  set  the  example  of  sin- 
ning. He  is  almost  too  sacred  to  be  named  (except  in 
my5iology)  and  far  too  sacred  to  be  represented  by 
idols.  It  would  scarcely  be  a  paradox  to  say  that  the 
popular  Zeus  or  Ares  is  degenerate  from  Darumulum 
or  the  Fuegian  being  who  forbids  the  slaying  of  an 
enemy". 

(5)  The  real  difficulty  in  Spencer's  theoiy  is  to 
account  for  the  evolution  from  ghosts  of  the  eternal 
creative  moral  Deitv  found  in  the  belief  of  the  lowest 
savages.  The  Bushmen,  Fuepians,  Australians  be- 
lieve in  moral,  practically  omniscient,  deities,  makers 
of  things,  fathers  in  heaven,  friends,  guaraians  of 
morality,  seeing  what  is  good  or  bad  in  the  hearts  of 
men.  So  widely  is  this  belief  diffused  that  it  cannot 
be  i^ored.  The  only  recourae  is  to  account  for  these 
deities  as  "loan-gods".    This  explanation  Is  refuted 


by  A.  Lane.  Waltz  writes,  "Among  branches  where 
foreign  inmience  is  least  to  be  mispecied  we  dscover 
behind  their  more  conspicuous  fetishjsms  and  super- 
stitions something  which  we  cannot  strictly  call  mono- 
theism, but  which  tends  in  that  direction."  In  the 
belief  of  the  sava^  morality  and  religion  are  united. 
The  savage,  who  hves  in  terror  of  the  souls  of  the  dead, 
might  worshipa  devil,  not  a  deity  who  is  mora!  and 
benevolent.  The  Andamanese  have  Puhtdia,  "Like- 
fire",  but  invisible,  never  bom,  and  so  inunoital,  who 
knows  the  thoughts  of  the  heart,  is  angered  bjr  wrong- 
doing, pitiful  to  the  distressed,  sometimes  deigning  to 
grant  relief,  the  judge  of  souls.  Huxley's  contrition, 
m  "Scie;nce  and  Hebrew  Tradition",  that  the  Austra- 
lians had  merely  a  non-moral  belief  in  ghost-like  enti- 
ties, usually  malignant,  and  that  in  this  state  theology 
is  wholly  independent  of  ethics,  is  refuted  by  an  exact 
study  at  these  very  beliefis.  He  claims  tlikt  the  re- 
ligion of  Israel  arose  from  ghost-worship.  But  how 
does  he  explain  the  silence  of  the  prophets  or  the 
Hebrew  apparent  indifference  to  the  departed  soul? 
Elohim  differa  from  a  ghost;  in  Hebrew  belief  He  is 
ethical,  immortal,  and  without  beginnings.  "In  all 
ancient  primitive  peoples",  writes  Wellfaausen,  "re- 
ligion furnished  a  motive  for  law  and  morals;  in  case  of 
none  did  it  become  so  with  such  purity  and  Dower  as 
in  that  of  the  Israelites ' '.  The  problem  which  Spencer's 
theory  cannot  solve  is,  how  the  Australians  could  bridge 
the  gulf  between  the  ghost  of  a  soon-forgotten  fitting 
man  and  that  conception  of  a  Father  in  Heaven,  omni- 
scient, moral,  which  under  various  names  is  found  all 
over  a  continent.  The  distinction  between  the  creative 
supreme  Deity  of  the  sava^,  unpropitiated  by  sacrifice, 
and  the  waning,  easily-foi|ptten,  cheaply  propitiated 
ghost  of  a  tribesman  is  vital  and  essential. 

(6)  Finally,  the  two  conceptions  (i.  e.  ghost  and  god) 
have  different  sources.  According  to  de  la  Saussaye, 
''The  sentiments  which  men  entertain  towards  spirits 
and  gods  are  different.  Fear  aiid  ^oistic  calculation, 
which  prevail  in  Animism,  have  been  replaced  by 
more  exalted  sentiments  and  a  less  selfiah  interest. 
This  bv  itself  would  speak  against  a  derivation  of  the 
whole  belief  in  gods  from  Animfem.*^  Spencer  speaks 
of  medicine  men  adored  as  gods  after  death;  but  this 
supposes  the  idea  of  the  Deity.  In  Kome,  Greece, 
and  India  cmcestor- worship  supposes  the  worship  of 
the  great  gods.  The  departed,  the  fathers,  the  an- 
cestors, the  heroes  are  admitted  to  the  societv  of  the 
gods;  thev  are  often  called  "half-gods";  but  the 
gods  are  always  there  before  them.  Again  the  Deity 
of  savage  faith  as  a  rule  never  died  at  all;  yet  the  very 
idea  of  ghost  implies  the  previous  death;  a  ghost  is  a 
phantom  of  a  dead  man.  Now  anthropologists  tell 
us  that  the  idea  of  death  as  a  universal  ordinance  is 
unnatural  to  the  savage  (A.  Lang;  de  la  Saussaye). 
Diseases  and  deatii  once  did  not  exist  and  normally 
ou^ht  not  to  exist,  the  savage  thinks.  Hie  Supreme 
Deity  of  the  savaee  is  minus  death ;  he  was  active  be- 
fore death  entered  the  worid,  and  was  not  affected  by 
the  entfv  of  death.  The  essential  characteristic  of 
Darumulum,  of  Baiame,  of  Cogn,  of  Bunjil  is  tiiat  they 
never  died  at  all.  They  belong  to  the  period  before 
death  entered  the  world.  Hence  between  the  high 
deities  of  savages  and  the  apotheosized  first  ancestors 
exists  a  great  gulf,  i.  e.  deatn. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  this  savage  belief  with 
the  dit  tminortales  of  the  Romans,  the  tfwi  iMpom  of 
the  Greeks,  the  Amartya  of  the  Hindus,  the  deathless 
gods  of  Babylonia,  and  the  Egyptian  deities,  kings 
over  death  and  the  dead.  The  Banks  Islanders  have 
two  orders  of  intelligent  beings  different  from 
living  men:  ghosts  of  the  dead  and  beings  who  are 
not,  nor  ever  have  been,  human.  The  beings  who 
never  were  human  and  who  never  died  are  called  vui; 
the  ghosts  are  named  inmaie,  A  tui  is  not  a  spmi 
who  has  been  a  ghost.  Th]B  is  the  usualsavagedoctrine. 
The  distinction,  therefore,  between  eternal  being  and 


DB  LA  OBOIIX 


ghost  is  radical  and  common.  The  fault  of  some 
anthropologiflta  is  in  neglecting  the  diatinction,  in 
confusing  both  under  the  name  of  spiritB.  and  in  de- 
riving both  from  the  ghosts  of  the  deiul.  In  Polynesia 
the  gods  are  called  atua;  the  spirits  and  souls  of  the 
depajrted  Hhi,  Their  conceptions  of  the  heavenly 
dwellings  of  the  gods  and  the  undeiground  kingdom  of 
the  dead  (P6,  Fwotu)  are  greatly  developed  and  not 
clearly  defined.  The  Fijians  have  the  term  kcUau, 
which  signifies  beinn  other  than  men.  All  gods  are 
kalau,  but  not  all  beings  that  are  kabm'  are  gods. 
Gods  are  kaku  vu;  deified  ghosts  are  kahu'yalo;  the 
former  are  eternal,  the  latter  subject  to  infirmity  and 
even  death.  Their  supreme  deity,  Udengeiy  is  ne- 
glected. But  so  would  Jehova  have  been  neglected, 
and  become  a  mere  name,  if  not  for  the  Prophels. 
A.  Lang  says,  ''The  Old  Testament  is  the  story  of  the 
prolonged  effort  to  keep  Jehova  in  the  supreme  place. 
To  make  and  succeed  in  this  was  the  aiffererUia  of 
Israel/'  The  Zulus  believe  their  first  ancestor  Un- 
kulunkulu  was  the  Creator  and  prior  to  death.  R^ 
ville  does  not  understand,  in  Spencer's  system,  ''why, 
in  so  many  places,  the  first  ancestor  is  the  Maker,  if 
not  the  Creator  of  the  world.  Master  of  life  and  death, 
and  possessor  of  divine  powers  not  held  by  anv  of  his 
descendants.  This  proves  that  it  was  not  the  first 
ancestor  who  became  God,  in  the  belief  of  his  descend- 
ants, but  rather  the  Divine  Maker  and  Beginner  of  all 
who,  in  the  creed  €)i  his  adorers,  became  the  first  an« 
cestor."  Miss  IGngsley  maintains  that  a  clear  line  of 
demarcation  exists  between  ghosts  who  are  wor- 
shipped and  gods;  that  the  former  never  developed 
into  the  latter;  warns  us  against  confusing  the  offer- 
ings to  the  dead  with  sacrifices  made  to  the  gods;  ^e 
says  West  Africa  has  never  deified  ancestors. 

Finally,  as  de  La  Saussaye  states,  in  Greece  other 
names  are  applied  to  the  altars,  sacrifices,  and  offering 
connected  with  the  dead  than  those  used  in  the  worship 
of  the  O^mpian  gods.  The  altar  of  the  ancestors  is 
4ffx^P^y  01  the  gods  ^ti6s ;  the  offering  of  sacrifice  to  the 
ancestors  is  ivayl^p  or  irrdfiptu^^  to  the  gods  ^tr;  the 
libations  to  the  ancestors  xoai,  to  the  gods  airorial. 
Again,  the  temples  of  the  ^ods  in  Greece  were  so  con- 
structed that  the  statue  m  the  main  shrine  should 
face  the  rising  sun;  the  temple  of  the  hero  opened  to 
the  west  and  looked  toward  f^rebus  and  the  region  of 
gloom.  With  iEschvlus  the  homage  of  the  highest 
^ds  is  kept  apart  from  that  of  the  powers  below. 
The  Qreekis  sacrificed  to  the  gods  by  day,  to  the 
heroes  in  the  evening  or  bv  night;  not  on  high 
altars,  but  on  a  low  sacrificial  hearth;  black-colored 
animals  of  the  male  sex  were  killed  for  them,  and 
the  heads  of  the  victims  were  not,  as  in  the  case  of 
those  intended  for  the  gods,  turned  toward  the  sky,  but 
pressed  down  to  the  ground.  M.  MUller  tells  us  that 
m  the  Vedas  the  exclamation  used  in  sacrificing  to 
the  gods  is  svOhii,  to  the  departed  sradha.  Rightly, 
therefore,  Jevons  holds  that  the  ghost  never  became  a 
god  and  rejects  the  theoiy  that  all  the  deities  of  Uie 
earlier  races,  without  exception,  were  the  spirits  of 
dead  men  divinized.  "If  Mr.  Spencer",  writes  M. 
M filler,  ''can  find  a  single  scholar  to  accept  this  view 
of  the  origin  of  Zeus  in  Greek  or  Dyaus  in  Sanscrit,  I 
shall  never  write  another  word  on  mythology  or  re- 
ligion." Thus  the  Ghost-theory  is  needed  only  for 
the  rise  of  ghost-propitiation  and  genuine  ancestor- 
worship.  It  reveals  something  in  man  apart  and  dis- 
tinct  from  the  material  elements  of  the  Lody.  Thus 
viewed,  its  a^;uments  are  so  many  reasons  for  the  be- 
lief in  the  future  life  of  the  soul  after  dissolution  of  the 
body. 

Thus  the  history  of  religion  reveals  (1)  the  belief  in  a 
powerful,  moral,  eternal,  omniscient  Father  and  Judge 
of  men ;  (2)  the  belief  in  somewhat  of  man  which  ex- 
ists beyond  the  grave.  These  truths  are  found  in 
every  nation  historically  known  to  us.  The  latter 
belief,  developed  into  an  animistic  ghost-wonhip,  ob- 
IV.- 


acures,  but  does  not  obliterate,  the  lonner.  ''Cte» 
tianitjr"»  writes  A.  Lang,  "eombined  what  was  good  in 
Anmusm,  the  care  for  the  individual  soul  as  an  im- 
mortal spirit  under  eternal  responsibilities,  with  thsi 
One  Rignteous  Eternal  of  pioiMietio  IsraeL" 

RosxofV.  Da*  Rdi&iautweten  NaturodlUr  (htip^  IBBOK 

Eduns,  Migwnt  c{  CMna  (London,  1803);  Tiblb,  BUmmU  of 

the  Science  of  Religion  (1883};    Darmeststeb,  Zend-Aveaia  in 

MeLUEK,  Sacred  Booke  of  the  Bait  (OxfonL  1880-83),  I,  II: 

LsGOS,  Chbtme  Rdigicma  (London,  1880);   Ellinowoop,  Or»- 

eMoiieelyjom  (New  York/1892):  BiuiaOM.  Reliaion  of  iV^i»^ 

tive  PeovU  (New  York,  1807);  Quatrep ages,  Lee  hommea  foe-' 

eHee  H  lee  hommea  aattvagea  (Fans,  1884);  de  Harlkz,  Aveata; 

Id.,  La  nlioion  cMnoiae  (Leipa|r,  1801);   Muib,  Sanacrit  TexU 

(London,  1872-74):   Bsown,  The  ReHgion  and  Thoughl  cf  the 

Anana  (4  Northern  Europe:  dk  Broolie,  Prdblhnea  et  eonduaiona 

de  Thiataire  dea  rdiguma  (Paris,  1806);   Lyaix,  Aaiatic  StudieB 

(1st  aer.  London,  1884:  2d  tor.  London,  1890);  Rbnouv,  Hib' 

hert  Letiurea  (New  York,  1870):  MOu<eb,  Origin  and  Growth  of 

Rdigion  (2d  ed.  London,  1878);   Id.,  AnthropoUHfioal  lielipion 

(London,   1892):    Lang,   Magtc  and  Religion  (London.  Mew 

York,  and  Bombay,  1001):  Ii>.,  Tfte  Makvng  of  Religion  (Lon* 

don.  New  York,  and  Bombay.  1808);    WAm.  AnthropUogie 

(§  vols.,  Leipais,  1860-77):  Tarnells  Bvolutum  cf  Rdimon 

(London  and  New  York,  1005);  Kinqsley,  Travda  in  Weai 

Africa  (London,  1807);  Spbnobb,  Prineiplea  of  SoeMogy  (New 

York.  1874);  Dbwooll,  Chriatian  FhOoaophy;  Ood  (2d  ed.  New 
„    ,    — ^^ 

John  T.  Driscoll. 


York,  1005). 


De  La  Oroix,  Charles,  missionary,  b.  at  Hoorbeke* 
St-Comeille,  Belgium,  28  Oct.,  1792;  d.  at  Ghent,  20 
Aug.,  1869.  He  was  educated  at  the  seminary  in 
Ghent.  With  his  fellow-students  he  resisted  the 
bishop  forced  upon  the  diocese  by  Napoleon  I  and 
was  imprisoned  with  his  brother  Joseph  m  the  fortress 
of  WeseL  where  the  latter  died.  After  the  fall  of  the 
empire,  De  La  Croix  resumed  his  studies,  was  ordained 
in  Ghent  by  Bishop  Dubourg  of  Louisiana  and,  with 
several  other  seminarians  and  some  Flemish  workmen, 
followed  the  bishop  to  the  United  States.  In  May, 
1818,  he  was  sent  to  Barrens,  Perry  County,  Missouri, 
where,  beside  his  missionary  duties,  he  was  to  superin- 
tend  the  building  of  a  seminary  for  the  Louisiana  dio- 
cese. After  the  arrival  of  Fatner  Rosati,  president  of 
the  new  seminaiy,  Father  De  La  Croix  went  to  Floris- 
sant, also  called  St.  Ferdinand,  near  St.  Louis  (3  Dec., 
1818).  Here,  with  the  help  of  the  newly  arrived  col- 
ony of  Reli^ous  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  he  laboured 
zealously  and  successfully,  not  only  among  the  Cath- 
olic families  of  the  district,  but  also  among  the  Osage 
Indians  of  the  Missomi  plains.  He  prepared  the  way 
for  De  Smet  and  the  other  Jesuit  missionaries,  who 
came  to  Florissant  in  1823.  When  Father  Van 
Quickenbome,  S.  J.,  arrived  with  his  ei^t  compan- 
ions, all  Belgians  like  himself,  De  La  Croix  had  almost 
completed  and  paid  for  the  brick  churcj^,  stfurted  a 
farm,  and  opened  a  missionary  field  for  the  work  of  the 
young  Jesuits.  Having  been  appointed  to  St.  Mi- 
chael^ parish  in  Lower  Louisiana,  Father  De  La  Croix 
prepared  for  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart  the 
convent  in  which  they  opened  a  boarding-school  in 
1 828 .  The  following  year  he  went  to  Belgium ,  broken 
in  health,  but  returned  to  his  mission  with  funds  col- 
lected in  Belgium  to  build  a  substantial  church  whidi 
was  complete  in  1832.  In  1833  he  went  back  to  Bel- 
gium, wnere  he  became  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  of 
Ghent,  a  position  which  he  held  until  his  death. 

De  RiEVAKCXER,  Joseph  et  Charie*  De  La  Croix:  notice  6i6- 


graphique  (Qbent.  ISHY,  Catholic  Dvrceloru  (1822, 1833);  ^^ 
ian  CathMo  UiOmieal  Btacimhm  (PhilwlelDULjiu..  1007). 

P.  P.  LiBEBT* 

DelMioIXt  FBiu>iNAND-VicTO&-£uol;NE,  Frendi 
painter,  b.  at  Charenton-St-Maurice,  near  Paris,  26 
April,  1798:  d.  13  August,  1863.  He  was  the  son  of 
Charles  DeUicroiZi  minister  of  foreign  relations  under 
the  Convention  from  1795  to  1797,  and  a  srandson,  by 
his  mother,  of  Aben,  the  famous  pupu  of  Boulle. 
Fh>m  his  earliest  diildhood  his  love  for  music  was  in- 
tense and  exercised  throughout  his  life  a  decided  influ-  ' 
ence  on  his  work.  He  always  attributed  his  success 
in  his  repreoentation  of  the  Magdalen  (Saint-Denis  ol 


DBJLOBOIX 


690 


.  Ilie  Holy  Sacrament),  fainting  from  grief  for  her  cnid<- 
fied  Master,  to  an  impression  made  upon  him  by  the 
canticles  of  the  month  of  Biay ;  while  it  was  imder  the 
emotion  produced  by  the  music  of  the  Dies  Ine  that  he 
brought  forth  the  terrible  angel  of  the  fresco  of  Heiio- 
dorus  (Saint-Sulpice).  After  his  studies  at  the  Lycee 
Loui»-le-Grand^  ne  entered  the  school  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Paris  and  studied  there  under  Gu^rin. 

The  extreme  poverty  which  fell  to  the  lot  of  Dela- 
croix after  the  death  of  his  parents  in  1819  drove 
him  to  the  production  of  litnographs,  caricatures, 
etc.  In  the  mean  time,  however  (1818),  a  distinct 
promise  of  his  future  eminence  had  been  manifested 
m  the  first  of  his  recorded  canvases,  ''Roman 
Matrons  Sacrificing  Their  Jewelry  to  Their  Country". 
Against  the  advice  of  his  master,  Gu^rin,  he  ex- 
hibited at  the  Salon  of  1822  the  "Dante  and  Virgil", 
which  immediately  had  the  effect  of  bringing  to 
its  creator  notorietv,  if  not  fame,  for  it  aroused  a 
whirlwind  9f  critical  controversy.  In  the  then  exist- 
ing state  of  French  public  opinion  in  matters  of 
art,  it  is  not  wonderml  that  Delacroix  should  have 
failed  to  win  the  much-coveted  Prix  de  Romej  for 
which  he  was  a  competitor;  but  two  years  later  (1824) 
his  "Massacre  of  Scio"  renewed  uie  strife  of  the 
critics  which  his  eariier  Salon  picture  had  first  kindled, 
and  brought  him  a  little  nearer  to  the  goal  of  success. 
The  conservative  classicists  condemn^  his  work,  as 
they  condemned  that  of  all  the  new  romanticists,  for 
its  contempt  of  established  traditions;  the  subse- 
quent triumph  of  romanticism  brought  with  it  in  eood 
tune  his  personal  triumph,  to  be  eventually  si^iaTized 
and  connnned  by  the  acquisition  of  the  two  bitterly 
criticized  early  canvases,  the  "  Roman  Matrons  **  and 
the  "  Massacre  of  Scio  ",  for  the  national  collection  of 
the  Louvre.  But  only  after  the  Revolution  of  1830 
did  official  recognition  and  approval  visit  him.  In 
the  year  next  following  that  event  he  travelled 
through  Spain  and  Morocco,  whence  he  brought  back 
an  inspiration  df  Southern  light,  colour,  and  vital 
force  which  was  to  make  itself  effectively  felt  in  all 
his  later  and  more  widely  known  work.    The  new 

Stvemment  made  him  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
onour;  the  day  of  nineteenth-centurv  romanticism 
had  begun  in  France,  and  Delacroix,  always  a  leader 
of  this  new  school,  was  fairly  arrivi.  From  the  ex- 
hibition of  his  "Murder  of  the  Bishop  of  Li^"  in  the 
Salon  (1831)  his  progress  was  never  seriously  inter- 
rupted, in  spite  of  incessant  criticism,  until,  in  1857,  it 
brought  him  into  the  fold  of  the  Institute  of  France. 
It  was  during  this  quarter  of  a  oentuiy  of  his  career 
that  he  prb&uced  those  great  compositions  on  medie- 
val and  Arabian  themes  with  which  his  name  is  nowa- 
days most  commonly  associated. 

The  bitter  opposition  which  Delacroix  had  all  his 
life  to  endure  drew  him  into  discussions  in  which  he 
displayed  a  real  literary  talent.  No  .one  who  would 
amve  at  a  true  idea  of  the  man  should  omit  the  peru- 
sal of  his  essays  on  art  and  his  correspondence.  The 
number  of  his  pictorial  works  is  immense,  aggregating 
about  9140  subjects,  classified  bv  Ernest  Chesneau  as 
follows:  853  canvases,  1525  pastels,  wateivcolours,  etc^ 
6629  drawings,  24  en^vings.  109  lithographs,  and  60 
albums.  The  following  may  oe  mentioned  as  marking 
important  moments  in  the  development  of  his  genius: 
'"The  28th  of  July,  1830"  (1830);  "Charge  of  Arab 
Cavalry"  (Montpellier  Museum — 1832)-  "Algerian 
Women"  (Louvre— 1834);  "Jewish  Wedding  in 
Morocco*'  (Louvre— 1841);  "Taking  of  Constanti- 
nople by  the  Crusaders"  (Versailles  Museum — 1841); 
"Muley-abd-el-Rahman  leaving  his  palace  at  Me- 
quinez"  (Toulouse  Museum— 1845) ;  ''The  Two  Fos- 
cari"  (Collection  of  the  Due  d'Aumale  at  Chantillv^— 
1855).  To  his  eariy  period  belong  the  famous  litho- 
graphs of  Faust  which  brought  him  warm  praise  from 
Goethe  himKelf.  "Sardanapalus"  (Salon,  1828),  an- 
other eariy  chef-ij^ceuvre,  drew  from  Vitet  the  remark 


that "  Delacroix  etait  de  venu  la  pietre  de  scandale  obb 
Expositions",  while  Del^luze  called  it  "une  eirearde 
peintre".  "Richelieu  Saying  Mass",  was  ordered  bj 
the  Duke  Louis  Philim  d'Orkaiis,  while  ''The  Death 
of  Charies  the  Boki"  was  ordered  by  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior.  "The  Murder  of  liie  Bishop  of  Li^", 
the  canvas  which  actually  assured  his  contetiiporuy 
fame,  was  probaUy  the  best  of  all  his  pictuiea.  From 
this  on,  masterpieces  follow  one  another  iintQ  adverse 
criticism  could  no  longer  smoualy  affect  his  position 
in  the  worid  of  art. 

Appreciation  of  His  Work, — ^Tlie  real  founder  of  the 
nineteenth«<3entui7  French  School  (rf  art,  Ddacroa 
stands  alone  and  unsurpassed.  The  difficuJtieB  he  had 
to  contend  with  came  from  his  forcing  upon  an  igncwant 
public  a  new  school  wholly  opposed  to  that  of  David, 
which  was  insincere  in  its  coldness  and  artificiali^,  con- 
ventional, and  absolutely  unsympathetic.  Inioiigii 
one  can  find  in  Delacroix  almost  all  the  beet  points 
of  men  like  Rem- 
brandt, Rubens, 
and  Correggio, 
from  the  moment 
he  shook  off  the 
influence  of  G6* 
ricault— so  man- 
ifest in  "Dante 
and  Viigil"— he 
threw  himself  en- 
tirely on  the  re- 
sources of  his  own 
genius.  On  the 
eve  of  finishing 
the  "Massacre  of 
Scio"  he  had  oc- 
casion to  notice 
some  works  of 
Constable,  and 
there  discovered 
and  made  his  own 
a  principle  of  art 


EuafeNE  Delac&oiz 


which  so  many  masters  have  failed  to  appreciate, 
viz.  that  in  nature,  what  seems  to  be  of  one  colour 
is  in  reality  made  up  of  many  shades,  discovered 
only  by  the  eye  which  knows  how  to  see.  Hicre- 
after  colouring  had  no  secret  for  him.  Delacroix 
was  an  artist  in  a  supreme  degree.  Poflseased  oi  a 
deep  knowled^  of  history,  he  studied  eadi  group 
and  each  individual  in  series  of  sketches,  whidi  were 
retouched  again  and  again;  then  only  did  they  take 
place  in  the  ensemble.  With  the  instinct  of  a  poet  he 
saw  vividly  the  scene  he  was  painting.  His  artistic 
sense  kept  him  from  falling  into  the  melodramatic, 
but  he  remains  tragic,  and  it  is  for  this  tragic  note, 
which  finds  expression  in  so  many  bloody  themes,  that 
he  is  ^nerally  criticized.  Delacroix  worked  with  an 
unerring  instinct  of  composition,  avoiding  the  monot- 
ony of  regular  line  by  tne  varied  attitudes  of  his  fig- 
ures. He  excelled  in  the  various  branches  of  his  art, 
and  his  decorative  pictures  in  the  Gallery  of  ApoUo  at 
the  Louvre,  the  drawing-room  of  the  king,  the  cham- 
ber of  deputies,  and  St-Sulpice  are  as  excellent  as  his 
canvases.  There  is  hardly  a  tragedy  of  the  human 
soul  which  is  not  reproduced  in  his  work.  He  is  not 
popular  because  the  multitude  wants  pleasure,  and 
Ddacroix,  like  Pascal,  does  not  make  one  lau^;  lie 
terrifies.  In  the  "  Murder  of  the  Bishop  of  li^  ",  be- 
fore admiration  comes  one  has  shivered  at  the  vivid 
portrayal  of  human  ferocity;  in  the  "dirist  in  the 
Garden  of  Gethsemani"  there  is  no  human  sorrow 
equal  to  that.  Delacroix  is  the  highest  manifestation 
of  French  genius  in  art;  he  not  omy  honours  Fkance, 
but  mankind,  and  is  one  of  those  who  Emerson  said 
were  "representative  of  humanity". 

GocTHK,  ConveraaHona,  tr.  Dbubsot;  £«»  Bmiix-ArU  em 

Europe  (Paris,  1856);  Eughie  Ddacroix  in  Fm^  ArU  Quarterfii 
Review*  III:   Atrriitotv.  S&me  Maaten  of  Lttkography  0897); 


k.     


dhjitcbbs 


Hm  York  Cattloom  of  CtlebnUed  PfavfUinm;  L*(Xuvn  Comptet 
d'Sughu  Ddacroix,  od.  Aobbbt  (1886);  Toubnbuz,  Detor- 
eroix  devarU  aea  corUemporaiiu  (Paria,  1886);  Vachon,  Etude  8ur 
(Pkiris,  1885);  VtnoK,  B,  JMaenrix  in  Le«  Arti9le9 


Ddaenix  . 
cSljtbirtB  (Paris). 


Henry  Anobb. 


Dehuroehe,  Hippoltte  (known  also  as  Paul), 
painter,  b.  at  Paris,  17  July,  1797;  d.  4  November, 
185a  A  pupil  of  Watelet,  a  iandsGape  painter  of 
mediocre  ability,  and  afterwards  of  uros,  a  great 
painter  but  a  very  poor  teacher  and  ineapable  of  har- 
moniaing  his  doctrines  with  his  ^nius,  Delaroche  was 
consequently  badlr  trained.  Without  any  deep  con- 
ception of  mankind  or  of  Itfe,  without  style,  and  lacking 
even  a  novel  idea  aloi^  t^e  lines  of  art  or  beauty> 
Delaroche  was  nevertheless  gifted  with  a  certain  com- 
monplace skill  and  aptitude  whidh  satisfied  the  public, 

and,  whilst  fully 
realizing  his  nai^ 
row  limitations,  he 
was  astute  enou^ 
to  suppl;^  the  want 
of  artistic  ability 
b^  an  ingenious 
choice  of  subjects. 
Herein  lay  his 
^nius,  if  indeed 
it  ma^  so  be  called. 
In  this  he  appealed 
to  the  taste  of  the 
bourpeoisie  which, 
devoid  of  artistic 
culture,  had  in  the 
r61e  of  Mecenas 
succeeded  the  aris- 
tocracy of  the  old 
regime  and  defin- 
itively come  into 
power  during  the 
Kestoration  and 
the     July     Mon- 


Wy^v 


^ 


J 


Paui<  Delaroche 


archy.  The  artist's  debut  in  ihesaUm  of  1819  with 
"  Naphtali  in  the  Desert "  passed  by  unnoticed.  An- 
other Biblical  subject  appeared  in  the  wtJUm  of  1822, 
and  in  1824  he  won  the  gold  medal.  Delaroche  dis- 
covered his  vein  and  thenceforth,  except  for  the  occa- 
sional treatment  of  some  current  event  (The  Capture  of 
the  Trocadero,  1827),  he  worked  upon  that  series  of  his- 
torical incidents,  that  vast  repertonr  of  anecdotes  een- 
eraliy  taken  from  the  civil  wars  of  France  and  England 
and  which,  when  multiplied  by  the  engravings  of 
Goupil,  the  publisher,  who  thereby  made  a  fortime, 
became  equally  valuable  to  the  author  in  Paris  and 
London.  We  must  admit  that  Delaroche  was  admir- 
ably served  by  his  engravers,  of  whom  Henriquel  Du- 
pont  was  the  best  known.  His  inartistic  painting 
gsuined  much  by  being  translated  into  engraving  as,  in 
this  way,  only  the  subject  had  to  be  reproduced.  It 
must  be  admitted  that,  in  all  these  works,  Delaroche 
shows  himself  an  incomparable  soen^setter.  In  his 
masterpiece,  ''The  Assassination  of  the  Duke  of 
QuiBe'' (1835, Oond^  Museum),  he  is  most  realistic  and 
furnishes,  as  it  were,  the  retrospective  photograph  of  a 
sixteenth-century  drama.  Therein  accuracy  of  detail , 
naturalness  of  composition,  and  the  extremely  careful 
treatment  of  the  decoration  copied  from  the  ChAteau 
of  Blois  replaced,  if  indeed  they  do  not  equal,  the  im- 
pression made  bv  real  art.  And  yet  the  unique  suc- 
cess of  this  small  picture  does  not  attend  the  larger 
ones,  which  do  not  so  fully  reflect  the  painter's  fancy. 
In  1833  there  was  question  of  entrusting  him  with 
the  decoration  of  the  church  of  the  Madeleine,  but  the 
large  order  was  divided  and  the  artist  refused  to  ac- 
cept half  of  the  task  that  was  to  have  been  his  in  its 
entirety.  By  way  of  compensation  he  was  commis- 
sioned' to  decorate  the  hemicyde  of  the  Eoole  des 
Beaux- Arts.    This  work,  completed  in  184 1  and  which 


was  for  some  time  regarded  as  a  masterpieoe  oC  4s(h' 
orative  painting,  is  an  ideal  assemblage,  or  Goeumeni- 
cal  council,  of  sul  the  great  artists  from  Ictinua  to  Br^ 
mante,  from  Cimabue  to  Velaaques,  and  from  Phidias 
to  E^win  von  Steinhaoh,  a  composition  in  which  the 
disconnectedness  of  the  whole  rivals  the  absence  of 
chiuracter  in  each  perK>nage  taken  individually.  Few 
great '' machines''  convey  a  more  cruel  impression  of 
the  utter  lack  of  ideas  and  the  incurable  debility  of  the 
poetic  or  plastic  conception.  This  frieze,  omcially 
preised,  marked  the  decline  of  the  artist  in  the  eyes  of 
competent  judges  and  gave  unmistakable  evidence  of 
his  mdiffenoe.  Delaroche  endeavoured  to  reinstate 
himself  by  working  up  different  familiar  and  pious 
subjects.  He  also  followed  the  vogue  of  the  imperial 
cult  and  produced  several  scenes  from  the  life  of  Napo- 
leon. But  even  this  ingenious  idea  did  not  restore  the 
artist  to  his  pristine  glory.  Then,  as  a  last  resource, 
he  returned  to  his  first  subjects:  " The  Last  Prayer  of 
the  Children  of  Edward  IV"  (1852) ;  ''The  Last  Com- 
munion of  Mary  Stuart"  (1854),  etc.  His  declining 
years  were  veiv  sad.  In  1835  he  married  the  only 
daughter  of  Horace  Vemet,  but  she  died  in  1848. 
At  this  time,  althou^  retaining  popular  favour,  he 
was  keenly  sensible  of  the  contempt  of  his  f  dlow  art- 
ists and  realised  not  only  that  they  would  never  regard 
him  as  one  of  their  number  but  that,  despite  his  gloiy , 
his  fortimes,  and  his  titles,  he  must  ever  remain  in  tiieir 
eyes  a  Hiitistine  painter.  He  exhibited  nothing  in  the 
mUm  subsequently  to  1837  and  had  not  the  courage  to 
participate  in  the  great  manifestation  of  1856,  which 
was  Uie  dazzling  triumph  of  the  French  School.  His 
''Christian  Mar^"  (Louvre,  1855),  so  feebly  deline- 
ated and  poorly  painted,  nevertheless  exhales  6xqui»« 
ite  sentiment  ana  is,  as  it  were,  the  last  sigh  of  a  Chris- 
tian Ophelia.  But  the  shortcomings  of  the  artist 
should  not  blind  us  to  the  puri^  of  ms  charact^  and 
the  uprightness  of  his  life.  Besides,  faulty  as  his 
style  may  be,  he  nevertheless  has  the  merit  of  being  an 
inventor.  He  created  anecdotal  painting  and  the  spe- 
cial order  of  illustrations  to  whicn  we  owe,  amon^  so 
many  inferior  works,  the  most  creditable  productions 
of  J.  P.  Laurens.  Delaroche  had  an  ^  idea^ ',  whatever 
its  value,  and  this  fact  alone  is  unusual  enough  to  be 
taken  into  account. 

lAmMvm*P,  DdoarocKt 

\BOBDE,    Dtl 


Blanc.  Hittaire  dea  peintrea; 

par  tm  homme  de  rien  (1844);    '. ._, _ 

Beatix-ArtSjll;  de  Lalaino,  Les  Vemet,  OtricavU  et  Delaroche: 
Qautibr,  PoriraiU  conieniporains;  (Euvre  de  P.  Ddaroche  re^ 
produit  et  phatogruphiA  par  Bingham  el  aecompairnf  d'uae 
notice  par  H.  Detaborde  et  d'tm  catalomie  raisonni  par  J.  Goddi 
(Paris,  1858);  Rosenthal,  La  Petnture  romantique  (Paris, 
1903). 

Louis  Qillbt. 

Delatores  (Lat.  for  Dbnouncebs),  a  term  used  by 
the  Synod  of  Elvira  (c.  306)  to  stigmatise  those  Chris- 
tians who  appeared  as  aoeusers  of  their  brethren. 
This  synod  decided  (can.  bodii,  H^ele,  Concilien- 
geschichte,  2d  ed.,  I,  188)  that  if  anv  Christian  was 
proscribed  or  put  to  death  through  the  denuneiatioQ 
Idelatio)  of  another  Christian,  such  a  delator  was  to  suf- 
fer perpetual  excommunication.  No  distinction  is 
made  between  true  and  false  accusation,  but  the  synod 
probably  meant  only  the  accusation  of  Christianity 
before  the  heathen  jud^,  or  at  most  a  false  accusa- 
tion. Any  false  accusation  against  a  bishop,  priest,  or 
deacon  was  visited  with  a  similar  punishment  by  the 
samesynod  (can.  Ixxv,  op.  cit.,  189).  Thepunishment 
for  false  witness  in  general  was  proportioned  by  can. 
Ixxiv  to  the  gravitv  of  the  accusation.  The  0>uncil  of 
Aries  of  314  issuea  a  similar  decree  (can.  xiv,  op.  &t^ 
p.  213),  when  it  decided  that  Christians  who  accused 
falsely  their  brethren  were  to  be  forever  excluded  from 
communion  with  the  faithful.  During  the  perasou- 
{ions  of  the  eariy  Christians  it  sometimes  happened 
that  apostates  denounced  their  fellow-Chnstians^ 
The  younger  PlLiy  relates  in  a  letter  to  Trajan 
(Apostolic  Fathers  ed.  Lightfoot,  2d  ed.,  I  i,50sqqO« 


DS  LA  TlttA 


602 


D1I.4WJJU 


thAi  an  anonymous  bill  of  indictment  was  presented 
to  him  on  which  were  many  names  of  Christians;  we 
do  not  know,  however,  that  the  author  of  this  libels 
lu8  was  a  Chnstian.  According  to  can.  xiii  of  the 
Coundi  of  Aries  (op.  cit.,  211  sqq.),  during  the  persecu- 
tion of  Diocletian  Christians  were  denounced  oy  their 
own  brethren  to  the  heathen  jud^.  If  it  appeared 
from  the  public  acts  that  an  ecclesiastic  had  done  this, 
he  was  punished  by  the  synod  with  perpetual  deposi- 
tion; however,  his  ordinations  were  considered  valid. 
In  general,  false  accusation  is  visited  with  severe  pun- 
ishments in  later  synods,  e.  g.  Second  Council  of  Aries 
(443  or  463,  can.  xxiv),  the  Council  of  Agde  (506,  can. 
viii)  and  others.  These  decrees  appear  in  the  later 
medieval  collections  of  canons  (q.  v.).  New  punitive 
decrees  against  calumnv  were  issued  bv  Gre^iy  IX 
in  his  Deranetals  (de  calumniatoribus,  V,  3  m  Corp. 
Jur.  Can). 

KaOix  in  Kbaus.  Real-Eng/k,  (Freibun  im  Br.,  1882),  1«  361: 
HiNSCHiUB,  Kirt^ienrechl,  IV  (BerUn,  1888),  609.  770;  IV 
(Berlin,  1893),  20  sqq. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Da  U  Vega.    See  Garcilaso  de  la.  Veoa. 

Delaware,  one  of  the  original  thirteen  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  It  has  between  38°  28'  and 
39*»  47'  of  N.  lat.  and  between  74°  56'  and  76°  46'  of 
long.  West  of  Greenwich,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the  E.  bv  the  Delaware 
River  and  Bay,  and  on  the  S.  and  W.  by  the  State  of 
liaiyland.  Its  area  is  2370  square  miles,  of  which 
1966  square  miles  are  of  land  area,  and  406  square 
miles  of  water  area.  Dielaware  is  an  agricultural 
state,  its  soil  is  fertile  and  a  large  portion  of  it  in  a  high 
state  of  cultivation. 

History. — ^In  1609  Henry  Hudson,  in  the  employ 
of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  on  his  third  voyage 
of  discovery,  sailed  into  Delaware  Bay.  This  was  the 
first  visit  of  a  European,  so  far  as  known,  to  the  territoiy 
now  called  Delaware.  The  b&j  was  so  named  about 
the  3rear  1610  by  the  Virginians  in  honour  of  their  first 
Governor,  Thomas  West,  Lord  Delawarr.  The  Dutch, 
basing  their  claims  on  rights  acquired  by  Hudson's 
discovery,  made  the  first  attempt  at  settlement.  In 
1629,  imder  the  authority  of  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company,  and  with  the  countenance  of  the  Governor 
and  Council  of  New  Netheriands,  a  tract  of  land  from 
Cape  Henlopen  to  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  River 
was  purchased  from  the  natives,  and  a  company 
formed  in  Holland  to  colonize  it.  In  the  spring  of 
1631  a  ship  carrying  emigrants  reached  the  Delaware, 
and  a  colony  was  planted  near  Cape  Henlopen,  on 
Lewes  Creek,  the  colonists  giving  the  country  the 
name  Swaanendael.  The  life  of  this  colony  was  ended 
after  a  few  months.  Trouble  with  the  Indians  arose, 
and  a  fort  which  had  been  erected  was  destroyed,  ana 
all  the  colonists  murdered.  In  1638  an  expeaition 
consisting  of  two  ships  oarrving  some  fifty  Swedish 
emigrants,  and  commanded  by  Peter  Minuit,  the  de* 
posed  Governor  of  the  New  Netherlands  colony,  com- 
missioned by  the  Swedish  Queen  Christina,  entered 
Delaware  Bay,  and  the  present  site  of  Wilmington 
was  chosen  as  the  place  for  the  first  settlement.  The 
colon>[  was  known  as  New  Sweden.  A  fort  called 
Christina  was  built.  After  about  two  years  of  pros- 
perity sickness  besan  to  prevail,  and  the  colony  was 
on  the  eve  of  breaicing  up  when  another  Dutch  expe- 
dition, though  under  the  patronage  of  the  Swedish 
Company,  appeared,  and  the  new  colonists  located 
their  settlement  several  miles  from  Fort  Christina. 
The  new  arrivals  revived  the  spirits  of  the  Swedes, 
who  decided  to  remain.  Additional  colonists  from 
Sweden  arrived  in  1640,  and  the  colony  became  well 
established  and  prosperous.  In  1666,  on  the  appear- 
ance of  a  Dutch  fleet,  all  the  forts  and  settlements 
were  surrendered,  and  such  Swedes  as  would  not  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  were  sent  t/  the  home  country. 
In  1666  the  West  India  Company  lold  its  interests  on 


the  South  River  (called  South  as  HMtit^gitMl^^  ^qoi 
the  North  River,  as  the  Hudson  was  then  called)  to 
the  City  of  Amsterdam,  and  the  colony  was  called 
"New  Amstel"  and  the  authority  of  New  Netho^ 
lands  over  it  was  ended.  In  1664,  after  the  suneoder 
of  New  Amsterdam  to  the  English,  the  Delaware  set- 
tlements were  also  taken.  Ilie  name  of  New  Amstel 
was  changed  to  New  Castle,  and  the  settlements  were 
annexed  as  an  M>pendage  to  New  Yoric,  then  also 
imder  English  rule. 

Acoordmg  to  the  charter  to  William  Peon  in  1681, 
the    territory  of  Pennsylvania   was    bounded  on 
the  south  by  a  circle  drawn  twelve   mlleB  distant 
from  the  town  of  New  Castle  northwaid  and  woit- 
ward,   the  territory  on  the  Delaware  as  far  down 
as  what  was  then  called  Cape  Henlopen  remaining  to 
the  Duke  of  York.    In  the  same  year  Penn's  au^or- 
itjr,  with  the  consent  of  York,  was  extended  to  include 
this  territory  also.    As  eariy  as  1686  a  oontroversy 
began  between  Penn  and  Lord  Baltimore  as  to  the  as- 
certainment of  the  southern  and  western  boundaries 
of  the  country  along  the  bay  as  transferred  bv  York  to 
Penn.    Numerous  agreements  were  entoed  into  be- 
tween the  respective  proprietors  for  determining  the 
boundaries,  but  none  save  promise  of  ever  being  car- 
ried out.    This  quarrel  retarded  the  settl^nent  of  the 
country  and  oftentimes  caused  bloodshed.    In  1750 
the  mesent  boundaries  between  Delaware,  Maryland 
and  Pennsylvania,  as  mentioned  in  an  agreement  be- 
tween the  heirs  of  Penn  and  Baltimore  m  1732,  were 
decreed  by  the  English  Court  of  Qiancery,  and  in 
1763,  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  EHxon,  two  sur- 
veyors, were  engM^ed  and  sent  over  ^m  En^and  to 
mark  the  lines.    In  1764  the  work  was  started.    The 
present  south  and  west  lines  of  Delaware  are  the  resuit 
of  a  part  of  this  work.    The  east  and  west  line  (be- 
tween the  present  States  of  Pennsylvania  and  Mary- 
land), which  they  ran  and  marked,  is  the  historical 
Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,  the  boundary  between  the 
former  free  and  slaves  States.    In  1691,  with  Penn'e 
consent,  the  lower  counties,  now  the  State  of  Dela- 
ware, became  a  separate  Government,  only  to  be  again 
united  to  Pemupavania  in  1693.    In  1702  Pennsyl- 
vania convened  its  legislature  apart,  and  the  two  col- 
onies were  never  again  united.    The  "  Counties  of  New 
Castle,  Kent  ana  Sussex  upon  Delaware"  as  they 
were  called,  began  to  be*  governed  by  a  separate  as- 
sembly, and  though  the  authority  of  the  G^ovemor  of 
Pennsylvania  was  still  acknowledeed,  the  l^^ture 
and  tribunals  were  not  appreciaUy  afifected  by  any 
external  authority.    This  was  the  fonn  of  govern- 
ment until  a  separate  constitution  was  adopted  in 
1776.    The  representatives  of  the  three  lower  counties 
upon  the  Delaware  were  members  of  the  Continental 
Congresses  of  1774  and  1776,  and  voted  for  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in  1776. 
Among  the  most  noteworthy  Articles  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  1776  was  the  followm^:  "  There  shall  be  no  es- 
tablishment of  any  one  religious  sect  in  this  State,  in 
preference  to  another,  and  no  clergyman  or  preacher 
of  the  gospel  of  any  denomination  shall  be  capable  of 
holding  a  civil  office  in  the  State,  or  of  being  a  member 
of  either  of  the  branches  of  the  legislature,  while  they 
continue  in  the  exercise  of  the  pastoral  function."   In 
1779  the  State's  delegates  were  instructed  to  ratif:jrthe 
''Articles  of  Confeoeration  and  Perpetual  Union" 
adopted  by  Congress. 

During  the  Revolutionary  War  Delaware  enlisted, 
including  Continental  soldiers  and  militia,  a  total  of 
3763  men.  On  7  Dec.,  1787,  the  Delaware  legislature 
ratified  the  Federal  Constitution,  being  the  firat  State 
to  give  its  approval.  The  population  of  the  State  in 
1790  was  69,094,  of  whom  8887  were  slaves.  Consti- 
tutional conventions  were  held  in  1791  and  1831,  and 
the  present  Constitution  was  adopted  at  a  convention 
in  1897.  The  common  law  procedure  is  foflowed  in 
the  courts^  and  the  judges  are  appointed  for  iawM  « 


DELAWARE 


693 


DBLAWABB 


t^velve  yean.  In  the  war  of  1812  Delaware  was  well 
vepresented  m  both  the  land  and  naval  forces,  her  best- 
known  representative  in  the  latter  being  Commodore 
Thomas  Maodonough,  the  hero  of  Lake  Champlain. 
Prior  to  the  Civil  War,  Delaware  was  classed  witn  the 
Southern,  or  slave-holding,  States.  In  the  election  of 
N'ovember,  1860,  the  State's  electoral  vote  was  given 
to  John  C.  Breckinridgei  who  stood  for  the  constitu- 
tional r^ts  of  the  Southern  States,  while  at  the  same 
time  all  the  political  parties  within  the  State  pledged 
their  loyalty  to  the  Union.  In  January.  1861,  a  com- 
miasioner  from  Mississippi  appeared  before  the  Dela- 
ware legislature  and  invited  the  State  to  join  the 
Southern  Confederacy.  The  House  unanimously, 
and  the  Senate  by  a  majority  vote,  expressed  their 
<lisapproval  of  such  a  remedy  for  existing  difficulties. 
Wliue  there  was  considerable  respect  and  some  S3nsi- 
pathy  for  the  rights  of  the  seoedii^  States,  there  was  at 
all  times  constant  adherence  to  the  National  Qovem- 
ment.  Delaware  being  a  border  State,  there  was 
some  distrust  on  the  pa^  of  the  Government,  particu- 
larly as  to  the  southern  portion,  and  at  times  martial 
law  prevailed.  Out  of  a  total  white  population  in  the 
State  in  1860  of  90,589,  the  aggregate  number  of 
troops  furnished  to  the  Union  army  during  the  War  by 
I>elawaYe  was  13,651.  Admiral  Samuel  F.  Dupont 
vras  one  of  the  ranking  officers  in  the  Union  service 
credited  to  Delaware.  On  5  Feb.,  1867,  the  State  leg- 
islature in  accordance  with  the  Governor's  recom- 
mendation rejected  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the 
Federal  Constitution.  At  the  l^jslative  session  of 
1869  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution 
was  also  rejected. 

PoPXTiATioK. — ^The  estimated  population  of  the 
State  in  1906  was  194,479.  Wilmin^n,  with  an  esti- 
mated population  in  1906  of  85,140,  is  the  largest  city. 
In  1900,  m  a  population  of  184,735  there  were  94,158 
males  and  90,577  females.  Classified  by  race,  there 
were  153,977  whites,  30,697  negroes  and  61  persons  of 
other  races;  170,925  of  the  population  were  natives, 
and  13,810  were  foreign  bom.  There  were  40,029 
males  (^  military  i^e,  and  54,018  males  of  voting  age, 
of  whom  45,592  were  whites,  and  8,374  were  negroes. 
The  total  number  of  families  was  39,446  and  the  aver- 
age number  of  persons  to  a  familv  was  4.7. 

EnucATiON.^The  first  school  in  the  State  was 
opened  before  1700,  tmder  the  direction  of  the  pastor 
of  Old  Swedes'  Church.  During  the  last  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  leading  educational  institu- 
tion in  the  State  was  the  Wilmington  Academy,  which 
was  built  in  1765.  Prior  to  the  constitution  of  1791, 
no  provision  was  had  for  free  schools  in  the  State.  In 
that  instrument  provision  was  made  ''for  establishing 
B^iools  and  promoting  the  arts  and  sciences'',  and  in 
1796  an  act  was  i>a8sed  by  the  legislature  applying^  all 
the  moneys  received  from  marriage  and  tavern  li- 
censes to  a  school  fund.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  pubUe  school  svstem  in  the  State.  In  18^  a 
''FVee  School  Law''  was  passed,  which  divided  the 
counties  into  many  self-governing  school  districts, 
each  district  being  the  judge  of  the  tax  requisite  for  its 
own  needs.  The  present  school  law  was  passed  in 
1875,  and  provided  for  a  fixed  tax  to  be  raised  annu- 
ally in  each  district  for  the  support  of  the  schools 
therein.  Each  coimty  has  a  superintendent  of 
schools,  who  as  such  is  a  member  of  the  State  Board 
of  Education.  In  addition  to  the  tax  raised  in  each 
school  district,  there  is  the  income  of  a  large  perma- 
nent school  fund,  and  regular  legislative  appropria- 
tions. Tlie  Constitution  ordains  that  not  less  than 
$100,000  annually  isdiall  be  provided  by  the  legisla- 
ture, which,  with  the  income  of  the  permanent  school 
funa,  shall  be  used  exclusively  for  payment  of  teach- 
ers' salaries,  and  for  furnishing  free  text-books.  Sep- 
arate schools  are  provided  for  coloured  children,  in 
1900  the  total  attendance  in  the  free  schools  of  the 
State  was  28,753,  neariy  equally  divided  as  to  sex,  of 


which  number  24,868  were  whites,  and  3883  were  ne- 
groes. The  total  amount  expended  on  the  free 
schools  of  the  State  for  the  school  year  1905-1906,  in- 
cluding amoimts  derived  from  school  tax,  legislative 
appropriations,  and  income  from  school  fund,  was 
$501,745.80. 

In  1907  a  compulsory  education  law  was  passed 
providing  for  the  continuous  attendance  for  at  least 
five  months  in  each  year,  at  either  public  or  private 
school  in  which  the  common  English  branches  are 
taught,  of  all  children  between  the  ages  of  seven  and 
fourteen  years,  tmless  excused  for  certain  reasons 
specified.  Delaware  College,  the  chiel  institution  of 
learning  in  the  State,  is  located  at  Newaric.  Chartered 
in  1833,  it  was  opened  in  1834,  and  has  had  a  very  suc- 
cessful career.  It  is  governed  by  a  board  of  trustees, 
one-half  of  whom  are  named  bv  the  State.  In  1869 
the  legislature  adopted  this  college  as  the  institution 
to  be  provided  as  an  Agricultural  College  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Congressional  Enabling  Act  of  1862. 
Technological  and  agricultural,  as  well  as  classif»d, 
eoimses  of  instruction  are  provided.  The  number  of 
professors  and  teachers  is  twenty-two,  and  the  num- 
ber of  students  in  attendance  is  158.  '  Women  are  ex- 
cluded from  attendance  at  the  college.  Wilmington 
Conference  Academy  (Methodist),  located  at  Dover, 
was  founded  in  1873.  St.  Mary's  CoU^e,  founded  in 
Wilmington  in  1841,  b;^  the  Rev.  Patrick  Reilly,  be- 
came a  well-known  institution,  and  numbered  some  of 
the  best^known  Catholics  in  the  countiy  among  its 
graduates.  In  1857  there  were  120  resident  students. 
It  prospered  till  the  opening  of  the  Civil  War,  and  in 
1866  closed  its  doors.  There  are  a  number  of  excd- 
lent  private  schools  and  academies  scattered  through 
the  State.  A  State  College  for  coloured  students, 
fotmded  in  1892,  is  located  at  Dover.  Manual  ana 
a^cultural,  as  well  as  classical  and  technical,  instruo- 
tion  is  there  furnished.  Reform  schools  for  both 
boys  and  girls  are  supported  in  part  by  the  State. 
There  is  also  a  State  Hospital  and  Insane  Asylum. 
DelAware  having  no  institution  for  the  instruction  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb  or  the  blind,  the  State  bean  the 
expense  of  having  a  certain  number  of  ihem  cared 
for  and  instructed  in  proper  institutions  in  other 
States. 

Catholic  Prooricss. — Prior  to  1772  no  definite  rec- 
ords are  obtainable  Te|:arding  any  r^ulaurly  estab- 
lished Catholic  church  m  the  present  State  of  Dela- 
ware. The  Catholics  in  the  State  prior  to  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  eentunr  were  very  few  in 
number.  In  1730  Cornelius  Hallahan,  an  Irish  Cath- 
olic, settled  in  Mill  Creek  Hundred,  in  New  Castle 
Coimty,  on  an  estate  called  by  him  Cuba  Rock,  near 
the  present  location  of  Mount  Cuba.  The  first  Cath- 
olic services  in  the  State  were  ]?robably  held  at  his 
house.  The  Apoquiniminck  Mission,  in  the  loww  part 
of  New  Castle  County,  was  established  before  1750  by 
Jesuits  from  St.  Xavier's  Mission  in  Cecil  County, 
Maryland.  The  latter  mission,  founded  in  1706  by 
Father  Thomas  Mansell,  S.J.,  near  the  junction  of  the 
Great  and  Little  Bohemia  Rivers,  is  still  in  existence, 
and  known  as  Bohemia  Manor.  In  a  report  from  the 
Episcopal  Mission  at  Dover  (Kent  County)  to  the 
clergymen  of  the  Pennsylvania  province,  made  in  1748, 
it  is  stated  that  the  ''Quakers  and  Roman  Catholics 
were  long  accustomed  to  bury  their  dead  at  their  own 
plantations.''  Again  in  1761  a  like  report  from  the 
Dover  Mission  states:  '<  There  are  about  five  or  six 
families  of  Papists,  who  are  attended  once  a  month 
from  Maryland  with  a  priest."  In  January,  1772, 
Father  Matthew  Sittenspereer,  a  Jesuit  known  at  the 
Bohemian  Mission  under  the  name  of  Manners,  pur- 
chased a  farm  in  Mill  Creek  Hundred,  which  was  known 
as  Coffee  Run,  and  here  a  log  chapel  called  St.  Mary's 
and  a  residence  were  erected.  Father  Sittensper^ 
was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Stephen  Faure,  who,  with 
other  Frenchmen,  driven  from  St.  Domingo  by  negro 


DVL4WASE 


DBUlWAEB 


uprising,  settled  at  Wilmington.  He  was  assisted  bv 
the  Rev.  John  Kossetcr,  an  officer  in  Rochambeau  s 
army  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  then  an  Au- 
gustinian.  In  1798  ho  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Cibot,  who  had  been  Vice-Prefect  Apostolic  in  St.  Do- 
mingo. In  1800  the  Rev.  Charles  Whelan  became 
pastor,  to  be  succeeded  in  1805  by  the  Rev.  Patrick 
Kenny.  From  this  church  the  Catholics  of  the  fiU]>- 
rounding  country  as  far  a3  at  West  Chester,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Wilmington,  were  attended.  Father 
Kenny  was  assisted  for  a  time  by  the  Rev.  George  A. 
CarreU,  who  afterwards  became  Bishop  of  Covii^ton, 
KentucW.  The  arduous  labours  and  personality  of 
Father  Kenn^  have  made  him  probably  the  best- 
known  priest  m  the  early  Catholic  history  of  the  State. 
Some  portions  of  Coffee  Run  Church  are  still  standing. 
The  site  of  the  church  is  about  six  miles  from  Wil- 
mington on  the  Lancaster  Pike.  In  1785  Delaware 
was  one  of  the  four  States  (the  others  being  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  and  Virginia)  where  Catholics  were 
not  virtually  under  civil  disabilities. 

F;ix>m  its  earliest  settlement,  at  no  time  did  rdigious 
intolerance  ever  appear  in  the  government  of  the 
Swedish  colony  which  grew  into  the  State  of  Dela- 
ware. In  1816  St.  Peter's,  the  second  church  in  the 
State,  was  built  by  Father  Kenny.  This  church,  often 
enlarged  and  beautified  since,  is  now  the  cathedral  of 
the  diocese.  Father  Kenny  was  first  assisted  in  1834, 
and  later  succeeded,  by  the  Rev.  Patrick  Reilly,  who, 
as  priest  and  educator,  was  one  of  the  most  respected 
clergjonen  in  the  country.  In  1830  the  first  Catholic 
Orphan  Asylum  in  the  state  was  opened  in  Wilming- 
ton. In  1839  the  first  parochial  school  in  the  State 
was  built  adjoining  St.  Peter's.  Until  1868  the  State 
formed  a  portion  of  the  Diocese  of  Philadelphia,  but 
in  that  year  the  present  Diocese  of  Wilmington  was 
created.  It  comprises  the  State  of  Delaware  and  the 
Eastern  Shore  counties  of  Maryland  and  Virginia. 
The  Ri^t  Rev.  Thomas  A.  Becker  was  the  first  bish- 
op. Bishop  Becker,  on  beins  transferred  to  Geoigia 
in  1886,  was  succeeded  by  &e  Right  Rev.  Alfred  A. 
Curtis,  who,  afters  service  of  ten  years,  resiened,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  Right  Rev.  John  J.  Monaghan, 
26  January,  1897.  The  Delaware  diocese  from  its 
creation  has  been  distinguished  by  the  excellences  in 
abOity  and  temperament  of  its  bishops.  The  years 
1825  to  1860  marked  the  first  important  period  of 
Catholic  immigration,  and  the  chief  nationality  found 
among  the  Catholic  population  has  been  the  Irish. 
The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  (1908)  is  31,- 
000,  of  whom  500  are  negroes.  The  Catholic  popula- 
tion of  the  State  is  25,000.  There  are  46  churches  in 
the  diocese,  of  which  20  are  in  Delaware.  The  one 
Catholic  church  for  negroes  is  situated  in  Wilmington. 
The  number  of  priests  in  the  diocese  is  43,  ana  the 
number  in  the  State  34.  Of  the  whole  number  in  the 
diocese  30  are  seculars  and  13  belong  to  various  orders. 
There  are  twelve  parochial  schools  in  the  State,  with 
an  attendance  of  3100.  Orphan  asylums  for  white 
boys  and  rarls,  the  former  near  Delaware  City  and  the 
latter  at  Wilmington,  are  imder  the  care,  respectively, 
of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 
A  coloured  orphan  asylum  in  Wilmington  is  con- 
ducted by  the  Josephite  Fathers.  A  coloured  Indus- 
trial and  Agricultural  School  is  also  maintained  by  the 
Josephite  fathers  at  Clayton.  A  Home  for  the  Aged, 
at  Wilmington,  is  under  the  care  of  the  Little  Sisters 
of  the  Poor.  All  these  institutions  are  well  housed, 
admirably  managed,  and  Bjpeak  well  for  Catholic 
benevolence  in  the  state.  A  Summer  Home  for  the 
teaching  orders  of  the  Sist^n  in  the  State  and  for  poor 
girls  has  been  opened  at  Rehobeth,  a  seaside  town. 
Salesianum,  a  preparatory  school,  located  at  Wilming- 
ton, under  the  care  of  the  OUates  of  St.  Francis  de 
Sales,  and  the  Urauline  Academy,  a  boardinff  and  day 
school  for  girls,  are  the  present  chief  Catholic  educa- 
tional institutions  in  the  State.    Within  the  du)oeee  ia  a 


novitiate  of  the  order  of  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales 
and  a  convent  of  Visitation  nuns. 

Othsr  Reugions. — The  first  religion  in  the  State 
was  that  brought  by  the  Swedish  settlen^  namely,  the 
Lutheran.  The  first  church  erected  was  in  1638  with- 
in Fort  Christina,  and  the  second  in  1643  near  New 
Castle.  Dutch  and  Swedes  worshipped  these.  Old 
Swedes'  Church,  built  in  1698,  under  Uie  direction  of 
the  celebrated  Swedish  minister  Bjork,  is  stiU  in  use 
and  in  a  splendid  state  of  preservation.  After  the 
arrival  of  the  En^ish,  the  Swedish  and  En^ish 
churches  were,  for  the  greater  part  of  1^  time,  at- 
tended by  the  same  minister.  About  1791  the  Swed- 
ish Lutheran  Church  merged  into  the  Protestant 
Episcopal.  The  Society  of  Friends  erected  their  first 
meeting  house  in  Delaware  about  1687,  and  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  State's  history,  they  woe  probably 
the  most  influential  and  respected  class  in  tne  State, 
particularlv  in  the  northern  portion.  The  first  I^es- 
byterian  church  in  the  State  is  known  to  have  been 
established  with  elders  and  trustees  as  early  as  1705, 
but  the  precise  year  of  its  institution  is  not  known. 
The  Baptist  Church  in  the  State  was  founded  in  1703 
by  emigrants  from  South  Wales,  who  settled  upon  the 
''Welsh  Tract",  a  portion  of  the  Penn  grant  m  Pen- 
cader  Hundred,  New  Csatle  County,  ssid  erected  a 
meeting  house.  This  was  the  third  Baptist  meeting 
house  erected  in  America.  Meeting  of  the  M ethociist 
denomination  were  held  at  Wilmington  as  eady  as 
1766,  and  in  1780  "Barratt's  Chapel '^in  Kent  County 
(still  in  use),  was  erected.  This  was  one  of  the  cradles 
of  the  Methodist  Church  in  America,  and  here  the  first 
General  Conference  of  American  Methodian  was  ap- 
pointed. The  active  church  membership  and  the 
SundayHBchool  membership  of  the  leading  Protestant 
denominations  are  (1908):  Methodist  Episcopal,  40,- 
000;  Protestant  Episcopal,  6280;  Baptist,  €000; 
Presbyterian,  12,700.  There  are  man^  churches  for 
coloured  people  in  the  State,  among  whidi  the  Baptist 
and  Methodist,  particularly  the  latter,  predominate. 
Among  other  deeds  and  denominations  repreeented 
in  the  State,  are  the  Lutheran,  Unitarian,  Sweden- 
borgian,  Christian  Science,  Methodist  Protestant,  vai^ 
ious  divisions  of  the  Baptist  Churoh,  Seventh  Day 
Adventist,  and  Hebrew. 

Legislation. — ^The  first  article  of  the  State  Oonsti- 
tution,  adopted  in  1897,  states,  "No  man  shall  or 
ought  to  be  compelled  to  attend  any  religiouB  wordiip, 
to  contribute  to  the  erection  or  supf)ort  of  any  place  of 
worship,  or  to  the  maintenance  of  any  ministiy, 
against  his  own  free  will  and  consent";  and  also  states 
that  **  No  religious  test  shall  be  required  as  a  <|ua]jfica- 
tion  to  any  oflice  or  public  trust  under  this  State". 
This  same  language  is  fotmd  in  the  Constitution 
adopted  in  1831.  Blasphemy  is  punishable  as  a  mis- 
demeanour. By  statute  any  worldly  emplo^pient, 
labour  or  business  (works  of  necessitjr  or  cnanty  ex- 
cepted), peddling  goods,  droving,  fishing,  fowling, 
gaming,  horseracing,  cock  fitting  or  hunting  game, 
and  playing  and  dancing,  on  the  Sabbath  day,  aie  all 
prohibited  and  made  punishable  as  misdoneanoun. 
The  usual  form  of  oath  is  bv  swearing  upon  the  Holy 
Evangels  of  AlmighW  God.  A  person  believing  in 
any  other  than  the  Christian  relip^on  may  be  sworn 
according  to  the  peculiar  ceremonies  of  his  religbn,  if 
there  be  any  sucn.  A  person  conscientiously  scrupvh 
Ious  of  takins  an  oath  may  be  permitted  to  aflSnn  to 
the  truth  of  the  matters  to  be  testified.  A  chaplain  is 
appointed  by  either  branch  of  the  legislature,  and  the 
daily  sessions  (by  force  of  custom  only)  are  opened 
with  praver.  Christmas  and  Sunday  are  the  only 
religious  holidajrs  recognised  as  le^  holidays.  There 
is  neither  statute  nor  court  decision  in  the  State, 
regarding  the  seal  of  oonf essnn. 

Prior  to  1893  the  provisions  of  one  statute  ooveied 
the  incorporation  of  congr^ations  or  societies  of 
whatsoever  denomination.    At  that  time,  a  statute 


MBIiAWAtC 


DBUkWABI 


_  _  passed  providing  exolunvely  for  the  inooipora- 
tion  of  Catnolic  congregations.    It  gives  a  simple 
method  for  incorporating  a  church  congregation. 
Under  a  statute,  all  real  and  personal  property  beloog- 
ing  to  any  church  or  religious  society  is  not  liable  to 
assessment  and  taxation  for  public  purposes,  imless 
tlie  i>ropertv  is  in  the  form  of  a  school  where  the  tui* 
lion  is  not  free.    The  constitution  provides:  '*  No  por- 
tion of  any  fund  now  existing,  or  which  may  hereafter 
be  appropriated  or  raised  oy  taxation,  for  eduoa- 
tionaJ  purposes,  shall  be  appropriated  to,  or  used  for. 
or  in  aid  of  any  sectarian  chureh  or  denominational 
school,  provided,  that  all  real  or  personal  property 
used  for  school  purposes  where  tuition  is  free,  shall  be 
exempt  from  taxation  and  assessment  for  public  pur- 
poses''.   The  right  of  an^r  charitable  or  educational 
corporation  to  take  by  devise  or  bequest  is  undoubted. 
While  the  language  of  the  statute  under  which  Cath- 
olic congregations  are  formed  into  church  corpora- 
tions is  not  bevond  cavil  in  this  r^ard,  the  assump- 
tion is  that  such  a  corporation  may  take  by  devise  or 
bequest,  without  qualification  or  condition.    In  this 
respect,  the  rights  of  Oalholic  church  corporations  are 
clearer  and  more  liberal  than  those  enjoyed  br  chureh 
corporations  of  any  other  denomination.    Ordatned 
ministers  of  the  Gospel  are  not  liable  to  serve  as  jurors. 
Military  service  is  voluntary.    By  the  constitution, 
no  divorce  may  be  granted  except  by  the  judgment  of 
a  court.    Annulment  of  marriage  tor  certain  causes, 
existing  at  the  time  of  marriage,  is  provided  for.    For 
divorce,  the  reasons  are  adultery,  oigamy,  imprison- 
ment, cruelty,  desertion,  habitual  drunkenneai,  and 
hopeless  insanity.    Hearings  and  trials  in  divovee 
matters  must  in  all  cases  be  had  before  the^ourt  and 
in  public.    Marriage  within  the  degrees  of  the  estab- 
lished table  of  consanguinity,  or  between  whites  and 
blacks,  is  unlawful  ana  void,  and  the  parties  thereto 
are  guUty  of  a  misdemeanour.    A  regularly  issued 
license  is  a  condition  precedent  to  marriage,  unless  the 
banns  are  published  at  some  ]riace  of  staged  religious 
worship,  within  the  Hundred  of  the  woman's  resiofenoe 
on  two  Sabbaths,  and  no  objection  made  to  such  mar- 


be  sale  of  liquor  is  licensed  by  the  State,  but  with 
many  restrictions.  The  State  is  divided  into  four 
local  option  districts,  in  two  of  which  prohibition  laws 
are  now  in  force. 

Legacies  for  religious,  charitable  and  educational 
purposes  are  not  subject  to  taxation.  The  right  to 
dispose  oLproperty  by  will  may  be  exercised  by  any 
person  of  the  age  of  twentv-one  years  or  upwards, 
who  is  of  sound  mind.  Such  will  must  be  in  writing, 
except  a  nuncupative  will,  by  which  an  estate  not  ex- 
oe^lmg  $200  may  be  disposed  of.  Cemetery  corpor- 
ations are  now  formed  under  the  provisions  of  a 
general  incorporation  law.  No  taxes  are  paid  on 
lands  used  for  cemetery  purposes. 

The  constitution  places  no  limit  to  direct  taxation, 
but  no  State  tax  on  assessed  property  is  levied. 
Countv  and  municipal  assessment  and  taxation  is  em- 
ployed. There  is  no  tax  on  income.  A  collateral  in- 
nentanoe  tax  is  collected,  where  the  recipient  is  a 
stranger  in  blood,  and  the  estate  exceeds  $500. 

Fxnaia.  Hiatory  •/  the  Orioinal  SatUm4nt»  on  the  Ddaware 
(Wilmington,  1846):  Bancroft,  History  of  tk$  VnUmd  StaUs 
(New  York,  1882);  Scharf,  History  of  Dekupare  (Philadelphia, 
1888);  OoNRAD,  History  of  Delaware  (Wilmington.  1908); 
Perbt,  Hiatorieal  CoUeetions  (HaHford,  1886);  Shba.  Catholic 
Church  in  Colonial  Days  (New  York.  1886);  Perm.  HiaUnioal 
Society  Memoirs  (Philadelphia.  1864);  U.  S.  Twelfth  Census 
(Waahington,  1901);  Bulletin  71,  Bstimaies  of  Popwatum^  ibid. 
(Washington,  1907);  Bulletin  31,  Census  of  Manufaetutss,  iltid. 
(Washington,  1906);  DeL  Loms^  Revised  Code. 

Charles  F.  Curubt, 

Delaware  Indiana,  an  important  tribal  confed- 
eracy of  Alg^nquian  stock  origmally  holding  the  basin 
of  toe  Delaware  River,  in  Eastern  Pennsylvama,  U. 
S.  A.,  together  with  most  of  New  Jera^  and  Dela- 


waie.  They  call  themselves  I^^nap^  or  Lem^Utlittpi, 
about  equivalent  to  ''real  omzi".  The  English  lomw 
them  as  Delawares,  from  the  name  of  the  river;  the 
Fiench  oailed  them  Loupa  (wolves),  tmder  which 
term  they  included  also  tne  cognate  Mohican;  while 
to  most  of  their  Al^nquian  net^ibours  they  were 
known  as  Wapanaki  (Eastemens).  By  reason  of 
being  the  parent  body  of  a  nmnb^  of  cognate  tribes, 
and  nolding  the  ancestral  territory,  they  wen  ac- 
corded precedence  in  intortribal  assemblies,  under  the 
respecttul  title  of  ''grandfather''. 

The  Lenap6  proper  consisted  of  three  tribes — ^Mun- 
aee,  Unami,  and  Unalaotgo— ^mboliaed  respectively 
under  the  totems  of  the  Wolf,  Turtle,  and  Tuncey.  Of 
these  the  Munsee  held  the  Upper  Delaware  and  were 
considered  the  defenders  of  the  frontier  against  the 
incursions  of  the  hostile  Iroquois.  Their  (ualect  dif- 
fered considerably  from  that  of  the  other  two.  The 
Unami  held  the  middle  course  of  the  river,  together 
with  the  hereditary  chieftaincy,  while  the  third  tribe 
occupied  the  lower  country,  flach  tribe  was  organ- 
ised mto  dans  or  gentes,  numbering  about  thirty-five 
in  all,  with  descent  in  the  female  line,  as  usual  among 
the  Eastern  Indians.  In  habit  they  were  sedentary, 
depending  chiefly  upon  agriculture  rather  than  upon 
hunting,  cultivating  large  quantities  of  com,  beans, 
squadbea,  and  tobacco.  Their  houses,  consisting  of  a 
framework  of  poles  covered  with  bark  or  mats  woven 
of  rushes,  were  of  wagon-top  shape  and  accommo- 
dated several  families  each. 

The  most  ancient  traditions  of  the  Lenap^  are  con- 
tained in  the  sacred  Dictograph  record  known  as  the 
Wahm  Olum  or  "Red  Score  ,  first  brought  to  notice 
by  Rafinesque  in  1836  and  published  wim  translation 
and  notes  uy  Brinton  in  18&5.  They  made  their  first 
treaty,  with  Penn,  in  1682,  at  Shackamaxon  within 
the  present  limits  of  Philadelphia.  To  this  period  be- 
longs their  noted  chief  Tamenend,  from  whom  the 
Tammany  Society  derives  its  name.  As  the  whites 
pressed  upon  them  the  Delawares  gradually  retired 
westward,  first  to  the  Susquehanna  and  thence  to  the 
Alleghany,  until  in  1751  they  began  to  make  settle- 
ments in  Ohio,  where  the  greater  ^urt  of  the  tribe  was 
estahlished  at  the  outbreak  of  the  French  and  Indian 
war  in  1754.  In  common  with  all  the  other  tribes  of 
the  Ohio  re^on,  they  sided  with  the  French  against 
the  English  m  this  war  and  continued  the  struggle  in- 
dependently for  some  time  after  the  French  garrisons 
had  been  withdrawn.  Throughout  the  Revolution 
and  tile  war  of  1812  they  were  allies  of  the  English 
against  the  Americans.  As  early  as  1746  seuous 
Moravian  nussionaries  had  begun  woric  in  the  tribe 
in  Easteri  Pennsylvania,  and  succeeded  in  winning  a 
considerable  number  to  Christianity,  despite  persecu- 
tions and  removals  forced  upon  them  by  the  whites, 
culminating  in  the  massacre  of  an  entire  community 
of  Christian  Delawares  at  Gnadenhutton,  in  Ohio,  in 
1782. 

The  war  of  1812  was  followed  by  treaty  cessions 
and  other  removals,  most  of  the  Christian  Delawares 
emigrating  to  Canada,  while  the  others,  after  various 
halt%  by  different  bands  in  Indiana,  Missouri,  Arkan- 
sas, and  Kansas,  were  finally  collected  chiefly  in  the 
pr^nt  Oklahoma,  the  main  body  incorporatmg  with 
the  Cherokee  in  1867.  They  have  greatly  decreased, 
but  number  (1908)  altogether  about  1900  souls,  in- 
cluding about  870  with  the  Cherokee  and  95  more 
with  the  Wichita,  in  Oklahoma;  about  250  Munsee  in 
Wisconsin  and  some  50  more  in  Kansas;  and  the  rest, 
under  the  names  of  Munsees  and  Moravians,  on  reser- 
vations in  Ontario,  Canada. 

Brimton,  The  Lenapi  and  their  Legenda  fPhHadelphia,  1885) ; 
Ihukxs.  Aborioinal  Races  of  North  America  (Book  of  the  Indians). 
Q6thed..  Now  York.  1882) ;  Ubgkbwklpbb.  Jndum  Nations  of 
Pennsylvania  (Philaoelphia,  1876) ;  RimvNBER,  Indian  Tribes 
of  Bwascn's  Rxver  (Albany,  1872);  Thompson,  Moravian  Mie» 
nont  (New  York,  1800). 

Jaiceb  Moonbt. 


DILOOS 


DKUOATMH 


Delciis,  a  titular  see  of  Thrace,  suffragan  of  Philip- 
popolifi.  The  Greek  name  of  the  place  waa  Delkos  or 
Ddkoi,  later  Derkos  or  Derkoi;  the  latter  forms  haVe 
prevailed.  The  Turkish  and  common  name  is  Der- 
kos. It  is  now  a  little  village  south-west  of  Kara 
fioumouy  a  promontory  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  on  the 
southern  baixk  of  Lake  Derkos,  the  waters  of  whidi 
are  brought  to  Constantinople  brv  an  aqueduct.  There 
are  about  300  inhabitants.  The  see,  though  some 
have  connected  its  origin  with  the  preaching  of  St. 
Andrew,  is  not  mentioned  before  the  eighth  century; 
however  a  rather  obscure  record  of  Balsamon  (P.  G., 
CXXXVII,  548)  permits  the  supposition  that  it  was 
established  shortly  after  the  Trutlan  Council  of  092. 
The  first  known  bishop  is  Gregory,  who  attaided 
the  Second  Council  of  Niosea  in  787.  In  the  records 
of  the  councils  under  Photius  are  found  the  signatures 
of  his  partisan  Neophytus  and  of  Macarius,  the  par- 
tisan of  St.  Ignatius.  About  840  the  see  stood  twen- 
tieth among  the  autocephalous  archbishoprics.  Its 
archbishop,  John,  subscribed  a  s^oiodal  sentence  in 997. 
Balsamon  (P.  G.,  CXXXVIII,  273)  8i)eaks  of  another 
prelate  who  sought  permission  to  reside  in  the  larger 
and  richer  city  of  Pnileas.  Another  was  reproached 
in  the  Holy  Synod  by  the  Patriarch  Michael  with  hav- 
ing ordained  a  bishop  native  of  Constantinople  and 
before  the  canonical  age  (ibid.,  213);  he  was  perhaps 
the  John  who  was  present  in  1106  at  the  council  of 
Constantinople,  known  as  ''Pater  major  me  est". 
One  Gregory  subscribed  another  council  in  1193.  In 
1316  the  see  was  given  to  the  Archbishop  of  Nym- 
phffium,  who  had  bN^en  deprived  of  his  own  (Miklosich 
and  MiUler,  "Acta  et  dipfomatagrseca",  1 ,50).  Luke 
was  archbishop  in  1329  (ibid.,  98).  In  1356  the  see 
was  per  adjunctumem  in  the  hands  of  the  Metropolitan 
of  Busye  (ibid.,  355).  In  1365  it  had  again  an  occu- 
pant, and  its  bishop  in  1379  and  1381  was  Paul ;  in 
1389  Joseph  was  bishop  (op.  cit.,  II,  6,  39,  and  120). 
In  1466  it  was  and  probably  had  long  been  ruled  di- 
rectly by  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  [Kam- 
bouroglous,  Monuments  for  History  of  Atnens  (Gr.), 
II,  354].  It  was  not  re-established  until  the  b^gin- 
mng  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  titular  re^ 
sided  at  Therapia  on  the  Bosphcniis.  Delcus  was 
made  a  metropolis  in  1655.  In  October,  1746,  it  was 
raised  to  theei£^th  rank  of  the  Greek  hierarchy  (Manai, 
Col.  concil.,  XXXVIII,  527).  The  diocese  now  in- 
cludes 41  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  Constantinople  and 
along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora, among  them  San  Stefano,  Makri-Keui,  and 
Beuyuk-D^r6,  with  Catholic  parishes  conducted  by 
Capuchins,  Dominicans,  and  Minor  Conventuals. 

Lbquisn,  Oriene  ArUtianiu,  I.  1163;  Gedkon,  Engraved 
Stones  and  Bricks  (Conatanttnople,  1803),  iefH176;  BAKiUUO- 
P0UL08.  Eastern  Calendar  for  1896  (Constantinople,  1805),  103- 
84;  Idbk,  Calendar  of  the  National  Philanthroptc  Establishments 
for  1906  (Constantinople.  1005),  145-58. 

Jj*  Pbtit. 
Delegates,  Apostolic.    See  Lboatb. 

Delegation  (Lat.  delegare) f  the  commission  to  an- 
other of  jurisdiction,  which  is  to  be  exercised  in  ihe 
name  of  the  person  delegating.  Jurisdiction  is  de- 
fined as  the  power  of  anyone  who  has  public  authority 
and  pre-eminence  over  others  for  their  rule  and  gov- 
ernment. 

I.  In  ancient  Roman  law,  delegation  was  the  sub- 
stitution of  one  debtor  for  another;  the  second  debtor 
making  payment  in  the  name  of  the  first.  In  modem 
civil  law,  the  term  delegations  is  used  for  committees 
of  representatives  or  judges,  who  in  the  name  of  the 
parliament  of  the  judiciary  consider  and  determine 
the  special  matters  confided  to  them.  In  canon  law, 
delegation  is  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  or  power  which 
a  person  exercises  in  virtue  of  a  commission  from  one 
having  ordinary  jurisdiction  (see  JtmisDicrtoN),  with 
the  underetancfing  that  such  delegate  must  act  in  the 
name  of  the  one  delegating.    The  canons  distinguish 


between  delegation  ab  homine,  and  delegation  a  jure. 
The  former  is  that  which  comes  from  a  pereon  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  word ;  while  the  latter  niav  have  its 
source  in  a  juridical  or  moral  person.    Tiius,  it  ia 
through  delegation  a  jure,  that  is  in  virtue  of  jurisdie^ 
tion  granted  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  that  bi^<^ 
have  certain  powers  in  r^;ard  to  exempted  regulars. 
Whenever  the  commcm  law  designates  a  person  as 
having  powers  which  belong  to  another  by  ordinaiy 
right,  the  one  upon  whom  tiiey  are  conferred  is  said 
to  be  a  delegate  a  jure.    If  bish(^  exercise  sudi  pow- 
ers "as  delegates  of  the  Apostolic  See'^  an  appeal 
against  their  actions  would  have  to  be  made  to  the 
pope,  for  it  is  really  his  jurisdiction  thev  are  employ- 
ing; while  if  the  common  law  refers  to  lliem  ss  acting 
'*&o  as  delates  of  the  Hc^y  See",  an  appeal  eould 
be  taken  to  we  metropolitan,  as  in  such  a  case  the 
bishop  acts  in  virtue  of  both  ordinaiy  and  ddegated 
jurisdiction.     Historically,   the   origin   of  canonical 
delegation  is  to  be  sought  most  probably  in  the  fifth 
(in  the  Latin  version,  the  seventh)  canon  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Sardica  (a.  d.  347),  whjch  speaks  of  judges  dele- 
gated for  Roman  appeals.    From  the  fifth  century 
onwards,  instances  ca  i^pointraent  of  delegates  by  the 
popes  are  distinctly  recorded,  and  such  ddegation  be- 
came more  frequent  as  time  went  on,  particularly 
since  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  I  (590-604). 

II.  Anyone  having  ordinary  jurisdiction  ma^  dele- 
gate another,  unless  such  po^ver  be  expressly  witiiheld 
from  him.    It  is  necessary  to  mention  this  restriction, 
for  although  parish  priests  have  ordinaiy  jurisdiction 
for  the  tribunal  of  penance,  yet  they  caimot  strictly 
delegate  another  for  that  task,  because  the  hearing  of 
oonfessionB  belongjs  to  the  external  forum  and  all  con- 
fessions need   episcopal   approbation.    The  person 
delegated  by  the  lawful  superiot  must  be  a  dene  wefl 
versed  in  the  matter  for  wnich  he  receives  delegation, 
and  he  must  not  be  excommunicate.    While  uie  age 
of  twenty  years  is  prescribed  by  law  for  the  dele- 
gate, it  is  also  provided  that  the  age  of  eighteen  will 
suffice,  if  those  concerned  are  satisfied.    S^eral  dele- 
gates may  be  appointed  for  the  same  matter.    In  this 
case  each  may  receive  such  a  commission  that  if  be 
undertake  the  matter  alone  the  other  del^ates  may 
no  lon^pr  interfere,  unless  the  first  be  hindered  from 
determining  it  (delegatus  in  solidum):  or  the  power  in 
a  cause  may  be  delegated  to  several  persons  so  that 
they  must  act  together  to  ma)ce  the  effect  of  their 
delegation  valid  (deleaaius  simplicUer).    If  the  dele- 
gate be  commissioned  by  the  pope,  he  should  ordi- 
narily be  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary  or  a  cathedral 
canon,  and  the  case  should  be  neard  in  a  city  or  place 
of  some  religious  or  civic  distinction.    It  is  evident, 
however,  that  the  sovereign  pontiff  may,  if  he  choose, 
derogate  from  these  laws  in  all  their  aspects.    Gen- 
eral defects  disqualifying  a  person  to  receive  delega- 
tion are  infamy,  deafness,  insanity,  dumbness,  slavery, 
and  the  like.    It  was  stated  that  tiie  person  delegated 
should  be  a  cleric;  for  neither  bishops  nor  those  in- 
ferior to  them  can  delegate  a  layman  for  spiritual 
matters  or  for  criminal  causes  of  ecclesiastics.     It  is 
disputed  whether  a  delegation  made  by  them  to  lay 
judges  to  determine  even  civil  causes  of  clerics  would 
be  vahd.    The  pope,  however,  may  delegate  laymen 
for  such  cases  when  there  is  auestion  of  an  individual 
instance.    Reiffenstuel  says  tnat  to  commit  in  general 
all  causes  of  ecclesiastics  to  laymen,  would  be  to  do 
away  with  the  forensic  privilege  of  clerics  (privQegium 
fori)  and  therefore  is  outside  the  sphere  of  papal  prerog- 
atives, as  the  exemption  of  clerics  is  probably  ci 
Divine  right.    The  granting  of  a  delegation  may  be 
verbal,  except  in  cases  where  the  law  expressly  pre- 
scribes that  it  be  in  writing.    The  delation  must 
also  be  the  free  act  of  the  superior,  for  delegated 
faculties  obtained  absolutely  against  the  wUl  <x  the 
donor  would  be  invalid.    If,  however,  they  be  ex- 
torted by  fear,  they  will  not  be  voui,  for  then  they 


DB  LEOH 


697 


DBLTAir 


^XMild  not  be  absolutely  against  the  will  of  the  su- 
perior. 

IIX.  Delefi^ted  powers  are  necessary,  either  for  the 
liceity  or  vaKdity  of  an  act  performed  by  the  delegate. 
If  tliere  be  question  only  of  the  liceity  of  an  act,  per- 
miBBion    reasonably    presumed    is    sufficient.    This 
^v^ould  be  the  case,  for  example,  in  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments,  except  penance  and  possibly  matri- 
mony.   If,  however,  it  be  a  question  of  the  validity 
of  an  act,  the  delegation  must  be  express,  or  at  least 
rest  upon  a  presumption  of  outward  signs  indicating 
actual  consent.    Such,  for  example,  would  be  the 
delegation  requisite  for  valid  absolution  in  the  tribunal 
of  penance,    in  general,  a  dele^te  may  not  proceed 
to  the  exercise  of  his  power  until  it  be  formally  noti- 
fied to  him,  for,  according  to  an  axiom  of  law,  juris- 
diction is  aquired  only  by  one  knowing  and  accepting. 
In  certain  cases,  this  knowledge  and  acceptance  may 
be  only  implicitly  implied,  but  it  is  then  considered 
sufficient.    The  fact  of  delegation  must  be  proved  to 
those  concerned  in  the  matter  at  stake,  either  by 
showing  them  the  written  instrument  or  exhibiting 
unexceptionable  testimony  that  the  power  has  been 
received.    The  delegate  must  also  carefully  observe 
the  form  of  procedure  specified  by  the  superior  ^o 
has  empowered  him  to  act.    In  case  of  grievance,  an 
appeal  may  be  made  aeainst  the  delegate  to  the  trib- 
unal of  the  person  who  delegated  him.    This  fact 
shows  that  the  power  of  the  vicar-general  of  a  diocese 
is  not  delegated  power,  for  there  is  no  appeal  from  his 
tribunal  to  l^at  of  the  bishop,  because  tneir  tribunal 
is  declared  to  he  one  and  the  same.    The  power  of  a 
vicar-general  is  most  correctly  characteriaed  as  quasi- 
ordinary,  for  on  the  one  hand,  he  holds  an  office  to 
which  certain  faculties  are  annexed,  and  on  the  other, 
he  exercises  his  powers  in  the  name  of  another.    Some 
canonists,  however,  maintain  that  a  vicar-general  has 
del^ated,  and  others  that  he  has  ordinary  jurisdio- 
tion.    Finally,  no  inferior  ordinaries  can  delegate 
their  entire  authority  to  others  in  perpetuity  without 
the  license  of  the  Romian  pontiff,  because  such  delega- 
tion would  be  equivalent  to  abdication,  which  is  not 
permissible  without  the  consent  of  the  supreme  au- 
thority.   What  has  been  said  in  this  respect  of  in- 
ferior ordinaries,  holds  good  also  for  those  delegated 
to  certain  classes  of  cases  in  general  (ad  universitatem 
caumrum).    As  the  powers  delegated  by  the  Holy 
See  are  generally  for  very  important  matters,  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XaV,  c.  10,  de  ref.)  made  an 
effort  to  provide  by  law  for  a  certain  number  of  quali- 
fied persons  whom  the  pope  could  appoint  as  his  dele- 
gates.    The  council  oraered  that  several  such  ecclesi- 
astics should  be  elected  in  provincial  synods  and  that 
their  names  should  be  forwarded  to  Rome  by  the 
bishops.    The  decree,  however,  was  seldom  acted  on 
and  gradually  became  entirely  obsolete. 

IV.  Delegated  jurisdiction  can  sometimes  be  sub- 
delesated  to  others.  If  the  delegate  was  appointed 
l^  me  pope,  even  for  a  particular  case,  he  has  the 
power  of  subdelegation.  The  latter  is  prohibited  only 
when  the  matter  has  been  committed  to  his  personal 
care  in  an  especial  manner,  or  when  it  is  of  unusual  im- 
portance or  of  a  merely  executive  nature.  Hence, 
when  a  confessor  has  received  by  Apostolic  privile^ 
the  faculty  of  absolving  all  the  faithful  from  certain 
sins  and  censures,  or  of  aispensing  in  certain  irregular- 
ities and  vows,  he  can  not  subdelegate  this  ministry. 
In  like  manner,  one  who  has  been  charged  with  the 
execution  of  matrimonial  dispensations  may  not  sub- 
delegate  the  ministry  itself,  yet  he  may  employ  others 
to  assist  him  in  matters  connected  with  his  delegated 
jurisdiction,  provided  their  work  be  only  supplemen- 
taiy,  not  principal.  If  the  delegate  was  appointed  by 
an  ordinary  otner  than  the  pope,  he  can  not  sulv 
delegate,  unless  he  has  been  commissioned  od  universi- 
tatem  causarum,  or  when  the  person  delegating  has 
given  him  the  special  authority  to  subddegate.    The 


subdelegate  cannot  make  a  new  delegation,  but  he 
can  call  in  the  assi^tanoe  of  others  for  the  details  of 
his  work.  When  a  delegate  has  confided  all  his  au- 
thoritv  in  a  particular  matter  to  a  subdelegate  an 
appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  latter  does  not  lie  to 
the  delegate,  but  to  the  superior  who  had  originally 
commissioned  the  delegate. 

y.  Delegation  ceases  if  the  work  assigned  to  ihe 
del^ate  has  been  completed ;  if  the  delegate  abdicates 
his  power  or  declares  the  rescript  of  his  appointment 
invalid ;  if  the  term  fixed  for  the  conduct  of  the  matter 
has  expired,  unless  in  a  contentious  case  both  parties 
have  agreed  to  a  prorogation;  if  the  delegation  be 
revoked;  if  the  delegate  die,  unless  he  was  one  of  a 
number  of  del^ates  simpliciter  and  their  commission 
had  provided  tor  its  continuance  in  such  an  emer- 
gency; if  the  person  delegating  die,  and  the  case  had 
not  yet  beg^n;  if  the  person  die  on  whose  account 
the  delegation  was  constituted,  unless  some  matter 
concemiiig  the  Church  or  a  prelacy  be  at  stake. 

Smitb,  itementa  cf  Bedenaahad  Law  (New  York.  1895); 
JjJ^ximxtrnvB,  huHtutiotua  Jur.  ElecL  (Frdbucg,  1903);  Fbbp 
BAJOB.  BilMotkeca  Canonus  (Rome,  1886),  III. 

William  H.  W.  Fanning, 
De  Leon,  Ponc£.    See  Leon. 

Dell  Ml,  FiiAN{»is.  theologian,  b.  1637  at  Montel  in 
Auvergne,  France;  d.  13  Oct.,  1676,  at  Luidevenec  in 
Nonnandy.  He  joined  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict 
when  he  was  seventeen  yea»  of  afl»,  and  made  his 
solemn  profession  at  the  Abbey  of  St.  Allire,  2  May, 
1656.  He  was  a  profound  student  of  the  Fathers  of 
the  Chureh  and  the  history  of  the  councils.  Constant 
application  to  study  speedily  matured  the  powers  of 
his  exceptionally  keen  and  brilliant  mind,  and  he  soon 
came  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  foremost  authority  on  all 
questions  connectea  with  patristic  theology.  When 
the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur  in  1670  determined  to 
undertake  a  critical  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Augu»- 
tine,  Delf  au  was  commissioned  by  his  superiors  to  pre- 
pare it.  The  task  was  a  difficult  one,  but  together 
with  six  other  members  of  the  order;  among  them  his 
intimate  friend  Dom  Robert  Gu^raixl,  he  began  with 
energy  and  courage  this  great  labour  of  love,  and 
prosecuted  it  with  an  ardour  truly  Benedictine.  In 
1671  he  prepared  an  elaborate  prospectus,  setting 
forth  the  ceneral  soope  and  character  of  the  new  edi- 
tion and  tne  principles  by  which  the  editors  were  to  be 
euided.  Manuscripts  came  to  the  learned  Maurists 
from  various  countries,  and  Pope  Clement  X  even  sent 
them  priceless  codices  of  the  Vatican  Library  tc»gether 
with  all  the  materials  that  had  been  gathered  there 
under  Clement  VIII  for  a  projected  edition  of  the 
Opera  Augustini.  When  the  first  two  volumes  were 
about  to  be  printed,  the  work  was  suddenly  arrested, 
18  Sept.,  1675,  by  two  Mres  de  cachet  from  Louis  XIV, 
decreeing  the  banishment  of  both  Delfau  and  Gu^rard 
from  Paris.  The  occasion  for  this  drastic  measure 
seems  to  have  been  Delfau's  book  ^  L'abb^  commenda- 
taire",  published  at  Cologne,  1673,  in  which  the  young 
monk  had  severely  commented  on  the  abuses  con* 
nected  with  the  system  of  commendam  as  it  was  then 
^amelessly  carried  on  in  France  to  the  great  detri- 
ment of  the  Church.  The  fearless  work  greatly 
aroused  the  king's  anger,  of  which  the  enemies  of  the 
Maurists  did  not  fail  to  take  advantage.  Delfau  was 
obliged  to  withdraw  to  the  monastery  of  Landevenec; 
he  Uved  there  but  little  more  than  a  year  when,  at  the 
early  age  of  thirty-eight,  he  was  drowned  as  he  was 
crossing  to  the  Carmelite  convent  at  Brest,  where  he 
was  to  deliver  a  eulogy  on  the  feast-day  of  St.  Teresa. 
Delfau's  works  are:  "Apologia  Cardmalis  FOrsten- 
bergii'';  a  masterly  epitaph  on  Casunii;  King  of 
Poland,  who  died  as  Aboot  of  St.  Germain  des  Ft6b; 
and  a  dissertation  on  the  authorship  of  the  "Imitatio 
Christi",  in  his  edition  of  that  book  (Paris,  1673). 

Baumer,  Johannaa  MabUUm  (Augsburg.  1892),  97  sq.rTAS- 
BIN.  Hiat.  lUUraiTc  da  la  Ctmgr^igatum  de  SairU-Maur  CPmne. 


DBunvo 


6^ 


DB  U8UB 


ZuQBLBAUKB,  HkL  Tci  liL  O.  S.  B.  (Auffibttig,  176i), 
Thomas  Obstreich. 


Delfino,  PiBTRO,  theologian,  b.  at  Venice  in  1444; 
d.  16  Jan.,  1525.  He  entered  the  Camaldolese  Mon- 
ajBteiy  of  San  Michele  at  Murano,  and  in  1479  was 
dected  abbot  of  the  same  community.  The  following 
year  he  was  made  general  of  the  order  and  held  that 
office  until  the  year  1513  when  he  resided  in  favour  of 
his  fellow-countiyman  Blessed  Paul  Giustiniani,  whom 
he  had  invested  with  the  Camaldolese  habit  in  1510. 
Delfino  was  the  forty-sixth  general  from  St.  Romuald, 
the  foimder  of  the  damaldolese,  and  the  last  elected  for 
life,  the  office  after  him  being  held  for  three  years  onl^. 
In  1488  he  received  the  votes  of  his  countrymen  m 
Venice  for  the  cardinalate,  but  refused  to  accept  this 
dimity  from  Innocent  VIII.  The  letters  of  Delfino, 
which  number  more  than  four  thousand,  addressed  to 
different  religious  of  his  own  and  other  orders  and  to 
various  secular  dignitaries,  are  valuable  not  only  on 
account  of  the  trustworthiness  of  their  author,  but 
more  especially  because  of  the  accounts  they  contain 
of  contemporary  events  in  his  own  order  and  the 
Church  in  general  A  collection  of  his  Latin  lettars 
was  published  at  Venice  in  1524.  Several  others  that 
had  been  omitted  in  the  Venetian  editions  were  in- 
cluded later  in  Mart^e's  ''Veterum  Scriptonim  am^ 
plissima  collectio".  The  *'Apothegmata  Patrum" 
and  the  "  Dialogues''  on  Savonarola  are  still  unedited. 

Mast&nb,  Vetenun  Seriptorum  ^  numumentarum  eedttiuti- 
cmrum  et  doffmatioorum  ampliMima  coUedio,  III,  015. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Delille,  Jacques,  French  abb^  and  litUraieur,  b.  at 
Aigueperse,  22  June,  1738;  d.  at  Paris,  1  May,  1813. 
He  received  his  education  at  the  Coll^  de  Lisieux  in 
Paris  and  became  an  instructor  at  the  College  de  la 
Marche  in  the  same  city.  His  translation  into  verse 
of  Virgil's  "Georgics",  which  appeared  in  1770,  had 
very  great  success  and  eventually  won  for  him  a  seat 
in  the  French  Academy.  He  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  poetry  in  the  College  de  France 
and  through  the  patronage  of  the  Count  d'  Artois  he 
reoeived  as  a  benefice  the  Abbey  of  Saint-Severin,  but 
took  onlv  minor  orders.  In  1786  he  aooompanied  the 
Coimt  de  Cboiseul  to  Constantinople  and  visited 
Greece;  his  stay  in  the  East  does  not  seem,  however, 
to  have  mudti  influenced  his  literary  career.  The 
I^nch  Revolution  deprived  him  of  his  position  and 
benefice,  and  in  1794  he  had  to  leave  France ;  his  exile 
was  spent  in  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Emdand.  He 
returned  to  France  in  1802  and  again  took  his  seat  in 
the  French  Academy.  For  some  years  Delille  was  con- 
sidered a  great  poet,  Voltaire  at  one  time  even  going  so 
far  as  to  call  him  the  French  Virgil ;  but  he  did  not  en- 
joy very  long  this  unwarranted  reputation.  All  agree 
to-day  that  he  was  a  wonderful  versifier,  having  at  his 
oonmiand  all  the  secrets  of  his  art,  but  it  is  also  recog- 
nized that  his  long  descriptive  poems  betray  a  com- 
plete lack  of  poetic  feeling  and  inspiration.  They  are 
a  striking  illustration  of  the  difference  between  versi- 
fication and  poetry.  His  best  known  works  are: 
"Traduction  des  g^Sorgiques  de  Virgile"  (Paris,  1770) ; 
"Dithyrambe  sur  rimmortalit^  de  TAme"  (Paris, 
1793);  "L'Imagination"  (Paris,  1806);  "Les  TroU 
R^es  de  la  nature"  (Paris,  1806);  "La  (Conversa- 
tion" (Paris,  1812). 

Saintc-Bkuvk.  Portraits  LUUraires  (Paiis,  1846);  Linoat. 
Eloge  de  Delille  (Paris.  1814);  Lxan^on,  HiaUnredela  liUiratvre 
fnnQai$e  (Paxis,  1896). 

Pdbrre  Mariqub. 

De  Ltsla,  Ambrose  Lisle  March  Phillifps,  b.  17 
\farch,  1809;  d.  5  March,  1878.  He  was  the  son  of 
Charles  March  Phillipps  of  Garendon  Park,  Leicester- 
iihire,  and  Harriet  Ducarel,  a  lady  of  Huguenot  de- 
scent.   He  assumed  the  name  of  de  Lisle  in  1862, 


wken  on  the  death  of  his  father  he  inherited  tlie  ettatai 

of  the  ancient  family  of  de  Lisle. 

He  spent  his  earliest  yean  at  his  birthplace  and 
was  brought  up  as  a  member  of  the  Church  of  Eo^ 
land,  receiving  his  first  religious  instruction  from  his 
uncle,  William  March  Phillipps,  a  hif^-church  dergy- 
man.  In  1818  Ajoabzose  was  sent  to  a  private  school 
at  South  Cioxton,  whence  he  was  removed  in  1820  to 
Maiaemore  Court  School,  near  Gloucester,  k^  by  the 
Rev.  George  Hodson.  The  Bishop  of  Gloucester, 
having  married  Sophia  March  Phillipps,  was  his  unde 
by  marriage,  and  so  the  boy  had  the  advantage  of 
spending  Sundays  and  holidays  at  the  bishop's  palaoe. 
At  school  he  met  for  the  fijrst  time  a  Catholic,  the 
AJtM  Giraud,  a  French  indgri  priest,  whose  holy  life 
struck  the  bov  as  inconsistent  with  what  he  had  al- 
wi^  heard  of  Catholics.  On  one  of  his  journeys  to 
Gloucester  he  took  the  opportunity  of  questioning  the 
priest  as  to  the  real  belief  of  Catholics.  The  ans^'ers 
ne  reoeived  so  excited  his  interest  that  he  began  to 
read  all  the  books  on  the  subject  he  oould  find  in  his 
father's  libraxy.  A  visit  to  Paris  in  1823  gave  him  his 
fint  acquaintance  with  Catholic  liturev*  Tlie  effect 
on  his  mind  was  shown  on  his  retum^ome  when  he 
penuaded  the  Anglican  rector  to  place  a  cross  on  the 
communion  table,  but  this  first  effort  to  restore  the 
cross  to  £nglish  churches  was  promptly  suppressed  by 
the  Bishc^  of  Peterborough  as  savourine  df  Popery. 
At  this  tune  an  incident  occurred  whidi  left  an  in- 
delible impression  on  his  mind,  and  which  he  thus 
rdated  to  nis  subsequent  biographer:  ''One  dav  in 
the  year  1823,  as  I  was  rambling  along  the  foot  of  the 
lulls  in  the  nei^bouriiood  of  the  school,  and  medi- 
tating, as  was  my  wont  in  those  boyish  days,  over  the 
strange  Protestant  theory  that  the  Pope  of  Rome  is 
the  Anti-Christ  of  Prophecy,  all  of  a  sudden  I  saw  a 
bright  light  in  the  heavens,  and  I  heard  a  voice  which 
said:  *  Mahomet  is  the  Anti-Christ,  for  he  denieth  the 
Father  and  the  Son.'  On  my  return  home  in  the  next 
holidays  I  looked  for  a  Koran  and  there  I  found  those 
remarkable  words,  'God  neither  begetteth  nor  is  be- 
gotten.'" 

About  this  time  Mr.  Hodson's  school  was  removed 
to  Edgbaston,  near  Birmingham,  and  here  it  was  that 
the  boy.  now  sixteen  years  old,,  had  a  remariLable 
dream  ''in  which  Our  Lord  seemed  to  reproach  him 
with  not  having  f ullv  complied  with  the  light  he  had 
reoeived."  Moved  by  this,  he  wrote  to  a  Catholic 
priest,  the  Rev.  Thomas  Macdonnell,  asking  him  to 
meet  him  at  Loughborough  and  receive  him  into  the 
Catholic  Church.  Mr.  Macdonnell  met  him  and  was 
surprised  to  find  him  so  thoroughly  instructed  in 
Catnolio  doctrine,  and  after  a  few  days  he  considered 
him  sufficiently  prepared  to  be  received  into  the 
Church.  Ambrose  informed  both  his  father  and  his 
schoohnaster,  with  the  result  that  he  was  immediately 
removed  from  Mr.  Hodson's  school,  at  that  gentle- 
man's desire,  and  returned  home  with  his  father,  ^o 
arranged  for  him  to  continue  his  preparation  for  the 
university  under  the  private  tuition  of  the  Rev.  Wil- 
liam Wilkinson.  He  was  obliged  every  Sunday  to  at- 
tend the  Protestant  church,  but  did  not  join  in  the 
service.  His  own  account  of  his  oonveision  wfll  be 
found  in  Appendix  I,  in  the^first  chapter  of  his  biog- 
raphy below. 

Ambrose  Phillipps  went  into  residence  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  16  October,  1826.  He  found  at 
the  university  a  congenial  friend  in  Kenelm  Digbv 
(q.  v.),  author  of  "Mores  Catholici" and  "The  Broad, 
stone  of  Honour",  and,  like  himself,  a  recent  convert 
There  was  no  Catholic  chapel  then  at  Cambridge,  and 
every  Sunday  for  two  years  these  two  young  Catho- 
lics used  to  ride  over,  fasting,  to  St.  Edmimd's  Colleg^ 
Old  Hall,  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles,  for  Mass  and 
Communion.  It  was  on  one  of  these  visits  to  St.  Ed- 
mund's, in  April,  1828,  that  Phillipps  was  seised  with 
a  serious  illness,  having  broken  a  btood- vessel  on  the 


DS  LI8LS 


DS  uaiii 


lungs.    The  doctors  recommended  his  father  to  take 
him  to  Italy  for  the  winter,  and  this  necefisarily  cut 
short  his  Cambridge  career,  so  that  he  had  to  leave 
the  UBiveroity  without  taking  his  degree.    On  his  re^ 
turn  to  England  in  1829,  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  Hon.  and  Rev.  George  Spencer,  then  an  Anglican 
clergyman,  and  his  conveieation  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  leading  to  Spencer's  conversion,  as  the  lat- 
ter ftdmits  in  his  ''Account  of  my  Conversion '^ — ''I 
passed  many  hours  daily  in  conversation  with  Phil- 
lipps  and  was  satisfied  beyond  all  expectations  with 
the  answers  he  gave  me  to  the  different  questions  I 
proposed  about  the  principal  tenets  and  practices  of 
Catholics."    The  following  winter   (1530-1831)   he 
again  spent  in  Italy,  on  which  occasion  he  met  Ros- 
mini,  wno  made  a  great  impression  on  him. 
«  On  25  July,  1833,  Ambrose  Phillipps  married  Laura 
Mary,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Hon.  Thomas  Clifford, 
son  of  Hug^,  fourth  Lord  Clifford  of  Chadleigh.    The 
marria^  proved  a  most  happy  union,  and  on  this  oc- 
casion Mr.  Charles  March  Phulipps  gave  his  aon  pos- 
session of  the  second  family  estate,  the  manor  of 
Graoe-Dieu  in  Leicestershirei  which  before  the  Ref- 
ormation had  been  a  prior^r  of  Augustinian  nuns. 
Here  Ambrose  Phillipps  built  a  new  manor-house 
dnrin^  the  years  1833-^,  and  in  the  mean  time  he 
and  his  wife  resided  at  Leamington,  or  at  Garendon 
Park.    Marriage  made  no  difference  to  the  ardour 
with  which  he  devoted  himself  to  the  interests  of  the 
Church  and  the  spread  of  Catholicism,  and  this  at  a 
time  when  the  great  influences  of  later  days  had  not 
made  themselves  felt.    Writing  a  few  years  before  his 
death  (Letter  to  the  Rev.  W.  R.  Brownlow,  10  Dec., 
1869,  Life,  I,  349)  he  thus  sununed  up  the  chief  aims 
of  his  own  life:    ''There  were  three  great  objects  to 
which  I  felt  after  my  own  conversion  as  a  boy  of  fif- 
teen specially  drawn  by  internal  feeling  for  the  whole 
space  of  forty-five  yeara  which  have  since  elajssed. 
The  first  was  to  restore  to  England  the  primitive 
monastic  contemplative  observance,  which  God  en- 
abled me  to  do  in  the  foundation  of  the  Trappist  mon- 
astery of  Mount  St.  Bernard.    The  second  was  the 
restoration  of  the  primitive  ecclesiastical  chant,  my 
edition  of  which  is  now  recommended  by  the  Arch- 
Dii^op  of  Westmicster  for  the  use  of  churches  and 
chapos.    The  third  was  the  restoration  of  the  Angli- 
can Church  to  Catholic  Unity."    In  the  foundation  of 
the  Cistercian  Abbey  he  received  generous  support 
from  his  friend  John,  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  but  it  was 
he  himself  who  conceived  the  idea,  believing  it  neces- 
sary that  the  ascetic  aspect  of  Catholic  life  should  be 
presented  to  the  English  people.    He  gave  both  land 
and  money,  even  crippling  his  own  resources  in  pro- 
viding the  necessary  buildmgs.    This  work  was  b^;un 
in  1835  and  completed  in  1844,  while,  dining  the  same 
period,  he  founded  missions  at  Graoe-Dieu  and  Whit* 
wick.    His  disappointment  was  great  when  he  found 
that  the  Trappists  were  prevented  by  their  rule  from 
undertaking  active  missionary  work,  because  he  at- 
tached the  greatest  importance  to  a  supply  of  zealous 
missionaiy  priests  who  would  labour  in  English  vil- 
lages.   ''I  would  have  them  go  about  aim  preach 
everywhere  on  the  foreign  plan,  in  the  fields  or  in  the 
high  roads  even"  (Letter  to  Lord  Shrewsbuiy,  1839; 
iSe,  1, 105). 

Besides  the  material  assistance  thus  given  to  the 
spread  of  Catholicism,  he  devoted  himsdf  with  per- 
sistent energy  and  faith  to  spiritual  means  in  which 
he  believed  even  more  strongly.  In  1838  he  joined 
his  friend  Rev.  George  Spencer  in  establishing  and 
propagating  the  Association  of  Universal  Praver  for 
the  Conversion  of  En^and.  This  remarkable  cru- 
sade, the  results  of  which  cannot  be  estimated,  met 
with  deserved  success  due  to  the  untiring  efforts 
which  Spencer  and  Phillipps  put  forth.  The  sanguine 
hopes  wiiich  both  entertained  of  a  speedy,  if  not  im- 
mmliate.  return  of  England  to  the  Catholic  Faith  lent 


force  to  the  vehemence  with  which  they  unged  their 
point,  and  accounts  for  the  co-operation  they  every- 
where met  with.  In  a  continental  tour  they  made 
together,  accompanied  by  Mrs.  Phillipps  and  two  of 
her  children,  in  1844.  they  passed  through  Belgium, 
Germany,  and  North  Italy,  meeting  many  olstin- 
guished  Catholics  and  everywhere  enlisting  the  sym- 
pathy of  prelates  and  dei^  in  the  cause.  Wiseman 
was  bo-operating  in  Rome,  and  soon  the  movement 
spread  widely  through  the  Catholic  world.  In  diis 
work  Mr.  Phillipps  laboured  without  ceasing;  by 
interviews  and  by  letters  he  aroused  the  interest  and 
awakened  the  enthusiasm  of  others,  so  that  he  became 
the  lay  aposlie  of  prayer  for  the  conversion  of  Eng- 
land It  is  natural  to  see  the  first-fruits  of  this 
prayer  in  the  numerous  conversions  that  resulted 
from  the  Oxford  Movement,  and  in  that  movement 
Mr.  Phillipps  played  a  unique  part.  He  was  for  some 
time  the  only  Catholic  who  was  in  confidential  corre- 

Sondence  with  the  leaders  of  the  party  at  Oxford, 
is  ideal  of  the  conversion  of  Englana  had  always 
been  corporate  reunion;  the  reconciliation  of  the 
Anglican  Church  as  a  body,  rather  than  individual 
conversions  however  numerous;  and  in  the  Oxford 
Movement  his  sanguine  spirit  saw  the  beginning  of 
this  process.  Accordingly,  he  set  himself  to  remove 
obstacles  on  both  sides  and  to  act  as  a  mediator,  the 
more  useful  as  he  was  unofficial.  This  he  looked  upon 
as  his  vocation,  as  his  son  has  stated  (Life  and  Letters, 
I,  254,  note) :  "  National  Conversion  by  means  of  Cor- 
porate Reimion  he  likened  unto  the  Apostolic  practice 
of  fishing  with  a  net  'gathering  in  multitudes  of  all 
kinds  of  fishes.'  And  this  he  considered  to  be  his 
own  special  call  from  on  Hi^,  to  prepare  the  way  and 
hasten  the  time  when  the  Divine  Word  should  again 
be  spoken  to  Peter,  'Cast your  nets  into  the  deep'." 
With  this  end  in  view  Mr.  Phillipps  did  much  to 
obviate  nusunderstandiogs  by  promoting  at  Oxford 
fuller  knowledge  of  Catholic  life.  This  he  did  by 
personal  intercourse  and  correspondence  with  New- 
man and  others,  and  by  reoeivine  several  Oxford  men 
as  his  guests  at  Grace-Dieu.  His  efforts  were  re- 
warded by  the  numerous  conversions  that  took  place 
and  the  impetus  given  to  the  Catholic  cause. 

The  restoration  of  the  hierarchy  in  1850  was  an 
event  after  his  own  heart,  and  he  exerted  himself  to 
reconcile  to  it  some  of  the  Catholic  laymen  who 
thou^t  it  inexpedient.  Durine  the  excitement  that 
^osu^  throughout  the  country  ne  wrote  two  pamph- 
lets which  met  with  much  success:  "  A  Letter  to  Lord 
Shrewsbury  on  the  Re-establishmeat  of  the  Hierarchy 
and  the  Rnesent  Position  of  Catholic  Affairs",  and 
''A  few  words  on  Lord  John  Russell's  Letter  to  the 
Bishop  of  Durham".  The  progress  of  events  raised 
his  hopes  so  high  that  he  r^arded  the  reconcfliation 
of  the  An^ican  Church  to  the  Holy  See  as  imminent, 
and  to  hasten  its  fulfilment  entered  on  a  new  crusade 
of  prayer,  in  which  the  co-operation  of  non-Catholics 
was  desired.  ''The  Association  for  promoting  the 
Unity  of  Christendom",  known  as  A.  P.  U.  C,  was 
founded  on  8  September,  1857,  by  fourteen  persons 
including  Father  Lockhart,  Fr.  Collins,  O.  Cist.,  and 
Mr.  de  Lisle;  the  rest  were  Anjdicans,  with  one  excep- 
tion, a  Russo-Greek  priest.  The  only  obli^tion  in- 
cumbent on  members,  who  might  be  either  Catholics, 
Anglicans,  or  Greeks,  was  to  pray  to  God  for  the  unity 
of  the  baptized  body.  At  first  the  association  pro- 
gressed rapidly.  Mr.  de  Lisle  writing  to  Lord  John 
Manners  (Life,  1, 415)  said:  **  We  soon  counted  among 
our  ranks  many  Catholic  Bishops  and  Archbishops 
and  Dignitaries  of  all  descriptions  from  Cardinals 
downwfurds;  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and 
otherereat  Eastern  prelates,  the  Primate  of  the  Rus- 
sian Church. ...  I  do  not  think  any  Anglican  Bishops 
joined  us,  but  a  large  number  of  clergy  of  the  second 
order".  Hegave  the  number  of  members  as  nihe 
thousand.    Tne  formation  of  this  association  was, 


DXLI8LE 


700 


DS  L'O&ME 


bowever,  regarded  with  distrust  by  Dr.  Manning 
(afterwards  Cardinal  and  Archbishop  of  Westminster) 
and  other  Catholics,  who  also  took  exception  to  Mr. 
de  Lisle's  treatise  "On  the  Future  Unity  of  Christen- 
dom". The  matter  was  referred  to  Rome  and  was 
finally  settled  by  &  papal  rescript  addressed  "Ad 
omnes  episcopos  Aimisd*',  dated  16  September,  1864, 
which  condenmed  the  association  and  directed  the 
bishops  to  take  steps  to  prevent  Catholics  from  join- 
ing it.  This  was  a  great  blow  to  Mr.  de  Lisle,  who 
considered  that  "the  authorities  had  been  deceived 
by  a  false  relation  of  facts"  (Letter  to  Editor  of 
Union  Review,  20  Dec.,  1864;  Life,  I,  400).  He- how- 
ever withdrew  his  name  from  the  A.  P.  U.  C.  "under 
protest,  as  an  act  of  submission  to  the  Holy  See". 
The  ground  on  which  the  association  was  condemned 
was  that  it  subverted  the  Divine  constitution  of  the 
Church,  inasmuch  as  its  aim  rested  on  the  supposition 
that  the  true  Church  consists  partly  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  communion  with  Rome,  "partly  also  of 
the  Fhotian  Schism  and  the  Anglican  heresy,  to  which 
equaUy  with  the  Roman  Church  belong  the  one  Lord, 
the  one  faith  and  one  baptism"  (Rescript,  in  Life,  I, 
388).  Mr.  de  Lisle's  own  pamphlet  was  not  censured, 
but  the  condemnation  of  the  A.  P.  U.  C.  was  regarded 
by  him  as  the  death-blow  of  his  hopes  for  the  reunion 
of  Christendom  during  his  own  lifetime.  But  his  own 
belief  in  it  persevered  and  influenced  his  views  in  other 
Catholic  anairs.  Thus  he  warmly  supported  the  at- 
tendance of  Catholics  at  the  English  universities,  and 
he  even  approved  of  the  abortive  project  of  a  Uniat 
Enj^ish  Church. 

Ine  rest  of  his  life  passed  without  anv  v«y  special 
incident^  thou^  he  continued  ever  to  tsJce  an  interest 
in  public  afifairs  as  affecting  the  fortunes  of  the 
Church,  and  in  the  same  connexion  he  carried  on 
intimate  and  cordial  correspondence  with  men  so 
different  as  Newman,  Gladstone,  and  Montalembert. 
He  counted  amonff  his  friends  John,  Eaii  of  Shrews- 
bury, Cardinal  Wiseman,  Pugin,  Faber,  and  many 
other  well-known  Catholics,  and  though  he  differed 
on  many  points  from  Cardinal  Manning  and  Dr.  W. 
G.  Ward  ne  remained  on  friendly  terms  with  both. 
He  died  a  holy  death  at  Garendon,  leaving  his  saintly 
wife  and  eleven  of  his  sixteen  children  surviving  him. 
Besides  the  pamphlets  mentioned  above  he  wrote  a 
remarkable  work,  "Mahometanism  in  its  relation  to 
Prophecy  •  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  prophecies  concern- 
ing Anti-Christ,  with  some  reference  to  their  bearii^ 
on  the  events  of  the  present  day  "  (1855).  He  also 
translated  Father  Dominic's  "Lamentations  of  Eng- 
land" (lasi);  Manzoni's  "Vindication  of  Catholic 
Morality"  (1836);  Montalembert's  "St.  Elizabeth  of 
Hungary"  (1839);  Rio's  "La  petite  Chouannerie" 
(1842) ;  "  Maxims  and  Examples  of  the  Saints  "  (1844) ; 
and  he  compiled:  "Manual  of  Devotion  for  the  Con- 
fraternity of  the  Living  Rosary"  (1843);  "Catho- 
lic Christian's  Complete  Manual"  (1847);  "The 
Little  Gradual"  (1847);  "Thesaurus  anim®  Chris- 
tiana"  (1847);  "Sequentiie  de  Festis  per  Annum" 
(1862).  He  also  wrote  many  articles  for  the  press, 
of  which  many  were  issued  in  pamphlet  form,  but 
a  complete  bibliography  has  not  hitherto  been  com- 
pfled. 

Pdrcbll,  Life  and  Letters  of  Ambroae  PhiUippB  de  Liele, 
edited  and  finished  by  Edwin  i>b  Lisub  (2  voIb.,  London,  1900); 
Anon.,  7W  Sermons  Preached  on  the  Death  of  Ambrose  LisU 
March  PhiUipps  de  LisU,  Esq.,  preceded  by  a  short  sketch  of  his 
We  (privately  printed.  1878);  Anon.,  Life  of  Blessed  Paul  of  the 
Cross  (London,  1853).  oontaining  some  letters;  Life  of  Fr. 
Ignatius  of  St.  Paul  (DubUn,  ISeS);  Gxllow.  BiW.  Diet.  Eng. 
Cath.,  II,  38  (London,  1885);  Ck>OPEB  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  XIV 
(London,  1888);  Wabd,  Life  of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  II.  479  (Lon- 
don.  1897);  Cbuixbbanx,  Ijaura  de  Lisle,  her  Life  and  Chameter 
(1897). 

Edwin  Burton. 

PeUsle,  GuiLLAUME,  reformer  of  cartography, 
bom  28  February;  1675,  in  Paris;  died  there  25  Janu- 
ary, 1726.    His  father,  Claude  Delisle  (1644-1720), 


having  completed  his  biw  studies,  settled  in  Paris  as 
private  teacner  in  geography  and  history,  and  after- 
wards filled  the  office  of  royal  censor.  He  was  also  a 
cartographer,  and  in  1696  drew  up  a  map  in  manu- 
script and  also  took  part  in  his  son's  first  woiio, 
'"The  Map  of  the  Worid"  and  "The  Map  of  the 
Continents ' ',  both  pubii^ed  in  1700.  These  and  tbe 
terrestrial  maps  produced  subsequently,  which  sur- 
passed all  similar  publications,  established  the  son's 
fame.  In  1702  he  became  dhx,  in  1716  adjoiiUt 
and  in  1718  aasfKii  of  the  Aoaddmie  des  Sciences; 
and,  as  the  young  kinjB;'8  instructor  in  geography, 
received  the  title  of  First  Royal  Geogra^icT  with  a 
fixed  salary,  an  office  which  was  then  created  for  the 
first  time. 

Guillaume  Delisle  adopted  entirely  new  principles 
in  cartography  and  set  SLOOut  making  a  thorouj^  i^^ 
form  in  that  subject.  The  mi^publishers  of  the  time 
did  not  know  how  to  utilize  the  material  supplied 
mainly  by  the  Frendi  astronomers  of  the  latter  half  of 
the  seventeenth  oentuiy,  and  Delisle  recognised  Uist 
the  new  methods  of  measuring  by  scale  and  of  markixi£ 
the  places  were  very  valuable  for  cartography;  wit£ 
this  help  he  thereforeproduced  a  new  and  perfect  pic- 
ture of  the  world.  When  his  astronomical  informa- 
tion fell  short  he  carefully  examined  axui  sifted  all  the 
books  of  travel  and  all  the  maps  he  could  find,  and  the 
products  of  this  readins  were  dovetailed  neaUv  into 
the  facts  which  he  had  already  at  hand.  According  to 
a  fixed  method  he  worked  up  the  several  continents 
and  countries  one  by  one.  France  in  particular.  In 
diluted  points  he  named  his  source  on  the  map  or 
wrote  adoitional  notes,  the  majority  of  which  weie 
published  in  the  writings  of  the  Acaademy.  Oat  par- 
ticular reconunendation  of  his  charts  is  that  he  em- 
ployed a  fixed  scale  of  messurement  for  r^ons  closely 
connected  with  one  another.  No  less  famous  than 
his  astronomical  corrections  are  the  completeness  of 
his  topography  and  the  care  displayed  in  tiie  oiihog- 
raphy  of  the  names. 

Aa  aocorate  munmaiy  of  his  charta  and  treatiaflB  with  Um 
his^est  commendation  la  given  by  Ohbistiak  Sardlbb,  Die 
Reformation  der  Kartograpkie  urn  1700  (Munich,  190S). 

Otto  HAsno. 

De  L'Onne,  Phiubert,  celebrated  ardiitect  of  the 
French  Renaissance,  b.  at  Lyons,  o.  1515  or  a  little  later; 
d.  at  Paris,  8  January.  1570.  Of  the  exact  date  of  his 
birth  there  exists  no  documentary  evidence.  He  was 
the  son  of  Jehan  de  L'Onne,  a  master  builder  of 
Lyons,  from  whom  he  received  his  trsining.  At  an 
age  when  he  speaks  of  himself  as  beins  ^'of  great 
youth"  Philibert  was  at  Rome,  where  his  curiously 
careful  and  scientific  study  of  classic  antiquities  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  the  learned  GardinsJ  of  Santa 
Croce,  then  a  bishop,  later  Pope  Marcellus  II,  through 
whose  influence  he  was  employed  by  ]^ul  III.  From 
this  service  he  was  recalled  to  Lyons  two  years  later, 
in  1536,  by  Guillaume  du  Bdlay  and  ms  brother. 
Cardinal  Jean  du  Bellay.  Socm  after  his  return  de 
L'Orme  was  made  military  controller,  an  office  he 
held  until  1545,  when  he  was  named  by  the  king 
''  master  architect  and  general  conductor  of  buildino, 
works  and  fortifications."  In  this  capacttv  he 
ingeniously  averted  a  threatened  attacx  (H  the 
English  upon  the  dismantled  ch&teau  of  Brest  by 
means  of  mock  cannon  and  an  improvised  soldiery. 
At  various  subsequent  periods,  he  was  endowed  by 
royal  favour  with  the  title  of  counsellor  and  almoner 
ordinarv  of  the  kins,  and  was  made  Abb6  of  G^veton, 
of  Barth^lemy,  of  Saint-£loy4es-Noyon,  besides  re- 
ceiving other  such  sinecures;  he  was  also  appointed 
a  canon  of  Notre-Dame  at  Paris.  Ihou^  it  was  the 
usage  of  the  time  for  the  king  to  bestow  upon  laymen 
the  title  and  benefices  of  an  abb^  as  rewara  or  salary, 
it  has  been  conjectiured  from  the  double  title  of  king'« 
almoner  and  canon  of  Notre-Dame,  that  de  L'Orme 
had  received  minor  orders.    Between  the  yean  IMl 


701 


DKLTA 


and  1560,  during  which  he  held  the  position  of  roysil 
architect  under  Francis  I  and  Henry  II,  de  L'Onne 
altered,  enlarged,  and  restored  numerous  chAteaux^ 
notably  those  of  Villers-Gotterets,  Saint-Qermain-en- 
lAye,  Fontainebleau,  and  Vinoennes.  His  first  in- 
dividual achievement  of  importance,  however,  was 
the  chAtMiu  of  Saint-Maur-les-Fosste,  originally  de- 
signed for  Cardinal  du  Bellay.  Bishop  of  Paris,  but 
afterwards  taken  over  by  Gatnerine  de'  Medici.  Of 
this  notable  work  almost  nothing  remains.  In  1552 
the  chAteau  d'Anet,  regarded  as  the  best  example  of 
de  Li'Orme's  genius,  was  begun  for  Diana  of  Poitiers, 
niistrefis  of  Henry  II.  Benvenuto  Cellini's  famous 
bronse  Diana,  now  in  the  Louvre,  was  executed  for 
this  buHding  and  other  eminent  artists  assisted  in  its 
decoration. 

The  death  of  Henry  II  (1559)  marked  the  turnings 
point  of  de  L'Orme's  prosperity.  His  large  revenues, 
as  well  as  his  rugged  mdependence  had  made  for  him 
envious  and  contentious  enemies,  not  the  least  formid- 
able of  whom  was  the  poet  Konsard.  During  the 
period  of  unpopularity  which  succeeded  he  issued,  in 
1561,  the  work  "Nouvelles  inventions  pour  bien 
bastir  et  a  petite  frais"  (How  to  Build  WtAi  and  at 
Small  Expense).  This  was  subseouently  a  part  of  his 
notable  treatise  on  architecture  which  contains  much 
lively  autobiography;  the  first  volume  of  this  work 
ai>peared  at  Paris  in  1567  imder  the  title:  "Le  pre- 
mier tome  de  I'architecture  de  Philibert  de  L'Onne". 
In  1564  he  laid  the  foundations  of  the  historic  chAteau 
'  of  the  Tuileries  for  Catherine  de'  Medici.  The  initial 
part  of  the  structure,  however,  suffered  a  complete 
chance  under  other  hands.  The  Tuileries  was  the 
last  important  undertaking  of  the  architect,  who  was 
buried  with  the  honours  of  a  canon  of  Notro-Dame. 
The  claim  has  been  made  by  some  biographen  tiiat  de 
L'Onne  designed  for  Saint-Denis  the  Valois  Chapel, 
now  destroyed;  there  is  much  doubt  as  to  his  exact 
share  in  various  other  works  with  which  he  is  known 
to  have  been  associated.  The  only  ^reat  work  of  de 
L'Orme  now  actually  remaining  is  the  tomb  of 
Fkvmcis  I  in  Saint-Denis  at  Paris. 

Dnjcs,  Renaisaanee  of  Art  in  France  (London,  1879);  Bextt, 
Lea  grand*  artAttectet  iraneaig  de  la  Renaiammee  (Pane,  1800); 
Paosbbon.  PAtiA«r(  de  VOrme  in  B^yagravhie  dee  arUatee 
iyonnaie  (Lyons,  1835);  Callbt,  Noiiee  hietorique  aur  ta  vie  . 
artiatUrue  et  lee  ouvmgea  de  quetquee  architectee  francaie  du  XVie 
uitde  (PariB,  1842);  Dbbtaillbuh,  Nolioe  eur  qudquea  ofHeieK 
franffoie  (Paria,  1863):  Du  Cbbckau,  Lee  ]due  exeeUmU  haeti- 
mente  de  France  (Pana.  1870);  Vachon,  FhUibert  de  UOrme 
fai  Lee  artietea  ciUbrea  (Paris,  1887);  Roubsbl,  Le  chateau  de 
Diana  de  PoiUara  h  And  (Pazis,  1883):  Charvbt,  Pkitiberi  de 
UOrme  ik  Sami-Denia  in  Biotpraphiea  (farchiteclea. 

Charles  D.  Maginnis. 

lMlfhhk%  BLB88BD,  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Fran- 
ds,  b.  m  Provence,  France,  in  1284;  d.  26  November. 
1368.  Left  an  orphan  in  her  infancy,  she  was  plaoed 
under  the  guardiuiship  of  her  uncles,  and  under  the 
direction  of  hei*  aunt,  the  Abbess  of  St.  Catherine  of 
Sorbo.  She  grew  up  in  the  practice  of  every  virtue, 
and  took  a  vow  of  virginity  which  she  kept  faithfully 
to  the  end  of  her  life.  In  her  twentieth  vear  she  was 
married  to  Els^ar,  Count  of  Sarban,  and  the  couple, 
having  received  the  habit  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  hved  together  in  the  edifvinff  practice  of 
prayer,  penance,  and  charity  towards  me  poor  until 
the  death  of  St.  Elz^ar  in  1323.  After  the  death  of 
her  husband.  Blessed  Delphine  sold  all  her  vast  posses- 
sions for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  and  retired  first  to 
Naples  and  then  to  Cabri^res.  She  finally  returned 
to  Ai>t  where  her  husband  had  been  buried.  During 
the  lut  yean  of  her  life  she  endured  ihe  greatest 
sufferings  without  the  slightest  complaint  or  sign  of 
impatience.  The  cult  that  had  long  been  paid  to 
Blened  IMk>hine  was  oonfhmed  by  Pope  UHban  V, 
godson  of  St.  Els^ar.  Her  feast  is  kept  in  the  Fran- 
ciscan Order  on  the  twenty-seventh  or  November. 

WaDDOia.  Ammatea  Umonm  (Bonie*  1782),  VI*  248,  266. 


337.Vin,U7:  Jm>.  LSvea  of  ike  Sainla  and  BUaaed  9f  the  Thrm 
Ordare  of  St,  Fnmcia  (Taunton.  1887),  IV.  112.  122. 

Stephen  M.  Donovak. 

Delrio,  Martin  Anton,  scholar,  statesman,  Jesuit 
theologian,  b.  at  Antwerp,  17  May*,  1661 ;  d.  at  Lou- 
vain,  19  October,  1608.  He  studied  at  Paris,  Douai, 
Louvain,  and  Salamanca  where  he  received  the  decree 
of  Doctor  of  Law  in  1574.  Returning  to  the  Low 
Countries  with  the  reputation  of  being  'Hhe  miracle  of 
his  a^")  a  title  given  him  by  Justus  Lipsius,  he  held 
the  omces  of  senator,  auditor  of  the  army,  vicenchan- 
cellor,  aild  procurator  general.  In  1 580  he  entered  tJie 
Society  of  Jesus,  made  nis  novitiate  at  Valladolid,  and 
returned  to  Louvain  for  further  studies.  He  after- 
wards held  the  chairs  of  |)hilo60phy,  moral  theology, 
and  Scripture  at  the  Universities  of  Douai,  Li^ge, 
Louvain,  Graz,  and  Salamanca.  He  i>06sessed  a 
speaking-knowledge  of  at  least  nine  langua£;es,  wrote 
in  a  pure  though  somewhat  diffuse  style,  ancTwafl  care- 
ful to  the  extreme  in  the  preparation  of  his  books,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  his  second  work,  pub- 
lished at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  contains  citations 
from  nearly  eleven  hundred  authors.  His  principal 
works  comprise:  Commentaries  on  Claudius,  Eimius, 
Florus,  ana  Seneca;  on  the  ancient  geographer  and 
historian,  C.  J.  Silvius  Polyhistor:  no&  on  tne  Chris- 
tian poets,  St.  Orientius  and  St.  Aldhelm ;  an  exhaus- 
tive treatise  on  civil  law;  a  "Historia  Belgica*',  on 
the  contemporaiy  disorders  in  the  Low  (>)untries; 
some  controversial  pamphlets  written  aeainst  Joseph 
Scaliger;  commentaries  on  Cenesis,  on  tne  Canticle  of 
Canticles,  and  on  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremias;  an 
explanation  of  various  proverbial  expressions  in  the 
Old  Testament  called  ''Adagialia  sacra  Veteris  Teslr- 
amenti";  pane^rics  and  other  worics  on  the  virtues 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  and  a  treatise  on  mamc,  called 
"Disquisitionum  majg^carum  libri  sex".  This  last 
work,  the  one  by  which  Delrio  is  best  known,  was 
much  praised  in  its  day  and  went  through  many  edi- 
tions, out  can  no  longer  be  accepted  in  f  idl. 

DcLAULNATE  in  Bioo.  tmtp.,  8.  v.;  Hustbs.  NomencUttor,  L 
191;  DUX  in  Kirehenlex.,  III.  1408;  SomcBBvOGBL,  BibL  de  la 
c  de.  /.,  8.  v.;  8oiafBBvoaBi«in  Via.,  DicL  de  la  BMe^  a.  v. 

J.  H.  Fisher. 

Delta  of  the  Kile,  Prefecture  Apoarrouc  of  the, 
is  situated  in  the  north  of  Egypt  and  comprises  four 
of  the  six  provinces  forminflfLower  E^Eprpt,  namely: 
Gharbieh,  Charkieh,  Menufien,  and  Kalyiubieh.  Prior 
to  the  establishment  of  the  prefecture,  the  four 
provinces  contained  1000  Catnolics  belonging  to 
different  rites.  The  prefecture  was  erected  by  P^pa- 
sanda,  17  March,  1887.  In  1888  the  Rev.  Augustin 
Duret  of  the  Lyons  Society  for  African  Missions  was 
appointed  first  prefect  Apostdic  and  the  prefecture 
confided  to  the  care  of  this  society.  It  had  at  first 
only  two  missionary  posts,  one  at  Tantah  and  the 
other  at  Zagazig,  but  a  new  post  was  founded  at 
Zifteh  in  1887  and  another  at  Mahallanel-Kebir  in 
1891.  About  this  time  the  city  of  Cairo,  which  had 
already  outgrown  its  former  limits,  developed  con- 
siderably on  the  north,  and  populous  quarters  grew  up 
within  the  Prefecture  of  the  Delta.  For  the  conve- 
nience of  resident  Catholics  a  Latin  parish  was  formed 
in  the  Choubra  quarter  in  1894  and  given  to  the 
Fathers  of  the  Society  for  African  Missions;  in  1896 
another  Latin  parish  under  the  same  direction  was 
established  at  Zeltoun  for  the  outlying  districts  of 
Koubbeh,  Zeltoun,  and  Matarieh. 

Statistics. — ^The  last  official  census  (1897)  gave  for 
the  four  provinces  of  the  Delta  a  total  population  of 
3,282,457;  73,365beingschLBmatic8of  different  rites; 
3091  Catholics  of  various  rites:  and  241  Protestants. 
These  figures  do  not  distinguish  the  [wpulation  of  the 
quarters  or  outskirts  from  that  of  Cairo;  on  the  basis 
of  other  returns,  the  total  population  of  the  prefecture 
may  be  estimated  at  about  3.500.000;  100,000  of  this 


I»LU€UB 


702 


number  being  schismatics  and  15,000  Catholios  of 
various  rites;  over  5000,  perhaps,  belonging  to  the 
Latin  Rite.  Clergy  and  Religious. — Priests  of  the 
African  Missions,  49;  Jesuits,  47;  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools,  17;  Petite  Fr^res  de  Marie,  8; 
Sisters  of  Notre-Dame  des  Ap^tres,  92;  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  of  Angers,  77;  Ladies  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  34;  Religious  of  Marie  Riparatrice,  14;  Filles 
de  la  Charity,  14;  Filles  de  Notre-Dame  des  Douleurs, 
9;  Pieuses  Mdres  de  la  Nigritie,  16.  Parishes. — ^There 
are  4  Latin  parishes:  at  Choubra  (Cairo  quarter), 
Ze'itoun  (suburb  of  Cairo),  Tantah,  and  Zagazk;  2 
succursal  parishes  (mission  churches) :  at  ManallL-el- 
Kebir,  and  Zifteh.  Educational  InstHutions. — 1 
Jesuit  college  with  450  pupils;  3  schools  conducted 
by  the  Priests  of  the  African  Missions;  at  Tantah 
(231),.Zeitoun  (75),  and  Zifteh  (50);  2  Christian 
Brothers'  schools  at  Choubra  (250),  and  Zagazig 
(50);  the  Sisters  of  Notre-Dame  des  Ap6tres 
have  6  institutions:  at  Tantah  (249),  Zagazig  (150), 
Zeitoun  (110),  Zifteh  (100),  Mahalla  (80),  and 
Matarieh  (38);  1  boarding-school  conducted  by 
the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (60);  and  1  institution 
of  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  of  Angers  (220), 
making  a  total  of  2113  pupils.  CharitaUe  Institti^ 
tione.S  hospitals:  1  conducted  by  the  Filles  de  la 
Charity,  and  2  by  the  Pieuses  M^res  de  la  Nigritie 
(150  to  200  sick);  2  orphanages:  1  for  boys,  con- 
ducted by  the  Filles  de  la  Charity  (60  orphans),  and  1 
for  girls  by  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  of  Angers 
(78  orphans) ;  5  dispensaries  in  charge  of  the  Sisters 
of  Notre-Dame  des  Ap6tres,  where  several  hundreds 
of  sick  daily  receive  gratuitous  treatment ;  1  home  for 
the  aged  conducted  by  the  Filles  de  Notre-Dame  des 
Douleurs  where  from  50  to  60  inmates,  both  men  and 
women,  are  cared  for  gratuitously ;  1  house  of  refuge 
in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  of  An- 
gers. 

The  Prefecture  of  the  Delta  owes  its  development 
chiefly  to  the  prodij^ous  ^wth  of  the  city  of  Cairo 
which,  in  extending  its  limits,  had  to  stretch  out  upon 
prefectorial  territory.  Here,  as  in  all  cosmopolitan 
and  growing  centres,  the  missionaries  have  found  their 
chief  obstacle  in  religious  indifference. 

Qenrchia  CaUolifa  (Rome,  1908);  Miaaumea  CathaliaB 
(Rome,  1907),  352-64:  La.nic,  Modem  Boj/ptians  (London, 
1871);    Baki^  Cairo  of  To-day  (London.  1902);    Dicbt,  The 


Egypt  of  the  Future  (London,  1906). 


AUGUSTIN  DURET. 


Deluge,  the  name  of  a  catastrophe  fully  described 
in  Gen.,  vi,  1-ix,  19,  and  referred  to  in  the  following 
passages  of  Sacred  Scripture:  Wisd.,  x,  4;  xiv,  6-7; 
Ecclus.,  xvi,  8,  xliv,  17-19-  Is.,  liv,  9;  Matt.,  xxiv, 
37-39;  Luke,  xvii,  26-27;  Hebr.,  xi,  7;  I  Peter,  iii, 
20-21 ;  II  Peter,  ii,  5.  In  the  present  article  we  shall 
consider:  I.  The  Biblical  Account;  II.  Its  Historicity; 
III.  The  Universality  of  the  Flood;  IV.  Collateral 
.Questions. 

I.  Biblical  Account  of  the  Deluob. — ^The  Book 
of  Genesis  gives  the  following  brief  account  of  the  Del- 
uge: God  sees  the  wickedness  of  men,  and  determines 
to  destrov  them  excepting  Noe  and  his  family  (vi,  1-8). 
He  reveals  his  decree  to  Noe  and  instructs  mm  how  he 
may  save  himself  and  the  seed  of  all  animal  life  br 
means  of  an  ark  to  be  built  according  to  certain  di- 
mensions (vi,  9-22).  Seven  days  before  the  Flood, 
God  commands  the  patriarch  to  enter  the  ark  (vii, 
1-5).  Noe  completes  his  entrance  into  the  ark  on 
the  very  day  on  which  the  Flood  begins;  the  rain 
falls  for  forty  days  and  nights ;  all  Irving  things  outside 
the  ark  are  destroyed;  the  watere  prevail  upon  the 
earth  a  hundred  and  fifty  days  (vii,  6-24).  The 
waters  decrease,  the  earth  dries  up;  Noe  ascertains 
its  condition  by  means  of  a  raven  and  a  dove  sent  out 
from  the  ark  (viii,  1-14).  Noe  obeys  the  Divine  com- 
mand to  leave  the  ark,  builds  an  altar,  oflFera  sacrifice, 


makes  a  covenant  with  God,  and  begins  to  be  a  hu»> 
bandman  (ix,  1-27). 

Simple  aa  this  account  seems  to  be,  the  Biblical 
critics  maintain  that  it  is  a  mosaic  made  up  of  two 
Flood  stories,  differing  in  authon^ij)  and  in  contents. 
They  assign  one  to  the  Yahwistic  writer  usually  ded^ 
nated  by  the  letter  J*  the  other,  to  the  post^zfljc 
priestly  writer  generally  known  aa  P.  According  to 
Kautssch,  the  sections  vi,  1-8;  vii,  1-5,  7-10,  12, 
16b-17,  22-23;  viii,  2b-3a.  6-12,  13b,  20-22;  ix, 
18-27,  belong  to  J,  while  P  claims  vi,  9-22;  vii,  6, 11, 
ia-16a,  18-21;  vii,  24-viii,  2a;  viu^  3b-5, 13a,  14-19; 
ix,  1-17.  This  division  of  the  text  is  baaed  on  the  fol- 
lowing groimds:  (1)  J  uses  the  divine  name  Yahweh, 
P  employs  Elohim;  (2)  J  and  P  narrate  the  same 
series  of  events j  (3)  J  and  P  differ  in  language;  (4)  J 
and  P  disa$^«e  m  their  statements. 

The  composite  character  of  the  Flood  story  does  not 
conflict  with  its  Mosaic  authorship.  The  meet  con- 
servative Bible  student  will  srant  that  Moses  was  not 
an  eye-witness  of  the  Deluge.  Prescinding  from 
Divine  revelation,  he  must  have  derived  his  infcNrma- 
tion  about  the  event  either  from  tradition  or  from 
written  documents.  If  Biblical  criticism  has  suc- 
ceeded in  restoring  the  main  sources  utilised  by  Moses 
in  his  history  of  the  Flood,  it  has  rendered  a  most  si^ 
nal  service  to  exegesis.  Happily  we  are  in  the  posi- 
tion to  be  able  to  control  the  value  of  the  critical 
conclusions  by  means  of  the  Babvlonian  or  Akkadlian 
account  of  the  Deluge.  Without  delaying  over  its  form 
as  contained  in  the  iraemenis  of  Berosus  whidi  are  of. 
comparatively  recent  date,  we  find  that  the  version 
^ven  in  a  cuneiform  inscription  on  tablets  preserved 
m  the  British  Museum,  and  first  deciphered  by  George 
Smith  in  1872,  contains  a  combinatk)n  of  the  P  and  J 
elements  of  the  Flood  story.  This  version  is  said  bv 
experts  to  date  back  at  leaet  to  about  3000  b.  c.  It » 
certain,  therefore,  that  the  so-called  P  and  J  docu> 
ments  reconstructed  by  the  critics  were  combined  long 
before  the  Biblical  text  was  put  in  writing.  This  fact 
is  confinned  by  a  Deluge  story  contains  in  Scheil's 
recently  discovered  fragment,  which  cannot  be  doted 
much  later  than  2 140  b  .  c.  Chritics  can  no  longer  deny 
the  existence  of  a  Flood  tradition  similar  to  tbe  history 
contained  in  the  Book  of  Genesis,  antedating  our 
Biblical  account.  In  order  to  uphold  their  division  of 
the  inspired  text  into  the  so-called  J  and  P  documents, 
they  maintain  that  the  Akkadian  stoiy  was  copied 
partially  in  the  J  and  partially  in  the  r  documents, 
and  that  the  Biblical '' Redactor"  reunited  these  two 
partial  accounts  into  one.  This  series  of  assumptions, 
however,  is  at  best-  an  awkward  attempt  to  explain 
away  a  tact  which  stands  in  the  way  of  their  theory. 
But  we  are -prepared  to  admit  the  critical  diviaiQii  of 
the  Flood  accoimt  in  spite  of  its  disag^reement  with  the 
results  of  recent  discoveries,  if  the  critical  aigume&ts 
are  really  cogent. 

(1)  We  are  told  the  J  uses  the  Divine  name  Yahweh, 
while  P  emplovs  Elohim.  But  the  fbUowmg  ooniBid- 
erations  must  be  kept  in  mind:  First,  we  aie  haitUy 
sufficientl^r  sure  of  the  use  of  the  Divine  names  in  the 
primitive  inspired  text  to  build  a  soUd  aiigument  on 
their  occurrence  in  the  present  text-fiorm.  Secondly, 
in  the  present  text-form  Elohim  occurs  twice  in  the 
Yahwistic  document,  vi,  2,  and  vii,  0.  Thirdly,  six 
passages  in  the  section  vii,  16-viii,  20,  axe  asaig^ied  to 
the  Yahwistic  writer,  though  the  name  Yahwdbi  does 
not  occur  once.  Fourthly,  the  variation  of  the  Divine 
names  in  the  Deluge  story  can  be  explained  satikac- 
torily  without  resorting  to  the  violent  measure  of 
dividing  up  the  text  between  two  distmot  writens. 

(2)  It  is  alleged  that  J  and  P  report  the  aame  events. 
If  we  examine  the  two  documents  as  reeonstmcted 
by  the  critics,  in  the  light  of  this  contention,  we  find 
that  they  are  fragmentaiy  and. that  tiiey  do  not  con- 
tain two  series  of  events.  J  passes  from  God's  deter- 
'minaiion  to  destroy  the  worid  (vi,  1-8)  to  the  Divine 


l>B.DrOE 


703 


OBLtTCn 


oommand  that  Noe  ghould  enter  the  ark  without  telling 
him  where  to  find  or  how  to  procure  an  ark  (vii,  1-6). 
Noe  builds  an  altar  and  offers  burnt  offering^  without 
leaving  the  ark  (viii,  20).  P  does  not  inform  us  of  the 
real  nature  of  the  corruption  of  all  flesh  (vi,  9-12) ;  he 
knows  of  God's  order  to  save  the  animals,  but  knows 
nothing  of  God's  command  concerning  Noe  and  his 
family  (vi,  17-22;  vii,  13);  even  eleven  months  after 
the  beginning  of  the  Flood  and  two  months  after  the 
appearance  of  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  he  knows  of 
no  attempt  on  the  part  of  Noe  to  ascertain  the  condi- 
tion of  the  earth  ( viii,  13  sq.) ;  finally,  he  gives  no  ethical 
motive  for  the  Divine  blessing  bestowed  on  Noe  (i^, 
^f  8<1Q>)>  I'he  critics  are  aware  of  these  gaps  in  the 
two  documents,  and  explain  them  by  supposing  that 
the  "  Redactor  "y  who  had  the  original  Flood  stories 
before  him,  did  not  insert  their  complete  text  into  the 
Biblical  account.  But  if  the ''  Redactor''  omitted  eer- 
tain  parts  of  the  original  documents  in  order  to  avoid 
lepetitions,  why  did  he  not  omit  the  repetitions  dis- 
covered by  the  critics?  Or  are  we  to  assume  that  he 
introduced  certain  repetitions,  while  he  carefuUy 
avoided  others?  Is  it  not  more  likely  that  he  con- 
sidered the  repetitions  alleged  by  the  critics  as  mere 
rhetorical  devices,  as  recapitulary  transitions,  e.  g. 
(vi,  ^12),  or  gradations  (vii,  17-20;  vii,  21-23),  or 
amplifications  (vii,  7,  13-16a)? 

(3)  J  and  P  are  said  to  differ  in  language;  but  the 
critical  division  beine  what  it  is,  it  would  be  strange  if 
the  two  documents  did  not  differ  in  language.  The 
sections  which  contain  chronological,  systematic,  and 
scientific  material  are  attributed  to  P,  the  rest  is 
left  to  J.  Is  it  surprising  that  J  does  not  describe  the 
measurements  of  the  ark,  seeing  that  the  critics  do  not 
g^ve  him  any  ark  to  describe?  Or  is  it  remarkable 
that  P  lacks  the  poetic  style  foimd  in  J's  description  of 
the  raven  and  tne  dove,  seeine  that  no  section  is  as- 
signed to  him,  which  would  aamit  such  a  treatment? 
The  care  with  which  only  set  subjects  and  determined 
expressions  are  assigned  to  J  and  P  respectively  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  fact  that  in  spite  of  their  minute  dis- 
section of  the  Flood  story,  the  critics  must  remove 
part  of  vi,  7:  vii,  3,  7,  17,  22,  23;  ix,  18,  22,  23,  26: 
and  the  whole  of  vii,  8,  9,  from  the  J  document,  and 
part  of  vi,  17;  vii,  6;  ix,  4,  from  the  P  document,  in 
order  not  to  allow*  inconsistencies  in  their  sources. 

(4)  Finally,  J  and  P  are  said  to  disagree  with  regard 
to  the  animals  to  be  taken  into  the  ark,  as  to  the  dura- 
tion of  the  Flood,  and  as  to  God's  behaviour  towards 
man  after  the  Flood.  In  vi,  19,  indeed,  P  records 
God's  command,  ''thou  shalt  bring  two  of  a  sort 
into  the  ark";  but  is  it  inconsistent  with  this,  if  120 
years  later,  when  Noe  is  about  to  enter  the  ark,  J  re- 
lates the  more  accurate  Divine  specification,  "  of  all 
clean  beasts  take  seven  and  seven  . . .  but  of  the  beasts 
that  are  not  clean  two  and  two ' '  (vii,  2, 3)  ?  It  cannot 
be  said  that  the  fulfilment  shows  that  only  two  of 
every  kind  were  taken  into  the  ark ;  both  vii,  9.  and  vii, 
1 5, 16,  read  "  two  and  two . . .  male  and  female '  ,  so  that 
they  express  couples  fit  for  generation  rather  than  any 
absolute  number.  The  discrepancv  as  to  chronology 
between  J  and  P  is  more  artificial  than  true;  there  is 
no  inconsistency  in  the  chronology  of  the  Biblical  ac- 
count of  the  Flood,  so  that  the  discrepancy  between 
the  dociunents,  if  there  be  one,  is  of  cnticaf  manufac- 
ture. Besides,  a  simple  reading  of  the  J  document 
taken  separately  will  show  that  its  chronology  is  not 
satisfactory.  Finally,  if  in  ix,  15,  P  knows  of  a  Divine 
covenant  which  according  to  J  is  the  result  of  the  self- 
deliberation  of  Yahweh  m  consequence  of  the  patri- 
arch's sacrifice  (viii,  21-22),  the  two  documents  are 
rather  supplementary  than  contradictory;  J  supplies 
the  ethicsd  motive  for  God's  action  as  described  by  P. 

II.  Historicity  of  the  Biblical  Deluob  Ac- 
count.— It  has  been  contended  that  the  Flood  story 
of  the  Bible  and  the  Flood  legends  of  other  peoples, 
k)oked  at  from  a  merely  historical  point  of  view, 


stand  on  a  similar  footing,  the  Biblical  account  being 
a  mere  late  Variant  of  one  of  them.  And  on  inquiring 
into  their  origin,  we  find  that  four  theories  have  been 
advanced:  (1)  The  Flood  story  is  a  mere  product 
oi  fancv.  This  theory  contradicts  the  analogy  of 
similar  legends  amon^  all  peoples.  (2)  The  Deluge 
story  is  by  others  considered  as  a  nature-myth,  repre- 
senting the  phenomena  of  winter,  which  in  Babylonia 
especially  is  the  time  of  rain.  This  nature-myth 
asain  is  by  some  writers  believed  to  have  nown  out 
Of  an  archaic  ether-myth,  according  to  which  the  sim 
was  imagined  as  a  man  voyaging  on  a  boat  in  the 
heavenfy^  ocean.  The  fact  that  the  sea  was  to  be 
found  on  the  earth,  not  in  heaven,  and  the  damage 
wrought  by  the  incessant  winter-rain  and  the  inun- 
dation of  great  rivers,  transferred  the  myth  from 
heaven  to  earth,  chatigingthe  ether-myth  into  a  nature- 
myth.  But  this  theory,  too,  neglects  the  numerous 
Ffood  stories  existing  among  many  nations,  which  do 
not  lend  themselves  to  a  similar  explanation.  (3) 
Connected  with  the  preceding  theory  is  the  explana- 
tion which  makes  the  Deluge  story  a  cosmogonic  fable. 
It  has  been  seen  that  the  hero  rescued  i^  the  ship 
must  have  been  the  sun-god  (cf.  the  ether-myth). 
Thus  the  Deluge  becomes  ultimately  a  variant  of  the 
Babylonian  creation-myth.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
the  mytholoncal  text  published  by  Peiser  calls  the 
time  of  the  Deluge  "the  year  of  the  great  serpent". 
For  this  "great  serpent  '  is  the  pjersonified  ocean 
which  on  old  Babylonian  maps  encircles  Babylonia, 
just  as  leviathan  is  the  worid-encircling  ocean  per- 
sonified as  a  serpent:  it  is  the  same  monster  which 
is  a  central  figure  in  tne  Creation  story.  We  need  not 
add  that  this  theory,  too,  leaves  the  great  bulk  of  the 
existing  Flood  tr^tions  tmexplained.  (4)  It  has 
been  iirferred  from  the  improbability  of  the  preceding 
theories,  that  the  Flood  story  must  be  a  poetical  or 
legendary  presentation  of  some  natural  occurrence. 
Furthermore,  it  is  maintained  that  the  immediate 
basis  of  the  legend  is  a  local  disturbance.  It  may 
have  been  a  great  inundation  caused  by  an  overflow 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  or  the  incursion  of  a 
tidal  wave  resulting  from  an  earthquake  south  of  the 
mouth  of  the  two  rivers.  But  however  terrible  the 
ruin  wrought  by  such  inundations  may  be,  this  theory 
does  not  account  for  the  universality  of  the  Flood 
tradition,  unless  we  suppose  that  the  ruin  affected 
the  ancestors  of  all  human  races. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  the  Biblical  Flood 
story  from  a  merely  historical  point  of  view.  But  the 
Bible  student  who  believes  in  the  inspiration  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  and  admits  the  value  of  tradition 
in  their  exegesis  can  hardly  rest  satisfied  with  the 
results  thus  tar  obtained.  It  will  not  even  be  enough 
to  grant  that  the  ancient  Flood  legend  became  the 
vehicle  of  religious  and  spiritual  truth  by  means  of  a 
divinely  guideid  religious  feeling  and  insight  of  the 
inspired  writer.  The  Deluge  is  referred  to  in  several 
passages  of  Scripture  as  a  historical  fact;  the 
writing  of  the  Fathers  consider  the  event  in  the 
same  light,  and  this  view  of  the  subject  is  confirmed 
by  the  numerous  variants  under  which  the  Flood 
tradition  lives  in  the  most  distant  nations  of  the  earth. 

(a)  The  following  are  some  of  the  New  Testament 
passages  which  im^  that  the  Deluge  was  a  real  his- 
torical event :  "  And  as  in  the  days  of  Noe,  so  shall  also 
the  coming  of  the  Son  of  man  be.  For  as  in  the  days 
before  the  flood,  they  were  eating  and  drinking,  mar- 
ryine  and  giving  in  marriage,  even  till  that  day  in 
which  Noe  entered  into  the  ark,  and  they  knew  not 
till  the  flood  came,  and  took  them  aU  away;  so  also 
shall  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  man  be"  (Matt.,  xxiv, 
37-39).  In  these  worcfe  Christ  regards  the  Flood 
with  its  circumstances  as  being  not  less  real  than  the 
last  days  will  be  of  which  He  speaks  in  the  passage. 
The  same  view  concerning  the  Flood,  Christ  implis 
m  Luke,  xvii,  26-27.    In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrewb 


UKUO^A 


704 


DBLUOE 


fc 


(xi,  7)  the  inspired  writer  is  not  less  dear  about  the 
historicity  of  the  Flood:  "By  faith,  Noe  having  re- 
ceived an  answer  concerning  those  things  whim  as 
yet  were  not  seen,  moved  with  fear,  framed  the  ark 
or  the  saving  of  his  house,  by  the  which  he  condeomed 
the  world ;  and  was  instituted  heir  of  the  justice  which 
is  by  faith."  St.  Peter  (I  Peter,  iii,  20)  too  refers  to 
the  ark  and  the  Flood  as  historical  facts:  "When 
they  waited  for  the  patience  of  God  in  the  days 
of  Noe,  when  the  ark  was  a  building:  wherein  a  few, 
that  is,  eisht  souls,  were  saved  by  water".  He  re- 
turns to  tne  same  teaching  in  II  Peter,  ii,  5.  We 
might  appeal  to  Is.,  liv,  9;  Nah.,  i,  8;  Ezech.,  xiv, 
14;  Ecclus.,  xliv,  18  so.;  Ps.  xxviii,  10;  xxxi,  6;  but 
what  has  been  said  sumciently  shows  that  the  BiUe 
urges  the  historicity  of  the  Deluge  story. 

(6)  As  to  the  view  of  Christian  tradition)  it  suffices 
to  appeal  here  to  the  words  of  Father  Zorell  who  main- 
tains that  the  Bible  story  concerning  the  Flood  has 
never  been  explained  or  undenstood  in  any  but  a  truly 
historical  sense  by  any  Catholic  writer  (cf.  Hagen. 
Lexicon  Biblicum).  It  would  be  useless  labour  aiMi 
would  exceed  the  scope  of  the  present  article  to 
enumerate  the  long  list  of  Fathers  and  Scholaatic 
theologians  who  have  touched  upon  the  question. 
The  few  stray  discordant  voices  belonging  to  the  last 
fifteen  or  twenty  years  are  simply  drowned  in  this 
unanimous  chorus  of  Christian  tradition. 

(c)  The  historicity  of  the  Biblical  Flood  account  is 
confirmed  by  the  traidition  existing  in  all  places  and  at 
all  times  as  to  the  occurrence  of  a  similar  catastrophe. 
F.  von  Schwans  (Sintfluth  und  VOlkerwanderungen, 
pp.  8-18)  enumerates  sixty*three  such  Flood  stories 
which  are  in  his  opinion  independent  of  the  Biblical 
account.  R.  Andree  (Die  Flutsagen  ethnographisch 
betrachtet)  discusses  eighty-eight  different  Flood 
stories,  and  considers  sixty-two  of  them  as  indepen- 
dent of  the  Chaldee  and  Hebrew  tradition.  More- 
over, these  stories  extend  through  all  the  races  of  the 
earth  excepting  the  African;  these  are  excepted,  not 
because  it  is  certain  that  they  do  not  possess  any 
Flood  traditions,  but  because  their  traditions  have 
not  as  yet  been  sufficiently  investigated.  Lenormant 
pronounces  the  Flood  story  as  the  most  universal 
tradition  in  the  history  of  primitive  man,  and  Franz 
Delitzsch  was  of  opinion  that  we  might  as  well  consider 
the  history  of  Alexander  the  Great  a  mvth,  as  to  call 
the  Flood  tradition  a  fable.  It  would,  ixideed,  be  a 
greater  mimde  than  that  of  the  Deluge  itself,  if  the 
various  and  different  conditions  surrounding  the 
several  nations  of  the  earth  had  produced  among 
them  a  tradition  substantiallv  identical.  Opposite 
causes  would  have  produced  tne  same  effect. 

III.  Univebsautt  of  the  Delugs. — The  Biblical 
account  aacribes  some  kind  of  a  universality  to  the 
Flood.  But  it  may  have  been  geographically  univer- 
sal, or  it  may  have  been  only  ant£ropol(>gically  uni- 
versal. In  other  words,  the  Flood  may  have  covered 
the  whole  earth,  or  it  may  have  destroyed  all  men,  . 
covering  only  a  certain  part  of  the  earth.  Till  about 
the  seventeenth  century,  it  was  generally  believed 
that  the  Deluge  had  been  geographically  universal, 
and  this  opinion  is  defended  even  in  our  days  by  some 
conservative  scholars  (cf.  Kaulen  in  Kirchenlexikon). 
But  two  hundred  years  of  theological  and  scientific 
study  devoted  to  the  question  have  thrown  so  much 
light  on  it  that  we  may  now  defend  the  following  con- 
clusions: 

(1)  The  geographical  universality  of  the  Deluge 
may  be  safelv  abandoned.  Neither  Sacred  Scripture 
nor  universal  ecclesiastical  tradition,  nor  again  scien- 
tific considerations,  render  it  advisable  to  adnere  to  the 
opinion  that  the  Flood  covered  the  whole  surface  of 
the  earth,  (a)  The  words  of  the  original  text,  ren- 
dered "earth*'  in  our  version,  signify  "land*'  as  well 
as  ''earth'';  in  fact,  ''land''  {q;>pearB  to  have  been 
theh*  primal^  meaning,  and  this  meaning  fits  in  admir- 


ably with  Gen.,  iv,  v,  and  Gen.,  z;  wfar  not  adhere  to 
this  meaning  also  in  Gen. ,  vi-ix,  or  me  Flood  stoiy.  Why 
not  read,  the  waters  "filled  all  on  the  face  of  the  land", 
" all  flesh  was  desUxiyed  that  moved  in  the  land", " aD 
things  wherein  there  is  the  breath  oi  life  in  the  land 
died''»  "all  the  hi^  mountains  under  the  whole 
heaven  (correspondmg  to  the  land)  were  covered*'? 
The  priinajy  meaning  ci  the  inspired  text  uines  there- 
fore a  imiversality  of  the  Flood  covering  the  whole 
land  or  region  in  which  Noe  Uved.  but  not  the  whole 
earth. 

(6)  Aa  to  the  cogency  of  the  proof  from  tradition  for 
the  geographical  universality  of  the  Flood,  it  must  be 
rememlMred  that  very  few  of  the  Fathers  toudied 
upon  this  question  ex  profesao.  Among  those  who  do 
80  there  are  some  who  restrict  the  D^uge  to  certain 
parts  of  the  earth's  surface  without  incurring  the 
Dlame  of  offending  against  tradition.  Tlie  earthly 
paradise,  e.  g.,  waa  exempted  bjr  many,  irrespective  of 
its  location  on  the  top  of  a  hig^  mountain  or  else- 
where; the  same  must  be  said  of  the  place  in  which 
liathusala  must  have  lived  during  the  fiood  according 
to  the  Septuagint  reading;  St.  Augustine  knows  of 
writers  who  exempted  the  mountain  Olympus  from 
the  Flood,  though  he  himself  does  not  agree  with 
them ;  Pseudo-Justin  hesitatin^y  lejects  the  opinion 
of  those  who  restrict  the  FIocm  to  the  parts  of  the 
earth  actually  inhabited  by  men;  Cajetan  revived  the 
opinion  that  the  Flood  did  not  cover  Olympus  and 
other  hi^  mountains,  believing  that  Genesis  spoke 
only  of  the  mountains  under  the  aerial  heaven;  Toc- 
tatus  sees  a  figure  of  speech  in  the  expression  of  the 
Bible  which  implies  the  universality  of  the  Flood;  at 
any  rate,  he  exempts  the  earthly  Paradise  from  the 
Deluge,  since  Henoch  had  to  be  saved.  If  the  Fathers 
had  considered  the  universality  of  the  Flood  as  part  of 
the  body  of  epclesiaatical  tradition,  or  of  the  deposit  of 
faith,  they  would  have  defended  it  more  vigorously. 
It  is  true  that  the  Congregation  of  the  Index  con- 
demned Vossius's  treatise  "ue  Septuaginta  Interpre- 
tibus"  in.  which  he  defended,  among  other  docUines. 
the  view  that  the  Flood  covered  only  the  inhabited 
part  of  the  earth;  but  theologians  of  ereat  wei^t 
maintained  that  the  work  was  condemned  on  account 
of  its  Protestant  author,  and  not  on  account  of  its 
doctrine. 

(c)  Hi^fe  are  also  certain  scientific  considerations 
which  oppose  the  view  that  the  Flood  was  geograph- 
ically universal.  Not  that  science  opposes  any  diffi- 
culty insuperable  to  the  power  of  Gcki  ;  but  it  draws 
attention  to  a  number  of  most  extraordinaiy,  if  not 
miraculous  phenomena  involved  in  the  admission  of  a 
aeographically  universal  Deluge.  First,  no  sudi  geo- 
u>gical  traces  can  be  found  as  ou^t  to  have  been  left 
by  a  universal  Deluge;  for  the  catastrophe  connected 
with  the  beginning  of  the  ice-aoe,  or  the  geological 
deluge,  must  not  be  connectea  with  the  Biblical. 
Secondly,  the  amount  of  water  required  by  a  universal 
Deluge,  as  described  in  the  Bible,  cannot  be  accounted 
for  by  the  data  furnished  in  the  Biblical  account.  If 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  round  numbers,  amounts 
to  510,000,000  square  kilometres,  and  if  the  elevation 
of  the  highest  moimtains  reaches  about  9000  metres, 
the  water  required  by  the  Biblical  Flood,  if  it  be  uni- 
versal, amoimts  to  about  4,600,000,000  cubic  kilo- 
metres. Now,  a  forty  days'  rain,  ten  times  more 
copious  than  the  most  violent  rainfall  known  to  us, 
will  raise  the  levri  of  the  sea  only  about  800  metres; 
since  the  height  to  be  attained  is  about  9000  metres, 
there  is  still  a  mp  to  be  filled  by  unknown  souroer 
amounting  to  a  neight  of  more  than  8000  metres,  in 
order  to  raise  the  water  to  Uie  level  of  the  greatest 
mountains.  Thirdly,  if  the  Biblical  Deluge  was  geo- 
graphically universSu,  the  sea  water  and  the  nesh 
water  would  mix  to  such  an  extent  that  neither  the 
marine  animals  nor  the  f resh-¥rater  animals  could 
have  lived  in  the  mixture  without  a  miracle.    Fourth- 


DBLtraB 


705 


VKLVOm 


\y,  there  are  aerious  difficulties  connected  with  the  ani^ 
izials  in  the  ark,  if  the  Flood  was  geographically  uni- 
'versal:  How  were  they  brought  to  Noe  from  uie  re- 
mote re^ons  of  the  earth  in  which  they  lived?    How 
eoxild  ei^t  persons  take  care  of  such  an  array  of 
l>east8?    Where  did  they  obtain  the  food  necessary 
for  all  the  animals?    How  could  the  arctic  animals 
live  with  those  of  the  torrid  zone  for  a  whole  year  and 
under  the  same  roof?    No  Catholic  commentator  wiH 
repudiate  an  explanation  merely  for  fear  of  havins  to 
axlmit  a  miracle;  but  no  Catholic  has  a  right  to  admit 
"Biblical  miracles  which  are  not  well  attested  either  by 
^ripture  or  tradition.    What  is  more,  there  are  traces 
«n  the  Biblical  Flood  story  which  favour  a  limited  ex- 
tent of  the  catastrophe:  Noe  could  have  known  the 
g^graphical   universality   of   the   Deluge   only  by 
revelation;  still  the  Biblical  account  appears  to  nave 
been  written  by  an  eye-witness.    If  the  Flood  had 
been  universal,  the  water  would  have  had  to  fall  from 
tbe  height  of  the  mountains  in  India  to  the  level  of 
those  in  Armenia  on  which  the  ark  rested,  i.  e.  about 
11,500  feet,  within  the  space  of  a  few  days.    The  fact 
that  the  dove  is  said  to  nave  found  'Hhe  waters  .  .  . 
upon  the  whole  earth",  and  that  Noe  "saw  that  the 
face  of  the  earth  was  dried**,  leaves  the  impression 
that  the  inspired  writer  uses  the  word  "earth''  in  the 
restricted   sense   of   "land".    Attention   has   been 
drawn  also  to  the  "bough  of  an  olive  tree,  with  ^^een 
leaves"  carried  by  the  dove  in  her  mouth  on  her  sec- 
ond return  to  the  ark. 

(2)  The  Deluge  must  have  been  anthropologically 
universal,  i.  e.  it  must  have  destroyed  the  whole  ho- 
man  race.  After  limiting  the  extent  of  the  Flood  to  a 
part  of  the  earth,  we  naturally  ask  whether  any  men 
lived  outside  the  region  covered  by  its  waters.  It  haa 
been  maintained  that  not  all  men  can  have  perished  in 
the  Flood  for  the  following  reasons:  Tribes  which  cer- 
tainly sprang  from  Noe  were  preceded  in  their  earliest 
settlements  by  other  tribes  whose  origin  is  unknown 
to  us:  the  Dravidic  trib^  preceded  the  Aryans  in  In- 
dia; the  proto-Medians  preceded  the  Medians;  the 
Akkadians  preceded  the  Cushites  and  Semites  in 
C^aldea;  the  C^anaanites  were  preceded  in  Palestine 
by  other  races.  Besides,  the  oldest  Egyptian  monu- 
ments present  the  Negro  race  just  as  wennd  it  to-day, 
so  that  even  at  that  remote  age,  it  was  wholly  different 
from  the  Caucasian  race.  Again,  the  lan^ages  of  the 
rAces  springing  from  Noe  are  said  to  be  in  a  state  of 
development  different  from  that  in  which  we  find  the 
languages  of  the  peoples  of  unknown  origin.  Finally, 
the  Biblical  account  of  the  Flood  is  said  to  admit  a 
restriction  of  its  anthropological  universality  as  read- 
ily as  a  limitation  of  its  geographical  completeness; 
for  if  "land"  be  substituted  in  our  translation  for 
earth,  the  Book  of  Genesis  speaks  only  of  the  men  in- 
habiting a  certain  district,  and  not  of  the  men  of  the 
whole  earth,  as  being  the  victims  of  the  waters.  Con- 
siderations like  these  have  induced  several  Catholic 
writers  to  regard  as  quite  tenable  the  opinion  that  the 
Deluge  did  not  destroy  all  men  outside  the  ark. 

But  if  the  reason  advanced  for  luniting  the  Flood  to 
a  certain  part  of  the  human  race  be  duly  examined, 
they  are  round  to  be  more  specious  than  true.  The 
above  scientific  arguments  ao  not  favour  a  partial 
destruction  of  the  human  race  absolutely,  but  only  in 
so  far  as  the  uninterrupted  existence  of  the  various 
races  in  question  gives  them  more  time  for  the  racial 
development  and  the  historical  data  that  have  to  be 
harmonized  with  the  text  of  Genesis.  Those  who 
VLTgfi  these  arguments  grant,  therefore,  implicitly  that 
the  allowance  of  a  proper  length  of  time  will  explain 
tlie  facts  on  which  their  arguments  are  based.  As 
tliere  is  nothing  in  the  teaching  of  the  Bible  preventing 
us  from  assi^mff  the  Flood  to  a  much  earlier  date 
than  has  \jsuallyDecn  done,  the  difficulties  urged  on 
the  part  of  science  against  the  anthropological  uni- 
versality of  the  Flood  may  be  easily  evaded.  Nor  can 
IV.— 46 


tlie  distnbution  of  the  nations  bb  described  in  Ite 
tenth  chapter  of  Genesis  be  appealed  to,  seeing  that 
this  section  does  not  enumerate  all  races  of  the  earth, 
but  confines  itself  probably  to  the  Caucasian. 

Science,  therefore,  may  demand  an  eariy  date  for 
the  Delu0S,  but  it  does  not  necessitate  a  limitation  of 
the  Flood  to  certain  parts  of  the  human  race.  The 
question,  whether  all  men  perished  in  the  Delxige, 
must  be  decided  by  the  teaching  of  the  Bible,  and  of 
its  authoritative  interpreter.  As  to  the  teachings  of 
the  Bible,  the  passage  which  deals  ex  profe8$o  with  the 
Flood  (Gen.,  vi-ix),  if  taken  by  itself,  may  be  inter- 
preted of  a  partial  destruction  of  man;  it  insists  on 
the  fact  that  aU  inhabitants  of  the  "land",  not  of  the 
"earth",  died  in  the  waters  of  the  Deluge,  and  it  does 
not  explicitly  tell  us  whether  ail  men  lived,  in  the 
"land'*.  It  may  also  be  granted,  that  of  the  pas- 
sages which  refer  incidentally  to  the  Flood,  Wis.,  x,  4; 
xiv,  6;  Ecclus.,  xliv,  17  sqa.,  and  Matt.,  xxiv,  37 sqq., 
may  be  explained,  more  or  less  satisfactorily,  of  a  par- 
tial destruction  ot  the  human  race  by  the  mundatton 
of  the  Deluge;  but  no  one  can  deny  that  the  prima^ 
facie  meaning  of  I  Peter,  iii,  20  sq.,  II  Peter,  ii,  4t-9,' 
and  II  Peter,  ni,  6  saq . ,  refers  to  the  death  of  all  men  not 
contained  in  the  ark.  The  explanations  of  these  pas* 
sa^,  offered  by  the  opponents  of  the  anthropblogioai 
universality  of  the  Deluge,  are  hardly  sufficient  to  re- 
move all  reasonable  dom)t.  We  turn,  therefore,  to 
authority  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  final  settlement  of  the 
question.  Here  we  are  confronted,  in  brief,  with  the 
following  facts:  Up  to  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  the  belief  in  the  anthropological  universality 
of  the  Deluge  was  general.  Moreover,  the  Fatiiers 
regarded  the  ark  and  the  Flood  as  types  of  baptism 
and  of  the  Church ;  this  view  they  entertained  not  as  a 
private  opinion,  but  as  a  development  of  the  doctrine 
contained  in  I  Peter,  iii,  20  sq.  Hence,  the  typical 
character  of  both  ark  and  Flood  belong  to  the  "mat- 
tera  of  faith  and  morals''  in  which  the  Tridentine  and 
the  Vatican  Councils  oblige  all  Catholics  to  follow  the 
interpretation  of  the  Church. 

IV.  Collateral  Questions. — These  may  be  re- 
duced to  the  time  of  the  Deluge,  its  place,  and  its 
natural  causes. 

(1)  Time  of  the  Deluge. — Genesis  places  the  Deluge 
in  the  six-hundredth  year  of  Noet  theMasoretie  texi 
assigns  it  to  the  year  1656  after  the  creation,  tiie  Sa», 
maritan  to  1307,  the  Septuagint  to  2242,  Flaviua 
Jo6q>hus  to  2256.  Again,  the  Masoiciic  text  places 
it  in  B.  c.  2350  (Klaproth)  or  2253  (Lttken),  the  San 
maritan  in  2903,  the  Septuagint  in  3184.  Aooording 
to  the  ancient  traditions  (Loken),  the  Aasyriana 
placed  the  Deluge  in  2234  B.  c.  or  2316,  the  Greeks  in 
2300,  the  Egyptians  in  2600,  thePhceniciana  in  2700, 
the  Mexicans  in  2900,  the  Indians  in  3100,  the  Chinese 
in  2297,  while  the  Armenians  assigned  the  buikiing  of 
the  Tower  of  Babel  to  about  2200  b.  c.  But  as  we 
have  seen,  we  must  be  prepared  to  assign  earlier  dates 
to  these  events. 

(2)  Ptoeeo/«A«l^l(M>d.--The  Bible  teaches  only  thai 
the  ark  restea  on  a  mountain  in  Armenia.  Hence  the 
Flood  must  have  occunred  in  a  place  whence  ttie  ark 
could  be  carried  towards  this  mountain.  The  Babj^^ 
Ionian  tradition  places  the  Deluge  in  the  lower  vaU^ 
of  the  Tigris  and  Ehiphrates. 

(3)  Natural  Caueee  of  the  Floods — Scripture  assipoe 
as  the  causes  of  the  Deluge  the  heavy  forty  days' rains^- 
the  breaking  up  of  the  fotmtains  of  the  great  deep, 
and  the  opening  of  the  flood-gates  of  heaven.  Thu 
does  not  exdude  the  opinion  that  certain  natural 
forces  were  at  play  in  the  catastrophe.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  the  axis  of  the  earth  was  shifted  on 
account  of  the  earth's  collision  with  a  comet,  or  that 
powerful  volcanic  eruptions  raised  new  mountains  in 
the  sea,  or  that  an  earthquake  caused  a  tidal  wave  to 
overrun  certain  portions  of  the  diy  land.  Thus,  &0m 
speaks  of  the  frequency  of  earthquakes  and  of  stenBe 


DEMABOATION 


706 


DBMBTBIUS 


Ib  th^  Gulf  ci  Persia;  but  this  would  enclose  the  Flood 
within  too  narrow  limits  both  of  space  and  (rf  time. 
Another  conjecture  has  been  proposed  by  von 
Schwarti.  He  supposes  that  an  inland  Mongolian 
aea,  in  sise  about  equal  to  the  Mediterranean,  situated 
at  a  height  of  about  6000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean  imd  6000  feet  above  the  surrounding  Aralo- 
Oaapian  plain,  at  the  tame  of  an  earthquake  broke 
through  one  of  its  walls,  and  sent  its  3,000,000  cubic 
kilometres  of  water  into  the  region  north  of  Persia, 
Annenia,  and  the  Caucasus,  covering  the  whole  plain, 
until  the  waters  were  drained  by  wav  of  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Mediterranean  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Here  we  have  the  breaking  of  the  bonds  of  the  great 
deep,  we  have  an  outflow  of  water  lasting  for  several 
months,  and  we  find  that  the  ark  must  have  been 
carried  westward  by  the  general  drift  of  the  waters 
till  it  rested  on  the  mountains  of  Armenia.  But  not 
to  mention  the  improbability  of  the  supposition  urged 
by  several  scientists,  we  do  not  understand  why  the 
tops  of  the  mountains  shouki  not  have  been  visible 
even  after  the  mooring  of  the  ark.  A  number  of  other 
hypotheses  have  been  proposed  in  order  to  explain  by 
natural  causes  the  phenomena  implied  in  the  Biblicfu 
account  of  the  Deluge,  but  thus  far  they  have  not 
satisfied  the  various  details  given  in  the  Book  of 
Qenesis. 

Completo  bibliomphiM  may  be  found  in  von  Hummbi«a.ukb, 
Commentariua  in (Tenanm  (Pans,  1805);  MANOBNTn*  in  Vio.JHd. 
de  la  SMe  XPiaiiB.  1899).  Ii;  Coknklt,  hUroduetio  (2Bd  ed.  PkriB, 
.1, 161;  Haobn,  Lexieam  Btblieum  (Pada,  1907). 
I  fMigite  et  le*  raeea  anUdUuviennea; 
T.  (3rd  ed.  Brixen,  1902);  Woods, 


He  was  consecrated  bishop  on  30  Nov.,  1S47,  and  ^>- 
pointea  to  the  spiritual  care  of  Vanoouvex  i^i^w^^ 
making  the  incioient  town  of  Victoria  his  head- 
quarters. As  a  oishop  he  continued  his  favourite 
work  among  the  Indians,  thoi^  he  soon  had  to  give 
hia  best  attentbn  to  the  rou^  and  cosmcmolitan  ele- 
ment which  now  fonned  his  white  flock.  For  its 
benefit  he  procured  in  1$5S  the  services  of  ^the  Sistera 
of  St.  Anne,  who  established  schools  at  Vfctoria  and 
elsewhere,  and  of  the  Oblate  Fathers,  who  took  in 
hand  the  evangelization  of  the  natives  and  also 
founded  a  college  in  his  cathedral  dtv.  In  1866  he 
assisted  at  the  Second  Plenary  Cbuncu  of  Baltimore, 
and  shortly  afterwards  he  was  one  of  the  fathers  of 
the  (Ecumenical  CouncQ  of  the  Vatican.  He  died 
soon  after  his  return,  beloved  alike  by  Protestants  and 
CathoUcs,  and  revered  for  his  gentleness  and  his  apos- 
tolic seal  on  behalf  of  the  poor  and  lowly. 

HtHorical  Sketchea  of  the  Caihalic  Church  m  Oregon  (Portland. 
1878};  Paqubt,  Fra^mmta  de  Vhiataire  de  la  paroiue  de  Saud>- 


Nieoiaa  (Ldvis,  1894). 


A«  G.  Morb:b. 


II;  DK  RioNON,  Le  dUvM  IMigite  et  lee  raeea  anUdUuvienaee; 

ScHdPPEB,  Geschiehte  d.A.T.  (3rd  ed.  Brixen,  1902);  Woods, 

l>ia.  of  the  Bibte  (New  York.  1900).  II;    LOkbn.  Die  Tradi- 

-     --      •  ••    •-    — -  ^     ANnnvB.  Die 


ScHdPPEB.  (heehiehte  d. 

Diet,  of  the  BibU  (Nei    

tienen  dee  Menadienoe$dUechts  (MCnater.  1809).  .(m<^^«»»«,  Mj^m, 
FhUeoifen  elhnographieeh  betradUel  (Brunswick,  1891);  von 
ScHWARz,  Sintfluth  und  Vdlkerwandentnoen  (Stuttgart,  1894); 
pRESTWicB,  On  Certain  Phenomerui  Belonging  to  the  Cloee  of  me 
Laet  Oeoloakal  Period  (New  York,  1895) ;  St^as.  Dae  AnOiU 
derSrde  (PiiMfue,  1883);  Mxllbs.  Testimony  of  the  Rocke,  1858; 
Kauxjbn  m  KirchenUxikon;  Rbusch,  Bibel  urtd  Natur  (4th  ed., 
Bonn,  1876);   The  Tablet  (London,  1884),  files. 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Demarcation,  Line  of.    See  Portuqal;  Spain. 
Demerara.    See  Gitiana. 

Demera,  Modeste,  apoetle  of  the  Padfio  Coafit  of 
North  America,  and  the  first  Catholic  miasionazy 
among  most  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  Oreson,  Washini^ 
ton,  and  British  Columbia;  b.  at  St.  Nicholas,  Quebec, 
11  Oct..  1809;  d.  at  Victoria,  B.  C,  21  July,  1871. 
His  fatner,  Midiel  Demers,  and  his  mother,  Rosalie 
Foucher,  were  two  worthy  representatives  of  the 
French  Canadian  fanner  class.  Endowed  with  a  ddi- 
eate  conscience  and  a  distinctly  religious  disposition, 
young  Demers  resolved  to  enter  the  ecclesiastical 
state,  and  studied  first  privately  and  then  at  the 
seminary  of  Quebec.  He  was  ordained  7  Feb.,  1836. 
by  Bishop  Signay,  and  after  fotirteen  months  passea 
as  assistant  priest  at  Trois-Pistoles,  he  volunteered 
lor  the  far-off  mission  of  Oregon,  where  the  white 
population,  made  up  mostly  of  French  Canadian 
emplpyte  of  the  Huoson  Bay  Company,  was  clam- 
ounng  for  the  ministrations  of  a  priest.  Having 
Grossed  the  American  continent  in  the  conmany^ 
the  Rev.  F.  N.  Blanchet,  hissuperior,  he  reached  Walla* 
Walla,  on  the  lower  Columbia,  18  Nov.,  1838,  and 
immediately  applied  himself  to  the  care  of  the  low- 
tiest,  that  is  the  Indian  tribes,  which  were  then  verv 
numerous  and  not  any  too  meek.  He  studied  their 
languages  and  visited  their  homes  re^ulariy,  preach- 
mg,  catechising  the  adults,  and  baptizmg  the  children, 
especially  those  whose  habitat  lay  to  the  north  of  the 
Columbia.  His  apostolic  zeal  even  led  him  on  along 
the  coast  of  British  Columbia,  and  in  1842  he  pro- 
oeeded  inland  as  far  north  as  Stuart  Lake,  evan^is- 
iBg  as  he  went  all  the  interior  tribes  of  that  provmce. 

Hisoompanion,  the  Rev.  F.  N.  Blanchet,  having  ht&x 
elevated  to  the  episcopate,  Demers  had  to  submit  to 
vbttt  he  ooDsidered  a  burden  beyond  his  strength. 


Demetriiia,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Alexandria  from  188 
to  231.  Julius  Africanus,  who  visited  Alexandria  in 
the  time  of  Demetrius,  places  his  accession  as  deveath 
bishop  after  St.  Mark  in  the  tenth  year  of  Commodus 
(tenth  of  Severus,  £us.  His.  Eocl,  Vl,  ii,  is  a  dip).  A 
legendary  histonr  of  him  is  given  in  the  Coptic  "Syn- 
axaria",  in  an  AbvBsinian  poem  cited  bv  the  BoQand- 
ists,  and  in  the  ''Chronioon  Orientale  '  of  Abraham 
Ecc^ellensis  the  Maronite.  Three  of  their  statements, 
however,  may  have  some  truth:  one  that  he  died  at 
the  age  of  105  (bom,  therefore,  in  126);  another, 
found  also  in  the  Melchite  Patriarch  Ekitychius  [Sa'id 
Ibi  Batrik,  (d.  about  940),  Migne,  P.  Q.,  CXI,  999], 
that  he  wrote  about  the  calculation  of  Easter  to  Victor 
of  Rome,  Maximus  (L  e.  Maximinua)  of  Antiodi  and 
uabius  or  Agapius  (?)  of  Jerusalem  (cf.  Eus.,  H.  E., 
V,  xxv).  Eutychius  relates  that  from  Mark  to  Deme- 
trius there  was  but  one  see  in  Egypt,  that  Demetrius 
was  the  first  to  establish  three  ouieT  bishoprics,  and 
that  his  successor  Heradas  made  twenty  more. 

At  all  events  Demetrius  is  the  first  Alexandrian 
bishop  of  whom  anything  is  known.  St.  Jerome  has 
it  that  he  sent  Pantsenus  on  a  mission  to  India,  but  it 
is  likdy  that  Clement  had  succeeded  Pantsnus  as  the 
head  of  the  famous  Catechetical  School  before  the  ao- 
cesdon  of  Demetrius.  When  Clement  retired  (c  203- 
4),  Demetrius  appointed  thevoung  Origen,  who  was 
in  his  eighteenth  year,  in  Clement's  mace.  Deme- 
trius encouraged  Origen  when  blamed  for  his  too  lit- 
eral execution  of  an  aUegoricd  counsel  of  our  Lord, 
and  is  said  to  have  shown  him  great  favour.  He  sent 
Origen  to  the  governor  of  Arama,  who  had  requested 
his  presence  in  letters  to  the  prdect  of  Egypt  as  well 
as  to  the  bishop.  In  21 5-1 6  Origen  was  obUged  to  take 
refuge  in  Csesarea  from  the  cruelty  of  CaracaSa.  There 
he  preached  at  the  request  of  the  bishops  present. 
Demetrius  wrote  to  him  complaining  that  tnis  was 
unheard  of  presumption  in  a  uiyman.  Alexander  of 
Jerusalem  and  Theoctietus  of  Cssarea  wrote  to  defend 
the  invitation  they  had  given,  mentioning  precedents; 
but  Demetrius  recallea  Origen.  In  230  Demetrius 
^ve  Origen  a  recommendation  to  take  with  him  on  his 
journey  to  Athens.  But  Origen  was  ordained  priest 
at  CfBsarea  without  leave,  and  Demetrius  with  a  synod 
of  some  bishops  and  a  few  priests  condenmed  hun  to 
banishment,  then  from  another  synod  sent  a  formal 
condemnation  of  him  to  all  the  churches.  It  is  impoa- 
dble  to  doubt  that  heresy,  and  not  merely  unautnor- 
iied  ordination,  must  have  been  alleged  bv  Demetrius 
for  such  a  course.  Rome  accepted  the  decidon,  but 
Pdestine,  Phoenicia,  Arabia,  Achaia  rejected  it,  and 
Origen  retired  to  Csesarea,  whence  he  sent  forth  letters 
in  his  own  defence,  and  attacked  Demetrius.  T^ 
latter  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Catechetical  School 
the  fint  pupil  of  Origen,  Heraclas^  who  had  long  beoi 


onuTBius 


707 


OXBCniSOE 


SB  «0aJBtA&t.    But  the  bishop  died  verv  soon,  and 
eraclajB  succ^ing  Mm,  Origen  returned  to  Alexau- 

A.cia  SS.,  9  Oct.;  We»tcx>tt  in  Did.  Christ.  Bioff.jL  r.  Deme- 
trium^  Harnack.  G^tek.  der  altcKr.  LU.,  I.  830.  II,  ii  (i.  «. 
€7hnmU.,  U).  23;  Babbbnbbwkb,  0*9di,  der  aUkirehi,  Lit.,  U, 
159;  aMaboOsiGEN;  oo  the  Alexandrian  suooeaeion  and  the 
date  see  Harnack,  Geach.  der  aUchrist.  Lit.,  11,  i,  202^7:  Chap- 
mam  in  Bev.  bfnMMm.,  1902),  34.  On  the  Creation  of  New  Seee 
\iy  Siefaola:  Uowrpoor,  Comm.  en  PhiUmetHe  (1805).  ^;  the 
«flMhy  on  the  Christ.  Ministry  is  reprinted  in  his  Biblical  Eeeaye; 
BIicHiELB,  Origine  de  FSpiieopai  (Louvain,  1901),  348;  Har- 
MACX.  Bxpanewn  of  ChrUtianity,  II.  79,  00,  308  <tr.,  London 
•ad.  New  Yorlc,  1006).  A  frameni  asciibed  to  I^lemetriue  by 
PXTKA  in  hia  AnaUcta  Sacra,  II,  345.  is  probably  by  a  cer- 
tsdn  I>emetritia  Callatianns  mentioned  by  Strabo. 

John  Chapman. 

Demetrias,  the  name  of  two  Syrian  kings  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament  and  two  other  persons  in 
the  New  Testament. 

(a)  Demetrius  Sotbr,  or  the  Saviour,  so  called  be- 
cause he  saved  the  Babylonians  from  the  tyranny  of 
the  satrap  Heraclides,"  reigned  from  162  to  150  B.  c. 
He  was  the  son  of  Seleucus  Philopator,  and  spent  his 
early  years  as  a  hostage  in  Rome,  petitioning  the 
Senate  in  vain  for  permission  to  return  to  his  country. 
With   the   assistance,  however,    of  his   friend,  tne 
historian  Polybius,  he  escaped  to  Tripolis  in  fhoe- 
nicia,  formed  a  party,  murdered  Antiochus  V,  his 
cousin,  with  Lysias,  tne  chancellor,    ascended    the 
throne  of  the    Seleucidae,    and   was   acknowledged 
hy  Rome.    A  Jewish  party,  dissatisfied  with  Judas 
Maccabeus,  invited  Demetrius  to  interfere  in  their 
favour.      Demetrius    appointed   Alcimus    as   high- 
priest  and  sent  his  general  Bacchides  with  an  army 
m  his  support.    Swn   after^   as   Alcimus'  position 
eeemed  secure,  Bacchides  left.    As  Judas,  however, 
grew  stronger,  Alcimus  again  appealed  for  help.    De- 
metrius sent  as  general  Nicanor,  who  first  tried  to 
capture  Judas  by  strat^Qr,  but  then  met  him  at  Kap- 
harsalama  and  lost  the  battle.    Nicanor  entered  Jeru- 
salem, vented  his  wrath  on  the  priests,  and  threatened 
to  deatroy  the  Temple.    Judas  met  Nicanor  again  at 
Beth-Horon  and  utterly  jouted  his  army.     Nicanor 
fell  in  the  battle  (101  b.  c).    Two  months  later  Deme- 
trius, for  the  third  tune,  sent  a  Syrian  army  into  Pales- 
tine under  Bacchides,  who  defeated  and  slew  Judas  in 
the  battle  of  Berea,  garrisoned  some  Jewish  towns,  and 
returned.    A  Syrian  army  entered  Palestine  under  the 
same  Bacchides  for  the  fourth  time  in  158  b.  c,  but  the 
Machabean  party  had  recovered  its  strength,  and  a 
tieaty  ended  tiie  campaign.    MeanwhUe  a  pretender 
Imd  arisen  to  the  Syrian  throne  in  the  person  of  Alex- 
ander Balas.    Both  Demetrius  and  Alexander  were 
anxious  to  gain  the  support  of  the  Jews.    Alexander 
offered  to  Jonathan  Macnabeusthe  purple  and  a  dia- 
dem, which  he  accepted  in  153  b.  c.    Demetrius  subee- 
auently  oflfercd  still  greater  privileges  to  the  Jews  and 
their  leadsr,  but  the  Jews  remained  faithful  to  Alex- 
ander.    In  150  B.  c.  Alexander  and  his  allies  defeated 
Demetrius,  "who  valiantly  fought  with  undaunted 
courage  in  the  thick  of  the  battle  and  was  slain '\    (I 
Mach.,  vii,  ix,  x;  II  Mach.,  xiv,  xv;  Justin,  XXXV,  L) 

(b)  Demetrius  Nikator,  or  the  Conqueror,  son  of 
the  above,  succeeded  four  years  after  the  death  of  his 
father  in  gaining  the  Syrian  throne.  Jonathan  Mac- 
habeus,  remaining  faithful  to  Alexander  unto  the  end, 
had  opposed  the  succession  of  Demetrius  II.  Deme- 
Iriiw'  viceroy,  Apollonius,  who  ruled  over  CoDlesyria, 
hi^d  Joppe  and  Ashdod  for  his  king,  but  was  driven 
out  and  defeated  by  Jonathan,  who  destroyed  Ashdod 
and  brought  a  ricn  booty  to  Jerusalem.  Jonathan 
tried  to  throw  off  the  Synan  yoke  altogether  and  be- 
sieged the  fortress  of  Jerusalem.  Demetrius  first 
cited  Jonathan  to.  Ptolemais  to  answer  for  his  rebel- 
lion, relying  upon  a  pro-Syrian  party  among  the  Jews; 
but  Jonathan  boldly  continued  the  siege  of  Jerusalem 
and  then,  nothing  aaunted,  faced  Demetrius  at  Ptole- 
mais,   He  demanded  an  extension  of  territory  and 


several  privileges  for  the  Jews,  and  supported  his  de- 
mand by  costly  gifts.  Demetrius  did  not  dare  to  re- 
fuse, but  agreed  to  the  addition  of  three  Samaritan 
districts,  Ephraim,  Lydda.  and  Ramathaim,  to  Judea; 
he  freed  this  extension  of  J  udea  from  all  taxes  and  eon- 
firmed  Jonathan  in  all  his  dignities.  Demetrius  had 
thus  escaped  further  danger  from  his  Jewish  vassal  but 
soon  after  had  to  encounter  Trypho,  a  fonner  general 
of  Alexander  Balas.  This  man  proclaimed  Alexan- 
der's son  Antiochus  VI  king,  thoum  as  yet  only  a  boy, 
and  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  people  of  Antioch 
brought  the  throne  of  Demetrius  II  into  imminent 
danger.  In  his  distress  he  appealed  to  Jonathan,  who 
sent  3000  men  to  quell  the  insurrection  at  Antioch. 
Demetrius  promised  to  hand  over  Jerusalem  and  some 
other  fortresses  of  Judea  to  Jonathan.  Jonathan 
stamped  out  the  revolution  at  Antioch,  but  Demetrius 
did  not  fulfil  his  promise.  Shortly  after,  Trypho  and 
Antiochus  the  Pretender  captured  Antioch  ana  sou^t 
the  assistance  of  Jonathan.  As  Demetrius  II  had 
proved  himself  faithless,  Jonathan  left  his  side  and 
went  over  to  Trypho.  In  consequence  Demetrius 
gathered  an  army  against  Jonathan,  to  punish  his  de- 
fection, but  never  risked  a  battle.  When  Trypho  had 
murdered  Antiochus  VI,  Jonathan  returned  to  Deme- 
trius' allegiance.  Trypho  was  finally  defeated  by 
the  brother  of  Demetnus,  but  Demetrius  was  made 
prisoner  in  a  campaign  against  the  Parthians,  in  whose 
hands  he  remained  for  ten  years,  the  daughter  of 
whose  king  Mithridates  he  received  in  marriage  and  by 
whom,  imder  Phraates,  he  was  restored  to  the  Syrian 
throne  after  defeating  his  brother  Antiochus  Sidetes. 
He  was  then  persuaded  to  attack  the  King  of  Egypt, 
Ptolemy  Physcon.    This  caused  the  rise  of  another 


I  landing  ^ 

wife  Cleopatra  is  said  to  have  been  privy  to  the  crime. 
(I  Mach.,  xiii,  41;  x,  67;  xiv,  3.) 

(c)  Demetrius,  the  name  of  two  persons  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament.  ^1^  Acts,  xix,  24, 
mentions  Demetrius,  a  silversmith  {&pyvpoK6vos\ 
who  made  silver  shrines  for  Diana  at  Ephesus. 
These  shrines  (yaodt;  in  D.  V.  "temples")  were  prob- 
ably little  silver  models  either  of  the  temple  or  of 
the  actual  shrine  (sacellum)  in  which  the  idol  was 
placed,  and  were  used  as  amulets  or  objects  of  piety 
and  souvenirs  carried  aiway  by  thousands  of  pagan  pil- 
grims. Finding  his  tr:ide  diminished  through  the 
spread  of  Christianity  and  the  decline  of  heathen  wor- 
ship, he  and  his  fellow-craftsmen  caused  the  uproar 
against  St.  Paul  as  narrated  in  Acts,  loc.  cit. 

(2)  St.  John  the  Apostle,  in  his  Third  Epistle  (v. 
12),  praises  Demetrius  to  whom  "testimony  is  given 
by  all,  and  by  the  truth  itself '^'  and  apparently  opposes 
him  to  Diotrephes,  who  did  not  receive  St.  John,  and 
cast  out  of  the  Church  those  that  did  (verses  9, 10). 
Nothing  more  is  known  of  him.  Possibly  he  was  the 
bcMirer  of  the  letter. 

For  Demetrius  Soter,  see  JoeEPBUS.  Antiquitiett  XILx; 
Xin.  li:  PoLYBrcs,  Bitttoriea,  III,  v-  XXXI.  xfi.  xix?  XXXn, 
iv;  XXXIII,  xiv.  Fof  Demetrins  Nikator.  Josfepmrn,  Afm^- 
uitieB,  XIII.  iv  sqq.;  Juatik.  Hiet.  PhA.  Lib., XXXIX.  i;  ha- 
PlAN,  Sj/riaca,  bcviii.  SchCber,  Ge^chichte  dee  jOd.  VoQc.  (4th 
ed.,  Leiprig.  1901).  I.  216-48;  Milman,  Hiatory  of  the  Jem,  X, 
The  Aemoneane. 

J.  P.  Arbndebn. 

Demiurge.— The  word  means  literally  a^  public 
worker,  irifuoepy^,  9iifuovfiy&t,  and  was  originally 
used  to  designate  any  craftsman  plying  his  craft  or 
trade  for  the  use  of  the  public .  Soon,  however,  rex Wnft 
and  other  words  began  to  be  used  to  desiffnate  the 
common  artisan  while  demiurge  was  set  aside  for  the 
Great  Artificer  or  Fabricator,  the  Architect  of  the  uni- 
verse. At  first  the  words  roO  Kbtrftav  were  added  to 
distinguish  the  great  Workman  from  others,  but  grad- 
ually ^pMv/yy^  became  the  technical  term  for  the 


BXMOOHAftES 


708 


OBMO0R40T 


Uaker  of  heaven  and  earth.  In  this  sense  it  is  used 
frequently  by  Plato  in  his '  'Timsus''.  Although  often 
looeely  emploj'ed  by  the  Fathers  and  others  to  indi- 
cate tne  Creator,  the  word  never  strictly  meant  "one 
who  produces  out  of  nothing''  (for  tins  the  Greeks 
used  tcrlirrrii),  but  only  "one  who  fashions,  shapHSfi, 
and  models".  A  creator  in  the  sense  of  Christian 
theology  has  no  place  in  heathen  philosophy,  which 
always  presupposes  the  existence  of  matter.  More- 
over, according  to  Greek  philosophy  the  world-maker 
is  not  necessarily  identical  with  God,  as  first  and  su- 
preme source  of  all  things ;  he  may  be  distinct  from  and 
mferior  to  the  supreme  spirit,  though  he  may  also  be  the 
practical  expression  of  tne  reason  of  God,  tne  Logos  as 
operative  in  the  harmony  of  the  universe.  In  this  sense, 
L  e.  that  of  a  world-maker  distinct  from  the  Supreme 
God,  Demiurge  became  a  common  term  in  Gnosticism. 
The  Gnostics,  however,  were  not  satisfied  merely  to 
emphasize  the  distinction  between  the  Supreme  God,  or 
Goa  the  Father,  and  the  Demiurgie,  but  in  many  of  their 
fl^tems  they  conceived  the  relation  of  the  Demiurge  to 
tne  Supreme  God  as  one  of  actual  antagonism,  ana  the 
Demiurge  became  the  personification  of  the  power  of 
evil,  the  Satan  of  Gnosticism,  with  whom  the  faithful 
had  to  wage  war  to  the  end  that  they  might  be  pleasing 
to  the  G^d  God.  The  Gnostic  Demiurge  then  a»- 
fiumes  a  surprising  likeness  to  Ahriman,  the  evil  count- 
er-creator oi  Ormuzd  in  Mazdean  philosophy.  The 
character  of  the  Gnostic  Demiurge  became  still  more 
complicated  when  in  some  systems  he  was  identified 
witib  Jehovah,  the  God  of  the  Jews  or  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  was  brought  in  opposition  to  Christ  of  the 
New  Testament,  the  Only-Begotten  Son  of  the  Su- 
preme and  Good  God.  The  purpose  of  Christ's  com- 
ing as  Saviour  and  Redeemer  was  to  rescue  us  from 
tiie  power  of  the  Demiui^,  the  lord  of  the  world  of 
this  darkness,  and  bring  Us  to  the  light  of  the  Good 
God,  His  Father  in  heaven.  The  last  development  in 
^e  character  of  the  Demiurge  was  due  to  Jehovah  be- 
ing primarily  considered  as  he  who  eave  the  Law  on 
Sinai,  and  hence  as  the  originator  of  all  restraint  on  the 
human  will.  As  the  Demiurge  was  essentially  evil, 
all  his  work  was  such ;  in  consequence  all  law  was  in- 
trinsically evil  and  the  duty  ot  the  children  of  the 
Good  God  was  to  transgress  this  law  and  to  trample 
upon  its  precepts.  This  led  to  the  wildest  oigies  of 
Antinomian  Gnosticism. 

According  to  Valentinus  the  Demiurge  was  the  off- 
spring of  a  union  of  Achamoth  (niD3nn,  ^  K<i^«  cro^ld 
or  lower  wisdom)  with  matter .  And  as  Achamoth  her- 
self was  only  the  daughter  of  2o0fa,  the  last  of  the  thirty 
Mora,  the  Demiurge  was  distant  by  mamr  emana- 
tions from  the  Pronator,  or  Supreme  God.  The  Demi- 
urge in  creating  this  world  out  of  Chaos  was  uncon- 
sciously indQuenced  for  good  by  Jesus  Soter;  and  the 
universe,  to  the  surprise  even  of  its  Maker,  became  al- 
most perfect.  The  Demiurge  regretted  even  its  slight 
imperfection,  and  as  he  thought  himself  the  Supreme 
God,  he  attempted  to  remedy  this  by  sending  a  Mes- 
sias.  To  this  Messias,  however,  was  actually  imited 
Jesus  the  Saviour,  Who  redeemed  men.  These  are 
either  dXiiro/,  or  wwwfiariKot,  The  first,  or  carnal  men, 
will  return  to  the  grossness  of  matter  and  finally 
be  consumed  by  fire  j  the  second,  or  psychic  men,  to- 
gether with  the  Demiurge  as  their  master,  will  enter  a 
middle  state,  neither  heaven  (plerama)  nor  hell  {kyle) ; 
the  purely  spiritual  men  will  oq  completely  freed  m>m 
the  influence  of  the  Demiurge  and  together  with  the 
Saviour  and  Achamoth,  his  spouse,  wm  enter  the  p2e- 
roma,  divested  of  body  (JXij)  and  soul  (fvx^).  In  this 
most  common  form  of  Gnosticism  the  Demiurge  had 
an  inferior  though  not  intrinsically  evil  function  in  the 
universe  as  the  head  of  the  psyduc  world.  According 
to  Marcion,  the  Demiurge  was  to  be  sharply  distin- 
guished from  the  Good  Uod;  the  former  was  BUat^s, 
aBverdy  just,  the  latter  ieyoJ^Ai,  or  loving-kind;  the 
fonner  was  the  God  of  the  Jews,  the  latter  tne  true  God 


of  the  Christians.  Christ,  though  In  reality  the  Son  of 
the  Good  God,  pretended  to  be  the  Messias  of  the 
Demiurge,  the  better  to  spread  the  truth  concerning 
His  heavenly  Father.  The  true  believer  in  Christ  en- 
tered into  God's  kingdom,  the  unbeliever  remaiiied 
forever  the  slave  of  uie  Demiurge.  To  this  form  of 
Gnosticism,  the  Demiurge  has  assumed  already  a  more 
evil  aspect.  According  ta  the  Naaasenes  the  God  of 
the  Jews  is  not  merely  BUaws,  but  he  is  the  great  ty- 
rant Jaldabaoth,  or  Son  of  Chaob  He  is  Demiurge  and 
maker  of  man,  but  as  a  ray  of  ligjit  from  above  enten 
the  body  of  man  and  gives  him  a  soul;  Jaldabaoth  is 
fiUed  with  envy;  he  tries  to  limit  man's  knowledge  by 
forbidding  him  the  fruit  of  knowledge  in  paradise. 
The  Demiurge,  fearing  lest  Jesus,  whom  he  had  in- 
tended as  his  Messias,  should  spread  the  knowledge  of 
the  Supreme  God,  had  him  crucified  by  the  Jews.  At 
the  consummation  of  all  things  all  light  will  return  to 
the  pleroma;  but  Jaldabaoth,  the  Demiurge,  with  the 
material  world,  will  be  cast  into  the  lower  depths. 
Some  of  the  Ophites  or  Naassenes  venerated  aUper- 
sons  reprobated  in  the  Old  Testament,  such  as  Cain, 
ox  the  people  of  Sodom^  as  valiant  resisters  o!  the 
Demiurge.  In  these  weird  systems  the  idea  of  the 
world-maker  was  degraded  to  the  uttermost.  Amongst 
the  Gnostics,  however,  who  as  a  rule  set  some  diflFer- 
ence  between  the  Demiurae  and  the  Supreme  God, 
there  was  one  exception;  tor  according  to  tbeEbion- 
ites,  whose  opinions  have  come  down  to  us  in  the 
Pseudo-Clementine  literature,  there  is  no  difference 
between  the  Highest  God  and  the  Demiurge.  They 
are  identical,  and  the  God  Who  made  heaven  and 
earth  is  wortny  of  the  adoration  of  men.  ^  On  the  other 
hand  the  Ebionite  system  is  tainted  with  pantheism, 
and  its  Demiuige  is  not  a  creator  but  only  a  world- 
builder.    (See  Gnosticism;  VALENTiNxrs;  Mahcion.) 

Me^,  Fraaments  of  a  Faith  Forgotten  (London.  1006);  Dc- 
CR«8Ne,  Uiato^  aneienne  de  VBgiiae  (PariSp  1007),  I.  zi;  Ai/* 
ICO.  CAtcrcA  HiHory,  I,  s.v.  UnoBtidam,  For  pr»<>linituuk  idta 
ol  Demiuij^  Windslbavd,   Hiatary  of  Andeut  PhUotophv 


(London.  1000). 


J.  P.  Absndcbn. 


Demooharaa.    See  Moucht,  Antoins  db. 
Democracy.    See  Government,  Forms  of. 

Democracy,  Christian. — In  Christian  DemocnM^, 
the  name  and  the  reality  have  two  very  different  ha- 
tories,  and  therefore  they  must  be  carefully  distin- 
guished. 

The  Realitt. — ^What  Christian  democracv  is  wm 
authoritatively  laid  down  by  Pope  Leo  XIII  in  his 
Encyclical  "Graves  de  communi^*  wherein  it  b  ^fc* 
clared  to  be  the  same  as  "pojjular  Catholic  action". 
Such  a  definition  is  certainly  intensive;  so' that  not 
everything  done  by  Catholics,  among  thepeopleorfor 
the  people,  can  be  technically  termed  (Suistun  de- 
mocracy, or  popular  Catholic  action.  Action  in  this 
definition  is  taken  to  mean  an  oigaxuaed  movement 
with  a  definite  programme  to  deaf  with  the  pressing 
problems  that  come  before  it.  Popular  has  reference 
to  the  people,  not  inasmuch  as  they  are  a  nation  or 
collective  whole,  but  as  the  fourth  estate:  the  pW», 
the  tenuiareSf  and  the  tenuiwCmi  of  classical  antiquity* 
Lastly,  Catholic  (and  therefore  Christian  throup  and 
through)  signifies  that  this  organised  action  in  favo^ 
of  the  people  (pte6«)  is  the  work  of  Catholics  as  ««^- 
Popular  Catholic  action,  therefore,  means  that  tae 
scope  mapped  out  for  the  activity  of  the  organisation 
is  the  well-being  of  the  people;  and  that  the  hjotb- 
ment  proceeds  along  Catholic  lines,  under  theg^ 
dance  of  Catholic  leaders.  Having  stated  this,  rt  * 
easy  to  understand  that  the  existence  of  Christitfi 
democracy  is  not  a  thing  of  yesterday.  In  *»• 
very  nature  of  Christianity,  m  the  spirit  of  ^e  Churcni 
*     the  mission  of  the  cleigy   (cf.   Benigni,  Stonj 


sociale  della  Chiesa,  Milan.  1^07. 1)  lies  the  | 
popular  Catholic  action  technically  so  called;  in  o«>w 


DXMOOKAOT 


709 


DIMOOEAOT 


vrcfdfl.  of  Chiiatiaii  democracy.  As  soon,  iherefoie, 
wm  political  and  social  circumstances  allowed  it,  the 
Cburdi  set  her  hand  to  this  work,  and  she  has  con- 
tinued wiUiout  interruption  her  traditional  action  in 
behalf  of  t^e  people.  To  prove  this  there  is  no  need 
of  distortiiu;  tne  lacts  of  history.  Even  if  we  exclude 
the  marvellous  economic  organization  of  the  Church 
of  the  first  three  centuries  i(8ee  the  last  part  of  the 
**  Storia"  referred  to  above),  it  is  certain  that  from  the 
time  of  0>nstantine  the  Church  b^an  the  practical 
iRrork  of  Christian  democracy,  when  tne  clei^  showed 
their  zeal  in  establishing  hospices  for  orphans,  for  the 
aged  and  infirm,  and  for  wayfarers. 

Constantine  in  a  period  of  famine  chose  the  bishops 
rather  than  the  civu  officials  to  distribute  com  among 
a  starving  people,  and  thus  showed  his  appreciation  of 
Christian  democracy.  Julian  the  Apostate  showed 
even  a  clearer  insight  when  in  his  famous  letter  to  the 
pagan  h^-priest  of  Galatia  he  urg^  him  strongly  to 
admoniw  the  pagan  priesthood  that  they  must  rival 
the  Cbristian  cleigv  in  this  field  of  popular  work.  But 
when  the  fall  of  the  Empire  of  tne  West  under  the 
ahock  of  the  barbarian  invasion  brought  civilization 
to  the  verge  of  ruin  and  shook  the  very  foundation  of 
the : people's  welfare^  when  it  became  necessary  to 
buila  up  again  labonously  the  neo-Roman  culture  of 
the  West  out  of  the  remnants  that  escaped  the  catas- 
trophe and  the  raw  material  of  the  scarcely  civilized 
races,  then  shone  forth  in  its  real  light  the  true  Chris- 
tian democracy  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  an  entire  system  of  laws  and  customs  in  fur- 
therance of  the  civil  and  material  well-being  of  the 
people  was  established,  or  at  least  strengthened  and 
developed,  by  the  united  action  of  -deigy  and  laity. 
The  riokt  of  sanctuary,  the  art  guilds  andtrade  guildis, 
the  remntless  war  agamst  usury,  the  numberiess  benev- 
olent institutions,  the  protection  alTorded  to  labour 
in  general,  and  the  special  provision  made  for  the  un- 
employed, all  these  torm  a  golden  thread  of  Christian 
democracy  that  runs  through  the  whole  course  of  me- 
dieval Church  history,  unbroken  and  imtamished 
amid  its  surroundings  of  iron  and  stone.  The  Truce 
of  God  (which  proclaimed  the  inviolability  of  the 
lands  ana  domimons  of  a  lord  who  had  gone  to  the 
Crusades)  was  not  only  a  safeguard  of  that  lord's 
interests,  but  above  all  of  his  people,  who,  in  the  ab- 
aence  of  their  military  chief  could  offer  but  a  sorry 
defence  against  tiie  frequent  inroads  of  neighbouring 
lords  or  princes.  The  mcmtea  pietatUf  too.  were  an 
admirable  Catholic  institution  that  delivered  the  poor 
from  the  dutches  of  the  extortioner  from  whom  they 
were  obliged  to  borrow.  The  many  thousand  confra- 
ternities scattered  up  and  down  Europe  were  religious 
associations,  but  in  nearly  every  instance  they  had  a 
4K>mmon  fund  for  ihe  benefit  and  protection  of  their 
members.  Thus,  in  the  Papal  States,  up  to  the  time 
of  the  French  Revolution,  many  guilds  (such  as  shoe- 
maJcers,  carpenters,  etc.)  had  a  notary  public  and  a 
lawyer  who  were  bound  to  transact  for  a  few  pence 
the  legal  business  of  the  members  of  the  guild.  These 
few  examples,  chosen  f rom^  widely  different  fields,  suf- 
fice to  show  that  an  organized  action,  really  Catholic 
and  really  of  the  people,  is  one  of  the  time-honoured 
traditions  of  Catholicism. 

But  the  last  definitive  stage  of  Christian  democracy, 
and  one  that  has  given  the  name  a  fixed  and  technical 
meaning,  dates  from  the  time  that  elapsed  between 
the  fall  of  Napoleon  I  and  the  international  Revolution 
of  1848.  Among  the  many  calumnies  heaped  upon 
the  Church  during  the  French  Revolution  was  the 
charge  that  she  was  anti-democratic,  and  this  not  only 
in  a  political,  but  also  in  a  larger  social  sense;  it 
meant  that  the  Church  favoured  the  great  and  mighty, 
and  sided  with  the  monarchical  oligarchy  ag^nst  the 
just  political  and  economic  demands  of  the  middle  and 
lower  classes.  The  horrors  of  the  Revolution  and, 
later  oi^  the  illusions  of  the  Restoration,  drove  the 


clergy  and  a  number  of  the  tJiinking  laity  into  themove* 
ment  of  the  Oounter-Revolution,  whi<m,  in  the  hands 
of  politicians  like  Mettemich,  developed  into  a  ^  re- 
action'^  i.  e.  it  was  not  deemed  sufficient  to  strug^e 
against  the  evil  of  revolution  and  uphold  the  social 
Older;  it  was  thought  necessary  to  restore  the  old 
regime,  bury  everything  good  and  bad  that  savoured 
of  democracy,  and  thereby  deprive  the  peoj^e  of  a 
means  of  improving  their  poutico-economie  condi- 
tions. This  reactionary  programme  looked  on  the 
social  question  as  one  to  be  solved  by  fear  of  the  Gov* 
emment's  armed  hand,  by  charitable  subsidies,  and 
by  the  creation  of  holidays.  This  programme  found 
support  in  a  saying  attributed  to  the  mng  of  Naples: 
To  rule  the  mob  yt)U  must  use  three  /'s:  /es^s,  farina^ 
and  foTca  (festivals,  food,  and  gallows).  But  a  new 
revolution  was  in  the  air.  The  Carbonari  began  thei/ 
work  in  1821  and  kept  on  until  it  resulted  in  the  gen* 
eral  upheaval  of  1848.  The  mass  of  the  clergy  and  of 
militant  Catholics  stood  by  the  '^  reaction '*  as  far  as 
it  was  a  counter-revolution  in  the  better  sense  of  the 
word ;  but  in  the  general  public  opinion  the  cle^  and 
the  Catholics,  pa^rtly  throu^  mistakes  of  their  own, 
but  chiefly  through  the  malice  of  their  enemies,  came 
to  be  looked  upon  as  reactionaries  who  favoured  the 
oppression  of  tne  people. 

Then  there  besan  among.  Catholics  **9k  reaetiOii 
aeainst  reaction  ,  and  there  arose,  especially  in 
france,  the  de  Lamennais  party  which  had  as  a 
mouthpiece  the  newspaper  known  as  **L'Avenir,''  and 
for  its  motto,  "  God  ancf  Liberty ".  There  is  no  doubt 
that  Ozanam,  with  his  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  had  the  true  practical  idea  of  charity,  at  once 
thoroughly  Christian  and  thoroughly  adapted  to  act- 
ual needs;  he  was  not  content  with  the  passing  touch 
of  the  hand  that  ^ve  and  the  hand  that  received,  but 
he  sent  the  charitable  into  the  very  homes  or  the 
needy  and  brought  them  face  to  face  with  the  hard 
reality  in  order  to  give  them  a  better  undemtanding 
and  a  stronger  sense  of  brotherhood.  De  Lamemuus 
had  an  insight,- confused  but  keenly  felt,  into  a  pojn*- 
lar  Catholic  action  not  restricted  to  works  of  material 
and  immediate  beneficence,  but  extendinp  beyond 
these  to  an  assertion  of  justice  and  social  equity  for  the 
lower  classes.  De  Lamennais,  therefore,  was  in  real- 
ity a  pioneer  of  Christian  democracy.  Unfortunately, 
he  also  led  the  way  in  errors  that  even  to-day  we  de- 
plore. By  involving  the  ethioo-juridical  and  econom- 
ical action  of  Christian  democracy  in  political  agita- 
tion, he  fell  into  a  mistake  which  was  the  more  un« 
fortunate  as  the  parties  of  his  day  made  use  of  it  to 
brin^  about  a  violent  political  crisis.  He  was  wrong, 
too,  in  believing  that  liberty  wss  the  positive  foundi 
tion  of  everything;  hence  the  justice  of  the  reproadi 
cast  upon  his  formula,  "God  and  Liberty":  either 
Liberty  was  superfluous,  since  that  is  already  implied 
in  God,  or  the  phrase  was  illogical,  since  there  can 
be  no  question  of  liberty  unless  it  hannonises  with 
social  order.  And  so  de  Lamennais  and  his  move- 
ment ended  in  failure. 

The  revolution  of  1848  and  the  consequent  reac- 
tion of  1850  hindered  the  Catholics  from  availing 
themselves  of  such  good  as  there  was  in  de  Lamen- 
nais' attempt.  Then  came  the  political  and  relig- 
ious struggles  which  the  Church  nad  to  face  during 
the  long  pontificate  of  Pius  IX  and  the  eariy  years 
of  Leo  XIII's  rule.  But  the  latter  pontiff  soon 
issued  his  Encyclicals  on  the  political,  ethical,  jurid- 
ical, and  economical  questions  of  the  day,  and  in 
dealing  with  the  social  question  in  its  popular  aspects 
he  published,  15  May,  1891,  the  immortal  ''Rerum 
Novarum"  which  has  become  the  Magna  Charta  of 
Christian  democracy.  Measures  were  at  once  taken 
to  secure  popular  Catholic  action;  and  it  quickly  ap- 
peared how  unequal  most  Catholics  were  to  the  doc- 
trinal and  practical  requirements  of  the  situation. 
On  the  one  hand,  many  of  them,  terrified  by  the  evils 


DEMON 


710 


OSMOH 


of  the  Revolutioa  (eBpecially  in  Latm  ooimtries), 
woidd  not  hear  of  the  bunung  queBtions  of  the  day  or 
of  new  organizations,  but  confined  themselves  to  the 
old  traditional  methods  of  material  and  spiritual  as- 
sistance, occasionally  venturing  on  the  establishment 
(tf  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  of  working- 
men's  mutual  benefit  societies,  such  as  were  already 
widely  or^mized  by  the  middle-class  liberal  party. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  were  some  who  thought  that 
the  best  means  of  combating  Socialism  was  to  imitate 
it;  and  they  encouraged  ideas,  attitudes,  and  expres- 
noDS  of  a  socialistic  type,  which  resulted  in  a  dis- 
torted viewpoint  and  an  undisciplined  activity,  to  the 
great  iniury  of  genuine  popular  CathoUc  action. 

But  these  various  tummgs  in  the  course  of  modem 
Chnstian  democracy  are  hs^ly  as  yet  matters  of  his- 
tory; they  are  rather  items  in  a  chronicle  that  is  still 
being  written:  and  this  is  not  the  place  to  discuss 
them.  Only  let  it  be  noted  that  Leo  XIII  over  and 
oyer  again,  especially  in  receiving  pilgrimages  of 
workingmen,  laid  down  clearly  the  limits  and  the  na- 
ture of  popular  Catholic  action,  and  that  Pius  X  has 
ropeatedly  confirmed  and  approved  of  them.  Chri»- 
iian  democracy  is  the  ensemble  of  Catholic  doctrine, 
organization,  and  action  in  the  field  of  popular  social 
questions,  i.  e.  the  vast  field  occupied  by  the  proleta- 
nat,  called  by  some  (inexactly,  because  the  term  is 
not  wide  enough)  the  labour  question.  Christian 
democracy  recognizes  in  principle  and  in  fact  that  the 
popular  social  question  cannot  oe  limited  to  the  ques- 
tion of  justice,  nor  of  charity;  but  that  it  ought  to  es- 
tablish a  hannony  between  the  claims  of  the  first 
and  the  pleading?  of  the  second,  avoiding  the  excesses 
of  anarchistic  individualism  as  well  as  those  of  com- 
-nunism,  socialistic  or  otherwise.  Christian  democ- 
racy, then,  disapproves  of  the  conduct  of  those  "so- 
oialjstic''  Catholics  who  despise  or  minimize  the  social 
function  of  Christian  charity;  just  as  it  disapproves 
the  position  of  those  other  Catholics  who  would  ignore 
axbd  disregird  the  question  of  social,  justice  in  such 
matters  as  minimum  salary  and  maximum  number  of 
working  hours,  obligatory  insurance  of  workingmen, 
and  proportionate  snaring  of  profits.  But  real  Chris- 
tian democracy  seeks  to  be^  and  is,  absolutely  neutral 
on  political  matters.  It  is  not,  and  never  can  be 
monarchicai,  or  republican,  or  oligarchical,  or  parliar- 
mentarian,  or  partisan  in  politics.  So  much  follows 
from  its  very  nature.  On  this  foundation  Christian 
democracy,  emerging  from  the  present  crisis,  will  de- 
velop its  vaat  programme  for  the  moral  and  material 
redemption  of  the  people,  and  will  be  one  of  the 
grandest  and  most  fortunate  applications  of  the  pro- 
gramme of  Pius  X,  "  to  restore  all  tilings  in  Christ". 

The  Name. — After  the  appearance  of  the  Encycli- 
cal "Rerum  Novarum",  the  rapid  growth  of  popular 
Catholic  action  called  for  a  suitable  name  to  describe 
it.  The  old  name,  indeed,  "Popular  Catholic  Ac- 
tion'', was  both  accurate  and  comprehensive;  but  a 
discussion  arose  as  to  selecting  a  nam  de  auerre,  and  the 
choice  eventually  lay  between  "Catholic  Socialism" 
and  "Christian  Democracy''.  The  discussion  was 
carried  on  especially  in  Belgium,  where  popular  Cath- 
olic action  had  been  highly  developed.  Those  in  fav- 
our of  "Catholic  Socialism"  pointed  out  that  the 
name  aocialiwn  signified  purely  social  questions,  while 
democracy  implied  the  ioea  of  ^vemment  and  there- 
fore savoured  of  politics.  Theu-  opponents  answered 
that  wdalxsm  was  a  branded  wora,  and  belonged  to 
the  materialistic  and  revolutionary  party  known  by 
tiiat  name,  while  democracy  had  lost  its  political  mean- 
ing and  actually  signified  nothing  else  than  "popular 
question"  or  merely  "popularity^';  so  much  so  that  a 
king  who  loves  his  people  and  is  loved  by  them  is 
called  a  "democratic"  king.  In  the  end  the  word 
democracy  won;  and  Leo  XIII  in  the  Encyclical 
"Graves  de  communi"  (18  January,  1901)  declared 
as  acceptable  and  accepted  the  expression  "Christian 


demooracv''  as  meaning  neither  more  nor  ten  tiua 
popular  Catholic  action  and  as  having  for  its  aim  to 
comfort  and  uplift  the  lower  classes  {etudivm  eoUmda 
^ngendasque  plebis),  excluding  expressly  eveIyappea^ 
ance  and  implication  of  political  meaning,  ihus  the 
name  was  officially. accepted  at  onoe  (o-  g-  by  the 
"Opera  dei  Congress!  e  Comitati  Cattolid  dutalia")  in 
the  sense  laid  down  by  the  encvclical.  But  unforta- 
nate  complications  soon  arose  through  the  action  of  a 
few,  who  were  not  unjustly  likened  to  the  Roman  rev- 
olutionaries of  1848  who  besought  Pius  IX  to  give 
them  a  constitution,  nothing  but  a  constitution,  and, 
when  they  got  it,  wanted  to  pass  off  anything  and 
everything  under  the  name  of  the  Constitution.  There 
were  formed  soon  (in  France,  Italy,  and  Belgitim) 
groups  of  "Christian  Democrats"  who  made  it  their 
business  to  war  against  conservative  Catholics  and  to 
consort  with  Socialists.  On  their  leaflets  and  calendars 
the  Italian  demo-Christians  printed  the  dilemma: 
"either  Bourbonist  or  Chnstlan-Democrats",  aa 
though  to  be  a  Bourbon  in  politics  hindered  one  from 
belonging  to  the  party  of  popular  Catholic  action, 
1.  e.  to  Christian  Democracy.  While  insisting  that  it 
is  still  at  the  chronicle  stage,  we  may  state  in  conclo^- 
sion  that  the  term  Chnstian  Democracy  seems  to  hart 
been  seriously  compromised  by  the  action  of  Aoee 
who  distorted  its  meaning  from  that  laid  down  in  the 
Encyclical  "Graves  de  communi";  it  therefore  in- 
dines  to  lose  the  meaning  of  "popular  Catholic  ao^ 
tion",  and  tends  more  and  more  to  denote  a  sd^ool 
and  a  politick  party.  (See  Belgixtm;  France; 
Germany;  Italy;  Spaik.) 

Ada  teonU  XIIT  (Rome.  1903);   Ada  PH  X  (Rome.  1904); 
Rimda  ihiemagionaU  di  §tudi  •oeiaU  (Borne,  1803). 

U.   BXNIGNL 

DemQn  (Greek  icU/iuw  and  Ztu/i&wwr;  Lat.  demuy- 
fdum). — In  Scripture  and  in  Catholic  theology  this 
word  has  come  to  mean  much  the  same  as  devil  and 
denotes  one  of  the  evil  spirits  or  fallen  angels  (see 
Devil).  And  in  fact  in  some  places  in  the  New  Testae 
ment  where  the  Vulgate,  in  agreement  with  the 
Greek,  has  dcemonium,  our  vernacular  versions  read 
devU,  TTie  precise  distinction  between  the  two  tenns 
in  ecclesiastical  i]sage  may  be  seen  In  the  phrase  used 
in  the  decree  of  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council:  "Diab 
olus  enim  et  alii  dsemones"  (The  devil  and  the  other 
demons),  i.  e.  all  are  demons,  and  the  <^ief  of  the 
demons  is  called  the  devil.  This  distinction  is  ob- 
served in  the  Vulgate  New  Testament,  where  diaboltu 
represents  the  Greek  Sidfiokot,  and  in  ahnost  erei}' 
instance  refers  to  Satan  himself,  whOe  his  subordinate 
angels  are  described,  in  accordance  with  the  Greek,  as 
dcsmonee  or  daemcnia,  Ihis  must  not  be  taken,  how- 
ever, to  indicate  a  difference  of  nature;  for  Satan  is 
clearly  included  among  the  dcemonee  in  James,  ii,  19, 
and  in  Luke,  xi.  15, 18.  But  thou^  the  word  demon 
is  now  practically  restricted  to  this  sinister  sense,  it 
was  otherwise  with  the  earlier  usage  of  the  Greek 
writers.  The  word,  which  is  apparently  derived  from 
Zalta  "to  divide"  or  "apijortion",  originally  meant  a 
divine  being;  it  was  occasionally  applied  to  the  higher 
gods  and  goddesses,  but  was  more  generally  used  to 
denote  spiritual  beings  of  a  lower  order  coming  be- 
tween gods  and  men.  For  the  most  part  these  were 
beneficent  beings,  and  their  office  was  somewhat  anal- 
^ous  to  that  of  the  angqls  in  Christian  theology, 
ft  us  the  adjective  €^5o/;wr,  "happy",  propoify 
meant  one  who  was  guided  and  guaraed  by  a  good 
demon.  Some  of  these  Greek  demons,  however,  were 
evil  and  malign^mt.  Hence  we  have  the  counter 
part  to  ^Safwvla^  "happiness",  in  nuco^cu^vla  which 
denoted  misfortune,  or  in  its  more  original  meaning, 
beinff  imder  the  possession  of  an  evil  demon.  In  the 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament  and  in  the  language  of 
the  early  Fathers,  the  word  was  already  restricted  to 
the  sinister  sense,  which  was  natural  enou^i  w^ 


BSM01IIAC8 


711 


tf&a.t  even  the  hi^er  gods  of  the  Greeks  had  come  to  be 
xegsjxled  as  devils. 

\^e  have  a  curious  instance  of  the  ccmfusion  caused 
by  the  ambiguity  and  variations  in  the  meaning  of  the 
"word,  in  the  case  of  the  celebrated  "  Daemon*'  of  Soc- 
rates. This  has  been  understood  in  a  bad  sense  by 
some  Christian  writers  who  have  made  it  a  matter  of 
reproach  that  the  great  Greek  philosopher  was  accom- 
pajciied  and  prompted  by  a  demon.  But,  as  Cardinal 
Manning  cleariy  shows  in  his  paper  on  the  subject,  thd 
word  here  has  a  very  different  meaning.  He  points  to 
the  fact  that  both  Plato  and  Xenophon  use  the  form 
9a^9u>p,  which  Cicero  rightly  renders  as  divinum 
cUi^uid,  '^something  divine".  And  after  a  close  ex- 
ammation  of  the  account  of  the  matter  given  by 
Socrates  himself  in  the  reports  transmitted  by  his  dis- 
ciples, he  concludes  that  the  promptings  of  the 
'*  Daemon "  were  the  dictates  of  conscience,  which  is 
the  voice  of  God. 

It  may  be  observed  that  a  similar  change  and  de- 
terioration of  meaning  has  taken  place  in  the  Iranian 
languages  in  the  case  of  the  word  daeva,  Etymolpg- 
icalTy  this  is  identical  with  the  Sanskrit  deva,  by  which 
it  is  rendered  in  Neriosengh's  veraion  of  the  Avesta. 
But  whereas  the  devas  of  Indian  theology  are  good 
and  beneficent  gods,  the  daevas  of  the  Avesta  are 
hateful  spirits  ofevil.    (See  also  Dbmonowkjy.) 

Manning,  The  Damon  of  Soeraiea  (1872);  Ai.exandeb; 
Demonic  Poaaession  in  the  New  Teelameni  (1002). 

W.  H.  Kent. 

Demoniacs  (Gr.  HoAiutviKAt,  BvufMwtt^tuvof,  possessed 
by  a  demon). — ^The  idea  of  demonic  possession  bjr 
which  a  man  becomes  demonized,  that  is  possessed 
or  controlled  by  a  demon,  was  present  in  many  ancient 
ethnic  religions,  and  in  fact  it  is  foimd  in  one  form  or 
another  wherever  there  is  a  belief  in  the  existence  of 
demons,  and  that  is  practically  everywhere  (cf.  Dvh 
mon;  Demonology).  Here,  however,  we  are  chiefly 
concerned  with  the  demonic  possession  in  the  New 
Testament;  for  this  is  in  many  ways  the  most  worthy 
of  special  attention,  and  serves  as  a  standard  by  whidi 
we  may  judge  of  cases  occurring  elsewhere.  Further 
questions  in  regard  to  these  other  cases  and  the  gen- 
eral practice  of  the  Clhurch  in  dealing  with  those  who 
are  possessed  by  evil  spirits  will  be  treated  in  other 
articles  (Exorcism,  Obsession).  Among  the  many 
miracles  recorded  in  the  synoptic  Gospels,  special 

Srominence  is  given  to  the  casting  out  of  devils  or 
emons  (JcU/awf,  dai/iiviov).  Thus,  in  St.  Mark,  the 
first  of  all  the  wonders  is  the  casting  out  of  the  devil 
from  a  demoniac,  the  man  '*with  an  unclean  spirit" 
(iw  wpe6fMTi  djeaffdfyrtp)  in  the  synagogue  at  Caphar- 
naum.  And  St.  Peter  thus  describes  the  mission  and 
the  miracles  of  Christ:  "Jesus  of  Nazareth:  how  God 
anointed  him  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  with  power, 
who  went  about  doing  good>  and  healing  all  that  were 
oppressed  by  the  devil  '  (rodf  KaradwaarevofUpovt  ^b 
rod  dta^Xov — ^Acts,  X,  38). 

The  reason  for  the  stress  thus  laid  on  this  casting 
out  of  the  devils  is  not  far  to  seek.  For  the  miracles  of 
Christ,  as  St.  Augustine  says,  are  both  deeds  and 
words.  They  are  works  done  in  testimony  of  His 
power  and  His  Divine  mission ;  and  they  are  words,  be- 
cause they  have  a  deep  significance.  In  both  these 
aspects  tne  casting  out  of  devils  seems  to  have  a 
special  pre-eminence.  Few,  if  any,  of  the  wonders  can 
be  said  to  give  such  a  striking  nroof  of  a  power  above 
the  order  (3  nature.  And  for  this  reason  we  find  that 
the  disciples  seem  to  have  been  more  impressed  by 
this  than  by  the  other  powers  given  t6  them — "The 
devib  even  are  subject  to  us."  And  as,  when  He 
stilled  the  storm  at  sea,  they  cried:  "Who  is  this 
(think  you),  that  He  commandeth  both  the  winds  and 
the  sea,  and  they  obey  Him?"  (Luke,  viii,  25).  So 
those  who  saw  the  devil  cast  out  at  Caphamaum 
asked:  "What  thing  is  this?    What  is  this  new  doc- 


trine? For  with  power  He  oommandetheton  the  ihh 
clean  spirits,  and  they  obey  Him"  (Mark,  i,  27).  In 
the  same  way  it  may  be  said  that  these  wonders  speak 
in  a  special  manner  and  show  forth  the  meaning  of  His 
mission ;  for  He  had  come  to  break  the  power  of  Satan 
and  deliver  men  from  their  state  of  servitude.  It  m 
thus  that  Christ  Himself,  on  the  eve  of  His  Passion, 
speaks  of  the  great  victory  which  He  was  about  to 
accomplish  by  His  Cross  on  Calvaiy:  "Now  is  the 
judgment  of  the  worid:  now  i^all  tne  prince  of  this 
Wond  be  cast  out"  (Jolm,  zii,  31).  That  casting-out 
is  symbolized  in  the  deliverance  of  every  demoniac^ 
They  mig^t  also  be  in  the  slaveiy  of  sin  and  in  need  of 
forgiveness.  They  might  possibly  have  some  bodily 
infimity  and  need  hesJing:  still,  it  was  not  for  this 
that  they  were  said  to  be  demoniaos,  but  because  an 
evil  spirit  had  literally  entered  into,  and  taken  posses- 
sion (H,  them  to  control  and  direct,  or  perhaps  nindery 
their  physical  powers,  e.  g.  to  speak  through  tiieir 
vocal  organs,  or  to  tie  their  tongues.  And  thou|^ 
this  possession  might  be  associated  with  sin,  this  was 
not  necessarily  the  case;  for  sometimes  this  affliction 
might  befall  an  innocent  peraon,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
boy  who  had  been  possessed  from  his  infancy  (Mark, 
ix,  20).  So  neitiier  is  it  necessary  to  suppose  that 
there  was  any  bodily  infirmity  in  the  victim  distinct 
from  the  demonic  jxxsessian  itself,  even  in  the  case  of 
tiiose  who  are  described  as  beinffbiind  or  dumb  as  wel 
as  being  possessed  by  a  devil.  For  it  may  be — and  in 
some  places  it  may  seem  that  this  is  intimated  by  thb 
text — ^that  the  dumbness  or  other  infiormity  is  not  due 
to  any  defect  in  the  oieans,  but  to  the  fact  that  their 
normal  activity  is  hindered  by  the  possessinp  deviL 
Hence,  when  onoe  his  influ^ioe  and  restraint  is  taken 
away,  the  infirmity  forthwith  disappears. 

It  is  in  this  way  that  these  cases  of  demonic  posses- 
sion have  been  constantly  understood  by  Catholk 
commentators;  that  is  to  say,  the  words  of  Scripture 
have  been  taken  literally,  and  understood  to  mean 
that  an  evil  spirit,  one  of  the  fallen  angels,  has  entered 
into  the  demoniac,  that  this  spirit  may  speak  throug^i 
the  voice  of  the  demonised  person,  but  that  it  is  not 
the  man,  but  the  spirit,  who  is  speaking,  and  that  by 
the  command  of  Christ  or  that  of  one  <»  His  servants 
the  evil  spirit  may  be  cast  out,  and  the  possessed  peN 
son  set  free.  And  though  our  commentators  and 
theologians  have  treated  the  subject  of  obsession  with 
their  wonted  fullness  of  detail  and  critical  discrimina^ 
tion,  for  a  long  time  there  was  little  occasion  for  any 
determined  defence  of  this  literal  interpretation  and 
acceptance  of  the  Scriptural  doctrine  on  this  matter. 
For  even  in  the  days  of  the  first  Reformers,  when  so 
many  traditional  doctrines  were  rudely  called  in 
question,  there  was  no  disposition  to  dispute  the  real- 
ity of  demonic  possession.  Hie  primitive  Protestants 
might  not  accept  the  claims  of  the  diiurch  to  the 
power  of  exoreising  evil  spirits,  as  they  plainly  denied 
the  hi^er  sacramental  powers  of  the  CSiristian  {»iest- 
hood;but  they  had  no  mind  to  doubt  or  deny  the 
existence  of  evil  spirits  and  the  reality  of  Satanic  influ*- 
ence  and  activity.  Nor  is  this  surprising,  since  Hie 
beginning  of  Protestantism  waA  marked  by  an  increase 
in  practices  of  superatition,  and  for  a  long  while,  both 
in  Catholic  and  in  Protestant  countries,  men  were 
prone  to  be  too  credulous  in  these  matters,  and  to 
exaggerate  the  extent  of  obsession,  witchcraft,  and 
intercourse  with  evil  spirits. 

Needless  to  say,  the  whole  traditional  doctrine  dn 
this  matter  was  rejected  by  the  Sceptical  philosophers 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  And  with  the  spr^ul  of 
new  ideas  in  the  age  of  revolution,  and  political  econ- 
omy and  practical  science,  it  seemed,  for  a  time  at  any 
rate,  in  tne  early  nineteenth  century,  that  the  old 
superstitious  beliefs  in  spirits  and  witchcraft  were 
dying  a  natural  death.  Most  educated  men  were  in- 
credulous of  any  diabolical  agency  in  this  worid,  even 
if  they  retained  some  shadowy  belief  in  the  existenoe 


jmrnoMUM 


712 


DXM0IIIAC3 


U  the  evil  spiiita  in  another  sphere.  But  with  a 
happy  inconsistency,  many  who  rejected  as  supersti- 
tious  all  other  alie^d  cases  of  obsession  still  professed 
their  belief  in  the  uoe|)el  narrative,  with  its  numerous 
demoniacs  and  its  miraculous  exorcisms.  Of  course 
it  was  possible,  at  least  in  the  abstract,  and  without 
making  a  too  curious  examination  of  the  facts,  to  hold 
a  theory  that  possession  had  really  happened  of  old 
and  had  since  ceased  altogether.  For  all  must  admit 
that  in  any  case  it  does  not  occur  with  the  same  fre- 
quency in  all  ages  or  in  every  land  alike.  But  it  is  one 
tninp  to  dispute  the  fact  and  another  to  deny  the  pos- 
sibility of  demonic  possession  in  medieval  or  moaem 
times.  It  may  be  a  great  mistake,  but  there  is  no  con- 
tradiction involved  insaying  that  obsession  did  hapoen 
of  M.  but  does  not  happen  now;  it  is  surely  another 
matter  if  we  say  that  these  things  cannot  happen  now, 
tibat  they  are  intrinsically  impossible.  And  thou^ 
the^  may  not  be  fully  conscious  of  their  own  motives, 
it  IS  to  be  feared  that  this  is  really  the  position 
adopted  by  those  who  reject  all  cases  of  demonic  pos- 
session except  those  that  are  recorded  in  the  New 
Testam^it.  It  is  true  that  some  are  provided  with  a 
theological,  or  Biblical,  reason  for  this  limitation. 
For  thev  tell  us  that  possession  was  indeed  possible 
before  the  Death  of  Christ,  but  that  since  that  great 
▼ictcNy  the  power  of  Satan  has  been  broken,  or,  in  the 
language  of  Scripture,  he  has  been  bound,  so  that  he 
can  no  longer  gain  possession  of  the  bodies  of  men. 
It  may  be  ueely  allowed  that  there  is  no  contradiction 
or  inconsistency  involved  in  admitting  the  Gospel 
oases  of  obsession  and  denying  the  others,  if  this  be 
the  real  reason  for  making  the  distinction.  But  it  is 
difficult  to  believe  that  this  is  really  the  ground  on 
which  all  later  instances  are  rejected  as  unreal.  For, 
after  all,  this  doctrine  about  thewbinding  of  Satan  and 
the  consequent  ceasing  of  obsession  is  at  best  a  theo- 
logical conjecture  (see  Devil)  and  a  plausible  inter- 
pretation of  a  mysterious  text,  and  as  such  it  can 
nardlv  afford  a  basis  for  a  certain  conclusion.  And  it 
may  be  safely  said  that  those  who  deny  all  modem 
or  medieval  cases  of  obsession  are  generally  vei^  cer- 
tain of  their  conclusion.  There  is  a  further  difficulty 
in  the  fact  that  cases  of  obsession  are  recorded  in  the 
New  Testament  as  having  taken  place  after  the  death 
of  Christ. 

It  was  no  doubt  due  to  the  force  of  these  objections, 
or  te  a  desire  te  find  some  means  of  meeting  or  evad- 
ing them,  that  the  Rationalistic  school  of  German 
Biblical  criticism  set  about  the  task  of  providing  a 
new  interpretation  of  the  Gospel  cases  of  demonic 
possession.  Older  free-thinking  philosophers  and  as- 
sailants of  revealed  religion  had  bluntly  denied  the 
fact  of  obsession,  and  asserted. that  the  demoniacs 
were  merely  madmen,  that  they  were  suffering  from 
epilepsy,  or  mania,  or  some  other  form  of  mental 
alienation,  and  that  Jewish  superstition  had  ascribed 
the  disease  to  the  presence  of  an  evil  spirit.  The 
earlier  school  of  German  Rationalist  theologians  en- 
deavoured to  modify  this  view  of  the  matter  and  so 
interpret  the  Sacred  Text  as  to  reconcile  the  natural- 
istic explanation  with  due  reverence  for  the  Gospel  and 
for  the  wisdom  of  the  Divine  Redeemer.  Thus  they 
accepted  the  view  that  the  demoniacs  were  merely 
lunatics,  and  that  it  was  only  popular  superstition 
that  imagined  that  they  were  possessed  by  devils.  So 
far  these  theologians  agreed  with  the  infidel  writers. 
But,  instead  of  making  the  confusion  between  lunacy 
and  possession  a  ground  of  attack  on  the  Gospel,  thev 
went  on  to  explain  that  Christ  indeed  knew  the  truth 
and  only  accommodated  Himself  to  the  ideas  of  His 
ignorant  hearers,  who  were  incapable  of  grasping  the 
true  facts,  and  that  this  was  the  wisest  way  to  lead 
them  on  to  the  truth.  One  of  these  interpretera  seeks 
to  explain  the  answers  to  the  evil  spirit  at  Caphar- 
naum  by  the  method  adopted  bv  doctors  in  dealing 
with  those  who  are  suftering  under  a  delusion.    The 


best  means  of  curing  them  is  often  found  in  an  affected 
adoption  of  the  patient's  delusion,  e.  g.,  if  he  imagnpa 
that  he  has  to  undergo  some  operation,  l^e  doctor  wiD 
pretend  to  perform  it.  In  the  same  way  it  is  sug- 
gested that  the  superstitious  belief  in  demonic  posses- 
sion prevailed  among  the  Jews  in  the  time  oTChnst 
(and  whether  true  or  false  it  certainly  did  prevdl 
among  them),  and  in  these  circumstances  a  lunatic 
might  very  well  be  under  the  delusion  that  he  wad 
a  subject  of  this  imaginary  obsession;  and  thus  a 
wise  physician  might  cure  the  delusion  by  means 
of  an  sfiected  exorcism  of  the  non-existent  evil 
spirit. 
The  fallacy  of  this  crude  Rationalism  was  searcK- 

J;ly  criticized  and  exposed  by  Strauss  in  his  critii^ 
e  of  Christ  more  than  seventy  years  ago  (Das  Leben 
Jesu,  ix).     He  points  out  that  such  interpretations 
not  only  have  no  basis  in  the  text,  but  that  there  is 
much   there   that   plainlv   contradicte    them.    The 
critic,  he  observes,  is  really  ascribing  the  ideas  of  his 
own  time  to  those  who  lived  in  the  first  century.  And 
indeed  a  closer  scrutin^r  of  the  evidence  may  weU  be 
enough  to  show  that  this  Rationalistic  ex^;esis  is  in- 
consistent in  itself  and  in  conflict  with  tiie  testimony 
of  the  very  documents  on  which  it  professes  to  be 
founded.    It  may  be  admitted  that  uiere  is  an  ele- 
ment of  truth  in  the  general  notion  that  there  may  be 
some  condescension  or  accommodation  where  an  en- 
lightened teacher  is  addressing  a  rude  and  uncultured 
audience,  and  one  who  cannot  in  some  measure  adapt 
himself  to  their  crude  conceptions  and  habits  of 
thou^t  and  expression  mi^ht  as  well  address  them  in 
a  foreign  tongue.    It  may  be  added  that  in  the  case  of 
a  Divine  teacher  there  must  needs  be  some  condesoeiv 
sion  or  accommodation  to  the  lowty  ways  of  men. 
And  for  this  reason  St.  Gre^iy  Nazianzen  likens  the 
inspired  words  of  Holv  Scnpture  to  the  simple  lan- 
guage in  which  a  mother  speaks  to  her  Ueping  little 
ones.    It  need  not  surprise  us,  therefore,  did  we  find 
that  Christ  accommodfated  His  words  to  the  limi^- 
tions  of  those  who  heard  Him.    But  this  principle  will 
not  serve  to  explain  His  manner  of  speaking  and  act- 
ing in  regard  to  this  matter  of  demomc  possession,  for 
it  simply  will  not  fit  the  facts.     It  is  not  a  question  of 
some  isolated  and  possibly  ambiguous  action  or  utter- 
ance, but  of  many  and  various  acts  and  utterances  ail 
consistent  with  each  other,  and  with  the  bdief  or 
knowledge  that  there  is  real  demonic  possession,  azid 
utterly  incompatible  with  the  interpretation  that  h&s 
been  put  upon  tHem  by  these  critics.     It  may  be  a 
wise  course  to  humour  a  madman  who  imagines  hiiir 
self  to  be  possessed,  by  pretending  to  accept  his  heUei 
and  bidding  the  devU  depart  from  him,  and  in  the 
case  of  some  modem  missionary,  of  whom  we  knew  no 
more  than  the  fact  that  he  had  used  some  words  in  a 
case  of  supposed  possession,  there  might  be  room  to 
doubt  whether  he  nimself  believed  in  the  p)ossession,  or 
was  merely  seeking  to  pacify  a  lunatic  by  making  use 
of  his  delusion.    But  it  would  surely  be  otherwise  if 
we  found  the  same  missionary  speaking  in  this  way^ 
about  demons  and  demonic  possession  to  others  who 
were  not  lunatics  suffering  from  this  painful  mono- 
mania: if  we  found  him  teaching  how  evil  spirits  ent^r 
into  a  man,  and  how,  when  they  are  cast  out,  the/ 
wander  in  desolate  places.    Yet  this  is  what  we  actu- 
ally find  in  the  Gospels,  where  Christ  not  only  ao* 
dresses  the  devils  and  bids  them  depart  or  be  silent, 
and  thus  treats  them  as  personalities  distinct  from  thij 
man  who  is  the  subject  of  possession,  but  speaks  of 
them  in  the  same  way  to  His  disciples,  to  whom  b« 
teaches  a  doctrine  about  demonic  possession.  ^  So 
again,  it  may  sometimes  be  a  wise  course  for  a  religious 
teacher  to  deal  gently  with  the  beliefs  of  the  ignorant: 
he  may  feel  that  it  is  impossible  to  do  all  at  once,  ana 
that  some  errors  can  only  be  destroyed  by  gen"J 
means  and  gradual  enlightenment.    It  may  be  u|w 
the  best  and  most  enUghtened  teacher,  who  f      *  '"" 


DEMONOLOOt 


713 


bUMOlTOLOOir 


self  in  the  midst  of  a  simple,  credulous,  ana  supersti- 
tious population,  would  shrink  from  adopting  harsh 
and  drastic  measures  to  get  rid  of  these  cherished 
superstitions  and  popular  errors.  And  though  on  this 
point  we  must  speak  with  some  reserve,  it  is  possible 
that  in  such  a  case  the  teacher,  in  endeavouring  to 
make  himself  imdeistood  by  his  hearers,  will  use  their 
OTvn  language  and  convey  his  own  messaee  of  truth 
through  the  medium  of  words  and  phrases  which,  taken 
literafly,  may  seem  to  give  some  countenance  to  these 
popular  errors.  But  wnether  this  be  permissible  or  no, 
it  may  be  safely  asserted  that  a  wise  and  good  teacher 
will  not  carry  nis  accommodation  to  the  point  of  con- 
firming his  hearers  in  their  delusions.  And  these 
critics  themselves  can  hardly  question  the  fact  that 
the  whole  treatment  of  demonic  possession  in  the 
Gospels  has  had  this  effect,  and  has  confirmed  and 
perpetuated  the  belief  in  real  demonic  possession. 

And  at  least  in  these  latter  days  there  must  be  many 
-who  would  have  abandoned  all  belief  in  the  reality  or 
even  the  bare  possibility  of  any  such  possession,  but 
that  they  felt  constrained  to  believe  it  on  the  author- 
ity of  Christ  and  the  testimony  of  the  Gospels.  Cer- 
tainly, tf  it  were  possible  to  accept  this  interpretation 
of  the  early  Rationalists,  and  regard  the  attitude  of 
Christ  as  an  accommodation  to  popular  beliefs  and 
superstitions,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  alleged 
economy  has  had  very  unfortunate  consequences. 
Later  Rationalists,  who  see  the  difficulty,  or  rather 
t)ie  impossibility,  of  reconciling  this  view  with  the 
evidence  of  the  Gospels,  have  turned  to  other  ways 
of  escape,  and,  like  tne  other  supernatural  and  mirac- 
ulous elements  in  the  Gospel  narrative,  the  instances 
of  demonic  possession  ana  the  casting  out  of  devils 
h  ave  been  explained  as  parts  of  a  mythical  legend  that 
h«is  grown  up  around  the  figure  of  Christ:  or  again 
they  have  furnished  grounds  for  disputing  the  fullness 
of  His  knowledge,  or  the  authenticity  and  veracity  of 
the  narrative.  This  is  not  the  place  to  deal  with  these 
problems  of  apologetics;  but  it  may  be  well  to  say  a 
word  on  the  true  ground  for  the  rejection  of  belief  in 
real  demonic  possession.  The  tenaency  has  been  to 
deny  the  possibility  of  miracles  or  demonic  possession. 
Ajid  it  is  sometimes  curious  that  critics  who  are  so 
bold  in  setting  limits  to  the  knowledge  of  Christ  are 
often  strangely  oblivious  of  their  own  natural  knowl- 
edge. On  metaphysical  principles  w^e  can  have  no 
valid  ground  for  deciding  that  such  a  thing  as  demonic 
obsession  is  impossible,  and  it  is  a  more  reasonable,  as 
well  as  a  more  modest,  course  to  keep  to  means  of 
knowledge  within  our  reach  and  examine  the  evidence 
adducible  for  the  actual  occurrence  of  obsession.  If 
any  one  has  examined  this  evidence  and  found  it  in- 
simicient,  his  denial  of  demonic  agency,  whether  we 
accept  it  or  not,  is  at  any  rate  entitled  to  respect. 
But  few  of  those  who  have  been  most  decided  in  their 
rejection  of  obsession  or  other  preternatural  or  mirac- 
ulous manifestations  have  taken  any  pains  to  examine 
the  adducible  evidence.  On  the  contrary,  they  have 
generally  dismissed  it  with  contempt,  as  unworthy  of 
serious  consideration.  And  Baadcr  is  surely  well 
warranted  when  he  complains  of  what  he  calls  "Ra- 
tionalistic obscurantism  and  dogmatism"  in  this 
matter  (Werke,  IV,  109).  Of  late  years  the  mag- 
netism to  which  this  acute  thinker  was  calling  the  at- 
t€*ntion  of  philosophers  in  the  work  we  have  cited,  and 
more  recently  the  phenomena  of  hypnotism  and  spirit- 
ism, have  helped  to  bring  the  critics  to  a  more  rational 
a'/titude.  And  with  the  weakening  of  this  credulous 
prejudice  many  of  the  difficulties  raised  against  the 
demonic  possession  in  the  New  Testament  will  natur- 
ally disappear. 

The  instances  of  obsession  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament  may  be  roughly  divided  into  two  classes. 
In  the  first  group  we  are  given  some  facts  which,  even 
apart  from  the  use  of  denumixed  or  some  equivalent 
term  might  suffice  to  show  that  it  is  a  case  of  demonic 


possession  properly  so  called.  Such  arc  the  cases  of 
the  "man  with  an  unclean  spirit"  in  the  synagogue  at 
Caphamaum  (Mark,  i)  ana  the  Gerasene  demoniac 
(Luke,  xi).  In  both  of  these  instances  we  have  evi- 
dence of  the  presence  of  an  evil  spirit  who  betrays 
knowledge  beyond  the  ken  of  the  demonized  person  or 
(in  the  latter  case)  manifests  his  power  elsewhere  after 
he  has  been  cast  out.  In  the  second  group  may  be 
placed  those  cases  in  which  we  are  not  given  such  dis- 
tinct and  unmistakable  signs  of  true  demonic  posses- 
sion, e.  ^.  the  woman  who  had  a  spirit  of  infirmity 
(Luke,  xiii,  11).  Here,  apart  from  the  words,  spiritt 
and  whom  Satan  hath  bound,  there  is  apparently  noth- 
ing to  distineuish  the  case  from  an  ordinary  healing  of 
infirmity.  A  careful  consideration  of  the  medical 
aspect  of  demonic  possession  has  often  been  associated 
with  a  denial  of  the  demonic  agency.  But  this  is  by 
no  means  necessary;  and,  rightly  understood,  the 
medical  evidence  may  even  help  to  establish  the  truth 
of  the  record.    This  has  been  done  within  the  last  few 

?earB  by  Dr.  Wm.  Menzies  Alexander  in  his  "Demonic 
'ossession  in  the  New  Testament:  Its  Relations,  His- 
torical, Medical,  and  Theological"  (Edinburgh,  1902). 
In  his  view,  the  Gospel  records  of  the  chief  cases  of 
demonic  possession  exhibit  all  the  symptoms  of  such 
mental  diseases  as  epilepsy,  acute  mania,  and  so  on, 
with  such  accuracy  of  detail  that  the  narrative  can 
only  owe  its  origin  to  a  faithful  report  of  the  actual 
facts.  At  the  same  time  Dr.  Alexander  is  equally 
impressed  by  the  cogency  of  the  evidence  for  real 
demonic  possession  at  least  in  these  cases.  Even 
those  reaaers  who  are  unable  to  accept  his  conclusions 
— and  in  regard  to  later  instances  of  obsession  we  are 
unable  to  follow  him — will  find  the  book  helpful  and 
suggestive  and  it  may  be  commended  to  the  attention 
of  Catholic  theologians. 

For  authorities  see  modem  titles  cited  at  end  of  Devil. 

W.  H.  Kent. 

Demonology. — As  the  name  sufficiently  indicates, 
demonology  is  the  science  or  doctrine  concerning  de- 
mons. Both  in  its  form  and  in  its  meaning  it  has  an 
obvious  analogy  with  theology,  which  is  the  science  or 
doctrine  about  God.  And  witn  reference  to  the  many 
faJse  and  dangerous  forms  of  this  demonic  science  we 
may  fitly  adapt  the  well-known  words  of  Albertus 
Magnus  on  the  subject  of  theology  and  say  of  demon- 
ology, "A  daBmonibus  docetur,  de  dsemonibus  docet, 
et  ad  dajmones  ducit". — It  is  taught  by  the  demons, 
it  teaches  about  the  demons,  and  it  leads  to  the  de- 
mons.— For  very  much  of  the  literature  that  comes 
under  this  head  of  demonology  is  tainted  with  errors 
that  may  well  owe  their  origin  to  the  father  of  false- 
hood, and  much  of  it  again,  especially  those  portions 
which  have  a  practical  purpose  (what  may  be  called 
the  ascetical  and  mystical  demonology)  is  designed  to 
lead  men  to  give  tnemselves  to  the  service  of  Satan. 
There  is,  of  course,  a  true  doctrine  about  demons  or 
evil  spirits,  to  wit  that  portion  of  Catholic  theology 
which  treats  of  the  creation  and  fall  of  the  rebel 
angels,  and  of  the  various  ways  in  which  these  fallen 
spirits  are  permitted  to  tempt  and  afflict  the  children 
of  men.  But  for  the  most  part  these  questions  will  be 
dealt  with  elsewhere  in  this  work.  Here,  on  the  con- 
trary, our  chief  concern  is  with  the  various  ethnic, 
Jewish,  and  heretical  systems  of  demonology.  These 
systems  are  so  many  that  it  will  be  out  of  the  question 
to  de^d  with  them  all  or  to  set  forth  their  doctrines 
with  completeness.  And  indeed  ^  full  treatment  of 
these  strange  doctrines  of  demons  might  well  seem 
somewhat  out  of  place  in  these  pages.  It  will  be 
enough  to  give  some  indication  of  the  main  features 
of  a  tew  of  tne  more  important  systems  in  divers  lands 
and  in  distant  ages.  This  may  enable  the  reader  to 
appreciate  the  important  part  played  by  these  ideas 
in  the  course  of  human  history  and  their  influence  on 
the  religion  and  morals  and  social  life  of  the  people. 


DXMOVOLOOT 


714 


DIMOVOLOOT 


At  the  same  time  some  attempt  may  be  made  to  di»- 
tinsuiah  the  scattered  elements  of  truth  which  may 
still  be  found  in  this  vast  fabric  of  falsehood — truths 
of  natural  religion,  recorded  experience  of  actual  facts, 
even  perhaos  remnants  of  revealed  teaching  that  come 
from  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures  or  from 
primitive  tradition.  This  point  has  some  importance 
at  the  present  day,  when  the  real  or  apparent  agree- 
ment between  heathen  l^end  and  Christian  theoioey 
is  so  often  made  a  ^und  of  objection  against  the 
truth  of  revealed  rehg^on. 

Perhaps  the  first  fact  that  strikes  one  who  ajy- 
proaches  the  study  of  this  subject  is  the  astonishing 
universality  and  antiquity  of  demonolo^,  of  some 
beHef  in  the  existence  of  demons  or  evil  spirits,  and  of 
a  consequent  recourse  to  incantations  or  other  magical 
practices.  There  are  some  things  which  flourished  in 
the  past  and  have  long  since  aisappeared  from  the 
face  of  the  earth ;  and  there  are  others  whose  recorded 
origin  may  be  traced  in  comparatively  modem  times, 
and  it  is  no  surprise  to  find  that  they  are  still  flourish- 
ing. There  are  beliefs  and  practices,  again,  which 
seem  to  be  confined  to  certain  lands  and  races  of  men, 
or  to  some  particular  BiSLgB  of  social  culture.  But 
there  is  something  which  belongs  at  once  to  the  old 
world  and  the  new,  and  is  found  flourishing  among  the 
most  widely  different  races,  and  seems  to  be  equally 
congenial  to  the  wild  habits  of  savages  and  the  refine- 
^[lents  of  classical  or  modem  culture.  Its  antiquity 
may  be  seen  not  only  from  the  evidence  of  ancient 
monuments,  but  from  the  fact  that  a  yet  more  remote 
past  is  still  present  with  us  in  the  races  which  remain, 
as  one  may  say,  in  the  primitive  and  prehistoric  con- 
dition. And  even  amid  these  rude  races,  apparently 
innocent  of  all  that  savours  of  science  and  culture,  we 
may  find  a  belief  in  evil  spirits,  and  some  attemots  to 
propitiate  them  and  avert  their  wrath,  or  maybe  to 
secure  their  favour  and  assistance.  This  belief  in 
spirits,  both  good  and  evil,  is  commonly  associated 
with  one  or  other  of  two  widespread  and  primitive 
forms  of  religious  worship — and  accordingN'  some 
modem  folk-lorists  and  mythologists  are  led  to  as- 
cribe its  origin  either  to  the  personification  of  the 
forces  of  nature — ^in  which  many  have  found  a  "  key  to 
all  the  mythologies'' — or  else  to  Animism,  or  a  belief 
in  the  powerful  activity  of  the  souls  of  the  dead,  who 
were  therefore  invoked  and  worshipped.  On  this  last 
theory  all  spirits  were  at  first  conceived  of  as  being  the 
souls  of  dead  men,  and  from  this  aboriginal  Animism 
there  were  gradually  developed  the  various  elaborate 
systems  of  mythology,  demonology,  and  angelology. 
But  here  it  is  well  to  distinguish  between  the  facts 
themselves  and  the  theoxy  devised  for  their  interpre- 
tation. It  is  a  fact  that  these  rude  forms  of  worship 
are  found  among  primitive  peoples.  But  the  manner 
in  which  they  be^m  and  the  motives  of  the  first  pre- 
historic woisnippers  are  and  must  remain  matters  of 
conjecture.  In  the  same  way,  with  regard  to  the  later 
leases,  it  is  a  fact  that  these  primitive  beliefs  and 
practices  have  some  features  in  common  with  later 
and  more  elaborate  ethnic  systems — e.  g.  the  Iranian 
demonology  of  the  Avesta-— and  these  again  have 
many  points  which  find  some  counterpart  in  the  pages 
of  Scripture  and  Catholic  theology;  but  it  bv  no  means 
follows  from  Ihese  facts  that  these  facile  theories  are 
ri^t  as  to  the  nature  of  the  connexion  between  these 
various  ethnic  and  Christian  systems.  And  a  further 
consideration  of  the  subject  may  serve  to  show  that  it 
may  be  explained  in  another  and  more  satisfactory 
manner. 

Assyrian  and  Akkadian  Demonology, — Some  idea  of 
the  antiquitv  of  demonology  and  magical  practices 
might  be  gathered  from  notices  in  the  Bible  or  m  classic 
literature,  to  say  nothing  of  the  argument  that  might 
be  dntwn  from  the  universality  of  these  beliefs  uid 
practices.  But  still  more  striking  evidence  has  been 
brought  to  light  by  the  decipherment  of  the  cuneiform 


hieroglyphics  which  has  opened  a  way  to  the  study  of 
the  rich  literature  of  Babylon  and  Araivria.  In  oonw- 
quence  of  their  beariiu;  on  the  problems  of  Biblical 
histoxy,  attention  has  been  attracted  to  the  evidence 
of  the  monuments  in  regard  to  such  matters  as  the 
cosmolo^,  the  tradition  of  the  Deluge,  or  the  relations 
of  Assyna  and  Babylon  with  the  people  of  IsruL 
And  possibly  less  interest  has  been  taken  in  the  rdig- 
ious  beliefs  and  practices  of  the  Assyrians  them- 
selves. In  this  question  of  demonology,  however, 
some  of  the  Assyrian  monuments  may  be  said  to  have 
a  special  importance.  From  certain  cuneiform  texts 
which  are  more  especially  described  as  ''religious",  it 
app^is,  as  Lenormant  remarks,  that,  besides  the 
public  and  official  cult  of  the  ^Hwdve  ^^eat  gods"  and 
their  subordinate  divinities,  the  Assyrians  had  a  more 
sacred  and  secret  reliaon,  a  reli^on  of  mysteiy  and 
magic  and  sorcery.  These  "reh^ous"  texts,  more- 
over, together  wiUi  a  mass  of  talismanic  inscriptions 
on  (flinders  and  amulets,  prove  the  presence  of  an 
exceedingly  rich  demonology.  Below  the  greater  and 
lesser  gods  there  was  a  vast  host  of  spirits,  some  of 
them  eood  and  beneficent  and  some  of  them  evil  and 
hurtful.  And  these  spirits  were  described  and  classi- 
fied with  an  exactness  which  leads  Lenormant  to  liken 
the  arrangement  to  that  of  the  choirs  and  orders  of 
our  own  angelic  hierarchy.  The  antiquity  and  im- 
portance of  mis  secret  religion,  with  its  magic  and  in- 
cantations of  the  good  spirits  or  evil  demons,  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  by  order  of  King  Assur- 
banipal  his  scribes  made  several  copies  of  a  great  ma^ 
ical  work  according  to  an  exemplar  which  had  been 
preserved  from  a  remote  antiquity  in  tiie  priestly 
school  of  Erech  in  Chaldea.  This  work  consisted  of 
three  books,  the  first  of  which  is  entirely  consecrated 
to  incantations,  conjurations,  and  imprecations 
against  the  evil  spirits.  These  cuneiform  books,  it 
must  be  remembered,  are  really  written  on  clay  tab- 
lets. And  each  of  -the  tablets  of  these  first  books 
which  has  come  down  to  us  ends  with  the  title,  "Tab- 
let No. —  of  the  Evil  Spirits*'.  The  ideogram  which 
is  here  rendered  as  kuUtUu — "accursed"  or  "evil"— 
might  also  be  read  as  limuUu — "baneful".  Besides 
beine  known  by  the  generic  name  of  luiuibJku— -"spirit" 
— a  demon  is  called  more  distinctly  eeimmu,  or  mas- 
kimmu.  One  special  class  of  these  spirits  was  the 
aedu,  or  divine  bull,  which  is  represented  in  the  well- 
known  figure  of  a  man-headed  bull  so  common  on  the 
Assyrian  monuments.  This  name,  it  may  be  re- 
marked, is  probably  the  source  of  the  Hebrew  word 
for  demon.  The  Assyrian  sedu,  it  is  true,  was  more 
commonly  a  beneficent  or  tutel^  spirit.  But  this  is 
hardly  an  obstacle  to  the  derivation,  for  the  good 
spirits  of  one  nation  were  often  regarded  as  evu  by 
men  of  rival  races. 

Iranian  Demonology, — In  many  ways  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  demonologies  is  that  presented  in 
the  Avesta  (q.  v.),  the  sacred  book  of  ttie  Maxdean 
religion  of  Zoroaster.  In  this  ancient  religion,  which, 
unlike  that  of  the  Assjrrians,  still  exists  in  the  Parsee 
community,  the  war  between  light  and  darkmess,  good 
and  evil  comes  into  greater  prominence.  Over  against 
the  good  God,  Ahura  Ma^Kla,  with  his  hierai^y  of 
holy  spirits,  there  is  arrayed  the  dark  kingdom  of  de- 
mons, or  da9va8,  under  Xnro  Mai^ns  (Ahriman),  the 
cruel  Evil  Spirit,  the  Demon  of  Demons  (Daiwnunn 
Daeva),  who  is  ever  warring  against  Ahura  Maida  and 
his  faithful  servants  such  as  Zoroaster.  It  may  be  re- 
marked that  the  name  of  Da^va  is  an  instance  of  that 
change  from  a  good  to  a  bad  sense  which  is  seen  in 
the  case  of  the  Greek  word  dalfutp.  For  the  original 
meaning  of  the  word  is  "shining  one'',  and  it  comes 
from  a  primitive  Aryan  root  div,  which  is  likewise  the 
source  of  the  Greek  Z«^  and  the  Latin  deua.  But 
while  these  words,  like  the  Sanskrit  deva,  retain  the 
^ood  meaning,  da^  has  come  to  mean  "an  evil  spi^ 
^***     There  is  at  least  a  coincidence,  if  no  deeper  sjg 


It 


DnCONOLOOT 


715 


DSMONOLOGY 


nificauce,  iii  tlie  fact  that,  while  the  word  in  its  original 
sense  was  synonymous  with  l^f^t  it  has  now  come  to 
.  mean  much  the  same  as  devil.  There  is  also  a  curious 
coincidence  in  the  similarity  in  sound  between  daSva, 
the  modem  Persian  dev,  and  the  word  devU,  Looking 
at  the  likeness  both  in  sound  and  in  significance,  one 
would  be  tempted  to  say  that  they  must  have  a  com- 
mon origin,  but  for  the  fact  that  w^e  know  with 
certainty  that  the  word  devQ  comes  from  diaJMus 
{didfioXot — BuLpd\\ei¥)j  and  can  have  no  connexion 
with  the  Persian  or  Sanskrit  root. 

Although  there  are  marked  differences  between  the 
demons  (3  the  Avesta  and  the  devil  in  Scripture  and 
Christian  theology  (for  Christian  doctrine  is  tree  from 
the  dualism  of  the  Mazdean  system),  the  essential 
struggle  between  ^ood  and  evil  is  still  the  same  in  both 
cases.  And  the  pictures  of  the  holiness  and  fidelity  of 
Zoroaster  when  he  is  assailed  by  the  temptations  and 
persecutions  of  Anro  Mainyus  and  his  aemons  may 
well  recaU  the  trials  of  saints  under  the  assaults  of 
Satan  or  suggest  some  faint  analog  with  the  great 
scene  of  the  temptation  of  Christ  m  the  wilderness. 
Fortunately  for  En^ish  readers,  a  portion  of  the 
Vendidad  (fargard  xix),  which  contains  the  tempta- 
tion of  Zoroaster,  has  been  admirably  rendered  m  a 
doctrinal  paraphrase  in  Dr.  Casartelli  s  '*  Leaves  from 
my  Eastern  Garden ' '.  The  important  part  played  by 
the  demons  in  the  Mazdean  system  may  be  seen  from 
the  title  of  the  Vendidad,  which  is  the  hugest  and  most 
complete  part  of  the  Avesta,  so  much  so  tnat  when  the 
sacred  book  is  written  or  printed  without  the  com- 
mentaries it  is  generally  known  ais  Vendidad  Sade, 
which  means  something  that  is  "mven  against  the 
demons" — vidahsodMa,  i.  e.  oonira  dcemones  datua  or 
antid<gjnoniacus. 

Jewish  Demonology, — ^When  we  turn  from  the  Avesta 
to  the  Sacred  Boolm  of  iiie  Jews,  that  is  to  say  to  the 
canonical  Scripture,  we  are  struck  by  the  absence  of 
an  elaborate  demonology  such  as  that  of  the  Persians 
and  Asfl^ans.  There  is  much,  indeed,  about  the 
angels  of  the  Lord,  the  hosts  of  heaven,  the  seraphim 
and  cherubim,  and  other  spirits  who  stand  before  the 
throne  or  minister  to  men.  But  the  mention  of  the 
evil  spirits  is  comparatively  slieht.  Not  that  their 
existence  is  ignore^  for  we  have  the  temptation  by  the 
serpent,  in  which  Jews  as  well  as  Christians  recognize 
the  work  of  the  Evil  Spirit.  In  Job,  aeain,  Satan  ap* 
pears  as  the  tempter  and  the  accuser  of  the  just  man; 
in  Kingp  it  is  he  who  incites  David  to  murder  the 
prophet ;  in  Zacharias  he  is  seen  in  his  office  of  accuser. 
An  evil  spirit  comes  upon  the  false  prophets.  Saul  is 
afflicted,  or  apparently  possessed,  oy  an  evil  spirit. 
The  activity  ot  the  demon  in  ma^c  arts  is  indicated  in 
the  works  wrought  by  the  ma^cians  of  Pharaoh,  and 
in  the  Levitical  laws  against  wizards  or  witches.  The 
scapegoat  is  sent  into  the  wilderness  to  Azazael,  who 
is  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  demon  (see  Atonement, 
Day  of),  and  to  this  may  be  added  a  remarkable  pas- 
sage in  Isaias  which  seems  to  countenance  the  com- 
mon belief  that  demons  dwell  in  waste  places:  "And 
demons  and  monsters  shall  meet,  and  the  hairy  ones 
shall  ciy  out  one  to  another,  there  hath  the  lamia  lain 
down,  and  found  rest  for  herself"  (Isaias,  xxxiv. 
14).  It  is  true  that  the  Hebrew  word  here  rendered 
by  "demons"  may  merely  mean  wild  animals.  But, 
on  the  other  hana,  D^^Vi^i  which  is  rendered  very 
literally  as  "hairy  ones  ,  is  translated  "demons*'  by 
Targum  and  Peshitta,  and  is  supposed  to  mean  a  goat- 
shapod  deity  analogpus  to  the  Greek  Pan.  And 
"lamia"  represents  the  original  Lilith,  a  spirit  of  the 
night  who  in  Hebrew  legend  is  the  demon  wife  of 
Aoam. 

A  further  development  of  the  demonology  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  seen  in  the  Book  of  Tobias,  which, 
though  not  included  in  the  Jewish  Canon,  was  written 
in  BLebrew  or  Chaldean^  and  a  version  in  the  latter 
language  has  lately  been  recovered  among  some  rab- 


biuical  writing^.  1  iere  we  have  the  demon  Asmodeus, 
who  plays  the  part  assigned  to  demons  in  many  ethnic 
demonoiogics  and  folk-le^nds.  He  has  been  identi- 
fied by  some  good  authonties  with  the  ASshmo  DaSva 
of  the  Avesta :  but  Whitehouse  doubts  this  identifica- 
tion and  prefers  the  alternative  Hebrew  etymology. 
In  any  case  Asmodeus  became  a  prominent  figure  in 
later  Hebrew  demonolo^,  and  some  strange  tales  told 
about  him  in  the  Talmud  are  cjuite  in  the  vein  of  "  The 
'  Arabian  Nights".  The  rabbinical  demonology  of  the 
Talmud  and  Midrashim  is  very  far  from  the  reticence 
and  sobriety  of  the  canonical  writing?  in  re^rd  to  this 
subject.  Dome  modem  critics  ascribe  this  rich  growth 
of  demonology  amon^  the  Jews  to  the  effects  of  the 
Captivity,  and  regard  it  as  the  result  of  Babylonian  or 
Persian  mfluence.  But  though  in  its  abundance  and 
elaboration  it  may  bear  some  formal  resemblance  to 
these  external  systems,  there  seems  no  reason  to  re- 
gard it  as  simply  a  case  of  appropriation  from  the  doc- 
trines of  strangers.  For  when  we  come  to  compare 
them  more  closely,  we  may  well  feel  that  the  Jewish 
demonology^  has  a  distinctive  character  of  its  own,  and 
should  rather  be  regarded  as  sm  outgrowth  from  be- 
liefs and  ideas  which  were  present  in  the  mind  of  the 
chosen  people  before  they  came  into  contact  with  Per- 
sians and  Babylonians.  It  is  certainly  significant 
that,  instead  of  borrowing  from  the  abundant  legends^ 
and  doctrines  ready  to  their  hand  in  the  alien  systems, 
the  rabbinical  demonolo^sts  sought  their  starting- 
point  in  some  text  of  their  own  scriptures  and  drew 
forth  all  they  wanted  by  means  of  their  subtle  and  in- 
genious methods  of  exegesis.  Thus  the  aforesaid  text 
of  Isaias  furnished,  imoer  the  name  of  Lilith,  a  myste- 
rious female  night  spirit  who  apparently  abode  in  des- 
olate places,  and  forthwith  they  made  ner  the  demon 
wife  of  Aaam  and  the  mother  of  demons.  But 
whence,  it  may  be  asked,  had  these  exponents  of  the 
sacred  text  any  warrant  for  saying  that  our  first  father 
contracted  a  mixed  marriage  with  a  being  of  another 
race  and  begot  children  other  than  human?  Tliey 
simply  took  the  text  of  Genesis,  v:  "And  Adam  lived 
a  hundred  and  thirty  years,  and  begot  a  son  to  his 
own  image  and  likeness".  This  explicit  statement, 
they  said,  plainly  implies  that  previous  to  that  time  he 
had  begotten  sons  who  were  not  to  his  own  image  and 
likeness ;  for  this  he  must  needs  have  f oimd  some  help- 
meet of  another  race  than  his  own,  to  wit  a  demon 
wife,  to  become  the  mother  of  demons.  This  notice  of 
a  union  between  mankind  and  beings  of  a  different 
order  had  long  been  a  familiar  feature  in  pagan  myth* 
ology  and  demonology,  and,  as  will  presently  appear, 
some  early  Christian  commentators  discovered  some 
countenance  for  it  in  Genesis,  vi,  2,  which  tells  how  the 
sons  of  God  "took  to  themselves  wives  of  the  daugh- 
ters of  men".  One  characteristic  of  Jewish  demon- 
ology was  the  amazing  multitude  of  the  demons. 
According  to  all  accoimts  evenr  man  has  thousands  of 
them  at  his  side.  The  air  is  mil  of  them;  and,  since 
they  were  the  causes  of  divers  diseases,  it  was  well 
that  men  should  keep  some  guard  on  their  mouths 
lest,  swallowing  a  demon,  they  might  be  afflicted  with 
some  deadly  disease.  This  may  recall  the  common 
tendency  to  personify  epidemic  diseases  and  speak  of 
"  the  cholera  fiend ' ',  "  the  influenza  fiend  ",  ete.  And 
it  may  be  remarked  that  the  old  superstition  of  these 
Jewish  demonologists  presents  a  curiously  close  analogy 
to  the  theory  of  modem  medical  science.  For  we  are 
now  told  that  the  air  is  full  of  microbes  and  germs  of 
disease,  and  that  by  inhaling  any  of  these  living  organ- 
isms we  receive  the  disease  into  our  systems. 

Demonology  of  the  Early  Christian  Writers, — ^What- 
ever may  be  said  of  this  theory  of  the  Habbis,  that  the 
air  is  full  of  demons,  and  that  men  are  in  danger  of 
receiving  them  into  their  systems,  it  may  certainly  be 
said  that  in  the  days  of  the  early  Christians  the  air 
was  dangerously  full  of  demonologies,  and  that  men 
were  in  peculiar  peril  of  adopting  erroneous  doctrines 


DKMONOLOGir 


710 


DBMONOLOOT 


ou  this  matter.  It  must  be  remembered,  on  the  ouo 
hand,  that  many  of  the  Gospel  miracles,  and  particu- 
larly the  casting  out  of  devils,  must  in  any  case  have 
given  the  faithful  a  vivid  sense  of  the  existence  and 
power  of  the  evil  spirits.  At  the  same  time,  as  we 
nave  seen,  Scripture  itself  did  not  furnish  any  full  and 
clear  information  in  regard  to  the  origin  and  the  na- 
ture of  these  powerful  enemies;  on  the  other  hand,  it 
may  be  observed  that  the  first  Christian  converts  and 
the  first  Christian  teachers  were  for  the  most  part 
either  Jews  or  Greeks,  and  many  of  them  were  living 
in  the  midst  of  those  who  professed  some  or  other  of 
the  old  Oriental  religions.  Thus,  while  they  naturally 
wished  to  know  something  about  these  matters,  they 
had  but  little  definite  knowledge  of  the  truth,  and  on 
the  other  hand  their  ears  were  daily  filled  with  false 
and  misleading  information.  In  these  circumstances 
it  is  scarcely  surprising  to  find  that  some  of  the  earliest 
ecclesiastical  writers,  as  St.  Justin,  Origen,  and  Ter- 
tuUian,  are  not  very  hapl()y  in  their  treatment  of  this 
topic.  There  was,  moreover,  one  fruitful  source  of 
error  which  is  rather  apt  to  be  forgotten.  Now  that 
common  consent  of  Catholic  commentators  has  fur- 
nished a  better  interpretation  of  Genesis,  vi,  2,  and 
oonciliar  definitions  and  theological  argiunents  have 
^established  the  fact  that  the  angels  are  purely  spiritual 
beings,  it  may  seem  strange  that  some  earlv  Cnristian 
teeners  should  have  supposed  that  the  phrase,  sons 
of  Godj  could  possibly  mean  the  angels  or  that  these 
pure  spirits  could  have  taken  imto  themselves  wives 
of  the  daughtere  of  men.  But  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  old  commentators,  who  read  the  Sep- 
tuagint  or  some  derivative  version,  did  not  put  this 
interpretation  on  the  passage;  the  word  itself  was  in 
the  text  before  them;  that  is  to  say,  the  old  Greek 
Bible  expressly  said  that  "the  Angels  of  God  took 
wives  of  the  daughters  of  men".  This  unfortunate 
reading  was  certainly  enough  to  give  a  wrong  direction 
to  mucn  of  the  demonology  of  early  Christian  writers, 
and  those  who  went  astray  in  other  matters  also  na- 
turally adopted  peculiar  ideas  on  this  subject.  In 
some  wa3r8  one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of 
this  mistaken  demonology  is  that  to  be  foimd  in  the 
pseudo-Clementine  Homilies  (Hom.  viii,  ix).  The 
writer  gives  a  very  full  account  of  the  mysterious 
episode  of  Genesis,  vi,  2,  which,  in  common  with  so 
many  others,  he  takes  to  be  the  origin  of  the  demons 
who  were,  in  his  view,  the  offspring  of  the  supposed 
union  of  the  angels  of  God  and  the  daughters  of  men. 
But  on  one  point,  at  any  rate,  he  improves  the  story 
and  does  something  to  lighten  our  initial  difficulty. 
Tlie  first  objection  to  the  legend  was,  that  the  angels, 
as  pure  spirits,  were  plainly  incapable  of  feeling  sen- 
sual passions;  and  it  was  possibly  a  keen  sense  of  this 
difficulty  that  led  some  who  had  adopted  the  story  to 
deny  the  spirituality  of  the  angelic  nature.  But  the 
moralist  evades  it  in  a  more  ingenious  manner.  Ac- 
cording to  his  account,  the  angels  were  not  over- 
powerSl  with  the  pajssion  of  sensual  love  while  they 
were  as  yet  in  their  purely  spiritual  state;  but  when 
they  looked  down  and  witnessed  the  wickedness  and 
ingratitude  of  men  whose  sins  wore  defiling  the  fair 
creation  of  God,  they  asked  of  their  Creator  that  they 
might  be  endowed  with  bodies  like  unto  men,  so  that, 
coming  down  to  earth,  they  mi^ht  set  thin^  right  and 
lead  a  righteous  life  in  the  visible  creation.  Their 
wish  was  granted,  they  were  clothed  in  bodies  and 
came  down  to  dwell  on  earth.  But  now  they  found 
that  with  their  raiment  of  mortal  flesh  they  nad  ac- 
quired, also  the  weakness  and  passions  which  had 
wrou^t  such  havoc  in  men;  and  they  too,  like  the 
sons  of  men,  became  enamoured  of  the  beauty  of 
women  and,  foi^getting  the  noble  purpose  of  fiieir 
descent  to  earth,  gave  themselves  up  to  the  gratifica- 
tion of  their  lust,  and  so  rushed  heaalong  to  their  ruin. 
The  offspring  of  their  union  with  the  dauditers  of  men 
were  the  giants — the  mighty  men  of  superhuman  build 


and  superhuman  powers,  as  became  the  sous  of  incar- 
nate angels,  yet  at  the  same  time  mortal,  like  their 
mortal  motnero.  And  when  these'  giants  perished  in 
the  Flood  their  disembodied  souls  wandered  througjli 
the  world  as  the  race  of  demons. 

Medieval  and  Modem  Demonology. — ^Throu^out 
the  Christian  Middle  Ages  the  external  systems  of 
demonology  among  the  uncultured  races  or  in  the 
ancient  civilizations  of  the  East  continued  their  course, 
and  may  still  be  found  flourishing  in  the  home  of  Uieir 
origin  or  in  other  lands.    Withm  the  Catholic  fold 
there  was  less  scope  for  the  worse  form  of  the  old  er- 
rors.   The  early  heresies  had  been  cast  out,  and  theo- 
logical speculation  had^  been  directed  in  the  true  way 
by  the  decision  of  the  Fifth  (Ecumenical  Council  (545), 
which   condemned  certain  Origenist    errors  on  the 
subject  of  demons.    But  while  the  theologians  of  the 
g^at  scholastic  period  were  settinjg  forth  and  elucida- 
ting the  Catholic  doctrine  concerning  angels  and  devils, 
there  was  withal  a  darker  side  in  the  popidar  super- 
stitions, and  in  the  men  who  at  all  times  continued  to 
practise  the  black  arts  of  magic,  and  witchcraft,  and 
dealing  with  the  devil.    In  the  troubled  period  of  the 
Renaissance  and  the  Reformation  there  appears  to 
have  been  a  fresh  outbreak  of  old  superstitions  and 
evil  practices,  and  for  a  time  both  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant countries  were  disturbed  by  the  strange  beliefs 
and  the  strange  doincs  of  real  or  supposed  professors 
of  the  hisLck  arts  and  by  the  credulous  and  cruel  pezse- 
cutors  who  sou^t  to  suppress  them.     In  the  new  age 
of  the  Revolution  and  tne  spread  of  practical  ideas 
and  exact  methods  of  science  it  was  at  first  thought 
by  many  that  these  medieval  superstitions  would 
speedily  pass  away.     When  men,  materiali£ed  by  the 
^wth  of  wealth  and  the  comforts  of  civilization,  and 
enlightened  by  science  and  new  philosophies,  could 
scarce  find  faith  to  believe  in  the  pure  truths  of  re- 
vealed religion,  there  could  be  little  room  for  any  be- 
lief in  the  doctrines  of  demons.    The  whole  thing  was 
now  rudely  rejected  as  a  dream  and  a  delusion. 
Learned  men  marvelled  at  the  credulity  of  their 
fathers,  with  their  faith  in  ^osts,  and  demons,  and 
black  magic,  but  felt  it  impossible  to  take  any  serious 
interest  in  the  subject  in  their  age  of  enlightenment. 
Yet  in  fact  there  was  still  stranger  delusion  in  the 
naive  faith  of  the  early  Rationalists,   who  fondly 
fancied  that  they  had  found  the  key  to  all  knowledge, 
and  that  there  were  no  things  in  heaven  or  earth  be- 
yond the  reach  of  their  science  and  philosophy.    And 
much  of  the  histoxy  of  the  last  hundred  years  forms  a 
curious  comment  on  these  proud  pretentions.    For, 
far  from  disappearing  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  much 
of  the  old  occultism  has  been  revived  with  a  new 
vigour,  ^nd  has  taken  new  form  in  modem  Spiritism. 
At  the  same  time,  philosophers,  historians,  and  men 
of  science  have  been  led  to  make  a  serious  study  of 
the  story  of  demonology  and  occultism  in  past  ages 
or  in  other  lands,  in  order  to  understand  its  true 
significance. 

Condumon. — With  all  their  variations  and  oontra- 
dictions,  the  multitudinous  systems  of  demonology  yet 
have  much  in  common.  In  some  cases  this  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  one  has  freely  borrowed 
from  another.  Thus,  the  demonology  of  eariy  Chris- 
tian writers  would  naturally  owe  much  both  to  the 
systems  of  Jewish  and  Greek  demonok»y ,  and  these  in 
their  turn  can  hardly  have  been  free  from  other  fo^ 
eign  influences.  And  since  not  only  heretical  opin- 
ions, but  orthodox  teaching  on  this  subject  has  at  any 
rate  some  elements  in  common  with  we  ethnic  sys- 
tems— ^from  the  Animism  of  the  simple  savage  to  the 
elaborate  demonology  of  the  Chaldeans  and  Iranlsn' 
— ^the  mytholo^  or  folk-lorist  bids  us  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  all  are  from  the  same  source,  and  that 
the  Biblical  and  Catholic  doctrine  on  evil  s^^ts  mttff 
be  no  more  than  a  development  from  Animism  and  a 
more  refined  form  of  ethnic  demonology.    But  it 


DBMPftTER 


717 


Dimfis 


lar  be  well  to  observe  that  at  best  this  solution  is  but 
&  plausible  hypothesis  and  that  the  facts  of  the  case 
may  be  explained  just  as  well  by  another  hypothesis 
^rhich  some  philosophio  writers  do  not'  seem  to  have 
oonsideredi  to  wit:  the  hvpothesis  that  the  teaching 
of  revealed  religion  on  tlus  topic  is  true  after  alT 
Can  it  be  said  that  if  this  were  so  there  would  be  no 
trace  of  belief  in  demons  among  races  outside  the 
Christian  fold  or  in  religious  systems  older  than  the 
Hible?  If,  as  our  theology  teaches,  the  fallen  angels 
Teally  exist  and  are  permitted  to  try  and  tempt  the 
sons  of  men,  should  we  not  expect  to  find  some  belief 
in  their  existence  and  some  traces  of  their  evil  influ- 
ence in  every  land  and  in  every  age  of  human  history? 
Should  we  not  expect  to  find  that  here  as  elsewhere 
the  elements  of  truth  would  be  overlaid  with  error, 
and  that  they  should  take  different  shapes  in  each  na- 
tion and  each  succeeding  age,  according  to  the  measure 
of  knowledge,  and  culture,  and  new  ideas  current  in 
the  minds  of  men?  This  hypothesis,  to  say  no  more, 
will  fit  well  all  the  facts — for  mstanoe,  the  universality 
of  the  belief  in  evil  spirits  and  any  evidence  adducible 
for  actual  influence  on  men,  whether  in  the  records  of 
demonic  possession  and  magic  in  the  past  or  in  the 
phenomena  of  modem  Spiritism.  And  we  can 
scarcely  say  t^ie  same  of  the  other  hypothesis. 

WBiTKHOtraBt  s.  vv.  Demon,  DevU^  in  Hastinob,  Diet,  of  the 
BiUe;  GOrres.  French  tr.  by  Sainte-Foi,  La  Myattque  divine, 
naturdU,  et  duMique  (1865;;  Lbnorm ant,  Hietoire  ancierme  de 
VOrient  (1887).  V;  Idem,  La  magie  chea  lee  ChaldSena;  Budob, 
Aeeurian  Ineantaiione  to  Fire  arid  Water  in  Tranaactione  See, 
Bibl,  Archaol.  (1878);  Bbockhaus  (ed.).  Vendidad  Sade: 
Cababteiaa,  Leaves  from  My  Sastem  Garden;  GntOnxB,  Ge- 
echichtedce  Urchrietenthums  (1838).  I:  Jewish  DenumoUfOV:  Alex- 
AKDBR,  Demonic  Possession  in  the  New  Testament  (1902); 
dementia  JRomani  qua  feruntur  HomUia,  Scrwzoler  (ed.). 

W.  H.  Kent. 

Dempater,  Thomas,  savant,  professor,  and  author; 
b.,  as  he  himself  states,  at  Cfiiftbog,  Scotland,  23 
August,  1579;  d.  at  Bologna,  Italy,  6  September, 
1625:  son  of  Thomas,  Baron  of  Muresk,  Auchterless, 
and  Killesmont,  Aberdeenshire,  and  Jane  Leslie,  sister 
to  the  Baron  of  Balauhain;  educated  at  the  schools 
of  TurrifT  and  Aberaeen.  His  troublous  life  began 
earlv.  On  leaving  school,  aged  ten,  he  went  to  Cam- 
brioge,  leaving  it  shortly  for  Faris.  Illness  occasioned 
his  removal  to  Louvain,  whence,  having  attracted  the 
notice  of  a  representative  of  the  Holv  See,  he  was 
taken  to  Rome,  and  there  provided  with  a  pension  for 
his  education  in  a  papal  seminary.  Through  failing 
health  he  returned  northwards  to  Toumai,  but  was 
immediately  transferred  to  Douai,  means  being  forth- 
coming through  royal  boimty.  On  the  completion  of 
a  three  years^course,  he  returned  to  Toumai  as  pro- 
fessor of  humanities.  Toumai,  however,  he  forsook 
for  Paris,  where,  after  graduating  in  canon  law.  he 
occupied,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  a  professorial  chair 
in  the  College  de  Navarre.  He  could  not  remain  here 
either,  and,  after  an  interval  in  Poitou,  he  became 
professor  of  humanities  again,  this  time  at  Toulouse, 
before  long,  zeal  in  local  dissensions  sent  him  adrift 
once  more.  Declining  a  chair  of  philosophy  at  Mont- 
pellier,  he  successfully  competed  lor  one  of  oratory  at 
Nlmes.  ^  From  this  he  was  suspended,  a  lawsuit  fol- 
lowing in  vindication  of  his  integrity.  The  post  of 
tutor  to  the  son  of  the  Mar6chal  de  Saint-Luclie  lost 
through  unfriendly  relations  with  the  family  of  his 
patron.  Once  more  adrift,  he  visited  Scotland,  vainly 
begged  assistance  from  kith  and  kin,  and,  through 
Protestant  intrigue,  failed  to  recover  his  famfly 
estates,  which  had  been  parted  with  by  his  father. 
Seven  years  of  professorship  followed  in  Paris,  at  the 
end  of  which  he  was  invited  to  reside  in  London  in 
the  capacity  of  historian  to  James  I.  He  married  in 
England,  but  only  to  bring  on  himself  domestic  mis- 
fortune. Anglican  influence  having  procured  royal 
dismissal,  he  left  for  Italy,  and  occupied  under  grand- 
ducal  auspices  the  chair  of  civil  law  in  Florence. 


Further  trouble  led  to  his  last  change.  In  disgrace 
with  the  grand  duke,  he  passed  through  Bologna,  and 
was  there  provided  with  a  chair  of  humanities.  Even 
here  he  had  his  troubles,  and  had  to  clear  himself  of  a 
suspicion  of  unorthodoxy  before  the  Inquisition.  He 
lies  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Dominic,  at  Boloffna. 

Dempster's  worth  as  an  autobiographer  and  histo- 
rian is  much  discounted  by  manifest  errors,  and  by 
immoderate  self-praise  and  zeal  for  the  exaltation  of 
his  country.  An  unrestrained  temper  and  resentful 
disposition,  added  to  a  harsh  exterior,  were,  in  spite 
of  learning  and  good  qualities,  the  cause  of  his  un- 
popularity and  many  misfortunes.  The  seventeenth- 
century  Irish  ecclesiastical  historians  generally  re- 
sented Dempster's  dishonest  attempts  to  claim  for 
Scotland  many  saints  and  worthies  of  Irish  birth. 
John  Colgan,  John  Lynch,  and  Stephen  White,  all 
eminent  scholars,  ento^  the  lists  against  him  (see 
W.  T.  Doherty,  Inis-Owen  and  Tircoimell,  Dublin. 
1895,  pp.  108-16). 

Thecnief  of  his  many  writings  are:  "HistoriaEcde- 
siastica  Gentis  Scotorum  " ;  published  posthumously  at 
Bolosna,  1627:  republished  by  Banna tyne  Club,  Edin- 
burgh, 1829;  '' Antiquitatum  Romanarum  Corpus  Ab- 
solutissimum"  (Pans,  1613,  1743);  "De  EtruriA  Re- 
gali",  brought  out  during  the  Florentine  professorship 
(latest  edition,  1723-4);  "Ktpov^df  Kal  'OjaeXdj  in 
Glossamlibrorum  IV.  Institutionum  Justinian!''  (Bol- 
ogna, 1622),  edition  of  Claudian;  annotated  edition 
of  Benedetto  Accolti's  "De  Bello  a  Christianis  contra 
Barbaros  gesto"  (Florence,  1623:  Groningen,  1731); 
annotated  edition  of  Aldrovanoi's  "Quadrupedum 
omnium  bisulcomm  Historia"  (Florence,  1623,  1647). 
His  minor  works  include:  trageidies,  poems,  especially 
"Musca  Recidiva",  thrice  reprinted  during  his  life. 

DsMPSTSR,  Autolnography.n.  1210  in  Hist.  Bed.  SooHm 
(Edinbursh,  1829);  Irvino,  Preface  to  Dkmpvtgr,  Hist.  BeeL 
Scotia;  Cbambbrs,  Dictionary  of  Bmment  Scotamen  (Edinburi^ 
1855);  Bradley,  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.  (London,  1888).  s.  v.; 
BxrLE,  Dictionary.  JerOMB  PolLARD-UrQUHART. 

Denaut,  Pierre,  tenth  Bishop  of  Quebec,  b.  at 
Montreal,  20  July,  1743;  d.  at  Longueuil  in  1806. 
After  studying  at  Montreal  and  Quebec,  he  was  or- 
dained priest  m  1767,  and  appointed  pastor  of  Sou- 
langes,  when  only  twenty-four  years  old.  During 
the  American  invasion  (1775)  he  maintained  his  flock 
faithful  to  their  severely.  Transferred  to  Lon- 
gueuil (1787),  appointed  vicar-general  (1791),  he  suc- 
ceeded Bishop  Baillv  as  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Hubert, 
and  was  consecratea  29  Jime,  1795.  He  remained  at 
Longueuil  even  after  his  appointment  to  the  See  of 

Suebec  (1797),  always  taking  a  predominant  part  in 
le  government  of  the  diocese,  with  the  efficacious  co- 
operation of  Bishop  Plessis,  appointed  coadjutor  in 
1801.  He  visited  his  entire  diocese,  travelling 
throurfi  Upper  Canada  on  his  way  to  Detroit,  in  1801 
and  1802.  in  1803,  via  Burlington  and  Boston^  he 
visited  the  Maritime  Provinces,  where  the  Acadians 
and  Indians  beheld  a  bishop  for  the  first  time.  An 
enlightened  patron  of  education,  he  founded  Nicolet 
CoUe^  (1803),  and  aided  in  enlarging  Montreal  Col- 
le^  m  1804.  He  resisted  the  encroachments  of  a 
British  governor  claiming  the  right  of  presentation  to 
parishes,  and  opposed  tne  "Royal  Institution"  in- 
vesting Protestants  with  the  control  of  public  in- 
struction. Courteous  towards  temporal  authoritiefl 
and  firm  in  the  defence  of  episcopal  rights,  he  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  civil  recogmtion  of  the  BiuiOp 
of  Quebec  ana  the  freedom  of  the  Church. 

Thv,  Lea  4vfquea  de  Quibec  (Quebec,  1889) ;  Archives  of  tbe 
archbishop's  palace,  Quebec.  LlONEL  LlNDSAT. 

D^nes  (men  or  people,  in  most  of  their  dialects), 
an  aboriginal  race  of  >lorth  America,  also  called  Ath- 
apaskans  and  known  among  earlier  ethnologists  as 
Tinn^  or  Tinneh.  They  are  the  northernmost  of 
American  Indians,  and,  as  regards  territorial  exten- 


D^KiS 


718 


T^iaxtB 


uon,  ma^  perhaps  be  considered  as  the  most  iinpor- 
tant  native  family  on  the  American  Continent,  lliey 
are  divided  into  three  groups:  the  Southern,  com- 
posed of  the  Apaches  and  the  Navahoes,  to  whom,  in 
The  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  special  articles  are  de- 
voted which  describe  their  habitat;  the  Pacific  D4n^, 
composed  mainly  of  remnants  of  tribes  in  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  Northern  California;  and  the  Northern 
Dfyi6a,  by  far  the  most  important  division,  which 
covers  the  territory  extending  from  Churchill  River 
and  the  northern  branch  of  the  Saskatchewan  to  the 
confines  of  the  Eskimo  fishing-grounds.  In  British 
Columbia  they  range  from  51**  ^N.  lat.,  and  are  like- 
wise to  be  found  over  the  whole  of  Alaska  with  the  ex- 
ception of  its  coasts.  The  southern  branch  of  the 
family  is  to-day  in  a  thriving  condition  and  relatively 
numerous;  but  the  uncertainty  of  life  in  the  dreary 
wastes  or  dense  forests  which  have  long  been  the 
home  of  the  Northerners  precludes  the  possibility  of  a 
population  even  distantiv  commensurate  with  the 
enormous  area  claimed  by  them.  The  latest  and 
most  reliable  statistics  give  the  following  figures  for 
the  numbers  of  the  three  divisions:  Southern  D4n^, 
27,365;  Pacific  D^n6s,  846;  Northern  D^nfe,  19,390. 
It  is  but  fair  to  adc)  that  whole  tribes  or  septs  were 
almost  wiped  out  of  existence  by  epidemics  and  dis- 
orders consequent  on  the  advent  of  the  whites  among 
them.  The  principal  Northern  tribes  are:  the  Lou- 
cheux,  neighoours  of  the  Eskimos  in  Alaska  and  the 
lower  Msu^kenzie^  contiguous  to  which  are,  from  north 
to  south:  the  Hares,  the  Dog;-Ribs,  the  Slaves,  the 
Yellow-Knives,  and  the  Chipoewayans.  Ignoring 
several  intermediate  or  Rocky  Mountain  tribw,  we 
find  in  Northern  British  Colimibia  the  Nahanais,  the 
Sekanais,  the  Babines,  the  Carriers,  and  the  Chilco- 
tins.  The  Yellow-Knives  receive  their  name  from 
the  tools  of  native  copper  which  were  common  amons 
them  in  prehistoric  times;  the  Babines  are  so  called 
from  theu*  custom  of  wearing  labrets,  wood  or  stone 
ornaments  inserted  in  the  lip,  and  the  Cairie/s  owe 
their  name  to  a  custom  of  the  women  of  carrying  on 
their  backs  the  charred  remains  of  their  husbands. 

Though  the  Navahoes  have  at  last  adopted  pastoral 
life,  all  the  D^n^  tribes  were  originally  made  up  of 
hunters  and  have  remained  so  in  the  north.  ^  Yet  in 
British  Columbia  the  abundance  of  fish,  especially  of 
salmon,  has  made  fishing  of  at  least  as  great  economic 
importance  to  the  D6nS  stationed  there  as  hxmting. 
Most  of  the  hard  work  was  done  by  the  women,  who 
generally  occupied  a  very  low  place  in  the  social  scale. 
They  were  united  to  men  by  ties  which  were  never  con- 
sidered indissoluble,  and  polyjp;ajny  was  everywhere 
prevalent.  As  to  society  itself  it  was  of  the  crudest 
description.  The  original  form  of  government  among 
the  entire  stock  was  a  sort  of  anarchy  tempered  by 
patriarchal  proclivities.  The  septs  were  led  by  the 
more  influential  fathers  of  families,  whose  children 
succeeded  in  the  male  line  of  their  rank,  such  as  it 
was,  and  inherited  their  earthlv  belongings.  But  con- 
tact with  aliens  made  the  Western  tribes  adopt,  in 
course  of  time,  matriarchy^  or  mother-right,  and  its 
consequent  institutions:  the  clans  with  their  petty 
chiefs,  the  totems,  and  more  or  less  elaborate  social 
observances.  These  totems,  or  emblems,  were  of  at 
least  two  kinds,  eentile  and  personal.  The  former 
represented  the  clan,  and  though  probably  evolved 
from  the  latter,  they  came  to  be  r^arded  as  more 
social  than  reli^ous  in  import.  The  nature  of  the 
personal  totems  is  better  imderstood  by  a  reference  to 
the  theogonistic  and  cosmogonic  notions  of  the  In- 
dians. In  common  with  most  American  aborigines 
they  believed  in  a  twofold  world:  the  one  visible  and 
purely  material  now  inhabited  by  man;  the  other  in- 
visible, though  in  some  way  coextensive  with  the  first, 
which  is  the  nome  of  spirits.  Of  these  there  are  two 
kinds,  good  and  bad,  all  more  or  less  under  the  control 
of  a  Supreme  Being  whose  personality  and  attributes 


are  not  well  defined.  By  some  he  was  known  as  *he 
(or  it)  whereby  the  earth  exists",  or  simply  "the 
powenul";  others,  like  the  Hares,  designated  him  as 
^'he  that  sees  in  front  and  behind",  while  the  prehis- 
toric Carriers  knew  him  as  '^that  which  is  on  high", 
apparently  confounding  him  with  the  dynamic  forces 
of  nature  and  the  cause  of  rain,  snow,  wind,  and  the 
other  celestial  phenomena.  Ajs  to  the  spirits,  the 
noxious  ones  are  constantly  lurking  among  men  and 
cause  disease  and  all  evils.  The  good  ones  are  doeely 
connected  with  the  various  elements  of  the  created 
world,  and  are  ever  ready  to  adopt  and  protect  indi- 
viduals in  return  for  some  sort  of  respect  and  implied 
veneration  of  the  animal,  tree,  plimt,  celestial  body, 
or  terrestrial  entity  which  is  their  normal  seat  or  repre^ 
sentative.  These  are  the  personal  totems  or  tutelary 
genii^  of  which  every  Wn6  has  at  least  one,  eom- 
mxmion  with  which  was  supposed  to  be  established 
through  the  agency  of  dreams,  apparitions,  etc. 

It  sometimes  happened  that  tne  totem  suddenly 
prostrated  the  native  while  awake  and  rendered  him 
unconscious.    The  individual  thus  affected  was  be- 
lieved to  commune  with  some  powerful  spirit,  and  on 
being  restored  to  consciousness  by  means  of  loud 
chanting  and  the  rhythmical  beating  of  drums,  was 
considered  as  endowed  with  supernatural  powers  over 
the  evil  spirits  and  their  works.    Hence  nis  services 
were  called  into  requisition  to  cast  out  the  evil  spirita 
from  those  who  were  afllicted  with  illnesB,  or  to  obtain 
some  particular  end  in  the  order  of  nature,  such  as  calm 
in  tempestuous  weather,  a  plentiful  nm  of  salmon,  a 
successful  htmt,  and  the  like.    These  ideas  were  so 
firmly  rooted  among  all  the  tribes  that  they  long  re- 
mained proof  against  the  influence  of  civilization. 
The  first  encoimter  of  the  D6n68  with  this  was  in  the 
south,  as  is  shown  in  the  articles  on  the  Apaches  and 
the  Navahoes.    In  the  nortii,  the  fur  of  tne  animak 
on  whose  flesh  they  mostly  subsisted  and  whose  skins 
were  utilized  as  garments  was  the  principal  cause  of 
the  intrusion  of  tne  white  races  on  tneir  aesolate  wil- 
derness.   As  early  as  1670  was  established  the  cele- 
brated Hudson  Bay  Company,  whose  agents  were 
gradually  drawn  into  close  intercourse  with  the  east- 
ernmost tribes.    One  of  these  agents,  Samuel  Heame. 
was  the  first  to  penetrate  to  any  considerable  inland 
distance.    In  the  years  1769-72  he  disoovwed  Lake 
Athabasca,  and  went  as  far  north  as  the  moutii  of  the 
Coppermine  with  a  horde  of  Eastern  Dto^  who 
proved  to  be  as  unruly,  brutal,  and  lustful  as  the  ex- 
plorer was  himself  timid  and  gentlemanly.    On  the 
other  hand,  the  latter  extols  the  virtue  and  meekness 
of  their  women.    Then  came  the  Northwest  Fur 
Trading  Company,  a  member  of  ^diich,  Laurent  Le* 
roux,  was  the  first  to  visit  Great  Slave  Lake  (1784). 
This  energetic  corporation  soon  dotted  the  country 
with  trading  establishments,  whereupon  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  b^gan  a  keen  competition,  which  was 
the  source  of  many  disorders  among  the  natives,  ii^ 
toxicants  beingused  by  each  party  to  win  them  over  to 
its  own  side.    Then  came  the  explorations  of  Blacken- 
zie  in  1789  and  1792-03;    Franklin's  in  1820-22; 
Back's  in  1833-35;  and  a  number  of  other  joumcp 
in  the  course  of  which  the  D^n^  proved  valuable,  if 
somewhat  fickle  helpers.    They  were  strictly  honest, 
anxious  to  please  the  whites  and  to  adopt  their  ways 
as  far  as  compatible  with  their  own  condition. 

The  D€n6s  had  already  learned  something  of  the 
Catholic  religion  through  the  French  Canadian  traders 
and  voyagers.  From  tne  very  banning  they  showed 
themselves  ready  converts,  which  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at  when  we  consider  tnat  the  D^n5,  when  of  pure 
stock,  is  by  nature  eminently  religious.  The  first  mis- 
sionaries were  Catholic  priests.  In  1842  the  Rev.  J. 
B.  Thibault,  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  Red  River  Set- 
tlement (now  Manitoba)  reached  the  Roc^  Moun- 
tains in  his  apostolic  wanderinra,  and  must  have  evao* 
gelized  some  of  the  border  tribes.    Tliree  years  later 


DENIFLB 


719 


DmanM 


h»  Tinted  the  Chippewayans  of  lie-^la-Crosse,  which 
toeality  was  soon  to  become  the  centre  of  f ar-reachjnff 
miesionaiy  operations.    That  very  year  there  arriv^ 
&t  St.  Boniface  the  first  two  representatives  of  the  Ob- 
l&te  Order,  which  has  since  had  charge  of  the  evangel- 
isation of  all  Norihem  IMn6  tribes.    In  1847  Father 
(afterwards  Archbishop)  Tach^  visited  Lake  Atha- 
basca, where  he  was  kindly  received  and  accom- 
plisheid  much  ^ood.    Year  after  year  the  sphere  of 
rel^ious  activity  was  enlarged,  new  miasions  being 
eetablished,  until  that  of  Our  Lady  of  €k>od  Hope  was 
founded  by  Father  GroUier,  31  Aug.,  1859,  within  the 
Arctic  Circle.    Thence  apostolic  excursions  were  made 
into  Alaska,  first  by  Fatner  Petitot  in  1870,  and  then 
by  Bishop  I.  Out  in  1872.    But  the  Western  Lou- 
cheux,  rendered  hostile  to  Catholicism  by  itinerant 
Protestant  ministers  and  fanatical  traders,  proved 
generally  rebellious.    Serious  Protestant  missionarv 
efforts  among  the  D^n^  date  from  1858.    The  Rev.  J . 
Hunter  then  made  a  reconnoitring  visit  to  the  Mack- 
enzie, and  as  a  result  a  mission  was  established  on  that 
stream  at  Fort  Simpson.    After  this  work  was  under- 
taken among  the  Loucheuz  of  the  Yukon  with  some 
measure  of  success.    However,  in  spite  of  the  asser- 
tion of  the  late  Anglican  bishop,  W.  C.  Bompas,  that 
"the  numbers  under  instruction  of  each  Church  may 
not  greatly  differ''  (Diocese  of  Mackenzie,  London, 
1888,  p.  108)  am(»ig  the  Northern  D^n^,  taken  as  a 
whole,  the  number  of  Protestant  IMn^s  is  insignificant 
compared  with  those  who  have  embraced  the  Catholic 
Faith.    In  British  Columbia  they  are  practically  all 
Catholic,  and  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  there  is 
not  one  Protestant  among  the  natives  who  repair  to 
some  fifteen  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  fmv 
trading  posts.    Even  at  Fort  Simpson,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Church  of  Ehi^land  in  the  Mackenzie, 
half  of  the  aboriginal  population  is  Catholic. 

Petitot,  Monographie  dea  DhU-Dindjik  Q^aris,  1876);  Idem, 
Tradituma  indiennea  du  Canada  nord-cueat  (Paris,  1888);  Idem, 
QuifU6  ana  aoua  le  eerde  polaira  (Paris,  1889);  Idkm,  AtUour  du 
orand  lac  dea  Eadavea  (Fans,  1801};  Idem,  Exj^oralion  de  la 
region  du  arand  lac  dea  Oura  (Pans,  1893),  and  many  other 
works.  BlORicE,  The  Weaiem  D&rUa  (Toronto.  1889);  Idem, 
Noiea  on  the  Weaiem  DhUa  CToronto.  1894);  Idem,  Au  vaya  de 
Voura  noir  (Paris,  1897);  Idem,  The  Hiatary  of  the  Northern 
Jnterior  of  Britiah  Columhia  (Toronto,  1904);  Idem,  The  Great 
D&n6  Race  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  Austria),  and  about  a  dosen  mono- 
sraphs  on  toe  Dteiite. 

A.  G.  MORICB. 

Denifle,  Hbinrich  Skvsb  (baptized  Joseph),  palee- 
pher  and  historian,  bom  at  Imst  in  the  Austrian 
16  Jan.,  1844;  d.  at  Munich,  10  June,  1905. 
father,  who  was  the  village  schoolmaster  and 
church  oiganist,  had  him  educated  in  the  episcopal 
wminazy  of  Brixen.  On  his  reception,  at  Gras,  22 
Sept.,  1861,  into  the  Dominican  Order,  he  took  the 
name  of  Heinrich.  His  studies  of  Aristotle  and  St. 
Tliomas  were  begun  in  Graz  and  continued  in  Rome 
and  Marseilles.  After  his  return  to  Graz,  Father 
Denifle  taught  philosophy  and  theology  for  ten  years 
(1870-1880),  and  during  this  period  also  he  was  one  of 
the  best  preachers  in  Austria.  A  course  of  apologetic 
sermons  delivered  in  Graz  cathedral,  ''Die  katholische 
Kirche  imd  das  Ziel  der  Menschheit"  was  printed  in 

1872.  Denifle,  who  had  loved  music  from  his  boyhood 
and  composed  pieces  at  fifteen,  also  published  in  1872, 
as  his  first  literary  essay,  an  article  on  the  Gregorian 
Chant:  ''Schdnheit  und  Wttrde  dee  Chora]s'\  That 
even  then  his  mind  was  occupied  with  a  subiect  about 
whidh  his  last  and  perhaps  his  greatest  work  was  des- 
tined to  be  written,  is  evident  from  a  series  of  articles 
entitled  '^Tetzel  und  Luther",  which  appeared  in 

1873.  From  that  time  onward,  though  he  preached 
occasionally,  the  biography  of  Denifle  is  the  descrip- 
tion of  his  literary  achievements.  His  life  therefore 
may  be  divided  into  four  periods  characterized  respec- 
tively by  work  on  theolo^  and  mysticism,  medieval 
universities,  the  Hundred  Years  War  between  France 


and  England  with  its  consequences  to  the  CSiurdi,  and 
Luther  and  Lutheranism. 

A  subject  to  which  in  early  years  he  devoted  much 
of  his  attention  was  the  relation  existing  between 
scholastic  theolo^r  and  medieval  msrsticism.  It  was 
comparatively  uAnown,  and  had  in  fact  been  nossly 
misrepresented  by  some  flippant  writers  aoooroung  to 
whom  the  German  mystics  were  the  precursors  of  the 
German  Reform^s.  Denifle's  reoearches  put  the  mat- 
ter in  its  true  light.  He  discovered  in  various  libra- 
ries of  Austria,  Germany,  and  Switzerland  copious 
materials  in  fourteenth-century  manuscripts,  ana  a  se- 
lection of  2500  texts  was  given  to  the  public  in  his  book 
''Das  geistliche  Leben.  Eine  Blumenlese  aus  den 
deutschen  Mystikem  des  14.  Jahrhunderts"  (Graz, 
1873) .  He  also  began  a  critical  edition  of  Blessed  Henrv 
Suso's  works  (the  first  and  only  volume  of  Deng's 
edition  appeared  in  1880 — ^another  edition  is  in  prog- 
ress 1908),  and  on  Suso  and  other  mystics  he  wrote  sev> 
eral  articles  (fifteen  in  all  with  appendices)  publiriied 
in  various  periodicals  from  1873  to  1889.  His  fame  as 
a  pakeographer,  German  philologist,  and  textual  critic 
arose  from  these  investigations  and  especially  from  his 
studies  on  Tauier,  Eckhart,  and  Blessed  Henrv  Suso. 
Up  to  1875  the  most  disputed  problem  in  the  histoiv 
of  German  mysticism  was  that  of  the  "  Gottesfreund 
and  his  marvellous  influence.  Denifle  solved  it  simply 
b^  showing  that  the  ^  Gottesfreund  *  *  was  a  myth,  llus 
discovery,  which  created  quite  asensation,  and  several 
others  brought  him  into  controversy  with  Preger  and 
Schmidt,  who  had  till  then  been  looked  up  to  as  au- 
thorities on  the  history  of  mysticism,  and  also  into 
controversy  with  Jundt.  He  proved  and  demon- 
strated that  Catholic  mysticism  rests  on  scientific 
theology.  Denifle's  remarks  were  often  sharp,  but 
there  could  be  no  doubt  that  his  arguments  and  his 
destructive  criticism  were  unanswerable.  Catholic 
and  non-Catholic  savants  alike,  as  SchrOrs,  Kirsdi, 
MQiler,  SchOnbach,  etc.,  have  recognized  that  he  was 
immeasurably  superior  to  his  adversaries.  This  was 
owing  to  his  intimate  knowledge  of  ^e  Fathers,  of 
theology — both  scholastic  and  mvstic— of  medieval 
history,  and  lastly  of  Middle-Hi^  German  with  its 
dialects. 

In  1880  Denifle  was  made  socius,  or  assistant,  to  the 
general  of  his  order,  and  summoned  to  Rome,  where 
a  new  field  of  inquiry  awaited  him.  Leo  XIII  had 
commanded  that  a  critical  edition  of  the  works  of  St. 
Iliomas  Aquinas  should  be  begun,  and  Denifle  was 
commissioned  to  search  for  the  best  manuscripts.  He 
visited  the  libraries  in  Italy,  Austria,  Germany,  Ba* 
varia,  Holland,  England,  France,  Spain,  and  Portu- 
gal. Nothing  escaped  his  ea^e  e^,  and  while  pre- 
paring for  the  new  edition,  before  his  return  to  Ita^  in 
1883,  he  had  also  gatiiered  abundant  materials  for  his 
own  special  study.  In  the  autumn  of  1880  Ijso  XIII 
had  opened  the  secret  archives  of  the  Vatican  to  schol* 
an;  he  had  in  1789  appointed  as  archivist  Cardhiai 
HeigenrOther.  On  the  latter's  recommendation  the 
pope  now  (1  Dec.,  1883)  made  Denifle  sub-archivist,  a 
post  which  he  hdd  till  his  death.  Since  the  beginning 
of  his  residence  in  Rome,  Denifle,  who  found  nothinff 
there  for  his  contemplated  histoiy  of  mystidsm,  haa 
been  investigating  the  career  of  a  celebrated  prophet, 
i.  e.  the  Abbot  Joachim,  and  the  reasons  of  the  con- 
demnation of  his  "Evangelium  JEtemum"  by  the 
TJniversitv  of  Paris.  This  led  him  to  study  the  con- 
troversy Detfraen  the  university  and  the  mendicant 
orders.  As  he  found  du  Boulay's  history  of  the  uni- 
versity inaccurate,  Denifle,  who  was  a  foe  to  adven- 
turous statements  and  hasty  p^neralizations,  resolved 
to  write  a  history  based  on  original  documents,  and  as 
an  introduction  to  it^  to  commence  with  a  volume  on 
the  origin  of  the  medieval  university  system,  for  ^(duofa 
he  already  had  prepared  copious  transcripts  and  notes. 
His  leading  idea  was  that  to  appreciate  the  mystics 
one  should  understand  not  only  the  theology  they  had 


DENXrUB 


720 


DBriFLE 


foamed,  but  also  the  jBeniua  of  the  place  where  it  was 
commonly  taught.  The  firat  and  onl^  volume  ap- 
peared in  1885  under  the  title  "Die  UmveFsit&ten  des 
Mittelalters  bia  1400"  (xly-814).  The  wealth  of  eru- 
dition it  contains  is  extraordinary.  The  work  was 
everywhere  applauded;  it  led,  however,  to  a  some- 
what bitter  controversy.  G.  Kaufmann  attacked  it, 
but  was  worsted  by  the  erudite  and  unsparing  author. 
The  most  copious  collection  on  the  subject  to  oe  found 
in  any  archives  is  that  possessed  by  the  Vatican,  and 
this  Denifle  was  the  first  to  use.  Munich,  Vienna, 
and  other  centres  supplied  the  rest.  Among  his  dis- 
coveries two  may  be  mentioned;  namely,  that  the 
universities  did  not,  as  a  rule,  owe  their  origin  to  cathe- 
dral schools,  and  that  in  the  majority  of  uiem  at  first 
theology  was  not  taught.  The  Univeisity  of  Paris 
fonnedan  exception.  Denifle  had  planned  four  other 
voltunes :  viz.  asecond  on  the  development  of  the  or^mi- 
sation  ot  universities,  a  third  on  the  origin  of  the  Uni- 
veraity  of  Paris,  a  fourth  on  its  development  to  the  end 
of  the  thirteentii  century,  and  a  fifth  on  its  controver- 
sies with  the  mendicant  orders.  But  the  Conseil  G6- 
n6nX  des  Facultds  de  Paris,  which  had  in  1885  decided 
on  publishing,  the  "Chartularium",  or  records  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  resolved  on  27  March,  1887,  to  en- 
trust the  work  to  Denifie,  with  Emile  Chatelain,  the 
Sorbonne  librarian ,  as  coUaborateur.  This  quite  suited 
Denifle,  for  he  had  resolved  not  to  write  before  he 
had  collected  all  the  relevant  documents,  so  with 
the  assistance  of  Chatelain  he  began  his  gigantic  task. 
In  less  than  ten  years  four  folio  volumes  of  the  "Char- 
tularitun"  appeared  as  follows:  1889,  volume  I,  a.  d. 
1200-1286  (xxxvi-714  pp.),  530  original  documents, 
with  fifty-five  from  the  preparatory  period,  1163-1200; 
1891,  volume  11,  1286-1350  (xxiii-808  pp.),  661  docu- 
ments; 1894,  volume  III,  1350-1384  (xxxvii-777  pp.), 
520  documents;  1897,  volume  IV,  1384-1452  (xxxvi- 
835  pp.))  988  documents,  and  two  volumes  of  the 
"  Auctarium  ".  This  monumental  work,  the  "  Chartu- 
larium  Universitatis  Parisiensis",  contains  invaluable 
information  regarding  its  inner  life,  organization,  fam- 
ous professors  and  students,  relations  with  popes  and 
kixigs,  controversies,  etc.,  during  the  period  when  this 
university  was  the  chief  centre  of  theoolgical  learning. 
"  With  its  aid",  as  Kirsch  remarks,  "  a  history  of  medi- 
eval theology  has  at  last  become  possible."  Some  idea 
of  the  labour  involved  in  its  preparation  may  be  gath- 
ered from  the  fact  that  all  the  great  libraries  and  arch- 
ives in  Europe  were  visited,  that  Denifle  travelled  from 
Paris  to  Rome  forty  times,  and  that  in  the  Vatican 
ardiives  alone  he  examined  200,000  letters,  of  which  he 
utilized  80,000  in  his  notes  (see  II,  p.  17),  though  of 
course  more  material  was  found  in  Paris  than  in  Rome. 
In  order  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  "Chartularium", 
any  reference  to  the  "  nations"  was  relegated  to  the 
"Auctarium".  The  two  volxunes  published  contain 
the  **  Liber  Procuratorum  Nationis  Anglican®  1333- 
1446".  Foumier,  who  rashly  criticized  Denifle  and 
Chatelain,  fared  badly  at  their  hands.  After  Denifle's 
death  the  materials  he  had  collected  for  another  vol- 
ume were  entrusted  to  Chatelain,  so  that  the  work 
mig^t  be  continued.  Owing  to  the  vastness  and  com- 
pleteness of  his  research  and  to  his  amazing  erudition, 
what  Denifle  gave  to  the  world,  even  thougn  for  him  it 
was  only  a  preliminary  study,  has  sufficed  to  make  him 
the  great  authority  on  medieval  universities.  (See 
Merlde,  Dreves,  etc.,  or  Rashdall's  "Universities  of 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages",  Oxford,  1895.)  In  order 
to  publish  valuable  texts  which  he  had  deciphered  and 
the  results  of  his  studies  on  various  subjects,  together 
with  Father  Ehrle,  S.  J.,  the  sub-librarian  of  the  Vati- 
can, he  founded  in  1885  the  "  Archiv  ftir  Literatur  und 
Kirchengeschichte  des  Mittelalters ' '.  The  two  friends 
were  the  only  contributors,  llie  first  five  years  of 
this  serial  contain  several  articles  from  his  pen,  on 
various  universities,  on  AbeUurd  and  other  scholars,  on 
rriigious  orders,  on  popes,  etc..  Denifle's  extensive 


aoquaintanoe  with  manuscripts  and  his  skill  in  . 
raphy  were  also  put  at  the  service  of  bc^ginxiers  in 
art  of  deciphering  by  his  annotated  '^Specimina  pa- 
l»ographica  Regestorum  Pontificiun  ab  Innooentio 
III  ad  Urbanum  V"  (Rome,  1888).  Among  ita  sixty- 
four  plates,  that  representing  the  Vatican  traiiflciipi 
of  the  "  Unam  Sanctam"  is  especially  valuable.  The 
work  was  the  offering  of  the  papal  archivists  to  Leo 
XIII  on  his  golden  jubilee. 

A  work  of  another  kind  suggested  itself  to  him  while 
gathering  in  the  Vatican  archives  materials  for  his 
annotations  6n  the  ''Chartularium".  Denifle  noticed 
in  the  three  hundred  volumes  of  "Registers  of  Peti- 
tions ' '  addressed  to  Clement  VI  and  Urban  V,  between 
1342  and  1393,  that  many  came  from  France  durins 
the  Hundred  Years  War  between  that  country  and 
England.  So  for  the  sake  of  a  change  of  occupation, 
or  "un  travail  accessoire**  as  he  calls  it,  Denine  went 
again  through  these  volumes  (each  about  600  pages 
folio).  In  1897  he  published:  ''La  desolation  des 
e^ises,  monast^res,  h6pitaux,  en  France  veiB  le 
milieu  du  XV®  si^le".  It  contains  a  hanowiog 
description  of  the  state  of  France,  based  on  1063  con- 
temporary documents,  most  of  which  were  discovered 
in  the  Vatican.  Then,  in  order  to  give  in  explanatioa 
a  similar  account  of  the  cause  of  all  these  calamities,  he 
published  in  1889 :  "  La  guerre  de  cent  ans  et  la  d^solsr 
tion  des  ^glises,  monast^res,  et  hdpitaux,  torn.  I, 
jusau'^  la  mort  de  Charies  V"  (1385).  Though'the 
work  was  not  continued  the  enormous  amount  of 
recondite  information  brought  together  and  illus- 
trated for  the  first  time  makes  the  volume  indispens- 
able to  historians  (see,  e.  g.,  his  account  of  the  liattle 
of  Cr6cy  and  the  Black  Pftnce). 

Denifle  had  for  years  been  studying  the  history  ol 
medieval  theology  and  mysticism,  as  well  as  the  kves 
of  saints  and  scholars  by  whom  in  both  departments 
progress  had  been  effected;  on  the  other  hand  his  in- 
vestigations revealed  the  decadence  of  ecclesiastical 
life  during  the  Himdred  Years  War  and  caused  him  to 
amass  documents  (about  1200)  showine  the  uaanj 
abuses  then  prevalent  among  the  clergv  ooth  secular 
and  regular.  The  contrast  was  marked.  As  was  his 
wont  he  resolved  to  solve  the  problem  that  arose,  to 
see  what  could  have  been  the  result  of  such  moral  oat' 
ruption.  These  new  researches  were  not  confined  to 
France;  they  gradually  extended  to  Germany.  Doii- 
fle  found  proof  that  m  both  countries,  with  praise- 
worthy exceptions,  during  the  fourteenth  century 
things  went  from  bad  to  worse,  but  he  saw  that  the 
end  had  not  been  reached  yet.  He  traced  the  down- 
ward course  of  profligacy  to  the  third  decade  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  there  he  stopped  for  he  had 
found  the  abyss.  Crimes  which  ecclesiastics  and  re- 
ligious were  aishamed  of  in  the  preceding  era  now  be- 
came to  one  section  a  cause  of  self-^onfication,  and 
were  even  regarded  as  miracles  and  si^ns  of  sanctity. 
At  the  beginning  of  this  painful  investigation  Denifle 
had  not  a  thought  about  Luther,  but  now  he  saw  that 
he  could  not  avoid  him;  to  estimate  the  new  depart- 
ure it  was  necessary  to  understand  Luther,  for  ot  this 
appalling  depravity  he  was  the  personification  as  wdl 
as  the  preacner.  So  Denifle  devoted  manv  years  to 
the  task  of  ascertaining  for  himself  how,  and  why,  and 
when  Luther  fell.  The  Vatican  archives  and  variouE 
libraries,  particularly  those  of  Rostock  and  Kiel,  sup- 
plied ori^nal  documents  to  which  this  independent 
study  was  confined.  As  usual  Denifle  made  a  series  of 
discoveries.  His  work,  which  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  if  we  take  its  second  edition,  is  in  no  sense  a 
biography.  The  first  part  is  a  critique  of  Luther's 
treatise  on  monastic  vows.  It  examines  his  views  on 
the  vow  of  chastity  in  detail,  and  convicts  him  of 
ignorance,  mendaciousness,  etc.  The  second  part, 
which  is  entitled  "  a  contribution  to  the  history  of  exe- 
gesis, literature  and  dogmatic  theology  in  the  BGddie 
Ages",  refutes  Luther's  assertion  that  his  doctrine  of 


DBins 


721 


Jijfitification  by  faith,  i  e.  his  interpretation  of  Bom., 
1,  17,  was  the  traditional  one,  by  giving  the  relevant 
paaaagee  from  nolewer  than  sixty-five  commentators. 
Of  these  works  many  exist  only  in  manuscript.  To 
discover  them  it  was  necessary  to  traverse  Europe; 
this  part  which  appeared  postnumously  is  a  master- 
piece of  critical  erudition.  The  third  part  shows  that 
the  year  1515  was  the  turning  point  in  Luther's  career, 
and  that  his  own  account  of  his  eariy  life  is  utterly  un^ 
trustworthy,  that  his  immorality  was  the  real  source 
of  his  doctrine,  etc.  No  such  analysis  of  Luther's 
theology  and  exegesis  was  ever  given  to  the  learned 
■    worid  for  which  it  was  written. 

For  some  time  previous  it  had  been  known  that 
Denifie  was  engaged  on  such  a  work,  but  when  in  1904 
the  first  volume  of  860  paces  of  ''Luther  und  Luther- 
tum  in  der  ersten  EntwicKlung  quellenm&ssig  daree- 
stellt "  appeared,  it  fell  like  a  bomb  into  the  midst  of  me 
Reformer  s  admirers.  Tlie  ^tion  was  exhausted  in  a 
month.  The  leading  Protestants  and  rationalists  in 
Germany,  Seebeig,  Hamack,  and  seven  other  profes^ 
sors,  besides  a  host  of  newspaper  writers  attempted  to 
defend  Luther,  but  in  vain.  Denifle's  crushmg  an- 
swer to  Hamack  and  Seeberg,  "  Luther  in  rationalis- 
tischer  und  christlicher  Beleuchtung''  appeared  in 
March.  1904,  and  two  months  afterwards  he  issued  a 
revised  edition  of  the  first  part  of  the  first  volume;  the 
second  was  brought  out  in  1905  and  the  third  in  1906 
by  A.  Weiss,  O.  P.  He  has  the  second  volume  on 
Lutheranism,  for  which  the  author  left  materials, 
ready  (1908)  for  the  press. 

Denifie  has  been  censured  by  some  and  praised  by 
others  for  the  tone  of  this  work.  •  Perhaps  if  it  were 
less  indignant  the  amazing  erudition  displayed  would 
produce  a  greater  effect.  There  was  no  need  of  hard 
words  in  a  work,  to  use  the  words  of  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity when  it  honoured  Denifle,  on  "Lutherum  ab 
eodem  ad  fidem  dociunentorum  depictmn".  He  has 
thrown  more  light  on  Luther's  career  and  character 
than  all  the  editors  of  Luther's  works  and  all  Luther's 
biographers  taken  together.  Denifle  wished  to  offend 
no  man,  but  he  certainly  resolved  on  showing  once  and 
for  all  the  Reformer  in  his  true  colours.  He  makes 
Luther  exhibit  himsetf.  Protestant  writers,  he  re- 
marks, betray  an  utter  lack  of  the  historical  method 
in  dealing  with  the  subject,  and  the  notions  conmionly 
Accepted  are  all  founded  on  fable.  As  he  pointedly 
observes:  ''Critics,  Hamack  and  Ritschl  more  than 
others,  may  sav  what  they  like  about  God  Incarnate; 
but  let  no  one  dare  to  saya  word  of  disapproval  about 
Luther  before  1521".  Denifle's  impeacnment  is  no 
doubt  a  terrible  one,  but  apart  from  some  triflins  in- 
accuracies in  immaterial  points  it  is  established  by 
irrefragable  proofs. 

Denifle,  wno  was  beloved  by  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X, 
was  a  oonsultor  of  the  cardmalitial  Commission  of 
Studies,  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Scien- 
ces (Vienna),  and  of  those  of  Paris,  Pra^e,  Berlin, 
Gattingen;  honorary  Doctor  of  the  Umversities  of 
MUnster  and  Innsbruck;  member  of  the  L^on  of 
Honour,  of  the  Order  of  the  Iron  Crown,  etc  He  was 
on  his  way  to  Cambridge,  where  he  and  his  friend 
Father  Ehxle  were  to  be  made  Honorarv  Doctors  of 
that  university,  when  he  was  struck  down  by  the 
hand  of  death. 

penifle's  Worka  in  Acta  Cap.  Gen,  Ord.  Freed.  1907  (official 
obituary  notice);  Kirscr,  Le  P.  Henri  Stuo  Denifle  O.  P. 
(reprint  Lou  vain.  1905);  Grabmann,  P.  Heinrich  Denifle, 
O.  P„  Eine  WUrdigttng  eeiner  Fonehungearbeit  (Mains,  1905); 
QBAtJERT,  P.  Heinrich  Denifle,  O.  P.,  Ein  Wort  zum  Ged&cktniee 
und  zum  Frieden.  Ein  Beitrag  auch  zum  LuiherStreit  (Freiburg. 
1906):  Wbim,  Lutkerpeyehologie  ale  Schlilesd  tur  Lutker- 
2^9mde — Denifi^'a  Untereuchungen  krUiech  nachgeprHH  (Maine, 

i«>^)'  Reginald  Waush. 

Deziis,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Paris,  and  martyr.    Bom 
in  Italy,  nothing  is  definitely  known  of  the  time  or 
place,  or  of  his  early  life.    His  feast  is  kept  on  9  Oct- 
ober.   He  is  usualfy  represented  with  his  head  in  his 
IV.-46 


hands  because,  according  to  the  legend,  after  his  exa^ 
cution  the  corpse  rose  again  and  carried  the  head  Ion 
some  distance.  That,  however,  while  still  very  young 
he  was  distinguished  for  his  virtuous  life,  knowledge 
of  sacred  things,  and  firm  faith,  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  Pope  Fabian  (236-250)  sent  him  with  some  other 
miasionaiy  bishops  to  Qaul  on  a  difficult  mission. 
The  Church  of  Gaul  had  suffered  terriblv  under  the 
persecution  of  the  Emperor  Decius  and  the  new  mes- 
sengers of  Faith  were  to  endeavour  to  restore  it  to  its 
former  flourishing  condition.  Denis  with  his  insepar- 
able companions,  the  priest  Rusticus  and  the  deacon 
Eleutherius,  arrived  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  pres- 
ent city  of  Paris  and  settled  on  the  island  in  the  Seine, 
The  earliest  document  giving  an  account  of  his  labours 
and  of  his  martyrdom  (Passio  SS.  Dionysii,  Rustic! 
et  Eleutherii),  dating  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  or  the 
beginning  of  the  seventh  century  and  wrongly  at- 
tributed to  the  poet  Venantius  Fortunatus,  is  mter- 
woven  with  much  legend,  from  which,  however,  the 
following  facts  can  be  eleaned. 

On  the  island  in  the  Seine  Denis  built  a  church  and 
provided  for  a  r^lar  solemnization  of  the  Divine 
service.  His  fearless  and  indefatigable  preaching  of 
the  (jiospel  led  to  countless  conversions.  This  aroused 
the  envy,  anger,  and  hatred  of  the  heathen  priests. 
They  incited  the  populace  against  the  strangers  and 
importuned  the  governor  Fescenninus  Sisinnius  to 
put  a  stop  by  force  to  the  new  teachins.  Denis  with 
his  two  companions  were  seized  and  as  tney  persevered 
in  their  faith  were  beheaded  (about  275)  aiter  many 
tortures.  Later  accounts  give  a  detailed  description  of 
the  confessors'  sufferings.  They  were  scourged,  im- 
prisoned, racked,  thrown  to  wila  beasts,  burnt  at  the 
stake,  and  finally  beheaded.  Gregory  of  Tours 
simply  states:  ''Beatus  Dionysius  Parisiorum  episco- 
pus  diversis  pro  Christi  nomme  adfectus  poenis  prse- 
sentem  vitam  gladio  imminente  finivit"  (Hist.  Franc. 
I,  30).  The  bodies  of  the  three  holy  martyrs  received 
an  honourable  burial  through  the  efforts  of  a  pious 
matron  named  Catulla  and  a  small  shrine  was  erected 
over  their  graves.  This  was  later  on  replaced  by  a 
beautiful  basilica  (egreffium  templum)  which  Venan- 
tius celebrated  in  verse  (Carm.  I,  ii). 

From  the  reign  of  King  Dagobert  (622-638)  the 
church  and  Hie  Benedictine  monastery  attached  to 
it  were  more  and  more  beautifully  adorned;  the 
veneration  of  St.  Denis  became  by  degrees  a  national 
devotion,  rulers  and  princes  vying  with  one  another  to 
promote  it.  This  development  is  due  in  no  small  de- 
gree to  an  error  prevailing  throughout  the  Middle 
A^,  which  identified  St.  Denis  of  Paris  with  St. 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  and  with  the  Pseudo- 
Dionysius,  the  composer  of  the  Areopagitic  writings. 
The  combining  of  these  three  persons  in  one  was  doubt- 
less effected  as  eariy  as  the  eighth  or  perhaps  the 
seventh  century,  but  it  was  only  through  tne  "Areopar 
gitica"  written  in  836  by  Hilduin,  Abbot  of  Saint-Den- 
is, at  the  reauest  of  Louis  the  Pious,  that  this  serious 
error  took  aeep  root.  The  investigations  of  Launoy 
first  threw  doubt  on  the  stoiy  and  the  Bollandist 
de  Bye  entirely  rejected  it.  Hilduin  was  probablv 
deceived  by  the  same  apocryphal  Latin  and  Greek 
fictions.  The  possession  of  the  Areopagitic  writings 
(since  827  in  Saint-Deius)  strengthened  ms  conviction 
of  this  truth.  Historiographers  of  the  present  day 
do  not  dispute  the  point.  All  the  attempts  of  Darras, 
Vidieu,  0.  Schneider,  and  others  to  throw  some  light 
on  the  subject  have  proved  fruitless. 

Vita  SS.  marL  Dionysii  etc.  in  Mon.  Qerm.  Hiat.:  Auet. 
Antifqu.  TV,  2;  St.  Greoobt  op  Touiu,  Hiet.  Franc  in  Mon. 
Germ.  Hiat.:  Script,  rar.  Mero».,t.  Ij  AeiaSS.,  Octob..  IV»  6M- 
866;  P.  Zr.,  CVI,  I5-60  (P.  G..  Iv.  i8S>-e84);  Chevaueb,  Bio- 
bibl.,  8.  V. 

Jos.  SnOLMATR. 

Denis,  Johann  Nbpomuk  Cobmab  Michael,  bib 
liographer  and  poet,  b,  at  Sch&rding,  Bavaria,  27  Sep- 


Dxns 


722 


tember.  1729:  d.  at  Vienna  29  Sept.,  1800.  He  r&- 
eeived  nis  early  training  in  the  gvmnafiium  of  Paasau, 
conducted  by  the  Jesuits,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Vienna  in  1747.  For  some 
years  he  taught  Latin  and  rhetoric,  first  at  Graz,  then 
at  Klagenfurt.  After  four  more  years  devoted  to  the 
study  of  theology  at  Graz  he  was  ordained  priest  in 
1757,  and  began  preaching  in  Pressburg.  In  1759  he 
was  made  professor  of  belles-lettres  at  the  famous 
TliefBsian  Academy  in  Vienna  where  he  remained 
until  1773,  when  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  suppressed. 
Denis  now  became  assistant  librarian  of  the  Qarelli 
library,  connected  with  the  Theresianiun,  and  when 
the  academy  ceased  to  exist  in  1784,  he  was  appointed 
assistant  librarian  of  the  imperial  court  library  and 
in  1791  was  advanced  to  be  chief  librarian,  receiving 
at  the  same  time  the  title  of  privy  councillor.  He  is 
specially  known  as  a  poet,  as  he  was  one  of  the  chief 
members  of  the  group  of  so-called  bards  whose  aim 
was  to  revive  German  patriotism  by  treating  subjects 
connected  with  Germanic  antiquity.  Confusing  Ger- 
manic and  Celtic  materials  they  conoeived  themselves 
as  bards,  in  the  belief  that  these  were  ancient  German 
poets,  and  adopted  fanciful  bardic  names.  Thus 
Denis  called  himself  "the  bard  Sined",  the  anagram 
of  his  name.  They  were  all  admirers  of  Klop> 
stock  and  of  Ossian,  whose  poems  had  only  a  few 
years  before  been  made  known  by  the  Scotchman 
Macpherson,  and  which  had  been  translated  into  Ger- 
man in  1764.  Ossian  was  really  the  inspiration  of  the 
bardic  movement.  Denis's  first  poems  appeared  in 
1700  under  the  title  "Poetische  Bilder  der  meisten 
kriegerischen  Vorg&nge  in  Europa  seit  dem  Jahre 
1756".  They  are  poems  celebrating  the  events  (rf 
the  Seven  Years  War,  and,  as  the  German  poems  of 
a  Jesuit,  created  quite  a  stir.  His  German  transla- 
tion of  Ossian  appeared  in  three  volumes  (1768- 
1769).  A  second  collection  of  poems,  "Die  Lieder 
Sineds  des  Barden",  followed  in  1772.  A  new  edition, 
including  his  version  of  Ossian,  was  published  at  Vi- 
enna in  five  volumes  under  the  title  "Ossian  und 
Sineds  Lieder"  (Vienna.  1784-86).  Besides  the  purely 
bardic  poems  these  collections  contain  many  poems 
composed  for  special  occasions,  for  Denis  was  held 
in  high  esteem  by  the  Court.  A  number  of  religious 
poems  had  been  published  separately  as  "Geistliche 
Lieder"  in  1774.  The  quality  of  these  poetical 
efforts  is  not  hi^,  but  Denis  certainly  deserves 
praise  for  his  efforts  to  bring  the  literature  of  Aus- 
tria into  contact  with  that  of  northern  Germany. 
For  both  Klopstock  and  Gellert  he  felt  great  enthusi- 
asm, and  largely  helped  to  nlake  them  known  in 
Austria. 

As  a  bibliographer  he  compiled  a  number  of  im- 
portant works,  notably:  "Einleitung  in  die  BQcher- 
kunde",  part  I,  bibliography  (1777);  part  II,  "Lit- 
teraturgeschichte",  (1778);  "Die  Merkwttrdigkeiten 
der  Garellischen  Bibliothek"  (Vienna,  1780);  and 
"  Wiens  Buchdruckergeschichte  bis  MDLX"  (Vienna, 
1782-83).  His  posthumous  works  were  published  by 
his  pupil  J.  F.  de  Retzer,  "Nachlese  zvl  Sineds  Lie- 
dem"  (Vienna,  1802). 

HorMANN-WfSLLRNHOK.  Mxchod  Defixs,  ein  Beitrag  sw 
deutseh^aterrexchisdlien  LtiUraturffetchichie  des  XVIII,  Jahr- 
hundena  (Innabruck,  1881):  Hauei,  in  KGnacnvKSi,  DeuUche 
Natumal-LUieratur.  XLVIII.  149  eqq. 

Arthur  F.  J.  Remy. 

Denis,  Joseph  (baptized  Jacques),  b.  6  November, 
1657,  at  Three  Rivers,  Canada;  d.  25  January,  1736. 
He  was  the  first  Canadian  to  join  the  Recollects  of  the 
Friare  Minor.  His  father,  Pierre  Denis  de  la  Ronde  and 
his  mother  Catherine  Leneuf  de  la  Poterie,  were  na- 
tives of  Nonnandy.  In  1669  he  entered  the  seminary 
at  Quebec  and  on  9  May,  1677,  joined  the  Recollects 
in  the  same  city,  taking  m  religion  the  name  of  Joseph. 
When  professed  he  went  to  France  to  study  theology. 
After  being  ordained  he  returned  to  Canada  in  1682, 


where  in  16S5  he  completed  the  installation  of  the 
Recollects  at  He  Perote.  He  founded  the  house  nf 
the  order  at  Plaisanoe  in  1689  and  tfiat  at  Montnal  in 
1692.  After  holding  the  office  of  provincial  comniin- 
sary,  superior  of  the  convent  of  Quebec,  and  master 
of  novices,  he  was  named,  in  1709,  superior  of  the 
Recollects  and  parish  priest  of  Three  Rivers,  wliert 
he  rebuilt  in  stone  the  old  church.  In  1719  he  car- 
ried to  France,  to  be  forwarded  to  Rome,  the  Acts  of 
Brother  Didace  (Les  actes  du  trds-religieux  Fi^re 
Didaoe),  a  Canadian  Recollect  whose  confessor  he  was 
for  many  yean.  He  died  shortly  after  his  return 
to  New  France. 

Odorio-IL  JoirrE. 

Dexmum,  William,  publisher,  b.  In  Edinbm^ 
Scotland,  17  March,  1784;  d.  in  Brooklyn,  New  York, 
U.  S.  A.^  12  September,  1870.  His  father  was  a  Ger- 
man, his  mother  an  Alsatian,  and  he  claimed  to 
have  been  in  the  English  army  before  he  emigrated  to 
New  York  in  1824.  He  was  an  associate  ofWiQiam 
£.  Andrews,  the  London  publisher,  and  after  settlniLe 
down  in  New  York,  he  began,  in  conjunction  wttn 
George  Pardow,  on  2  Apnl.  1825,  the  publication 
of  "The  Truth  Teller",  the  first  Catholic  paper 
issued  there.  It  was  a  weeklv,  and  for  a  time  enjoyed 
considerable  local  influence  which  gave  Denman  polit- 
ical prominence.  Tainted,  however,  with  the  prevail- 
ing error  of  trusteeism,  it  lost  the  support  of  tne  local 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  rival  publications  were 
started  and  its  prestige  waned  until  he  sold  the  paper 
31  March,  1855,  to  the  proprietors  of  "  The  Irish  Amer- 
ican"^ who  merged  it  in  that  |oumal  a  short  time 
after.  Three  of  his  sons  were  m  the  United  States 
service:  Adjutant  Frederick  J.  Denman,  of  the  Artil- 
lery, killed  by  accident  in  Texas  in  1854;  Ensign 
Joseph  A.  Denman,  of  the  Navy,  died  1862;  Colonel 
Charles  L.  Denman,  who  served  in  the  Mexican  War 
and  as  consul  in  South  America,  died  17  March,  1893. 
The  youngest  son,  William,  was  for  some  years  editor 
of  the  New  York  "Tablet". 

U.  S.  Cath.  Hibt.  Soc,  Uitt,Rceordaand8htdiea  (N«w  Yoik. 
Jmi..  1003),  III,  pftrt  I. 

Thomas  F.  Msbhan. 

Deoxnark  (Lat.  Danta). — This  kingdom  had  for- 
merly a  much  larger  extent  than  at  present.  It  onoe 
included  the  southern  provinces  of  Sweden:  Sk&ne, 
Halland,  Blekinge,  Bohusl&n  (till  1658);  the  Ducliies 
of  Schleswig  (SOnderjylland)  and  Holstein  (till  1864); 
the  Kingdom  of  Norway  (from  1537  till  1814).  The 
present  Kingdom  comprises  16,000  square  miles  (be- 
tween lat.  54*  33'  and  67*  46'  N.;  long.  8*  4'  and  15* 
10'  E.).  It  now  includes  the  northern  part  of  Jutland 
(anciently  the  Cimbric  Chersonese)  between  the 
North  Sea,  Skager  Rack,  and  Cattegat,  whose  soutJiem 

{)art  borders  on  the  German  Empire;  the  islands  which 
ie  between  the  Baltic  and  Cattoeat  (partly  also  in  the 
latter) — Zealand  (Sjftlland),  Falster,  M6en,  Laaland, 
Fttnen  (Fyan),  Mr6,  Sams6,  Anholt,  LsesO — toKether 
with  a  few  smaller  isles  (Amager,  Saltholm,  Seierd, 
etc.)  and  Bomholm,  which  lies  far  towards  the  east  in 
the  Baltic.  To  this  must  be  added  the  group  of  the 
Faroe  Islands  (q.  v.),  situated  in  the  Atlantie  Ocean, 
180  miles  north-west  of  the  Shetland  Islands  and  410 
miles  west  from  Bergen,  and  finally  Iceland  (q.  v.), 
whose  northern  coast  is  washed  by  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
and  which,  though  very  extensive  (40,000  square 
miles),  is  but  thinly  inhabited  (80,000  souls).  ^  Ice- 
land is  very  loosely  connected  with  Denmark,  is  inde- 
pendent in  its  laws  and  government,  and  since  1874 
nas  its  own  constitution.  Other  Danish  possessions 
are  Greenland  (q  v.),  which  in  size  is  almost  a  conti- 
nent, but  is  verv  sparsely  settled  (only  12,000  souls)^ 
and  the  three  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  St.  Croix,  St, 
John,  and  St.  Thomas,  with  a  total  area  of  120  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  30,000. 


DSmftARK 


723 


BSmiARK 


Hie  physieal  eharaoter  of  Denmark,  which  eeologi- 
caHy  is  a  continuation  of  the  plain  of  Central  Europe, 
shows  only  moderate  contrasts.    The  Baltic  Islands, 
surrounded  by  arms  of  the  sea  that  are  nowhere 
deeper  than  200  feet  and  contain  little  salt,  are  partly 
monotonous  flats,  partly  rolling  ground.    (My  a  few 
points,  as  GyidenloBveshoei  on  Siealand,  Aborrebjeii;  on 
Mden  and  Frcebjeig  on  FQnen,  rise  to  a  height  of  400 
feet  and  more.    Similar  conditions  prevail  in  Jutland. 
The  hi^  plateau  that  crosses  it  in  a  northeriy  direc- 
tion slopes  abruptly  down  towards  the  east.    Here  are 
elevations  of  486  to  673  feet  (Himmelsbjerg,  Ejers 
Bavnehcei),  lines  of  low,  wooded  hills,  deep-cut  val- 
leys, fertile  fields  and  meadows,  bubbling  rivulets,  and 
beautiful  lakes.    On  the  other  hand  the  dune-bound 
"west  coast  of  Jutland  from  Blaavandshuk  to  Slo^^n 
presents  nothing  to  the  eye  but  heath  and  moor. 
Bomholm  resembles  in  its  structural  character  the 
neighbouring  Sweden.    The  northern   and  eastern 
coasts  rise  abruptly  out  of  the  sea,  and  the  southern 
shore  and  the  interior  are  monotonous,  although  the  hill 
of  Rjrtterknft^n  reaches  a  height  of  543  feet.    There 
are  no  large  nvers  in  Denmark,  but  with  its  numerous 
islands  and  peninsulas — its  coast-line  a^regating  a 
leneth  of  3100  miles — there  is  no  lack  of  deep  brooks, 
and  the  River  Gudenaa,  in  Jutland,  is  over  100  miles 
long.    Tlie  lakes  are  numerous,  but  small  and  shallow, 
only  that  known  as  the  Furusee  having  a  depth  of  300 
feet.    The  climate  is  comparatively  mild,  hardly  dif- 
fering from  that  of  South  Germany,  but  somewhat 
more  severe  in  Jutland  than  on  the  islands.    Only 
one-seventh  of  the  soil  is  woodland.    In  the  last  few 
decades,   however,   successful  measures  have  been 
taken  to  husband  the  forests.    Beech  and  birch  trees, 
ash  and  alder,  some  oaks,  linden,  and  pines  are  foimd. 
Three-fourths  of  the  total  area  of  the  islands  and  of 
the  east  coast  of  Jutland  is  tilled  land ;  the  cultivation 
of  grain,  potatoes,  and  beets  yields  a  large  return. 
Wsonuts  and  mulberries  ripen  m  due  season,  and  in 
some  places  juicy  grapes  ripen  on  trellises.    The 
flora  of  Denmark,  witn  its  1500  species  of  wild- 
growing   plants,  is  quite  extensive  but  the  same 
cannot  be  said  of  its  fauna.    The  larger  beasts  ci 

grey  are  extinct,  even  the  red  deer  and  wild  boar 
ave  almost  disappeared.  Foxes,  martens,  roes, 
and  hares  are  still  numerous,  and  along  the  shores 
seals  may  be  seen.  Its  birds,  amphibia,  and  fishes 
resemble  those  of  Germany.  In  the  Little  Belt,  be- 
tween Jutland  and  FOnen,  the  pilot  whale  (gnndhval) 
is  sometimes  found.  The  domestic  animals  are  those 
of  Central  Europe.  As  the  soil  is  for  the  most  part 
made  up  of  marl — ^though  there  are  also  other  strata 
on  Bonmolm — ^the  country  is  not  rich  in  minerals.  It 
yields  common  clay,  kaolin,  chalk,  and  some  lignite. 
The  absence  of  metals  and  still  more  of  ^ood  anthra- 
cite coal  is  greatly  felt.  Luckily,  extensive  turf-bogs 
provide  the  necessaiy  fuel. 

Denmark  is  inhabited  by  2.600,000  people,  most  of 
them  natives.  Together  with  the  Swedes  and  Nor- 
wegians, the  Danes  belong  to  the  Germanic  stock 
(North  Germans,  Scandinavians),  and  in  body  as  well 
as  character  differ  but  little  from  the  North  Germans. 
Their  written  language  has  much  in  common  with 
Low  German.  The  language  of  the  common  people  is 
divided  into  a  number  <m  strikingly  divergent  dialects. 
Nearly  all  of  the  population  (98^  per  cent)  belong 
officismy  to  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Chmrch,  which, 
as  the  Established  Church,  enjoys  Government  support. 
In  1849  complete  freedom  of  religious  belief  was  l^al- 
ly  guaranteed.  Since  then  many  have  joined  the 
Baptists,  Irvin^tes,  the  Reformed  Church,  and  other 
sects.  ParticuTariy  gratifying  is  the  modem  revival  of 
Catholicism,  which  had  disappeared  from  Denmark  for 
three  centuries  (see  below  under  Religiotts  History). 
With  regard  to  general  education,  Denmark  com- 
pares well  with  other  States.  Education  is  compul- 
soiy.    The  primary  schools  are  kept  up  by  the  munic- 


ipalities. Latin  schools  and  modem  high  schools 
provide  the  necessary  preparation  for  the  imiversity 
m  the  capital,  the  polytechnic  institute,  and  the  agri- 
cultural college,  very  useful  institutions  are  the 
"people's  high  schools'',  private  continuation  schools 
for  the  mral  population.  There  is  no  lack  of  libraries, 
art  collections,  and  collections  of  antiquities,  nor  of 
literary  and  artistic  societies  with  ideal  aims.  Many 
Danish  scholars  and  poets,  sculptors  and  musicians 
have  acquired  fame  that  has  spread  far  beyond  the 
narrow  limits  of  their  country.  We  ne^  mention 
only  the  names  c^  Oersted,  Woorsaae,  Madvig,  Oehlen- 
schl&ger,  Thorvaldsen,  Gade.  The  relatively  small 
number  of  Danish-speaking  people  forces  many 
writers  to  compose  their  works  m  one  of  the  four  bet- 
ter-known languages,  German,  English,  French,  Span- 
ish, or  at  least  to  translate  them  into  one  of  these. 

Denmark  is  a  constitutional  monarchy  with  strong 
democratic  tendencies.  By  the  national  constitution 
of  1849,  revised  in  1866,  LaruUthtng  and  FoUcethina 
share  the  government  with  the  king,  who  has  a  civil 
list  of  a  little  more  than  1,000,000  kroner  ($268,000). 
The  national  colours  are  red,  white,  red;  the  flag 
shows  the  Danebrog,  i.  e.  an  upright  white  cross  on  a 
red  field.    Justice  is  administered  by  irremovable 

i'udges  who  are  subject  to  the  supreme  court  in  Copen- 
lagen  (Hoeiesteret),  and  who  conduct  trials  orally  and 
in  pubUc.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  the  king 
alone.  For  the  sake  of  ix>litical  administration  the 
coimtry  is  divided  into  eignteen  districts,  presided  over 
by  district  judges.  The  larger  cities  have  self-^vera- 
ment  and  their  own  police.  A  general  supervision  is 
exercised  by  the  head  of  the  Copenhagen  police. 

The  established  Evanflelical  Church  is  divided  into 
seven  dioceses:  Zealana,  Ftlnen-^rO,  Laaland-Fal- 
ster,  Aalboig,  Viboig,  Aarhus,  and  Ribe.  At  Uie  head 
of  each  diocese  is  a  superintendent  who  is  called 
"bishop",  a  name  that  has  been  preserved  from 
Cathohc  times.  The  Bishop  of  Zealand  is  primus,  inter 
pares.  The  dioceses  are  made  up  of  provostships  and 
parishes.  The  provost  exercises  his  office  under  the 
supervision  of  tne  bishop. 

Since  1892  the  Catholics  of  Denmark,  who  (in- 
cluding about  7000  Polish  labourers)  number  57,000; 
are  under  a  vicar  Apostolic  (Johannes  von  Euch,  Titu- 
lar Bishop  of  Anastasiopolis).  Of  these  3000  live  in 
Copenharai,  and  they  are  found  in  other  important 
towns.  Communities  of  good  size  are  found  in  Fred- 
ericksborg  (1500),  Aarhus,  Odense,  Horsens,  Fred- 
ericia,  Onirup,  Sundby  (400).  Besides  these,  mis- 
sions have  been  established  in  Aalborg,  Esbjerg, 
Glorup,  Grenaa,  Elsinore,  Holding,  KOge,  Ledreborg, 
Nsestved,  Randers,  Ringsted,  KOskilde,  Silkebors, 
Slagelse,  Struer,  Svendborg,  Thisted,  Vejle  and  Vi- 
borg,  also  in  Bomholm  and  Iceland.  Tliese  are 
equipped  with  churches  or  chapels,  some  of  them 
hanosome,  in  which  secular  or  regular  clergy  act  as 
pastors.  Among  the  cities  Copenhagen  (q.  v.)  far 
surpasses  all  others  in  importance.  Its  population, 
including  that  of  the  suburbs,  was  in  1906  over  half  a 
million.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  king,  the  seat  of  the 
ministries  of  public  affairs  and  of  the  state  university  ; 
it  is  the  centre  of  industry  and  commerce,  of  science 
and  the  arts.  Formerly  improtected,  it  was  a  few 
years  ago  strongly  fortified.  Besides  Copenhagen, 
only  few  places  claim  particular  attention:  Ranaers 
in  Jutland,  for  its  domestic  trade;  Aaifaus,  for  its 
commerce  and  cathedral;  Aalboig,  for  its  ancient 
buildingB:  Horsens  for  its  manufactures;  Odense  for 
its  cathedral  and  commerce;  Svendboig  on  FQnen  for 
its  manufactures.  The  ancient  towns  of  Ribe,  Viboii^, 
and  ROskilde  bask  in  the  glory  of  the  past;  their 
stately  churohes,  built  in  the  time  of  Catholicism,  are 
yet  reminders  of  then:  former  splendour. 

Bimetallism  prevails  in  Denmark.  The  standard 
coin  is  the  krone  (10.268).  In  weights  and  meas- 
ures the  country  has  not  yet  adapted  itself  to  the 


DVUmABS 


724 


VXMHAKl 


decimal  Qyatem  of  Southern  and  Central  Europe. 
The  Government  finances  are  in  a  good  condition;  we 
national  debt  small.  The  principal  means  of  liveli- 
hood is  agriculture.  Its  products  (oats,  barlev,  rye, 
wheat)  represent  a  value  of  400  million  kroner  ($107,- 
200,000).  Of  late,  a  chan^  is  going  on  in  favour  of 
cattle-raising  and  of  dairy  mdustry  (domestic  animals, 
1903:  horses  490,000;  beeves  1,900,000;  hogs  1,600,- 
000;  sheep  900,000;  goats  40,000;  chickens  12,000,- 
000).  In  1903,  300  million  pounds  of  pork  and  butter 
alone  were  exported.  Eggs  to  the  value  of  24  million 
kroner  were  shipped  to  foreign  countries.  The  fishing 
industry  is  less  prominent  than  might  be  expected; 
still,  the  total  income  from  this  branch  amounts  to  10 
million  kroner.  Manufactures  pive  occupation  to 
about  one-fourth  of  the  population  and  aro  rapidly 
increasing.  However,  only  the  smaller  part  of  the 
products  IS  exported;  by  far  the  greater  part  is  used  to 
supply  Uie  home  demand.  In  some  branches  of  nuin- 
uf acture  Denmark  excels,  and  the  royal  porcelain  fac- 
tory of  Copenhagen  rivals  successfully  those  of  the 
best  establishments  in  France  and  Germany. 

The  high  standing  of  Denmark  as  a  commercial 
country  may  be  inferred  from  the  one  fact  that  its 
yearly  business  transactions  are  almost  one-half  of 
those  of  Italy,  which  is  thirteen  times  as  large.  In 
1903  the  mercnant  marine  could  boast  a  total  of  430,- 
000  tons,  and  it  increases  from  year  to  year.  To  safe- 
guard navigation,  which  is  exposed  to  many  dangers, 
especially  elong  the  coasts  of  Jutland,  there  are  350 
lighthouses,  15 lightshiixs,  and  50  life-saving  stations. 
Being  shallow,  most  of  its  harbours  admit  only  small 
vessds.  For  the  same  reason  the  canals  are  of  small 
importance,  but  2000  miles  of  railways,  telegraph  con- 
nexions, etc.  amply  sup{^  the  country  with  tne  con- 
veniences of  modem  traffic. 

Beside  the  gigantic  armies  and  fleets  of  Germany 
and  England,  Denmark's  fighting  strength  appears 
insignificant.  Military  service  is  compulsory.  The 
period  of  service  is,  however,  considerably  shorter 
than  in  other  states.  The  peace  footing  is  800  officers 
and  9000  men ;  the  war  strei^h  is  given  as  1500  offi- 
cers,. 60,000  rank  and  file,  llie  naval  strength  aggre- 
gates 50,000  tons,  about  80,000  horse  power,  aQd400 
guns.  Army  and  navy  combined  entail  an  outlay  of 
20  million  kroner. 

The  Royal  House  belongs  to  the  dynasty  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein-Sonderburg-GlUcksburg  and  is,  conso- 
Ciuently,  of  German  origin.  At  present  (1908),  Freder- 
ick VIII  (bom  3  June,  1843)  wears  the  crown,  having 
succeeded  his  father,  Christian  IX,  29  Januaiy,  1006. 
His  consort,  Louise,  is  a  princess  of  Sweden ;  his  son 
Claries  governs  the  Kingdom  of  Norway  under  the 
name  of  Haakon  VII.  His  brother  William  has  occu- 
pied the  throne  of  Greece  as  King  George  since  6  June, 
1863.  A  second  brother  of  the  sovereign.  Prince 
Waldemar,  is  married  to  the  Catholic  Princess  Marie  of 
Orleans  Bourbon;  their  sons  are,  according  to  the 
constitution,  brought  up  in  the  Protestant  faith,  while 
their  dMighter  Margaret  follows  the  religion  of  her 
mother. 

Trap,  Be^kriveUe  af  Konoerigct  Danmark  (1808 — );  Lof- 
FLER,  Omrids  af  Geoaraphien  (Denmark,  1893-98);  Id.,  Dan- 
marks  Natur  und  Vofk  (0>penha«en.  1905.  with  literary  notes 
on  the  Faroe  Islands  and  loelancC  111-114/. 

Reugious  History. — The  first  attempts  to  win  the 
rough  Danish  warriors  over  to  the  mild  yoke  of  Christ 
are  said  to  have  been  made  by  the  Frisian  Bishop  WiJ- 
librord,  who  died  in  739.  But  for  this  there  is  no  reli- 
able evidence.  A  missionary  journev  which  Aroh- 
bishop  Ebbo  of  Reims  imdertook  to  Jutland,  in  823, 
proved  a  failure.  But  when,  a  few  years  later,  the 
Danish  chief  Harold  (Klack)  went  to  Ingelheim  to  ask 
aid  from  Louis  the  Pious,  he  was  baptized  with  his 
whole  retinue,  and  on  his  return  took  the  Fraiikish 
monk  Ansgar  ( Anschar.  q.  v.)  as  missionary.  Interior 
disturbanoefl  made  it  impossible  for  the  apostle  to  work 


sucoessfuUy.  In  831  the  aeak>us  priest  wi 
Bishop  of  Hamburg  and  thereby  reco^gniaed  as  Apos- 
tolic aelegate.to  the  Scandinavian  nations.  In  849  he 
was  also  appointed  to  the  See  of  Bremen.  From  this 
place  he  laboured  untiringly  for  the  extension  of  the 
Faith  and  was  able  to  consecrate  a  churdi  in  Schkswig 
(Hedeby).  Owins  to  the  expulsion  of  Erik  (864), 
who  had  favourea  his  cause,  heathenism  regained  its 
ground  for  a  while,  and  many  of  ih»  faithful  lost  their 
fives  and  property.  Two  years  later  affairs  took  a 
turn  for  toe  better.  The  church  in  Schleswis  was 
reopened,  and  a  new  one  was  built  in  Ribe.  When 
the  saintly  man  died,  in  865,  he  beheld  a  fiouriahing 
band  of  Christians  around  him.  So  far,  Christianity 
had  gained  no  entrance  to  the  islands,  and  when  Gonn 
the  Old,  a  fanatical  worshipper  of  Odin,  succeeded  in 
extending  his  power  over  Jutland,  he  raged  with  fire 
and  swora  agamst  the  Christians.  He  met  his  master 
in  Henry  I  of  Germany,  who  conquered  him,  in  934,  in 
a  bloody  battle,  and  forced  hira  to  at  least  tolerate 
Christianity.  Gorm  himself  died  a  heathen.  Under 
his  son  Harold  (Bluetooth),  who  was  compeUed  to 
acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Otto  I,  it  bec^une  pos^ 
Bible  to  erect  the  dioceses  of  Schleswig,  Ribe,  and 
Aarhus.  During  the  reign  of  Canute  the  Great  (1014- 
35)  Christianity  gradua%  spread  all  over  the  country. 
The  new  dioceses  of  Viborg  and  B6rglum  were  formed 
in  Jutland,  and  to  these  were  added  Odense  in  FOnen 
and  Roskilde  in  Zealand.  At  this  time  also  the  first 
monasteries  arose.  When,  under  Sven  Estridscm,  the 
Diocese  of  Lund  was  founded,  the  whole  kingdom  had 
been  won  for  the  Faith.  Under  Canute  II  (the  Saint) 
the  bishops  became  powerful  feudal  lords,  eocleBias- 
tical  dignitaries,  ana  commanders  of  armies.  Ab- 
sorbed by  their  secular  occupations,  they  not  seldom 
lost  sight  of  their  spiritual  duties.  Some,  like  Biahop 
Absalon  (Axel)  of  Lund  and  Odense,  who  died  at 
Sorde,  1201,  largely  contributed  to  the  extension  and 


influence  of  the  State  by  their  shrewdness  and  energy. 
Others,  however,  became  involved  in  conflicts  with  tne 
king  hunself,  in  which  cases  the  Roman  See  often  im- 
posed the  severest  spiritual  punishments.  At  the 
same  time  the  number  of  monasteries  increased  almost 
too  rapidly,  so  that  towards  the  end  of  the  Middle 
Ages  tnere  were  134  belonging  to  different  orders. 

The  external  constitution  of  the  (Church  in  Denmark 
was  settled  definitely  in  1104,  when  the  country  was 
separated  from  the  metropolitan  See  of  Hamburg- 
Bremen,  and  its  seven  bishops  were  subordinated  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Lund  as  primate.  About  the  re- 
ligious life  of  the  clergy  and  laity  we  are  not  sufficiently 
informed,  much  historical  material  having  been  lo((t 
during  the  later  changes  in  the  ecclesiastical  govene 
ment.  The  conditions  were,  however,  hardly  satis- 
factory. Tlie  higher  ecclesiastics,  supported  by  the 
lower  cleiigy  and  the  people,  led  a  sumptuous  life  and 
did  little  to  cultivate  the  minds  and  morals  of  their 
flocks.  We  must  not  forget,  however,  that,  previous 
to  the  invention  of  the  printing  press,  education,  as  we 
understand  it  at  present,  was  iK>t  possible.  Only  thus 
can  we  explain  the  fact  that  the  earUer  zeal  of  the 
Danish  people,  proved  by  the  erection  of  many  splen- 
did churches,  rich  donations,  and  countless  founda- 
tions for  the  benefit  of  the  poor,  was  swept  away,  as  it 
were,  in  a  few  years  by  the  hurricane  of  the  Relorma- 
tion.  Christian  II  was  the  first  who  tried  to  over- 
throw the  power  of  the  princely  hierarchy,  and  fortius 
purpose  invited  Q520)  a  (}ennan,  Martin  Reinhard,  to 
preach  in  Copeniiagen  in  the  spirit  of  Luther,  but  as 
the  people  did  not  understand  him,  he  remained  in  the 
country  only  a  short  time.  His  successor,  the  notori- 
ous Karlstadt,  met  with  the  same  fate.  After  the 
deposition  of  King  Christian,  his  uncle  Frederick  I 
ascended  the  throne.  Contrary  to  his  sworn  promise 
at  the  election,  he  at  once  allowed  the  Lutheran 
preachers  to  spread  the  new  creed.  Prominent  among 
thciu  waa  a  disciple  of  Luther,  Hans  Tausen,  whoMems 


0BIMAHX 


725 


DEKMAEK 


to  have  found  a  worthy  and  effective  adversary  in  onlv 
one  man,  the  learned  Carmelite  Paulus  Elise  (Hef- 
eesen),  the  first  historian  of  Denmark.  Soon  (1526) 
tiie  king  openly  professed  the  Lutheran  heresjjr,  and 
after  he  had  secured  its  triumph  in  the  duchies  of 
Schleswie  and  HoLstein,  he  proclaimed  at  the  Diet  of 
Odense  (1527)  religious  freedom  for  Denmark  proper, 
but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  systematically  undermmea 
the  CSiurch.  Three  years  later  the  adherents  of  the 
new  doctrine  accepted  the  Confessio  Hafnica  as  their 
symbol.  It  was  Frederick's  son,  Christian  III,  who 
alter  the  overthrow  of  his  political  enemies  made 
Lutheranism  the  established  religion.  On  the  same 
day  he  caused  all  bishops  to  be  imprisoned  and  to  be 
deprived  of  their  possessions;  the  monks  and  nuns 
were  permitted  to  leave  the  monasteries;  if  they  pre- 
ferred to  remain,  they  were  forced  to.  admit  Lutheran 
preachers  and  to  suffer  all  possible  persecution.  The 
church  property,  when  not  appropriated  by  the  nobil- 
ity, was  confiscated  and  added  to  the  royal  treasury. 
In  1539  John  Bugenhagen  came  to  Denmark  with  the 
avowed  purpose  of  establishing  a  new  liturgy  and  to 
oonsecrate  L^utheran  bishops.  A  Danish  translation 
of  the  Bible,  done  in  the  spirit  of  the  prophet  of  Wit- 


Pro-Cathbdbal  of  St.  AmoAR,  Copbnbaobn 
(Built  in  1843  under  Austrian  Government  Protection) 

trrnberg,  was  begun  and  completed  in  1550.  (For  an 
earlier  Danish  translation  see  below.)  With  the  ex- 
ception of  Bishop  Joachim  Rdfiow  of  Rdskilde,  all  the 
prelates  yielded  to  force;  one  of  them  even  became  a 
Protestant.  Many  religious  fell  away  and  married, 
but  most  of  them  went  into  exile.  A  snining  example 
of  loyalty  to  their  faith  was  set  by  the  nuns  of  St. 
Bridget  at  Maribo  on  Laaland.  Also  several  priests 
and  monks,  like  Iversen,  a  canon  of  Lund,  the  Carmel- 
ite prior  Knstinsen,  the  Franciscan  Ludolf  Naaman,  of 
Flensburg,  the  parish  priest  Anders  Jepeen,  and  nu- 
merous laymen  clung  to  the  true  Church  in  spite  of  all 
persecutions. 

The  Catholic  customs  and  usages  never  died  out 
completely.  Thus  the  Protestant  historian  Vedel 
(d.  1616)  neld  himself  bound  by  the  commandment  of 
fasting.  To  some  extent  the  rural  population  even 
yet  believe  in  the  assistance  of  the  saints;  the  Luth- 
eran names  for  religious  persons  and  ceremonies  have 
never  been  in  common  use;  as  in  former  times,  the 
people  speak  of  bishops  and  priests,  of  saying  mass, 
etc.  The  ministers  wear  vestments  similar  to  those 
used  in  the  Catholic  Church,  and  the  altars  are  decor- 
ated with  lif  hted  candles.  For  a  long  time  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  Host,  auricular  confession,  and  the  ancient 
hymns  were  retained.  All  this  was  calculated  to  con- 
firm the  people  in  the  belief  that  nothing  essential  had 
been  changed  in  their  religion. 

Though,  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
Cutholicism  may  in  general  be  considered  as  sup- 
pressed in  the  Danish  kingdom,  it  still  counted  some 


adherents  iu  the  liigher  circles,  whose  sous  occasionally 
frequented  the  Jesuit  college  of  Braunsberg,  and  there 
were  stren^hened  in  their  faith  or  led'back  to  it.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  therefore, 
an  attempt  was  made  by  the  Propaganda  to  provide  in 
a  regular  way  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  scattered 
faithful,  and  several  mission  stations  were  established. 
We  are  not  sufficiently  informed  about  these  missions, 
but  they  seem  to  have  been  by  no  means  insignificant. 
The  royal  rescript  of  10  June,  1613,  which  forbade 
Catholic  priests  to  perform  any  relieious  functions, 
under  penalty  of  death,  and  the  Danske  Lov  of  Chris- 
tian V  (1683),  which  threatened  converts  with  the 
confiscation  of  their  property  and  with  banishment, 
were  evidently  intended  to  prevent  conversions. 
While  the  Catholic  religion  was  thus  excluded  for  a 
time  from  Denmark  proper,  it  could  never  be  wholly 
extiipated  in  Holstem,  then  a  Danish  province,  but 
wHhm  the  Cxerman  Empire.  As  early  as  1597  a  smaU 
Catholic  conununity  was  formed  at  Altona,  followed, 
in  1625,  by  a  second  at  Friedrichstadt.  To  th^se  was 
added,  in  1661,  a  church  on  Nordsrand;  in  1662  a 
chapel  at  GlQckstadt.  As  to  Denmark  proper,  French 
diploma^  succeeded  (1630)  in  obtaining  permission  to 
erect  at  Cfopenhagen  a  chapel  for  the  French  embassy; 
Catholic  services  were  allowed  at  Fredericia  in  i682. 

After  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648),  which  abol- 
ished the  jurisdiction  of  bishops  over  the  North- 
German  Protestant  territory,  an  Apostolic  vicariate 
was  erected  to  ^vem  these  scattered  parishes  and 
those  in  Scandmavia.  Valerius  Maccioni,  Titular 
Bishop  of  Morocco,  was  the  first  vicar;  his  successor 
was  tne  famous  Danish  scholar  and  convert  Niels 
Steno.  The  duties  of  this  office  were  subsequently 
discharged  by  the  Bishop  of  Hildesheim  (1686)  and  by 
the  Bishop  of  Csnabrttck ;  in  1761  the  vicariate  was  en- 
trusted to  Joseph  Gondola,  Bishop  of  Paderbom. 
When  Dr.  LOpke,  coadjutor  of  OsnabrQck,  was  chosen 
Pro-vicar  Apostolic  of  the  North  German  missions 
(1841),  he  was  allowed  to  exercise  his  authority  only 
under  severe  restrictions.  The  number  of  Catholics 
amounted  at  that  time  to  865,  of  whom  550  lived  in 
Copenhagen  and  58  on  Fredericia;  the  rest  were  scat- 
tered in  the  cities  and  over  the  country.  So  far  con- 
ditions had  been  deplorable;  they  underwent,  how- 
ever, an  unforeseen  change  when,  by  the  new  Danish 
constitution  (Danmarks  Kiges  Grundlov)  of  5  June, 
1849,  complete  religious  freedom  was  granted,  and 
political  and  ecclesiastical  equality  was  guaranteed  to 
all  dissenters.  Even  before  the  enactment  of  this  law 
the  Catholics  had  succeeded  in  building  at  Copenhagen 
(1843)  a  church  in  honour  of  St.  Ansgar.  New  relig- 
ious life  began  to  spring  up  under  the  pastors  Zur- 
strassen  and  Grader;  in  1853  the  latter,  for  the  first 
time  since  the  Reformation,  preached  a  Catholic  ser- 
mon in  Danish.  The  number  of  the  faithful  now  grew 
visibly.  Several  societies  and  fraternities  sprang  into 
life.  A  Catholic  paper  (now  the  "  Nordisk  Ugeblad  ") 
endeavoured  to  unite  the  Catholics  more  closely 
and  at  the  same  time  to  enli^ten  Protestants. 
The  beginnings  of  a  Catholic  hterature  appeared 
(translations  of  the  Scriptures,  catechisms,  polem- 
ics). In  the  summer  of  1859  the  Bishop  of  Gsna- 
brOck  (later  cardinal),  Melchers,  made  his  nrst  visit  as 
pro-vicar  Apostolic,  and  on  several  occasions  offici- 
ated clad  in  his  episcopal  robes.  A  mission  held  by 
the  Jesuits  in  1862  bore  rich  fruit. 

Conditions  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  where  the  Danish 
constitution  was  not  in  force,  improved  only  after  its 
annexation  by  Prussia  in  1866  (see  KleflFner-Woker, 
"Der  Bonifatiusverein",  Paderbom,  1899).  Prog- 
ress was  rapid  in  Denmark  itself.  As  early  as  1867 
the  station  of  Gdense  was  founded,  in  1870  Randers- 
1872  saw  Horsens  added;  1873,  Aarhus;  and  several 
missions  quickly  followed.  Pius  IX  raised  the  mis- 
sion (1869)  to  a  prefecture  (first  prefect,  Hermann 
GrOder,  d.  1883).    Leo  XIII  made  it  (1892)  a  vicari- 


DEKMABK 


726 


hbmma&k 


ate,  and  nominated  the  prefect,  Johannes  von  £uob, 
Bishop  of  Anafitasiopolis  and  vicar  Apostolic.  There^ 
by  were  secured  the  necessary  conditions  for  a  solid 
erowth  of  the  Church.  Since  then  the  number  of 
Catholics  has  considerably  increased.  To-day  it  is 
estimated  at  over  8000,  to  which  number  we  must  add 
7000  Polish  workmen  There  are  in  Copenhagen 
three  parishes  and  four  chapels  with  connected  insti- 
tutions. In  the  Stenosgade  the  Jesuits  have  estab- 
lished a  high  school  and,  close  to  the  city,  the  fine  col- 
lege of  St.  Andrew  at  Ordruijshoi,  both  institutions 
numerously  attended  by  pupils  of  every  denomina- 
tion. For  a  complete  list  of  the  present  stations  see 
above.  Among  the  secular  clergy  there  are  several 
native  Danes  and  converts.  The  regular  clerra^  are 
represented  by  foundations  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
Redemptorists,  Marists,  Lazarists,  Premonstraten- 
sians,  Camillans,  etc.  Hundreds  of  sisters  are  en- 
gaged in  teaching  and  in  nursing  the  sick  in  the  hospi- 
tals. Among  the  converts  are  prominent  Count  Hol- 
stein-Ledreburg  and  family.  Count  Moltke  Hvitfeld, 
and  the  pjfted  author  and  poet  John  JOrgensen. 

How  httle  the  religion  ofLuther  has  penetrated  the 
hearts  of  the  Danish  people,  is  witness^  by  the  Prot- 
estant Bishop  Pontoppidan  almost  200  years  after  the 
establishment  of  heresy.  This  bishop  expressly  ad- 
mits in  a  pastoral  (translated  into  German  by  Schon- 
feldt,  Rostock,  1766)  that  an  "almost  pagan  blind- 
ness" prevailed  throughout  the  country.  This  is 
easily  understood  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  at  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  mass  of  the  coun- 
try population  were  unable  to  read  and  write,  cate- 
chetical instruction  was  lacking,  and  the  sermons, 
mostly  of  a  polemical  nature,  were  not  understood  by 
the  people.  On  the  other  hand  this  state  of  affairs  had 
prevented  the  formation  of  sects.  For  a  time  all 
spiritual  life  appeared  to  have  died  among  the  clergy, 
completely  suoject  to  the  will  of  the  royal  "SumepiB- 
kopus".  Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
rigid  Lutheran  orthodoxy  gave  way  quite  generally  to 
a  rationalistic  tendency.  Bishop  Balle  of  Zealand 
(1783-1808)  and  his  successor  Jacob  Peter  MUnster 
tried  in  vain  to  stem  this  current.  Grundtvig 
(d.  1872)  was  the  first  who  earnestly  endeavoured  to 
restore  to  their  former  position  of  honour  the  Librt 
SymbolicCf  or  ecclesiastical  creeds.  Afterwards  he 
changed  his  views  and  came  so  near  the  Catholic  doc- 
trine that  he  found  himself  forced  to  renounce  entirely 
the  Protestant  view  of  the  Bible.  His  contemporary, 
SOren  Kierkegaard  (d.  1875),  at  first  an  opponent  of 
both  Rationansm  and  the  orthodox  theology,  then  an 
enemy  of  the  State  Church  and  of  official,  or  rather  of 
all  positive,  Christianity,  did  more  than  Grundtvig  to 
shatter  to  its  very  foundations  the  Danish  Church  as 
reconstructed  by  the  kings  of  the  Reformation  period. 
As  mentioned  above,  the  legislation  of  1849  and  1852 
granted  complete  religious  liberty.  Thereby  the 
Evangelical-Lutheran  church  ceased  to  be  the  "es- 
tablished church".  Since,  however,  the  greater  part 
of  the  nation  exteriorly  still  adheres  to  it,  the  State 
guaranteed  to  it  a  subsidy  as  being  the  people's 
Church;  this  leaves  the  Church  subordinate  to  the 
civil  authority;  its  ministers  may  be  nominated  and 
deposed  by  the  Government.  It  exercises  no  influence 
over  its  own  Icnslation.  Its  laws  are  made  by  the 
majority  in  the  Reichstag,  which  has  already  enacted 
many  that  threaten  an  internal  dissolution.  Attend- 
ance in  the  city  churches  is  slender,  and  the  frequenta- 
tion  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  not  lai^.  The  people  in- 
cline strongly  to  infidelity  and  Socialism,  or  find  a  sub- 
stitute for  relicion  in  secret  societies.  ^  Of  the  Protest- 
ant sects  the  Allowing  may  be  mentioned:  Baptists, 
Mormons,  Methodists,  and  Irvingites.  A  few  thou- 
sand Jews  are  scattered  over  the  land. 

The  Protestant  clergy  is  divided,  generally  speak- 
ing, into  three  parties:  the  infidel-rationalistic  school, 
no  longer  very  numerous;  the  conservative  majority, 


holding  fast  to  Hie  "symbolic  books",  or  creeds,  of  the 
sixteenth  century;  lastly,  the  Grundtvigites,  who 
recognize  the  necessity  of  an  ecclesiastical  tradition  in 
addition  to  the  Bible,  and  in  this  way  come  closer  to 
the  Catholic  Church.  Hie  revival  of  Catholicism  not 
unnaturally  called  forth  protests,  llie  first  to  raise 
his  voice  was  Bishop  Martensen,  who  published  divers 
little  pamphlets  and  in  particular  a  small  work  trans- 
lated mto  German  (GUtersloh,  1874).  The  feud  was 
also  taken  up  by  the  Copenhagen  pr^u^er  Schepelem, 
more  particularly  by  Pk>fe88or,  now  Bishop,  Nielsen, 
the  author  of  various  polemical  works  and  essays  (cf . 
Hermens-Kohlschmidt,  "Protest.  Taschenbuch^',  col. 
508).  In  conclusion  it  may  be  mentioned  thai,  at  the 
request  of  Frederick  IV,  the  first  Protestant  miasion 
was  opened  (1705)  at  Trankebar  (East  India)  and  az^ 
other  followed  (1730)  in  Greenland. 

H.  Petersen,  Otn  Nordboeme*  Gudsdyrhdw  og  Gvdtiro  %  Btt- 
denold  (Copenhagen,  1870>;  Joerqenoskn.  Den  norduke  Kirka 
GrundlaeoMiM  og  FantB  UdtiUing  (Oopenbami.  1874):  if  Oir- 
ter,  Kirdi€nQesekUht»  «.  DAiytimark  und  Nonatgnk  jjuAdum. 
182:));  Karup  (convert),  OtachichU  der  kathcliaehm  Kirtkt  m 
Dfinemark,  tr.  from  the  Danish  fMOnster,  1863):  Jewsew, 
Sehleatgio-HoUteiniadte  Kirchenaeatkiekle^  ed.  by  IfiCKKLaEsr 
(4  voU..  Kiel,  1873-79;  index,  1881);  Vfm,  Dtr  KaikoUatmu9 
in  Schleeinq-HoUtein  aeit  der  Rejmmation^  in  Prooeedii^  of  the 
Rbriety  for  SehleBwie-Holstein  (%urch-Hratory,  2d  series,  num* 
ber  5:  Helveo.  Dtn  danake  Kirhes  Hiatorie  iSL  ReformaHcnen 
(1802-70);  Koch.  I>en  damke  Kiricea  Hiatone,  180i-J8Si 
(1879-83);  Funk,  LehHnuh  der  Ktrehmgeadiiekte  (4th  ed^ 
1902);  CoRNEuns,  Kriatna  Kyrkana  hiaUma  (5th  ed.,  Stock- 
holm. 1809);  Det  nittonde  drhundradeU  KvrkokiaUnia  (2d  ed.. 
Upsala,  1899);  Enqbln  (Catholic^,  Den  Kriatne  Kirken  Hif- 
tone  (2d  ed.,  (^openhajsen,  1896),  ajMpular  treatise,  but  based 
on  onxinal  sources;  Berlaoe  in  KirdierUex.  s.  v.  D&nemark: 
Katholiaehe  Mianonen  (Freiburc,  1880,  1881,  1883.  1891.  1897. 
1898.  1900-1901.  1904-1905,  liN)6-1907):  Nordiak  UgMad  for 
Katholake  Kriatne — former  title,  Nordiak  Kirketidende  (pub- 
lished since  1856);  O.  Andersen,  Varden  (1903 ).  a  literary 

periodical;   KirhJuHoriake  SanUinger  uig.  df  Sdakabet  for  Dan- 

marks  Kirkenhiatorie  iConenhtiSfin,  1949 );  Dacoaard.  Oat 

de  danake  Kloatre  i  MiddOalderm  (Copenhagen,  1830);  Hklveo. 
De  danake  DomkapiHer  fdr  Reformationen  OCopenhaimi.  1855); 
Baxter  in  The  Ave  Maria  (Notre  Dame,  tnd.),  LXTV,  no.  22. 

Political  History. — ^Many  thousands  of  years  a^ 
the  northern  countries  were  covered  with  slowly  mov- 
ing masses  of  ioe  and  snow,  just  as  inland  ice  occupies 
the  greater  part  of  Greenland  even  to-day.  Only  after 
these  masses  had  melted  could  the  land  be  settled. 
At  the  end  of  the  Glacial  Period,  the  Baltic  was  at 
first  one  immense  landlocked  sea,  for  South  Sweden 
was  still  joined  to  Denmark  and  Germany.  The 
ocean  later  forced  its  way  through  and  separated  the 
Danish  islands  bv  the  Sound  andthe  two  Belts.  Fre- 
quent risings  and  subsidences  of  the  ground  gave  it  its 
present  appearance.  Denmark  was  settled  verj- 
earl^.  In  Maglemoor  near  MuUerup,  on  Zealand,  a 
habitation  was  discovered  which  was  built  during  the 
Stone  Age,  and  numerous  are  the  Ejdkkenmddinger 
(piles  of  refuse)  from  that  age,  which  contain  not  only 
remnants  of  meals — e.  g.  clams,  shells,  bones  of  fishes 
and  other  animals — ^but  also  implements  of  flint, 
kaolin,  and  horn.  The  so-called  Later  Stone  Age  must 
be  i>laced  between  5000  and  2000  b.  c.  That  forestry, 
fishing,  and  agriculture  were  then  flourishing,  is 
shown  by  axes,  sickles  of  flint,  nets,  and  similar  finds. 
The  attention  paid  to  the  repose  oi  the  dead  and  the 
sacrifices  at  the  graves  indicate  that  a  life  after  death 
was  recognized.  At  some  period  between  2000  b.  c. 
and  500  b.  c.  stone  was  superseded  by  bronze,  which 
was  thenceforth  used  for  vessels,  tools,  weapons,  and 
ornaments.  The  dead  were  commonlv  ouried  in 
oaken  coffins.  Chairs,  bowls,  boxes,  and  similar  arti- 
cles were  constructed  of  wood.  The  art  of  weaving 
clothes  from  wool  and  of  making  cape  was  not  un- 
known, as  excavations  at  Trindhfii  ana  Borum-Esh5i, 
in  Jutland,  have  shown.  Scandinavian  bronze  ob- 
jects, the  raw  material  for  which  was  imported,  were 
always  cast.  The  Iron  Age  lasted  from  500  b.  c.  to 
about  A.  D.  1100,  and  is  divided  into  four  periods:  the 
ante-Roman,  the  Roman,  the  time  of  the  migrations, 
the  VikLnjg  epoch.  At  first  the  use  of  bronze  pre- 
vailed.    In  tne  course  of  time,  however,  iron  became 


DIVMAEX 


727 


DUfMAftX 


more  general.  As  early  aa  iu  the  fourth  centur^r  b.  c. 
veBselfl  were  built  of  wood,  like  those  which  are  in  use 
nowadays. 

It  seems  that  the  Germanic  North  began  hostilities 
with  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe  at  a  compara- 
tively late  date.  A  smous  conflict  arose  for  the  first 
time  when  Charlemagne,  alter  the  overthrow  of  the 
Saxons,  set  his  face  c^gainst  the  Danes  who,  as  allies  of 
the  Saxons,  had  inflicted  great  damage  on  him  (see 
Charlemaone).  After  their  waiiike  King  Gottfried 
had  been  assassinated,  the  war  was  «idea  (811).  It 
was  decided  that  in  future  the  Eider  River  diould  be 
the  boundary  between  the  two  kingdoms.  Quarr^ 
shortlv  arose  in  the  interior;  one  of  the  pretenders 
(Harold)  sought  the  protection  of  Louis  the  Pious  and 
was  baptised.  At  his  request,  Ani^ar,  a  monk  of 
Corbie  (q.  v.),  preached  for  the  first  time,  though  with 
small  success,  the  Christian  Faith  among  the  heathen 
nations  of  the  North.  Even  before  his  arrival,  some 
of  them  had  begun  the  so-called  viking  expeditionSy 
predatory  incursions  under  their  chiefs,  which  were 
directed  as  well  against  the  Slavic  kingdoms  in  ^e 
East  as  aeainst  the  German  and  Roman  peoples  in  the 
West  and  South.  The  Danish  freebooters  infested 
especially  the  coasts  of  England  and  of  France.  In 
time  they  guned  a  footing  in  both  countries  and 
founded  new  States  which  gradually  coalesced  with 
the  native,  civilized  population  into  one  powerful 
whole.  This  cut  off  tne  possibility  of  predatorv  ex- 
peditions for  their  fellow-tribesmen  who  had  re- 
mained at  home. 

Meanwhile  the  German  Empire  had  acquired  new 
strength,  and  King  Henry  I  endeavoured,  no  less  from 
conviction  than  from  political  prudence,  to  persuade 
his  northern  neighbour  to  embrace  the  Christian  relig- 
ion. Gorm  the  Old,  under  whom  the  famous  Dana- 
werk  was  built  as  a  protection  against  the  Germans, 
was  the  last  pagan  Kmg  of  Denmark.  Under  his  suc- 
cessors, Christianity  b^ame  firmlv  establi^ed  and 
outwaitlly  well  organized  (see  above).  After  the 
treacherous  murder  of  Canute  Lavard,  son  of  Kinfl 
E^rik  Ejgod  (1131),  bloody  civil  wars  broke  out,  which 
ravaged  the  country  for  more  than  twenty-eight  yean 
and  sreatly  weakened  its  strength.  It  was  not  until 
Waldemar  the  Great  ascended  me  throne  (1157)  that 
better  times  dawned,  especially  through  the  co-operar 
tion  of  Archbishop  Absalon  of  Lund  (q.  v.),  who  was 
equally  prominent  as  prince  of  the  Church,  statesman, 
and  warrior.  The  fleets  of  Wendish  sea-robbers  were 
destroyed,  the  Wends  themselves  were  attacked  in 
their  own  land,  and  the  island  of  RUgen  subdued.  At 
the  same  time,  the  power  of  the  ecclesiastical  digni- 
taries and  nobles  increased,  a  fact  which  on  the  one 
hand  ensured  better  order,  but  on  the  other  also  pro- 
voked the  hatred  of  the  oppressed  classes.  Wald^ 
mar's  son,  Canute  VI,  added  to  his  possessions 
Pomerania  and  Mecklenburg,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  King  of  the  Slavs.  This  childless  prince  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Waldemar  II  (1202), 
who  extended  his  sway  along  the  Baltic  especial^ 
by  means  of  a  crusade  against  Esthonia,  for 
which  feat  he  became  known  as  Sejr  (Conqueror). 
This  apparently  splendid  power  was,  however,  of 
short  duration.  One  of  the  German  vassals.  Count 
Henry  of  Schwerin,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt 
and  made  prisoner  his  Danish  k»xi  (1223),  where- 
upon the  subjugated  nations  cast  off  the  yoke.  Later 
on  Waldemar  sou^t  revenge,  but  lost  vie  battle  of 
BomhOved  in  Holstein  (1227).  Most  of  his  co»- 
qiH»ts  eventually  melted  away,  and  the  Eider  became 
once  more  the  southern  boundary.  This  noble  king, 
who  deserves  great  praise  for  his  improvement  of  tM 
laws  of  Denmark,  died  in  1241.  His  sons  Erik,  Abel, 
and  Christopher  waged  war  with  one  another,  and  all 
died  a  violent  death.  Murder  and  arson  were  of  daihr 
occurrence,  and  the  land  groaned  under  the  wicked- 
nesB  of  its  nilere,  who  brought  it  to  the  brink  of  ruin. 


Erik  Clipping,  Christopher's  successor,  died  at  the 
hands  of  an  assassin  (1286).  His  heir  apparent, 
Erik  Menved,  succeeded  in  restoring  order  for  a  time. 
Meanwhile  important  parts  of  the  kingdom  were 
pledged  to  German  nobles,  whose  power  was  steadily 
on  the  increase.  His  brother,  Christopher  II,  was  com- 
pelled to  swear  to  a  capitulation,  at  nis  election,  and, 
since  he  did  not  abide  by  it,  was  expelled  by  the  mag- 
nates under  Count  Gert  of  Holstein,  who  obtained  the 
election  of  his  sister's  son,  Duke  Waldemar,  as  the 
third  king  of  that  name.  The  legitimate  prince  in- 
deed soon  recovered  his  dominions,  but  held  only  the 
shadow  of  sovereignty.  The  real  power  lay  in  the 
hands  of  the  nobles.  New  civil  wars  ended  wiUi  the 
victory  of  the  Danish  element,  which  chose  again,  in 
Christopher's  youngest  scm,  Waldemar  IV,  a  national 
ruler.  By  diplomacy  and  force  he  reined  the 
pledged  custricts  and  added  Gotaland  to  his  kingdom; 
thereby,  however,  he  became  involved  in  a  war  with 
the  Hanseatic  Lea^e,  Sweden,  and  the  Count  of  Hol- 
stein.   Hard  conditions  were  imposed  on  him  in  the 


Castle  or  Fredbrickbboro.  Copenbaobn 

Treaty  of  Stralsund  (1370).    Waldemar  IV  died  in 
1376. 

Meanwhile  Danish  affairs  had  undergone  a  great 
change.  King  Hakon  of  Norway  and  Sweden  had  mai^ 
ried  (1362)  Waldemar's  daughter,  Margaret,  a  child 
of  eleven,  and  thus  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms 
had  become  united.  In  1380  this  able  woman  caused 
her  relative,  Duke  Erik  of  Pomerania,  who  was  only 
seven  years  old,  to  be  acknowledged  aa  King  of  Nor* 
way.  Seven  years  later  the  Swedes  and  Danes  also 
paid  him  homage.  At  Caknar  (1397)  representatives 
of  the  three  kingdoms  swore  allegiance  to  him.  But 
Margaret's  attempt  to  perpetuate  the  Union  of  Cal* 
mar  proved  unsuccessful.  She  succeeded,  however, 
by  reclaiming  fiefs,  in  strengthening  the  power  of  the 
Crown,  and  in  compelling  the  adhesion  of  both  eccle- 
siastical and  secular  magnates.  Erik's  imprudence 
thwarted  her  plans  and  sapped  the  promising  struo- 
ture.  As  eariy  aa  1410  new  conflicts  arose  with  the 
Counts  of  Holstein,  which,  after  Margaret's  death 
(1412),  led  to  a  sanguinary  war,  lasting  twenty-five 
years;  at  its  close  we  Counts  of  Holstein  retained 
their  Schleswig  possessions,  and  the  Haaseajtic  cities 
their  ancient  privileges  While  Erik's  rule  was  thvm 
unfortunate  abroad^  his  avarice  and  harshness  alien- 
ated the  hearts  of  his  subjects.  The  Swedes  were  the 
first  to  fall  away;  then  an  insurrection  broke  out  in 
Norway,  and  the  Danes  themselves  assumed  such  a 
threateknng  attitude  that  he  thought  it  best  to  leave 
the  kingdom.  Abjuring  their  allegiance,  the  vassals 
now  besouffht  his  sister's  son,  Duke  Christopher  of 
Bavaria  (of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach)  to  take  iip  the 
reins  of  government.  The  Swedish  crown  also  fell  to 
his  lot,  but  under  conditions  that  ^atly  limited  his 
power.  With  the  help  of  the  nobility  he  checked  the 
uprising  in  Jutland.    It  was  Christopher,  also,  who 


DKttlCAKK 


728 


in  1443  removed  the  residence  of  the  Danish  kings 
from  ROfikilde  to  Copenhagen.  Though  a  German  by 
birth,  he  tried  to  check  tne  power  of  the  Hanseatic 
League,  but  did  not  succeed.  He  met  with  an  un- 
timdy  end  in  1448. 

Immediately  the  weak  bond  which  had  united 
Sweden  and  Denmark  was  rent.  In  the  former  king- 
dom Charles  Knutsson  was  rsdsed  to  the  throne;  m 
Denmark  and  in  Norway  Count  Christian  of  Olden- 
burg, the  husband  of  Christopher's  widow,  and  with 
him  the  house  of  Oldenburg,  succeeded  to  the  sover- 
eignty. A  feud  sprang  up  between  the  countries.  In 
1452  the  Swedes  ravs^ged  Sk&ne;  the  following  year 
the  Danes  sought  revenge,  but  in  vain.  A  conspiracy 
among  his  r.obles  drove  Knutsson  from  Sweden, 
which  was  subdued  by  Christian.  Dtuing  the  latter's 
rei^  the  union  between  Holstein  and  Schleswig, 
which  was  later  to  have  such  disastrous  consequences 
for  Denmark,  became  an  acknowledged  fact.  Chris- 
tian's rule  over  Sweden  was  only  nominal.  Internal 
troubles  made  it  illusory,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Bnmkeber^,  near  Stockholm,  he  was  obliged  to  evac- 
uate the  kingdom.  Even  in  his  own  State  he  was 
hated  for  his  extravagance.  He  deserves  credit,  how- 
ever, for  founding  the  University  of  Copenhagen 
(1479).  His  son  Hans  succeeded  nim  in  Denmark, 
while  Frederick  remained  Duke  of  Holstein.  The 
former  was  also  acknowledged  King  of  Sweden  and 
Norway  (1483),  but  with  notable  restrictions.  TTius, 
in  Sweden,  the  regent  Sten  Stxire  was  the  actual  ruler 
until  an  unlucky  campaign  against  the  Russians  drew 
on  him  the  contempt  of  the  people.  King  Hans 
thereupon  recovered  his  authori^,  but  maintained  it 
only  for  a  short  time,  as  Bishoi>  Hemminggad  of  Lin- 
kdping  succeeded  in  arousing  his  countrymen  against 
the  foreigner.  King  Hans  died  before  he  was  able  to 
overpower  the  rebels.  His  son  Christian  II  relied  on 
the  middle  class,  tried  to  break  the  power  of  the  no- 
bles, and  in  repeated  expeditions  agunst  the  Swedes, 
succeeded  in  crushing  tneir  resistance  (1521).  But 
his  excessive  cruelty  towards  the  Swedish  leaders 
caused  the  Swedes  to  rise  unanimously  against  him. 
Gustavus  I  (Gustavus  Vasa)  not  only  drove  the  Danes 
out  of  the  Swedish  provinces,  but  moreover  invaded 
their  country.  Christian's  efforts  in  favour  of  the 
peasantry  led  to  a  conspiracy  among  the  nobles. 
With  their  aid  his  uncle  Frederick  seized  the  reins  of 
government,  and  even  forced  his  nephew  to  flee  to  a 
foreign  country  (1523).  After  the  former's  death  the 
Hanseatic  League  made  an  attempt  to  restore  Chris- 
tian to  the  throne.  He  conquered,  indeed,  the  greater 
part  of  his  country,  but  the  activity  of  Gustavus  Vasa, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  combined  -action  of  the  no- 
bility on  the  other,  soon  changed  the  condition  of 
affairs.  In  spite  of  this.  Christian  III,  son  of  the  de- 
ceased Frederick,  could  take  Copenhagen  only  after  a 
sicffie  of  twelve  months  (1536). 

Under  Kine  Frederick,  the  teachings  of  Luther  had 
already  struck  root  in  Denmark,  but  the^  did  not  en- 
tirely prevail  either  here  or  in  Norway  until  the  reign  of 
his  son.  Immediately  after  the  capture  of  Copen- 
hagen the  bishops  were  imprisonedi  tne  churches  con- 
fiscated, the  monks  and  nuns  expelled,  and  a  new  form 
of  worsnip  introduced  ^see  above).  Instead  of  the 
relatively  mild  rule  of  ute  bishops,  the  country  now 
suffered  under  the  galling  tyranny  of  the  nobles,  who 
kept  the  lion's  share  of  the  ecclesiastical  property  and 
reauced  the  peasantry  to  helpless  helots.  Despite 
these  facts,  partial  Protestant  writers  still  laud  Chris- 
tian III  as  tne  benefactor  of  his  people,  as  a  noble  and 
eodljr  man;  Scandinavian  historians  blame  him  only 
for  mtroducing  too  many  Germans  and  for  sharing 
Schleswiff-Holi^in  with  his  brothers.  He  died  in 
1559.  His  successor,  Frederick  II,  was  a  very  warlike 
character.  His  four-years'  war  with  Sweden,  in  which 
the  countries  on  the  Baltic  took  part,  ended  ia  the 
barren  Treaty  of  Stettin  (1570).    Christian  IV,  his 


son,  and  recognized  as  the  heir  apparent  during  tiie 
lifetime  of  his  father,  succeeded  hun,  thou^  a  minor 
(1588),  but  did  not  enter  upon  ^e  eovemment  tifl 
1596.    During  his  long  life  (he  died  m  1648)  he  left 
nothing  undone  to  perfect  the  administration  ef  the 
country  and  to  increase  its  power.    He  advanced 
trade  and  industry,  founded  colonies  in  India  and  sup- 
plied them  with  missionaries.    He  established  higher 
institutions  of  learning,  and  did  evervthing  in  his 
power  to  improve  the  condition  of  tne  peasantry. 
Hostile  complications  with  Sweden  b^an  anew.   They 
ended  with  the  Peace  of  Kn&r6d,  which  proved  favour- 
able to  Denmark.    As  Duke  of  Holstem  the  king  be- 
longed to  the  Estates  of  the  lower  Saxon  circle.  Tiiese 
relations  to  North  Germany  obliged  CSmstian  to  take 
an  active  part  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.    His  hesita- 
tion was  nis  bane.    When,  in  spite  of  the  repe^ed 
warnings  of  Tilly,  the  general  of  the  Catholic  League, 
he  did  not  discontinue  nis  military  preparations,  Tilly 
crossed  the  Weser  with  his  troops  (June,  1625).   After 
some  minor  engagements  and  long  manceuvrin&  a 
decisive  battle  was  fought  near  Lutter  (27  Aug.,  I62b\ 
which  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  Christian.    WaOen- 
stein,  Tilly's  successor,  changed  the  defensive  into  an 
offensive  war.    He  fought  liis  way  into  Holsteiny 
stormed   Rendsbuiv,   Flensbuig,   and  subdued   the 
whole  of  Jutland.    Nothing  remained  to  the  king  but 
to  retreat  to  the  islands,  and  he  was  forced  to  conclude 
the  rdatively  favourable  Treaty  of  Labeck.    Hie  flub> 
sequent  thirteen  years  of  peace  so  restored  Denmark^ 
militai^y  strength  that  in  1643  it  could  resist  honooiv 
ably,  u  not  successfully,  the  unjust  attack  of  its 
Swedish  neighbour.    The  peace  oi  Br5msebro  never- 
theless demanded  fresh  sacrifices  from  the  unhappy 
kingdom  ( 1 645) .    Hardly  ten  years  had  eli^sed,  wnen 
the  Swedes  fell  again  upon  Christian's  suooeasor, 
Frederick  III,  without  any  previous  declaration  o£ 
war.    King  Charles  X  (Gustavus)  marched  9,000 
picked  Swedish  troops  into  Jutland  and,  profiting  by 
an  unusually  hard  frost,  which  had  covered  the  straits 
between  the  Danish  islands  with  a  thick  crust  of  ioe, 
crossed  over  to  Zealand.    He  forced  the  capital  to 
surrender  and  the  king  to  accept  the  peace  of  ROe- 
kilde  (1658),  by  which  Denmark  forever  lost  the  prov- 
inces of  Sk&ne,  Halland,  Blekinge,  Bohusl&n.    Not 
content  with  these  successes,  Charles  immediately  re- 
gretted his  leniency  towards  King  Frederick,  embarked 
at  Kiel,  and  landed  again  on  Z^and.    Too  week,  to 
stoim  itie  capital  at  once,  he  was  compelled  to  wait 
and  in  the  meantime  benold  his  adversary's  active 
measures  of  defence.    A  Dutch  fleet  also  approached, 
forced  its  way  through  the  Sound,  brought  troops  and 
provisions  to  the  defenders,  and  obliged  the  Swedes  to 
erect  a  fortified  camp.    Meanwhile  an  auxfliary  army, 
consisting  of  Poles,  Austrians,  and  Brandenbursers, 
drove  the  Swedish  garrisons  out  of  Jutland.    Ikfore^ 
over,  the  population  of  the  newly  acquired  provinces 
assumed  a  menacing  attitude;  on  Bomholm  idl  the 
Swedes  were  slain  in  one  night.    Nevertheless  Charies 
Gustavus  did  not  give  up  the  siege  of  Copenhagen,  and 
in  February,  1659,  undertook  a  n^t  attack  which 
was  repelled  by  the  heroism  of  the  besieeed.    Soon 
after,  the  allies  crossed  over  to  Fttnen  and  captured 
the  Swedish  garrison.    The  eariv  death  of  the  Swedish 
king  (13  Feb.,  1660)  preserved  Denmark  from  im- 
pending  ruin;  the  guardians  of  the  Swedish  heir  ap- 
parent, then  only  five  years  of  age,  were  contmt  that 
the  Peace  of  Copenhagen  (1660)  guaranteed  Ui^n  the 
possession  of  the  newly  acquired  territory  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Bomholm  and  a  few  Norwegian  districts. 
These  disastrous  years  had  one  good  effect  on  the 
Damdi  people:  the  cler^,  middle  classes,  and  peas- 
ants uphdd  their  kine ;  his  crown  was  dedared  heredi- 
tary, and  with  their  nelp  he  annihilated  the  power  of 
the  nobility  and  secured  for  himself  absolute  author- 
itv«    The  government  was  altered  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  times;  the  tax  system  was  regulated,  and  the 


DBMMABX 


729 


DEMMAEX 


aowing  ravenue  made  it  possible  to  inorease  the  luk- 
Gan's  military  strength.  At  the  same  time  the  pitiful 
condition  of  the  peasants  remained  michangjed.  Chria- 
tian  V  (1670-1699)  adopted  the  French  regime  as  far 
as  possible,  invited  Gennan  nobles  into  his  countryi 
ana  granted  them  extensive  privileges.  Naturaliv, 
the  youthful  sovereign  attempted  to  bring  back  to 
Denmark  its  former  ereatness;  in  1675  he  began  war 
with  Sweden.  His  fleet  destroyed  that  of  the  enemy 
off  Oeland  (1676).  He  himself  crossed  over  to  Sk&ne, 
and  his  Norwegian  troops  made  an  inroad  into  West- 
gOtland.  The  loss  of  the  battle  of  Lund  (8  Dec.,  1676) 
forced  him  to  make  peace  in  that  city.  Sweden  kept 
its  possessions,  and  Denmark  received  only  a  small 
indenmity  (1679).  King  (Christian  survived  these 
events  twenty  peaceful  years.  His  son,  Frederick  IV 
(1690-1730),  had  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  North- 
ern War;  but  no  great  battles  took  pjlace,  nor  was 
Denmark  subject  to  grievous  devastation.  Eventu- 
ally (1720)  the  Gottorp  section  of  Schleswig  was  re- 
tained by  Denmark.  Frederick  was  succeeded  by  the 
pietistic  Christian  VT,  under  whose  rule  hardly  any 
changes  took  place.  His  consort  induced  him,  how- 
ever, to  erect  extravagant  structures,  which  proved 
a  heavy  burden  on  the  finances.  Under  Frederick  V 
(1746-1766)  commerce  and  industry,  sciences  and 
arts  throve,  though  the  economic  situation  was  very 
unsatisfactory.  His  son.  Christian  VII,  ruined  him- 
self by  his  debaucheries.  The  infidel  GJerman  physi- 
cian StrOnse,  in  whom  the  oueen  reposed  her  entire 
confidence,  gained  a  great,  ana  partly  baleful,  influence 
over  the  aominiBtration.  He  fell  a  victim  to  a  con- 
spiracy, whereupon  the  queen  had  to  leave  Denmark. 
The  crown  prince,  who  had  been  actual  ruler  during 
the  lifetime  of  his  father,  reigned  fifty-five  y^irs  as 
Frederick  VI.  In  concert  with  his  excellent  minister 
Bemstorff,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  welfare  of  his 
people,  abolished  serfdom  (^1788),  and  advanced,  as 
tar  as  lay  in  him,  the  happmess  of  his  subjects.  In 
1801,  however,  he  was  mvolved  in  a  conflict  with 
Great  Britain,  which  resented  Denmark's  resolution 
to  remain  neutral  in  the  conflict  between  Great  Britain 
and  France.  An  indecisive  naval  engagement  took 
place  before  CJopenhagen.  After  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit, 
En^and  sought  to  pc^Edyze  Denmark,  then  under  the 
influence  of  Russia  and  France,  and  disembarking 
30,000  men  near  Copenhagen,  forced  the  Danes  to  sur- 
render their  splendid  fleet.  The  ensuing  war  with 
Great  Britain  ruined  Denmark  financiallv.  More- 
over, it  was  forced  to  cede  Norway  to  Sweden  by  the 
treaty  of  Kiel  (1814).  The  modem  tendency  towards 
the  increase  of  civil  liberty  prevailed  also  in'Denmark. 
In  1835  the  monarch  granted  a  constitution  which  re- 
mained in  force  under  King  Christian  VIII  (1838—48). 
In  the  latter  reign  occurred  the  first  friction  of  the 
Danes  with  the  Cterman  element  in  Schleswig,  where 
the  latter  constituted  a  strong  majority.  Still,  an 
open  rupture  was  avoided  during  the  king's  life.  The 
contest  began  in  earnest  when  Frederick  VH  ascended 
the  throne.  The  Ciennans  desired  that  the  two 
duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  should  be  made  one 
State,  which  should  belong  to  the  Gierman  Confedera- 
tion  and  be  connected  with  Denmark  only  by  a  per- 
sonal union.  Tlie  Government  sought  to  counteract 
this  movement  by  various  measures,  partly  of  an 
odious  character.  Representatives  of  the  German 
partv  at  last  (23-24  March,  1848)  proclaimed  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  duchies  and  apminted  a  provisional 
government  whose  head  was  Prince  Frederick  of 
Sonderburg-Augustenburg.  The  garrisons  at  Kiek 
EckemfOrde,  and  GlUckstadt  .went  over  to  him,  ana 
the  fortress  of  Rendsburg  fell  into  his  hands  without  a 
blow.  Volunteers  from  all  sides  rallied  round  his 
standard.  As  the  King  of  Denmark  did  not  yield  to 
the  wishes  of  the  rebels,  war  began.  The  army  of 
Schleswig-Holstein  was  at  first  worsted  (at  Bau  and 
Flensbui^g),  but  when  Prussian  reinforcements  under 


Wrangel  arrived,  the  Danes  were  forced  to  xetr^ 
The  intervention  of  King  Oscar  of  Sweden  brougbt 
about  the  truce  of  Malm6,  but  its  ne^tiations  proved 
fruitless.  Hostilities  began  again  m  the  spring  of 
1849,  and  were  continuea  with  varying  success  (defeat 
of  the  Danes  at  £ckemf6rde,  Dappel,  Kolding,  their 
victory  of  Fredericia).  The  diplomatic  intrigues  of 
the  Great  Powers  compelled  Prussia  to  make  peace 
with  Denmark  (2  July.  1850)  and  to  withdraw  her 
soldiers.  Unassisted,  the  small  army  of  the  dudiies 
now  opposed  the  Danes,  but  was  completely  rout^ 
in  the  battle  of  Idstedt  (29  July,  18o0).  On  27  Aug- 
ust of  the  same  year  the  Eurppean  Powers  signed  a 
declaration  at  London  by  which  the  unity  of  the  Dan- 
ish monarchy  was  guaranteed.  An  Austrian  contin- 
gent occupiea  Holstein,  restored  Danish  rule,  and  dis^ 
solved  the  army  of  the  duchies. 

During  the  truce  of  Malmd  (1848)  the  first  Danish 
Pariiament  was  assembled  by  the  king.  After  long 
and  excited  debates,  a  really  liberal  constitution  was 
accepted  5  June,  1849,  according  to  which  the  a(t 
ministrative  power  is  substantially  divided  between 
the  king  and  the  representatives  of  the  people  (Foll»- 
thing  and  Landsthing).    All  efforts  to  regulate  the 


1 

i 

4 

1 

Ai^f^ 

CaBTLM  of  ROSBNBOBO.   CklPBNHAOBlf 

relations  with  the  duchies  were  fruitless.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1863,  therefore,  the  Government  proposed  a 
bill  according  to  which  Denmark  and  Schleswig  should 
receive  a  oonmion  constitution,  while  Holstein-Lauen- 
burg,  as  a  member  of  the  German  Confederacy,  was 
not  included.  This  so-called  "November  Law", 
which  was  to  gp  into  effect  the  first  day  of  January, 
1864,  was  accepted  by  an  overwhelmmg  minority. 
After  the  death  of  Frederick  VII,  King  Clmstian  IX, 
in  spite  of  many  warnings,  approved  of  this  new  law* 
For  this  reason  complications  arose  with  the  German 
Confederacy  and  later  with  its  principal  members, 
Prussia  ana  Austria.  Saxon  and  Hanpverian  troops 
now  occupied  Holstein.  An  army  consisting  of 
Prussians  and  Austrians  crossed  the  Eider  (6  Feb.. 
1864)  and,  within  three  months,  occupied  the  whole  of 
Schleswig  and  Jutland  as  far  as  Lymfjord.  A  con- 
ference in  London  produced  no  results,  and  the  war 
started  anew.  Duppel  soon  fell,  Alsen  was  occupied, 
and  even  the  island  of  FUnen  was  threatened.  At 
this  juncture  the  Treaty  of  Vienna  was  signed,  by 
which  the  duchies  were  ceded  to  Austria  anaPrussia. 
By  its  victorious  war  of  1866  Prussia  became  finally 
the  sole  possessor  of  these  Danish  territories. 

The  loss  of  Schleswig  having  made  useless  the  No- 
vember law,  the  Constitution  of  1849  was  modified  26 
July,  1866,  and  it  is  thb  revised  and  more  liberal  ccm* 
stitution  which  is  still  in  force.  Years  of  internal  dis- 
cord now  followed,  as  the  Radicals  strove  constantly 
to  diminish  the  ri^ts  of  the  king,  and  as  he  was  oomr 
pelled  to  adopt  extraordinary  measures  owing  to  his 
non-acceptance  of  the  proposed  budget.  Not  till  the 
resignation  of  the  conservative  ministry  of  Estrup 
(1894)  was  there  a  temporary  cessation  of  strifeu 


DENMARK 


730 


DENMARK 


Party  rivalries  and  the  steadiljr  increasine  propaganda 
of  Socialism  kept  the  country  m  a  state  of  turmou,  and 
caused  no  little  difficulty  both  to  Christian  IX  and  to 
Frederick  VIII,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  his  aged  father  (29  January,  1906). 

Langbbbck,  Scriptores  rerum  Danicarvm  medii  avi  cont.  by 
Sumi  (CopenhaiBen,  1772-02);  8th  vol.  by  ENGEiaTorr  and 
WxRitAurF  (Copenhagen,  1834):  RQbdam  ed.,  Monitmenia 
huUnicB  DaniecB  (Copenhagen,  1871-84);  ReQesta  diplomaUca 
hut.  Danica  (Copenhagen,  1847-85);  Bricka,  DawkbioarapK' 
%9k  Lexicon  ^Copenhagen,  1877);  Allen,  Haandbog  i  FOdeme*' 
landeU  Hutorie^  18th  ed.  (Copenhagen,  1881),  Qennan  tr.  by 
Falk  (2d  ed..  Kiel,  1846);  Whittb,  FOdrelands  Htst&rie  (Co- 
penhagen, 1884);  Steenstrup,  Ersley,  and  others,  JD<m- 
.  marka  Bigea  Hutorie  (Copenhagen.  1896);  Odhnbr.  Laeraboki 
Sveriffest  Noraea  och  Danmarks  Historia  (Stockholm,  1886 — a 
very  good  outline);  Dahlmann-Schaper,  Oenchichte  Ddnemarka 
in  the  Geachichte  der  europ&ischen  Staalen^  d  Heerbn  Uckbrt. 
For  Schleswig-HoLstein,  the  whi?  wa«ed  on  it«  aceoant,  and  the 
relations  of  the  Hanseatio  League  to  Denmark,  see  Dahlmann* 
Waits.  Quellenkunde  (7th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1906-07);  Lavissd- 
Rambaud  ed.,  Hiatoireghi^rale  du  4*  sirde  h  noa  joun  (12  vob.. 
Paris.  1893-1901);  Nilbson.  The  Primitive  Inhabttante  cf 
Scandinavia^  ed.,  with  introduction,  by  Lubbock  (London, 
1868);  MoNTEuns,  Kulturgeachichte  Schwedena  (Leipzig,  1906); 
Engblhardt,  Denmark  in  the  Early  Iron  Age  (London.  1866); 
Pbtbbsbn.  Danmarka  Hiatorie  i  Hedenold  (2d  ed.,  1854-66); 
Worsaab,  Danmarka  OUUid  (Copenhagen,  1843);  lo.,  Den  dan- 
eke  Kidtur  i  Vikingstiden  (Copenhagen,  1873);  Id.,  Den  danake 
Brchring  of  England  og  JVorTruincItet  (Copenhagen,  1873);  Buogb, 
Vikingerne  (Copenhagen,  1904);  Styppe,  Skandinavien  under 
unionaliden  (Stockholm,  1880);  Thrige,  Danmarka  Historie  i 
vort  Aarhundrede  (2  voln.,  Copenhagen,  1889-90);  Goscrt, 
Denmark  and  Oermanp  ainoe  1815  (London,  1862);  Thor»' 
ander,  Danak-tvaka  Kriaet.  186k  (Stockholm,  1888);  RosEir- 
ViNOB,  Samlingarafgamle  danake  Love  (Copenhagen.  1821-46); 
Matzbn,  Fortlaeaninger  over  den  danake  Ketahiatorie  (Copen- 
hagen, 1893-97);  Vaupbll,  De  danake  Hcera  Hiatorie  (Copen* 
hagen,  1872-76);  Garde,  Den  danaknorake  Sjoemagta  Hiatorie, 
16Slr-181U  (Copenhagen,  1852-61);  Aarb&ger  for  Nord  Old- 
kyndighed  (Copenhagen,  1866);  tiiat,  Tidahrift  (Copenhagen, 
1870). 

Literary  History. — It  is  manifest  that  no  litera- 
ture proper  could  exist  in  Denmark  in  pre-Christian 
times.  There  exist,  however,  some  200  rune-stones, 
some  of  whose  inscriptions  possess  historical  value. 
The  exploits  of  the  vikings  were  first  recorded  bv 
Saxon  and  some  Icelandic  cnroniclers.  These  recOrob 
are  not  always  original,  but  are  partly  influenced  by 
foreign  myths.  The  principal  subject  is  phatical  ex- 
ploits. With  the  adoption  of  Christianity  the  influence 
and  use  of  the  Latin  tongue  becomes  predominant.  The 
first  products  (twelfth  century)  here,  as  everywhere 
else,  were  lives  of  saints,  followed  in  Lund  and  Rds- 
kilde  by  annalistic  necrologies.  The  energetic  Arch- 
bishop Absalon  (q.  v.),  a  man  of  much  intellectual 
power,  fostered  greatly  the  growth  of  historical  litera- 
ture. To  his  initiative  we  owe  two  important  works: 
the  ''Compendiosa  historia  regum  Daniae",  by  Svend 
Aageson,  and  the  voluminous  "Gesta  Danorum",  by 
Saxo  Grammaticus,  the  latter  part  of  which  chronicles 
events  of  his  own  personal  experience  or  such  as  were 
related  to  him  by  eyewitnesses,  while  its  introductory 
chapters  often  rest  on  pure  tradition.  Among  the 
poetical  creations  of  the  earliest  times  must  be  men- 
tioned the  didactic  poem  "Hexaemeron",  by  Anders 
Suneson  (b.  1165),  who  also  composed  a  poem,  now 
lost,  on  the  seven  sacraments,  and  various  hymns. 
The  first  attempts  to  put  the  ancient  ''folk-law^'  into 
writing  were  made  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The 
"Jydske  Lov",  also  accepted  in  Schleswig,  was  re- 
duced to  writing  by  order  of  Waldemar  the  Victorious 
(1241).  Simultaneously  the  ancient  laws  of  Sk&ne 
and  Zealand  were  written  down.  The  ecclesiastical 
law  also  was  soon  a  subject  for  literary  treatment. 
•Rie  thirteenth  century,  moreover,  saw  the  appearance 
of  popular  treatises  on  herbs  and  stones,  cookery- 
books,  and  a  kind  of  encyclopedia,  the  "Lucidarius^', 
whose  pages  contain  not  only  catechetical  instruction, 
but  also  information  as  to  geography  and  nature. 
Fanciful  descriptions  of  voyages  and  translations  of 
French  romances  of  knightly  adventures  gained  a 
wide  circle  of  readers.  The  "Rhymed  Chronicle" 
(supposed  to  be  written  by  a  monk  of  Sorfte)  sought  to 
kindle  in  the  hearts  of  its  readors  love  for  their  coimtry. 


From  Peter  Laale's  ''Collection  of  Prov»bB"  we  ob- 
tain a  f airiy  definite  picture  of  the  oontemporaij 
civilisation  of  Denmark. 

Religious  literature  owes  much  to  the  Bri^ttines 
(see  Bridget  op  Sweden)  .  Apart  from  Uie  "  Revela- 
tions''  of  th^ir  foundress,  they  produced  homUieaL 
prayer-books,  lives  ci  the  saints,  hymns  to  Uie  Blessea 
Vimn ;  a  translation  of  the  Bible  was  also  undertaken 
(1480).  The  most  important  religious  poet  of  the 
Danish  Middle  A^  was  Michael  Nicolai,  parish  priest 
of  St.  Alban^  at  Odense.  There  is  still  extant  a  large 
work  by  him  entitled  "Rosary  of  the  Most  Bl.  Virgin  " 
(1496),  not  entirely  original,  however.  He  also  com- 
posed short  poems.  So^ne  of  his  writings,  printed  at 
Ck>penhagen  (1514),  were  mcorporated  witn  changes 
in  the  Lutheran  hymn-book. 

In  literature,  Denmark,  for  easily  intelligible  rea- 
sons, has  accomplished  less  than  the  great  nations  of 
Europe.  Folk-songs  of  varied  character,  however,  were 
always  abundant.  These  compositions  were  not  written 
down  till  late,  and  even  now  they  are  a  rich  mine  for 
Danish  poets.  When  the  religious  upheaval  carried 
Denmark  away  from  the  Catholic  Church,  the  Scan- 
dinavians had  reached  a  comparatively  low  deree  of 


1 

9nNf^  W^ 

J 

i^>-'llf 

Royal.  Exchanob.  Copekhaobv 


culture.  Since  1497  there  had  been  a  university  at 
Copenhagen,  but  this  was  scarcely  more  than  an  en- 
larged cathedral-school,  and  was  even  discontinued  for 
a  tune  (1531).    The  Reformation  did  little  to  raise  the 

glane  of  general  culture.  After  the  property  of  the 
hurch  had  been  confiscated,  literature  and  science 
were  no  Ipngei  maintained,  and  there  arose  a  universal 
complaint  of  the  encroachment  of  barbarism.  Few 
were  willing  to  send  their  dnldren  to  school;  still 
smaller  was  the  number  of  those  who  matriculated  at 
the  university.  More  than  half  of  the  forty  profes- 
Bons  whom  Christian  III  appointed  at  its  reop^iing 
were  Germans.  The  kii^  and  his  court  never  used 
the  Danish  langu^.  Students  of  theolognr  were 
forced  to  freqjuent  Wittenberg  or  Rostock.  H  dena- 
tionalized civilization  and  an  exaggerated  interest  in 
theology  were  the  natural  consequences.  For  litera- 
ture it  was  a  poor  and  barren  epoch,  and  in  it,  apart 
from  Bible-translations,  church  nymns,  and  polanical 
essays,  there  appeared  only  lifdeas  academic  dramas 
and  spiritless,  imperfect  poetry. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  centuiy  theo- 
logy lost  its  sway  over  men's  minds.  Other  fields^ 
especially  the  exact  sciences,  b^an  to  absorb  ihe  sU 
tention  of  scholars.  During  this  period  Denmailc 
produced  men  like  Steno  and  his  relative  MinsIOw 
(both  of  whom  became  Catholics),  lycho  Brahe,  and 
others,  all  of  whom  may  be  regarded  as  pioneers  in 
their  respective  branches.  At  uie  same  time,  a  keen 
interest  was  displayed  in  antiquarian  research,  and 
called  forth  the  first  editions  of  Icelandic  sagas.  Bt 
contact  with  other  countries,  secular  poetry,  uncut 
tivat^  during  the  Reformation  penod,  began  to 


1>BNMARX 


731 


DlNBiAftX 


^^irake.    However,  the  poets  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury were  unable  to  rise  above  the  purely  formal  con- 
ception of  poetiy;   they  slavishly  followed  German 
Tirriters  and  were  satisfied  with  translations  and  adap- 
tations.   Even  the  hymn-writer  Ringo  was  not  free 
fTom  forei^  influenoe.    At  last  the  oonflict  between 
Sngjish  utilitarianism  and  the  rapidly  growing  piet- 
ism  under  Christian  IV  prepared  the  wa^  for  genuine 
national  poetry.    The  first  Danish  poet,  in  the  proper 
sense  of  tne  word,  is  Holberg  (1684-1754).    His  eome- 
dies  and  epistles  faithfully  mirror  the  conceptions  of 
.  the  Danish  provincial  townsman.    The  sensualism  of 
Hellman  and  otiier  Swedish  poets  did  not  find  a  fav- 
ourable soil  in  Denmark.    Neither  did  the  French 
illuministic  literature  at  firat  strike  deep  roots.    It  was 
not  till  the  end  of  the  French  Revolution  that  the  new 
tendencies  found  an  enthusiastic  champion  in  Hei* 
berp,  who  created  a  stir  as  a  satirist  and  composer  of 
political  poems.    Hien,  also,  was  inaugurated  the 
necessary  reaction  a^nst  the  undue  intellectual 
sway   of  Germany.    Tliough   the   dramatist  John 
Ewald  (1743-1781)  was  imable  to  throw  off  the  yoke 
of  German  influence,  he  succeeded  In  eliciting  ptuiely 
national  stndns  from  his  Ivre.    Tlie  same  is  true  of 
Hens  Baggesen  (b.  1764),  wnose  tales  show  clearly  the 
influence  of  Wieland.    Married  to  a  German  lady,  and 
on  friendly  terms  with  the  prominent  German  poets  of 
his  time,  he  produced  almost  as  many  and  as  good 
lyrics  in  that  language  as  in  his  mother  tongue.    Both 
In  success  and  popularity  he  was  surpa^ed  by  the 
ireatest  poetical  genius  of  Denmark,  Adam  Gottlob 
Uehlenscnl&ger  (1779-1850),  the  son  of  a  German 
father.    Oehlenschlftger  first  became  famous  as  a  lyric 
poet,  then  treated  myths  in  an  epic  form,  and  later 
cultivated  the  drama.    It  was  his  puipoee,  no  less 
than  his  merit,  to  breathe  new  life  into  tne  heroic 
tales  of  olden  times.     But  even  he  did  not  use  Danish 
exclusively.    Rich  in  honour  and  gloiy,  he  died  in 
1850,  at  Copenhagen.    J.  G.  Hauch  (1790-1872)  a 
writa*  of  mystical  drama  succeeded  hhn.    Ad.  Will. 
Schack  of  Stafeld  (1764-1826),  whose  ancestors  were 
Geiman,  won  renown  as  a  lyric  poet.    While  these 
men  may  be  regarded  as  fathers  and  representatives 
of  romanticism  m  Denmark,  Nik.  Fred.  Sev.  Grundt- 
vig  (1783-1872)  was  more  "Old  Scandinavian"  than 
Oenlenschl&ger,  and  of  course  occasionally  blundered. 
Far  superior  to  his  dramatic  works  are  ms  religious 
and  secular  songs.    (For  his  relation  to  Christianity 
and  theology,  see  above.) 

The  path  pointed  out  by  Oehlenschlflger  was  pur- 
sued bv  manv  younger  writers.  Among  them  Inge- 
mann  (1789-1862),  by  his  el^ant  dramas  and  popiUar 
historical  romances,  was  the  acknowlec^ed  favourite 
of  large  circles,  especially  of  ladies.  £)me  became 
famous  outside  of  their  country.  Bredahl  (1784- 
1860),  an  imitator  of  Shakespeare;  Blicher  (1782- 
1842);  and  the  poet  of  sensual  love,  Winther  (1796- 
1876),  whose  novels  strikingly  reproduce  the  peculiar 
charms  of  the  Danish  landscape.  A  world-wide  fame 
rewarded  the  renowned  author  of  faiiy-tales,  Hans 
Christian  Andersen  (1805-1876).  In  opposition  to 
the  poetry  of  the  Romanticists,  Ix>uis  Heiberg  (1791- 
1860)  wrote  his  satires  and  theatrical  pieces.  Fred- 
erick Paludan  MQlIer  (1809-1876)  showed  traces  of 
the  influence  of  Byron.  The  vigorous,  higihly  original 
Soeren  Kirkegaard  (1816-65)  showed  now  poor  a  sub- 
stitute for  religion  is  sesthetics.  Molbecb,  Boegh, 
Rumohr,  f^tlaij  finally  the  Danish  Jew  Meir  GoTd- 
schmidt  and  William  Bergsoe  must  be  considered  as 
the  heralds  and  pioneers  of  that  An^o-Gallic  realism 
which  under  the  favour  of  the  Jewish  critic  George 
Brandes  (b.  1842)  found  its  way  to  the  North,  and 
has  ever  since  influenced  the  literature  of  Denmark  in 
every  direction.  Its  oontroDing  power  is  seen  in  the 
novels  of  the  pessimist  JacoDsen,  whose  ''Marie 
Gnibbe"  and  "Niels  Lyhne"  created  a  new  school. 
Among  other  representatives  of  this  school  of  litera- 


ture (OyennembrudB  literature)  may  be  mentioned  the 
lately  oeceased  marine  painter  and  poet  Holger  Drach- 
mann,  Sophus  Schandorf,  Erik  Gram,  Hermann  Bang. 
Drachmann  (b.  1846)  was  in  his  youth  influenced  by 
Socialism,  but  later  changed  his  views  and  wrote  lorries 
and  prose  successfully.  Great  popularity  was  attained 
by  his  patriotic  woix  "Derovie  ira  Gransen"  and  his 
collections  of  poems  ^Sange  ved  Havct'*,  "Ranker 
och  Roser",  ''Gamle  Cruder  oc  xwe".  Schandorf's 
power  lies  in  his  vivid  portrayal  of  peasants  and  the 
lower  middle  class.  Ekik  Gram,  in  his  novel  "Ger- 
trude ColbjOmsen",  follows  in  the  footsteps  of  Jacob- 
sen^  whfle  a  warm  patriotism  breathes  m  his  book 
"  Hinsides  Grensen ''.  Hermann  Bang's  writings  have 
force,  but  his  styld  is  at  timea  obscure.  He  has  shown 
his  many-sidedness  as  a  dramatist,  journalist,  critic, 
actor,  and  lecturer. 

Among  the  many  modem  Danish  authors  may  be 
mentioned  Pontoppidan.  Topso.  Mariager,  Bauditz, 
Nielsen,  and  Amaiie  Skram  (novels) ;  von  der  Recke, 
Ma^alene  Thoresen  (lyrics  and  dramas),  Budde  (ju- 
veime  works),  Langs  (translations).  Within  the  last 
two  decades  have  appeared  numerous  works  of  more 
or  less  value  in  different  fields.  We  mention  here 
only  two  Catholics:  John  JOrgensen  and  John  Fred- 
ericksen;  the  former  is  now  reckoned  among  the  most 
fertile  writers  of  his  nation,  while  the  delicate  "  Digte" 
(poems)  of  the  latter  are  worthy  of  wider  recognition. 

For  the  extensive  historical  literature  of  the  Mst  oentttry,  as 
far  as  it  eonoems  Catholioa,  see  Peboer.  in  KirchmnUx,^  III* 
1319  sqa.,  whore  is  also  elvon  the  npedfically  Catholic  literature 
which  developed  from  1849  to  XSSi,  Since  then  it  has  grown 
in  a  gratifyinic  way,  both  in  volume  and  depth ;  see  Fortbq' 
Nsxas,  Dtmak  KaikoUk  Litlemtwr  mnn  foot  igeimem  (Copen* 

hiuraQ,  );    MiKKKLaEK*  Daiuk  SprogUmt  (Copenhagen, 

1894);  WiMMBR,  De  danake  Runemindamaeker  (Copenhagen, 
1895-1904).  I-III;  Voldbmab.  HOtdiv  (Copenhagen,  1904); 
QRtTNDTVia,  IkmmaHcs  gamiB  Folheviaer  (Copenhagen,  1843'- 
1904),  I-VIII;  Paludan,  Rmaiswnee-hewieoeUen  i  Danake  iM" 
teraturen  (Copenhagen.  1887);  Bbbnardim.  La  liniratun 
aearuiinave  (Pftris,  1894);  M.  and  W.  Howitt,  The  LUerature 
and  Romance  of  Northern  Burojf  (London,  1852);  Hansen, 
lUttetr,  Danek  LiUeratwr-Higtorie  (Copenhagen.  1902);  W. 
Obtebqaaro,  lUuetr.  Danek  LUt.  Hietorie  (CofMnhagen.  1907); 
ScHWErrzBR,  CftediidUe  der  ekandinavie^ten  lAteratur  (Leipsig. 
1885 — detailed  account  of  the  literature,  with  characteristics 
of  tiie  authors  and  extracts  from  their  writin|BB  in  German  ver- 
sion, but  superficial  and  full  of  Protestant  prejudices);  Scruck. 
Sverioee  Literahtrhietoria  (Stockholm,  1890);  Id.,  Die  Anfdn(/e 
derneuekandinaviechenlAienUur in  InUmai,  Wochenechr.  f.  Wtf 
eeneeh,  und  Technik,  I,  Nos.  12-13  (short  but  very  clear  sketch). 

The  FmiB  Arts. — a.  Art^itecture, — ^As  mentioned 
above,  the  first  Christian  temple  on  Danish  soil  was 
the  dxiiTcti  at  Hedeby  (Schleswig).  According  to 
Adam  of  Bremen  (d.  1075),  Denmark  possessed  in  his 
time  300  churches  in  Sk&ne,  250  in  Zealand.  100  on 
FUnen;  probably  all  were  constructed  of  wood.  Even 
the  cathedral  of  ROskilde  was  originally  of  this  ma- 
terial. The  same  holds  good  for  the  churches  ad  S, 
Mariam  and  ad  5.  Albanum  at  Odense,  in  which  Saint 
Canute  met  his  death  and  which  was  not  torn  down 
tiU  after  the  Reformation.  The  wooden  cathedral  of 
St.  Olaf  at  Aarhus  fell  down  in  1548.  Wooden 
churches  remained  long  in  use  in  Soutib  Jutland 
(Schleswig).  But  in  North  Jutland  and  on  the  islands, 
as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  centuiy,  other 
material  was  used,  according  as  the  quarries  were 
close  at  hand  or  easily  accessible,  e.  g.  granite,  sand- 
stone, limestone,  or  chalk-stone;  sometimes  tufa  from 
the  Rhine  was  employed.  Frequently  only  the  ex- 
terior of  the  walls  was  constructed  of  stronger  ma- 
terial, the  intervals  were  filled  up  with  a  mixture, 
llie  use  of  burned  brick  was  soon  adopted  everywhere. 
"WaJdemar  I  (d.  1182)  substituted  for  the  wooden  p»li- 
sades  of  the  Danawerk  (see  above)  a  wall  of  brick. 
After  hun  most  of  the  new  buildings  were  exclusively 
constructed  of  this  material,  e.  g.  the  churches  at  Aar- 
hus, Renders,  Elsinore,  Rftskilde,  Ringsted,  Ncestved, 
Maribo,  etc.  Often  free-stone  was  used  for  the  foun- 
dations (up  to  a  certain  height),  while  walls  and  arches 
were  built  of  brick.  In  some  places  (e.  g.  in  KjOge) 
layers  of  different  stone  alternate.    The  variations  of 


DIMOXVXUiE 


732 


BMQUVJLLE 


style  (basilica,  round  arches,  pointed  arches)  succeed 
each  other  as  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  though  fliey  were 
partly  influenced  by  Cistercian  and  Brigittine  forms. 
Alongside  of  churches  with  parallel  naves  are  others 
with  transepts,  and  even  round  churches.  Church 
steeples  seem  to  have  occasionally  served  as  means  of 
defence.  After  the  religious  schism,  people  confined 
themselves  in  the  main  to  preserving  the  existing 
buildings.  The  beautiful  temples  now  used  in  Protest- 
ant worship  were  all  built  in  Ca^olic  times.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Evan^lical  kings  spent  large  amounts 
in  erecting  and  furnishing  splenaid  castles,  among 
which  we  may  mention  Kronborg  (sixteenth)  and 
Frederiksborjg  (seventeenth  century).  Only  Copen- 
hagen exhibits  important  edifices  of  modem  times, 
e.  g.  St.  Mary's  church,  the  Thorwaldsen  Museum,  the 
city  hall,  and  other  buildings.  Prominent  architects 
of  the  eighteenth  and  nine^toenth  centuries  were  Bin- 
desbdll,  who  erected  the  Thorwaldsen  museum;  Peter 
Fenger,  who  won  fame  as  a  designer  of  churches  and 
as  an  author;  Chr.  Fr.  Hansen,  builder  of  churches 
and  public  bmldings;  Theophilus  Hansen,  an  eminent 
master  whose  works  embellish  Austria  and  Greece; 
Henry  Hansen,  whose  influence  on  c^rtistic  handicrafts 
in  Denmark  can  hardly  be  over-estimated;  finally, 
Harsdorf,  Melbye,  and  Uldall;  the  last  deserves 
special  credit  as  the  historian  of  bell-castins. 

b.  Scul^ure. — ^That  the  art  of  carving  and  chiselling 
was  practised  diligently  and  with  some  success  ever 
since  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  is  proved  by 
altars,  crucifixes,  choir  stalls,  etc.  still  found  in 
churcnes  or  museums.  The  names  of  the  masters  can. 
however,  rarely  be  ascertained  with  any  degree  oi 
certainty.  We  know,  e.  g.,  that  a  certain  Liutger  is 
the  maker  of  a  very  fine  crucifix  carved  from  a  walrus- 
tooth.  This  cross  now  adorns  the  Danish  National 
Museum  and  bears  the  inscription:  "Qui  in  Christum 
crucifixum  credunt,  Liutgeri  memoriam  orando  faci- 
ant".  The  sixteenth  century  seems  to  have  been 
barren  of  skilful  sculptors.  We  only  know  that  a  cer- 
tain Berg,  a  German  bom  in  LQbeck,  carved  beautiful 
ivory  ornaments  and  also  distinguished  himself  as  a 
painter.  Many  artists  from  various  countries  worked 
either  permanently  or  temporarily  in  Denmark  (Ger^ 
mans — as  ROssler,  Preisler,  Reinhardt,  Schwabe; 
Englishmen — ^as  Stanley;  Frenchmen — ^as  Villars, 
Boudan,  Prieur;  Italians — as  Gianelli,  Miani,  Guioni; 
Spaniards — ^as  Molinedo,  de  Corte;  Dutchmen — as 
Vermehren,  van  Egen;  Jews — ^as  Levi,  Levisohn, 
Saly,  Salamon).  Amon^  the  native  sculptors,  Bissen, 
Jenchau.  Peters,  and  Wiedewelt  deserve  mention,  and 
above  all  the  famous  Thorwaldsen  (1770-1844) ;  the 
engravers  Clemns  and  Lund ;  the  engravers  Adzer  and 
Christiansen. 

c.  Painting, — ^There  was  never  a  lack  of  painters  in 
Denmark.  This  is  proved  by  the  great  number  of 
beautiful  frescoes  in  the  cathedrals  at  Aarhus,  Ribe, 
Rdskilde.  Viborg,  etc.,  whitewashed  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  but  re-discovered  of  late  and  restored  at  great 
cost.  Abild^aard  (1743-1809),  himself  a  notable 
artist  (historical  painter),  must  be  considered  as  the 
father  of  the  Danish  school  of  painting  in  modem 
times,  which  has  produced  excellent  works  of  art  along 
various  lines.  Among  the  historical  painters  are  Eck- 
ersbeig,  C.  C.  C,  Hansen,  Christ,  Hftyer,  Marstrand. 
Mailer,  Paulsen,  Simonsen,  and  Albert  Kuchler  (died 
a  Catholic  and  a  Franciscan  lay-brother  at  Rome 
1886).  The  pictures  of  his  youth  exhibit  a  joyous 
mood;  the  creations  of  his  later  life  show  a  deep 
earnestness.  Skilful  portrait-painters  are  Baohe, 
Bendz,  Baerentzen,  Copmann,  H.  Hansen,  Juel,  Roed; 
genre  painters  are  Exner,  Hammer,  Sdnne;  Ottesen 
was  distinguished  as  a  flower-painter;  miniature 
painters:  Hdyer  as  a  miniaturist.  Especial  prefer- 
ence is  given  to  landscapes,  marine  ana  animal  can- 
vases. Excellent  landscape  painters  were  (or  are) 
Aegard,  Kr6yer,  Lundbye,  Hens  M6ller,  Skovgaard; 


marine  painters:  Larsen,  Melbye,  Neumann;  beauts 
ful  reproductions  of  ammal  life  are  to  be  credited  to 
C}ebauer  and  Lundbye. 

IHsiiiO-BESOX^D,  Die  kirchliekt  Bauitmai  dea  AhendtoMda,  p. 
397 — its  introductory  ohapterB  contain  a  detailed  liteiatare,  e.  s. 
monographs  on  Bibe  (Hbliis),  H6»kHde  (LdFTUBB,  Lanok, 
Kkbnbkup),  Odente  (Afemme,  La%»T%i»en)\  IAvfuol  Udaigi 
over  Danmarka  Ktrkebygninger  fra  tim  tidHaere   Midddai4ier 

i Copenhagen,  1883):  Retiuchsohk.  De  Ncraks  StavkirUr 
Christiania.  1892);  Whanoeu  TeodarkiUktur  %  norraEvropa 
Antqu,  Timkr*  fdr  Svetiott) ;  SreFreN.  Romaiutka  mmakMur  i 
OeaUntOlandema  {Bidmg  tul  var  odlinffg  h&f<Ur,  Stoclcfaolin, 
1901);  WiaLBACH,  Nyt  Dansk  KunslnerUxikon  (Copenha«M, 
189e-97). 

P.  WimcAN. 

DenonviUe»  Jacques-Rbn£  de  Brisat,  8eiqnei/b 
AND  MAaquis  DE,  b.  in  1638  at  Denonville  in  the  de- 
partment of  Eure-et-Loir.  France;  d.  1710.  Nothing 
IS  known  of  him  prior  to  fiis  arrival  in  Canada,  except 
that  he  was  colonel  of  a  Te^;iment  of  dragoons  and  in 
16C8  had  married  Cathenne  Courtin,  daughter  of 
Germain  Courtin,  Seigneur  de  Tanqueux,  fieauvaL 
Moncel,  etc.,  and  of  Catherine  Laffemas.  Appointed 
governor  of  New  France,  Denonville,  accompanied  by 
his  wife  and  two  young  daughters,  left  La  Rochelle 
early  in  June,^^  1685,  ana  arrived  at  Quebec  1  August. 
Hi8  special  mission  was  to  win  the  sympathies  of  the 
Indians,  establish  peace  with  them,  and  make  war 
upon  the  Tsonnontouans,  a  branch  of  the  Iroquois 
wno  were  even  more  to  be  feared  than  the  Agniera. 
Denonville  soon  realized  that  he  did  not  have  troops 
enou^  at  his  disposal,  and  asked  assistance  from 
France.  Moreover,  a  powerful  enemy  confronted  him 
in  the  perron  of  Thomas  Dongan,  Governor  of  New 
York,  who  was  constantly  urging  the  Iroquois  against 
the  French.  During  the  winter  of  1686-87  prepara- 
tions were  under  way  for  a  campaign  in  the  following 
summer;  forts  were  put  in  a  state  of  defence^  and  tlie 
savage  allies  of  the  French,  such  as  the  Miami,  the 
Illinois,  and  the  Ottawas,  were  asked  to  send  warriors 
to  Niagara  there  to  join  the  main  body  in  the  eariy 
part  of  July.  In  the  spring  of  1 687,  800  naval  recruita 
reached  Quebec  under  the  command  of  the  Chevalier 
de  Vaudfcuil,  and  on  11  June  about  2000  men,  under 
Denonville,  repaired  to  Catarocony,  thence  to  invade 
the  country  of  the  Tsonnontouans.  Had  he  been  less 
humane  Denonville  could  have  completely  subjected 
the  Tsonnontouans,  but  he  erred  by  allowing  them 
too  much  liberty.  The  position  of  the  colony  was 
consequently  stul  insecure,  and  the  other  Iroquois 
tribes,  affected  but  little  or  not  at  all  by  the  routing 
of  the  Tsonnontouans,  continued  their  attacks  and 
depredations.  Denonville  believed  that  the  Iroquois 
would  come  of  theiV  own  accord  and  propose  peace. 
But  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  Governor  of  New  EngUnd, 
still  less  tractable  than  Governor  Dongan,  had  agi- 
tated the  question  of  boundaries  between  the  poaaes- 
sioiis  of  the  King  of  England  and  those  of  France,  the 
climax  to  his  claims  being  his  seizure  of  Fort  Saznt- 
Castin  (1688).  New  peace  negotiations  took  place 
between  the  French  and  the  Iroquois,  but  the  diplo- 
macy of  a  Huron  chief  Tionnontate,  called  Kondia^ 
ronk,  or  the  '*Rat",  upset  everything.  By  the  au- 
tumn of  1688  the  colony  was  in  a  lamentable  state, 
sickness  had  decimated  its  troops,  1400  of  the  12,000 
who  formed  the  entire  population  of  New  France  had 
fallen  victims  to  the  destructive  scourge,  and  the  forts 
were  abandoned. 

The  winter  of  1688-89  w^as  one  of  wild  alarms,  espe- 
cially in  the  vicinity  of  Montreal,  which  was  easiest 
of  access  to  the  Iroquois,  and  during  the  summer  these 
merciless  barbarians,  to  the  number  of  1400,  invaded 
the  island  of  Montreal  and  slew  the  inhabitants  of 
Lachine.  This  onslaught  caused  the  utmost  conster- 
nation among  the  colonists.  Great  joy  prevailed 
when  it  was  announced  that  the  Comte  de  Frontenac, 
who  had  already  governed  the  colony  for  ten  yean 
(1672-82).  would  rcpkce  the  Marquis  de  DenonyOle 


AEHB 


733 


When  Denonville  left  the  country  he  was  looked  upon 
as  lackmg  m  ability  to  deal  with  the  savages,  besides 
bemg  too  much  inclined  to  follow  every  one's  advice; 
nevertheless,  he  was  a  fine  soldier,  a  good  Christian, 
and  a  governor  admirably  disposed  towards  the  col- 
ony, mdch  he  was  most  eager  to  rescue  from  the 
clutches  of  the  Iroquois.  On  his  return  to  France 
the  Idn^  gave  him  further  proof  of  his  confident^  by 
a.ppointmg  him  assistant  tutor  to  the  children  of  the 
royal  household. 

FC1IL4ND,  C&un  (Thiatoire  du  Chmada,  2d  ed.  (Quebee,  1882) ; 
Ihariah  AfehwM  of  DenonnUe  (£ur»^-Loir)i  Mamaeripi  Docu- 
wnenU  amoemMtf  Nnp  France  and  the  Cormpondenca  of  tfte 
Oovemon  of  New  France. 

N.  E.  DiowNnB. 

Boxuii  Peter,  theologian,  b.  at  Boom,  near  Ant- 
werp, Belgium,  12  September,  1690;  d.  at  Mechlin, 
15  February^  1775.  He  completed  his  earlier  studies 
under  the  auiection  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Oratory  at 
Mechlin,  and  in  1711  became  a  master  of  arts  of  the 
University  of  Louvain,  where  he  afterwards  devoted 
himself  to  the  stud^r  of  theology.  He  lectured  on  this 
subject  to  the  religious  of  the  Afflighem  Abbey  (1717- 
1723),  and  after  receiving  the  licentiate,  in  theology 
at  the  University  of  Louvain  (5  October,  1723},  he 
was  successively  professor  of  theology  at  the  eeinmary 
of  Mechlin  (until  1729),  pastor  of  the  metix)politan 
church  there  (1729-1737),  president  of  the  seminary 
(1735-1775),  canon  and  ScholasHcus  (1737),  then  oen- 
itentiary  (1751),  and  finally  archpriest  of  the  chap- 
ter (1754-1775).  The  work;  which  he  had  undertaken 
of  enlaii^ing  the  seminary  compelled  him  to  relinquish 
the  chau*  of  theology  which  ne  had  a^in  occupied 
from  1741-1747.  He  was  always  distuiguislieci  by 
his  simplicitv,  solid  pietv,  and  love  for  the  poor,  and 
above  all  by  nis  zeal  lor  the  moral  and  scientific  train- 
ing of  the  clergy.  The  organization  of  the  concur- 
sus  for  the  ooUation  of  the  cures  and  the  reform  of 
theological  instruction  in  the  Diocese  of  Mechlin  were 
in  great  measure  his  work.  He  is  not  the  author  of 
the  complete  oourse  of  theological  lectures  entitled 
"Theologia  ad  usum  seminariorum"  which  was  pub^ 
li^ed  under  his  name  in  1777,  and  is  still  published, 
ihou^  Sreatlv  modified,  by  the  professors  of  the  sem- 
inary of  Mechlin  (Theologia  ad  usum  seminarii  Mechli- 
niensis,  olim  sub  nomine  P.  Dens  edita) ;  but  he  pub- 
lished a  treatise  on  penance  and  on  the  virtue  of  relig- 
ion (Supplementum  theologiae  Laur.  Neesen.  De  vir- 
tute  religionis;  Dictata  de  sacramento  Pconitentls. 
Mechlin,  1758),  and  several  tracts  against  the  Recoliet 
John  Tomson,  in  favour  of  the  custom  existing  in 
some  parishes  of  the  Diocese  of  Mechlin,,  of  asking  and 
inscribing  in  a  register  the  names  of  those  who  went  to 
confession  (Responsio  P.  Dens  ad  dissertationem  et 
apologiam  Joannis  Tomson.  Mechlin,  1759),  and 
against  the  Augustinian  monk  Maugis,  professor  at 
the  Universitv  of  Louvain  (Ck>llectio  scriptorum  qiue 
separatun  in  lucem  edita  sunt  circa  qusestionem  tne- 
ologicam  an  aacerdos  vel  beneficiarius  recitans  horas 
canonicas  in  affectu  peccati  mortalis  satisfaciat  prce- 
oepto  seu  obligationi  recitandi  horas  canonicas. 
Louvain,  1765). 

BiogiBAhiesl  notice  in  the  first  volume  of  the  oldest  editions 
of  the  Theologia  ad  ueum  eeminariorum;  Journal  hisiorioue  et 
hiUravre  (Li^ge.  1830),  VI,  243-  Dswalque  in  Bioffraphte  na- 
tUmale  (Bnissels,  1870).  V,  509:  Hurtbr,  Nomendator  Ixterariue^ 
III,  41;  Babtkn,  NaamroUen  beirekkelijk  de  kerkeiijke  oeeehie- 
denie  van  h«t  aartebiedom  van  Mechden  (Mechlin.  1881).  I.  308. 

A.  YAH  Hov*. 

B^nimcUtion  (Lat.  denuneiare)  is  makixig  knowh 
the  crime  of  another  to  one  who  is  his  superior.  The 
employment  of  denunciation  has  its  origin  in  the 
Scnptures.  CJhrist ordains (Matt.,xviii,  15-17),  **If thy 
brother  shall  offend  against  thee,  go,  and  rebuke  him 
between  thee  and  him  alone.  If  he  shall  hear  thee 
tiiou  shalt  gain  thy  brother.  And-  if  he  will  not  hear 
Hwe,  take  with  thee  one  or  two  more:  that  in  the 


mouth  of  two  or  three  witnesses  everr  wonl  may 
stand.  And  if  he  will  not  hear  them:  tell  tiie  church. 
And  if  he  will  mSt  hear  the  church,  let  him  be  to  thee  a« 
the  heathen  and  publican".  As  the  ob|eet  of  this 
denunciation  was  the  bettering  of  one's  nei|^bour,  by 
admonition,  not  vindictive  punishment,  it  has  re- 
ceived the  name  of  charitable  or  evangelical  denunci* 
ation.  The  term  paternal  correction  is  also  applied 
to  it. 

After  the  CSiurch  had  obtained  an  official  status  be> 
fore  the  world,  it  built  up  a  process  of  criminal  law, 
and  judicial  denunciation  took  the  place  of  evan^li- 
cal.  The  diff^^ence  consists  in  this,  that  the  judicial 
declaration  is  made  not  merely  for  the  reformation, 
but  also  for  the  punishment  of  the  guilty  person.  By 
ordinary  process  of  law,  it  is  an  accuser  who  evokes 
the  dormant  power  of  the  judge.  If  the  charge  be 
false,  such  accuser  is  obliged  to  sustain  the  punish- 
ment that  would  have  been  inflicted  on  the  guilty 
party.  In  modem  ecclesiastical  law  proceedings, 
however,  this  law  of  reprisals  has  gone  into  desuetuae, 
and  in  diocesan  courts  the  promoter  fiscalis  takes  Uie 
place  of  the  accuser.  The  difference  between  the  ac- 
cuser and  denouncer  is  that  the  latter  does  not  assume 
the  obligation  of  proving  the  charee  which  he  brings, 
and  so  is  not  amenable  to  the  law  of  reprisals  or 
retaliation.  To  avoid,  however,  the  multiplication 
of  unfounded  charg^,  a  denoimcer  whose  accusation 
can  not  be  proved,  is  ordinarily  suspended  from  his 
henefice  and  dignities  until  it  is  maae  manifest  that 
his  denunciation  did  not  proceed  from  malice.  If  the 
person  denounced  be  declared  judicially  innocent  of 
the  crime  laid  to  him,  then  the  denouncer  must  make 
oath  that  he  acted  in  good  faith  in  bringing  the 
chat^ges.  It  is  allowed  to  the  denouncer  to  appear 
also  as  a  witness  in  the  trial.  The  person  denounced 
is,  by  that  very  fact,  considered  to  have  suffered  in  his 
good  name  and  as  a  consequence  he  becomes  incapable 
T6r  a  year  of  receiving  any  sacred  order  or  benefice, 
unless  he  be  found  innocent.  It  is  to  be  remaikea 
that  denunciation  is  not  supposed  to  take  place  until 
private  admonitions  have  been  tried  fruitlessly.  De- 
nunciation in  the  strict  sense  of  the  law  has  practically 
gone  into  desuetude,  and  its  place  is  taken  by  a  simple 
Istatement  to  a  superior  who  has  the  ri^ht  of  proceed- 
ing canonically  against  delinquents,  without  subject- 
ing the  informer  to  the  obligations  incumbent  on  de- 
nouncers. 

There  is  a  spedal  obligation  imposed  b^  a  decree  of 
the  Holy  Office  to  denounce  heretics,  maacians,  those 
who  have  abused  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  (see 
Solicitation)  and  others  guilty  of  similar  crimes  to 
the  Inquisition  (see  Inquisition).  Where  Catholics, 
however,  live  in  places  where  they  are  mixed  with 
heretics,  they  are  not  bound  to  denounce  the  latter. 
The  term  denunciation  is  also  applied  to  matters  con- 
nected with  the  Sacrament  of  Matrimony  (see  Banns). 
Finally,  as  to  the  obligation  of  denouncing  transgres- 
sors, every  person  is  hound  to  do  so,  when  he  can 
fulfil  the  duty  without  grave  detriment  to  himsdf 
and  with  corresponding  utility  to  society  or  indi- 
viduals. In  certain  cases  only,  is  denunciation  stnctly 
prescribed,  as  in  those  relating  to  matrimonial  im- 
pediments, to  abuse  of  the  confessional,  and  to  the 
names  of  leaders  of  secret  societies. 

LACRExnce,  Inatitufionea  Jur.  Can.  (Freibuwt,  1003);  Feb 
IIARI8,  Bibl,  Canon,  (Rome.  1886),  1X1;  RfiiFFBNflruEL,  Jue 
Canonicum  (Paris,  1865),  VI. 

William  H,  W.  Fanning. 

Bonrer,  Diocese  or  (DenvbriensisV  a  suffragan 
of' the  Archdiocese  of  Santa  F^,  erected  in  1887  and 
comprising  the  entire  State  of  Oolorado,  an  area  of 
103,645  square  miles.  The  first  permanent  civilised 
settlement  within  its  bordens  was  made  in  1852,  when 
a  Spani^  colony  from  New  Mexico  settled  in  what  is 
now  the  soutliern  part  of  Colorado  on  the  Conefos 
Rivei^,  where  they  buitt  the  first  ditudi  in  I808. 


DBura 


734 


DEWS 


Suuilar  Bettleraents  followed  during  the  fifties,  their 

Spiritual  needs  being  provided  for  by  priests  sent  by 
ishop  Lamy  of  Santa  F^,  whose  diocese  then  ex- 
tended as  far  north  as  the  Arkansas  River,  the  boun- 
dary of  the  Mexican  cession.    The  diacoveiy  of  gold, 


BSNBDICTINB  COLLBOS,    PUBBVO 

in  1858,  near  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Denver, 
soon  brought  a  great  increase  of  population  from  the 
Eastern  States.  Mining  camps  and  towns  spranjz  up 
in  ^reat  nimibers  throughout  the  whole  Pike's  Peak 
regK)n.  This  territoiy  was  then  a  part  of  the  vicariate 
of  Bishop  Mi^  of  Leavenworth,  and  that  prdate  vis- 
ited Denver  in  1860.  Finding  it  practically  impossi- 
ble to  attend  these  distant  missions,  Bishop  Midge 
secured  tiieir  transfer  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop 
of  Santa  F^.  Bishop  Lamy  sent  his  vicar-general, 
the  Verv  Rev.  Joseph  P.  Machebeuf,  and  a  young 
priest,  Hey.  John  B.  Raverdy,  to  care  for  the  mining 
r^ons  and  the  new  settlements.  Father  Machebeui 
had  spent  eleven  years  in  the  missions  of  Northern 
Ohio,  and  teu  years  in  similar  work  in  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona,  and  was  thus  admirably  adapted  for  the 
work  before  him.  The  two  missionaries  arrived  at 
Denver  in  October,  1860,  and  for  over  seven  years 
they  laboured,  almost  unaided,  visiting  the  immense 
territory  confided  to  them,  building  churches  wherever 
theprospects  warranted  such  an  undertaking. 

Tne  increase  of  population  was  so  great  dunng  those 
early  years,  and  the  prospects  of  permanency  became 


1^ 

2 

TV 

L 

i 

1^ 

'1 

19 

7  »•   « 

m 

^ 

4 

m 

COLLBGB  or  THB  SaCRED   HbaRT,    DbNVBR 

SO  favourable  that  the  Fathers  of  the  Second  Plenaiy 
Council  of  Baltimore  recommended  to  the  Holy  See 
the  creation  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Colorado  and 
Utah.  Consequently  Father  Machebeuf  was  nomi- 
nated to  that  office  and  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop 
of  Epiphania  at  Cincinnati  bv  Archbishop  Purcell,  16 
August,  1868.  The  new  prelate  was  bom  11  Au^iist, 
1812,atRiom,Puy-de*D6me,  France.  He  was  ordained 
priest  21  December,  1836,  at  Clennont-Fernuid,thesee 


of  his  native  diocese.  When  he  took  chazije  as  vicar 
Apostolic  he  had  but  three  priests  within  his  jurisdic- 
tion, but  he  returned  to  the  field  of  his  work  and  re- 
doubled his  own  efforts,  visiting  eveiy  portion  of  his 
vast  vicariate,  doing  the  work  of  priest  and  bishop  and 
endeavouring  at  the  same  time  to  secure  priests  for 
the  rapidly  mcreasing  population.  His  seal  for  re- 
ligion was  shown  also  by  his  man^  efforts  to  secure 
locations  for  future  churches,  charitable  and  educa- 
tional institutions,  several  of  which  were  built-in  his 
own  time — ^notably,  the  Loretto  Academy  at  Denver, 
in  1864,  and  later  St.  Joseph's  Hospital,  the  House  of 
the  Good  Sh^herd.  and  the  College  of  the  Sacred 
Heart.  In  1871  his  burdens  were  somewhat  listened 
by  the  transfer  of  the  Territoir  of  Utah  to  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Archbishop  of  San  Francisco.  By 
Brief  of  16  August,  1887,  the  Vicariate  of  Colorado 
was  made  a  diocese  with  the  episcopal  see  at  Denver; 
and  the  Rev.  Nicholas  C.  Mats  appointed  coadjutor 
with  right  of  succession  (19  August,  1887).  He  was 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Teunessa,  at  Denver,  Inr 
Archbishop  Salpointe  of  Santa  F^,  28  October,  1887. 
Bishop  Machebeuf  nevertheless  relaxed  but  little  of 
his  missionaiy  work  after  this,  and  retained  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  diocese  until  his  death,  on  10  July, 
1889,  leaving  in  the  diocese  ZA  secular  and  30  regular 
priestfiL  112  churches  and  chapels,  1  college,  9  acade- 
mies, 9  hospitals,  2  asylums,  and  over  3000  children 
in  CathoUc  schools. 

Bishop  Mats,  who  was  bom  6  April.  1850,  at 
MUnster,  Lorraine,  France,  and  ordamea  priest  at 
Denver,  31  May,  1874,  continued  the  good  work  of 
his  predecessor.  The  diocese  contains  (1908)  62 
secular  priests,  71  priests  of  reli^ous  orders:  Jesuits, 
Benedictines,  Franciscans,  Dommicans^  Redemptor- 
ists,  Servites,  and  Theatines,  engaged  m  parish  and 
educational  woric,  2  colleges  for  young  men  with  26x 
students,  531  religious  women  of  15  different  instil 
tutes:  the  Sisters  of  Loretto,  Charity  (Mt.  St.  Joseph, 
Ohio),  Charity  (Leavenworth,  Kanisas).  St.  Joseph, 
Mercy,  the  Good  Shepherd,  Third  Order  of  St. 
Dominic,  St.  Frauds,  St.  Benedict  (Chicago,  Illinois), 
Charity  B.  V.  M.  (Dubiuque,  Iowa),  St.  Francis  of  the 
Perpetual  Adoration,  Missionaiy  Sisters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  St.  Benedict  (Erie,  Pennsylvania)^t.  Joeei^ 
(Wichita,  Kansas),  St.  Francis  of  Assid.  There  are  4 
orphan  asylums  with  588  children;  an  industrial  and 
retorm  school  with  225  inmates,  a  home,  15  hospitals 
with  11,300  patients  annually,  10  academies  with  900 
pupils  and  25  parish  schools  with  6600  childreiL  The 
theological  students  number  10.  There  are  60 
churches,  91  chapels,  140  stations,  and  a  Catholis 
population  of  99,485.  The  Sacred  Heart  Orphanage 
at  Pueblo,  Weltering  150  children,  owes  its  existence 
and  partial  endowment  to  the  generositv  of  Captain 
John  J.  Lambert  of  Pueblo,  an  exempianr  Catholic 

f)rominent  in  works  of  charity  and  zeal.  Tne  English 
anguage  is  generally  used,  but  in  many  of  the  mining 
districts  ana  industrial  centres  there  is  a  necessity  foi 
the  Italian  and  Slav  languages,  while  ^anish  is  usu- 
ally spoken  in  the  southern  parishes.  There  is  no  dio- 
cesan debt,  and  the  individual  churches  and  institu- 
tions are  solvent  and  prosperous. 

HowLETT.  Life  of  Bishop  Maduheuf  (Denver,  IMS);  Rkum. 
Biog,  CycL  of  the  CaOu  Hienrchy  aftheV,S,  (Milwaukee,  1808). 

W.  J.  HoWLETT. 

Denjs  the  Oarthiudan  (Dents  van  Lkextwen, 
also  Leuw  or  Lieuwe),  b.  in  1402  in  that  part  of  the 
Belgian  province  of  Limburg  which  was  formerly  eom- 
mised  in  the  county  of  Hesbaye;  d.  12  March,  1471. 
His  birthplace  was  Kyckd,  a  small,  village  a  few  miles 
from  Saint-Trond,  whence  ancient  writers  have  often 
sumamed  him  Ryckel  or  ^  RyckeL  His  parents,  his- 
torians say,  were  of  noble  rank ;  he  himself  says,  how- 
ever, that  when  a  child  he  kept  his  father^  she^ 
His  remarkable  aptitude  £or  intellectual  pursuits  and 


nMsm 


735 


DBNY8 


his  eafferaeas  to  learn  induced  his  puente  to  give  him  a 
liberal  education,  and  they  sent  him  to  a  school  at 
Saint-Trond.  In  1415  he  went  to  another  school  at 
ZwoUe  (Overijssel),  which  was  then  of  great  repute 
and  attracted  many  students  from  various  parts  of 
Germany.  He  there  entered  upon  the  stu^  of  philos- 
ophy and  became  acquainted  with  the  principles  and 
practice  of  religious  lite,  which  the  rector,  John  Cele.  a 
vejy  holv  man,  himself  taught.  Shortly  after  the 
rector's  death  (1417)  he  returned  home,  having  learnt 
all  that  the  mabters  of  the  school  could  teach  him. 
His  feverish  quest  for  human  science  and  the  success 
hifi  uncommon  intellectual  powers  had  rapidly  ob- 
tained seem,  according  to  his  own  account,  to  have 
rather  dulled  his  piety.  Nevertheless  a  supernatural 
leaning  to  cloistral  life,  which  had  taken  root  in  his 
mind  uom  the  early  age  of  ten  and  had  ^wn  stronger 
during  his  stay  at  Zwolle,  finally  tnumphed  over 
^rorldly  ambition  and  the  instincts  of  nature,  and  at 
the  age  of  eighteen  he  determined  to  acquire  the  ^'sci-  ^ 
enoe  of  saints "  in  St.  Bruno's  order. 

Having  applied  for  admittance  at  the  Carthusian 
monastery  at  Eoermond  (Dutch  Limburg),  he  was  re- 
fused because  he  had  not  reached  the  age  (twenty  years) 
required  by  the  statutes  of  the  order;  but  the  prior 
gave  him  hopes  that  he  would  be  received  later  on,  and 
advised  him  to  continue  meanwhile  his  eocleaiaatical 
studies.  So  he  went  forthwith  to  the  then  celebrated 
Univeniity  of  Golofl;ne,  where  he  remained  three  years, 
studying  philosophy,  theology,  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
etc.  After  taking  his  d^ree  ot  Master  of  Arts,  he  re- 
turned to  the  monastery  at  Eoermond  and  thjs  time 
was  admitted  (1423).  In  his  cell  Denys  ^ve  himself 
up  heart  and  soul  to  the  duties  of  Carthusian  life,  per- 
forming all  with  his  characteristic  earnestness  and 
strragth  of  will,  and  letting  his  seal  carry  him  even 
far  beypnd  what  the  rule  demanded*  Thus,  over  and 
above  the  time— about  eight  hours— every  (3arthusian 
spends  daily  in  hearing  and  saying  Mass,  reciting  Di- 
vine Office,  and  in  other  devotional  exercuns,  he  was 
wont  to  say  the  whole  Psalter—his  favourite  prayer 
book — or  at  least  a  great  part  of  it,  and  he  paraed  long 
hours  in  m^iitation  and  contemplation ;  nor  did  mate^ 
rial  oocupataons  usually  hinder  him  from  praying. 
Readins  and  writing  took  up  the  rest  of  his  time.  The 
list  he  drew  up.  about  two  years  before  his  death,  of 
some  of  the  books  he  had  read  while  a  monk  bears  the 
names  of  all  the  principal  ecclesiastical  writers  down 
to  his  time.  He  nad  read,  he  says,  every  summa  and 
every  chronicle,  many  commentuies  on  the  Bible,  and 
the  works  of  a  great  number  of  Greek,  and  especially 
Arab,  philosophers,  and  he  had  studied  the  whole  of 
canon  as  well  as  civil  law.  His  favourite  author  was 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  His  quick  intellect  seized 
the  author's  meaning  at  first  reading  and  his  wonderful 
memory  retained  without  much  effort  all  that  he  had 
oiM9e  rMd. 

It  seems  marvellous  that,  spending  so  much  time  in 
prayer,  he  should  have  be^  able  to  peruse  so  vast  a 
numboo-  of  books;  but  what  passes  all  comprehension 
is  that  be  found  time  to  write,  and  to  write  so  much 
that  his  works  might  make  up  twenty-five  folio  vol- 
umes. No  other  pen,  whose  productions  have  come 
down  to  us,  has  been  so  prolific.  It  is  true  that  he 
took  not  more  than  three  houra'  deep  a  night,  and  that 
he  was  known  to  spend  sometimes  whole  nishts  in 
prayer  and  study.  There  is  evidence,  too,  that  nis  pen 
was  a  swift  one.  Nevertheless  the  mystery  still  re- 
mains insolvable,  and  all  the  more  so  that,  besides  the 
occupations  already  mentioned,  he  had,  at  least  for 
some  time,  others  which  will  be  presently  noted,  and 
which  alone  would  have  been  enough  to  absorb  the  at- 
tention of  any  ordinary  man.  He  began  (1434)  by 
oomiBenting  die  Psabns  and  then  went  on  to  comment 
the  whole  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament.  He 
oommented  also  the  works  of  Boethius,  Peter  Lom- 
bardp  John  Cliinaeu8»  aa  vdl  as  those  of,  or  attributed 


to,  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  and  translated  Cassiaa 
into  easier  Latin.  It  was  after  seeing  one  of  his  com- 
mentaries that  Pope  Eugene  IV  exclaimed:  "Let 
Mother  Church  rejoice  to  have  such  a  sonl"  He 
wrote  theological  treatises,  such  ss  his  ''Summa  Fidd 
OrthodoxsB  I ''Coinpendium  Theolofi;icum",  ''De  Lu- 
mine  Christians  Ijieorie'V  "De  Laudibus  B.  V, 
Maria",  and  "De  Pneconio  B.  V.  Mari«"  (in  both  of 
which  treatises  he  upholds  the  doctrine  of  the  Immac- 
ulate Conception),  "De  quatuor  Novissimis",  etc.; 
philosophical  treatises,  such  as  his  ''Compendium  phil- 
osophicum",  "De  venustate  mundi  et  pulchritudine 
Dei"  (a  most  remarkable  ssthetic  dissertation).  "De 
ente  et  essentia",  eta ;  a  great  many  treatises  relating 
to  morals,  asceticism,  church  discipline,  litursy,  etc; 
sermons  and  homilies  for  all  the  Sundays  and  f^ivals 
of  the  year,  etc.  His  writings,  taken  as  a  whole,  show 
him  to  be  a  compiler  rather  than  an  original  thinker; 
they  contain  more  unction  and  piety  than  deep  specu- 
lation. He  was  no  innovator,  no  builder  of  systems, 
and  especially  no  quibbler.  Indeed  he  had  a  decidea 
dislike  for  metaphysical  subtleties  of  no  positive  use, 
for  he  was  of  far  too  practical  a  turn  of  mmd  to  waste 
time  in  idle  dialectic  niceties,  and  sought  only  to  do 
immediate  ^ood  to  souls  and  tend  their  spiritual 
needs,  drawing  them  away  from  sin  and  guiding  and 
uigiag  them  on  in  the  path  to  heaven. 

As  an  expounder  of  scripture,  he  generally  does  no 
more  than  reproduce  (nr  recapitulate  what  other  com- 
mentators had  said  before  him.  If  his  commentaries 
bring  no  light  to  modem  ex^etics  they  are  at  least  an 
abundant  mine  of  pious  reflections.  As  a  theologian 
and  a  philosopher  ne  is  a  servile  follower  of  no  one 
master  and  belong  to  no  particular  schooL  Althou^ 
an  admirer  of  Anstotle  and  Aquinas,  he  is  neither  an 
Aristotelian  nor  a  Thomist  in  the  usual  sense  of  the 
words,  but  seems  inclined  rather  to  the  Christian  Pla- 
tonism  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  St.  Augustine,  and 
St.  Bonaventure.  As  a  mysti^  writer  he  is  akin  to 
Hu^  and  Richard  of  St.  Victor,  St.  Bonaventure,  and 
the  writers  of  the  Wildesheim  School,  and  in  his  treat* 
ises  may  be  found  summed  up  the  doctrine  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  especially  of  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite,  and  of  Eckart,  Suso,  Ruysbroeok,  and 
other  writers  of  the  German  and  Flemish  Schools,  He 
has  been  called  the  last  of  the  Schoolmen,  and  he  is  so 
in  the  s^ise  that  he  is  the  last  important  Scholastic 
writer,  and  that  his  works  may  be  considered  to  form 
a  vast  enpyclopedia,  a  complete  summary  of  the 
Scholastic  teaching  ol  the  Middle  Ages;  this  is  their 
prunary  characteristic  and  their  chief  .merit. 

His  renown  for  learning,  and  especially  for  saintly 
nesB,  drew  upon  him  considerable  intercourse  with  the 
outer  world.  He  was  consulted  as  an  oracle  by  men 
of  different  social  standing,  from  bishops  uid  princes 
downwards;  they  flocked  to  his  ceU.  and  numberless 
letters  came  to  him  from  all  parts  ot  the  Netherlands 
and  Germany.  The  topic  of  such  correspondence 
was  often  the  grievous  state  of  the  Church  in  Europe, 
i.  e.  Uie  evils  ensuing  from  relaxed  morals  and  diwi- 
pline  and  from  the  invasion  of  Islam.  Deploring  those 
evils  he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost,  uke  all  pious 
Catholics  of  that  day,  to  counteract  them.  For  that 
purpose,  soon  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453), 
wipreesed  by  revelations  God  made  to  him  concerning 
the  terrific  woes  threatening  Christendom,  he  wrote  a 
letter  to  all  the  princes  of  Europe,  urging  them  to 
amend  their  lives,  to  cease  their  dissensions,  and  to 
join  in  war  against  their  common  enemy,  the  Turks. 
A  genural  council  being  in  his  eyes  the  orUy  means  of 
procuring  serious  reform,  he  exhorted  all  prelates  and 
others  to  unite  their  efforts  to  bring  it  about.  He 
wrote  also  a  series  of  treatises,  laying  down  rules  of 
Christian  livins  for  churchmen  and  for  laymen  qi 
every  rank  and  profession.  "De  doctrin4  et  regulis 
vit»  Christian»",  the  most  important  of  these  treat- 
ises, was  written  at  the  request,  and  for  the  use,  of  the 


onzA 


736 


DKHznraiB 


famous  Franciscan  preacher  John  Brugman.  These 
and  others  which  he  wrote  of  a  similar  import,  in- 
veighing against  the  vices  and  abuses  of  the  time,  in- 
sisting on  the  need  of  a  general  reform,  and  showing 
how  it  was  to  be  effected,  gfve  a  curious  insight  into 
the  ciistoms,  the  state  of  society,  and  ecclesiastical  life 
of  that  period.  To  refute  Mohammedanism  he  wrote 
two  treatises:  "Contra  perfidiam  Mahometi",  at  the 
request  of  Cardinal  Nicnolas  of  Cusa.  The  latter, 
named  papal  legate  by  Nicholas  V  to  reform  the 
Church  m  Germany  and  to  preach  a  crusade  a^inst 
the  Turks,  took  Denys  with  nim  during  a  part,  if  not 
the  whole,  of  his  progress  (Jan.,  1451-March,  1452), 
and  received  from  nis  tongue  ana  his  pen  valuable  as- 
sistance, especially  in  the  work  of  reforming  monas- 
teries and  of  rooting  out  magical  and  superstitious 
practices.  This  mission  was  not  the  only  charse 
which  drew  Denys  from  his  much-loved  cell.  He 
was  for  some  time  (about  1459)  procurator  of  his  mon- 
astery, and  in  July,  1466,  was  appointed  to  superin- 
tend tne  building  of  a  monastery  at  Bois-le-Duc.  A 
three-years'  struggle  aeainst  tne  inextricable  diffi- 
culties of  the  new  foundation  broke  down  his  health, 
already  impaired  by  a  long  hfe  of  ceaseless  work 
and  privations,  and  he  was  obliged  to  return  to 
Roermond  in  1469.  His  treatise  *^De  Meditatione" 
bears  the  date  of  the  same  year  and  waa  the  last  he 
wrote. 

The  immense  literary  activity  of  Denys  had  never 
been  detrimental  to  his  spirit  of  prayer.  On  the  oon- 
tmry  he  always  found  in  study  a  powerful  help  to  con- 
templation; the  more  he  knew,  the  more  he  loved. 
While  still  a  novice  he  had  ecstasies  whieh  lasted  two 
or  three  hours,  and  later  on  they  lasted  sometimes 
seven  hours  and  more.  Indeed,  towards  the  end  of 
his  life  he  could  not  hear  the  sinsng  of  **  Veni  Sancte 
Spiritus'*  or  some  verses  of  the  Psalms,  nor  converse 
on  certain  devotional  subjects  without  beinc  lifted  off 
the  ground  in  a  rapture  of  Divine  love.  Hence  pos- 
terity has  sumamed  him  **  Doctor  ecstaticus  * '.  Dur- 
ing his  ecstasies  many  things  were  revealed  to  him 
which  he  made  known  only  when  it  could  profit  others, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  what  he  learnt  from  the 
souls  in  purgatory,  who  appeared  to  him  very  fre- 
quently, seeking  relief  through  his  powerful  interces- 
sion. Loving  souls  as  he  did,  it  is  no  wonder  that  he 
should  have  become  odious  to  the  great  hater  of  souls. 
His  humility  responded  to  his  learning,  and  his  morti- 
fication, especially  with  regard  to  food  and  sleep,  far 
exeelled  what  the  generality  of  men  can  attain  to.  It 
is  true  that  in  point  of  physical  austerities,  virtue  waa 
assisted  by  a  strong  constitution,  for  he  was  a  man  of 
athletic  build  and  had,  as  he  said,  **  an  iron  head  and  a 
brazen  stomach". 

During  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  he  suffered  in- 
tensely  and  with  heroic  patience  from  paralysis,  stone, 
and  other  infirmities.  He  had  been  a  monk  for  forty-* 
eight  years  when  he  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-nine. 
Upon  nis  remains  being  disinterred  one  hundred  and 
thirty-seven  years  after,  day  for  day  (12  March,  1608). 
his  skull  emitted  a  sweet  penume  and  the  fingers  he  had 
most  used  in  writing,  i.  e.  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of 
the  right  hand,  were  found  in  a  perfect  state  of  pres- 
ervation. Although  the  cause  of  his  beatification  has 
never  yet  been  introduced,  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  St. 
Alphonsus  Liguori,  and  other  writers  of  note  style  him 
"Blessed";  his  life  is  in  the  "Acta  Sancftorum"  of 
the  BoUandists  (12  March),  and  his  name  is  to  be 
found  in  many  mart3rrologies.  An  accurate  edition  of 
all  his  works  still  extant,  which  will  comprise  forty-one 
quarto  volumes,  is  now  being  issued  by  the  Carthusian 
Press  at  Tournai,  Belgium. 

LoEB,  Vita  Dufny&ii  CaHus.  (Tounui.  1904);  liouGJBZi» 
Denys  le  Chartrcitx  fMontreuil-flur-mer»  1806R  Welters.  Dmyi 
to  Chartreux  (KoermonH,  1882);  Albers,  DyoAj^iM  de  Kar- 
twizer  (Utrecht.  1897);  KnooH-ToifKiNO.  Dvr  UitU  Schokmiiker 
(Freiburg  im  Br..  1904);  Keissr,  i>ifmy%  dee  KartaOsere  Leben 
und  vfidofjoqieehe  f^chriftfn  (Freihure  im  Bf..  tft04>:  STEflFittRn, 


Difonyaiue  fhe  Carthueian  in  Atn.  Bed.  Review  (1 
1899).  613-27;  SnoMiATB.  M ^ 


KartMveer  in  HieL  Jahrbueh  (ll 


bei  IHemffenu  dem 
),  XX.  307-88. 

Edmund  Gurdon. 


Densa,    Francesco,    Italian    meteorolo^  and 
astronomer,  b.  at  Naples,  7  June,  1834;  d.  at  Rome, 
14  December,  1894.    He  joined  the  Bamabites  at  the 
age  of  ixxteen,  and  during  his  theological  course  at 
Ifome  studied  at  the  same  time  meteorology  and 
astronomy  under  Father  Secchi.    From  1856  until 
1890  he  was  attached  to  the  Bamabite  collie  at 
Moncalieri  where  he  became  widely  known  for  hia 
work  in  meteorology,  a  science  which  he  greatly  ad- 
vanced not  merelyby  his  personal  observations  and 
studies  but  also  by  the  interest  which  he  routed  in  it 
throughout  Italy.    In  1859  Denza  founded  the  **Bul- 
lettino  mensile  (fl  Meteorologia",  which  was  continued 
until  1894,  and  established  a  meteorological  observa- 
tory at  Moncalieri;  it  was  laiigely  throu^di  his  influ- 
ence that  similar  observatories,  more  tnan  200  in 
number,  were  gradually  buflt  in  various  parts  of  Italy. 
The  success  wiich  attended  his  efforts  gave  him  a 
national  reputation,  and  in  1866  Senator  Matteucci 
and  Signer  Berti,  minister  of  public  instructwn,  urged 
him  to  take  chaige  of  the  department  of  meteorolo^ 
at  Florence.    Denta  did  not  accept  the  post,  but  in 
the  following  year,  at  Berti's  invitation,  he  read  a 
paper  on  meteors  at  the  "Institute  Superiors "  in 
Florence.    In  1872  he  beean  a  series  of  researches  on 
terrestrial  magnetism  witn  special  reference  to  mag- 
netic declination,  which  illness,  however,  prevented  him 
from  eompleting.    In  1881  he  founded  the  Italian 
Meteorological  S)ciety  of  which  he  was  president  for 
many  years.    In  1883  the  Duke  of  Aosta  invited  him 
to  take  charge  of  the  scientific  education  of  his  three 
sons.    In  the  same  year  he  was  director  of  the  literary 
and  scientific  section  of  the  National  Exposition  at 
Turin  and  chairman  of  its  juiy  of  awards.    He  repre- 
sented Leo  XIII  in  1884  at  the  Congress  of  Scientific 
Societies  of  France,  presiding  over  the  meteorological 
section.    He  visited  England  and  Holland  on  this 
occasion,  where  he  was  received  with  much  hononr. 
He  likewise  represented  the  pope  at  the  Paris  Astro- 
nomical Con^iress  of  1^7,  when  the  plan  was  formu- 
lated of  makmg  a  photographic  map  of  all  the  stars  in 
the  heavens  down  to  the  fourteenth  magnitude; 
throueh  his  influence  the  Vatican  observatory  was 
one  of  the  eighteen  chosen  to  cany  out  this  important 
project.    Denza  was  appointed  director  of  the  Vati- 
can Observatory  in  September,  1890,  and  thenceforth 
lived  at  the  Vatican.    Here  he  inaugurated  the  work 
of  this  observatory  -in  stellar  photography.    At  the 
time  of  his  death,  which  was  due  to  apoplexy,  he  was 
President  of  the  Accademia  dei  Nuovi  Linoei.    In 
character  Den^a  was  a  man  of  simile  piety  and  humil- 
ity. .    ^ 

Among  his  published  works  may  be  mentioned: 
*'Meteore  cosmiche"  in  "Scienaa  di  populo"  (Milan, 
1869);  "Stelle  cadente  del  periodo  di  Agosto  1868" 
(ibid.);  *'Le  aurore  pol.  d.  1869  ed  i  fenom.  cosmichc 


Comptes  Rendus"(1868)  LXVI;  "Le  armonie  dd 
cieli,  Noaioni  di  astron."  (1881);  "  Ami>litudc8  d'os- 
cillations  dium.  magnet.  4  Moncalieri  1S8(M1  ; 
"Osserv.  di  declin.  m^net.  ad  Aosta,  Moncalieri  e 
Firenae  in  occas.  d'eclisse  sol  26/5  1873 "in  "Pr<» 
Ace.  dei  Nuov.  Lincei".  ^ 

CiiniUi  oaiUAiea.  Ser.  16  (1805),  I,  08,  04:  Knulu.  {nw 
ChnattniKum  u.  dit  Vertnter  der  neueren  Naiunritefneduilt 
(Freiburg.  1904).  „    ,>     ^ 

Henrt  M.  Brock. 

Denibiger,  Rbinrich  Jomph  Doioniccs.  one  of 
the  leading  theologians  of  the  modem  Catholic  G«^ 
man  school  and  author  of  the  ''Enchiridion  uni- 
versally used,  b.  10  Oct.,  1819,  at  Lidge;  d.  W  Ja»* 


DXOO&ATUS 


737 


DEPOSITIOir 


1883,  at  WQrzburff.    In  1831  bis  father,  who  was  a 
professor  at  the  Liege  University,  took  him  to  WOra- 
buig,  the  original  home  of  the  familv.    Here  he  at- 
tended the  gymnasium  and  studiedphilosophy  at  the 
university,  where  he  received  the  Pn.  D.  degree.    In 
1838  he  entered  the  WQrzburg  semmary,  went  to  the 
German  College  at  Rome  in  1841,  was  ordained  priest 
in  1844,  and  the  following  year  took  a  degree  in  theol- 
ogy.   On  his  return  home  he  was  first  curate  at  Has»- 
furt-on-the-Main.    became    professor   extraordinarjr 
of  dogmatic  theology  at  WQrzbui]g  in  1848,  and  ordi- 
narjr  professor  in  1854.    He  continued  to  occupy  this 
position,  in  spite  of  ill-health,  till  his  death.    Den- 
zingerwasoneof  the  pioneers  of  positive  theology  and 
historical  dogmatic   {DogmengeschichUi)  in  Catholic 
Germany.    In  the  ^neration  after  Johann  Adam 
MOhler  (d.  1838)  and  DOllinger  (1799-1890)  he  carried 
on  their  methods  and  helped  to  establish  what  is  the 
special  character  of  the  German  school,  exact  investi- 
gation of  the  historical  development  of  theology, 
rather  than  philosophical  speculation  about  the  corol- 
laries of  dogma.    Nearlv  all  his  important  works  are 
in  the  nature  of  historic  tneolo^.    The  best-known  and 
most  useful  is  his  "  Enchiridion  Symbolorum  et  Defi- 
nitionum"  (first  ed.,  Warsbuii^,  1854),  a  handbook 
containing  a  collection  of  the  chief  decrees  and  defini- 
tions of  councils,  list  of  condemned  propositions,  etc., 
beginning  with  the  oldest  forms  of  the  Apostles'  (ireed. 
It  nas  often  been  republished,  with  considerable  addi- 
tions, of  which  the  most  important  are  part  of  the 
Ball  defining  the  Immaculate  Conception  (Ineffalnlis 
Deus,  1854),  the  Syllabus  of  1864,  and  the  Vatican  de- 
crees.   After  Denzinger's  death  Professor  Isnatius 
Stahl  continued  the  work  of  re-editing  the  ''Enchi- 
ridion" with  additional  decrees  of   Leo  XIII.    A 
revised  and  enlarged  edition  (10th  ed.,  Freiburg, 
1908),  prepared  by  Clemens  Bannwart,  S.  J.,  in- 
cludes decrees  of  Fius  X.    Other  works  are  **  Ritus 
Orientalium,  Coptorum,  Syrorum  et  Armenorum" 
(2    vols.,    Wttrsbui^g,   1863-1864),  a    long   treatise 
on   Eastern    rites;    ''Vier  BOcher  von  der   relig- 
idsen  Erkenntniss"  (2  vols.,  WOrzburg,  1856-1857), 
**  Ueber  die  Aechtheit  des  bisherigen  Textes  der  Igna- 
tianischen  Briefe"  (Wttrzburg,  1849),  "Die  spekula- 
tive  Theologie  GOnthers"   (WOnsburgi   1853).    He 
also  wrote  a  number  of  shorter  treatises,  on  Philo  Ju- 
dsBus  (1840,  his  first  work),  on  the  Immaiculate  Con- 
ception (1855),  and  papal  infallibility  (1870).    At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  preparing  a  complete  com- 
pendium of  dogmatic  theology.    lie  edited  a  number 
of  medieval  theological  woncs:   Habert,  ''Theologia 
Gnecorum  Patrum  vindicata  circa  materiam  grati®" 
(1853);  De  Rubeis,  "Depeccato original!",  (1857);  P. 
Marani,  ''Divinitas  D.  N.  Jesu  Oinsti"  (1859).    He 
was  appointed  a  consultor  of  Propaganda  for  Eastern 
rites  m  1866. 

HtTimit,  NomendatoT  LtOerartiu,  III,  1178-1170;  Hkitin- 
OBB,  DrpifachM  Lekramt.  G^dAehtnUsrede  aut  H.  J.  D.  Denzinaer 
(Freiburg,  1883);  DerKatholik  (Mains).  1883.  II.  428. 

Adrian  Fortbbcue. 


Deogratias,  Saint. 
Saint. 


See  Felix  of  Cantalice, 


Deo  Oratlas  (Thanks  be  to  Gfod),  an  old  liturgical 
formula  of  the  Latin  Church  to  give  thanks  to  God  for 
graces  received.  It  is  found  in  Scripture,  I  Cor.,  xv, 
67,  and  II  Cor.,  ii,  14. 

1.  Deo  Gratias  occurs  in  the  Mass:  (a)  as  an  answer 
of  the  server  to  the  Epistle  or  Prophecies;  in  High- 
Mass  this  answer  should  not  be  sung  by  the  choir.  In 
the  Mozarabic  and  Old  Gallican  Litui^  the  Deo 
Gratias  follows  the  title  of  the  Epistle  or  the  Prophecy ; 
at  its  end  the  Amen  is  said.  The  Greek  and  its 
daughter  churches  do  not  use  this  formula  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Epistle.  In  the  Latin  CJhurch  the 
Deo  Gratias  is  not  said  on  Ember  Saturday  after  the 
fifth  l«s8on,  which  is  followed  by  the  canticle  of  the 
IV. -47 


Three  Young  Men  in  the  furnace,  in  order  not  to  inter- 
rupt the  sense;  neither  is  it  said  after  the  lessons  on 
Good  Friday  or  after  the  Prophecies  on  Holy  Satur- 
day and  the  eve  of  Pentecost;  (b)  in  answer  to  the 
Ite  Missa  est  and  the  Benedicamus  Domino,  in  thanks- 
giving for  the  graces  received  at  Mass;  (c)  after  the 
last  Gospel;  after  the  first  Gospel  the  server  answers 
Laus  tibi  Christe.  Quarti  (Ruhr.  Miss.  Rom.  Com- 
ment, iliustr.,  2,  12,  ad  4)  says,  that  the  first  Ckwpel 
apcd&es  the  preaching  of  Christ,  wherefore  we  praise 
C£rist  by  saying:  laus  tibi  Christe;  the  second 
Gospel  signifies  the  preaching  of  the  Apostles,  where- 
fore only  Deo  Gratias  is  answered,  but  sudi  intei^ 
pretations  are  artificial  and  arbitrary;  (d)  in  the 
Breviary  the  Deo  Gratias  is  used  more  frequently;  in 
Matins  (except  the  last  three  dasrs  of  Holy  Week  and 
the  office  of  the  Dead)  after  ever^  lesson  answering 
to  the  invocation:  Tti  autem  Domine  miserere  nobis - 
also  after  the  capitula,  the  short  lesson  in  Prime  and 
Compline ;  and  in  answer  to  the  Benedicamus  Domino 
at  the  close  of  eveiy  Hour.  The  Moxarabic  Breviaiy 
puts  the  Deo  Gratias  after  the  title  of  the  lesson,  the 
Amen  to  the  end. 

II.  The  formula  Deo  Gfatias  was  used  in  extra- 
liturgical  pniyera  and  customs  by  the  Christians  of 
all  ages.  The  rule  of  St.  Benedict  prescribes  that  the 
doorkeeper  shall  say  Deo  Gratias,  as  often  as  a  stranger 
knocks  at  the  door  or  a  beggar  asks  for  assistance. 
When  St.  Augustine  announced  to  the  people  the  elec- 
tion of  hiscoadjutor  and  successor  Evooius,  they  called 
out  Deo  Gratias  thirty-six  times  (St.  Aug..  Ep.  ccxiii  al. 
ex,  De  Actis  Eraclii).  In  Africa  it  was  tne  salutation 
used  by  the  Catholics  to  distinguish  themselves  from 
the  Donatists  who  said:  Deo  laudes  (St.  Aug.,  In  Ps. 
cxxxii).  Therefore  in  Africa  Deo  Gratias  occurs  as  a 
Catholic  name,  e.  g.  St.  Deogratias,  Bishop  of  Car- 
thage (463-456).  The  name  of  the  deacon  lor  whom 
St.  Augustine  wrote  his  treatise  "De  catechisandis 
rudibus'^  was  Deogratias.  St.  Felix  of  Cantalizio 
(1515-87)  used  this  interjection  so  often,  that  the 
people  called  him  Brother  Deogratias. 

Bbbnabd*  Coun  ds  liiuroie  romaine  s.  v.  La  MtM*t  II,  305 

Siq.;    Oabbol,  Livn  de  la  prikn  antique  (Paria,  1900),  73; 
EUBES  in  KircherUex.t  III.  1517  sqq. 

F.   G.   HOLWECK* 

Deposltlo  Martyrom.    See  Martyrs. 

Deposition,  an  ecclesiastical  vindictive  penalty 
by  which  a  cleric  is  forever  deprived  of  his  office  or 
benefice  and  of  the  ri^t  of  exercising  the  functions  of 
his  orders.  Of  its  own  nature  this  punishment  is  per- 
petual and  irremissible  in  the  sense  that  those  on 
whom  it  is  inflicted,  even  after  having  done  full  pen- 
ance, have  no  risht  to  be  released  from  it,  though  the 
superior  may,  n  he  wishes,  reinstate  them  if  truly 
amended.  Deposition  can  be  inflicted  only  on  eccle- 
siastics, secular  or  re^lar;  it  may  be  either  total  or 
partial,  accordiM  as  it  deprives  them  of  all  powers  of 
orders  and  jurisaiction  or  of  onlv  a  portion  of  them. 
It  differs  from  simple  privation  because  in  addition  to 
the  deprivation  of  benefices  and  offices  it  disqualifies 
an  ecclesiastic  from  obtaining  them  in  future;  from 
suspension  because  it  is  always  a  perpetual  vindictive 
penalty,  not  a  mere  suspension  of  the  use  of  the  powers 
of  orders  and  jurisdiction,  but  an  entire  and  perpetual 
withdrawal  of  them;  from  actual  d^radation  in  as 
much  as  it  never  deprives  of  the  privileges  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical state. 

This  punishment  can  be  traced  to  the  early  cen- 
turies of  the  Church  when  ecclesiastics  guilty  of  hei- 
nous crimes  were  expelled  from  their  rank  and  removed 
to  lay  communion.  Although  preserving  the  charac- 
ter of  their  orders,  they  were  then  considered,  for  all 
purposes  and  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  as  ordinary  lay- 
men, and  were  boimd  to  appear  with  the  ordinary 
faithful  when  receiving  Holy  Communion.  The  word 
deposition,  it  is  allegea,  was  first  used  in  the  Synod  of 
Agde  (506,  can.  xxxv)  to  indicate  such  apenalty.  Down 


fiS^OStT 


^738 


DEftBE 


to  the  twelfth  century  the  expressions  deposUion 
and  degradation  meant  one  and  the  same  canonical 
punishment.  We  know,  for  instance,  that  Paul,  Pa- 
triarch of  Alexandria  (541),  and  Ignatius,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  (861),  met  with  the  same  kind  of  pun- 
ishment; yet  in  the  first  case  it  is  styled  deposition 
and  in  the  second  degradation.  Moreover,  deposition 
always  deprived  ecclesiastics  of  the  office  they  held  bv 
the  ordinary  title  of  ordination,  and  it  was  nearly  al- 
ways coupled  with  the  ceremony  of  divesting  delin- 
quents of  the  garments  used  in  the  functions  of  their 
sacred  ministry.  In  process  of  time,  when,  first  by 
custom  and  subsequently  by  decree  of  Alexander  III 
(c.  At  si  clericis,  IV,  De  judiciis),  bishops  were  al- 
lowed to  dispense  from  that  penalty  in  crimes  of  lesser 
gravity  than  adultery,  the  solenm  stripping  of  the  sa- 
cred vestments  was  discontinued,  to  save  the  trouble  of 
restoring  their  use  in  case  of  reinstatement.  The  new 
practice  created  uncertainty  and  variety  in  the  exe- 
cution of  deposition,  hence  Boniface  VIII  (c.  ii.  De 
poenis,  in  VP)  at  the  request  of  the  Bishop  of  Bdziers 
decreed  that  the  formal  removal  of  vestments,  which 
now  means  and  effects  tdtal  exclusion  from  the  eccle- 
siastical state,  was  to  take  place  only  in  caaes  of  actiud 
degradation. 

As  stated  above,  total  deposition  prohibits  the  ex- 
ercise of  powers  conferred  by  ordination,  and  effects  a 
complete  and  perpetual  deprivation  of  ecclesiastical 
offices,  benefices,  and  digmties.  It  also  disqualifies 
from  obtaining  them  in  future,  while  public  disgrace  or 
infamy  and  irrej^larity  are  inflicted  on  those  who  dis- 
regard this  pun&iment.  The  character  impressed  by 
oi^ination  being  indelible,  deposition  from  orders  can 
only  deprive  a  person  of  the  right  of  exercising  them. 
Deposition  from  office  always  effects  the  loss  of  the 
benefice  annexed  to  it,  as  benefices  are  given  on  ac- 
count of  the  spiritual  office.  On  the  other  hand,  de- 
position from  benefice  never  renders  an  ecclesiastic 
incapable  of  licitly  exercising  his  ministry;  it  is  main- 
tained, however,  that  it  deprives  him  even  of  the  right  to 
a  share  of  the  temporal  emoluments  for  his  decent  sup- 
port. According  to  the  present  discipline  of  the 
Church  deposition  is  inflicted  only  for  enormous 
crimes,  such  as  cause  public  scandal  and  do  great  harm 
to  religion  or  morals,  e.  g.  murder,  public  concubinage, 
blasphemy,  a  sinful  and  incorrigible  tenor  of  life,  etc. 
It  is  largely  left,  however,  to  the  prudent  judgment  of 
the  superior  to  determine  in  each  case  tlie  gravity  of 
the  crime  which  deserves  this  punishment.  In  fact, 
deposition  is  now  rarely  inflicted ;  simple  dismissal,  to- 
gether with  perpetual  suspension,  usually  takes  its 
place.     (See  Lay  Communion.) 

Smith.  Elem.  of  Ecd.  Law  (New  York,  1889);  STa&ULEB, 
TraU^  aea  pecnes  ecd^Moatiquea  (Paris,  I860):  Hollweck. 
Kirchl.  Strafgesetze  (Mains,  1899);  Von  Kober.  Depotrition  und 
Dearadatian.  etc.  (TObingen,  1867);  Gennari,  Privazione  dd 
henefieio  ecdesiastico  (Rome,  1905);  all  commeotatora  on  the 
title  De  Pawis.  X  (V,  37);  Hergenrwher,  The  Papal  Depriv- 
ing Power  (1876);  Roma  Sacra  in  The  Dublin  Review  (Lon- 
don, July,  1907).  ^     ^ 

S.  Luzio. 

Deposit  of  Faith.    Soc  Faith. 

Depres,  Josquin  (diminutive  of  Joseph),  latinised 
JosQUiNUS  Pratensis,  b.  probably  c.  1450  at  Condd, 
Ilainault,  Belgium ;  d.  there  27  August,  1521.  He  was 
the  most  gifted  and  most  learned  contrs^imtist  and 
composer  before  Pal(*strina  and  waa  the  head  of  the 
Second  Netherland  School.  At  an  early  age  be  be- 
came choir  boy  in  the  collegiate  church  of  Samt-Qu^- 
tin  in  his  native  townr  After  his  voice  changed  ne 
studied  counterpoint  under  Okeehem  (1430-1494). 
I II 1471  he  was  at  the  court  of  the  Sforza  in  Milan  and, 
in  1480,  in  the  service  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  in 
V  loreiuo.  From  1486  to  1494  (except  the  year  1487- 
1-lSS,  which  he  spent  in  Ferrara),  Josquin  was  a  mem- 
bfM-  of  the  papal  choir  under  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  He 
Www  ent*»red  the  service  of  King  Ix)ui8  XII  of  France. 
The  opinion  that,  towiirda  the  end  of  liis  career,  he  was 


identified  with  the  musical  peraonnel  of  the  court  of 
the  Emperor  Maximilian  I  lacks  confirmation.  De- 
Pt4s  dominated  the  musical  world  of  his  time,  not  only 
on  account  of  his  leanung  and  skill  but  particularly 
because  of  his  originalit^r.  His  vivid  oonoeption  of 
the  meaning  and  dramatic  possibilities  of  the  sacred 
texts,  as  well  as  his  great  inventiveness,  enabled  Joa- 
quin to  free  himself  more  than  any  otner  composer 
before  Falestrina  from  the  conventions  of  his  time.  In 
consequence,  most  of  the  works  of  Deprte  show  the 
storm  and  stress  of  a  transition  period,  in  contrast  to 
the  productions  of  his  sucoesson  Falestrina,  idiich 
breathe  serenity  and  repose.  Joaquin's  fame  was 
overshadowed  by  Palestrma  and  his  school,  and  the 
subsequent  change  in  taste  caused  his  works  to  be 
n^lected  and  finally  forgotten.  The  present  age, 
however,  is  doing  justice  to  those  earlv  masten  in 
music  who  laid  the  foundation  for  that  which  is  great- 
est in  sacred  polyphony,  Josquin  wrote  thirty-two 
masses,  seventeen  of  which  were  printed  by  Petrucci 
(1466-1539)  in  Fossombrone  and  Venice.  Othefs 
were  preserved  in  MS.  in  the  archives  of  the  papal 
choir  m  Rome  and  in  the  libraries  of  Munich,  Vienna, 
Basle,  Berlin,  tiie  Ratisbon  cathedral,  and  Cambrai. 
Motets  by  Deprte  ware  published  by  Petrucci,  Pierre 
Attaignant  (1533),  Tyhnan  Susato  (1544),  and  by 
Le  Roy  and  Ballard  ( 1 555).  Numerous  fragments  and 
shorter  works  are  reproduced  in  the  historical  works  of 
Forkel,  Bumey,  iHawkins,  Busby,  and  in  Choron's  col- 
lection. 

AUBROS,  Geach.  der  Musik  (Leipae,  18S1).  Ill;  Hxxiu  •A^t- 
outh  de  Prie  el  aon  icole  (Paris.  1896);  Hajie&l.  Die  romische 
Schola  CarUorum  (Ratisbon,  1888). 

Joseph  OrrsN. 

De  ProfondiB  (Out  of  the  depths),  first  words  of 
Psalm  cxxix.  The  author  of  this  Psalm  is  unknown; 
it  was  composed  probabhr  during  the  Babylonian  Exile, 
or  perhaps  for  the  day  of  penance  prescribed  by  Esdras 
(I  Esd,,  LX.  5-10).  The  hard  school  of  sufTering  during 
the  Exile  had  brought  the  people  to  the  confession  df 
their  guilt  and  had  kindled  in  their  hearts  faith  and  hope 
in  the  Redeemer  and  confidence  in  the  mercy  of  God. 
Hie  De  profundis  is  one  of  the  fifteen  Gradual  Psalms, 
which  were  sung  by  the  Jewish  pilgrims  on  their  way 
to  Jerusalem,  and  which  are  still  contained  in  tbe 
Roman  breviary.  It  is  also  one  of  the  seven  Peniten- 
tial Psakns  which,  in  the  East  and  West,  were  already 
used  as  such  by  the  eariy  Christians.  In  the  Divine 
Office  the  De  profundis  is  sung  every  Wednesday  at 
Vespers,  also  at  the  second  Vespers  of  Christmas,  the 
woras  Apud  Daminum  nUBericordia  et  copio9a  apud 
turn  redemption  reminding  us  of  the  mercy  of  the 
Father  Who  sent  His  Son  for  the  redemption  of  man- 
kind. It  is  also  used  in  the  ferial  prayers  of  Lauds 
and  in  the  Office  of  the  Dead  at  Vespers.  The  Church 
recites  this  psalm  principaliv  in  her  pray^s  for  the 
dead;  it  is  the  psalm  of  the  holy  souls  in  pureatory, 
the  words  of  the  Psalmist  applying  well  to  tne  longing 
and  sighing  of  the  souls  exiled  from  heaven.  It  is 
recited  at  umerals  by  the  priest,  before  the  corpse  is 
taken  out  of  the  house  to  tne  church. 

WoLTER.  PeaUUe  eapienter  (FreibarK,  1907).  1, 143;  Schultc. 
Die  Paalmen  dea  Breviers  (Padezfoom,  1907).  390. 

F.  G.  HoLWBCK. 

Derbe,  a  titular  see  of  Lycaonia,  Asia  Minor.  This 
city  was  the  f  ortressof  a  famous  leader  of  banditti,  when 
it  was  captured  by  Amyntas,  the  last  King  of  Galatiu 
(Strabo,  XII,  i,  4;  vi,  3;  Dio  Cassius,  XLIX,  xxxii). 
In  Roman  times  it  struck  its  own  coins.  It  was 
successfully  evangelized  by  St.  Paul  and  St.  Barnabas 
(Acts,  xiv,  6,  20,  21),  and  again  visited  by  St.  Paul 
(Acts,  xvi,  1).  Derbe  became  a  suffragan  see  of 
Iconium;  it  is  not  mentioned  by  later  "Notitije  Epis- 
copatuura",  and  we  know  but  four  bishops,  from  381 
to  672  (Ixxjuicn,  Oriens  Christ.,  I,  1081).  The  «te  of 
the  city  has  not  yet  been  surely  identified ;  the  dfecus- 


739 


DB  ftOS8X 


Am  ftre  based  on  the  above-mentioned  texts  of 
Strabo  and  Dio  Cassius.  It  has  been  placed  at  Bin 
Bir  Kilis86,  at  Divl6,  south  of  Ak  G6l  (the  White 
Lake),  between  Bossola  and  Zosta,  and  at  Gttdelissin 
in  the  vilayet  of  Konia,  which  seems  more  probable. 

LsAXfl,  J&wnuU  of  a  Tour  in  Asia  Mmor  (London,  1824), 
101;  Hamiiaon,  Reteard^M  in  Asia  Miner  (London.  1842).  It, 
313;  ^niaRST.  TKb  Wotfe  Expedition  in  A*ia  Minor  (Boston, 
1888).  23;  Rambat.  Hut.  Oeogr.  of  A»ia  Minor  (London,  1800), 
aS6;  loBM ,  Tho  Chtunch  ond  (he  Roman  Smpite  (London,  1804), 

S.  PfrrRiDfes. 

D«rea«r,  Anton  (known  as  Thaddaisub  a  S. 
Adamo),  b.  at  Fahr  in  Franconia,  3  February.  1757 ;  d. 
At  Breslau,  15  or  16  June,  1827.  He  was  a  Diacaloed 
Cannelite,  professed  at  (Cologne  18  Oct.,  1777.  During 
his  studies  at  Heidelbeig,  where  he  graduated,  ao- 
ouired  sudi  renown  that  contrary  to  the  custom  of 
Uw  Older  he  was  allowed  to  accept  a  professorship  in 
henneneutios  and  oriental  languages,  first  at  his  own 
alma  mater,  then  at  Bonn  (1783-1791).  In  the  last- 
named  year  he  was  sent  to  Strasburg  where  he  also 
fitted  the  posts  of  preadier  and  of  rector  at  the  epi»- 
copal  semina^.  Having  refused  the  Constitutional 
oath  he  waa  imprisoned  and  sentenced  to  death,  but 
the  capital  punidliment  was  commuted  into  one  of 
deportation.  It  is  not  quite  clear  whether  this  was 
put  into  execution;  certain  it  is  that  with  the  fall  of 
Robespierre  he  regained  his  liberty  and  returned  with 
Mattered  health  to  the  convent  at  Heidelberg  (1796). 
The  Biaigrave  of  Baden  withholding  his  consent  to 
Dereser's  acceptance  of  the  ofl&ce  of  coadjutor  to  the 
Bi^op  of  Strasburg,  he  was  transferred  with  the  whole 
univeraity  to  Freiburg  (1807),  but  having  given  offence 
by  a  funeral  sermon  (1810)  had  to  leave  suddenly  for 
Cbnstance.  Thence  he  went  to  Lucerne  as  professor 
and  rector  of  the  seminary,  but  waa  expelled  on  ac- 
count of  his  rationalistic  teaching,  and  turned,  on  in- 
vitation, to  Breslau  as  canon  and  professor  (1815). 

Dereser's  combative  character  got  him  into  trouble 
everywhere,  and,  though  b^eving  himself  a  good 
Catbolie,  he  was  imbued  with  a  distinctly  (jennan- 
rationalistic,  anti-Roman  spirit,  and  with  the  shallow 
Rationalism  of  his  time,  explaining  awi^  everything 
supernatural  in  Scripture  and  religion.  All  his  iirit- 
ings  are  thus  tainted,  tfaou^^  only  one,  and  that  with- 
out the  name  of  the  author,  haa  been  pl&oed  on  the 
Index,  "Gommentatio  biblica  in  .  .  .  Tu  es  Petrus'' 
(Bonn,  1789).  His  principal  work,  the  continuation  q{ 
Dominic  de  Brentano's  GSerman  Bible  (Frankfort,  181 5- 
1828, 16  vols.)  received  i)ermanent  value  only  through 
the  revision  by  J.  M.  A.  Sdiols  (1828-1837,  17  v(^.). 
Other  works,  chiefiv  Latin,  were  on  the  "Necessity  of 
the  Knowledge  of  (jriental  Languages  for  the  Study  of 
Scripture"  ^logne,  1783):  ^Hermeneutics  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament"  (1784  and  1786);  Disser- 
tations on  the  "Destrtiction  of  Sodom"  (1784);  on 
"St.  John  Baptist"  (1785):  on  the  "Power  and  Duties 
of  the  Pope  according  to  St.  Bernard"  (1787);  on  a 
number  oc  books  and  portions  of  the  Old  TBetament, 
with  translations  (partly  metrical)  and  annotations; 
on  the  "Temptation  of  Christ"  (1789);  on  "His  Di- 
vinity and  on  Pharisaism"  (Strasburg,  1791);  on  the 
"Foundation  of  the  University  of  Bonn"  (1786);  a 
"German  Breviary"  (Au^buig,  1793,  several  times 
reprinted)  and  a  "German  Prayer  Book"  (Rotten- 
burg,  1808).  He  also  edited  A.  Frenad's  "Treatise 
on  Matrimony"  (Breslau,  1818),  in  which  the  indis- 
solubility is  denied ;  the  author  alterwarda  retracted  it. 

HcNBicUB  ▲  8s.  Sacbamknttx  ColUet,  Scripior,  Ord.  Carml. 
Excaleeat.  (Savooa.  1884).  11,  271;  Hurtbb,  Nomendaior,  IIL 
808:  HbrzOq,  ReaUneud.,  IV,  581  (nomefwhat  too  sympathetie) ; 
QcHS&DirKxvxxs  in  KinAeniex.,  Ill,  1626. 

B.   ZODIBRBfAN. 

D«rogation  (Lat.  derogatto),  the  partial  revoca^ 
tion  of  a  law,  as  opposed  to  abrogation  or  the  total 
abolition  of  a  law.    This  definition  of  derogation  first 


introduced  by  the  Romin  jurisconsult  ModestinUi 
(XVI,  102,  De  verb,  significatione)  was  so<m  adopted 
in  the  canonical  legislation.  Even  yet,  however,  der- 
ogation in  a  loose  sense  means  also  abrogation,  hence 
the  common  saying:  Lex  posterior  defogat  priorif  i.e. 
a  subsequent  law  imports  tne  abolition  of  a  previous 
one.  Dispensation  (ufferB  from  derogation  pnneipidlv 
in  the  fact  that  the  latter  affects  the  law  itsdf  whid^ 
is  thereby  partially  revoked,  while  the  former  affects 
the  peraons  bound  by  the  law,  from  whose  obligaftion 
some  of  them  are  in  particular  cases  totally  or  par- 
tially released.  Derogation  may  be  made  either  by 
written  law  or  by  custom.  In  the  first  instance  legisla- 
tive competency  is  alone  req^uired  for  its  validity ;  in  the 
second  case  there  are  requisite  all  conditions  needed 
for  the  introduction  of  a  custom.  Again,  derogation 
may^  be  express  or  direct  if  made  by  explicit  words; 
taat  or  indirect  if  effected  by  a  law  partially  incom- 
patible wiiJi  the  existing  one.  When  done  without 
just  motive  and  by  the  superior  himself  it  is  sim- 
ply illicit;  it  is  also  invalid  when  done  by  his  dele- 
rate.  Derogation  is  often  accomplished  by  special 
clauses  inserted  in  papal  documents,  e.  g.  Nan  o6- 
stantibus  etc.  (see  Rescriftb).  The  absence  of  such 
dero^toiy  clauses  as  are  always  employed  in  papal 
rescripts  makes  them  defective  in  form.  The  follow- 
ing rules  are  helpful  for  the  interpretation  of  deroga- 
tions: (1)  Apart  from  special  cases,  derogations  are 
to  be  strictly  interpreted,  any  correction  of  the- law 
being  regulariy  of  an  " odious"  nature.  (2)  A  sim|>le 
derogation,  that  imposes  no  obligation  contrary  to 
that  of  the  existing  law.  does  not  require  a  formal 
promulgation.  (3)  No  clause  expressly  derogatory  of 
the  existing  law  is  requisite  in  makine  derogations 
from  any  land  of  eeneral  ecclesiastical  laws;  excep- 
tion is  made  only  when  it  is  proposed  to  derogate  from 
the  rules  of  the  Apostolic  Chancery.  (4)  Derogations 
couched  in  general  terms  are  not  upheld;  thev  mudt 
be  made  in  specific  and  formal  terms.  (5)  Ine  rule 
of  law  that  a  special  enactment  is  derogatory  of  the 
previous  general  one  (Generi  derogatur  per  spedem; 
Reg.  34  in  VI)  ineanB  that  a  particular  law  which  is  a 
derogation  of  a  general  one  must  always  produce  its 
derc^atory  effect,  it  being  immaterial  whether  it  was 
issura  before  the  seneral  law  or  after  it.  In  the  latter 
case  the  special  Taw  is  maintained  as  it  was  inten- 
tionally made  by  the  competent  superior:  nor  in  the 
former  instance  does  it  lose  its  i^ue,  because  the 
superior  had  no  intention  of  abolishing  it  by  a  sub- 
sequent general  law,  it  being  a  presumption  that  su- 
periors are  not  oognikant  of  particular  laws  or  customs 
(see  Custom  ;  -  Law)  . 

SuAim,  De  Legihue,  VI,  xxyit;  WisatfK,  J^  Ddref.  (RonM. 
1000),  I;    SANouiMvrn,  Jitr.  Bed.  Institutionee  (Rome,  1996); 
LpUBARDX.    Jur.   Can.   Pnv.    Inst.    (Rome.    1906);     Andhe- 
NEH,  Did.  de  droit  am.  (Paris,  1001 ). 

8.  Luuo. 


Waqneh,  i 


I>6  Aoui,  OiovAMNi  Battssta,  a  distinguished 
Christian  archcologist,  best  known  for  his  work  in 
oonneodon  with  the  Roman  catacombs,  b.  at  Rome, 
23  February,  1822;  d  at  Castel  Gandolfo  on  Lake 
Albano,  20  September,  1894.  De  Rossi,  Uie  modem 
founder  of  the  science  of  Christian  arohseology.  was 
weU-eldlled  in  secular  archseology,  a.  master  or  epi- 
graphy, an  authority  on  the  ancient  and  medieval 
topography  of  ROme,  an  excellent  historian,  and  a 
verv  productive  and  man^-aided  author.  In  addition 
to  his  professional  aoquamtanoe  with  ardleolpgv  De 
Rossi  had  a  thorough  knowledge  of  law,  philology, 
and  theology.  He  was  the  son  of  Commendatore 
Camil^  Luigi  De  Rossi  and  Marianna  Marchesa  Bruti, 
his  wife,  who  had  two  sons,  Griovanni  and  Michele  Ste- 
fana  Two  da3rB  after  birUi  Giovanni  was  baptised  in 
the  parish  church  of  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva  and, 
according  to  Roman  custom,  was  confirmed  while  still 
very  young,  by  Cardinal  Franaoni,  Prefect  of  the  Prop- 
aganda.   Up  to  1838  De  Rossi  attended  the  preparsr 


DX  B08SI 


740 


fiB  Bosai 


tory  department  of  the  wdl-known  Jesuit  institution, 
the  Coll^o  Romano,  and  throu^  his  entire  course 
ranked  as  its  foremost  pupil.  From  1838  to  1840  he 
studied  philosophy  there,  and  jurisprudence  (1840- 
44)  at  tne  Roman  University  (Sapienza),  where  he 
was  a  disciple  of  the  celebrated  professors  Villani  and 
Capalti.  At  the  close  of  his  university  studies  he  re- 
ceived, after  a  severe  examination,  the  degree  of  doC' 
tor  utriuique  juris  ad  honorem. 

De  Rossi  snowed  so  strong  an  interest  in  Christian 
antiquity  that  on  his  eleventh  birthday  his  father 
wished  to  give  him  the  great  work  of  Antonio  Bosio, 
**  La  Roma  Sotterranea'*  •  In  1843,  before  he  received 
the  doctor's  d^ree,  he  matured  a  plan  for  a  syste- 
matic and  critical  collection  of  all  Christian  inscriptions. 
In  1841,  notwithstanding  the  protests  of  his  anxious 
father,  he  visited,  for  the  first  time,  imder  the  guid- 
ance of  the  Jesuit  Father  Marchi,  one  of  the  then  much 
ne^ected  catacombs.  After  this  De  Rossi  and  Mar- 
chi  pursued  their  archsological  studies  together,  so 
that  thev  were  known  as  ''the  inseparable  friends", 
though  the  difference  in  years  was  great.  As  soon  as 
he  had  finished  his  stucfies  De  RcMsi  was  appointed 
KTiplor  at  the  Vatican  Library  and  bore  this  modest 
but  honourable  title,  in  which  he  took  especial  pride, 
all  his  life.  Great  credit  is  due  him  for  his  careful  cat- 
aloguing of  hundreds  of  Vatican  manuscripts.  The 
free  use  of  the  treasures  of  the  Vatican  Library  and 
archives  was  a  rich  source  of  development  for  his  in- 
tellectual powers,  especially  in  the' sense  of  breadth 
and  catholicity  of  interest.  His  official  duties  were 
not  heavy,  and  he  was  able  to  carry  on  his  private 
studies  without  hindrance.  In  1838,  in  company 
with  his  parents,  he  went  on  his  first  journey  ana  vis- 
ited Tuscany,  where  the  innumerable  treasures  of  art 
completely  absorbed  his  attention.  During  the  sum- 
mer6  of  1844--60  he  visited  the  territory  of  toe  ancient 
Hemici  in  Latium  and  also  Naples;  m  this  way  the 
knowledge  he  attained  of  the  period  of  the  Roman 
Republic  was  not  purely  theoretical.  In  1853  he 
travdled  for  the  first  time  by  himself  and  went  again 
to  Tuscany,  also  to  the  Romagna,  Lombardy,  and 
Venice.  In  1856  he  visited  Liguria,  Piedmont, 
Switserland,  France,  and  Belgium;  in  1858  he  went 
aeain  to  Piedmont,  visited  the  western  part  of  Switzr 
enand,  and  the  district  of  the  Rhine  as  far  as  Cologne: 
from  Cologne  he  went  by  way  of  Aachen,  Trier,  ana 
Frankfort  to  Bavaria  and  Austria,  and  back  to  Rome 
by  way  of  Venice  and  the  Romagna,  On  a  second 
trip  to  France  in  1862  he  visited  the  northern  part  of 
that  country,  and  after  going  for  a  short  time  to  Lon- 
don returned  by  way  of  Paris  and  Switzeriand  to 
Rome.  In  1864  he  went  to  Naples  for  a  second  time, 
and  in  1865  was  in  France  for  tne  third  time,  visiting 
particulari^  the  southern  French  cities.  In  1868  he 
was  again  m  France,  and  in  1869  and  1870  he  went  to 
Tuscany  and  Umbria;  in  1872-75  he  explored  the 
vicinity  of  Rome ;  in  1876  and  1879  he  investigated  the 
treasures  of  Ns^jles  and  the  surrounding  country,  and 
in  1878  he  made  a  trip  a^dn  to  Venice  and  Lombardy. 

These  journeys  of  De  Rossi  are  of  much  importance 
for  the  proper  appreciation  of  his  scientific  laboun. 
Such  long  and  fatiguing  expeditions  were  undertaken 
solely  in  order  to  inspect  museums,  Hbraries,  galleries, 
archives,  and  other  institutions  of  learning  and  art,  to 
form  personal  relations  with  the  scholars  of  the  coun- 
tries visited,  and  to  increase  the  range  of  hui  mental 
outlook,  always  fixed  on  a  subject  as  a  whole.  De 
Rossi's  extraordinary  knowledge  of  the  most  obscure 
monuments  of  the  civilised  countries  of  Europe,  and 
his  thorough  familiarity  with  manuscript  sources, 
made  it  possible  for  him,  as  undisputed  leader  and 
master,  to  suide  the  science  of  Christian  archseology, 
not  unjustty  called  his  science,  during  several  dec- 
ades, into  new  paths.  These  journeys  help  to  ex- 
plain De  Rossi's  remarkable  literary  productiveness, 
especially  when  considered  in  connexion  with  his 


minute  investigation  of  all  the  monuments,  both  M 
the  surface  and  undeiground.  of  the  city  of  Rome  and 
the  Roman  Campagna.  These  investigations  cov- 
ered the  ancient  pagan  life  of  Rome,  the  eariy  Chris- 
tian period,  also  the  Middle  Ages. 

De  Rossi's  personal  relations  with  the  leading  sdiol- 
ars  of  Italy  and  other  countries  beean  in  his  early 

Smth.  when  he  was  fourteen  the  famous  Cardinal 
ai,  Librarian  of  the  Holy  Roman  Churdi,  found  him 
copying  Greek  inscriptions  in  the  inscription  gallenr  of 
the  Vatican  and  became  greatly  interested  in  the  Lad; 
the  acquaintance  later  ripened  mto  a  warm  friendship. 
In  1847  began  his  connexion  as  a  sdiolar  with  the  fa- 
mous epigraphist,  Bartolommeo  Bon^esi  of  San 
Marino;  at  a  later  date  Bordtiesi's  works  ynare  tssued 
at  the  expense  of  Napoleon  III  under  De  Rossi's  diro 
tion.  A  few  yeans  after  f oiming  the  acquaintanoe  of 
Boi^hesi  a  correspondence  was  begun  between  De 
Rossi  and  the  Benedictine  Dom  Pitra,  of  SoksmeSy 
later  Cardinal,  and  Librarian  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Chureh,  which  ended  in  a  warm  friendship  with 
Pitra.  This,  however,  led  to  a&  estrangement  between 
Leo  XIII  and  De  Rossi.  Father  Brussa,  the  learned 
Bamabite,  was  also  an  intimate  Triend  of  De  RossL 
Wilhelm  Henzen,  long  director  of  the  Crennan  ardu»* 
oloeical  institute  at  Rome,  lived  in  friendship  and 
daify  communication  with  De  Rossi  for  forty  yeoca. 
When  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sdenoes,  urged  by 
Hieodor  Mommsen,  undertodc  its  monumental  pub- 
lication, the  ''Corpus  Inscriptionum  Latinarum'',  it 
sent  a  flattering  letter  to  De  Rossi  to  request  his  co- 
operation. This  led  to  an  intimate  friendship  with 
Mommsen.  The  latter's  numerous  collaborators  on 
the  '^  Corpus",  amon^  them  Edwin  Bormann,  the 
noted  autnorily  on  epwaphy,  found  De  Rossi  ever 
ready  to  assist  and  guiae  tnem.  Martigny,  the  editor 
of  the  French  edition  of  the  ''BuUettino"  (see  bdow), 
as  well  as  Paul  Allard,  editor  of  the  French  edition 
of  "Roma  Sotterranea",  and  Desbaasyns  de  Ricb- 
emont,  were  all  closely  united  to  De  Rossi  by  the  inter- 
ests of  their  common  work.  To  these  must  be  added 
Louis  Duchesne,  the  brilliant  director  of  the  Eoole  de 
Rome,  and  collaborator  with  De  Rossi  on  the  recent  edi- 
tion (1894)  of  the  ''Martyroloeium  HJeronymiamim  ". 
Lipoid  Delisle,  the  celebrated  savant,  pajjdographer, 
and  historian,  for  mauv  years  the  head  of  the  Biblio- 
th^ue  Nationale  at  Paris,  was  a  man  of  the  same 
learned  tastes  as  De  Rossi;  their  meeting  led  to  a  very 
active  scientific  correspondence,  and  later  to  a  strong 
attachment,  based  on  theirsdiolariy  interests.  When, 
about  1850,  Edouard  Le  Blant  fonned  the  acquaint- 
ance of  De  Rossi,  he  was  totally  i^iorant  of  araiaol- 
OKr>  b^  ail  accidental  remark  of  De  Rossi  led  him  to 
taxe  up  this  science;  eventually  he  became  a  distin- 
guished archaeologist  and  the  director  of  the  Eoole  de 
Rome. 

Among  German  Catholics  De  Rossi's  closest  friend- 
ship as  a  scholar  was  with  Franz  Xaver  Kraus.  Hie 
cool  reception  he  had  from  Ddllinger,  whom  he  onoe 
met  at  Munich,  prevented  the  forming  of  any  lasting 
relations.  From  1884  Joseph  Wilpert  came  into 
closer  relations  with  De  Rossi,  who,  up  to  his  death, 
gave  this  scholar  all  possible  aid  and  showed  the 
younger  man  the  matest  friendship.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  Johann  Peter  Kirech,  arcnsologist,  patrolo- 
gist,  and  historian.  De  Rossi  also  encouraged  the 
utbours  of  Anton  de  Waal,  the  founder  and  editor  of 
the  "ROmiache  Quartalschrift",  and  was  a  hd^ul 
friend  to  numerous  other  German  scholais.  For 
many  years  De  Rossi's  relations  were  especiaUy  inti- 
mate with  Giuseppe  GatU,  his  assistant  in  various 
kinds  of  learned  work..  Gatti's  fine  scholarship  en- 
abled De  Rossi  to  cairy  on  daily  confidential  discus- 
sions of  learned  questions  which,  after  the  death  of 
Hemen,  had  apparently  eome  to  an  end.  Gatti  con- 
tinues De  Rossi's  labours  in  the  province  of  ancient 
inscriptions.    Heniy  Stevenson,  who  died  too  aooi^ 


DX  B0S8I 


741 


DX  ROSSI 


Mariano  Armellini,  an  enthusiast  in  archseology,  Luigi 
Scagliosi,  the  numismatist,  Orario  Marucchi,  a  popu- 
lariser  of  Christian  archeology,  Cosimo  Stomaiolo, 
the  ''Grecian",  besides  many  other  Italians,  among 
whom  Gennaro  Aspreno  Galante  of  Naples  deserves  to 
be  named,  found  m  De  Rossi  a  fatherly  friend  and 
counsellor.  Among  his  English  disciples  and  friends 
were  especially  J.  Spencer  Northcote  and  W.  R. 
Brownlow  who  made  knoi^i  to  the  English-speaking 
world  the  results  of  De  Rossi's  scholarly  investiga- 
tions and  publications.  For  years  Northcote  and 
Brownlow,  and  Lewis  at  Oxford,  were  in  constant  cor- 
respondence with  De  Rossi. 

Stress   is   thus  laid  on   the   important  pereonal 
acquaintance  and  friendships  of  De  Kossi,  in  order  to 
emphasize  with  what  skill  he  stimulated  interest  in 
Oiristian    archaeology  in 
all   directions.      Equally 
important,  perhaps,  were 
the  relations  established 
by  him  in  the  years  1850- 
70  during  which  he  con- 
ducted   man^r   strangers, 
often  of  high  rank, 
through  the  catacombs,  or 
acted  as  their  guide  among 
the  monumental  ruins  of 
Rome.     The  friendships 
thus  made  often  secured 
for  him  the  loan  of  monu- 
ments and  documents 
which  otherwise     would 
never  have  been  sent,  even 
temporarily,  to  a  foreign 
country,  but  which  were 
brought  to  him  at  Rome 
by  the  diplomatic  couriers 
of  ail  countries,  not  ex- 
cepting Russia,  thus  giv- 
ing 1^  opportunity   to 
examine  these  objects  at 
his  leisure.     The  inune- 
diate  superiors  of  De  Rossi 
in  t^e  Vatican  Archives 
treated  him  always  as  a 
friend  and  an  equal,  and 
allowed  him  entire  free- 
dom  in   all   his  studies. 
Pius   IX  honoured   him 
with  a  fatherly  affection, 
striking  evidence  of  which 
was  given  on  more  than 
one  occasion.    Though  the  science  of  Christian  arch- 
eology was  rather  foreign  to  th^  mental  temper  of  Leo 
Xlllthat  pope  often  showed  that,  on  the  proper  occa- 
sion, he  could  do  jjustice  to  De  Rossi's  great  reputation. 
In  Rome  De  Rossi  was  exceedingly  popular;  neariy  all 
the  educated  citizens,  as  well  as  the  foreign  residents, 
knew  and  honoured  him.    Without  some  knowledge 
of  these  facts  De  Rossi's  learned  labonrs  and  extraor- 
dinary success  would  be  only  superficially  understood. 
By  his  peculiar  training,  therefore,  De  Rossi  was 
well  fitted  to  understand  sympathetically  the  early 
Christian  literature,  as  well  as  the  rise  and  develop- 
ment of  the  Roman  State  as  shown  in  the  monuments 
it  has  left.    In  regard  to  the  Roman  State,  he  never 
held  tiie  somewhat  mechanical  and  no  longer  undis- 
puted theory  of  Monmisen.    He  penetrated  also  with 
marvellous  msight  the  prowth  of  the  primitive  Chris- 
tian hierarchy.    Amid  his  books  and  papers  De  Rossi 
pondered  over  the  ruins  of  the  temples  and  palaces  of 
antiquity;  reviewed  his  own  subterranean  explora- 
tions;^ followed  the  early  Christians  in  their  thoughts, 
wishes,  hopes,  and  ideals;  contemplated  the  triumph 
of  the  Church,  liberated  by  Constantine  the  Great  and 
entering  triumphantly   the  basilicas;  and  gathered 
from  yellowed  manusdripts  the  traditions  that  a  learned 


multitude  of  pious  and  painstaking  monks  bad  writ- 
ten concerning  the  Christian  past,  and  in  addition  the 
accounts  they  nave  left  us  of  their  own  times.  In  this 
way  De  Rossi  was  soon  universally  acknowledged,  even 
in  his  lifetime,  as  the  prince  of  Cluistian  archseolojs^ists. 
Owing  to  his  extraordinary  literaiy  productivity, 
which  was  the  natural  result  of  the  conditions  out- 
lined above,  a  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  his 
minor  and  nis  greater  works.  The  list  of  his  minor 
writings  (monographs)  begins  in  1849  with  the  me- 
moir: '^Iscrizione  pnoraria  di  Nicomaco  Flaviano", 
which  appeared  in  the  '^  Annali  dell'  Istituto  di  corris* 
pondensa  archeologica"  (pp.  283-363).  These  arch»- 
olcgical  and  ecclesiastico-historical  papers  number 
203,  not  including  the  so-called  literary  letters  in 
which  De  Rossi  answered  the  ouestions   addressed 

him  Dy  various  scholars. 
Most  of  these  letters  were 
given  publicity  in  books 
or  periodicals  by  those  to 
whom  they  were  sent. 
Nor  does  this  total  in- 
clude an  almost  countless 
series  of  Latin  inscrip- 
tions, expressions  of  h^ 
erary  homage,  congratu- 
latory epigrams,  etc. 
Most  of  the  monographs, 
often  quite  lensthy,  ap-; 
peared  in  "Bullettinb 
dell'  Istituto  di  corri»- 
pondenza  archeoloeica  * ' ; 
**  BuUettino  archeologicok 
Napolitano  " ;  **  Revue 
arcn^oloaque  " ;  **  Bul- 
lettinoddla  commissione 
archeologica  comunale  di 
Roma":  "Biblioth^e 
de  I'^cole  des  chartes"; 
"Ephemeris  epigraph- 
ica";  **Studi  e  documen- 
ti  di  storia  e  diritto"; 
"  Dissertazioni  dell'  acca- 
demia  romana  pontificia 
di  archeologia'^;  "Me- 
langes d'arch^loeie  et 
d'histoire  de  I'^cole 
fran9ai8e  de  Rome"; 
**R6mische  Quartalsch* 
rift ",  and  in  other  Italian 
and  foreign  periodicals 
and  reviews.  A  few  of 
these  papers  appeared  as  separate  volumes  or  as  learned 
tributes  on  anniversary  occasions.  They  vary  in  length 
from  one  to  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  printed  pages. 
The  titles  of  his  larger  and  monumental  works  are 
as  follows:  (1)  ** Inscnptiones  christianje  Urbis  Romie 
septimo  sseculo  antiquiores"  (vol.  I,  Rome,  1861 ;  part 
I  of  vol.  II,  Rome,  1888);  Giuseppe  Gatti  is  complet- 
ing this  work  (cf.  **  Archivio  della  R.  SocietJi  Romana 
di  storia  patria",  1887.  696  sqq. ;  also  the  same  soci- 
ety's "Conferenze  pel  corso  di  metodologia  della 
storia",  part  III,  Rome,  1888).  (2)  "La  Roma  Sot- 
terranea  Cristiana"  (vol.  I  with  an  atlas  of  forty 
plates,  Rome,  1864;  vol.  II  with  an  atlas  of  sixty-two 
and  A,  B,  C,  D  plates,  Rome,  1867:  vol.  Ill  with  an 
atlas  of  fifty-two  plates,  Rome,  187/).  The  plates  for 
the  fourth  volume  were  already  printed  in  part  when  De 
Rossi  died  (see  "Bullettino  (fi  archeologia  cristiana", 
1864, 1,  1864,  63-64;  1867,  U,  89-90;  1876,  III.  166- 
57).  (3)  "Bullettino  dl  archeologia  cristiana'*;  the 
first  series,  in  quarto,  appeared  in  monthly  numbers 
(1863-69),  with  illustrations  in  the  text  and  coloured 
plates;  it  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-six 
monographs  and  communications.  The  second  series, 
in  octavo,  appeared  quarterly  (1870-75),  with  twelve 
lithographic  plates  in  each  volume,  and  contained  al- 


QiovANNi  Battibta  De  Roaai 


DBBR7 


74? 


DIARY 


together  fifty-three  papera.  The  third  series,  also  in 
octavo,  appeared  (l87&^81),  in  quarterly  numbers, 
each  volume  having  twelve  lithographic  plates;  the 
papers  numbered  altogether  fifty>one.  The  fourth 
series,  in  octavo,  appeared  in  yearly  volumes  (1882- 
89),  each  volume  having  twelve  lithographic  plates; 
the  six  volumes  contain  altogether  forty-three  papers. 
The  fifth  series,  in  octavo,  appeared  annually  (1889- 
94),  with  zincotype  plates  and  illustrations  in  the 
text;  the  last  number  was  issued  in  1894  by  Giuseppe 
Gatti.  The  final  volume  of  each  series  contained  a 
full  index  which  De  Rossi  prepared  with  the  greatest 
care.  (4)  ^'Musaici  delle  cniese  di  Roma  anteriori  al 
seoolo  XV"  (Rome,  1872),  an  imperial  folio  consist- 
ing of  chromolithographic  plates  with  a  text  in  French 
and  Italian.  The  work  closed  with  the  twenty-fifth 
number,  issued  after  De  Rossi's  death.  (5)  "  Codicum 
latinorum  bibliothecsD  Vaticanae*',  vol.  X,  Pt.  I,  Nos. 
7245-8066,  Pt.  II,  Nos.  8067-8471;  vol.  XI,  Nos. 
8472-9019;  vol.  XII,  Nos.  9020-9445;  vol.  XIII, 
Nos.  9446-9849.  The  indexes  to  vols.  XI,  XII,  XIII, 
"Codicum  lat.  Vat."  are:  Ptl  I,  index  of  authora;  Pt 
II,  index  of  places,  things,  and  persons.  Iiieee 
manuscript  indexes  are  used  as  reference  books  in  the 
Vatican  Library.  (6)  "  Inscriptiones  Urbis  Romse 
latjjuB.  Collegerunt  Gulielmus  Henzen  et  Johannes 
Baptista  de  Rossi.  Edideront  Eugenius  Bormann  et 
Gulielmufi  Henzen"  (Berlin,  1876 — ).  This  consti- 
tutes the  sixth  volume  of  the  "Corpus  Inscriptionum 
Latinarum  consilio  et  auctoritate  academise  Utter- 
arum  regi»  Borussicse  editum'*  (Berlin).  The  in- 
vitation to  De  Rossi  to  act  as  one  of  the  leading  edi- 
tors was  given  22  January,  1854.  (7)  The  five  annual 
reports  (1854-58),  concemine  the  preparatory  work 
lor  the  above-mentioned  "Corpus  Inscriptionum", 
which  appeared  in  the  monthly  bulletins  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Science  of  Berlin.  The  other  annual  re- 
ports have  not  been  published;  this  is  also  the  case 
with  De  Rossi's  synopses  of  t^e  epigraphical  manu- 
scripts in  the  libraries  of  Italy,  France,  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  Austria.  The  last  named  summaries 
are  of  the  greatest  importance.     (8)  "CEuvres  com- 

gl^tes  de  Bcftolommeo  Borghesi ''  (9  vols.,  Paris,  1862- 
4).  Napoleon  III  entrusted  the  task  of  collecting 
and  editing  the  works  and  letters  of  the  celebrated 
Bbr^esi  to  a  committee  of  French,  German,  and 
Italian  scholars,  among  whom  De  Rossi  may  be  said  to 
have  been  the  most  important  and  assiduous.  (9) "  Mar- 
lyrologium  Hieronymianum",  prepared  and  edited  in 
collaboration  with  Louis  Duchesne  in  vol.  Ij  Novem- 
ber, of  the  Acta  SS.  (Brussels,  1894).  This  edition  is 
a  masterpiece  and  most  of  the  objections  raised  against 
it  by  German  scholars  are  of  little  importance. 

Tne  works  briefly  described  above  give  some  con- 
ception of  the  learned  labours  De  Rossi  carried  on  dur- 
ing his  life.  They  are  proofs  of  the  genius  with  which 
he  grasped  a  subject,  oi  his  extraordinary  industry,  his 
learned  mastery  of  the  most  varied  subjects,  and  the 
unwavering  determination  with  which  he  unearthed 
obscure  points;  they  also  show  the  triumphs  with 
which  his  toils  were  so  richly  crowned.  The  estima- 
tion in  which  his  work  was  held  is  proved  by  the  two 
international  celebrations  in  1882  and  1892  upon  his 
sixtieth  and  seventieth  birthdays. 

De  Rossi's  father  died  in  1850,  and  his  mother  in 
1861.  In  the  latter  yea|:  he  married  Costanza, 
daughter  of  Count  Pietro  Bruno  di  San  Giorgio  Toma- 
fort  of  Piedmont,  by  whom  he  had  two  daughters; 
Maxianna,  the  elder,  died  in  1864.  The  second,  Nar 
talia,  bom  in  1866,  married  the  Marchese  FUippo  Fer^ 
raioli.  De  Rossi's  brother  Michele  Stefano  was  his 
zealous  assistant  in  the  exploration  of  the  catacombs; 
the  geological  questions  connected  with  these  subtei^ 
ranean  places  of  burial  and  all  kindred  subjects  are 
treated  by  Michele  in  separate  papers  in  "  Roma  Sot- 
terranea  .  He  also  prepared  tne  very  accurate  plans 
of  the  catacoinbs.    De  Ros^i  was  a  portly  man  of  fiti^ 


appearance,  somewhat  over  the  middle  hei^t.  Hie 
full,  well-proportioned  face  was  surrounoed  by  a 
grayish  beard  which  left  the  chin  free,  like  clear,  calm 
eyes  lost  much  of  their  strength,  so  that  he  oouid  not 
always  supervise  properly  the  work  of  his  painters  and 
draughtsmen  in  the  catacombs.  This  explains  the 
numerous  inaccurate  illustrations  in  his  works  which 
Wilpert  has  corrected.  The  smoothly  brushed  hair 
gave  ereater  prominence  to  the  hu;h  domed  forehead. 
In  wfidking  De  Rossi  bent  slightly  forward,  which  man- 
nerism gave  to  his  gait  an  appearance  of  much  delib- 
erateness.  On  the  street  he  was  generally  busy  with  a 
book  or  pamphlet.  De  Rossi  heard  Mass  every  day 
and  went  to  Communion  nearly  every  week.  Gener- 
ous, unobtrusive  charity  was  a  second  nature  with 
him. .  Every  evening  he  gathered  all  the  members  of 
his  household  about  nim  Tor  the  recitation  of  the  ros- 
ary. Although  he  very  often  received  tempting  offers 
to  desert  the  cause  of  the  Holy  See  and  join  the  party 
of  United  Italy,  he  rejected  all  such  proposals,  evea 
when  they  came  from  the  highest  authorities.  On 
this  point  he  was  absolutely  immovable.  A  few 
months  after  the  international  celebration  of  his  sev- 
entieth birthday  in  1892,  De  Rossi  had  an  attack  of 
apoplexy  from  which  he  never  entirely  recovered. 
Unable  after  this  to  use  his  right  hand  he  oontinued  to 
write  with  the  left  for  the ''  Bullettino ''  and  in  making 
the  corrections  to  the  ''Martyrologium".  But  his 
dskYB  were  numbered.  In  the  summer  of  1894  Leo 
XIII  offered  him  the  use  of  an  apartment  in  the  papal 
palace  at  Castel  Gandolfo,  where  he  peaoefuUy  passed 
away,  a  true  son  of  the  Church.  He  was  buried  in  the 
Acto  Verano  ^neral  cemetery)  at  Rome. 

BAtJif GABTEN,  Utovonni  BaUiata  Dt  i2oMt  Jubilee  moaoKntph 
(CdogDe,  1892).  enlarged  Ital.  tmns.  by  JSonavbsia  (Rome. 
1892) ;  Marucchx,  Giovanni  Battitla  De  RobH:  Cemm  bicgnfiei 
(Rome,  1903) ;  Konveraationdex.  (St,  Lends,  MJmiMui,  1903).  11, 
1163;  Kraus.  Etaaya  (Stuttgart,  1896).  I;  Baumqabten. 
NekrvloQ.  in  KfUniache  VotkaeSuno  (Ko.  639,  28  Oct..  1894): 
Capbcelatho.  Necroloqia  in  the  AUi  della  Pomtificw  Acea- 
demia  Ramana  di  Arekeologvi^  printed  in  suiiiiluaent  to  No. 
273  ol  the  Oaaervaiore  Romano  (29  Nov.,  1894);  Sqahan.  John 
Baptiat  De  Roaai  in  Am.  Caih.  Quart.  Review  (PhiladelphiA. 
1895);  cf.  Diaaertazioni  deUa  Pont.  Aooad.  Romans  di  Arehmt. 
(Rome.  1895),  Ser.  II.  Vol.  VI.  Fmae.  iv.  1-29;  Ghmh-Gonoi 
an6  Anqbuni,  a  Giovanni  BaUiata  De  Roaai,  addien  At  the 
dedication  ol  the  cenotaph  in  the  parish  church  of  G»«tel  Gan- 
dolfo, 17  Oct.,  1897,  in  La  SeUimana  Bdigioaa  (Rome,  1897). 
Information  concemins  his  writings  and  the  AMtal  oelebrstiooa 
of  1882  and  1892  are  contained  in:  AUm  dei  aoUoacrittari  per  la 
medaglia  d^oro  m  onore  dd  Commhtdaiore  Gio.  Baa.  De  Rom  e 
rdanone  della  aolenniUi  nd  praaentaria  wt  Laienmo  H  11  Deeemr 
bre  188$  (Rome,  1882);  Atbo  dei  aoUoacriUori  pd  buato  mamuno 
dd  Comm.  G\  B,  De  Roaai  e  rdazione  ddV  tnayffurwtiofu  fattana 
nd  di  SO  e  tS  Aprile  1899  aonra  it  cimiiero  di  CaUiato  per  feateq- 
Oiare  H  aettanteaimo  anato  ad  prindpe  deOa  oaem  ardkedogia 
(Rome.  1892).  The  two  last-named  pubUcatioas  printed  pri« 
vately  give  the  beet  account  of  De  Rossi's  Uteraiy  work,  and  of 
his  important  position  in  the  international  worid  of  lettera. 
OozsA-Luu.  La  dediea  dd  tuato  di  Giovanni  BaUiata  De  Roaai 
ndla  PonL  Acoademia  Rom,  di  Arthedogia  H  18  ATm.,  1897,  is 
Diaaertanoni  ddla  Pont.  Aee.  (Rome,  1897),  Ser.  11.  Vol  VL 
De  Rossi's  library  came,  fay  inheritance,  to  the  family  of  his 
brother  wbieh  eventuaity  offered  it  for  sale;  the  first  cataloKW 
ol  it  was:  Riooa  biblioteoa  appartenuta  al  Comm,  G.  B.  De  Roaai 
(Rome,  1899);  B&r  (a  second-hand  bookaeller)  of  Frsnkfnrt 
boui^t  it  and  issued  a  scientlficaUy  arranged  catalogae.  Ac- 
counts  of  De  Rossi  are  to  be  found  in  all  general  enoydoperlias; 
the  writeis  of  the  obituaries  which  appeared  after  his  death 
were  sel4k>m  versed  in  CSiristian  archipology. 

Paul  Maria  Baumgarxen. 

Deny  (DERiA),DiocEas  of  (DERRisNais),  indudes 
nearly  sSl  the  County  Derry,j)art  of  Donegal,  and  alaiKe 
portion  of  I^rone,  Ireland ;  it  is  a  suffragan  of  Annagn. 
The  diocese  owes  its  origin  to  the  monastic  establisb* 
ment  founded  there  by  St.  Columba  between  546  and 
562.  But  there  does  not  seem  to  have  beeoi  a  bishop 
resident  at  Deny  before  Gervase  O'Cervallen  (c.  1230). 
The  entry  in  the  "Annals"  by  which  O'Brolchain  is 
represented  as  Bishop  of  Deny  is  due  to  a  mistranalar 
tion.  He  was  merely  the  superior  of  the  Golumban 
monastic  houses,  and  was  accorded  the  honour  of  a 
seat  in  the  assembly  of  the  bishops.  The  proflent 
Diocese  of  Dorry  was  fonned  by  a  union  of  the  old 
Sees  of  Ratblure  and  Ardstr^^w  founded  by  St.  £u* 


DBBRT 


743 


DESAINS 


gene,  at  what  time  cannot  be  accurately  determined, 
and  it  was  fully  defined  about  the  midclle  of  the  thir-, 
teenth  century.  The  ancient  monastery  of  Deny  was 
one  of  the  most  important  in  Ireland,  and  eventually 
the  chief  house  of  the  Columban  monks.  Gilla  Mac- 
Leag  (Gelasius)  who  succeeded  St.  Malachy  as  Arch- 
bishop of  Annagh  (1136)  had  been  abbot  of  the  mon- 
astery. 

After  the  formation  of  the  diocese  in  the  thirteenth 
century  the  succession  of  bishops  was  uninterrupted  till 
the  Reformation  period.  Redmond  O'Gallagner,  ap- 
pointed bishop  in  1569,  was  one  of  the  leading  ecclesi- 
astics in  the  province  of  Armagh  at  that  period.  He 
was  appointed  Administrator  of  Armagh  during  the 
absence  of  the  primate  in  1575,  and  according  to  a 
State  paper  (1592)  he  seems  to  have  been  the  most  act- 
ive upnolder  of  the  Catholic  Ch urch  in  Ulster.  He  was 
killed  by  a  body  of  soldiera  in  1601.     From  1601  till 


The  Cathediull,  Derrt 


1683  the  Diocese  of  Deny  was  administered  by  vicars. 
From  the  appointment  of  Bernard  CCahan  in  1683, 
the  line  of  bishops  in  Deny  has  been  continued  with- 
out interruption. 

The  population  of  Deny  according  to  the  census  of 
1901  was  222,505,  127,387  of  whom  were  Catholics. 
It  is  divided  into  thirty-nine  parishes,  two  of  these 
being  mensal  parishes ;  the  remamder  are  held  by  parish 
priests.  The  number  of  priests  in  the  diocese  is  about 
108.  Tliere  is  no  chapter  (1908) ,  nor  is  there  any  house 
of  the  regular  clergy  in  tne  diocese.  The  seat  of  the 
bishop  is  in  the  city  of  Deny  where  are  also  situated 
the  new  cathedral  and  St.  Columb's  Colle^ge  which 
serves  at  the  same  time  the  purpose  of  a  seminary  and 
a  general  intermediate  school,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
successful  educational  establishments  in  Ireland. 
There  is  also  a  flourishing  intermediate  school  at 
Omagh  conducted  by  the  Irish  Christian  Brothers. 
The  Sisters  of  Mercy  have  convents  in  Deny,  Moville, 
Strabane,  and  Camdonagh ;  the  Loretto  Community 
have  a  house  at  Omagh,  while  the  Sisters  of  Nazareth 
conduct  a  home  for  the  aged  of  both  sexes  and  one  for 
children  in  Deny.  The  primaiy  schools  are  con- 
diicteil  according  to  the  niles  of  the  Board  of  Na- 
tional Education,  while  the  Model  Schools  in  Dcrry 


have  been  completely  boycotted  by  the  Catholic 
population. 

GAII0,  SericB  Bpis,  (Ratisbon.  1873):  Edbkl,  HUrarekia 
CatkoLiea  e%c.  (Munater.  18Q8):  Wabb,  Iriak  BUhopit;  Aach- 
DAXX,  Monaslicon  Hibemicum  (Dublin,  1786);  Adamnan,  Life 
of  Columba,  ed.  Reevbs  (Dublin,  1857). 

James  MacCaffret. 

Derry,  School  op. — ^This  was  the  first  foundation 
of  St.  Columba,  the  great  Apostle  of  Scotland,  and  one 
of  the  three  patron  saints  of  Ireland.  When  a  terrible 
plague,  known  as  the  Buidhe  Connaill  or  the  Yellow 
I'lague,  dispersed  the  monks  of  the  monastery  of 
Glasnevin  m  the  year  544,  Columba  instinctively 
turned  his  footsteps  towards  his  native  territory,  and, 
full  of  the  spirit  of  monasticism,  bethought,  himself 
of  founding  his  first  monastery  there,  amongst  his 
own  kith  and  kin.  An  excellent  site  of  200  acres 
was  offered  to  him  by  his  princely  cousin,  Aedh, 
son  of  Ainmire,  and  the  necessary  p>ermission  of  his 
master,  St.  Mobhi  Clarainech,  given  with  his  dying 
breath,  was  immediately  forthcoming.  And  so,  a 
few  miles  from  Ailech,  "the  stone-hill  fortress  of  the 
Hy-Neiir*,  and  close  beside  a  beautiful  oak  grove 
which  gave  the  place  its  name — Doire  Colgaigh,  or  the 
oak  wood  of  Colgagh — Cohunba  built  his  church  and 
several  cells  for  his  first  monks  and  disciples.  This, 
according  to  the  "Annals  of  Ulster",  was  in  the  year 
545  (correctly,  546).  Students  both  clerical  anci  lay 
flocked  hither  from  all  sides  attracted  by  the  imme- 
diate fame  of  the  new  school,  and  the  character  of  its 
founder.  For  several  years  Columba  himself  guided 
its  destinies,  and  then,  in  pursuance  of  his  apostolic 
vocation,  he  left  to  establish  and  govern  the  second  of 
his  great  schools  amid  the  oak  woods  of  Durrow  in 
the  King's  County.  But  whether  in  Derry  or  away 
from  it,  in  Durrow  or  Kells.  or  in  distant  lona,  the 
saint's  heart  was  ever  with  nis  first  foundation,  and 
often  in  the  tenderest  poetry  he  poured  out  his  love 
for  "My  Derry,  mine  own  little  grove",  with  its 
"crowds  of  white  angels  from  one  end  to  tne  other". 

For  centuries  after  Columba's  death  the  School  of 
Derry  continued  to  flourish,  and  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, it  was  said  to  be  the  most  important  of  the 
Columban  foiuidations  in  Ireland.  To  this  period, 
the  most  glorious  of  its  history,  belong  the  names  of 
several  members  of  the  illustrious  family  of  Brolchain 
— saints,  scholars,  and  builders — as  well  as  that  of  the 
illustrious  Gelasius.  successor  of  St.  Malachy  in  the 
primacy  of  Ireland.  Like  all  similar  institutions  it 
sufferea  severely  from  the  ravages  of  the  Danes.  It 
survived  these,  to  disappear  completely,  however,  in 
the  general  devastation  of  monasteries  uiat  took  place 
in  Ireland  in  the  sixteenth  century.  (See  Columba, 
Saint.) 

Adamnan,  Vita  Columba,  ed.  Fowler  (London,  1896J); 
Whtplet  Stokes,  Livrs  of  fiaints  from  the  Book  of  lAamore,  m 
Anecdota  Oxonien,  (Oxford.  1800).  V ;  Hkalt,  Irdand'a  Ancient 
SchooU  and  Schotan  (Dublin,  1890). 

John  Healy. 
Dervish.    See  Mohammedanism. 

Desains,  Patjl-Quentin,  physicist,  b.  at  St- 
Quentin,  France,  12  July,  1817:  d.  at  Paris,  3  May, 
1885.  He  made  his  literary  studies  at  the  Coll^  des 
Bons-Enfants  in  his  native  town  and  then  entered  the 
Lyc6c  Louis-le-Grand  in  Paris.  Here  he  distin- 
guished himself,  taking  the  first  prize  in  physics.  In 
1835  he  entered  the  science  section  of  the  Ecole  Nor- 
male  where  his  brother  Edouard  had  preceded  him. 
He  made  the  acquaintance  there  of  La  Provostaye 
who  was  at  the  time  a  surveiUarU  and  who  became 
his  lifelong  friend  and  his  associate  in  his  researches. 
After  completing  his  course,  he  accepted  a  professor- 
ship in  1839  at  Caen,  and  in  1841  returned  to  Paris 
where  he  received  similar  appointments,  first  at  the 
liVc^e  St-Ix)uis  and  lat-cr  at  the  Lyc^  Condorcet, 
where  he  succee<le(l  La  Provostaye  who  was  forced  to 
retire  on  account  of  ill-health.     His  growing  reputa- 


DESAXTLT 


744 


DXS0ABTX8 


tion  won  for  him  in  1853  the  chair  of  ph3r8ics  at  the 
Sorbonne  which  he  held  for  thirty-two  years.  His 
lectures  were  characterized  by  great  cleamefls  and  pre- 
cision and  many  of  his  expenmental  illustrations  were 
devised  or  improved  by  him. 

Between.1858  and  1861  he  made  many  observations 
in  connexion  with  terrestrial  magnetism.  His  most 
important  contributions  to  physics,  however,  were  his 
researches  on  radiant  heat  made  in  conjunction  with 
La  Provoetaye.  With  rare  experimental  skill  the  two 
physicists  proved  that  radiant  neat,  like  light,  is  a  dis- 
turbance set  up  in  the  ether  and  propagated  in  all  di- 
rections by  transverse  waves.  They  showed  in  a  series 
of  ''M6moires"  published  in  the  '\\nnales  de  Chimie 
et  de  Physique  that  it  manifests  the  characteris- 
tic phenomena  of  reflection,  refraction,  and  polariza- 
tion, as  well  as  of  emission  and  absorption.  They  also 
made  a  study  of  the  latent  heat  of  lusion  of  ice,  and 
a  careful  investigation  of  the  range  of  applicability  of 
the  formula  of  Dulong  and  Petit  representing  the  law 
of  cooling.  Of  no  less  importance,  however,  was 
Desain's  work  in  connexion  with  the  establishment  and 
development  of  laboratory  instruction  in  phvsics. 
When  the  ''Ecole  pratique  des  hautes  etudes''  was 
founded  in  1869  he  was  commissioned  to  organize  the 
physical  laboratory.  He  made  it  a  model  of  its  kind 
both  in  completeness  and  in  convenience  of  detail. 
During  the  siege  of  Paris  in  1870,  he  succeeded  after 
many  diiiiculties  in  establishing  electrical  communica- 
tion with  d'Alm^ida  who  was  outside  the  lines.  The 
exposure  he  underwent  brought  on  a  rheumatism 
which  greatly  weakened  his  constitution.  Desains 
published  a  ''^Trait^  de  Physique"  (Paris,  1855)  and 
numerous  articles,  chiefly  with  La  Provostaye.  Among 
them  are:  ''Recherches  sur  la  chaleur  latente  de 
fusion  de  la  glace"  (Ann.  de  chim.  et  de  phys.  [3\, 
VIII,  5);  "Notes  et  m^moires  sur  les  lois  du  rayonne- 
ment  de  la  chaleur"  (ibid.,  XII,  129,  XVI,  337,  XXII, 
358);  ''M^moire  sur  la  polarisation  de  la  chaleur" 
(ibid,  XXVII,  109,  232,  XXVIII,  252,  XXX,  159); 
"M^moire  sur  les  anneaux  color^s"  (ibid.,  XXVII. 
423);  "Mtooire  sur  la  reflexion  de  la  chaleur" 
nbid.,  XXX,  276);  "Mdmoires  sur  la  determination 
du  pouvoir  absorbant  des  corps  pour  la  chaleur  rayon- 
nante"  (XXX,  431);  etc. 

Tboobt  in  Comptes'Rendus,  ix,  1250;  M^zifciucs,  ibid, 

H.  M.  Brock. 

Deiatdt,  Pierre-Joseph,  sui^geon  and  anatomist, 
b.  at  Magny-Vemoia  a  small  town  of  Franche-Comt^, 
France,  m  1744;  d.  1  June,  1795.     His  parents  were 

S)or  and  he  received  his  education  from  the  Jesuits, 
e  began  his  studies  for  the  priesthood  but  gave  this 
up  for  the  study  of  medicine.  His  means  not  per- 
mitting him  to  go  to  a  r^;ular  school  of  medicine  he 
became  an  assistant  to  the  barber-surgeon  of  his  na- 
tive village  and  then  took  a  similar  post  at  the  mili- 
tary hospital  of  Belfort.  His  favourite  studies  were 
anatomy  and  mathematics  and  he  applied  mathe- 
matical principles  to  his  anatomical  investigations. 
Borelli  had  done  this  with  excellent  results  and  De- 
sault  translated  Borelli's  "De  Motu  Animalium"  with 
notes  and  illustrations.  He  was  not  yet  twenty  when 
he  went  to  Paris  where,  in  1766,  after  two  years,  he 
opened  a  school  of  anatomy.  So  practical  and  thor- 
ough were  his  methods  of  teaching  that  he  soon  had 
three  hundred  students,  many  of  them  older  than 
himself.  In  order  to  protect  himself  from  professional 
jealousy,  as  he  had  no  degree,  he  opened  his  school 
under  the  name  of  a  man  already  pnvileged  to  teach 
but  whose  name  is  not  now  known.  Teaching  brought 
him  reputation  but  not  much  profit,  and  when  in  1776 
he  was  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Surgeons,  he  was 
allowed  to  pay  his  fees  by  instalments.  In  1782  he 
became  chief  surgeon  to  the  Charity  Hospital  and  not 
long  after  surgeon  to  the  Hdtel-Dieu.  He  was  now 
looked  upon  as  the  mast  prominent  surgeon  in  Paris 


and  founded  a  school  of  clinical 


which  st- 


and rounded  a  scnooi  ot  cimiew  sumiy  wl 
tracted  students  from  all  sides.  In  1793  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  the  revolutionary  authorities  but  after 
three  days  was  liberated  through  the  influence  of  his 
patients.    He  died  from  pneumonia,  the  result  of  ex- 

S)suie  while  attending  tne  Dauphin  in  the  Temple, 
e  wrote  a  treatise  on  surgical  operations  in  three 
volumes;  a  treatise  on  fractures  and  luxations,  edited 
by  Xavier  JBichat,  was  published  after  his  death  and 
was  translated  into  Knglish  in  1805  goins  through 
three  American  editions.  Desault's  contributions  to 
suiigerv  are  contained  in  the  ''Journal  de  Cbiruxgie" 
published  by  himself  and  pupils. 

PcTZT,  Elooe  de  DfauU  (Lyons.  1705):  GufouN,  Dmoputi 
mBvUetin  de  VAoadSmie  de  nMicine  (Pana,  1876). 

James  J.  Wau^. 

DescarteB,  Ren£  (Renatus  Cartesius),  philos- 
opher and  scientist,  b.  at  La  Haye,  France,  31  Mardi, 
1596;  d.  at  Stockholm,  Sweden,  11  Feb.,  1650.  He 
studied  at  the  Jesuit  college  of  La  Fl^he,  one  of  the 
most  famous  schools  of  the  time.  In  1613  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  formed  a  lasting  friendship  with  Father 
Mersenne,  O.  F.  M..  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
mathematician  Mydoi^.  He  afterwards  enlisted  in 
the  armies  of  Maurice  of  Nassau,  and  of  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria.  On  10  November,  1619,  he  felt  a  strong 
impulse  to  set  aside  the  prejudices  of  his  diildhood  and 
of  nis  environment,  and  to  devote  his  life  to  the  res- 
toration of  human  knowledge,  which  was  then  in  a 
state  of  decadence;  and  for  him  this  ntiission  took  on 
ciuite  a  mystical  character.  He  had  a  dream  "v^ich  he 
interpreted  as  a  revelation,  and  he  became  convinced 
that  "it  was  the  Spirit  of  Truth  that  willed  to  open 
for  l)im  all  the  treasures  of  knowledge".    After  much 

i'oumeying  in  Brittany,  Poitou,  Switserhmd,  and 
!taly,  he  returned  to  raris  in  1625.  There  he  re- 
mained for  two  years  during  which  it  was  his  fortune 
to  meet  Cardinal  B^rulle  who  encouraged  him  in  his 
scientific  vocation.  But  as  Paris  offered  neither  the 
peace  nor  the  independence  his  work  demanded,  he  set 
out  in  1629  for  Holland,  and  there  in  the  midst  of  a 
commercial  people  he  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  living 
as  quietly  as  in  a  desert.  From  this  retreat  he  gave  to 
the  world  his  "Discours  de  la  m^thode"  (1637), 
"M^itations"  (1641),  "Principes"  (1644),  and  "Pas- 
sions''(1649).  "Le  Monde"  had  been  completed  in 
1633,  but  the  condenmation  of  Galileo  frightened 
Descartes  who  preferred  to  avoid  all  collision  with 
ecclesiastical  authority.  He  deferred  the  publication 
of  this  clever  work  without,  however,  losing  hope  of 
eventually  bringing  it  out.  In  1649,  yieldins  to  the 
entreaties  of  Queen  Christina,  he  went  to  Sweacn,  and 
died  at  Stockholm  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs. 

Descartes'  work  is  important  rather  because  of  its 
quality  than  of  its  quantity.  Let  us  see  first  of  all 
wherein  his  method  is  new.  He  observed,  as  Bacon 
had  already  done  before  him,  that  there  is  no  question 
on  which  men  agree.  "There  is  nothing^',  ne  says, 
"so  evident  or  so  certain  that  it  may  not  be  contro- 
verted. Whence  then  this  widespread  and  deep- 
rooted  anarchy?  From  the  fact  that  our  inquiries 
are  haphazard  "  (R^es  pour  la  du^ction  de  resprit, 
4*  R6gle).  The  first  problem,  then,  is  to  discover 
a  scientific  method.  How  is  success  in  this  difficult 
task  to  be  assured?  To  begin  witJi,  w;e  must  oeaseto 
rely  on  authority;  and  for  two  principal  reasons.  "In 
whom  can  we  trust'*  when  "there  is  hardly  a  state- 
ment made  by  one  mail,  of  which  the  opposite  is  not 
loudly  supported  by  some  other?"  And  even  "if  «*} 
were  agreed,  the  knowledge  of  their  teaching  would 
not  suffice  us."  "Had  we  by  rote  all  the  aigumcntj 
of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  we  should  not  be  any  tne  more 
philosophers  unless  we  were  able  to  bring  to  bear  oa 
any  given  question  a  solid  jud^ent  of  our  own,  Wj 
should  have  indeed  learned  hStoiy  but  not  mastered 
a  science"  (3®  R(>gle).    Philosophy  presupposcB  W 


DES0ABTE8 


745 


DES0ABTE8 


understanding  of  problems — and  consequently  its 
method  cannot  be  external,  it  must  be  essentially  im- 
manent. The  true  method  is  to  seek  for  reasonable 
evidence  and  the  norm  of  such  evidence  is  to  be  found 
in  the  science  of  mathematics  (Discours  de  la 
m^thode,  2®  partie).  "It  is  not  that  arithmetic  and 
geometry  are  the  only  sciences  to  be  learned,  but  that 
ne  who  would  progress  on  the  road  to  truth  must  not 
delay  over  any  object  about  which  he  cannot  have  a 
certainty  equal  to  that  given  by  arithmetical  and 
geometncal  demonstrations"  (2^  R^e). 

Is  everything,  then,  capable  of  being  known  in  this 
^way,  and  consequently  can  human  knowledge  become 
the  complete  counterpart  of  reality?  Descartes  says 
so  over  and  over  again;  it  is  his  controlling  idea; 
and  he  endeavours  to  prove  it  both  from  the  nature  of 
our  thoiuslit  and  from  the  universal  connexion  of 
thing?.  The  mind  is  equally  intelligent  however  di- 
verse the  objects  it  considers;  and  those  objects  be- 
cause of  their  perfect  enchainment  are  always  equally 
intelligible.  There  is,  therefore,  no  question  "so  far 
removed  from  us  as  to  be  beyond  our  reach  or  so 
deeply  hidden  that  we  cannot  discover  it",  provided 
only  that  we  persevere  and  follow  the  right  method 
(Disc,  de  la  m^th.  2*  partie;  4®  R^le).  Such  is  the 
rationalism  of  Descartes,  surpassing  even  that  of 
Plato,  in  which  imder  the  name  of  "the  Infinite" 
three-fourths  of  reality  remains  for  ever  unknowable. 
How  then  is  this  mathematical  evidence  to  be  ob- 
tained. Two  methods,  dangerous  at  once  and  sterile, 
must  be  avoided.  We  cannot  build  on  the  experience 
of  our  senses ;  "for  they  are  often  deceptive",  and  con- 
sequently need  a  control  which  they  have  not  in  them- 
selves. Bacon  was  misled  on  this  point  (2^  R^le). 
Neither  can  we  adopt  the  syllogistic  method;  for 
this  is  not,  as  was  formerly  thought,  a  means  of  dis- 
covery. It  is  simply  a  process  in  which,  two  terms 
being  given,  we  rnid  by  means  of  a  third  that  the 
former  two  are  linked  together,  i.  e.  that  they  have 
some  common  characteristic.  Now  if  they  have  this 
common  characteristic  it  is  useless  to  seareh  for  it  with 
any  light  other  than  their  own.  Let  them  pass  under 
direct  scrutiny;  let  their  natures  be  studied,  and  in 
time  the  common  trait  will  reveal  itself.  This  is  the 
mind's  straight  road  to  discovery,  passing  on  from  one 
idea  to  another  without  the  aid  of  a  tliird.  The  syllo- 
gism is  of  no  use  until  the  discovery  has  been  made ;  it 
simply  serves  the  purpose  of  exposition  (14®  R^e). 
There  are  ■  but  two  ways  leading  to  mathematical 
evidence:  intuition  and  deduction  (3*  R^le).  Intui- 
tion "is  the  conception  formed  by  an  attentive  mind, 
80  clear  and  distinct  that  it  admits  of  no  doubt:  or, 
what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  it  is  the  clear  con- 
ception of  a  sound  and  attentive  mind,  the  product  of 
unaided  reason"  (3®  Rdgle).  Intuition  is  not,  there- 
fore, perception  by  the  senses — it  is  an  act  of  the 
understandmg  brought  to  bear  on  an  idea.  The 
senses  do  not  supply  the  object  but  merely  the  occa- 
sion. A  movement,  for  instance,  awakens  in  us  the 
idea  of  motion,  and  it  is  that  idea  we  must  regard  as 
the  object  of  intuition.  In  very  simple  matters  in- 
tuition acts  quickly;  thus  "everyone  can  know  in- 
tuitively that  he  exists;  that  a  triangle  is  terminated 
by  three  angles,  neither  more  nor  less,  and  that  a  globe 
has  but  one  surface"  (3®  R^gle;  12®  R^gle;  R^p.  aux 
deux  objections).  In  the  case  of  objects  more  or  less 
complex,  intuition  proceeds  by  way  of  analysis. 
Since  it  deals  with  ideas,  and  ideas  are  but  one  aspect 
of  thought,  everything  must  be  reduced  to  clear  and 
distinct  elements,  to  ultimate  or  "indecomposable" 
parts.  These  ultimate  parts  must  be  inspected  one 
after  another,  until  the  object  is  exhausted,  "  by  pass- 
ing from  those  that  are  easily  known  to  those  that  are 
less  easily  known  "  (6®  R^gle).  In  the  long  run  every- 
thing will  be  spread  out  in  full  light. 

Deduction  is  the  process  in  which  by  a  continuous 
movement  of  thougnt  we  draw  from  a  thing  that  we ' 


certainly  know  the  conclusions  that  of  necessity  flow 
from  it.  This  procedure  may  be  carried  on  in  two 
ways.  "  If,  for  instance,  after  various  calculations  I 
discover  the  relation  between  the  quantities  A  and  B, 
between  B  and  C,  between  C  and  D,  and  lastly  be- 
tween D  and  E,  I  do  not  yet  know  the  relation  be- 
tween A  and  E";  but  I  can  infer  it  by  retracting  the 
several  steps  of  the  series.  This  is  the  first  form  of 
deduction  (7*  Rdgle).  There  is  a  second  form  in 
which,  the  connecting  links  of  the  series  being  too 
numerous  to  enter  the  mental  field  of  vision  all  at  once, 
we  are  content  to  draw  conclusions  from  the  general 
impression  we  have  of  the  series  (7®  R^le).  De- 
duction is  an  intellectual  process,  but  it  differs  from 
intuition  by  bringing  in  memory  as  a  factor.  And 
this  is  noteworthy  in  view  of  the  important  rdle  that 
memory  plays  in  the  Cartesian  explanation  of  certi- 
tude, and  the  d^perate  effort  he  makes  to  defend  this 
Procedure.  From  the  conspicuous  place  that  reason 
olds  in  the  Cartesian  method,  one  might  infer  that 
there  was  no  room  for  experience.  Noting  could  be 
less  true.  For  Descartes,  as  for  Bacon,  the  one  pur- 
pose of  science  is  utility.  He  also  expects  from  it  a 
continual  betterment  of  the  conditions  of  human  life, 
and  his  hopes  in  that  direction  go  very  far,  as,  for  in- 
stance, when  he  says  of  medicine  that  in  the  end  it 
would  procure  us  the  boon  of  immortality  (Disc, 
de  la  m^th.  6®  partie).  And  as  he  who  wills  the  end 
wills  the  means  also,  Descartes  accepts  in  its  entirety 
the  experimental  part  of  the  Baconian  method  Get- 
ter to  Mersenne,  1631).  and  acts  accordingly.  He 
put  himself  in  touch  with  all  the  experimental  work  of 
his  day  (letter,  April,  1632),  ureed  others  to  take  up 
research  (letter  to  Mersenne,  1632),  and  carried  on 
experiments  of  his  own  that  covered  a  wide  range  of 
subjects:  the  weight  of  air  (letter,  2  June,  1631),  the 
laws  of  sound  and  light  (letter,  1633);  the  essential 
differences  between  oils,  spirits,  eaux-de-vie,  common 
waters,  aquafortis,  and  salts.  He  dissected  the 
heads  of  various  animals  to  show  the  workings  of  mem- 
ory and  imagination  (cf,  letters  to  Mersenne,  1633; 
April.  1637;  13  November,  1639;  4  January,  1643, 
ea.  Cfousin,  Paris,  1826).  There  was  hardly  a  fact 
that  escaped  this  apologist  of  Reason  nor  anything 
into  whose  hidden  nature  he  did  not  inquire;  even  the 
"Chasse  de  Pan"  he  followed  with  his  accustomed 
ardour. 

But  if  the  mind,  moving  as  it  does  in  the  realm  of 
intelligible  objects,  have  a  power  of  intuition  sufficient 
to  master  them  all,  why  these  researches?  Are  they 
not  a  hindrance  rather  than  a  help?  Let  deduction 
but  go  on  to  the  end,  and  it  must  assuredly  attain  that 
exhaustive  knowledge  which  is  the  goal  of  investigar 
tion,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  Experiment  helps  rea- 
soning in  more  ways  than  one.  It  supplies  the  fact 
that  calls  forth  in  our  intelligence  the  idea  of  the  prob- 
lem to  be  solved.  That  idea  once  aroused,  the  intelli- 
gence takes  hold  of  it,  and  may  produce  many  others, 
according  to  the  nature  of  which  experience  and  rea- 
son play  reciprocal,  yet  different,  Mea,  The  idea  of  a 
problem  may  be  so  simple  as  to  allow  a  mathematical 
deduction  of  the  properties  of  the  object  in  question, 
and  nothing  more.  In  this  case  experiment  is  called 
in  ordy  by  way  of  illustration,  as  happens,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  study  of  the  laws  of  motion.  (CJf. 
Principes,  2®  partie.)  But  again  the  idea  of  a  prob- 
lem may  be  so  *complex  as  to  suggest  various  hy- 
potheses, since  principles  as  a  rule  are  so  fruitful  that 
we  can  draw  from  them  more  than  we  see  in  the  world 
around  us.  We  must  then  choose  from  among  the 
hypotheses  presented  by  the  intellect  that  which  cor- 
responds most  nearly  to  the  facts:  and  experiment  is 
our  only  resource.  It  acts  as  a  sort  of  guide  to  ra- 
tional deduction.  It  sets  up,  so  to  say,  a  number  of 
sign-posts  which  point  out,  at  the  cross-roads  of  logic, 
the  nght  direction  to  the  world  of  facts.  Finally,  we 
may  oe  confronted  with  two  or  mpre  hypotneses 


DESCARTES 


746 


DESCARTES 


equally  applicable  to  the  known  facts;  observations 
must  then  oc  multiplied  until  we  discover  some  pecu- 
liarity which  determines  our  choice:  and  thus  experi- 
ment becomes  a  real  means  of  verification  (Principes, 
4*  partie).  In  every  case  experiment  is,  as  it  were, 
the  matter,  while  calculation  becomes  the  form.  In 
the  physical  worid  there  is  nothing  but  motion  and 
extension,  nothing  but  quantity.  Everything  can  be 
reduced  to  numerical  proportions,  and  this  reduction 
is  the  final  object  of  science.  To  understand  means 
to  know  in  terms  of  mathematics.  When  tliis  final 
stage  is  reached,  intelligence  and  experience  imite 
in  closest  bonds:  the  intellect  setting  its  seal  on  ex- 
perience and  endowing  it  with  intellidbility. 

Such  is  the  method  of  Descartes.  There  remains  to 
be  seen  w^hat  use  he  makes  of  it.  Recourse  must  be 
had  to  provisional  doubt  as  the  only  means  of  distin- 
guishing the  true  from  the  false  in  the  labyrinth  of 
contradictory  opinions  which  are  held  in  the  schools 
and  in  the  world  at  large.  We  must  needs  imitate 
those  builders  who,  in  order  to  erect  a  lofty  structure, 
begin  by  digging  deep,  so  that  the  foundations  may  be 
laid  on  the  rock  and  solid  ground  (Remarques  sur  les 
7**  objections,  ed.  Charpentier,  Paris;  cf.  Disc,  de  la 
m^*thode,  3®  partie).  And  this  provisional  doubt 
goes  very  deep  indeed.  We  may  reject  the  evidence 
of  the  senses  for  they  are  deceptive,  "  and  it  is  but  the 
part  of  prudence  never  to  trust  absolutely  what  has 
once  deceived  lis"  (1^  Meditation),  We  may  even 
question  whether  tnere  be  "any  earth  or  sky  or 
other  extended  body" ;  for,  supposing  that  nothing  of 
the  sort  exist,  I  can  still  have  the  impression  of  their 
existence  as  1  had  before ;  this  is  plam  from  the  phe- 
nomena of  madness  and  dreams.  What  is  more,  the 
very  simplest  and  clearest  truths  are  not  free  from 
suspicion.  "  How  do  I  know  that  God  has  not  so  ar- 
ranged it  that  I  am  deceived  each  time  I  add  two  and 
three  together,  or  number  the  sides  of  a  square,  or  form 
some  judgment  still  more  simple,  if  indeed  anything 
more  simple  can  be  imagined"  (3®  M^itation). 
What  then  remains  intact?  One  thing  only,  the 
fact  of  my  thought  itself.  But  if  I  think  it  is  because 
I  exist,  for  from  the  one  to  the  other  of  these  terms 
we  pass  by  simple  inspection— Co^ito,  ergo  sum: 
Behold  the  long-sought  rock  on  which  the  edifice  of 
knowledge  must 'be  built  (Disc,  de  la  m^th.,  4® 
partie,  2®  M4d.).  But  how  is  this  to  be  done?  how 
are  we  to  make  our  way  out  of  the  abyss  into  which 
we  have  descended?  By  analysing  the  basic  fact,  i.  e. 
the  content  of  our  thought.  I  obServe  that,  since  my 
thought  gropes  amid  doubt,  I  must  be  imperfect:  and 
this  idea  calls  forth  this  other,  viz.  of  a  being  that  is 
not  imperfect,  and  therefore  is  perfect  and  infinite 
(Disc,  de  la  m^th.,  4®  partie).  Let  us  consider  this 
other  idea.  It  must  necessarily  include  existence, 
otherwise  something  would  be  wanting  to  it;  it  would 
not  be  perfect  or  infinite.  Therefore,  God  exists,  and 
"i  know  no  less  clearly  and  distinctly  that  an  actual 
and  eternal  existence  belongs  to  His  nature  than  I 
know  that  whatever  I  can  demonstrate  of  any  figure 
or  number  belongs  truly  to  the  nature  of  that  figure  or 
number"  (Disc,  de  la m^th.,  4®  partie;  5®  M6dit. ;  R^p. 
aux  premieres  obj.). 

God,  therefore,  is  known  to  us  at  the  outset,  the  mo- 
ment we  take  the  trouble  to  look  into  the  nature  of 
3ur  own  minds;  and  this  is  enough  to  eliminate  the 
hypothesis  of  an  evil  genius  that  would  take  pleasure 
in  deceiving  us;  it  is  enough  also  to  secure  the  validity 
of  all  our  deductions,  whatever  be  their  length,  for  "I 
recognize  that  it  is  impossible  that  He  should  ever  de- 
ceive me,  since  in  all  fraud  and  deceit  there  is  a  certain 
imperfection"  (4®  M^d.).  Otherwise  how  would  this 
idea  of  God  be  anything  more  than  an  idle  fancy?  It 
has  immensity;  it  has  infinity,  and  therefore  it  must 
of  itself  be  capable  of  existing.  Spinoza,  and  after 
him  Hegel,  will  teach  that  the  possible  infolds,  as  it , 
were,  an  essential  tendency  to  existence,  and  that  this 


tendency  is  greater  in  proportion  as  the  possible  is  per- 
fect. It  is  on  this  principle  that  they  will  build  tJicir 
vast  synthetic  systems.  Descartes  anticipates  them 
and  when  closely  pressed  he  replies  just  as  do  these 
later  philosophers.  (R^p.  aux  premieres  objections.) 
It  is  a  fact  worth  noting  with  rdference  to  the  genesis 
of  modem  systems. 

The  presence  in  us  of  this  idea  of  God  must  also  be 
explained;  and  here  we  find  a  new  ray  of  li^t.     The 
objective  reality  of  our  ideas  must  have  some  cause, 
and  this  is  readily  found  when  there  is  question  of 
secondary  qualities;   these  may  be  fflusory  or  they 
may  result  irom  the  imperfection  of  our  nature-     The 
question  also  can  be  solved  without  too  much  diffi> 
culty  when  it  concerns  primary  qualities.     May  not 
these  arise  perchance  from  some  depth  of    my  own 
mental  being  that  is  beyond  the  control  of  my  will? 
But  such  explanations  are  of  no  avail  when  we  try  to 
account  for  the  idea  of  a  being  infinite  and  perfect. 
Imvself  am  limited,  finite;  and  from  the  finite,  turn 
it  about  as  we  may,  we  can  never  derive  the  infinite; 
the  lesser  never  gives  us  the  greater  (3*  M6d.  cf. 
Princ,  7®  partie).    Considered  from  any  and  evoty 
point  of  view,  the  idea  of  God  enlightens  us  as  to  His 
existence.    Whatever  the  manner  of  our  questioning, 
it  gives  us  always  from  the  depth  of  its  fulness  the  one 
reply,  Ego  sum  qui  sum.    Since  then  the  veracity  of 
God   Himself  guarantees  our  faculties  in  their  nat- 
ural exercise,  we  may  go  forward  in  our  inquiry; 
and  the  first  question  that  meets  us  concerns  the  sub- 
ject in  which  the  process  of  thought  takes  place,  i.e. 
the  soul.  Understanding,  conceiving,  doubting,  affirm- 
ing,  denying,   willing,   refusing,   imagining,    feeling, 
desiring — these  are  the  activities  of  what  I  call  my 
soul.    Now  all  these  activities  have  one  common 
quality:  they  cannot  take  place  without  thought  or 
perception,    without    consciousness    or    knowIe<lge. 
Thought  then  is  the  essential  attribute  of  the  soul. 
The  soul  is  "a  thing  that  thinks"  (2«  M6d.;  Princ, 
1**  partie),  and  it  is  nothing  else.    There  is  no  sub- 
stratum underlying  and  supporting  its  various  states ; 
its  whole  being  issues  in  each  of  its  activities ;  thought 
and  soul  are  equivalent  (12®  R^le). 

Is  thought,  then,  always  in  some  mode  of  acti\ity7 
Descartes  leans  to  the  belief  that  it  is.  '*.l  exist",  he 
says,  "but  for  how  lone?  Just  as  long  as  i  am  think- 
ing; for  perhaps  if  I  should  wholly  cease  to  think,  I 
should  at  the  same  time  altogether  cease  to  be  *'  (2* 
M6d.).  It  is  only  with  reluctance  and  under  the  pres- 
sure of  objections  that  he  concedes  to  the  soul  a  sim- 
ple potentia  or  power  of  thinking  (5«  Obj.);  and, 
as  may  be  easily  seen,  the  concession  is  quite  illogicaL 
TTiought,  though  in  itself  a  unitary  process,  takes  on 
different  forms;  it  begins  with  confused  ideas  or  per- 
ceptions which  require  the  co-operation  of  the  body; 
such  are  the  feelings  of  pleasure  and  pain,  sensations, 
imagination,  and  local  memory.  Then  the  soul  has 
clear  and  distinct  ideas,  which  it  begets  and  develops 
within  itself  as  immanent  activities.  Under  this  head 
come  the  ideas  of  substance,  duration,  number,  order, 
extension,  figiune,  motion,  thought,  intelligence,  and 
will  (6«Mdd.;  Princ,  I). 

These  clear  and  distinct  notions  constitute  of 
themselves  the  object  of  the  understanding,  and  one 
may  say  that  they  are  all  involved  in  the  idea  of  per- 
fect being.  Whether  I  understand ,  or  pass  j udgment , 
or  reason,  it  is  always  that  idea  which  l  perceive  ;and 
my  understanding  could  have  no  other  object,  seeing 
that  its  sphere  of  action  is  always  the  infinite,  the  eter- 
nal and  the  necessary.  To  advance  in  knowledge  is  to 
progress  in  the  knowledge  of  God  Himself.  (R6p. 
aux  2®*  obj,)  But  thought  has  another  dominant 
form,  viz.  freedom.  For  Descartes  this  function  of 
the  mind  is  a  fact  •'of  which  reason  can  never  con- 
vince us",  but  one  which  "we  experience  in  our- 
selves", and  this  fact  is  so  evident  "that  it  may  be  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  generally  known  ideas"  (R^p> 


OKSOAftTtt 


747 


DS80ART1S 


II.UX  3^  obj.;  R6p.  aux  5*  obj.;  Princ,  l"  partic). 
Not  only  is  this  freedom  a  primordial  and  undeni- 
able datmn  of  consciousneas:  it  is,  in  a  way,  infinite 
like  God,  ''since  there  is  no  object  to  which  it  cannot 
turn ' '.  (4*  M6d. ;  Princ. ,  1"  partie.)  It  does  not  creep 
round  in  a  sort  of  semi-ignorance,  as  6t.  Thomas 
Aquinas  holds,  but  it  grows  as  the  influencing  mo* 
lives  become  clearer;  indifference  is  bat  its  lowest 
stage  (letter  to  Meraenne,  20  May,  1630).  The 
part  it  plays  in  our  lives  is  considerable:  it  enters 
into  each  of  our  judgments,  and  it  is  ihe  formal 
cause  of  all  our  errors.  It  makes  itself  felt  in  every 
part  of  our  oiganism,  and  through  this  it  influences 
the  external  world.  Nevertheless,  the  siun  total  of 
motion  in  the  world  is  always  constant;  for  while 
our  wills  may  change  the 
direction  of  movement 
they  danot  affect  Its  quan- 
tity. (Letter  to  Regius.) 
Confronting  the  soul  is 
the  external  world:  bat  the 
soul  does  not  see  it  as  it 
really  is.  Heat^  odour, 
taste,  li^t,  sound,  resist- 
ance, weight  are  qualities 
which  we  attribute  to 
bodies  but  which  are  really 
in  ourselves,  since  we  only 
conceive  them  in  relation 
to  ourselves.  In  reality 
there  is  nothing  in  the 
physical  world  but  motion 
and  extension.  Motion 
imitates  as  far  as  possible 
the  immutability  of  God 
who  is  its  first  cause; 
hence  its  principal  laws, 
viz.  that  the  sum  of  mo- 
tion in  the  world  is  always 
constant;  that  a  body  will 
continue  in  its  actual  state 
unless  disturbed  by  some 
other  body  outside  itself; 
that  "once  a  body  is  in 
motion  we  have  no  reason 
for  thinking  its  present 
velocity  wm  ever  cease 
provided  it  impinges  on 
no  other  body  which  would 
slacken  or  destroy  its  mo- 
tion". All  movement  is 
primarily  rectilinear  (on  this  point  Aristotle  was 
mistaken).  When  two  bodies  moving  in  different 
directions  collide,  a  change  takes  place  m  their  direc- 
tions, but  "such  change  is  always  the  least  possible". 
When  two  moving  bodies  impinge  on  each  other,  one 
cannot  transmit  any  motion  to  the  other  without  los- 
ing what  it  transmits  (Princ,  2*  partie).  Extension 
is  not  infinite  in  duration  but  it  is  infinite  in  space. 
"It  seems  to  me  that  one  cannot  prove  or  even  con- 
ceive that  there  are  limits  to  the  matter  of  which  the 
world  is  composed,  for  I  find'it  is  composed  of  nothing 
but  extension  in  length,  breadth,  and  depth.  So  that 
whatever  possesses  these  three  dimensions  is  a  portion 
of  such  matter":  and  however  far  back  in  imagination 
we  push  the  limits  of  space  we  still  find  these  three 
dimensions;  they  are  bounded  by  no  limits  (letter  to 
CJhanut;  letter  to  Marus).  Extension  is  therefore 
one  block,  continuous  from  end  to  end;  and  this 
proves  at  the  same  time  that  thei«  is  no  such  thing  as 
a  vacuum,  either  in  bodies  or  between  them.  More- 
over, extension  is  divisible  ad  infinitum,  sincfe  the 
divided  particles,  however  small,  are  still  extended. 
It  is  everywhere  homogeneous,  since  it  is  made  up  of 
spatial  dimensions  only,  and  these  of  themselves  give 
nse  to  no  qualitative  differences.  And  this  brilliant 
idea  BUggested  to  Descartes  many  hvpotheses  that 


Rxst  Dkscabtbs — Frank  Hals 


were  to  prove  fruitful.  In  his  view  the  matter  of  the 
earth  and  of  the  stars  was  the  same;  and  spectrum 
analysis  subsequently  proved  that  he  was  correct.  He 
held  that  the  primordial  state  of  the  stm  and  planets 
was  nebulous,  that  under  the  influence  of  a  cpolins 
process  the  heavenly  bodies  formed  their  crusts,  and 
to  dianges  in  these  crusts  is  due  the  variation  in  biil- 
lianoe  ch  the  stars  and  the  emergence  of  the  conti- 
nents on  our  earth.  (Cf.  Traits  du  Monde;  Princ,  3* 
and  4^  p.)  It  does  not  follow  that  the  world  is  self- 
sufficient;  but  the  finality,  of  which  so  much  is  said, 
leads  to  nothing.  God  gave  matter  a  first  impulse 
and  the  rest  followed  in  the  oourse  of  nature's  laws. 
"  Even  if  the  chaos  of  the  poets  be  granted,  one  could 
always  show  that,  thanks  to  the  laws  of  nature,  this 
confusion  would  eventu- 
ally work  itself  out  to  our 
present  order";  the  laws 
of  nature  being  such  that 
"matter  is  constrained  to 
pass  through  all  the  forms 
of  which  it  is  capable". 

The  older  Descartes 
grew,  the  more  he  busied 
himself  with  morals,  and 
his  aim  was  to  end  up  with 
a  treatise  on  ethics.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  we  have 
his  treatise  on  the  passions, 
and  a  few  brief  disquisi- 
tions scattered  among  his 
letters  to  Chanut  and  to 
the  Princess  Elizabeth. 
The  passions  are  percep- 
tions generated  and  nur- 
tured in  the  soul  "through 
the  medium  of  the  nerves  " 
(Passions,  l"*  partie,  art. 
3-22).  iTie  nerves  are 
bundles  of  fine  threads: 
these  threads  contain  the 
anim^  spirits  which  are 
the  subtlest  parts  of  the 
blood:  and  thev  all  meet 
at  the  pineal  diand  which 
IB  the  seat  of  the  soul. 
By  means  of  thia  mechan- 
ietm  the  thinking  subjeet 
receives  impressions  from 
the  world  without,  per- 
ceives them,  and  trans- 
forms them  into  passions  (Pass.j  1»  p.,  art.  31).  ^d 
though  our  organism  thus  contains  the  cause  of  our 
passions,  it  \b  not  their  subject  either  entirely  orpaiv 
tially ;  on  this  point  also  Aristotle  was  mistaken.  There 
are  perceptions  arising  from  the  bcidjr  and  loccdizing 
themselves  In  one  or  other  portion  of  it — such  as  hun- 
ger, thirst,  pain — ^but  the  passions  are  different.  They 
originate  in  the  body,  but  belong  to  the  soul  alone ;  they 
are  purely  psychotogical  facts  (Passions,  1"  p.,  art.  25). 
There  are  ds  many  passions  as  there  are  ways  in  which 
objects  capable  of  affecting  our  senses  may  be  hurtful 
or  profitable  to  us.  The  primary  passions  to  which 
all  others  may  be  reduced  are  the  six  following:  ad- 
miration or  surprise,  produced  by  an  object  as  to 
which  we  are  as  yet  ignorant  whether  it  is  useful  or' 
hurtful ;  love  and  hate,  caused  by  the  impression  pro- 
duced on  our  organs  of  sense  by  objects  which  are 
already  known  to  us  as  beneficial  or  harmful;  desire, 
which  is  but  the  love  or  the  hate  we  bear  an  object 
considered  as  future;  joy  and  sadness,  which  result 
from  the  presence  of  an  object  that  is  loved  or  hated 
(Passions,  2®  partie,  art.  52).  Perhaps  on  the  whole 
St.  Thomas  and  Bossuet  will  be  found  to  have  sup- 

fiassed  Descartes,  by  reducing  all  the  passions  to  love, 
n  the  Cartesian  teaching  the  passions  are  good  hi 
themselves,  but  they  must  be  kept  in  subjection  to  thcf 


DSaOBABIPS 


748 


DBSBOftAnON 


law  of  moral  order.  What  this  law  is  he  does  not 
clearly  indicate ;  he  ^ves  only  some  scattered  precepts 
in  which  one  may  discern  a  noble  effort  to  build  up  a 
Stoico-Christian  system  of  ethics. 

The  foregoing  account  may  perhaps  give  the  im- 
pression that  D^cartes  was  a  gjee&t  savant  rather  than 
a  ereat  philosopher;  but  the  significance  of  his  scien- 
tific work  shomd  be  properhr  understood.  What  re- 
mains of  value  is  not  so  much  his  theories,  but  the  im- 
petus given  by  his  genius,  his  method,  his  discoveries. 
His  quantitative  conception  of  the  world  is  being 
gradually  abandoned,  and  to-day  men's  minds  are 
turning  to  a  philosophy  of  natiu^  wherein  quality 
plays  a  controlling  part  (Duhem,  L'^volution  de  la 
m^anique,  Paris,  1905,  p.  197). 

The  principal  editions  of  his  collected  works  are: 
"Opera  Omnia*'  (Amsterdam,  1670-1683  and  1692- 
1701);  "(Euvres  Completes"  (Paris,  1724);  Victor 
Cousin's  edition  (Paris,  1824-1826) ;  and  the  edition 
bv  Adam  and  Tanneiy  (Paris,  1896).  Among  the 
EiUglish  translations  may  be  mentioned:  "MeSod" 
•  and  "Meditations",  by  Veitch  (London,  1850-53, 
New  York,  1899);  "Meditations",  by  Lowndes  (Lon- 
don. 1878);  "Extracts",  by  Torroy  rX^w  York,  1892). 

Oi  the  earlier  biograDhies  the  mont  ifii^joriarit  in  that  by 
Baiixet.  La  Vie  de  M.  Deeoarttn  {Ynnn,  imn}\  H,  Thoitverfz, 
in  Annalee  de  Phil.  ChrH.  (^'^W^;  bnef^r  sLclchcrt  with  aum- 
mariee  of  hia  phikMoi>hy  are  ^i^'ui  in  BoL^iuunft,  Uuitoirv  dti  la 

ghiloeophie  oartiaienne  (PAtia,  i^'>4;  Sr-i  ed..  ima);  F'ibcheji, 
eeeh.  d.  neuem  PhiLJAth  ed..  lltiJeltierg,  lMf>7j,  J;  Fouill^f, 
Deaeartea  (Paris,  1803).  Set^  &]so  the  follo*m(t  es^tnya  and 
monographs:  Rhodes,  A  Vit^e  ol  tht  l^hilonQpku  ^f  Orj/canta. 
in  Jour,  of  Spec.  PhtL  (1881),  XVII-  Mahafft,  D(rjfdiriM 
(Edinburxh  and  London,  188ft):  Gakguli^  Dr^rsaTU^t:  an  Out- 
line of  Hie  PhUoeophy  (Bonrjhav,  1900);  Bain,  .yfraning  of 
Exiatenee  and  DeeearUa*  Cogitv  in  .%fi7td  il^;77>;  Cmirb^k  Thr 
ReguUa  of  Deaeartea  (Mind,  1S98X'  Bow£.n.  Dtmoariea  in  N&nh 
American  Review.  Lvl;  Diaeourae  on  Method  in  The  DiUUin 
Review,  XXXVIII,  169;  The  Philoaophy  of  Deaeartea  in  Brown- 
aon*a  Quarterly  Review,  XXIII.  338;  Mkrcieb.  La  nayehtiogie 
de  Deaeartea  in  Rev.  N6o-^Seolaatique  (180097.  'Ss);  Von 
Hertlino,  Deaeartea'  Beziehung  zur  Saiolaatik  in  Sitaunoeber. 
d.  kgl.  hauer.  Ah,  d.  W,  (Munich,  1898-00):  Ludewiq,  Sub- 
atanethaona  b,  Cari.  in  Phil.  Jahrbueh  (Fulda,  1803);  (3aibd, 
Eaaaya  on  Literature  and  Philoaophy  (Glasgow,  1802)*  Cun- 
NiNOHAif,  The  hifluenoe  of  Deaeartea  on  Metaphyaieal  Specula' 
tion  m  BngUmd  (London,  1876);  Ikons,  Deaeartea  and  Modem 
Theoriea  of  Emotion  in  PhU.  Review.,  Iv,  1805.  For  the  rela- 
tionship between  Descartes  and  Newton:  Papilxx)n,  Newton 
conaidM  eomme  diaeijale  de  Deaeartea  in  Comptea-Rendua  dea 
Seieneea  Moralea  el  Potitiauea,  XCIX;  Pauuan.  TraiU  da  paix 
entre  Deaeartea  el  Newton  (Avignon,  1763);  see  also  monograi:^ 
published  in  Revue  de  MHaph.  ei  de  Morale  (1806),  in  commemo- 
ration of  Descartes'  thirdf  centenary.  For  extended  bibliog- 
raphv,  see  Ubbbkwbo-Heinsk,  Oeaai  d.  PhUoa.  (0th  ed.,  Berlin, 
lOOl),  III,  and  Baldwin,  Dtctionary  of  Philoaophy  and  Pay- 
ehalogy. 

Clodius  Piat. 

DeschampB,  Eustachb,  also  called  Morel  on  ac- 
count ot  his  dark  complexion,  b.  at  Vertus  in  Cham^ 
pagne  between  1338  and  1340;  d.  about  1410.  After 
naving  finished  his  classical  studies  at  the  episcopal 
school  of  Reims,  under  the  poet  Guillaume  de  Ma- 
chault,  who  was  a  canon  of  Heims,  he  studied  law 
at  the  University  of  Orleans.  He  then  travelled  for 
some  time  as  the  kine's  messenger  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt  j  in  the  last 
country,  it  is  said,  he  was  made  a  slave.  On  his  re- 
turn to  France  he  was  appointed  gentleman-usher  by 
Charles  \^  and  was  connrmed  in  this  position  by 
Charles  VI,  whom  he  accompanied  in  that  capacity 
on  various  campaigns  in  Flanders.  In  1381  Knig 
Charles  VI  made  him  governor  of  the  town  of  Fismes, 
and  in  1388  bailiff  of  Senlis;  at  a  later  date  he  lost  the 
position  of  bailiff,  together  with  his  pension  and  his 
office  at  court.  Deschamps  was  a  poet  of  no  little 
merit.  His  niunerous  poems,  ballads,  rondels,  lays, 
and  virelays  are  full  of  valuable  information  concern- 
ing the  political  and  moral  history  of  his  time.  He 
was  an  honest,  religious  man,  and  although  a  courtier 
was  also  a  moralist  who  did  not  hesitate  to  condemn 
the  injustice  and  wrongs  that  he  had  seen  and  expe- 
rienced. His  style  is  somewhat  heavy,  but  it  is  vigor- 
ous and  not  lacking  in  grace. 


Sarradin,  Etude  aur  Eualaehe  Deachampa  (Paris,  1870); 
Petit  de  Julleviixe.  Hiatoira  de  la  langue  ei  de  la  liUirtUw 
franeaiaea  (Paris,  1804),  II;  De  Qceitx  and  Raynaitd,  €Sttvrc 
eomplitea  <f  Eualaehe  Deachampa  (Faiis,  1878-1801). 

Louis  N.  Delamabrs. 

DeBchampB,  Nicolas,  polemical  writer,  bom  at 
Villefranche  (Rh6ne),  France,  1797;  died  at  Aix-en- 
Provenoe,  1872.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jeeus  in 
1826;  taught  literature  and  rhetoric  in  several  col- 
leges and  wrote  extensively.  Apart  from  a  few  didac- 
tic and  devotional  books  like  '^Cours  ^^mentaiiT:. 
de  litt^rature'^  (Avignon,  1860)  and  '^Les  fleurs  de 
Marie''  (Paris,  1863),  his  works  are  largely  polemical 
and  bear  on  all  the  burning  questions  o(  his  day,  the 
monopoly  of  the  University  of  France,  the  state  fac- 
ulties of  theology,  the  Orauuc  Articles,  the  liberty  o' 
association.  Communism,  raganism  in  education,  etc. 
The  most  important  is  imdoubtedly  "Lee  Soci^t^ 
aeordtes''  published  after  the  auiJior's  death  (Avi- 
gnon. 1874-1876),  re-edited  and  brought  up  to  d^te 
by  Claudio  Janet  (Paris,  188G  and  1881).  Desc^iamps 
sees  in  European  Freemasonry,  whose  origin  he  traces 
back  to  Maniclueism,  a  bandrui  force  working,  under 
the  cover  of  philaiithropv,  not  only  against  religion 
but  also  against  the  social  order,  patriotism  and  ever 
morality.  If  his  conclusions  are  severe,  they  are  not 
advanced  at  random  but  are  supported  by  numerous 
facts  and  grave  authorities. 

SoMMBRVooEL.  Btbl.  delae.de  J.,  II.  1056;  Janet,  introd.  to 
his  edition  of  Lea  SociiUa  aeerHea.  See  also  Polybibium  (1874 
and  1876). 

J.  F.  Sollhir. 

DeBecration,  the  loss  of  that  peculiar  quality  of 
sacredness,  which  inheres  in  places  and  things  in  vir^ 
tue  of  the  constitutive  blessing  of  the  Churdi.     When 
material  objects  are  destined  for  purposes  of  Divine 
worship  they  are  set  aside  witji  a  view  to  this  end  by 
the  solemn  form  of  consecration  or  by  the  simpler 
formula  of  a  blessing,  so  that  they  assume  a  sacred 
and  inviolable  character  which  renders  unlawful  their 
employment  for  profane  uses.    Now  when  they  lose 
this  stamp  or  chfiu;acter  of  sacredness  they  are  said  to 
become  desecrated.    As  a  general  principle  it  mav  be 
set  down  that  places  and  things,  whicn  have  been 
cither  consecrated  or  blessed,  retain  their  consecration 
and  blessing  so  long  as  they  remain,  morally  speaking, 
the  same  as  they  were  in  the  bednning,  and  conse- 
quently, so  long  as  they  continue  nt  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  were  originally  destined.     Tlie 
opinion  was  formerly  held  by  some  that  sacred  uten- 
sus,  such  as  chalices,  which  are  anointed  with  holy  oil 
should,  before  bein^  sent  to  a  mechanic  for  repairs, 
be  deprived  of  their  sacred  character  by  a  special 
ceremony  of  desecration.    This  view  was  condemned 
by  the  Congregation  of  Rites  (n.  2620,  ed.  1900). 
Such  a  ceremony  is  entirely  superfluous.     For  if  a 
sacred  utensil  becomes  broken  and  unfit  for  use  it 
thereby  loses  its  consecration ;  while  if  it  is  still  fit  for 
use  but  requires  regilding,  no  ceremony  could^  dese- 
crate it.     In  this  instance  permission,  express  or  im- 
plied, should  be  obtained  from  the  ordinary  to  hand 
it  over  to  a  mechanic  for  repairs  (cf .  Gardellini,  Com- 
mentary on  Decrees  of  C.  S.  R.,  225).    Should  conse- 
crated vessels  become  altogether  unfit  for  altar  use, 
they  may  be  melted  down  and  devoted  to  profane 
uses.    But  vestments,  altar  cloths  and  linens  must, 
in  similar  circumstances,  be  destroyed,  because  they 
retain  the  form  under  which  they  were  originally 
blessed  (cf.  Gardellini,  loc  cit). 

The  word  desecration  is  commonly  used  in  regard 
to  churches,  altars,  chalices,  etc.  Q)  A  church  bees 
its  consecration  or  blessing  when  tne  building  is  de- 
stroyed either  wholly  or  in  greater  part,  or  when  an 
addition  is  made  to  it  of  larger  extent  than  the  original 
edifice.  It  does  not  become  desecrated:  (a)  if  a  por- 
tion of  the  walls  and  roof  falls  in,  provided  the  main 


DBSBRT 


749 


DX8EBT 


13ortion  standSi  or  (b)  if  all  the  interior  plastering  be- 
comes detached,  or  (p)  if  all  the  crosses  disappear,  or 
Cd)  if  all  the  waUs  are  gradually  renewed,  provided  on 
each  occasion  the  old  part  is  greater  than  the  new,  or 
Ce)  if  converted  for  a  while  to  profane  uses,  provided 
it  is  not  polluted  (cf.  Many,  De  Locis  Sacris).  (2)  An 
aJtar  (fixed)  loses  its  consecration:  (a)  by  a  notable 
fracture  of  table  or  its  support;  as,  for  instance,  if  the 
.table  were  broken  into  two  laige  pieces,  or  if  an 
anointed  comer  were  broken  off,  or  if  the  support  were 
seriously  impaired,  or  if  one  of  the  columns  were  dis- 
placed; (b)  by  removal  of  the  table  from  its  support, 
'  BO  as  to  disjomt  them;  (c)  by  displacing  the  reacs,  or 
cover  of  the  sepulchre  (ct.  Schulte,  Consecranda,  p. 
222).  (3)  An  altar-stone  loses  its  consecration:  (a)  by 
removal  of  the  relics:  (b)  by  fracture  or  removal  of 
the  cover  of  the  sepulchre;  (c)  by  a  notable  fracture 
of  the  stone;  (d)  by  break^e  of  the  anointed  comer 
of  stone.  (4)  As  to  the  chalice  and  paten,  see  Altab, 
imder  subtitle  Lobs  of  Consecration, 

DeenUdiumt  III,  Tit.,  xl,  xlviii;  Wkrnz,  Jum  DecreUdium 
Glome.  1001),  Tit.,  xvii:  Many,  De  LociM  Saeria  (Fhiia,  1004); 
Scsui/rx,  ConMcranda  (New  York,  1907). 

Patrick  Morrisroe. 

Desert  (in  the  bible). — ^The  Hebrew  words  trans- 
lated in  the  Douay  Version  of  the  Bible  by  "desert"  or 
"wilderness",  and  usually  rendered  by  the  Vulgate 
desertunif  "solitude",  or  occasionally  eremus,  have  not 
the  same  shade  of  meaning  as  the  English  word 
desert.  The  word  wildemesSf  which  is  more  frequently 
used  than  desert  of  the  region  of  the  Exodus,  more 
neaiiy  approaches  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew,  though 
not  quite  expressing  it.  When  we  speak  of  the  desert 
our  thoughts  are  naturally  borne  to  such  places  as  the 
Sahara,  a  great  sandy  waste,  incapable  of  v^etation, 
impossible  as  a  dwelling-plaoe  for  men,  and  where  no 
human  being  is  found  except  when  hurrying  through 
as  quickly  as  he  can.  No  such  ideas  are  attached  to 
the  Hebrew  words  for  desert.  Four  words  are  chiefly 
used  in  Hebrew  to  express  the  idea:  (1)  "^TtO  (midbOr), 
the  more  general  word.  It  is  from  the  root  "^T] 
[ddbOr,  "to  lead"  (cattle  to  pasture);  cf.  German 
Trift  from  treiben].  Hence  rmdbOr  among  its  other 
meanings  haa  that  of  tracts  of  pasturaee  for  flocks. 
So  Joel,  ii,  22 :  "  The  beautiful  places  of  tne  wilderness 
are  sprang  * ',  or  literaUy :  "  The  pastiues  of  the  wilder- 
ness shoot  forth  ".  So,  too,  the  desert  was  not  neces- 
sarily uninhabited.  Tiius  (Is.,  idii,  11)  we  read:  "Let 
the  desert  (midbOr)  and  the  cities  thereof  be  ex- 
alted: Cedar  shall  dwell  in  houses",  or  rather,  "the 
villages  that  Cedar  doth  inhabit".  Not  that  there 
were  towns  in  the  desert  occupied  by  a  stable  pppular 
tion.  The  inhabitants  were  mostly  nomads.  For  the 
desert  was  not  a  place  regularly  cultivated  like  the 
fields  and  gardens  of  ordinaiy  civilized  districts. 
Rather,  it  was  a  region  in  which  was  to  be  found  pas- 
turage, not  rich,  but  sufficient  for  sheep  and  goats, 
and  more  abundant  after  the  rainy  season.  The  des- 
ert, too,  was  looked  upon  as  the  abode  of  wild  beasts 
— ^Iions  (EccIbs.,  xiii,  23),  wild  asses  (Job,  xxiv,  5), 
jackals  (Mai.,  i,  3),  etc.  It  was  not  fertilized  by 
streams  of  water,  but  spring?  were  to  be  found  there 
(Gen.,  xvi,  7),  and  in  places  cisterns  to  collect  the 
rainfall.  MiiB>(tr  is  the  word  generally  used  in  the 
Pentateuch  for  the  desert  of  the  Exodus ;  but  of  the 
regions  of  the  Exodus  various  districts  are  distinguished 
as  the  desert  of  Sin  (Ex.,  xvi,  1),  the  desert  of  Sinai 
(Ex.,  xix,  1),  the  desert  of  Sur  (Ex.,  xv,  22),  the 
desert  of  Sin  («n)  (Num.,  xiii,  22),  etc.  Moreover, 
it  is  used  of  other  districts,  as  in  Western  Palestine  of 
the  wilderness  of  Juda  (Judges,  i,  16),  and  again  in  the 
east  of  the  desert  of  Moab  (Deut..  ii,  8). 

(2)  nany  {'arObah),  derived  from  the  root  3"^^, 
'Or&by  "to  be  arid",  is  another  word  for  desert,  which 
seems  to  express  more  than  one  of  its  natural  charac- 
teristics. The  word  means  a  steppe,  a  desert  plain; 
and  it  conveys  the  idea  of  a  stretcn  of  country,  arid, 


unproductive,  and  desolate.  In  poetic  passascs  it  is 
used  in  parallelism  with  the  wora  midbiir.  TtxuB  Is., 
XXXV,  1:  "The  land  that  was  desolate  [midbQ^]  and 
impassable  shall  be  dad,  and  the  wilderness  \^drdbdh] 
shall  rejoice";  cf.  also  Jer.,  xvii,  6,  etc.  Although 
the  Septuagint  frequently  renders  the  word  by  dfinfun, 
it  often  uses  other  translations,  as  yij  hiyjfiava  and  IXot . 
The  Vulgate  employs  the  words  soUhAdOf-desertum, 
Very  frequently  the  word  *ar(ibdh  has  a  mere  geo- 
graphical sense.  Thus  it  refers  to  the  strange  de- 
pression extending  from  the  base  of  Moimt  Hermon, 
through  the  Jordiui  Valley  and  the  Dead^ea.  to  the 
Gulf  of  Akabah.  So,  too,  there  are  the  Arbotn  Moab 
(Num.,  xxii,  1),  the  Arboth  Jericho  (Jos.,  iv,  13),  etc., 
referring  to  the  desolate  districts  connected  with  these 
places. 

(3)  Pann  OwrbSh\  derived  from  the  root  3in, 
^"^15,  "to  lie  waste",  is  translated  in  the  Septuagint 
by  the  words  tpriiiot,  ifHjfuaffis,  ipijfda.  In  the  Vul^te 
are  foimd  the  renderings  ruina,  solUudOf  deaoCatio, 
A  strange  translation  occurs  in  Ps.  ci,  7.  The  word  in 
the  Greek  is  otKor49ow  and  in  the  Vulgate  dmrneilium; 
and  the  passage  in  which  the  word  occurs  is  rendered 
in  tiie  Douay  version:  "I  am  like  a  night  raven  in  the 
house**,  St.  Jerome,  however,  in  his  translation  of 
the  Ptolm  direct  from  the  Hebrew  emplovs  the  word 
solUvdinum,  which  seems  more  correct:  "I  am  like  a 
night  raven  of  the  wastes".  The  lexicon  of  Gesenius 
gives  as  the  first  meanine  of  horbOhf  "dryness";  then 
as  a  second  meaning,  "a  desolation",  "ruins".  A 
combination  of  tiiese  senses  seems  to  nave  been  the 
reason  why  in  the  poetical  books  the  word  is  used  of 
the  wilderness.  The  word  convevs  the  idea  of  ruin  or 
desolation  caused  by  hostile  lands,  as  when  God  savs 
to  Jerusalem  (Ez.,  v,  14) :  "  I  will  make  thee  desolaUr'; 
or  when  the  Psalmist,  referring  to  the  punishment 
inflicted  by  Jehovah,  says  (Ps.,  ix,  7):  ''The  enemy 
are  consumed,  left  desolate  for  ever". 

(4)  po^B^  Qeshimon),  derived  from  DK^,  jd^Utm.  "to 
be  desolate".  It  was  looked  upon  as  a  place  without 
water,  thus  Is.,  xliii^  19:  "Behold  I  shall  set  up 
streams  in  the  desert  \jeshimon] ".  It  was  a  waste,  a 
wilderness.  In  poetical  passa^  it  is  us^  as  a  paral- 
lel to  midbar,  d,  Deut.,  xxxii,  10:  Pis.,  Ixxviii,  40 
(Heb.) :  "  How  often  did  ye  provoke  nim  in  the  wilder- 
ness [midbSr]f  and  grieve  him  in  the  desert  (/es^i- 
mon]V'  Frequently  it  is  used  of  the  wilderness  of  the 
Exodus.  Besides  such  uses  of  the  word,  it  seems 
when  used  with  the  article  often  to  have  assumed  the 
force  of  a  proper  name.  In  such  cases  it  refers  at 
times  to  the  wudemess  of  the  Exodus  (cf.  Ps.,  Ixxviii, 
40;  cvi,  14 — ^Heb.;  etc.).  Parts  of  the  waste  region 
about  the  Dead  Sea  are  called  the  jeahimon;  and  to 
the  north-east  of  the  same  sea  there  is  a  place  called 
BethrJeskimoih  (cf.  Nmn.,  xxxiii,  49),  where  the  Is- 
raelites are  said  to  have  encamped  at  the  end  of  the 
wanderings.  These  are  the  principal  words  used  for 
desert  in  the  Bible.  There  are,  however,  others  less 
frequently  used,  only  one  or  two  of  which  can  be  men- 
tioned here:  such  as  inn  (ioku)^  used  in  Gen.,  i,  2: 
"the  earth  was  void**.  In  Deut.,  xxxii,  10,  it  is  used 
in  parallelism  with  midbOTf  and  in  Pis.  cvii,  40  it  refers 
to  the  desert  directly.  Such  also  is  rpv  (pt^AA),  which 
means,  literally,  dmiess,  but  refers  at  times  to  the 
desert:  so,  mf  yiK  QOre^eiyylih),  "aland  of  drought", 
or  "a  desert"  (Osee,  ii,  5). 

A  word  may  be  said  here  concerning  the  chief 
deserts  referred  to  in  the  Bible.  Perhaps  the  most 
interesting  is  that  of  Exodus.  In  the  Pentateuch  this 
tract  is  treated  as  a  whole  as  "the  desert",  but.  as  a 
rule,  special  parts  of  it  are  referred  to,  as  the  desert 
of  Sin,  the  aesert  of  Sinai,  the  desert  of  Cades,  the 
desert  of  Pharan,  etc.  Books  have  been  written  to 
discuss  the  geography  of  this  r^on.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  it  comprises  the  ground  over  which  the  Is- 
raelites travelled  from  their  crossing  of  the  Red  Sea  till 
their  arrival  in  the  Promised  Land.    We  do  not  enter 


DX8SBTI0R 


750 


DUHOR 


into  the  question  raised  by  modem  critics  as  to 
whether  the  geography  of  the  Exodus  had  different 
meanings  in  different  parts  of  the  Pentateuch.  The 
desert  of  Juda,  too,  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
Bible.  It  lies  to  the  west  of  the  ^arabdh,  the  Jordan, 
and  the  Dead  Sea.  To  it  belong  the  deserts  of  En- 
gaddi,  that  of  Thecua,  and  that  of  Jericho,  near  the 
city  of  the  same  name.  To  the  east  of  Palestine  are 
the  deserts  of  Arabia,  Moab,  and  the  desert  of  Idumea, 
near  the  Dead  Sea.  We  are  told  (Ex.,  iii,  1)  that 
Moses  fed  the  flocks  of  Jethro,  and  led  them  to  the 
interior  parts  of  the  desert.  This  desert  was  in  the 
land  of  Madian,  close  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  in  it  was 
Mount  Horeb,  which  St.  Jerome  sa^  was  the  same 
as  Sinai.  The  desert  to  which  David  fled  from  Saul 
(cf.  I  Kings,  xxiii,  14)  was  the  desert  of  Ziph,  which 
lie»  south  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  Hebron.  John  the 
Baptist  lived  and  taught  in  the  desert  of  Judea,  west 
of  tne  Jordan  and  the  I)ead  Sea,  near  Jericho.  Finally, 
the  scene  of  Christ's  temptation  (Matt.,  iv,  1-11),  of 
which  St.  Mark  adds  (i,  13):  "He  was  with  wild 
beasts",  was  mDst  likely  in  the  'ar&bcth  to  the  west  of 
the  Jordan.     But  this  is  only  speculation. 

Smitu,  HiHtorical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land  (London,  1897); 
"^      dopedia  BtUtca   (London,    1800);     Habtinos. 


Creynb,    E\ 
DiaL  of  tlu  Bi 


ViGOUBOUX,  Diet,  de  la  Bible. 

J.  A.  HOWLBIT. 


DftBertioiiy  the  culpable  abandonment  of  a  state, 
of  a  stable  situation,  tne  obligations  of  which  one  had 
freely  accepted.  In  civil  life  the  word  usually  desig- 
nates the  offence  committed  by  a  soldier  who,  bv 
flight,  forsakes  his  military  obligations.  As  regards 
Christian  life,  desertion  may  have  for  its  object  any 
state,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowliest,  to  which  Chris- 
tians may  be  called.  The  first  kind  of  desertion  is  the 
abandonment  of  the  state  and  obligations  imposed  by 
baptism  and  is  known  as  a[>ostasy  (.apostaaia  a  Me). 
A  second  kind  of  desertion  is  when  the  baptized  has 
been  admitted  by  ordination  to  the  ranks  of  the  clergy 
and  thereafter  abandons  his  clerical  state  and  its  obli- 
gations {apo^basia  ab  ordine).  The  abandonment  of 
the  religious  state  is  still  another  kind  of  apostasy 
(apoataaia  a  rdiaione),  (See  Apostasy.)  But  this 
expression  is  used  only  in  connexion  with  those  orders 
which  take  solemn  vows;  abandonment  of  the  religi- 
ous life  as  followed  in  congregations  under  simple 
vows,  is  mere  desertion,  although  by  some  it  is  incor- 
rectly designated  as  apostasy.  This  desertion  does 
not  incur  the  excommunication  to  which  religious 
apostates  are  sentenced,  though  it  entails  suspension 
for  clerics  (Deer.  Auctis  admodum  of  the  S.  C.  of 
Bishops  and  Regulars,  4  Nov.,  1892),  and  generally 
terminates  in  dismissal  or  expulsion. 

The  term  desertion  is  also  applied  to  a  cleric's  aban- 
donment of  his  benefice,  whether  it  be  residential  or 
non-residential.  If  the  benefice  be  residential,  there 
is  occasion  to  proceed  against  the  culprit  according 
to  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  VI,  c.  i;  Sess.  XXIII, 
c.  i;  Sess.  XXIV,  c.  xii).  The  first  text  applies  to 
bishops  and  provides  that,  after  six  months,  the 
absent  prelate  oe  deprived  ipso  facto  of  a  quarter  of  the 
annual  revenue  of  his  benefice;  that  if  he  remain  ab- 
sent for  six  additional  months  he  be  denied  another 
quarter's  revenue  and  finally,  that  if  he  fail  to  return 
to  his  charge  the  metropolitan  or  the  suffragan  bishops 
must  denounce  him  to  the  pope  within  three  months, 
and  his  punishment  may  even  amount  to  the  pri- 
vation of  his  benefice.  The  second  text  concerns 
parish  priests  and  other  clerics  havine  the  care  of 
souls:  it  deprives  the  guilty  party  of  the  revenue  of 
his  benefice  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  absence;  at 
the  same  time  the  bishop  can  proceed  against  the  ab- 
sentee by  ecclesiastical  censures,  and  finally  deprive 
him  of  his  benefice  if  he  does  not  return  within  six 
months  aftejr  receiving  a  warning  or  official  sunmions. 
The  third  text  relates  to  canons  and  other  clerics  who 
(  even  a  simple  benefice,  obliging  them  to  resi- 


dence for  the  choir-office,  the  celebration  of  ICaaBand 
other  analogous  charges:  the  absentee  loses  ipso  fado 
the  daily  distributiona  (see  Benefice)  ;  the  number 
of  days  of  absence  may  not  exceed  three  months  in 
any  year;  otiierwise  he  forfeits  half  the  revenue  of 
his  benefice;  if  he  repeats  the  offence  a  second  year, 
he  forfeits  all  the  revenue;  and  if  his  absence  be  still 
prolonged  he  can  be  deprived  of  the  benefices  by  ca- 
nonical sentence.  For  the  very  rare  caae  of  non-resi- 
dential benefice  which  the  beneficiary  has  totally 
abandoned,  canonists  consider  that  it  becomes  vacant 
after  ten  years,  according  to  the  terms  of  c  viii,  De 
cler.  non  resid..  Ill,  tit.  iv. 

In  judicial  matters  there  is  desertion  of  suit  or  of 
appeal  when  the  plaintiff,  after  instituting  a  proceed- 
ing or  lodging  an  appeal,  fails  to  comply  within  the 
required  time  with  the  judicial  acts  demanded  by  the 
court.  In  the  first  instance,  tJie  judse,  having  estab- 
lished the  n^sjpct  of  the  plaintiff,  declares  Uie  suit 
abandoned.  The  judge  from  whom  appeal  is  taken 
should  appoint  a  time  for  the  appellant  to  present  hk 
appeal  to  the  new  judge  (c  xxxiii,  and  Clem.,  iv,  De 
appell,  II,  tit.  xxviii).  The  appeal  should  be  termi- 
nated within  a  year  or  two  (c.  v,  and  Clem.,  iii,  De 
appell.).  However,  this  system  .is  not  strictly  ob- 
served. 

Finally,  since  the  married  state  supposes  that  man 
and  wife  dwell  together,  desertion  is  the  unjustified 
abandonment  of  the  conju^  domicile  by  one  or  the 
other,  especially  by  the  wife  who  is  bound  to  follow 
her  husband  to  his  new  domicile.  This  desertion, 
which  recent  civil  legislation  considers  a  legitimate 
cause  for  separation  and  even  for  divorce,  is  considered 
by  canon  law  merely  a  delict  that  gives  the  deserted 
party  the  ri^t  to  recall  the  fugitive  through  judicial 
authority,  either  ecclesiastical  or  secular  (c.  xiii,  De 
restit.  spoL,  II,  tit.  xiii).  If  the  wife  separates  for  a 
legitimate  reason,  on  account  of  the  adultery  or 
heresy  of  her  husband,  because  of  ill-treatment  by  him 
or  in  order  to  escape  a  serious  danger  that  would  result 
from  continued  dwelling  with  him,  such  desertion  is 
not  held  to  be  malicious;  it  is,  however,  the  duty  d 
the  proper  judge  to  pass  upon  it. 

For  the  fint  caM  see  the  canonifits,  De  cUrida  nan  rendenii' 
hu9.  III.  tit.  iv:  for  the  second,  De  appdUOianihu*,  U.  tit. 
xxviii;  for  the  third.  Sakchbb,  De  Matnmanio,  1.  uc  disp.  iv; 
EsMBlN,  he  manage  en  droit  cvnmiique  (Paris,  1891).  II.  06. 308. 

A.  BOUDINHON. 

DoBhon,  Geqroib,  priest  of  the  Congregation  (or 
Institute)  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle,  b.  at  New  London, 
Conn.,  U.  S.  A.,  30  January,  1823;  d,  in  New  York,  30 
December,  1903.  He  was  a  graduate  (1843)  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  where 
be  was  a  classmate  and  roommate  of  General  U.  S. 
Grant.  His  standing  in  class  was  high  (second)  and  he 
afterwards  taught  mathematics  and  ethics  at  the  Acad- 
emy.  Deshon  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain, 
but  resided  his  commisBion,  was  received  into  the 
Church  in  1851,  and  soon  after  became  a  novice  in  the 
Redemptorist  ()rder.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  18&5 
and  b^same  associated  with  Fathers  Heeker,  Wal- 
worth, Hewit,  and  Baker,  all  r^^ularl^r  employed  m 
inissionaiy  work.  With  them  he  obtained  in  1858  a 
dispensation  from  his  vows  as  a  Redemptorist.  and 
assisted  in  the  formation  of  the  new  Paulist  Institute, 
tfie  first  house  and  church  of  which  were  built  in  New 
York  m  1859.  He  remained  in  this  house  during  the 
rest  of  his  life,  being  novice-master  for  several  yeare, 
and  afterwards  assistant  superior  and  in  chaige  ^n- 
eraJlv  of  the  temporal  interests  of  the  community, 
.  which  owed  much  to  his  business  abihtv.  He  also 
superintended  throughoMt  the  building  of  the  church 
of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle,  in  which  his  skill  and  knowl- 
eilge  as  an  engineer,  acquired  at  West  Point,  were  of 
great  service.  .    . 

Father  poshon  spent  a  considerable  part  of  hifl  tiine 
on  the  missions,  in  which  he  was  specially  eminent  is 


I>S8IDXEinS 


751 


DE81CARKTS 


the  practical  instmetioziB,  though  his  sermons  were  abo 
most  effective.  A  volume  of  nis  parochial  sermons 
was  issued  in  1901.  He  published  in  1860  a  book  en- 
titled "Guide  for  Catholic  Young  Women",  which  ac- 
quired an  abiding  popularity.  Father  Deshon  was 
elected  superior  general  of  the  Paulist  Institute  in 
1897.  At  that  time  houses  had  been  founded  in  San 
Francisco,  and  at  Winchester,  Tennessee.  The  last 
important  act  of  his  life  was  the  founding  of  the 
Paulist  house  in  Chicago,  for  which  he  arranged  wiUi 
Archbishop  Quigley  in  the  fall  of  1903.  Though  his 
life-work  was  so  uauigely  practical,  he  was  noted  for 
his  interior  spirituality,  nis  favourite  saints  being  the 
hermits  and  cenobites  of  the  desert,  and  his  spare 
time  was  always  devoted  to  recollection  and  spintual 
reading,  in  which  he  had  evidently  been  occupied  on 
the  last  niRht  of  his  life,  before  retiring.  He  died 
suddenly  oflieart  failure  about  midnight,  having  been 
just  able  to  ring  for  assistance,  and  to  receive  the  Last 
rites  of  the  Church. 

Searle,  The  Very  Rev.  George  Deshon,  C.  S.  P.,  in  The  Caih- 
die  World  (1904).  LXXXVIII,  560-73.  See  also  contemporary 
files.  The  Catholic  NmB»  (New  York). 

Gborqb  M.  Ssablb. 

DeBideriufl  of  Cahors,  Saint,  Bishop,  b.  at  Obrege 
(perhaps  Antobroges,  name  of  a  Gaulish  tribe),  on  the 
frontier  of  the  Provincia  Narbohnensis,  of  a  noble 
Frankish  family  from  Aquitaine,  which  possessed  large 
estates  in  the  territory  of  Albi;  d.  15  Nov.,  655-— 
though  Krusch  has  called  this  date  in  q|uestion.  In 
his  childhood  Desiderius  was  pix)foundly  unpressed  bv 
the  religious  atmosphere  of  his  home.  His  lather  Sal- 
vius  was  a  pious  Christian,  and  his  mother  Herchene- 
freda  shows  herself  a  woman  of  serious  religious  senti- 
ment in  three  letters  to  her  son,  mentioned  in  his 
"Vita",  With  his  two  brothers,  Rusticus  and  Sya- 
mus,  the  boy  Desiderius  came  to  the  court  of  the 
Frankisli  king  Chlotar  II  (584-629;  from  613  sover- 
eign of  the  whole  Frankish  Empire),  and  with  other 
boys  of  noble  family  received  an  excellent  education  at 
the  Merovingian  court-school,  whence  in  the  seventh 
century  went  forth  many  capable  and  holy  bishops. 
Busticus  became  a  priest  and  finally  Bishop  of  Cahors: 
Syagrius  became  count  of  the  territory  of  Albi  and 
prefect  of  the  city  of  Marseilles;  Desiderius  stayed  on 
at  the  court  where  he  held  the  important  office  of  royal 
treasurer,  an  ojdiice  that  he  retained  under  the  new 
king,  Dagobert  (629-639),  whose  confidant  he  was. 
After  the  death  of  Syagrius  (629),  he  is  said  to  have 
obtained  also  the  prefectship  of  Marseilles,  but  this  is 
not  certain. 

Faithful  to  the  admonitions  of  his  pious  mother, 
Desiderius  led  at  court  the  serious  holy  life  of  a  monk, 
and  administered  his  office  with  great  ndelity.  In  630 
his  brother  Rusticus,  the  Bishop  of  Cahors,  was  mur- 
dered, whereupon  the  clergy  and  people  of  that  city 
requested  from  the  king  Desiderius  as  his  successor. 
By  a  letter  of  8  April,  630,  Dagobert  made  known  his 
consent,  and  Desiderius  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Cahors.  His  close  relations  with  the  (I!ourt  he  used  in 
the  interests  of  his  Church.  With  the  most  important 
bishops  of  his  time,  many  of  them  educated  with  him 
at  the  royal  court,  he  maintained  an  active  intercourse, 
as  his  letters  prove.  He  was  a  zealous  promoter  of 
monastib  life  and  founded  a  monasterv  in  ^e  vicinity 
of  Cahors,  the  church  of  which  was  dedicated  to  St. 
Amantius;  later  on  the  convent  was  called  after  its 
founder,  St.  G^ry  (i.  e.  Dierius,  from*  Desiderius).  He 
directed  also  a  convent  of  women,  as  we  see  from  a  let- 
ter written  by  him  to  the  Abbess  Aspasia.  Under  him 
and  with  his  support  was  likewise  founded  in  his  dio- 
cese the  monastery  of  St.  Peter  of  Moissac,  later  so 
celebrated.  Desioerius  was  verv  zealous  for  Divine 
service  and  the  perfection  of  the  religious  life;  he 
built  three  large  basilicas  in  and  near  Cahors  (St. 
Maria,  St.  Peter,  St.  Julian)  and  an  oratory  in  honour 
of  St.  Martin.    For  th^  clergy  he  was  a  severe  disci- 


plinarian, but  was  himself  foremost  with  the  example 
of  a  holy  life.  He  also  promoted  the  temporal  welfare 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Cahors,  built  an  aqueduct,  and 
erected  or  restored  the  walls  and  towers  that  pro- 
tected the  city.  Desiderius  persuaded  the  nobles  of 
his  diocese  to  endow  richly  tne  churches  and  monas- 
teries. By  his  testament  (049-650)  he  gave  all  his 
possessions  to  the  cathedral,  the  churches,  and  the 
monasteries  of  his  episcopal  city.  Wliile  resicient  on  his 
estates  in  the  district  of  Albi  he  fell  ill  and  died  at  his 
villa  of  Wistrilingo,  which  he  had  presented  to  the 
monastery  of  St.  Amantius.  His  body  was  carried  to 
Cdiors  and  interred  in  the  church  oi  St.  Amantius. 
We  possess  a  "Vita"  of  Desiderius  written  shortly 
after  his  death,  a  collection  of  his  letters,  also  of  letters 
addressed  to  him,  and  an  account  of  miracles  that  took 
place  at  his  tomb.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on  the  15th 
of  November. 

Vita  Deaiderii,  Cadurca  urbis  episcopi,  ed.  Krusch,  in  Mon. 
Germ.  Hiat :  Script.  (Hanover,  1002).  IV.  647-602;  ed.  Mione. 
P.  L.,LXXXVIi;  219-239;  Mtraeiiia.  ed.  Migne.  loc  cit.,  239- 
246;  Desiderii  epiaoopi  Cadurcenn*  eputoUB,  ed.  Abnot  in  Mon. 
Germ.  Hiat:  Epistolce  (Berlin.  1892),  III,  191-214;  Mabillon, 
DiaaertaUo  de  anno  et  die  ordinaHonia  iiemque  obitua  Deaiderii 
^riee.  Cadurcenaia  in  Analeela  vet..  Ill,  528  aqq.;  Vacandard. 
JLa  Sehola  du  palaia  mirovinffien  in  Revue  dea  gueationa  hiator. 
(1897),  LXI.  498  sqg.;  Cabi£,  Ranporta  de  S.  Didier,  ^gue 
de  Canora.  el  de  S.  Dtdier,  Sv^oue  aAvxerte,  avee  VAQngeoia  in 
Annalea  du  Midi  (Touiouae,  1894),  407  sqq. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Desire,  Baptism  of.    See  Baptism. 

Desmarets  de  Saint^Sorlin,  Jean,  a  French  dram- 
atist and  novelist,  b.  in  Paris,  1595,  d.  there,  1676. 
Early  in  life  he  held  various  offices  at  court,  was 
counsellor  of  the  king,  and  secretary  of  the  marine 
in  the  Levant.  He  became  a  member  of  the  salon  of 
the  H^te!  Rambouillet,  and  contributed  the  well- 
known  verses  on  the  violet  for  the  ''Guirlande  de 
Julie".  Later  he  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  and  its  finst  chancellor.  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
his  protector,  induced  him  to  write  for  the  theatre. 
His  first  tragedy,  "Aspasie",  although  a  work  of  no 
great  merit,  had  a  brilliant  success,  1636,  owing  to  the 
cardinal's  protection.  Among  the  plavs  that  fol- 
lowed we  may  mention :  "  Les  Visionnaires",  * '  Scipion  * ', 
'*  Roxane",  ^'  Mirame  ",  and  "  UEurope'C  The  plots  of 
the  last  two  had  evidently  been  inspired  by  the  cardi- 
nal; "L'Europe"  fijves  a  picture  of  Richelieu's  con- 
ception of  the  political  situation  in  Europe.  Of  his 
novel,  '^Ariane^',  La  Fontaine  declares  that  its  plot 
is  very  good;  another  novel,  ''Roxane",  was  left  un- 
finished. 

In  1645  he  became  a  devout  Christian,  and  there- 
after he  devoted  his  literary  abilities  chiefly  to  pious 
works.  He  wrote  a  metrical  version  of  the  Office  of 
the  Blessed  Vii]^n,  and  of  the  '' Imitation  of  Christ", 
and  other  religious  poems,  e.  g.  "Marie-Magdeleine" 
or  "GrficeTrfcmphante". 

In  his  ''Oovis  ou  la  France  ehr6tienne'',  an  epic 
poem  in  twenty-six  cantos,  he  attempts  to  descnbe 
the  Divine  origm  of  the  French  monarchy.  In  this, 
his  gr^test  work,  in  spite  of  its  many  fatdts,  his 
patriotism  and  his  love  of  old  legends,  wnioh  pervade 
the  poem,  often  flnve  it  a  peculiar  Charm.  Owine  to 
the  criticism  of  Boileau,  who  opposed  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  miraculous  in  literature,  the  poem  proved 
a  failure.  In  its  defence  Desmarets  wrote  an  essay 
comparing  French  prose  and  poetry  with  that  of  the 
Greeks  and  fiatins,  and  thus  opened  the  celebrated 
controversy  between  the  anciente  and  the  modems 
which  lasted  for  many  years.  In  this  work  he  main- 
teined  that  the  French  language  is  superior  to  all 
others,  that  modem  can  surpass  ancient  literature, 
and  that  the  miraculous  intervention  of  Providence 
is  to  be  preferred  to  the  machinery  of  the  pagan  poets. 
I>esmarets  was  a  consistent  adversary  of  the  Jansen- 
ists  of  Port-Royal. 

PeLLiHSON,  Htatoire  deV Afxid^ie  fmncaiar;  Baivlvt,  Jttge- 
menu  dea  eavanta   (La  Uaye,  1690);   Bsaucuamps,  Recher* 


DX  SBCET 


752 


DX  SMST 


<Aet  9ur  le  (htAtre  franeais:  Pctit  de  Jullevillb,  La  LitUrature 
huncaiae  (Paris.  1000);  Ke&villbr,  J.  Detnarete  (PtriB^  1870). 

Francis  L.  Rouoibr. 

De  Smet,  Pierre-Jean,  missionary  among  the 
North  American  Indians,  b.  at  Termo;ide  (Dender- 
monde),  Belrium,  30  Jan.,  1801  j  d.  at  St.  Louis, 
Missouri,  U.  S.  A.,  23  May,  1873.  He  emigrated  to 
the  United  States  in  1821  through  a  desire  for  mission- 
ary  labours,  and  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  at  White- 
marsh,  Maryland.  In  1823,  however,  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  United  States  Government  a  new  J<»uit 
establishment  was  determined  on  and  located  at  Flor- 
issant near  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  for  work  among  the 
Indians.  De  Smet  was  among  the  pioneers  and  thus 
became  one  of  the  foimders  of  me  Missouri  Province  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus. 

His  first  missionary  tour  among  the  red  men  was  in 
1838  when  he  founded  St.  Joseph's  Mission  at  Coimdl 
Bluffs  for  the  Pottawatomies.  At  this  time  also  he 
visited  the  Sioux  to  arrange  a  peace  between  them  and 
the  Pottawatomies,  the  first  of  his  peace  missions. 
What  may  be  called  his  life  work  did  not  begin,  how- 
ever, until  1840 
when  he  set  out 
for  the  Flathead 
country  in  the  Far 
North-west.  As 
early  as  1831,  some 
Rocky  Mountain 
Indians,  influ- 
enced by  Iroquois 
descendants  of 
converts  of  one 
hundred  ajid  fifty 
years  before,  had 
made  a  trip  to  St. 
Louis  begging  for 
a  "black-robe". 
Their  request 
could  not  be  com- 
plied with  at  the 
time.  Curiously 
enough,  the  inci- 
dent excited  Prot- 
estant missionary 
enterprise,  owing 
to  the  wide  diasem- 
ination  of  a  mythi- 
cal speech  of  one  of 
ointment  of  the 
auis.    Fourln- 


PksRRixjBAN  De  Smbt 


the  delegation  expressing  the 
Indians  at  not  finding  the  Bible  in  St.' 
dian  delegations  in  succession  were  dispatched  from 
the  Rocky  Mountains  to  St.  Louis  to  b^  for  ''black- 
robes''  and  the  last  one,  in  1839,  composed  of  some 
Iroquois  who  dwelt  among  the  Flatheads  and  Nez 
Percys,  was  successful.  Father  De  Smet  was  assigned 
to  the  task  and  found  his  life-work. 

He  set  out  for  the  Rocky  Mountain  country  in  1840 
and  his  reception  by  the  Flatheads  and  Pend  d '  Oreilles 
was  an  augury  of  the  great  power  over  the  red  men 
which  was  to  characterize  nis  career.  Having  im- 
ported instruction,  surveyed  the  field,  and  promised  a 
permanent  mission  he  returned  to  St.  Louis;  he  visited 
the  Crows,  Gros  Ventres,  and  other  tnbes  on  his  way 
back,  travelling  in  all  4814  miles.  In  the  following  year 
he  returned  to  the  Flatheads  with  Father  Nicholas 
Point  and  established  St.  Mary's  Mission  on  the  Bitter 
Root  river,  some  thirty  miles  north  of  Missoula,  visitins 
also  the  GGBUiMl'Al^es.  Realizing  the  ma^tude  of 
the  task  before  him,  De  Smet  went  to  Europe  m  1843  to 
solicit  funds  and  workers,  and  in  1844  with  new  la- 
bourers for  the  missions,  amcmg  them  being  six  Sisters 
of  Notre-Dame  de  Namur,  he  returned,  rounding  Cape 
Horn  and  casting  anchor  in  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia 
River  at  Astoria.  Two  days  after,  De  Smet  went  by 
canoe  to  Fort  Vancouver  to  confer  with  Bishop 


Blanchet,  and  on  his  return  founded  St.  TgoaJthm  lfi»> 
sion  among  the  Kalispels  of  the  Bay,  who  dwelt  on 
Clark's  Foric  of  the  Columbia  river,  forty  miles  abow 
its  mouth,  l^n  years  later  the  mission  was  trans- 
ferred to  its  present  site  in  Missoula  County,  Mon- 
tana. 

As  the  Blackfeet  were  a  constant  menace  to  other 
Indians  for  whom  De  Smet  was  labouring,  he  deter- 
mined to  influence  them  personally.  This  he  accom- 
plished in  1846  in  the  Yellowstone  valley,  where  after 
a  battle  with  the  Crows,  the  Blackfeet  respectfully 
listened  to  the  ** black-robe".  He  accompamed  them 
to  Fort  Lewis  in  their  own  countiy  where  he  induced 
them  to  conclude  peace  with  the  other  Indians  to 
whom  the^  were  hostile,  and  he  left  Father  Point  to 
foimd  a  mission  among  tnis  formidable  tribe.  His  re- 
turn to  St.  Louis  after  an  absence  of  three  years  and 
six  montiis  marks  the  end  of  his  residence  among  the 
Indians,  not  from  his  own  choice  but  by  the  arrange- 
ment 01  his  religious  superiors  who  deputed  him  to 
other  work  at  St.  Louis  University.  His  coadjutors 
in  his  mission  labours.  Fathers  P<Hnt,  Mengarini,  No- 
bili,  Ravalli.  De  Vos,  Adrian  and  Christian  Hoecken, 
Joset  and  others,  made  De  Smet's  foundations  perma- 
nent bv  dwelling  among  the  converted  tribes. 

De  Smet  was  now  to  enter  upon  a  new  phase  of  his 
career.  Thus  far  his  life  mij^t  oe  called  a  private  one. 
though  crowded  with  stirring  dangers  from  man  ana 
beast,  from  mountain  and  flood,  and  marked  by  the 
successful  establishment  of  niunerous  stations  over 
the  Rocky'  Moimtain  region.  But  his  almost  inex- 
plicable and  seemingly  instantaneous  ascendancy  om* 
every  tribe  with,  which  he  came  in  contact,  and  his 
writmgs  which  had  made  him  famous  in  both  hemi- 
spheres, caused  the  United  States  Government  to  look 
to  him  for  help  in  its  difficulties  with  the  red  men,  and 
to  invest  him  with  a  public  character.  Henceforth  be 
was  to  aid  the  Indians  by  pleading  their  cause  before 
Ehiropean  nations  and  by  becoming  their  intermediary 
at  Washington.  In  1851  owing  to  the  influx  of  whitas 
into  California  and  Oregon,  the  Indians  had  grown 
restless  and  hostile.  A  general  con^;res8  of  tribes  was 
determined  on,  and  was  held  in  ELorse  Creek  Valley 
near  Fort  Laramie,  and  the  Government  reauested 
De  Smet's  presence  as  pacificator.    He  made  tne  lonff 

i'oumey  and  his  presence  soothed  the  ten  thousand 
Indians  at  the  coimcil  and  brought  about  a  satisfac- 
tonr  understanding. 

In  1858  he  accompamed  General  Ham^  as  a  chap- 
lain in  his  expedition  against  the  Utah  Mormons,  at 
the  close  of  which  campaign  the  Government  re- 
quested him  to  accompany  the  same  officer  to  Or^on 
and  Washington  Territories,  where,  it  was  feared, 
an  uprising  of  the  Indians  would  soon  take  place. 
Here  again  his  presence  had  the  desired  effect,  for  the 
Indians  loved  nim  and  trusted  him  implicitly.  A 
visit  to  the  Sioux  country  at  the  beginning  of  the  CSvfl 
War  convinced  him  that  a  serious  situation  con- 
fronted the  Government.  "Die  Indians  rose  in  rebel- 
lion in  August,  1862,  and  at  the  request  of  the  govern- 
ment De  Smet  made  a  tour  of  the  North-west.  When 
he  found  that  a  punitive  esnpddition  had  been  deter- 
mined on,  he  refused  to  lend  to  it  the  sanction  of  his 
presence.  Tlie  condition  of  affairs  beconpi^  more 
critical,  the  government  again  appealed  to  him  m  1867 
to  go  to  the  red  men,  who  were  enraged  by  white  men's 
perfidy  and  cruelty,  and  ''endeavour  to  bring  them 
back  to  peace  and  submission,  and  prevent  as  far  as 
possible  the  destruction  of  property  and  the  murder  of 
the  whites."  Accordinriy  he  set  out  for  the  Upper 
Missouri,  interviewing  thousands  of  Indians  on  nis 
way,  and  receiving  delegations  from  the  most  hostile 
tribes,  but  before  the  Peace  Commission  could  deal 
with  them,  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  St.  Louis^ 
where  he  was  taken  seriously  ill. 

In  1868,  however,  he  again  started  on  what  Chitteti- 
den  calls  (life.  Letters  and  TVavels  of  Pierre  Jean  Da 


DX  SOTO 


753 


DS  SOTO 


Bmet,  p.  92),  "the  most  important  miarion  of  his 
'wiiole  career/'  He  travelled  with  the  Peace  CodizniB- 
sioners  for  some  time,  but  later  determined  to  pene- 
trate alone  into  the  very  camp  of  the  hostile  Sioux. 
Oeneral  Stanlev  says  (ibid.):  '^Father  De  Smet  alone 
of  the  entire  white  race  coiUd  penetrate  to  these  cruel 
savages  and  return  safe  and  sound/'  The  missionary 
crossed  the  Bad  Lands,  and  reached  the  main  Sioux 
camp  of  some  five  thousand  warriors  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Sitting  Bull.  He  was  received  witii  exteraor- 
dinaiy  enthusiasm.  His  counsels  were  at  once  asreed 
to,  and  representatives  sent  to  meet  the  Peace  Com- 
mission.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed,  2  July,  1868, 
by  all  the  chiefs.  This  result  has  bmn  looked  on  as  the 
most  remarkable  event  in  the  historv  of  the  Indian 
wan.  Once  agidn,  in  1870,  he  visited  the  Indians,  to 
arrange  for  a  mission  among  the  Sioux.  In  suon  a 
enmaed  life  allusion  can  be  made  only  to  the  principal 
events.  Wa  strange  adventures  among  the  red  men 
his  conversions  and  plantinfp  of  missions,  his  explora- 
tions and  scientific  observations  may  be  studied  m  de- 
toil  in  his  writings.  On  behalf  of  the  Indians  he 
crossed  the  ocean  nineteen  tim«s.  visiting  popes,  kings, 
and  presidents,  and  traversing  almost  evenr  £(Uropean 
landT  By  actual  calculation  he  travelled  180,000 
miles  on  his  errands  of  charity. 

His  writings  are  numerous  and  vivid  in  descriptive 
power,  rich  in  anecdote,  and  form  an  important  con- 
tribution to  our  knowledge  of  Indian  manneis,  cus- 
toms, superstitions,  and  traditions.  The  general  cor- 
rectness of  their  geographical  observations  is  testified 
to  by  later  explorers,  though  scientific  researches  have 
since  modified  some  minor  details.  Almost  childlike 
hi  the  che^ul  buo>[ancy  of  his  disposition,  he  pre- 
served this  characteristic  to  the  end,  though  honoured 
by  statesmen  and  made  Chevalier  of  the  Order  of  Leo- 
pold by  the  King  of  the  Belgians.  That  he  was  not 
wanting  in  personal  courage  is  evinced  by  many  events 
in  his  wonderful  career.  Though  he  had  frequent 
narrow  escapes  from  death  in  his  perilous  travels,  and 
often  took  his  life  in  his  hands  when  penetrating 
among  hostile  tribes,  he  never  faltered.  But  his  main 
title  to  fame  is  his  extraordinary  power  over  the  In- 
<yans,  a  power  no  other  man  is  said  to  have  equalled. 
To  give  a  list  of  the  Indian  tribes  with  whom  he  came 
in  contact,  and  over  whom  he  acquired  an  ascendancy, 
would  be  to  enumerate  almost  all  the  tribes  west  of  the 
Mississippi.  Even  Protestant  writers  declare  him  the 
sincereet  friend  the  Indians  ever  had.  The  effects  of 
his  work  for  them  were  not  permanent  to  the  extent 
which  he  had  planned,  soldy  because  the  Indians  have 
been  swept  away  or  engulfBd  by  the  white  settlers  of 
the  North-west.  If  circumstances  had  allowed  it,  ihe 
reductions  of  Paraguay  would  have  found  a  counter- 
part in  North  America.  The  archives  of  St.  Louis 
UniverBity  contain  all  the  originals  of  De  Smet's  writ- 
ings known  to  be  extant.  Among  these  is  the  ''Lin- 
ton Album'^  containing  his  itinerary  from  1821  to  the 
year  of  his  death',  also  specimens  of  various  Indian 
dialects,  legends,  poems,  etc.  The  principal  worics  of 
Father  De  Smet  are:  ''Lettere  and  Sketches,  with  a 
Narrative  oi  a  Year's  Residence  among  the  Indian 
Tribes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains"  (Philadelphia,  1843), 
translated  into  French,  German,  Dutch,  and  Italian; 
"Oregon  Missions  and  Tiuvels  over  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains in  1845-46"  (New  York,  1847),  translated  into 
French  and  Flemish;  "Vmrage  au  grand  desert  en 
1861"  (Brussells,  1853);  "Western  Missions  and  Mis- 
sionaries "  (New  York,  1863),  translated  into  French; 
"New  Indian  Sketches"  (New  York,  1865). 

CHTrrBNDKN  AND  R1CHA.BDBON,  Life,  Letten  c.id  Trwoda  cf 
Piem  Jean  De  Smel,  8.  J.  (New  York.  1905).  It  oontains  r.iany 
hitherto  UDpublished  letters  and  a  map  of  De  Smet's  travels; 
Dbtnoodt,  P,  J,  De  Smet,  miaeumaire  Beige  aux  Btate-Unie 
(Rnimels,  1878);  Palladino,  tndian  and  White  in  the  North" 
weet  (Baltimora.  1894);  U.  8.  Cath.  Hiar.  Sec,  HisL  Reeordi 
and  Studiee  (New  York.  1907).  VII. 


IV--48 


WiUiiAM  H.  W.  Fanning. 


Be  Sdto,  Hernando,  explorer  and  conqueror,  b. 
at  Villanueva  de  la  Serena,  Badajoz,  Spain,  1496  or 
1500;  d.  on  the  banks  of  ihe  Mississippi  the  latter  part 
of  June,  1542.  He  was  given  the  rank  of  captain  of 
a  troop  of  horsemen  in  1516  bv  Pedrarias  D&vila  (also 
known  as  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila),  Governor  of  Darien, 
who  admired  his  courage,  and  he  took  an  active  part 
in  the  conquest  of  portions  of  Central  America.  In 
1523  he  accompanied  Francisco  Fem&ndez  de  Cor- 
doba who,  by  order  of  Pedrarias,  set  out  from  Panama 
with  an  expedition  which  explored  Nicaragua  and 
Honduras,  oonqueHng  and  colonizing  the  country  as 
they  proceeded.  In  1532  he  joined  9ie  expedition  of 
FranciBoo  Piszaro  starting  from  Panama  for  the  con- 
quest of  Peru.  Recopnizing  his  importance,  Pizzaro 
made  de  Soto  second  in  command,  though  this  caused 
some  opposition  from  Pizzaro's  brothers.  In  1533  he 
was  sent  at  the  head  of  a  small  pstrtv  to  explore  the 
highlands  of  Peru,  and  he  discovered  tne  great  nationad 
road  which  led  to  the  capital.  Soon  afterwards  he  was 
selected  by  Pizzaro  as  ambassador  to  visit  the  Inca 
Atahualpa,  lord  of  Peru,  and  he  was  the  first  Span- 
iard who  spoke  with  that  chief.  After  the  im|>ri6on- 
ment  of  Atahualpa,  de  Soto  became  very  friendly 
with  him  and  visited  him  often  in  his  confinement. 
De  Soto  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  engagwnents 
which  completed  the  conquest  of  Peru,  incuKung  the 
battle  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Ouzco,  the 
capital.  Upon  his  return  from  an  expedition,  he 
learned  that  Pizzaro  had  treacherously  ordered  Ata- 
hualpa to  be  put  to  death  in  spite  of  Atahualpa's  hav- 
ing paid  a  larae  ransom.  He  was  much  displeased  at 
the  crime,  and,  becoming  disgusted  with  Pizzaro  and 
his  brothers,  he  Returned  to  ^ain  in  1536,  taking  bade 
with  him  about  18,000  ounces  of  gold  which  repre- 
sented his  share  of  the  booty  taken  from  the  Inoas. 
He  settled  in  Seville,  and  with  the  gold  he  had 
brought  home,  he  was  able  to  set  up  an  elaborate  es- 
tablishment with  ushers,  pages,  equeny,  chamberlain, 
and  other  servants  requfred  for  the  household  of  a 
gentleman.  In  1537  he  married  In^  de  Bobadilla 
(sometimes  called  Leonor  or  Isabel),  the  dauditer  of 
his  former  patron,  Pedrarias  Ddvila.  He  had  settled 
down  in  Seville  to  enjoy  life  quietly,  when  the  exag- 
gerated accounts  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca  concerning  the 
vast  region  then  called  Florida  fired  his  ambition  to 
undertake  the  conquest  of  this  land  which  he  consid- 
ered no  less  rich  than  Peru.  He  therefore  sold  all  his 
property,  and  devoted  the  proceeds  to  equipping  an 
expedition  for  this  purpose.  He  readily  obtained 
from  Charles  V,  to  whom  ne  had  lent  some  money,  the 
titles  of  Adelantado  of  Florida  and  Governor  of  Cuba, 
and  in  addition,  the  title  of  marquis  of  a  certain  por- 
tion of  the  territory  he  might  conquer,  said  portion  to 
be  chosen  by  himself.  \ 

The  expedition  consisted  of  950  fitting  men,  eieht 
secular  priests,  two  Dominicans,  a  Franciscan  ana  a 
lYinitanan,  all  to  be  transported  in  ten  ships.  To 
tins  armada  was  added  one  of  twenty  more  shins 
^fdiich  was  on  ita  way  to  Vera  Cniz,  but  was  to  be 
under  tlie  orden  of  de  Soto  while  the  oouraes  of  the 
two  fleets  lay  along  the  same  route.  The  ^ole 
squadron  set  sail  fh>m  Sanldcar,  6  April,  1538.  On 
£aster  Sunday  morning,  fifteen  days  later,  they  ar- 
rived BsSely  at  Qomera,  one  of  the  Cttnary  Islands, 
where  they  stopped  for  one  wedc  and  then  continued 
their  way  without  incident.  When  near  Cuba,  the 
twenty  vessels  destined  for  Mexico  separated  from  the 
othe»  and  proceeded  on  theh*  way.  The  ten  ships  of 
de  Soto  shortly  alter  arrived  in  the  harbour  of  Santi- 
ago de  Cuba  where  the  members  of  the  expedition 
were  well  received  by  the  Cubans,  whose  fdtes  in 
honour  of  the  new-comers  lasted  several  weeks.  The 
new  governor  visited  the  towns  in  the  vicinity  of  San- 
tiago and  did  every  thing  in  his  power  to  better  their 
condition.  At  the  same  time,  b^  gathered  as  many 
horses  as  he  could,  and,  as  gooci  ones  were  ptontiful  in 


DS  aOTO 


754 


Ol  80X0 


Cuba,  it  was  not  long  before  he  had  a  fair  number  of 
mounts  for  the  men  of  the  Florida  expedition.  Just 
about  this  time,  the  city  of  Havana  was  sacked  and 
burned  by  the  French,  and  de  Soto,  upon  learning  of 
it,  despatched  Captain  Aceituno  with  some  men  to 
repair  the  ruins.  As  he  was  contemplating  an  early 
departure  for  his  conquest  of  Florida,  he  named  Gon- 
sah)  de  Guzmdn  as  lieutenant-governor  to  administer 
justice  in  Santiago  and  vicinity,  while  for  afifairs  of 
state,  he  gave  full  powers  to  his  wife.  Meanwhile,  he 
continued  his  preparations  for  the  expedition  to  Flor- 
ida. In  the  latter  part  of  August,  1538,  the  ships 
sailed  for  Havana,  while  de  Soto  started  by  land 
with  350  horses  and  the  remainder  of  the  expedition. 
The  two  parties  arrived  at  Havana  within  a  lew  days 
of  each  other,  and  de  Soto  inmiediately  made  plans 
for  the  rebuilding  of  the  city.  He  also  entrusted  to 
Captain  Aceituno  the  building  of  a  fortress  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  harbour  and  the  city  from  any  possible 
future  attack.  At  the  same  tune,  he  ordered  Juan  de 
Anasco,  a  skilled  and  experienced  sailor,  to  set  out  in 
4^vance  to  explore  the  coasts  and  harboiuis  of  Florida 
«o  that  it  would  facilitate  matters  when  the  main  ex- 
pedition sailed.  AHasco  returned  at  the  end  of  a  few 
months  and  made  a  satisfactory  report. 

Hm  expedition  was  finally  made  readv,  and  on  18 
May,  1539,  de  Soto  set  sail  with  a  fleet  of  nine  vessels. 
He  nad  with  him  1000  men  exclusive  of  the  sailors,  all 
well  armed  and  making  up  what  was  considered  to  be 
the  best  equipped  expedition  that  had  ever  set  out  for 
conquest  m  the  New  World.  Thev  proceeded  with 
favourable  weather  until  25  May,  wnen  land  was  seen 
and  they  cast  anchor  in  a  bay  to  which  they  gave  the 
name  of  Espiritu  Santo  (now  TamuB,  Bay).  The 
army  landed  on  Friday,  30  May,  two  leagues  from  an 
Indian  village.  From  this  point  the  Spanianls  began 
their  explorations  of  the  wild  unknown  country  to  the 
north  and  west  which  lasted  for  nearly  three  years. 
They  passed  through  a  region  already  mtade  hostile  by 
the  violence  of  the  invader  Narvaez,  and  they  were 
constantly  deceived  by  the  Indians,  who  tried  to  get 
them  as  far  away  as  possible  by  telling  them  stories  of 
great  wealth  which  was  to  be  foimd  at  remote  points. 
They  wandered  from  place  to  place,  always  disap- 
pointed in  t^eir  expectations,  but  still  lured  onward 
t>y  the  tales  they  heard  of  the  vast  riches  which  lay 
just  beyond.  They  treated  the  Indians  brutally 
whenever  they  met  them,  and  they  were,  as  a  result, 
constantly  at  war  with  them.  Setting  out  from  Es- 
piritu  Santo,  de  Soto,  with  considerable  loss  of  men, 
went  throu£^  the  provinces  of  Acuera,  Oeali,  Vitar 
chuco,  and  Osachile  (all  situated  in  the  western  part  of 
the  Florida  peninsula),  with  the  purpose  of  finally 
reaching  the  territonr  of  Apalache  (situated  in  the 
north-western  part  of  Florida  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico), 
as  he  considered  the  fertility  and  maritime  conditions 
of  that  country  well  suited  to  his  purposes.  He  finally 
reached  the  i>rovinoe,  and  after  some  fighting  with  the 
Indians,  subjugated  it.  In  October,  1539,  de  Soto 
sent  Juan  Afiasco  with  thirty  men  to  Espiritu  Santo 
Bay  where  he  had  left  his  ships  and  a  portion  of  his 
expedition,  with  orders  to  start  from  there  with  the 
ships  and  follow  the  coast  until  he  reached  the  bay  of 
Aute  (St.  Marks  on  Apalachee  Bay)  in  the  moviaoe  of 
Apalache.  Here  he  was  to  be  joined  by  Pedro  Cal- 
der6n,  who  had  orders  to  jMPOceed  bv  land  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  expedition  and  the  provisions  and 
camp  equipment  that  had  been  left  on  the  coast.  At 
the  same  tune,  G6mez  Arias  was  to  sail  to  Havana  to 
aoauaint  de  Soto's  wife  with  the  progress  of  the  ex- 
peaition.  After  many  hardships,  Anasco  reached 
Espiritu  Santo  Bay,  whence  he  started  with  the  ships 
to  carry  out  de  Soto's  orders.  He  arrived  at  Aute  in 
safety,  and  was  there  joined  by  Calder6n  with  the 
land  iorcp«  according  to  arrangement.  Meanwhile, 
G6mez  Arias  had  fulfilled  his  mission  to  Havana 
and  the  triumphs  of  the  Spaniards  in  Florida  were 


fitly  celebrated  in  that  city.  De  Soto  now  ordered 
Diego  Maldonado,  a  captain  of  infantry  who  haii 
served  him  well,  to  give  up  his  command,  and  t^e 
two  ships  with  which  he  was  to  explore  the  coast  of 
Florida  for  a  distance  of  one  hundred  leasues  to  the 
west  of  Aute,  and  map  out  its  bays  and  imets.  Mal- 
donado did  his  work  successfully  and  upon  his  return, 
in  February,  1540,  was  sent  to  Havana,  with  orders  to 
inform  the  Governor's  wife  and  announce  to  the  Cu- 
bans as  well  all  that  they  had  seen  and  done.  De 
Soto  gave  him  further  orders  to  return  in  October  and 
meet  nim  in  the  Bay  of  Achusi  which  Maldonado  had 
discovered  during  lus  exploration.  He  was  to  bring 
back  with  him  as  many  ships  as  he  could  procure,  aud 
also  munitions  ol  war,  provisions,  and  olothlng  for  the 
soldiers.  But  de  Soto  was  destined  never  to  see 
Maldonado  again,  nor  was  he  to  have  the  benefit  of  the 
supplies  for  which  he  was  sending  him,  for  though 
Maldonado  was  able  to  carnr  out  his  orders  to  the 
letter,  when  he  arrived  at  Achusi  in  the  fall  he  found 
neither  trace  nor  tidings  of  de  Soto.  He  waited  for 
some  time  and  explored  the  oountrv  quite  a  distance, 
but  without  finding  him,  and  was  forced  to  return  to 
Havana.  He  triea  again  the  next  year,  and  again  the 
following,  but  always  with  the  same  result. 

Meanwhile,  de  Soto  had  started  in  March,  1540. 
from  the  province  of  Apalache  wiUi  the  intention  of 
exploring  the  country  to  the  north.    He  explored  the 
provinces  of  Altapaha  (or  Altamaha),  Achalaque,  Gofa, 
and  Cofaque,  ail  situated  in  eastern  and  northern 
Geoi^a,  meeting  with  fair  success.    He  then  worked 
his  wav  in  a  south-westerly  direction,  intending  to 
reach  the  coast  at  Achusi  where  he  had  agreed  to  meet 
Maldonado  with  the  supply  ships.    But  when  he 
reached  the  province  of  Taaoalusa  in  southern  Ala- 
bama, where  he  had  been  told  there  were  immense 
riches,  the  Indians  in  large  numbers  offered  a  more 
stubborn  resistance  and  gave  him  the  worst  battle  he 
had  yet  had.    The  battle  lasted  nine  hours  and  was 
finally  won  by  ihe  Spaniards,  though  nearly  all  the 
officers  and  men,  including  de  Soto  himself,  were 
wounded.    According  to  Garcilasso,  there  were  70 
Spamards  and  11,000  Indians  killed  in  the  battle,  and 
in  addition  the  town  of  Mauvila  (now  Mobile)  was 
destroved  by  a  fire  which  also  consumed  the  pnnns- 
ions  of  the  Spaniards.    While  in  Tascalusa,  de  Soto 
heard  of  some  Spanish  ships  which  were  on  the  coat^ 
at  Achusi.    These  were  tne  ships  which  Maldonado 
had  brought  back  from  Havana  with  the  supplies. 
De  Soto  thought  he  would  be  able  to  readi  them  in  a 
short  time  for  he  had  been  informed  that  he  was  then 
but  thirty  leagues  from  the  coast.    But  his  troops 
were  so  exhausted  that  he  was  forced  to  rest  for  a  few 
days.    Worn  out  by  the  long  marches  and  the  hard- 
^ips  they  had  undergone,  and  disappointed  at  not 
finding  any  treasure,  some  of  de  Soto's  foUowers 
secrettV  plotted  to  abandon  him,  make  their  way  to 
Achusi,  and  sail  to  Mexico  or  Peru.    Learning  of  this, 
de  Soto  changed  his  plans,  and,  instead  of  marching 
toward  the  coast  to  join  Maldonado,  he  led  his  men 
toward  the  interior  in  a  westerly  direction,  knowing 
that  they  would  not  dare  to  desert  him  with  the  shipfl 
so  far  away.    He  hoped  to  readi  New  Spain  (Mexico) 
by  land.    In  a  night  battle  (December,  1540),  he  icet 
forty  men  and  fifty  horses  besides  having  many 
wounded,  and  during  the  next  four  months  he  was 
attacked  ahnoet  ni^tly.     In  April,  1541,  he  came 
upon  a  fort  surrounded  with  a  stockade,  and  in  storm 
ing  it  nearly  all  lus  men  were  wounded  and  many 
were  killed.    It  is  said  that  over  2000  Indians  were 
killed  in  this  battle,  but  so  many  of  the  Spaniards  were 
wounded  that  de  Sioto  was  compelled  to  stop  for  a  fe)^ 
days  in  order  to  care  for  them.    Notwithstanding  .""^ 
repeated  losses  de  Soto  continued  toward  the  intenor, 
traversing  several  provinces  constituting  the  prf«r/it 
Gulf  States,  until  he  reached  the  Missinsippi  at  a  jjom^ 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  present  state  of  MiBsisippi- 


DIAPAZR 


755 


DXSPRXtZ 


He  orossed  the  river  and  pudied  on  to  the  north- 
west until  he  reached  the  province  of  Autiamque  in 
the  north-western  comer  of  Arkansafi,  where  he  passed 
the  winter  of  1541-42  on  the  Cayas  River,  now  the 
Washita.  In  the  spring  of  1542,  retracing  his  steps, 
he  reached  the  Mississippi  in  May  or  June.  Here,  on 
20  June,  1542  (according  to  some  authorities  on  21 
May),  he  was  stricken  with  a  fever,  and  prepared  for 
death.  He  made  bis  will,  named  Luis  de  Moscoso  de 
Alvarado  as  his  successor  in  command  of  the  expedi- 
tion, and  took  leave  of  all.  On  the  fifth  day  de  Soto 
succumbed  without  having  reached  New  Spain  by 
land.  His  companions  buried  the  body  in  a  large 
hole  which  the  natives  had  du£  near  one  of  their  vil- 
lages to  get  materials  to  build  their  houses.  How- 
ever, as  de  Soto  had  given  the  Indians  to  understand 
that  the  Christians  were  immortal,  they  afterwards 
disinterred  the  body,  fearing  the  hostile  savages  might 
possibly  discover  it,  and,  finding  him  dead,  make  an 
attack.  They  then  hollowed  out  the  trunk  of  a  lar^ 
tree  and,  placing  the  body  in  it,  sank  it  in  the  Missis- 
sippi which  they  called  the  Grande.  The  shattered 
remnant  of  the  expedition  under  Moscoso  then  at- 
tempted to  work  their  way  eastward,  but,  driven  back 
by  tne  Indians,  they  floated  down  the  Mississippi  and, 
after  many  hardships,  finally  reached  .PAnuco  in 
Mexico.  This  expedition  of  de  Soto,  though  it  ended 
so  disastrously,  was  one  of  the  most  elaborate  and 
persistent  efforts  made  by  the  Spaniards  to  explore  the 
mterior  of  North  America.  It  was  the  first  extensive 
exploration  of  at  least  six  of  the  Southern  states: 
SouUi  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, and  Arkansas,  and  their  written  history  often 
begins  with  narratives  which  tell  the  story  of  de  Soto's 
expedition.  From  these  same  narratives  we  also  get 
our  first  description  of  the  Cherokees,  Seminoles, 
Creeks,  Appalachians,  Choctaws,  and  other  famous 
tribes  of  southern  Indians.  The  story  of  this  expedi- 
tion also  records  the  discovery  of  the  Mississippi  and 
the  first  voyage  of  Europeans  upon  it.  It  must  be 
noted  that  Alonso  de  Pineda  discovered  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi  in  1519.  and  that  Cabeza  de  Vaca 
crossed  it  near  its  moutn  in  1528. 

Smith  tr..  Narrative  of  the  Career  of  Hernando  de  Soto  in  the 
DiMxnent  of  Florida,  by  a  KnttOd  of  Mvaa  (New  York.  1886); 
Smrv,  B%$Ufry  of  Hernando  deSoto  (Philadelphia,  1881):  Ban- 
CRO>T,  Hi»toru  of  the  United  States  (New  York,  1883-85); 
LowEBT,  The  Spanish  SetOemenU  voUhxn  the  Present  Limita  of 
tiu  United  States  (1901) ;  Gbaram,  Hernando  de  Soto  (1003); 
BouBNX,  Narratives  of  de  Soto  (New  York,  1004). 

Ventura  Fuentes. 

Despair  (Latin  desperare,  to  be  hopeless)  ethically 
regarded  is  the  voluntary  and  complete  abandonment 
of  fdl  hope  of  saving  one's  soul  and  of  having  the 
means  required  for  that  end.  It  is  not  a  passive  state 
of  mind:  on  the  contrary  it  involves  a  positive  act  of 
the  will  by  which  a  person  d^beratelv  gives  over  an^ 
expectation  of  ever  reaching  eternal  fife.  There  is 
presupposed  an  intervention  of  the  intellect  in  virtue 
of  which  one  comes  to  decide  definitely  that  salvation 
is  impossible.  This  last  is  motived  by  the  persuasion 
eiliier  that  the  individual's  sins  are  too  great  to  be  for- 
given or  tiiat  it  is  too  hard  for  human  nature  to  co- 
operate with  the  grace  of  God  or  that  Almighty  God 
is  unwilling  to  aid  the  weakness  or  pardon  the  offences 
of  his  creatures,  etc.  It  is  obvious  that  a  mere  anxi- 
ety,  no  matter  now  acute,  as  to  the  hereafter  is  not  to 
be  identified  with  despair.  This  excessive  fear  is  usually 
a  negative  condition  of  soul  and  adequatelv  discernible 
from  the  positive  elements  which  dearly  mark  the 
vice  which  we  call  despair.  The  pusillanimous  person 
has  not  so  mudi  relinquished  trust  in  God  as  he  is  un- 
duly terrified  at  the  spectacle  of  his  own  shortcomings 
or  incapacity.  The  sin  of  despair  may  sometimes, 
althou^  not  neoessarilyi  contain  the  added  malice  of 
heresy  in  so  far  as  it  implies  an  assent  to  a  proposition 
which  is  against  faith,  e.  g.  that  God  has  no  mind  to 
supply  us  with  what  is  needful  for  salvation.    De- 


spair as  such  and  as  distinguished  from  a  certain  diffi- 
dence, sinking  of  the  heart,  or  overweening  dread  is 
always  a  mortal  sin.  The  reason  is  that  it  contrsr 
venes  with  a  special  directness  certain  attributes  of 
Almi^ty  God.  such  as  His  goodness,  mercy,  and  faith- 
keeping.  To  oe  sure  it  is  not  the  worst  sin  conceiv- 
able: uiat  evil  primacy  is  held  by  the  direct  and  ex- 
plicit hatred  of  God;  neither  is  it  as  great  as  sins 
against  faith  like  fohnal  heresy  or  apostasy.  Still  its 
power  for  working  harm  in  the  human  soul  is  funda- 
mentally far  greater  than  other  sins  inasmuch  as  it 
cuts  off  the  way  of  escape  and  those  who  fall  under  its 
spell  are  frequently,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  found  to  sur- 
render themselves  unreservedly  to  all  sorts  of  sinful 
indulgence. 

NoLDiN,  Summa  TheotoguB  Moralis  (tnnsbruck,  1004); 
RicxABY,  Aquinas  Ethicus  (London.  1896);  Genioot,  Theo- 
loQUB  Moralis  Institutiones  (Louvain,  1808). 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 

•  Despreti,  C^ar-Manbuetb,  chemist  and  physi- 
cist, b.  at  Lessines,  Belgium,  11  May,  1798;  d.  at 
Paris,  11  May,  1863.  He  was  appointed  early  in  life 
master  of  studies  in  the  ivoeum  of  Bruges,  and  later 
went  to  Paris  to  complete  his  studies.  Here  he 
attracted  the  attention  of  Gay-Lussac,  who  had  him 
appointed  tutor  of  the  chemical  course  which  the 
former  was  then  giving  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique. 
In  1824  Despretz  was  made  adjunct  and  then  titular 
professor  of  physics  at  the  CoU^  Henri  IV,  and  in 
1837  receivea  the  chair  of  physics  at  the  Sorbonne. 
He  was  naturalized  as  a  Frenchman  in  1838,  and  in 
1841  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  the 
division  of  general  physios,  being  the  suooessorof 
Savart.  The  researdies  of  Desprets  did  much  to 
establish  the  foundation  of  modem  physics,  notably 
in  the  domain  oi  heat.  In  1818  he  investigated  latent 
heat  and  the  elasticity  of  vapours.  In  1821,  following 
the  same  line,  he  studied  the  heat-conductivity  of 
solids,  vapour  density,  and  the  latent  heat  of  steam 
at  different  pressures;  his  memoir  of  1822  on  the 
causes  of  animal  heat  was  crowned  b^  the  Academy. 
In  1823  the  results  of  his  investigation  of  the  com- 
pressibility of  liquids  were  published,  and  in  1827  his 
researches  on  the  density  of  gases  at  different  pres- 
sures; the  latter  investigation  proved  that  Mariotte's 
law  was  not  exactly  followed  by  gases.  The  titles  of 
some  of  his  leading  memoirs  and  their  dates  of  publi- 
cation are  as  follows:  "The  Heat  of  Combustion'' 
(1^8);  "Investigation  of  the  Merouriai  Thermom- 
eter" (1837);  "The  Laws  of  Conductivity  of  Heat  in 
Liquids"  (1838) ;  "The  Limit  of  Appreciable  Sound" 
(1845). 

After  this  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  voltaic  cell 
and  voltaic  arc.  By  uniting  the  heat  from  a  very 
large  burning  glass  with  the  heat  of  the  voltaic  arc 
and  with  the  oxy-hydro^n  flame,  he  experimented 
on  the  diffusion  and  volatilization  of  refractory  solids, 
performing  some  experiments  of  remarkable  interest 
m  those  days  when  electricit;^  was  not  so  highly 
developed  as  at  the  present  time.  Under  the  dis- 
charge of  tibe  Ruhmkorff  ooil  he  approximated  the 
formation  of  diamonds.  Among  his  books  may  be 
cited  "Recherehes  exp^rimentales  sur  les  causes  de 
la  chaleur  animale"  (Paris,  1824);  "Traits  ^toen- 
taire  de  physique"  (Paris,  1825,  and  many  later 
editions) ;  " El^ents  de  chimie  th^rique et  pratique" 
(Paris,  1828-30);  in  addition  to.  these  some  fifty 
memoirs  were  published  by  him  between  1817  and 
1863,  the  list  of  which  is  oven  in  the  "Catalogue  of 
Scientific  Papers  of  the  Royal  Society"  (London, 
1868),  Vlli  JOespretz  was  a  true  Catholic;  he  con- 
stancy resisted  assaults  upon  the  Church  and  the 
clerical  body,  was  always  readv  to  lead  in  their  defence^ 
and  died  a  devout  member  of  the  Church. 

Dictionnaire  Larousse,  a.  v. ;  Moigno  in  Les  Mondes  CPiaris, 
1863),  I. 

T.  CCoNOR  Sloanb. 


DBSSERVAKTS 


756 


DXTEBMINISM 


DesservantSi  the  name  of  a  class  of  French  parish 
priests.  Under  the  old  regime,  a  priest  who  per- 
formed the  parochial  duties  in  a  vacant  parish,  or 
where  the  parish  priest  was  under  censure  of  some 
kind  (H^ricourt,  Les  lois  eccl&iastiques  de  France/ 
II,  XV,  Paris,  1771)  was  known  as  a  deaservant;  he 
was  the  vicar,  or  6conome-cur^,  w^hom  the  Council  of 
Trent  (Sess.  XXIV,  c.  xviii,  De  ref.)  desired  to  be  ap- 
pointed in  each  vacant  parish.  After  the  Concordat 
of  1801,  however,  the  name  desservants  was  applied  to 
a  second  class  of  parish  priests  who  were  named  by 
the  bishop  without  the  sanction  of  the  Government, 
but  could  also  be  removed  at  any  time  by  the  bishop. 
This  institution  owed  its  origin  to  custom  rather  than 
any  law,  though  later  on  it  was  fully  legalized.  Arti- 
cle 9  of  the  new  concordat  decreed  thaf  "the  bishops 
are  to  make  a  new  circumscription  of  the  parishes  m 
their  dioceses,  which  will  onl^  go  into  effect  after  the 
consent  of  the  Government  is  obtained".  Article  10 
adds:  ''Bishops  shall  make  the  appointments  to  par- 
ishes; they  shall  choose  only  persons  approved  by  the 
Government."  Finally,  art.  14  provides  *'a  suitable 
salaiy  for  bishops  and  parish  priests".  These  clauses 
applied  to  only  one  kind  of  parish  and  parish  priests; 
but  the  Orgamc  Articles,  added  by  the  Cxovemment  to 
the  ooncoi^at,  established  parishes  of  a  second  order, 
sucouraal  parishes  (mission  churches),  whose  titulars 
were  not  canonically  parish  priests  (ctcr^)  and  re- 
ceived no  remuneration  from  the  State.  Organic 
Articles  31,  60.  61,  63  provide  that  "there  shall  be  at 
least  one  parish  for  every  justice  of  the  peace",  that 
"the  bishop  in  conjunction  with  the  prefect  shall  regu- 
late the  number  and  extent  of  succursal  parishes"; 
that  "the  officiating  priests  in  succursal  parishes  shall 
be  appointed  by  the  oishop";  that  they  shall  also  be 
removable  by  him ;  preference  nevertheless  should  be 
given  to  ecclesiastics  pensioned  by  the  Assemble 
Constituante  (art.  68).  By  degrees  the  succursal  par- 
ishes increased  and  equalled  in  number  the  municipali- 
ties of  France;  gradually,  also,  the  Government  al- 
lowed these  desservants  a  small  salary.  From  an 
ecclesiastical  point  of  view,  they  were  parish  priests 
except  for  the  removability  clause. 

This  condition  of  affairs,  which  the  concordat  had 
not  anticipated,  was  advantageous  to  the  Church,  be- 
cause it  left  the  bishops  free  to  appoint  to  most  par- 
ishes without  consulting  the  State;  it  was  also  of  ad- 
vantage to  the  episcopal  administration,  which  would 
have  been  much  hampered  had  all  the  parish  priests 
been  irremovable.  It  was  not  formally  approved  by 
Rome,  however,  until  May,  1845,  under  Gregoiy  XVl 
(reply  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Council  to  the  Bishop 
of  Li^ge).  The  pope  authorized  the  continuance  of 
the  existing  situation  until  the  Holy  See  decided  other- 
wise. From  various  quarters,  however,  arose  pro- 
tests in  favour  of  canonical  irremovability  of  the  des- 
servants. In  1839  the  Allignol  brothers  published 
"De  I'^tat  actuel  du  clerg6  de  France,  et  en  mrticulier 
des  cur69  ruraux,  appel^s  desservants"  (The  present 
condition  of  the  clergy  of  France,  particulariy  of  the 
rural  parish  priests,  known  as  desservants).  It  was 
the  cause  of  several  meetings  of  the  French  bishops  at 
Rome  and  finally  of  the  aforesaid  rescript  of  Grejgory 
XVI.  Later  on  (5  Oct.,  1864)  the  Congregation  of 
Bishops  and  Reeulars  reproved  a  similar  work  by  the 
Abb^  Dagomer, "  Rehabilitation  du  desservan  t '  *.  Oc- 
casionally, some  of  the  desservants  refused  to  give  up 
their  places  at  the  bishop's  order,  maintaining  a  com- 
mon-law right  of  irremovability;  but  in  this  they 
were  always  unsuccessful.  In  this  respect  the  eccle- 
siastical discipline  of  France  had  become  fixed  and 
accepted;  nor  was  it  modified  by  the  Separation  Law 
of  1905;  except  that  some  bishops  have  ceased  to  use 
the  terms  tfuccvrsale  and  desseroantt  replacing  them  by 
parish  and  parif^  priest,  both  however,  long  since  in 
ordinary  ecclesiastical  use. 

Bouix.  2>«  parocho  (Paris,  186.-;,  P*    T,  sects,  iii  and  iv; 


BouDiNHON,  Inamovibiliti  H  tranelation  dea  deMaeroanlM  CP&Hs 
1806);  DuBALLET,  TmiU  dea  paniaam  tt  dea  curia  (Paria,  1900 1 

A.  BOUDZVBON. 

Desurmont,  Achille,  ascetical  writer,  b.  at  Tour- 
coing,  France,  23  Dec,  1828 :  d.  23  July,  1898.      He 
attended  first  the  college  of  tne  Jesuits  at  Brugelette, 
Belgium,  and  afterwards  (1848)  the  theological  college 
of  Cambrai.    Drawn  to  the  reli^ous  state,  he  -wsa  ^e^- 
ceived  into  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Re- 
deemer in  1850,  made  his  profession  the  following  year. 
and  was  ordained  priest  24  Sept.,  1853.    Hlb  talent 
was  at  once  recpgnized  and  he  was  appointed  prefect  of 
students  and  professor  of  theology,  which  offices  he 
retained  till  1865,  when  he  became  superior  of  the 
French  province.    He  was  a  man  of  surpas^ng  ener^ 
and  an  excellent  organizer,  his  kindness  winning  him 
the  affection  and  confidence  of  his  subjects,  whom  he 
directed  with  prudence  and  fatheriy  finnness.    Under 
his  care  subjects  and  foundations  multiplied;     the 
congre^sUion  spread  into  Spain  for  a  second  time,  and 
he  made  foundations  in  Peru,  Ecuador,  Chile,  and  Co- 
lombia in  South  America.    Forced  to  transfer  his 
numerous  religious  from  France  to  Holland,   he  so 
communicated  to  others  his  own  spirit  of  faith  and 
confidence  that  in  all  their  troubles  not  one  of  his  sub- 
jects failed  him.    On  his  return  to  France  he  soon  or- 
ganized missions  and  retreats  as  before.    In  1887,  he 
was  given  the  important  work  of  Apostolic  visitor  to 
the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor.    As  a  preacher  few  sur- 
passed him  in  the  retreats  he  gave  to  priests  and  re- 
ligious all  over  France.    At  the  age  of  seventy  he  was 
again  nominated  provincial.    Although  in  poor  health, 
he  set  to  work  with  his  wonted  activity,  but  the  result 
was  a  complete  break-down.     He  wrote  much  and 
well.    He  was  the  founder  (1875)  of  the  ascetical  re- 
view, "La  Sainte  Famille*',  and  a  constant  contribu- 
tor to  it.    His  works  are  editerf  in  three  series:    1.  Vie 
Chrdtienne.— "L'  Art  d'  assurer  son  Salut";    ^Le 
Credo  et  la  Providence";  "Le  Monde  et  I'  Eva 


Jle". 

"La  Vie  vraiment  chr^tienne";  "Devotions  de T'Ame 
chrdtienne":  "Le  Vdn.  Passarat  et  les  RMemptor- 
istes".  2.  Vie  Religieuse. — "Exercises  Spirituels" 
(Retraites) .  —  "  Renouvellements  spirituefc  *'  (Re- 
traites) ;  "Conversion  auotidienne  et  retour  oontinuel 
&  Dieu'*  (Retraites);  "Une  Vertu  pour  chaque  mois 
de  Tann^*';  "La  Vie  vraiment  religieuse";  "Manuel 
de  mutations  quotidiennes".  3.  Vie  Saoerdotale. — 
"Dieu  et  la  parole  de  Dieu":  "Disooura  et  plans  de 
retraites  eccl^siastiques";  "L'esprit  Apostolique"- 
" L'art de sauver les ames " ;  "La charity sacerdotale 
(Paris,  Librairie  de  la  "Samte  Famille",  1907-8). 
La  SairUa  FamiUa  (1898).  450;   Archives  Congr.  SS.  R. 

J.  Maonieb. 

Detenninism  is  a  name  employed  by  recent  writers, 
especially  since  J.  Stuart  Mill,  to  denote  the  philosoph- 
ical theory  which  holds,  in  opposition  to  the  doctrme 
of  free  will,  that  all  man's  volitions  are  invariably  deter- 
mined by  pre-existing  circumstanoes.  It  may  talce 
diverse  forms,  some  cruder,  some  more  refined.  Bio- 
logical and  materialistic  Determinism  maintains  that 
each  of  our  voluntary  acts  finds  its  sufficient  and  com- 
plete cause  in  the  physiological  conditions  of  the  or- 
ganism. I^ychological  Determinism  aacribes  effi- 
ciency to  the  psychical  antecedents.  In  this  view 
each  volition  or  act  of  choice  is  determined  by  the 
character  of  the  agent  plus  the  motives  acting  on  hum 
at  the  time.  Advocates  of  this  theory,  since  Mill. 
usually  object  to  the  names,  Necessarianism  and 
Fatali'^m,  on  the  ground  that  these  woitts  seem  to 
imply  some  form  of  external  compulsion,  whikt  they 
amrm  only  the  fact  of  invariable  sequence  or  uniform 
causal  connectedness  between  motives  and  volition. 
Opposed  to  this  view  is  the  doctrine  of  Indetennininn, 
or  what  perhaps  may  more  accurately  be  called  Anti- 
determinism,  which  denies  that  man  is  thus  Invariably 
determined  in  all  his  acts  of  dioioe.    Ihis  doctrine  hM 


DBTRAOTXON 


757 


DBTRAOnON 


t>een  stigmatused  by  some  of  its  opponents  as  the  the- 
ory of  ''causelesB  volition",  or  'Nmotiveless  choice"; 
a^id  the  name,  Indeterminism,  is  possibly  not  the  best 
selection  to  meet  the  imputation.  The  objection  is, 
bkowever,  not  justified.  The  Anti-determimsts,  while 
denying  that  the  act  of  choice  is  always  merely  the 
resultant  of  the  assemblage  of  motives  playing  on  the 
mind,  teach  positively  that  the  Ego,  or  Self,  is  the 
cause  of  our  volitions;  and  they  describe  it  as  a 
^  free  * '  or  *'  self-determining ' '  cause.  The  presence  of 
some  reason  or  motive,  they  ordinarily  hold,  is  a  neces- 
sary condition  for  evenr  act  of  free  choice,  but  they  in- 
sist that  the  Ego  can  decide  between  motives.  Choice 
is  not,  they  maintain,  uniformly  determined  by  the 
pleasantest  or  the  worthiest  motive  or  collection  of 
motives.  Nor  is  it  the  inevitable  conse(^uent  of  the 
strongest  motive,  except  in  that  tautological  sense  in 
which  the  word  strongest  simply  signifies  that  motive 
which  as  a  matter  of  fact  prevails.  Determinism  and 
the  denial  of  free  will  seem  to  be  a  logical  consequence 
of  all  monistic  hypotheses.  They  are  obviously  in- 
volved in  all  materialistic  theories.  For  Materialism 
of  every  type  neceasarily  holds  that  every  incident  in 
the  history  of  the  univense  is  the  inevitable  outcome 
of  -the  medianical  and  physical  movements  and 
"changes  which  have  gone  before.  But  Determinism 
seems  to  be  an  equally  necessary  consequence  of 
monistic  Idealism.  Indeed  the  main  argument 
against  all  monistic  and  pantheistic  systems  will  always 
be  the  fact  of  free  wifi.  Self-determination  implies 
separateness  of  individuality  and  independence  in 
each  free  agent,  and  thus  entails  a  pluralistic  concep- 
tion of  the  universe.  (See  Duaxjsm;  Monism.)  In 
smte  of  the  assertions  of  Determinists,  no  true  logical 
oistinction  can  be  made  between  their  view  and  that 
of  Fatalism.  In  both  systems  each  of  my  volitions  is 
as  inexorablv  fated,  c»r  pre-determined,  in  the  past 
conditions  oi  the  universe  as  the  movements  of  the 
planets  or  the  tides.  The  opponents  of  Determinism 
usually  insist  on  two  lines  of  argument,  the  one  biased 
on  the  consciousness  of  freedom  in  the  act  of  deliber- 
ate choice,  the  other  on  the  incompatibility  of  Deter- 
minism with  our  fundamental  moral  convictions. 
The  notions  of  responsibility,  moral  obligation, 
merit,  and  the  like,  as  ordinanly  understood,  would 
be  illusoiy  if  Determinism  were  true.  The  theonr  is 
In  fact  fatal  to  ethics,  as  well  as  to  the  notion  of  sin 
and  the  fimdamental  Christian  behef  that  we  can 
merit  both  reward  and  punishment.  (See  Frbs  Wuuu; 
Ethics;  Fatalism.) 

RjCKABT,  Free  WiU  (London.  1906);  Ward,  Phdoaopku  of 
Theism  (London,  1884):  James,  PrincMea  cf  Fsj/eholooy  (New 
York  and  London,  1901),  II,  660-79;  Haher,  PsyAology  (Nour 
York  and  London,  1908),  xix;  Noel,  La  awudence  du  Ubre 
artitn  (Louvain,  1899). 

Michael  Maher. 

Detraction  (from  Lat.  detrahere,  to  take  away)  is 
the  imjust  damaging  of  another's  good  name  by  the 
revelation  of  some  fault  or  crime  of  which  that  other 
is  really  guilty  or  at  any  rate  is  seriously  believed  to  be 
guilty  oy  the  def amer.  An  important  difference  be- 
tween detraction  and  calumnv  is  at  once  apparent. 
The  calumniator  says  what  he  knows  to  be  false, 
whilst  the  detractor  narrates  what  he  at  least  honestly 
thinks  is  true.  Detraction  in  a  general  sense  is  a  mor- 
tal sin,  as  being  a  violation  of  the  virtue  not  only  of 
charity  but  alw  of  justice.  It  is  obvious,  however, 
that  tne  subject-matter  of  the  accusation  may  be  so 
inconspicuous  or,  everything  considered,  so  little 
capable  of  doing  serious  hurt  that  the  guilt  is  not  as- 
sumed to  be  more  than  venial.  The  same  judgment 
is  to  be  ^ven  when,  as  not  unfrequently  happens, 
there  has  been  little  or  no  advertence  to  the  harm  that 
is  being  done. 

The  determination  of  the  degree  of  sinfulness  of  de- 
traction is  in  general  to  be  gathered  from  the  consid- 
eiation  of  the  amount  of  hann  the  defamatory  utter- 


ance is  calculated  to  work.  In  order  to  adequately 
measure  the  seriousness  of  the  damage  wrou^t,  due 
regard  must  be  had  not  only  to  the  imputation  itself 
but  also  to  the  character  of  the  person  oy  whom  and 
against  whom  the  chai^  is  made.  That  is,  we  must 
take  into  accoimt  not  only  the  greater  or  lesser  crim- 
inahty  of  the  thing  alleged  but  also  the  more  or  less 
distinguished  reputation  of  the  detractor  for  trust- 
worthmess,  as  well  as  the  more  or  less  notable  dignity 
or  estimation  of  the  person  whose  good  name  has  oeen 
assailed.  Thus  it  is  conceivable  that  a  relatively  small 
defect  alleged  against  a  person  of  eminent  station, 
such  as  a  Dishop,  might  seriously  tarnish  his  good 
name  and  be  a  mortal  sin,  whilst  an  offence  of  consid- 
erable magnitude  attributed  to  an  individual  of  a  class 
in  which  such  thin^  frequently  happen  might  consti- 
tute only  a  venial  sm,  such  as,  tor  instance,  to  say  that 
a  common  sailor  had  been  arunk.  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that  the  manifestation  of  even  inculpable  de- 
fects may  be  a  real  defamation,  such  as  to  charge  a 
person  with  gross  ignorance,  etc.  When  this  is  done 
m  such  circumstances  as  to  bring  upon  the  person  so 
disparaged  a  more  than  ordinary  measure  of  disgrace, 
or  perhaps  seriously  prejudice  him,  the  sin  may  even 
be  a  grievous  one. 

There  are  times,  nevertheless,  when  one  may  law- 
fully make  known  the  offence  of  another  even  though 
as  a  consequence  the  trust  hitherto  reposed  in  him  be 
rudely  shaken  or  shattered.  If  a  person's  misdoing  is 
public  in  the  sense  that  sentence  has  been  passed  by 
the  competent  legal  tribunal  or  that  it  is  already  no- 
torious, for  instance,  in  a  city,  then  in  the  first  case  it 
may  licitly  be  referred  to  in  any  place*  in  the  second, 
within  the  limits  of  the  town,  or  even  elsewhere,  unless 
in  either  instance  the  offender  in  the  lapse  of  time 
should  have  entirely  reformed  or  his  delinquency  been 
quite  forgotten.  When,  however,  knowledge  of  the 
happening  is  possessed  only  by  the  members  of  a  par- 
ticular community  or  society,  such  as  a  college  or 
monastery  and  the  like,  it  would  not  be  lawful  to  pub- 
lish the  fact  to  others  than  those  belonging  to  such  a 
body.  Finally,  even  when  the  sin  is  in  no  sense  pub- 
lic, it  may  still  be  divulged  without  contravening  the 
virtues  of  justice  or  charity  whenever  such  a  course  is 
for  the  common  weal  or  is  esteemed  to  make  for  the 
good  of  the  narrator,  of  his  listeners,  or  even  of  the 
culprit.  The  right  wnich  the  latter  has  to  an  assumed 
good  name  is  extinguished  in  the  presence  of  the  bene- 
fit which  may  be  conferred  in  this  way. 

The  employment  of  this  teaching,  however,  is  Um- 
ited  by  a  twofold  restriction.  (1)  liie  damage  which 
one  may  soberly  apprehend  as  emerging  from  the 
failure  to  reveal  another's  sin  or  vicious  propensity 
must  be  a  notable  one  as  contrasted  with  the  evil  of 
defamation.  (2)  No  more  in  the  way  of  exposure 
should  be  done  than  is  required,  and  even  a  f  ratei^nal 
admonition  ought  rather  to  be  substituted  if  it  can  be 
discerned  to  aoequately  meet  the  needs  of  the  situa- 
tion. Journalists  are  entirely  within  their  rights  in 
inveighine  against  the  official  shortcomings  of  public 
men.  Likewise,  they  may  lawfully  present  whatever 
information  about  the  life  or  character  of  a  candidate 
for  public  office  is  necessary  to  show  his  unfitness  for 
the  station  he  seeks.  Historians  have  a  still  greater 
latitude  in  the  performance  of  their  task.  This  is  not 
of  course  because  the  dead  have  lost  their,  claim  to 
have  their  good  name  respected.  History  must  be 
something  more  than  a  mere  calendar  of  dates  and  in- 
cidents; the  causes  and  connexion  of  events  are  a 
proper  part  of  its  province.  This  consideration,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  generai  utility  in  elevating  and 
strengthening  the  public  conscience,  may  justify  the 
historian  in  telling  many  things  hitherto  unknown 
which  are  to  the  disgrace  of  those  of  whom  they  are 
related. 

. .   Those  who  abet  another's  defamation  in  a  matt<»r  of 
moment  by  directly  or  indirectly  inciting  or  encour* 


DSTRS 


758 


DITftOn 


a^ing  the  principal  in  the  case  arc  giiiltv  of  ^evous 
injustioe.  When,  however,  one's  attitude  is  simply  a 
passive  one,  i.  e.  that  of  a  mere  listener,  prescindmg 
from  any  interior  satisfaction  at  the  blackening  of  an- 
other's good  name,  ordinarily  the  sin  is  not  mortal 
unless  one  happens  to  be  a  superior.  The  reason  is 
that  private  persons  are  seldom  obliged  to  administer 
fraternal  correction  under-pain  of  mortal  sin  (see  Cor* 
REcnoN,  Fraternal).  The  detractor  having  vio- 
lated an  unimpeachable  ri^t  of  another  is  bound  to 
restitution.  He  must  do  his  best  to  put  back  the  one 
whom  he  has  thus  outra^  in  possession  of  the  fair 
fame  which  the  latter  hitherto  enjoyed.  He  must 
likewise  make  good  whatever  other  loss  he  in  some 
measure  foresaw  his  victim  would  sustain  as  a  result 
of  this  unfair  defamation,  such  as  damage  measur- 
able in  terms  of  money.  The  obligation  in  either  in- 
stance is  perfectly  clear.  The  method  of  discharging 
this  plain  duty  is  not  so  obvious  in  the  first  case.  In 
fact,  since  the  thing  idleged  is  assumed  to  be  true,  it 
cannot  be  formally  taken  back,  and  some  of  the  sug- 
gestions of  theologians  as  to  the  style  of  reparation  are 
more  ingenious  than  satisfactoi^.  Generally  the  only 
thing  that  can  be  done  is  to  bide  one's  time  until  an 
occasion  presents  itself  for  a  favourable  characteriza- 
tion of  tne  person  defamed.  The  obligation  of  the 
detractor  to  make  compensation  for  pecuniary  loss 
and  the  like  is  not  only  personal  but  becomes  a  burden 
on  his  heirs  as  well. 

NoLDiN,  Summa  Theciooia  Moralia  (Innsbnick,  1905) ;  Geni- 
OOT,  Theotogia  Moralia  huHtuUonea  (Lou vain,  1808);  Lbum- 
KUHii,  Theolooia  Moralu  (Freiburc.  1887). 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

"Dettit  William,  missionaiy,  b.  in  France  in  1668, 
d.  in  South  America,  at  an  advanced  age,  date  imcer- 
tain.  After  his  admission  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  he 
was  sent  by  his  superiors  to  the  missions  of  South 
America  in  1706,  and  seven  years  later  was  appointed 
superior-general  and  visitor  of  all  the  missions  of  the 
Amazon  embracing  a  tract  of  over  9000  miles.  He  is 
credited  with  translating  the  catechism  into  eighteen 
different  languages  for  the  various  Indian  tribes  imder 
his  jurisdiction.  It  was  he  who  sent  to  Europe  the 
celebrated  map  of  the  Amazon  drawn  by  Father  Sam- 
uel Fritz,  S.  J.,  and  engraved  at  Quito  in  1707.  In 
1727  he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  College  of  Cuenca, 
where  he  continued  the  zealous  exercise  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  ministry.  He  left  an  interesting  ''Rela^ 
tion"  dated  1  June,  1731,  giving  curious  details  about 
the  uncivilized  races  of  the  Amazon.  It  is  inserted  in 
volume  XXIII  of  the  ''Lettres  Edihantes",  original 
edition. 

MiCHAUD.  Bmv.  Univ.  (Pwis,  1814);  Sommkryoobl,  BiU.  d& 
laC.de  J.  (Brasseb,  1892).  s.  v.  Samtul  FriU.lU.  1003. 

Edward  P.  Spillanb. 

Detroit,  Diocese  or  (Dbtroitensis),  established 
8  March,  1838,  comprises  the  counties  of  the  lower 
peninsula  of  the  State  of  Michigan,  U.  S.  A.,  south  of 
the  Counties  of  Ottawa,  Kent,  Montcalm,  Gratiot,  and 
Saginaw,  and  east  of  the  Counties  of  Saginaw  and  Bay; 
an  area  of  18,558  miles.    Suffragan  of  Cincinnati. 

To  the  martvT  Father  Isaac  Jogues  and  his  fellow- 
Jesuit  Father  Charles  Raynbaut,  belongs  the  honour  of 
planting  the  Cross  in  Michigan  when,  in  1642,  they 
b^gan  uieir  mission  to  the  Chippeways  of  the  Sauft 
Ste.  Marie.  Father  Ren^  Menanl,  also  a  Jesuit,  fol- 
lowed them  in  1660,  and  was  martyred  the  next  year 
by  a  band  of  prowling  savages.  His  death  did  not 
deter  others  of  his  brethren  in  the  Society  of  Jesus 
from  hastening  to  this  field  of  labour,  and  we  find 
Father  Claude  Allouez,  at  Chegoime^n,  1  October, 
1665,  preaching  to  the  Ottawas  and  Hurons,  and  with 
him  these  other  missionaries:  Fathers  Claude  Dablon, 
Louis  Andr6,  Gabriel  Druilletes,  and  the  famous 
Jacques  Marquette.  The  last,  in  1671 ,  began  at  Mich- 
ilimackinaw,  his  mission  of  St.  Ignatius,  where  the 
first  chapel  for  white  men  in  Michigan  was  estab- 


lished. France  took  formal  posnession  of  the  West  in 
1671,  but  England  entering  the  fieki  to  dispute  for  the 
mastery,  political  intrigue  followed,  to  the  disaster  of 
the  old  missions  amon^  the  Indians.  Fort  St.  Joseph, 
established  at  Detroit  m  1688,  developed  into  the  post 
established  there  in  1700  by  La  Mothe  Cadillae,  who 
brouj^t  with  him  a  number  of  Canadian  families. 
This  mission  was  served  by  the  Recollects  and  under 
the  pastorate  of  the  Rev.  Nicholas  Benedict  Constantin 
de  rHalle,  on  26  July,  1701,  the  church  of  St.  Anne 
was  dedicated.  This  is  the  mother-church  of  the 
Northwest,  and  the  parish  records  are  preserved  in  an 
unbroken  series  in  the  archives  of  the  St.  Anne's 
Church  of  the  present,  the  building  being  the  sixth  of 
the  name  in  the  line  of  succession.  The  first  entry  in 
this  registry  is  that  of  the  baptism  of  a  child  of  Cadil- 
lac, the  founder  of  the  colony.  It  is  asserted  that  no 
other  parish  in  the  United  States  can  present  a  Bimilar 
record.  This  church  was  burned  by  discontented 
Indians  in  1704,  and  aj^in  durins  an  Indian  outbreak 
in  1712.  Father  de  l^Halle  was  Killed  by  the  Indians 
in  1706. 

Other  pastors  during^his  period  were  the  ReooUect 
Fathers  Bonaventure,  Dominic  de  la  Marche,  Cheru- 
bin  Dcnieau,  Hyacinth  Pelifresne,  and  Simplicius  Bf>' 
quet  (1752-82)  and  the  Sulpitian  Fathers  Calvarin, 
Mcrcier,  and  Thaumur  de  la  Somee.  Detroit  re- 
mained  under  English  domination  until  1796,  when 
with  the  change  ofpolitical  control  the  spiritual  juris- 
diction passed  to  Bishop  Carroll  of  Baltimore,  and  the 
Bishop  of  Quebec  recalled  his  priests  from  the  Michigan 
territory.  Among  those  ministering  at  Detroit  during 
the  English  occupation  were  Father  Hiomas  Portter, 
who  died  in  1781,  and  Father  John  Francis  Hubert, 
who  was  made  CcMdjutor  Bishop  of  Quebec  in  June, 
1785. 

At  the  dawn  of  the  nineteenth  oentuij  Detroit,  still 
a  miUtuy  post,  had  a  population  of  about  2000, 
mainly  French  Catholics.  St.  Anne's  parish  then 
comprised  the  whole  of  the  present  State  of  Michigan 
and  most  of  Wisconsin.  In  1796  Bishop  GarroH  sent 
the  Sulpitian  Father  Michael  Levadouz  to  take  diarge 
at  Detroit.  In  June  of  the  same  year  Fathers  (kibriel 
Richard  and  Dilhet  were  appointed  to  assist  him,  the 
latter  taking  up  his  residence  at  Raisin  River.  Father 
Levadoux  was  recalled  to  Baltimore  in  1801'.  Father 
Richard  succeeded  him  and  became  not  only  pastor  of 
St.  Anne's,  but  one  of  the  leading  figures  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  West.  This  remarkable  priest  was 
bom  at  Saintes,  France,  15  October,  1767.  His 
father  was  a  government  employee,  and  his  mother 
Genevieve  Bossuet,  a  scion  of  the  same  family  as  the 
^^a^Bishop  of  Meaux.  He  was  ordained  as  a  Sulpi- 
tian at  Paris,  in  October,  1791.  The  Revolution  drove 
him  from  his  native  land,  and  with  Fathers  Marshal, 
Ciquard,  and  Matigonon,  he  arrived  in  Baltimore,  24 
June,  1792.  It  was  intended  that  they  should  be 
teachers  at  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  but  tliey  were  as- 
signed to  missionary  work  instead,  as  the  seminary 
was  not  then  ready  for  them.  Father  Ridiard  was 
sent  to  Prairie  du  Rocher  and  Kaskaskia,  Dlinols, 
where  he  spent  six  yean  of  hardship  and  privation, 
but  fruitful  in  the  restilts  of  his  zealous  ministrations. 
When  he  arrived  at  Detroit  in  June,  1798,  he  found 
religious  conditions  far  from  ideal,  the  town  having 
been  for  years  an  Indian  trading  centre.  He  began  at 
once  to  exert  a  salutary  influence  for  the  reformation 
of  existing  abuses  and  devoted  himself  also  to  promot- 
ing the  welfare  of  the  numerous  Indian  missions  in  the 
surrounding  country.  In  the  summer  of  1801  he  had 
Bishop  Denaut  of  Quebec  visit  Detroit  on  the  invita- 
tion of  Bishop  Carroll  and  confirm  521  persons  of  ages 
ranging  from  ^rteen  to  eighty  years.  His  manu- 
script list  of  their  names  and  ages  is  still  kept  in  St. 
Anne's  archives.  In  1804  he  stsurted  a  Young  Ladies' 
Academy  and  a  seminary  to  foster  vocations  for  the 
priesthood  for  young  men,  but  a  fire  which  destroyed 


DETROIT 

1.  DETROIT  COLLEGE  3.   CATHEDRAL  OF  STS.  PETER  AND  PAUl 

2.  CHURCH  OF  OUR  LADY  OF  THE  ROSARY  '  4.   ST.  MARY*S  COLLEGE,  MONROE 

5.   OLD  ST.  ANNE's  church 


DETROIT 


759 


DETROIT 


the  town  II  Juno,  1805,  swept  these  away  as  well  as 
the  church  and  priests'  residence.  So  active  were  his 
resourceful  methods  that  within  three  years  another 
church  was  provided,  the  Catholic  schools  of  Detroit 
were  again  in  operation,  and  tuition  given  in  six  pri- 
mary schools  and  two  academies  for  girls.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  University  of  Michigan, 
which  began  with  the  act  of  the  legislature  passed  26 
August,  1817,  establishing  "the  Catholepistemiad  or 
University  of  Michigan''  of  which  he  was  vice-presi- 
dent and  professor  for  six  of  the  thirteen  departments 
of  which  its  curriculum  was  made  up.  In  1807  the 
governor  and  other  officials  requested  nim  to  lecture  to 
them  and  thus  afforded  him  the  opportunity  to  be  the 
first  priest  in  the  United  States  to  deliver  a  series  of 
religious  lectures  to  non-Catholics.  He  spoke  to  them 
on  the  general  principles  of  religion  and  morality  at 
noon  every  Sunday  in  the  Council  House.  Explaining 
this  action  to  Bishop  Carroll,  he  wrote:  "As  there 
was  no  English  minister  here  of  any  denomination,  I 
thought  it  might  be  of  some  utility  to  take  possession 
of  the  ground."  The  following  year  he  went  to  Balti- 
more and  brought  back  type  and  a  printins  press 
which  he  set  up  in  Detroit.  From  this,  on  31  August, 
1809,  he  issued  the  "Michigan  Essay  or  Imp^ial 
Observer*',  the  first  paper  published  in  Michigan  and 
the  first  Catholic  paper  in  the  United  States.  It  had 
several  columns  printed  in  French  and  the  rest  in 
English  and  had  only  one  advertisement — ^that  of  St. 
Anne's  school.  Between  1809  and  1812  he  printed  on 
this  press  seven  book»  of  a  retigious  and  educational 
character,  one,  "The  Epistles  and  Gospels  for  all  the 
Sundays  and  Feast-days  of  the  Year",  being  the  first 
publication  in  the  Northwest  of  a  part  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures. 

The  war  of  1812  with  E^ngland  demoralized  condi- 
tions in  Detroit,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Brit- 
ish. Father  Richard  was  arrested  and  kept  a  pris- 
oner in  Canada  during  the  contest.  On  being  released 
he  returned  to  his  parish  and  was  at  once  busy  helping 
everybody  to  repair  the  ravages  of  the  war.  In  1K23 
he  was  elected  a  Delegate  to  Congress  from  Michigan 
Territory,  the  only  instance  in  which  a  priest  has  held 
a  seat  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  He  had  five 
opponents  at  the  polls,  but  many  non^atholics  voted 
for  him,  Which  outweighed  the  bitter  opposition  of  a 
number  of  members  of  his  parish  led  by  one  of  the 
trustees  who  had  lone  been  at  enmity  with  him.     He 

fave  his  salary  for  the  improvement  of  the  church, 
ust  before  he  left  for  Washington  he  was  put  in 
prison  by  one  of  his  parishioners  who  had  obtained  a 
divorce  in  a  civil  court  and  Remarried.  Father 
Richard  declared  him  excommunicated,  and  the  man 
sued  for  damages  to  his  reputation  and  business  and 
got  a  judgment  of  SI,  116.  This  Father  Richard  re- 
fused to  pay,  and  he  was  imprisoned  until  three  of  his 
friends  gave  a  bond  for  him.  The  judgment  was 
eventually  reversed.  In  Congress  he  work(xi  assidu- 
ously for  the  interests  of  Michigan,  but  the  only  not- 
able speech  he  made  was  that  ^vocating  the  bill  for 
the  opening  of  a  post-road  from  Detroit  to  Chicago. 
He  sought  re-election  at  the  end  of  his  term,  but  was 
defeated,  mainly  through  the  exertions  of  his  trustee 
opponents.  When  Bishop  Fenwick  was  consecrated 
first  Bishop  of  Cincinnati  in  1822  Michigan  passed 
from  Bardstown  to  that  jurisdiction.  Father  Richard 
prepared  for  him  a  statement  of  the  condition  of  the 
Territory,  in  which  he  then  estimated  there  were  about 
6000  Catholics  with  five  churches  and  two  priests — 
himself  and  his  assistant.  An  epidemic  of  cholera 
broke  out  in  Detroit  in  the  summer  of  1832,  and  the 
venerable  miasionaiy,  while  unstintingl^  devoting 
himself  to  the  help  of  the  suffering,  fell  a  victim  to  the 
disease,  of  which  he  died,  13  September,  1832.  Prep- 
arations had  been  under  way  even  then  to  raise  De- 
troit to  a  bishopric,  of  which,  had  he  lived,  he  would 
probably  have  received  the  mitre. 


Gabrxxl  Richard 


BisHOP8.--(l)  John  Fuedeuic  Reee  (the  name  Ls 
also  given  as  Reese  in  the  German  ecclesiastical  rec- 
ords), who  had  been  a  zealous  missionary  throughout 
the  territoiy,  was  appointed  the  first  bishop  25  Febru- 
ary, 1833,  and  was  consecrated  at  Cincinnati  6  Octo- 
ber of  the  same  year.  He  was  bom  6  February,  1791 , 
at  Viennenberg,  Hanover,  and  enjoys  the  distinction 
of  being  the  first  German-bom  bishop  of  the  American 
hieranmy.  Drafted  into  military  service  in  his  youth, 
he  served  under  Bliicher  as  a  dragon  at  the  battle  of 
Waterloo.  He  was  ordained  in  Rome,  in  1822,  and 
emigrated  to  the  American  missions  in  1825,  affiliating 
himself  with  Bishop  Fenwick  in  Ohio.  In  1827  he 
was  sent  to  Europe  to  secure  German  priests  and  finan- 
cial aid  for  the  stmggline  missions  and  returned  in 
a  year,  after  success  in  both  efforts.  Through  his  ex- 
ertions the  famous  Leopoldine  Association  that  gave 
so  much  substantial  help  to  the  Church  in  the  United 
States  was  founded 
in  Austria  in  1829. 
When  he  took 
charge  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Detroit 
there  were  eight 
churches  and  the 
Ottawa  Indian 
mission  within  its 
limits.  Under  his 
auspices  the  Poor 
Clares  opened  a 
convent  in  Detroit 
and  a  school  at 
Green  Bay  (1833). 
Holy  Trinity 
church  was  built 
at    Detroit,    and 

{)ari8hes  estab- 
ished  at  Monroe,  Grand  River,  and  Bertrand. 
A  hospital  was  opened  in  Detroit  in  1834  during 
an  outbreak  of  cholera,  where  also  St.  Philip's  Col- 
lege, an  orphan  asylum,  Trinity  Academy,  and  a 
house  of  the  Ladies  of  FSt)vidence  were  established, 
with  several  parochial  schools.  The  bishop,  however, 
was  attacked  with  softening  of  the  brain  and  expreasea 
in  a  letter  to  the  Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore,  in 
1837,  a  wish  to  resign  or  transfer  the  administration  to 
a  coadjutor.  He  was  suspended  from  all  episcopal 
jurisdiction  and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  remained 
until  the  disorders  in  the  city  by  the  revolutionists  in 
1848,  and  then  retired  to  his  native  Diocese  of  Hildes- 
heim,  Germany,  where  he  died  at  the  mother-house  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity,  30  December,  1871,  and  was 
buried  in  the  cathedral  of  that  place. 

(2)  Peter  Paul  Lefebre,  another  active  and  suc- 
cessful missionary  of  the  Diocese  of  Cincinnati,  was 
named  as  the  coaxijutor  and  administrator  of  Detroit, 
and  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Zella,  at  Philadel* 
phia,  21  November,  1841.  He  was  born  30  April, 
1804,  at  Roulers,  near  Ghent,  Belgium,  and,  emitt- 
ing to  the  United  States  in  1828,  was  ordained  priest 
at  St.  Louis,  17  July,  1831.  He  was  in  Europe  when 
he  was  appointed  bishop,  but  retumed  at  once  for  his 
consecration.  He  was  a  careful  and  conservative 
prelate,  forecasting  the  future  in  his  selection  of 
church  sites,  and  devoting  himself  actively  to  the  ex-  • 
pansion  of  the  facilities  for  the  practice  of  the  Faith  in 
nis  diocese  and  the  spread  of  sound  Catholic  educa^ 
tion.  The  Redemptorists  and  the  Religious  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  were  established  in  Detroit,  and  for  the 
parochial  schools  the  Christian  Brothers,  the  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame,  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  the  Sisters  of 
the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  were  brought  into  the 
diocese.  In  1844  the  creation  of  the  new  See  of  Mil- 
waukee relieved  the  Bishop  of  Detroit  of  the  care  of 
that  section  and  enabled  him  to  devote  more  attention 
to  his  Indian  missions,  which  were  developed  splen- 
didly.   In  1 857  the  separation  of  the  Diocese  of  Sault- 


DEUSDBDIT 


760 


HEXTSDEDIT 


Ste-Marie  was  made  at  Bishop  Lefcbre's  suggestion. 
With  Bishop  Spalding  he  was  mainly  instrumental  in 
founding,  in  1867,  the  American  College  at  Louvain 
(q.  v.).     He  died,  4  March,  1869. 

(3)  Gasper  H.  Borgess  (q.  v.)  was  appointed  his 
successor  and  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Calyson 
and  coadjutor  and  administrator  of  Detroit,  24  April, 

1870.  On  the  death  of  Bishop  Eeze,  30  December, 

1871 ,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Detroit.  He  resigned  16 
April,  1888,  and  died  3  May,  1890. 

(4)  John  Samuel  Foley  was  named  the  fourth 
bishop  and  consecrated  at  Baltimore,  4  November, 
1888.  He  was  bom  in  that  city  5  November,  1833, 
and  ordained  priest  in  Home  20  December,  1856.  His 
brother  was  Bishop  Thomas  Foley,  administrator  of 
Chicago  (1870-79).  The  early  settlers  of  Detroit  had 
been  French  j  these  were  followed,  at  different  inter- 
vals, by  Belgians,  Germans,  Poles,  Slavs,  and  Italians. 
Bishop  Foley  established  a  special  seminary  for  the 
Poles  and  secured  the  ministrations  of  religious  of  that 
nationality.  A  schism  among  them  of  several  years' 
duration,  and  of  disastrous  results,  was  healed  throueh 
his  forbearance.  In  1907  the  priests  and  laity  of  the 
diocese,  in  honour  of  the  golden  jubilee  of  his  priest- 
hood, presented  Bishop  Foley  with  St.  Francis's  Home 
for  Orphan  Boys,  built  at  a  cost  of  $250,000. 

The  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  Servants  of  the  Im- 
maculate Heart  of  Manr  was  founded  at  Monroe, 
Michigan,  28  Nov.,  1845,  by  the  Rev.  Louis  Gillet, 
C.  SS.  R.  Three  young  ladies,  two  from  Baltimore 
and  one  from  Detroit,  lormed  the  new  community, 
whose  rule  was  taken  from  that  of  St.  Alphonsus. 
and  whose  secondary  object  was  the  education  of 
youth.  In  1859  some  of  the  sistera  went  to  Pennsyl- 
vania; there  are  now  three  distinct  mother-houses,  one 
in  the  Archdiocese  of  Philadelphia,  one  in  the  Diocese 
of  Scranton,  and  the  original  at  Monroe,  in  the  Diocese 
of  Detroit.  Besides  these  the  sisters  have  schools  in 
the  Dioceses  of  Harrisbujg,  Altoona,  Boise^  Grand 
Rapids,  Cleveland,  Seattle,  and  Oregon. 

The  following  religious  orders  and  congr^tions 
have  foundations  in  the  diocese. — Communities  of 
men:  Fathers  of  St.  Basil,  Capuchins,  Fathers  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  Fathers  of  the  Precious  Blood,  Redemp- 
torists,  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  Xaverian  Brothers.  Communities  of  women : 
Sisters  of  Charity  (Mt.  St.  Joseph,  Ohio).  Sisters  of 
Charity  (Emmitsburg,  Md.),  Sisters  ot  Christian 
Charitv,  Sistera  of  St.  Dominic  (New  York  City),  Sis- 
tera of  St.  Dominic  (Racine,  Wis.),  School  Sistera  of 
St.  Francis,  Felician  Sistera,  Sistera  of  the  Good 
Shepherd,  Sistera  of  the  Holy  Names  of  Jesus  and 
Mary,  Sistera  Servants  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary,  Sistera  of  St.  Joseph,  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Little  Sistera  of  me  Poor,  School  Sistera  of 
Notre  Dame,  Polish  Sistera  of  St.  Joseph,  Sistera  of  St. 
Dominic  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration. 

Statibtics:  1  bishop,  237  priests  (193  secular  and 
44  regular),  146  churches  with  resident  priests,  66  mis- 
sions with  churches,  20  stations,  23  chapels,  1  theo- 
logical seminary  for  the  secular  clergy  with  320  stu- 
dents, 40  Polish  students,  1  theological  seminary  for 
religious;  3  colleges  and  academies  for  boys,  students 
600;  7  academies  for  girls,  students  870;  70  parishes 
and  missions  with  schools,  pupils  23,086;  3  orphan 
asylums,  inmates  600;  1  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd, 
inmates  in  preservation  class  125.  Total  number  of  chil- 
dren under  Catholic  care,  23,811;  4  hospitals;  1  home 
for  aged  poor,  inmates  250 ;  1  home  for  feeble-minded ; 
1  infant  asylum,  1  home  for  working  boys.  Estimated 
Catholic  population  256,500  (Catholic  families  50,041). 

Shka,  History  of  Caih,  Mistions  among  the  Indian  Tribes  of 
U.  S.  (New  York,  1855);  Idem,  Life  and  Times  of  Most  Rev. 
John  Carroa  (New  York,  1888);  Idem,  Hittory  of  Cath.  Ch.  in 
U.  S.  (New  York,  1904);  Campbku:^  Pioneer  Prieats  of  North 
America  (New  York.  1908);  U.  S.  Cath.  Hist.  Soc,  Hi*t. 
Records  and  Studies  (New  York.  November,  1907).  V,  Pt.  I; 
REnas,  Biog.  Cyei.  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  of  c/.-  S.  (Mil- 
waukee,  1888);    Clajuub,  JAves  of  Deeeaat4  Bithops  (New 


York,  1872);  Catholic  Directory  (1908);  Goout.  MidkianLa 
Hialory  of  Oovemments  (Boston.  18S6);  McLiAtiOHun,  0u<0ry 
of  Education  m  Miehiifan  (WasoinctoD,  1881). 

THoiCAS  F.  Mbeban. 

Deosdedit  (Adeodatus  I)»  Saint,  PopSp  date  of 
birth  unknown:  eonseerated  pope,  19  October  (13 
November),  615;  d,  8  November  (3  December),  618; 
distinguished  for  his  charity  and  z/&oL  He  enoourased 
and  supported  the  clei^,  who  were  ioipoverisbedf  in 
oonseouenoe  of  ihe  political  trouUes  of  the  time;  and 
when  nifl  diocese  was  visited  by  a  violent  eartJoquiike 
and  the  terrible  soouige  of  leprosv  he  aet  an  heroic 
example  by  his  efforts  to  relieve  the  suffering.  The 
few  deoretaifl  ascribed  to  him  aro  unautfaenticated. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  pope  to  use  leaden 
seals  (fyuUa)  for  pontifical  documents.  One  dating 
from  his  reign  is  still  preservedL  the  obverse  of  whijfa 
represents  the  Good  Shepherd  in  the  midst  of  Hia 
sheep,  with  the  letters  A  and  O  underneath,  while  the 
reverse  bears  the  inscription:  Dsusdsdit  PAPiB.  His 
feast  occurs  8  November.  Lso  A.  Ksllt. 

Deuadttdit,  Saint,  a  native  of  Wessex,  England, 
whose  Saxon  name  was  Frithona,  and  of  whose  eariy 
life  nothing  is  known;  d.  14  July,  664.  He  was  the 
sixth  Archbishop  of  Cantcrbuiv  (655-664),  and  was 
the  first  Anglo-Saxon  to  hold  the  primaov.  He  was 
consecrated  at  Canterbuiy  in  656,  by  Itnamar,  the 
first  Saxon  Bishop  of  Rodiester,  in  sucoession  to 
Honorius,  thus  commencing  the  long  line  of  English 
archbishops,  which  was  broken  but  once,  and  that  by 
his  immediate  successor,  Theodore.  Little  is  known  of 
the  primacy  of  Deusdedit.  Most  of  the  other  bishops 
during  his  time  were  of  either  Celtic  or  French  origin. 
Of  the  seven  or  eight  consecrated  during  the  nine  yean 
of  his  primacy  only  one  received  consecration  from 
him,  viz.  Damian,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  consecrated 
in  656,  and  this  is  the  sole  official  act  of  his  that  is 
known  with  absolute  oertaintv.  He  is  said  to  have 
hallowed  Wulfhere's  church  at  Jided^ampstede  (Peter- 
borouj^)  in  Merda,  the  charter  of  which,  dated  657, 
contains  his  signature,  but  from  the  fact  that  it  also 
contains  the  names  of  Ithamar  and  Tuda  a  difficulty 
arises.  Haddan  and  Stubbs,  who  print  the  charter 
(Councils  of  Great  Britain  and  Irelimd),  consider  the 
foundation  of  this  monastery  to  have  b^n  not  earlier 
than  664.  The  archbishop's  name  is  given  by  Simeon 
of  Duriiam  as  the  consecrator  of  the  seventy  nuns  of 
St.  Eormenburga's  convent  in  Thanet,  but  the  state- 
ment lacks  confirmation.  St.  Deusdedit  died  on  the 
same  day  aa  Ercoabert,  King  of  Kent,  aad  was  buried 
in  St.  Peter's  porch  at  Canterbuiy. 

GozEUN,  Life  of  Deusdedii,  printod  in  theBoLtAiTDBTB  under 
15  July:  Hook,  Lives  of  the  Ahps.  of  Canterbury  (London,  ISSfh 
75);  Hole  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biop.  (London,  1877);  Stantos, 
Mcnologu  of  England  and  Wales  (London,  1887);  Abcheb 
in  Diet.  Nat,  Biog.  (London,  1888). 

G,  Cyprian  Alston. 

Deusdedit,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Todi,  Italy;  d.  be- 
tween 1097  and  1100.  He  was  a  friend  of  St  Gregoiy 
VII  and  defender  of  his  reformation  measures.  Deus- 
dedit joined  the  Benedictine  Order  and  became  a  zeal- 
ous promoter  of  ecclesiastical  reforms  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  eleventh  century.  Pope  Gregonr  VII  raised 
him  to  the  cardinalate  with  the  title  of  S.  Tietro  in 
VincolL  According  to  the  superscription  of  chapter 
420  (former  reckomng  161)  in  the  fourth  book  of  Iub 
"Collectio  canonum  ,  Deusdedit  had  sojourned  in 
Germany;  but  it  is  not  known,  however,  when  and 
from  what  motive  he  did  so.  In  1078,  to  took  ptfurt  in 
a  Roman  syiiod,  at  which  he  represented  tiie  opinions 
of  Berengarius  of  Tours  (Mansi,  Cone.  ColL,XIX,  762). 
In  the  long  conflict  for  the  freedom  of  the  ecclesiastical 
authority  from  the  oppression  of  the  civfl  power  Deus- 
dedit sided  with  Gregory  VII,  and  wtm  one  of  his  chief 
agents  and  defenders.  At  the  suggestion  evidently 
of  this  pope,  he  undertook  the  compuationof  acolle<^ 


DEU8 


761 


DBTTTIHQER 


tiop  of  canons  which  he  completed  in  1087  and  dedi- 
cated to  Victor  III  (Collectio  canonum,  ed.  Marti- 
nucci,  Venice,  1869 ;  ed.  Victor  Wolf  von  Glanfell,  Pa- 
derbom,  1005).    It  consists  of  four  books:  the  first 
book  (327  chapters)  treats  of  the  power  of  die  Roman 
Church;   the  second  (163  chapters)  of  the  Roman 
clergy;  the  third  (289  chapters;  of  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters; the  fourth  (437  chapters)  of  the  liberty  of  the 
Church  and  her  ministers  and  of  the  inmiunities  of  the 
clergy.    These  canons  were  partly  taken  from  earlier 
collections,  e.  g.  that  of  Burchara  of  Worms,  partly 
from  the  original  documents  found  in  the  archives  and 
the  library  of  the  Lateran  palace.    The  sources  of  the 
collections  are  to  be  found  in  Holy  Scripture,  the 
councils,  letters  cl  popes,  writizigs  of  the  Fathers,  let- 
ters of  temporal  rulers,  and  civillaws.    He  meant  bv 
this  work  to  defend  the  ri^ts  and  liberty  of  theCihurch 
and  the  autiiority  of  the  fioly  See,  in  keeping  with  the 
measures  of  Gregory  VII  and  his  adherents.    At  the 
same  time,  this  coUection  reveals  Deusdedit  as  one  of 
the  most  important  of  the  pre-Gratian  canonists. 
Under  Urban  II  (1088-1099)  he  published  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  Gregorian  reforms  another  work:   "Li- 
bellus  contra  invasores  et  symoniacos  et  reliquos 
Bchismaticos''  (ed.  Mai,  Nova  Bibliotheca  Patrum, 
VII,  III, 77-114 ;  ed.  Sackur,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  LibelU 
de  lite,  II,  30Q-365).  This  work  was  first  published  in 
a  short,  then  in  an  enlarged  form,  the  latter  com- 
pleted in  1099.    In  this  work,  important  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  investitures  conflict  under  Urban  II,  the 
author  points  out  that  the  temporal  power  has  no  au- 
thority in  ecclesiastical  matters  and  particularly  no 
right  to  exercise  ecclesiastical  investiture.    Sackur 
(see  below)  has  made  it  probable  that  the  so-called 
"Dictatus  Papas"  (see  Gregory  VII)  were  composed 
by  Deusdedit.  -  These  are  twenty-seven  short  theses 
concerning  the  privileges  of  the  Roman  Church  and 
the  pope  [ed.  Jaff^,  Bibl.  Rer.  Germ.,  (Berlin,  1864— ) 
II,  174].     Until  quite  recently  Gregory  VII  hhnself 
was  generally  regarded  as  the  author;  LOwenfeld  (see 
below)  continued  to  maintain  the  authorship  of  Greg- 
ory, but  Sackur,  however,  has  shown  that  the  "In- 
dices cajpitulorum"  in  the  "CJollectio  canonum"  of 
Deusdedit  are  closely  related  to  the  brief  theses  known 
as  "Dictatus  Pap©    both  in  respect  of  sense  and  ver- 
bal text.  Most  probably,  therefore,  the  latter  are  taken 
frpm  the  collection  of  Deusdedit,  who  put  them  to- 
gether from  the  "Registrum  Epistolarum"  or  letter- 
book  of  Gregory.    Possibly  also  Deusdedit  was  the 
editor  of  thisTamous  and  important  collection  of  Greg- 
ory's correspondence.    In  this  case,  the  cardinal  ap- 
pears  in  a  new  light  as  intimate  counsellor  and  intel- 
lectual heir  of  Gregory  VII.    On  4  April,  1100,  a  cer- 
tain Albericus  appears  as  titular  priest  of  8.  Pietro  in 
Vincoli;  therefore  Deusdedit  was  then  no  longer  alive. 
Die  KatumeMommlung  dea  Kardmalt  Dtutdedil,  von  Glan- 
YVLL,  «d.  (Paderbom,  1005);  Giksebrscht,  Die  Oe$ettgebunif 
der  fiim.  Kirehe  nur  Zeit  Gregan  VII.  in  Miknehen.  Hist.  Jahr- 
huch  far  1866,  180  sqq.;    Stevenson.  Oeservaxicni  auUa  **  Col- 
lectio canonum"  di  Deusdedit  in  Arehivio dfUa  eoeiett  romana  di 
aioriapairia  (1885).  300-398;  LOwenpeld,  Die  CanontamnUuno 
dea  Kard,  Deuadedit  und  daa  Regiaiet  Gregora  VII,  in  Neuea 
Archiv  (1885).  311  sqq.;  Idem,  Der  DicUUtta  papa  Gregora  VTT, 
tmd  eine  Ufherarbeitung  deaaOben  im  It.  Jahrh.,{bid.  (1891).  193 
sqq.;  Sackur,  Der  DieUUua  papa  und  die  Canonaamnduna  dea 
DeuadedU,  ibid.  (1893)»  135  nqq.;  Idck,  Zu  dm  SireiUehriften  dee 


Deuadedilunddea  Hugo  von  Flewry.Hnd.  (1891).  3498qa.;  Hirsch, 
I  Stellung  tur  Laieninveatiiur  in  ArchtvJ.  kath. 


Kard.  Deuadedita  < 


XirdkenradU  ^1908);  34  sqq.;  Mikbt,  />ie  Pi^Mt^eOE^tm^ZMteller 


Gregora  VII.  (Lapng.  18 


J.  P.  KraacH. 


Dens  in  Adjutoriiim  Memn  Intende,  with  the  re- 
sponse: "Domine  ad  adjuvandum  me  festina",  first 
verse  of  the  sixty-ninth  Psalm.  These  words  form 
the  introductory  prayer  to  every  Hour  of  the  Roman, 
monastic, -and  Ambrosian  Breviaries,  except  during 
the  last  three  days  of  Holy  Week,  and  in  the  Office  of 
the  Dead.  While  thev  are  said,  or  sung,  all  present 
sign  themselves  with  the  sign  of  the  cross.  Tradition 
says  that  St.  Benedict  intrc^uced  this  custom  into  the 
monastic  Office  and  that  St.  Gr^ry  I  extended  it  to  aU 


the  Roman  diurches;  Cassian  (Coll.,  X,  10),  however, 
says  that  from  the  earliest  Christian  times  the  monks 
used  this  introduction  very  often,  probably  outside 
of  the  liturgical  prayers.  In  placing  this  supplication 
at  the  begiiming  of  everjr  Hour  the  Church  implores 
the  assistance  of  God  against  distractions  in  prayer. 

In  the  Roman  Rite  the  "Deus  in  adjutonum"  is 
preceded  in  Matins  b^  the  "  Domine  labia  mea  aperies", 
whilst  in  the  monastic  Breviary  the  order  is  reversed. 
In  Complin  it  is  always  preceded  by  the  "  Converte  nos 
Deus ".  In  the  Mozarabic  Liturgy  the  Hours  com- 
mence with  the  triple  Kyrie  Eleison.  In  all  the  Latin 
countries  north,  east,  and  west  of  the  Alps  tiie  intro- 
duction to  the  solemn  Vespers  of  Easter  Sunday  was 
formed  by  the  nine  Kyrie  Eleison  and  Christe  Eleison 
of  the  Easter  Mass.  In  the  churches  which  observe 
the  Greek  Rite,  the  Trisa^ion  and  other  prayers  open 
the  Hours.  Tne  "Deus  m  adjutorium"  la  repeated 
three  times  during  the  conclusional  prayers  of  Prime, 
In  the  monasteries  Prime  was  finisncd  immediately 
after  the  prayer:  ''Domine  Deus  omnipotens";  then 
the  monks  went  from  the  choir  to  the  chapter-room, 
where  the  Martyrology  was  read,  and  the  day's  work 
was  given  out;  before  dispersing  to  their  several  occu- 
pations they  sang  three  times  tne  "Deus  in  adjutor- 
lum",  to  emphasize  the  union  of  prayer  and  labour. 

WoLTEB,  PaallUe  aanienter  (Freiburjt  1905),  II,  668;  Nord' 
amerikmniacKea  PaatormUM  (Dec.  1907};  BATirFOL,  tr.  Bat- 
LAT,  Hiatory  of  the  Roman  Breviarjf  (London,  1898);  Bebnaro 
Coura  de  lUurgie  romaine:  le  BrHnaire  (Paria.  1887),  II,  148-50. 

Frederick  G.  Holweck. 
D^Qierocanoiiical  Books.     See  Canon  of  thb 

HbLT  SCRDPTURBS. 

Deuteronomy. — ^This  tenn  occurs  in  Deut.,  zvii» 
18  and  Jos.,  viii,  32,  and  is  the  title  of  one  of  the  five 
books  of  the  Pentateuch.  In  both  passages  it  renders 
the  Latin  Z)eut6ronomit/m,  the  Greek  t6  6wTepov6fM¥,  the 
Hebrew  nJKID,  and  signifies  "  copy  "  or  "  duplicate  " 
rather  than  **  repetition".  The  texts  themselves  ap- 
pear to  demana  this  meanjne;  for  Deut.,  xvii,  18 
reads:  "But  after  he  is  raised  to  the  throne  of  hia 
kingdom,  he  shall  copy  out  to  himself  the  Deuteron- 
omy of  this  law  in  a  volume,  takine  the  copy  of  the 
Eriests  of  the  Levitical  tribe";  and  Jos.,  viii,  32  re- 
ntes:  ''And  he  wrote  upon  stones  the  Deuteronomy 
of  the  law  of  Moses,  which  he  had  ordered  before  the 
children  of  Israel."  The  Taigum  of  the  latter  passage 
favours  the  same  meaning.  As  title  of  the  fifth  book 
of  the  Pentateuch,  DeiUeronomy  corresponds  to  the 
Hebrew  D^l*Tn  npH.  Pseudo-Athanasius  maintaina 
that  the  title  signifies  "the  second  law"  promulgated 
by  Moses  in  accordance  with  the  Divine  precept.  But 
it  is  more  commonly  understood  as  meaning  "ex* 
planAtion"  of  the  law,  or  "exhortation"  inducing  to 
the  observance  of  the  law.  The  introductoiy  ques* 
tions  concerning  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy  are 
treated  in  the  article  Pentateuch. 
Hagen,  Lexicon  Biblicum  (Paris,  1905). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Deutinger,  Martin,  philosopher  and  religious 
writer,  b.  in  Langenpreising,  Bavaria,  24  March,  1815; 
d.  at  Pfafers,  Switzerland.  9  Sept..  1864.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1837,  ana  after  filling  several  clerical 
positions,  taught  philosophy  at  Freising  (1841),  Mu- 
nich (1846),  and  Dillmgen  (1847-52).  Like  his  pred- 
ecessors, Baader  (q.  v!)  and  Anton  GOnther.  he  en- 
deavoured to  construct  a  philoeophv  that  should  medi- 
ate between  Catholicism  and  the  idealistic  philosophy 
then  prevailing  in  Germany,  and  thus  conciliate  the 
truths  of  faith  with  what  he  considered  the  demands  of 
reason.  The  effort  at  conciliation,  while  no  more  suc- 
cessful than  that  of  his  predecessors,  involved  less  sac- 
rifice of  the  content  of  Faith  and  of  objective  reason. 
Deutinger's  system  is  based  on  a  scheme  of  trilogies. 
He  places  anthropology  at  the  centre.  Starting  with 
univeiBal  methodical  doubt,  he  finds  in  that  douot  the 


DBVA8 


762 


DSVAS 


EJgo  revealed  as  an  independent  self-conscious  person. 
Further  reflection  shows  the  self  to  be  conditioned  by 
the  non-self  (nature),  while  both  self  and  nature  sup- 
pose a  supreme,  free  cause.  Hence  the  first  trilogy — 
Man,  Nature,  God.  The  evolution  of  the  Ego  is  ef- 
fected by  the  interaction  of  Nature  and  God,  and  this 
results  in  a  triple  life.  The  first  element  and  stage 
proceeds  from  nature  (the  body),  the  second  from  God 
(the  spirit),  the  third,  the  intermediating  ground,  is 
the  soul.  Hence  the  second  trilogy  constituting  man's 
nature  and  stages  of  his  development — Body,  Soul, 
Spirit.  The  attributes  of  the  spirit  are  being,  know- 
ing, willing.  But  the  unity  of  these  attributes  is 
merely  subjective;  personahty  is  only  potentially  in 
them.  The  spirit  comes  to  actual  personality  through 
interaction  with  nature.  The  vital  process,  consisting 
in  tlie  interplay  of  nature  (i.  e.  the  necessitated  factor) 
with  tne  personal  (i.  e.  the  free)  element,  unfolds  in 
three  stages:  as  movement  inward  from  without 
(thought,  Denken) ;  as  outward  from  with'n  (power, 
Konnen):  and  as  proceeding  from  both  together  (doing, 
acting.  Tun.),  Hence  the  trilogy  of  human  faculty: 
Thoumit,  Power.  Action;  and  the  departments  of 
the  philosophical  system:  science  of  thought  (Denk- 
lehre),  of  art  (KunsUehre),  and  of  conduct  (moral 
philosophy).  Outside  these  departments  lie  p^chol- 
ogy  and  the  philosophy  of  nature,  while  on  the  cir- 
cumference extend  jurisprudence  and  the  philos^phjjr 
of  religion.  Sensation  and  imagination  are  insuffi- 
cient to  explain  the  genesis  of  thought,  the  concept. 
The  representation  herein  the  external  and  the  m- 
temal  factors  unite  is  but  one  basis  of  conscious 
knowledge,  the  concept;  the  other  lies  in  the  free  per- 
sonal element,  inward  intuition,  the  idea.  Idea, 
therefore,  and  representation  must  interact  in  order  to 
ei^nder  the  concept.  Hence  cognition  is  the  prod- 
uct of  the  two  opposing  factors,  representation  and 
idea,  between  whidi  it  intermediates  as  concept.  But 
just  as  tke  antinomy  between  the  free  personality  and 
the  necessitated  outer  nature  urges  to  conciliation  in 
action,  so  the  antinomy  between  subject  and  object 
presses  towards  unification  in  thou^t.  Now  all  in- 
termediated unity  comes  of  likeness,  unlikeness,  and 
the  blending  unitv.  Likeness  lies  in  the  subject;  un- 
likeness in  the  object;  unity  in  the  interrelation  of 
these  two.  From  the  first  we  get  the  principle  of 
identity;  from  the  second  that  of  sequence,  or  reason; 
from  the  third  that  of  disjunction,  or  exclusion. 
Hence  the  final  trilogy  of  the  laws  of  thought. 

Each  of  the  foregoing  ''temaUties''  is  developed 
with  considerable  insight,  but  with  much  artificiality 
and  still  more  mistiness,  which  is  felt  at  once  in  the 
distinction  he  makes  between  soul  and  spirit,  and 
in  the  genesis  of  personality  by  the  play  of  the  necessi- 
tating nature-obj  ect  on  the  free  spirit.  The  similarity 
to  the  Hegelian  idealism,  if  not  the  borrowed  influence 
of  that  elusive  system,  is  at  once  apparent. 

Deutinger  possessed  a  richly-endowed  mind,  a  soar- 
ing, though  somewhat  exuberant,  imagination,  an  ar- 
dent love  of  the  beautiful  in  nature  and  in  art,  and  a 
comprehensive,  thous^  not  always  sufficiently  critical, 
intelligence.  He  failed  in  his  main  purpose  not  be- 
cause ne  lacked  philosophical  power  or  energy,  but 
chiefly  because  he  broke  with  philosophical  tradition 
to  go  his  own  way.  He  is  said  to  have  boasted  that 
"he  had  builded  a  house  of  his  own  in  philosophy,  re- 
gardless of  the  form  and  material  employed  by  other 
builders".  "This  is  all  very  fine",  observes  Stockl, 
"and  it  may  well  be  that  Deutinger  wanted  to  do  per- 
fect justice  to  the  faith  which  he  strove  to  conciuate 
with  a  modernised  philosophy.  But  iust  because  he 
wrought  by  himself  mdependently  of  the  claims  of  the 
Christian  philosophical  tradition,  his  system  manifests 
the  characteristic  of  all  other  modem  systems  con- 
structed in  a  like  spirit.  Subjectivism  predominates 
throughout,  and  therefore  it  enjoyed  but  an  e])hem- 
eral  existence."    As  a  critic,  Deutinger  was  brilliant 


and  prolific  His  style,  though  somewhat  luzuriaot, 
is  marked  by  a  sparkling  wit  and  saix;asm  that  is  speci- 
ally captivating  with  the  young.  His  works  com- 
prise:  "Grundlmiender  positiven  Philosophic"  (Rat- 
isbon,  1843-49);  "Geschichte  der  griechischen  Philus- 
ophie"  (Ratisbon.  1852-53);  "Bflder  des  Geistcs  in 
Kunst  u.  Natur''  fAugsbui^  1846-49,  and  Kails- 
bon,  1851);  "Grundriss  der  Moralphilosophie"  (Dil- 
lingen,  1847) ;  ''Grundriss  der  Logik  '^  (Dillingen,  184s} ; 
"Wallfahrt  nach  Oberammei^u"  (Munich,  1851); 
"Geist  der  christl.  Ueberlieferang"  (Augsbui^g,  1850); 
"Das  Princip  der  neueren  Philosophic  und  die  chri^itL 
Wissenschaft "  (Ratisbon,  1857) ;  '^Uebcr  das  Verhalt- 
niss  der  Poesie  zur  Religion"  (Aufijsburg,  1861) ;  "D;i£ 
Reich  Gottes  nach  dem  Apostel  Joannes"  (Freiburg 
1862);  "Renan  und  das  Wunder"  (Munich,  18r>i). 
Among  his  posthumous  works,  edited  by  his  pubil 
Lorenz  iCastner,  are:  "Der  gesenwartige  Zustand  der 
deutschen  Philosophic";  a  tnird  volume  of  "Diuj 
Reich  Gottes"  (Ratisbon,  1867);  and  an  additioDal 
part  to  the  "Bilder  des  Gteistes"  (Munich,  1866). 

Kastnsr,  Deutinaen  Leben  und  Schriiten  (Munich.  isT')}: 
StCckl,  Oeachidite  der  neueren  PhUoaophie  (Mainz,  1883):  Nn-- 
DBGKKR.  Daa  OrundjmMem  der  BrkeiuUniMthMrit  (Nordlingm. 
1881),  faTonnkble  to  Deutinger;  oa  the  oppoaita  side,  Beckvu. 
Die  PhUoeophie  DetuUngera  %n  xkrem  VernaUnisa  zur  Sd^diuUh 
und  PhOoeophie  der  Neuzeit  in  the  Kalhoitk  (1868)  I.  693:  II. 
156;  ScHUiD  in  Kird^mUexikon,  s,  vj;  Qattbl,  Deutinaen 
GoUedehre  (lUtisbon.  1906). 

F.  P.  Siegfried. 

Devas,  Charles  STANTON^political  economist,  b. 
at  Woodside,  Old  Windsor,  England,  of  Protestant 
parents,  26  August,  1848;  d.  6  November,  1906.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol  Coll^fc,  Oxford. 
where  he  took  a  first  class  in  the  honours  School  of 
Law  and  History.  Before  proceeding  to  the  univer- 
sity he  had  been  received  into  the  Catholic  Church  ami 
his  subsequent  career  was  entirely  devoted  to  tlie 
service  of  religion.  By  treating  political  economy^ 
both  in  books  and  lectures,  from  a  definitely  Catholic 
standpoint,  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  to  oppose  the 
current  teaching,  which  declined  to  consider  nlstory  or 
ethics  as  relevant  to  the  subject. 

"The  Groundwork  of  Economics"  (1883),  the  first 
work  published  in  his  own  name  (for  the  translatiori 
into  English  of  Hergenrother's  "Church  and  State' 
was  anonymous),  attracted  considerable  attention ai^i 
was  translated  into  German  in  1896  by  Dr.  Walter 
Kampfe.  The  "Manual  of  Political  Economy" 
(Stonyhurst  Philosophical  Series),  published  in  18J)i' 
(third  edition,  1907),  has  achieved  a  more  permanent  • 
success,  and  is  now  a  recognised  textbook  m  English- 
speaking  schools  and  seminaries.  In  1886  he  pub- 
lished "Studies  in  Family  Life",  an  historical  inquiry 
into  this  branch  of  economics,  with  a  view  to  justify 
the  contention  that  Christianity  is  an  essential  factor 
in  the  problem  of  social  well-being.  This  book  was 
translated  into  German  in  1887  by  Paul  Maria  Baura- 
garten.  In  1896  he  published  anonymously  in  Lon- 
don a  poetical  version  of  the  story  of  Slntram.  ^ 

Besides  his  books  he  wrote  frequently  for  "Tj^c 
Dublin  Review",  "The  Month",  and  other ppriodicab. 
both  English  and  American,  and  read  papers  before 
The  British  Association,  The  Manchester  Staiistical 
Society,  The  CVtholic  Truth  Society,  and  other  bodiM. 
A  considerable  number  of  his  later  essays  and  lectunw 
dealing  with  modem  social  problems  have  been  issuvd 
by  The  Catholic  Truth  Society  in  pamphlet  form,  ami 
his  premature  death  was  a  severe  loss  to  En^tsu 
Catholics  in  the  confusion  of  the  controversies  ra^^^ 
by  Socialism.  His  last,  and  perhaps  his  most  impor- 
tant, book,  "The  Key  to  the  World's  Progreas",  was 
published  in  1906.  This,  unlike  his  earlier  works,  js 
directly  apologetic,  being  an  elaborate  defence  of  tiie 
Catholic  Church  written  with  a  view  to  meeting  the 
difficulties  and  questionings  of  the  twentieth  century. 
A  popular  edition  ha.s  Ix^en  i&suHi  since  liifl  death. 

In  1874  he  married  Eliza  Mary  Ivatherine,  the 


DSVUiOPMSNT 


763 


DB  VIBS 


d&ii^^ter  of  Franeis  Eidout  Ward.  She  died  in  188% 
iettVTMig  nine  children.  Devas  was  a  man  of  singular 
pie^3r»  a  aeidoufi  member  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent 
of  PauI,  and.  an  active  friend  of  the  poor;  he  had  no 
otlier  ambition  except  to  propose  the  Catholic  Faith 
to  t;l^e  reasonable  acceptance  of  a  troubled  and  scepti- 
cal ch^.  He  took  a  leading,  part  in  all  Catholic  enter- 
T>ri8e6  of  his  time  in  Eng^d — ^notably  in  that  which 
ona.l>led  Catholics  to  frequent  the  universities — and 
1«l:icyu^  always  unwillina  to  make  himself  personally 
pronoinent,  he  exercised  considerable  influence  over 
tlie  thougjit  and  conduct  of  English  Catholics.  He 
iMras  examiner  in  Political  Economy  at  the  Royal  Uni- 
irersity  of  Ireland  from  1889  to  1898. 

Francis  Chables  Dbvab. 

X>6velopin«iit  of  Doctrine*    See  Reyblation. 

l>e  Verei  Aubret  Thomas  Hunt,  poet,  critie, 
mnxi  essayist,  b.  at  Curragh  Chase,  County  Limerick, 
Ireland,  10  January,  1814;  died  there,  21  January, 
19€2.    He  was  the  third  son  of  Sir  Aubrey  de  Vere 
mud  MaiV  Spring  Rice,  sister  of  the  first  Lord  Mont- 
ea^e.    Aubrey  Vere,  second  son  of  the  sixteenth  Eail 
of  (hcford,  was  his  chrect  ancestor.    Aubr^  de  Vere 
early  diowed  his  rare  poetic  temperament.    His  young 
inoagination  was  stronsljr  influenced  by  his  friendship 
mrith  the  astronomer,  Sir  William  Rowan  Hamilton, 
'ilirou^  whom  he  came  to  a  knowledge  and  reverent 
admii^on  for  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge.    In  1832 
be  entered  Trinity  Colleoe,  Dublin,  where  he  devoted 
bimaelf  to  the  study  of  metaphysics,  reading  Kant 
and  Coleridge.    Later  he  visited  Oxford,  Cambridge, 
and  Rome,  and  came  under  the  potent  influence  of 
Newman.    He  also  visited  the  Lake  Country  of  Eng- 
land, and  he  afterwards  spoke  of  the  days  under 
Wordsworth's  roof  as  the  greatest  honour  of  his  life. 
His  veneration  for  Wordsworth  was  singularly  shown 
in  after  life,  when  he  never  omitted  a  yearly  pilgrim- 
age to  the  ^ve  of  that  poet  until  advanced  age  made 
the  journey  impossible. 

From  his  study  of  Coleridge,  Aubrey  de  Vere  re- 
ceived his  first  impulse  towards  Catholicity,  which  was 
developed  by  events  following  the  conversion  of  Man- 
ningy  and  he  was  received  into  the  Church,  Novem- 
ber, 1857,  in  the  arehbishop's  chapel  at  Avignon. 
His  unustud  sweetness  of  character  won  for  him  many 
friends,  and  this  important  change  in  his  life  did  not 
separate  him  from  them.  Among  these  friends  Sara 
Ooleri^e  and  Sir  Heniy  Taylor  are  preeminent,  and 
his  long  correspondence  with  them,  with  Miss  Fen- 
wiek,  with  Gladstone,  and  many  others  of  literary 
and  {lolitical  fame,  is  of  marked  interest.  The  famine 
year  in  Ireland  was  one  of  the  most  important  in  his 
earlier  life,  and  he  then  showed  a  practical  and  vigor- 
ous interest  in  politics.  In  1848  he  had  publish^  a 
book  on  En|dish  misrule  and  Irish  misdeeds,  which 
was  criticissed  as  a  work  of  ereat  value,  notably  by 
Mill  and  Carlyle  and  Lord  John  Manners.  His 
brother.  Sir  Stephen  de  Vere,  the  translator  of  some 
of  the  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace,  also  made  heroic 
efforts  at  this  time  to  better  the  condition  of  Irish 
emisrants;  and  the  intimate  friendship  between  the 
brc^ere  led  to  their  almost  daily  correspondence 
throughout  their  long  hves. 

It  is  as  a  poet  that  Aubrev  de  Vere  is  best  known. 
His  work  is  m  part  historical  and  in  part  literary,  his 
aim  being  to  illustrate  the  supernatural  in  the  form 
of  supernatural  truth  by  recording  the  conversion  to 
Christianity  of  Ireland  and  England.  The  ouality  of 
his  verse  is  strong  and  vigorous,  musical,  ana  remark- 
ably spiritual.  A  critic  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review  " 
of  1896  says  of  his  poetry,  that  next  to  Browning's 
it  shows  the  fullest  vitality,  resumes  the  largest  sphere 
of  ideasy  covers  the  broadest  intellectual  field  since 
the  poetry  of  Wordsworth.  He  never  strove  for  or- 
tiate  effect  iu  his  |K)etry,  which  is  marked  by  sublime 


and  seriou  .  conviction  as  he  traces  the  progress  of 
spiritual  thought  in  the  devdopment  of  tne  nations, 
notablv  Ireland,  in  "The  Legend  of  St.  Patrick"  (Ix)n- 
don,  lo72),  and  of  Spain  in  nis  eloquent  portrayal  of 
the  Cid.  "  The  Children  of  lir  "  is  one  of  the  most  ex- 
quisite lyrics  in  the  language,  and  his  classic  knowl- 
«ige,  his  richness  of  imagination,  his  combined  grace 
and  dignity  of  thought  are  revved  in  his  "  Search 
after  ftoserpine"  (London,  1843).  In  his  "Alexan- 
der the  Great"  (London,  1874)  he  represents  the 
Greek  ideal  in  remarkable  purity,  and  tnis  historical 
play,  with  his  "Saint  Thomas  of  Canterbuor"  (ibid.), 
reveals  him  as  a  dramatist  unequalled  in  his.  century, 
except  by  Sir  Henry  Taylor,  Browning,  and  his  father, 
the  elder  de  Vere.  His  memorial  sonnets  are  charac- 
terized by  strong  and  deep  thou^t,  and  his  odes  show 
a  descriptive  power,  and  a  spontaneous  lyric  charm 
and  grace. 

In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  works,  all  pub- 
lished in  London,  he  also  wrote :  "  Legends  and  Records 
of  the  Church  and  Empire"  (1887) ;  "May  Carob  and 
L^nds  of  Saxon  Samts  "  (1857) ; "  Mediaeval  Records 
and  Sonnets"  (1898) :  "L^ds  of  the  Saxon  Saints" 
(1879);  "May  Carols^'  (1857);  "Saint  Peter's  Chains" 
(1888);  "Essays  Literary  and  Ethical"  (1889);  "Es- 
says chiefly  on  Poetry"  (1887) ; "  Picturesque  Sketches 
of  Greece  and  Turkey"  (1850). 

As  a  critic,  Aubrey  de  Vere  shows  discriminating 
power  in  the  two  volumes  of  "Essays"  in  which  he 
writes  of  Sir  Henry  Taylor,  Keats,  Landor,  and  others, 
and  of  the  power  and  passion  of  Wordsworth.  He 
would  have  been  satisfied  to  be  known  solely  as  the  in- 
terpreter of  Wordsworth,  whom  he  considered  the 
^atest  poet  after  Milton.  His  charm  c^  description 
IS  shown  m  two  early  volumes  of  "  Sketches  of  Greece 
and  Turkey  ".  In  a  volume  of  "  Recollections  "  (Lon- 
don, 1897)  may  be  found  reminiscences  of  many  nota- 
ble people  and  events.  The  personality  of  Aubrey  de 
Vere  was  singularly  charming.  He  was  of  tall  and 
slender  physique,  thoughtful  aod  grave  in  character, 
of  exceeding  dignity  and  grace  of  manner,  and  re- 
tained his  vigorous  mental  powers  to  a  great  age. 
He  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  profoundly  m« 
tellectual  poets  of  his  time.  As  he  never  married,  the 
name  of  de  Vere  at  his  death  became  extinct  for  the 
second  time,  and  has  been  assumed  by  his  nephew. 

(2)  Sir  Stephen  Edward  de  Vere,  poet  and  phil- 
anthropist, born  at  Curragh  Chase,  12  July,  1812,  died 
at  Foynes  Island,  10  November,  1904,  second  son  of  Sir 
Aubrey  Hunt  de  Vere,  and  brother  of  the  above.  At 
the  death  of  his  eldest  brother.  Sir  Vere  de  Vere,  suc- 
ceeded as  fourth  baronet  to  the  title,  which  became  ex- 
tinct at  his  death.  From  his  early  youth  he  laboured 
for  the  amelioration  of  the  conditions,  social  and  poli- 
tical, of  the  Irish  people.  In  1847  he  made  the  voyage 
to  Canada  in  the  steerage  of  a  ship,  sharing  the  priva- 
tions of  the  emigrants  tnat  an  accurate  report  oi  their 
treatment  mi^ht  be  given  to  the  public  and  to  Parha- 
ment.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1848,  his  letter 
describing  the  sufferings  he  had  witnessed  was  read  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  "Passenger  Act"  was 
amended.  Sir  Stephen  de  Vere  became  a  Catholic 
from  his  observation  of  the  peasantry  whom  he  had 
taught,  fed,  and  nursed  in  his  own  house.  He  had  his 
residence  at  Foynes  Island  in  the  river  Shannon,  where 
he  made  his  remarkable  translations  from  Horace. 
He  also  built  there  a  charming  Gothic  chureh,  and 
died  at  the  great  age  of  nine^  years.  He  was  of 
small  and  slender  physique,  and,  like  his  brother,  was 
unmarried.  He  was  Member  of  Parliament  for  Lim* 
erick,  1854-1859. 

Wabd.  Avbrm  de  Vere,  A  Memoir  (London,  1904);  The 
Poetry  afthede  Verea,  in  the  QuarUrlv  Beoiew  (London,  Apifl, 
1896):  Oeoroe,  Avbrm  de  Vere  in  the  Atlantic  MoiUMy  (Bos- 
ton, June.  1902);  O'Kbnnedy,  AiArm  de  Vere  in  The  Ave 
Maria  (Notre  Dame,  June,  1902);  Walter  Georoe  Smith, 
Aubrry  de  Vtre  in  The  MeMmyer  (New  York,  1907) ;  The  Tablet 
(Loncloa,  20  J«nu;^ry,  19Q2):  Odce  and  Upodee  of  Horace,  tram' 


DBTIL 


764 


DIVXL 


kUed  by  Sir  StepKen  E.  de  Vere  (Lemdon);  Arnold,  Reoo^ 
ledvma  of  Aubrey  de  Fere  (Loodoa) ;  Wabi>,  Memoir  of  Au- 
brey de  Vere  (London). 

Helen  Grace  Smith. 

Devil  (Greek  Mfiokot\  Lat.  dtaholus), — The  name 
commonly  given  to  the  fallen  angels,  who  are  also 
known  as  demons  (see  Demon;  Demonology).  With 
the  article  (6)  it  denotes  Lucifer,  their  chief,  as  in 
Matthew,  xxv,  41,  "the  Devil  and  his  angels".  It 
may  be  said  of  this  name,  as  St.  Gregory  says  of  the 
word  angel  J  "nomen  est  officii,  non  naturse" — the 
designation  of  an  office,  not  of  a  nature.  For  the 
GrecK  word  (from  dta/5dXX«r,  "to  traduce")  means  a 
slanderer,  or  accuser,  and  in  this  sense  it  is  applied  to 
him  of  whom  it  is  written  "the  accuser  [*  Kar-^opot] 
of  our  brethren  is  cast  forth,  who  accused  them  before 
our  God  dav  and  night"  (Apoc,  xii,  10).  It  thus 
answers  to  the  Hebrew  name  Satan  (p(^)  which  signi- 
fies an  adversary,  or  an  accuser. 

Mention  is  made  of  the  Devil  in  many  passages  of 
the  Old  ^nd  New  Testaments,  but  there  is  no  full 
account  given  in  any  one  place,  and  the  Scripture 
teaching  on  this  topic  can  only  be  ascertained  by  com- 
bining a  number  of  scattered  notices  from  Genesis  to 
Apocalypse,  and  reading  them  in  the  light  of  patristic 
and  theological  tradition.  The  authoritative  teach- 
ing of  the  Church  on  this  topic  is  set  forth  in  the  de- 
crees of  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (cap.  i,  "Firmiter 
credimus"),  wherein,  after  saying  that  God  in  the  be- 
ginning had  created  together  two  creatures,  the  spir- 
itual and  the  corporeal,  that  is  to  say  the  angelic  and 
the  earthly,  and  lastly  man,  who  was  made  of  both 
spirit  and  body,  the  council  continues:  "Diabolus 
enim  et  alii  daemones  a  Deo  quidem  natur&  creati  sunt 
boni,  sed  ipsi  per  se  facti  sunt  mali".  Here  it  is 
clearljr  taught  that  the  Devil  and  the  other  demons 
are  spiritud  or  angelic  creatures  created  by  God  in  a 
state  of  innocence,  and  that  they  became  evil  by  their 
own  act.  It  is  added  that  man  sinned  bv  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  Devil,  and  that  in  the  next  world  the  wicked 
shall  suffer  perpetual  punishment  with  the  Devil.  The 
doctrine  which  may  thus  be  set  forth  in  a  few  words  has 
furnished  a  fruitful  theme  for  theological  speculation 
forthe  Fathers  and  Schoolmen,  as  well  as  later  theolog- 
ians, some  of  whom,  Suarez  for  example,  have  treated 
it  very  fully.  On  the  other  hand  it  has  also  been  the 
subject  of  many  heretical  or  erroneous  opinions,  some 
of  which  owe  tneir  origin  to  pre-Christian  systems  of 
demonolgy  (see  DEMONOLoaT).  In  later  yeare  Ra- 
tionalist writers  have  rejected  the  doctrine  altogether, 
and  seek  to  show  that  it  has  been  borrowed  by  Juda- 
ism and  Christianity  from  external  systems  of  religion 
wherein  it  was  a  natural  development  of  primitive 
Animism  (q.  v.). 

As  may  be  gathered  from  the  language  of  the  Lat- 
eran definition,  the  Devil  and  the  other  demons  are 
but  a  part  of  the  angelic  creation,  and  their  natuml 
powers  do  not  differ  from  thoi^e  of  the  angels  who  re- 
mained faithful  (see  Angbl).  Like  the  other  angels, 
they  are  pure  spiritual  beings  without  any  body,  and 
in  their  originsu  state  they  are  endowed  with  super- 
natural grace  and  placed  m,  a  condition  of  probation. 
It  was  only  by  their  fall  that  they  became  devils. 
This  was  before  the  sin  of  our  firfet  parents,  since  this 
sin  itself  is  ascribed  to  the  instigation  of  the  Devil: 
"  By  the  envy  of  the  Devil,  death  came  into  the  world" 
(Wisdom,  ii,  24).  Yet  it  is  remarkable  that  for  an  ac- 
count of  the  fall  of  the  angels  we  must  turn  to  the  last 
Book  of  the  Bible.  For  as  such  we  may  regard  the 
vision  in  the  Apocalypse,  albeit  the  picture  of  the  past 
is  blended  witli  prophecies  of  what  shall  be  in  the 
future:  "And  there  was  a  great  battle  in  heaven, 
Michael  and  his  angels  fought  with  the  dragon,  and  the 
dragon  fought  and  his  angels:  and  they  prevailed  not, 
neither  was  their  place  found  any  more  in  heaven. 
And  that  sreat  dragon  was  cast  o\it,  that  old  serpent, 
who  is  called  the  devil  and  Satan,  who  scduceth  the 


whole  world;  and  he  was  cast  unto  the  eaiih,  and  hk 
angels  were  thrown  down  with  him**  CApocalypee,  xii, 
7-4J).    To  this  may  be  added  the  words  ci  St.  Jude: 
"And  the  angels  who  kept  not  their  principality,  but 
forsook  their  own  habitation,  he  hath  reserved  under 
darkness  in  everlasting  chains,  unto  the  judgment  of 
the  geat  day"  (Jude,  i,  6;  cf.  II  Peter,  ii,  4).     In  the 
Old  Testament  we  have  a  brief  reference  to  the  Fall  in 
Job,  iv,  18:    "In  his  angels  he  found  wickedness". 
But  to  this  must  be  added  the  two  classic  texts  in  the 
prophets:  "How  art  thou  fallen  from  heaven,  O  Luci- 
fer, who  didst  rise  in  the  morning?  how  art  thou  fallen 
to  the  earth,  that  didst  wound  the  nations?    And 
thou  saidst  in  thy  heart:  I  will  ascend  into  heaven,  I 
will  exalt  my  throne  above  the  stars  of  God,  I  will  sit 
in  the  mountain  of  the  covenant,  in  the  sides  of  the 
north.    I  will  ascend  above  the  iiei^^t  of  the  douds,  I 
will  be  like  the  most  High.    But  yet  thou  shalt  be 
brought  down  to  hell,  into  the  depth  of  the  pit" 
(tsaias,  xiv,  12-15).    This  parable  of  the  prophet  is 
expressly  directed  against  tne  King  of  Babylon,  but 
both  the  eariy  Fathers  and  later  Gathohc  commenta- 
tors agree  in  understanding  it  as  applying  with  deep&r 
significance  to  the  fall  of  the  lebei  ansd.    And  the 
older  commentators  generallv  consider  that  this  inter- 
pretation is  confirmed  by  the  words  of  Our  Lord  to 
His  disciples :  "  I  saw  Satan  like  lightnii^  falling  from 
heaven"  (Luk6,  x,  18).    For  these  words  were  re- 
garded as  a  rebuke  to  the  discipleB,  who  were  thus 
warned  of  the  danger  of  pride  by  being  reminded  of 
the  fall  of  Lucifer.    But  modem  conunentatois  take 
this  text  in  a  different  sense,  and  refer  it  not  to  the 
original  fall  of  Satan,  but  his  overthrow  by  the  faith  of 
the  disciples,  who  cast  out  devils  in  the  name  of  th&r 
Master.    And  this  new  interpretation,  as  Schans  ob- 
serves, is  more  in  keeping  with  the  context. 

The  parallel  prophetic  passage  is  Esechiel's  lamen- 
tation upon  the  king  of  Tyre:  ^Thou  wast  the  seal  of 
resemblance,  full  of  wisdom,  and  perfect  in  beauty. 
Thou  wast  in  the  pleasures  of  the  paradise  of  God; 
every  precious  stone  was  thy  covering;  the  sardius, 
the  topaz,  and  the  jasper,  the  chrysolite,  and  the  onyx, 
and  the  beryl,  the  sappnire,  and  the  carbtinde,  and 
the  emerald;  gold  the  work  of  thy  beauty:  and  thy 
pipes  were  prepared  in  the  day  that  thou  wast  created. 
Thou  a  cherub  stretched  out,  and  protecting,  and  I 
set  thee  in  the  holy  mountain  of  God,  thou  hast 
walked  in  the  midst  of  the  stones  of  fire.  Thou  wast 
perfect  in  thy  ways  from  the  day  of  creation,  until 
iniquity  was  found  in  thee"  (Exeoiiel,  xxviii,  12-15). 
There  is  xhueh  in  the  cohtext  that  can  only  be  under- 
stood literally  of  an  earthly  king  concerning  whom  the 
words  are  professedly  spoken,  hut  it  is  clear  that  in 
any  case  the  king  is  likened  to  an  angel  in  Paradise 
who  is  ruined  by  his  own  iniquity. 

Even  for  those  who  in  no  wise  doubt  or  dispute  it, 
the  doctrine  set  forth  in  these  texts  and  patristic  in- 
terpretations may  well  suggest  a  multitude  of  ques- 
tions, and  theologians  have  not  been  loth  to  adc  and 
answer  them.    And  in  the  first  place,  what  was  tne 
nature  of  the  sin  of  the  rebel  ai^ls?    In  any  case  this 
was  a  point  presenting  considerable  difficulty,  «P^ 
cially  for  theologians,  who  had  formed  a  high  estmaaie 
of  the  powers  and  possibilitiee  of  angelic  knowledge,  a 
subject  which  had  a  peculiar  attraction  for  many  w 
the  great  masters  of  scholastic  speculation.   For  it 
sin  be,  as  it  surely  is,  the  height  of  folly,  thechowcoi 
darkness  for  H^t,  of  evil  for  good,  it  would  seem  tna* 
it  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  some  ignorance,  or  in- 
advertence, or  weakness,  or  the  influence  ^^^ 
overmastering  passion.    But  most  of  these  exp»D»- 
tions  seem  to  be  precluded  by  the  potyers  and  I***^ 
tions  of  the  angelic  nature.    The  weakness  of  tne 
flesh,  which  accounts  for  such  a  mass  of  ^**"""*,2[J\^ 
edness,  was  altogether  absent  from  the  angels.  There 
could  be  no  place  for  carnal  sin  without  ^®?|P?i 
ddicH,    And  even  some  sins  that  are  purely  spintw 


DBTIL 


765 


DXVIL 


or  intellectual  seem  to  present  an  almost  insuperable 
difficulty  in  the  case  of  the  anaels.  This  may  oer- 
tainiy  be  said  of  the  sin  which  by  manv  of  the  best 
auHionties  is  regarded  as  being  actually  the  great 
olfezioe  of  Lucifer,  to  wit,  the  desire  of  indepenoence 
of  Gkxi  and  equalitv  with  God.  It  is  true  that  this 
seeixis  to  be  asserted  in  the  passage  of  Isaias  (xiv,  13). 
And.  it  is  naturally  su^^ted  by  the  idea  of  rebellion 
iinst  an  earthly  sovereign,  wherein  the  chief  of  the 


rebels  very  commonlv  covets  the  kingly  throne.    At 
tlie  same  time  the  high  rank  which  Lucifer  is  generally 
mippooed  to  have  held  in  the  hierarchy  of  angels 
oni^bt  seem  to  make  this  offence  nciore  likely  in  his  case, 
for,  as  history  shows,  it  is  the  subject  who  stands  near- 
est the  throne  who  is  most  open  to  temptations  of  am- 
bition.   But  this  analogy  is  not  a  little  misleading. 
For  the  exaltation  of  the  subject  may  bring  his  power 
BO  near  that  of  his  sovereign  that  he  may  well  be  able 
to  assert  his  independence  or  to  usurp  the  throne; 
and  even  where  this  is  not  actually  the  case  he  may  at 
any  rate  contemplate  the  possibility  of  a  successful 
reoeUion.    Moreover,  the  powers  and  dignities  of  an 
eaxihly  prince  may  be  compatible  with  much  ignor- 
ance ana  folly.    But  it  is  obviously  otherwise  in  the 
CSS&  of  the  angels.    For.  whatever  gifts  and  powers 
may  be  oonferred  on  tne  highest  of  the  heavenly 
princes,  he  will  still  be  removed  by  an  infinite  distance 
frDxn  the  plenitude  of  God's  power  and  majesty,  so 
that  a  successful  rebellion  against  that  power  or  any 
equality  with  that  majesty  would  be  an  absolute  im- 
poBsibiuty.    And  what  is  more,  the  highest  of  the 
angiels,  by  reason  of  their  greater  intellectual  illumina- 
tion, must  have  the  clearest  knowled^  of  this  utter 
iixipossibility  of  attaining  to  equality  with  God.    This 
difficulty  is  clearly  put  by  the  Disciple  in  St.  Anselm's 
dialogue  "De  Casu  Diaboli"  (cap.  iv);  for  the  saint 
felt  t£at  the  angelic  intellect,  at  any  rate,  must  see  the 
force  of  the  "ontolocical  argument"  (see  ONTOLOGy). 
''  If",  he  asks,  "Goa  cannot  be  thought  of  except  as 
sole,  and  as  of  such  an  essence  that  nothing  can  be 
thought  of  like  to  Him  [then]  how  could  the  Devil 
have  wished  for  what  could  not  be  thought  of? — ^He 
surely  was  not  so  dull  of  understanding  ^  to  be  ^or- 
ant  of  the  inconceivability  of  any  other  entity  like  to 
God"  (Si  DeuB  cogitari  non  potest,  nisi  ita  solus,  ut 
nihil  illi  simile  cogitari  possit,  quomodo  diabolus 
potuit  veUe  quod  non  potuit  cogitari?    Non  enim  ita 
obtuse  mentis  erat.  ut  nihil  aliud  simile  Deo  cogitari 
posse  nesciret).    Tne  Devil,  that  is  to  say,  was  not  so 
obtuse  as  not  to  know  that  it  was  iinpossible  to  con- 
ceive of  ansrthin^  like  (i.  e.  equal)  to  C!od.    And  what 
he  could  not  think  he  could  not  will.    St.  Anselm's 
answer  is  that  there  need  be  no  question  of  absolute 
equality;  yet  to  will  anything  against  the  Divine  will 
IS  to  seek  to  have  that  independence  which  belongs  to 
God  alone,  and  in  this  respect  to  bo  equal  to  God.    In 
the  same  sense  St.  Thomas  (I,  Q.  Ixiii,  a.  3)  answers  the 
qu^ion,  whether  the  DevU  desired  to  be  ''as  God". 
If  by  this  we  mean  equalitv  with  God,  then  the  Devil 
oould  not  desire  it,  since  he  Knew  this  to  be  impossible, 
and  he  was  not  blinded  by  passion  or  evil  habit  so  as  to 
choose  that  which  is  impossible,  as  may  happen  with 
men.    And  even  if  it  were  possible  for  a  creature  to 
become  God,  an  angel  could  not  desire  this,  since,  by 
becoming  equal  wi&  God  he  would  cease  to  be  an 
angel,  bm  no  creature  can  desire  its  own  destruction 
or  an  essential  change  in  its  being.    These  arguments 
are  combated  by  Sootus  (In  11  lib.  Sent.,  dist.  vi, 
Q.  i.).  who  distinguishes  between  efficacious  volition 
and  the  volition  of  complaisance,  and  maintains  that 
by  the  latter  act  an  angel  could  desire  tliat  which  is  im- 
poflsible.    In  the  same  wa^  he  urges  that,  though  a 
creature  cannot  directly  will  it^  own  destruction,  it 
can  do  this  conaequenteTf  i.  e.  it  can  will  something 
from  which  this  would  follow. 

Although  St.  Thomas  regards  tlie  desire  of  equality 
with  God  as  something  impossible,  he  teaches  never- 


theless (loc.  cit .)  that  Satan  sinned  bv  desiring  to  be  "  ad 
God",  according  to  the  passage  in  tne  prophet  (Isaias, 
xiv),  and  he  understands  this  to  mean  likeness,  not 
equality.  But  here  again  there  is  need  of  a  distinc- 
tion. For  men  and  angels  have  a  certain  likeness  to 
God  in  their  natural  perfections,  which  are  but  a  re- 
flection of  his  surpassing  beauty,  and  yet  a  further 
likeness  is  ^ven  them  by  supernatural  grace  and 
glory.  Was  it  either  of  these  likenesses  that  the  devil 
desired?  ^d  if  it  be  so,  how  could  it  be  a  sin?  For 
was  not  this  the  end  for  which  men  and  angels  were 
created?  ^  CJertainly,  as  St.  Thomas  teaches,  not 
every  desire  of  likeness  with  God  would  be  sinful,  since 
all  may  rightly  desire  that  manner  of  likeness  which  is 
appointed  them  by  the  will  of  their  Creator.  There  is 
Bin  onl^  where  the  desire  is  inordinate,  as  in  seeking 
something  contrary  to  the  Divine  will,  or  in  seeking 
the  appomted  likeness  in  a  wrong  way.  The  sin  of 
Satan  m  this  matter  may  have  consisted  in  desiring  to 
attain  supernatural  beatitude  by  his  natural  powers 
or,  what  may  seem  yet  stran^r,  in  seeking  his  beati- 
tude in  the  natural  perfections  and  rejecting  the 
supernatural.  In  either  case,  as  St.  Thomas  considers, 
this  first  sin  of  Satan  was  the  sin  of  pride.  Scotus, 
however  Goc.  cjt.,  Q.  ii),  teaches  that  tnis  sin  was  not 
pride  properly  so  called,  but  should  rather  be  described 
as  a  species  of  spiritual  lust. 

Although  nothing  definite  can  be  known  as  to  the 
precise  nature  of  the  probation  of  the  angels  and  the 
manner  in  which  manv  of  them  fell,  many  theologians 
have  conjectured,  with  some  show  of  probability,  that 
the  mystery  of  the  Divine  Incarnation  was  revealed  to 
them,  that  they  saw  that  a  nature  lower  than  their 
own  was  to  be  hypostatically  united  to  the  Person  of 
God  the  Son,  and  that  all  the  hierarchy  of  heaven 
must  bow  in  adoration  before  the  majesty  of  the  In- 
carnate Word ;  and  this,  it  is  supposed,  was  the  occa- 
sion of  the  pride  of  Lucifer  (cf .  Suarez,  De  Angelis,  lib. 
VII,  xiii).  As  might  be  expected,  the  advocates  of 
this  view  seek  support  in  certain  passages  of  Scripture, 
notably  in  the  words  of  the  Psalmist  as  they  are  cited 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews:  "And  again,  when  he 
bringe^  in  the  first-begotten  into  the  world,  he  saith: 
And  let  all  the  angels  of  God  adore  Him"  (Heb.,  i,  6; 
Ps.  xcvi,  7).  And  if  the  twelfth  chapter  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse may  be  taken  to  refer,  at  l^t  in  a  secondary 
sense,  to  the  original  fall  of  the  angels,  it  ma^  seem 
somewhat  significant  that  it  opens  with  the  vision  of 
the  Woman  and  her  Child.  But  this  interpretation  is 
by  no  means  certain,  for  the  text  in  Hebrews,  i,  may 
be  referred  to  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  and  mucn 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  passage  in  the  Apocalypse. 

It  would  seem  that  this  account  of  the  trial  of  the 
angels  is  more  in  accordance  with  what  is  known  as  the 
Scotist  doctrine  on  the  motives  of  the  Incarnation 
than  with  the  Thomist  view,  that  the  Incarnation  was 
occasioned  by  the  sin  of  our  first  parents.  For  since 
the  sin  itself  was  committed  at  the  instigation  of 
Satan,  it  presupposes  the  fall  of  the  angels.  How, 
then,  could  Satan's  probation  consist  in  the  fore- 
knowledge of  that  wnich  would,  ex  hypothesi,  only 
come  to  pass  in  the  event  of  his  fall?  In  tne  same  way 
it  would  seem  that  the  aforesaid  theory  is  incompati- 
ble with  another  opinion  held  by  some  old  theologians, 
to  wit,  that  men  were  created  to  fill  up  the  gaps  in  the 
ranks  of  the  angels.  For  this  again  supposes  that  if 
no  angels  had  sinned  no  men  would  have  been  made, 
and  in  consequence  there  would  have  been  no  tmion  of 
the  Divine  Person  with  a  nature  lower  than  the  angels. 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  attention  they  nad 
bestowed  on  the  question  of  the  intellectual  powers  of 
the  angels,  the  medieval  theologians  had  much  to  say 
on  the  time  of  their  probation.  The  angelic  mind  was 
cpnceived  of  as  acting  instantaneously,  not,  like  the 
mind  of  man,  passing  by  discursive  reasoning  from 

S remises  to  conclusions.    It  was  pure  intelligence  as 
istinguished  from  reason.    Hence  it  would  seem  that 


DEVIL 


766 


DBVIL 


tuere  waa  no  need  of  any  extended  trial.  And  in  fact 
we  find  St.  Thomas  and  Scotus  discussing  the  question 
whether  the  whole  course  mi^t  not  have  been  accom- 
plished in  the  first  instant  m  which  the  angels  were 
created.  The  Angelic  Doctor  argues  that  the  Fall 
could  not  have  taken  place  in  the  firat  instant.  And  it 
certainly  seems  that  if  the  creature  came  into  beine  in 
the  very  act  of  sinning  the  sin  itself  might  be  said  to 
come  from  the  Creator,  But  this  argument,  to- 
gether with  many  others,  is  answered  with  his  accus- 
tomed acuteness  by  Scotus,  who  maintains  the  ab- 
stract possibility  of  sin  in  the  first  instant.^  But 
whether  possible  or  not,  it  is  agreed  that  this  is  not 
what  actually  happened.  For  the  authority  of  the 
passages  in  Isaias  and  Ezechiel,  which  were  ^nerallv 
accepted  as  referring  to  the  fall  of  Lucifer,  might  well 
suffice  to  ^ow  that  for  at  least  one  instant  he  had 
existed  in  a  state  of  innocence  and  brightness.  To 
modem  readers  the  notion  that  the  sin  was  committed 
in  the  second  instant  of  creation  may  seem  scarcely 
less  incredible  than  the  possibility  of  a  fall  in  the  very 
first.  But  this  may  be  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  we 
are  really  thinking  of  human  modes  of  knowledge,  and 
fail  to  take  into  account  the  Scholastic  conception  of 
an^lic  cognition.  For  a  bein^  who  was  capable  of 
seeing  many  things  at  once,  a  sin^e  instant  mi^t  be 
equivalent  to  the  longer  period  needed  by  slowly- 
moving  mortals. 

This  dispute,  as  to  the  time  taken  by  the  probation 
and  fall  of  Satan,  has  a  purely  speculative  interest. 
But  the  corresponding  question  as  to  the  rapidity  of 
the  sentence  and  punishment  is  in  some  ways  a  more 
important  matter.  There  can  indeed  be  no  doubt 
that  Satan  and  his  rebel  angeb  were  very  speedily 
punished  for  their  rebellion.  This  would  seem  to  be 
sufficiently  indicated  in  some  of  the  texts  which  are 
understood  to  refer  to  the  fall  of  the  angels.  It  mi^ht 
be  inferred,  moreover,  froni  the  swiftness  with  which 
ptmishment  followed  on  the  offence  in  the  case  of  our 
fiist  parents,  although  man's  mind  moves  more  slowly 
than  that  of  the  angels,  and  he  had  more  excuse  in  his 
own  weakness  and  in  the  power  of  his  tempter.  It 
was  partlv  for  this  reason,  indeed,  that  man  found 
mertnr,  whereas  ihere  was  no  redemption  for  the 
angels.  For,  as  St.  Peter  says,  "  God^ared  not  the 
angels  that  sinned"  (II  Pet.,  ii.  4).  This,  it  may  be 
observed,  is  asserted  universally,  indicating  that  all 
who  fell  suffered  punishment.  For  these  and  other 
reasons  theologians  very  commonly  teach  that  the 
doom  and  puniuiment  followed  in  the  next  instant  after 
the  offence,  and  many  go  so  far  as  to  say  there  was  no 
possibility  of  repentance.  But  here  it  will  be  well  to 
Dear  in  mind  the  distinction  drawn  between  revealed 
doctrine,  which  comes  with  authority,  and  theological 
speculation,  which  to  a  great  extent  rests  on  reasoning. 
No  one  who  is  reallv  familiar  with  the  medieval  mas- 
ters, with  their  wide  differences,  their  independence, 
their  bold  speculation,  is  likely  to  confuse  the  two  to- 
gether. But  in  these  days  there  is  some  danger  that 
we  may  lose  sight  of  the  distinction.  It  is  true  that, 
when  it  fulfils  certain  definite  conditions,  the  agreement 
of  theologians  may  serve  as  a  sure  testimony  to  re- 
vealed doctrine,  and  some  of  their  thoughts  and  even 
their  very  words  have  been  adopted  by  the  Church  in 
her  definitions  of  dc^a.  But  at  the  same  time  these 
masters  of  theological  thought  freely  put  forward 
many  more  or  less  plausible  opinions,  which  come  to  us 
with  reasoning  rather  than  authority,  and  must  needs 
stand  or  fall  with  the  axguments  by  which  they  are 
supported.  In  this  wa^  we  may  fmd  that  many  of 
them  may  agree  in  holding  that  the  angjels  who  sinned 
had  no  possibility  of  repentance.  But  it  may  be  that 
it  is  a  matter  of  axgument,  that  each  one  holds  it  for  a 
reason  of  his  own  and  denies  the  validity  of  the  argu- 
ments adduced  by  others.  Some  argue  that  from  the 
nature  of  the  angelic  mind  and  will  there  was  an  in- 
trinsic impossibility  of  repentance.    But  it  may  be 


observed  that  in  any  case  the  basis  of  this  argument 
is  not  revealed  teaching,  but  i>hilo8ophical  specula- 
tion. And  it  is  scarcely  suiprising  to  find  toat  its 
sufficiency  is  denied  by  equally  orthodox  docton  who 
hold  that  if  the  fallen  angeb  could  not  repent  this  was 
either  because  the  doom  was  instantaneous,  and  left 
no  space  for  repentance,  or  because  the  needful  grace 
was  denied  them.  Others,  again,  possibly  with  tetter 
reason,  are  neither  satisfied  that  suflKcient  grace  and 
room  for  repentance  were  in  fact  refused,  nor  can  they 
see  any  ^ood  ground  for  thinking  this  likely,  or  for  re- 
garding it  as  in  hannony  with  aU  that  we  know  of  the 
Divine  mercy  and  goodness.  In  the  absence  of  any 
certain  decision  on  9iis  subject,  we  may  be  allowed  to 
hold,  with  Snares,  that,  however  bri^  it  may  have 
been,  there  was  enough  delay  to  leave  an  opportunity 
for  repentance,  and  tnat  the  necessary  grace  was  not 
wholly  withheld.  If  none  actually  repented,  this  may 
be  explained  in  some  measure  by  saying  that  their 
strength  of  will  and  fixity  of  purpose  made  repentance 
exce^ingly  difficult,  thou^  not  impossible;  that  the 
time,  though  sufficient,  was  short;  and  that  grace  was 
not  given  in  such  abundance  as  to  overcome  these  dif- 
ficulties. 

The  language  of  the  prophets  (Isaias,  ziv;  Eiediiel, 
xxviii)  would  seem  to  show  that  Lucifer  held  a  venr 
high  rank  in  the  heavenly  hierarehy.    And,  accord* 
in^y ,  we  find  many  theologians  maintaining  that  be- 
fore ids  fall  he  was  the  foremost  of  all  the  angels. 
Suarez  is  disposed  to  admit  that  he  was  the  hignest 
negatively,  i.  e.  that  no  one  was  higher,  thong^  many 
may  have  been  his  equals.    But  here  a^dn  we  are  in 
the  reeion  of  pious  opinions,  for  some  divines  maintain 
that,  t&r  from  being  first  of  all,  he  did  not  belong  to 
one  of  the  highest  choirs — Seraphim,  Cherubim,  and 
Thrones — but  to  one  of  the  lower  orders  of  angeb.    In 
any  case  it  appears  that  he  holds  a  certain  sovereignty 
over  those  wno  followed  him  in  his  rebellion.    For  we 
read  of  "the  Devil  and  his  angels''  (Matt.,  xxv,  41), 
"the  dragon  and  his  angels  "  (Apoc. ,  xii,  7), "  BeeUebub, 
the  prince  of  devils" — ^which,  whatever  be  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  name,  cleariy  refers  to  Satan,  as  ap- 
pears from  the  context:  ''  And  if  Satan  also  be  divided 
against  himself,  how  shall  his  kingdom  stand?    Be- 
cause you  say  that  throu^  Beeusebub  I  cast  oat 
devils''  (Luke,  xi,  15,  18),  and  "ttke  prince  of  the 
Powers  of  this  air"  (Ephes.,  ii,  2).     At  firet  sight  it 
may  seem  strange  that  there  should  be  an^r  order  or 
sulK)rdination  amongst  those  rebellious  spirits,  and 
that  those  who  rose  against  their  Maker  should  obey 
one  of  their  own  fellows  who  had  led  them  to  destruc- 
tion.   And  the  analogy  of  similar  movemeota  among 
men  might  suggest  that  the  rebellion  would  be  likely 
to  issue  in  anarehy  and  division.    But  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  fall  of  the  angels  did  not  impair 
their  natural  powera,  that  Lucifer  still  retained  the 
gifts  that  enabled  him  to  influence  his  brethren  befor^ 
their  fall,  and  that  their  superior  intelligence  would 
show  them  that  they  could  achieve  more  suooeas  and 
do  more  harm  to  others  by  unity  and  orgmxation 
than  by  independence  and  division. 

Besides  exereising  this  authority  over  those  who 
were  called  "his  angels",  Satan  has  extended  his  em- 
pire over  the  minds  of  evil  men.    Tlius,  in  the  paawg^ 
just  cited  from  St.  Paul,  we  read,  **  And  you,  when  you 
were  dead  in  your  offences  and  sins,  wherein  in  times 
past  you  walked  according  to  the  course  of  this  world, 
according  to  the  prince  oithe  power  of  this  air,  of  the 
spirit  that  now  worketh  on  the  children  of  unbelief 
(Ephes.,  ii.  1,  2).    In  the  same  way  Christ  in  the 
Gospel  calls  him  *»the  prince  of  this  world".   For 
when  His  enemies  are  coming  to  take  Him,  He  looks 
beyond  the  instruments  of  evH  to  the  master  who 
moves  them,  and  says:  "I  will  not  now  speak  niBflV 
things  to  you,  for  the  prince  of  this  world  cometh,  ww 
in  me  he  hath  not  anything"  (John,  xiv,  30).   T^^J^ 
is  no  need  to  discuss  tiie  view  of  some  theologiaof  v^o 


DSVIL'S  A&^OOATB 


767 


DSVIL-WOBSBirnftS 


surmise  that  Lucifer  was  one  of  the  angels  «rho  ruled 
and  administered  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  that  this 
planet  was  committed  to  his  care.    For  in  any  case 
th.e  sovereipnty  with  which  these  texts  are  primarily 
concerned  is  but  the  rude  right  of  conquest  and  the 
po'wer  of  evil  influence.    His  sway  began  by  his  vic- 
tory over  our  first  parents,  who,  yielding  to  his  sug- 
gestions; were  brought  under  his  bondaee.    All  sin- 
ners who  do  his  wiU  become  in  so  far  his  servants. 
Far,  as  St.  Gregory  sxrvs,  he  is  the  head  of  all  the 
wicked — '*  Surely  the  Devil  is  the  head  of  all  the 
.wicked;  and  of  this  head  all  the  wicked  are  members" 
(Certe  iniquorum  omnium  caput  diabolus  e^t;    et 
Huius  capitis  membra  sunt  onmes  iniqui. — Hom.  16, 
in  Evangel.),    This  headship  over  the  wicked,  as  St. 
Tliomaa  is  careful  to  explain,  differs  widely  from 
Cluist's  headship  over  the  Chureh,  inasmuch  as  Satan 
is  only  head  by  outward  government  and  not  also,  as 
Clirist  is,  by  inward,  life-giving  influence  (Summa, 
III,  Q.  viii,  a.  7).     With  ihe  growing  wickedness  of 
tlie  world  and  the  spreading  of  paganism  and  false 
religions  and  magic  rites,  the  rule  of  Satan  was  ex- 
tended and  strengthened  till  his  power  was  broken  by 
the  victory  of  Christ,  who  for  this  reason  said,  on  the 
eve  of  Hjb  Passion:    **Now  is  the  judgment  of  the 
world:  now  shall  the  prince  of  this  worlabe  cast  out" 
(John,  xii,  31).    By  the  victory  of  the  Cross  Christ 
delivered  men  from  the  bondage  of  Satan  and  at  the 
same  time  paid  the  debt  due  to  Divine  justice  by 
shedding  His  blood  in  atonement  for  our  sins.    In 
their  endeavouis  to  explain  this  great  mystery,  some 
old  theologians,  misled  by  the  metaphor  of  a  ransom 
for  captives  made  in  war,  came  to  the  strange  con- 
clusion that  the  price  of  Redemption  was  paid  to 
Satan.    But  this  error  was  effectively  refuted  by  St. 
Anselm,  who  showed  that  Satan  had  no  rights  over 
his  captives  and  that  the  great  price  wherewith  we 
were  bought  was  paid  to  God  alone  (cf.  Atonement). 
What  has  been  said  so  far  may  suffice  to  show  the 
part  played  by  the  Devil  in  human  history,  whether 
m  regard  to  the  individual  soul  or  the  whole  race  of 
Adam.     It  is  indicated,  indeed,  in  his  name  of  Satarif 
the  adversary,  the  opposer,  the  accuser,  as  well  as  by. 
his  headi^p  of  the  wicked  ranged  under  his  banner  in 
continual  warfare  with  the  kingdom  of  Christ.    The 
two  cities  whose  struggle  is  described  by  St.  Aueustine 
are  already  indicated  in  the  words  of  the  Apostle,  '*  In 
this  the  children  of  God  are  manifest  and  the  children 
of  the  devil:  for  the  devil  sinneth  from  the  beginning. 
For  this  purpose  the  Son  of  God  appeared,  that  lie 
might  destroy  the  works  of  the  devil"  (John,  iii,  10, 
8).    Whether  or  no  the  foreknowledge  of  the  Incarna- 
tion was  the  occasion  of  his  own  fall,  his  subsequent 
course  has  certainly  shown  him  the  relentless  enemy 
of  mankind  and  the  determined  opponent  of  the  Di- 
vine economy  of  redemption.    And  since  he  lured  our 
first  parents  to  their  fsdl  he  has  ceased  not  to  tempt 
tlieir  children  in  order  to  involve  them  in  his  own  ruin. 
There  is  no  reason,  indeed,  for  thinking  that  all  sins 
and  all  temptations  must  needs  come  directly  from 
the  Devil  or  one  of  his  ministers  of  evil.    For  it  is 
certain  tfiat  if,  after  the  first  fall  of  Adiun,  or  at  the 
time  of  the  coming  of  Christ,  Satan  and  his  angels  had 
been  bound  so  fast  that  they  might  tempt  no  more, 
the  world  would  still  have  been  filled  with  evils.    For 
men  would  have  had  enough  of  temptation  in  the 
weakness  and  waywardness  of  their  hearts.    But  in 
that  ease  the  evil  would  clearly  have  been  far  less  than 
it  is  now,  for  the  activity  of  Satan  does  much  more 
than  merely  add  a  further  source  of  temptation  to  the 
weakness  of  the  world  and  the  flesh;  it  means  a  com- 
bination and  an  intelligent  direction  of  all  the  ele- 
ments of  evil.    The  whole  Church  and  each  one  of  her 
children  are  beset  by  dangers,  the  fire  of  persecution, 
the  enervation  of  ease,  the  dangers  of  wealth  and  of 
poverty,  heresies  and  errors  of  o{)po8ite  characters, 
rutiona!ir>in  and  su|)erstitioii,  fanaticism  and  indiffer- 


ence. It  would  be  bad  enough  if  all  these  forees  were 
acting  apart  and  without  any  definite  purpose,  but  the 
perils  of^the  situation  are  incalculably  increased  when 
all  may  be  organized  and  directed  by  vigilant  and 
hostile  intelligences.  It  is  this  that  maKCs  the  Apostle, 
though  he  well  knew  the  perils  of  the  world  and  the 
weakness  of  the  flesh,  lay  special  stress  on  the  greater 
dangers  that  come  from  the  assaults  of  those  mighty 
spirits  of  evil  in  whom  he  recognized  our  real  and  most 
formidable  foes — "Put  you  on  the  armour  of  God, 
that  you  may  be  able  to  stand  against  the  deceits  of 
the  devil.  For  our  wrestling  is  not  against  flesh  and 
blood;  but  against  principalities  and  powers,  against 
the  rulers  of  the  world  of  this  darkness,  against  the 
spirits  of  wickedness  in  the  high  places  .  .  .  Stand 
tnerefore,  having  your  loins  ^rt  about  with  truth, 
having  on  the  bre^plate  of  justice,  and  your  feet 
shod  with  the  preparation  of  the  gospel  of  peace;  in 
all  things  taking  the  shield  of  faith,  wherewith  you 
may  be  able  to  extin^ish  all  the  fiery  darts  of  the 
most  wicked  one"  (Ephes.,  vi,  11,  16). 

St.  Anbrlm,  De  Cant  Diaboli;  Summa,  Q.  Ixiii;  ibid..  III.  Q. 
viti.  A.  7;  ScoTus,  In  III.  dUt.  v,  vi;  St7AREE.  De  Anqetia,  VII; 
Whttbhoube,  Demon,  Devil  and  Satan  in  Hastinqb,  Diet,  of  the 
BUfU;  Q0R11E8,  Die  chried.  Myslik  (1830),  Fr.  tr.  txi  myetique 
natunUe  et  diabolique  (1855). 

W.  H.  Kent. 
Devil's  Advocate.    See  Advocatus  Diaboli. 

Devil- Worshippers. — The  meaning  of  this  com- 
pound term  is  suflBciently  obvious,  for  all  must  be  fa- 
miliar with  the  significance  of  its  two  component  parts. 
But  the  thing  denoted  by  the  name  is  by  no  means  so 
easy  to  understand.  For  there  is  such  a  strange 
startling  incompatibility  between  the  notion  of  de\Tl 
and  that  of  an  object  of  worship,  that  the  combination 
in  this  case  may  well  present  a  grave  difficulty.  And 
the  more  we  are  able  to  understand  about  the  charac- 
ter and  history  of  the  Devil  and  about  the  true  nature 
of  worship,  the  more  difficult  is  it  to  believe  that  men 
can  have  been  led,  even  in  the  utmost  extremity  of 
folly  and  wickedness,  to  worship  the  Devil.  Yet,  in- 
credible as  it  may  seem,  it  is  unfortunately  true  that 
some  worship  of  this  kind  has  prevailed  at  many  times 
and  among  widely  different  races  of  mankincf.  The 
following  considerations  may  help  in  some  degree  to 
l^hten  the  difficulty  presented  by  this  singular 
phenomenon. 

In  the  first  place  it  may  be  well  to  recall  tKe  analogy 
between  the  worship  given  to  a  divine  being  and  the 
tribute  paid  to  a  king.  Both  alike  are  sensible  proofs 
of  service  and  subjection.  In  the  case  of  king^,  be- 
sides the  willing  service  paid  to  a  just  and  legitimate 
sovereign,  there  may  be  tribute  paid  to  some  alien 
oppressor,  or  blackmail  grudgingly  given  to  some 
pirate  chief  or  marauder  in  order  to  deprecate  the 
evils  that  may  be  feared  at  his  hands.  And  so  in  the 
case  of  religious  worship,  we  may  find  that  in  the  rude 
polytheism  of  barbarous  races,  where  the  gods  were 
not  only  many  in  number  but  various  in  character, 
besides  the  wilhng  worship  given  to  good  and  benefi- 
cent beings  in  the  service  of  love  and  gratitude,  there 
is  a  sort  of  liturgical  blackmail  offered  to  the  evil  and 
malignant  gods  or  demons  in  order  to  placate  them 
and  avert  their  anger.  In  like  manner,  when  we  pass 
from  Polytheism  to  the  philosophic  Dualism — wnere 
the  worlds  of  light  and  darkness,  good  and  evil, 
sharply  defined,  are  constantly  warring  gainst  each 
other — over  against  the  good  men,  who  offer  worship 
to  the  good  ^od,  Ahura  Mazda,  there  are  the  wicked 
DaSva-worshippers  who  sacrifice  to  the  Demons  and 
to  Ahriman  their  chief,  the  principle  of  evil. 

Another  souroe  of  this  strange  worship  may  be 
found  in  the  fact  that  in  the  eany  days  each  nation 
bad  its  own  natural  gods;  hence  racial  rivalxy  and 
hatred  sometimes  led  one  nation  to  regard  the  protect- 
ing divinities  of  its  enemies  as  evil  demons.  In  this 
way  many  who  merely  worshipped  gods  whom  they 


DSVOLimOK 


768 


DRMAttH 


themselves  regarded  as  good  beings  would  be  called 
devil-worshippers  by  men  of  other  nations..  Such  may 
be  the  case  with  the  Daeva- worshippers  in  the  Avesta, 
In  the  same  way  the  Greeks  and  Jlomans  mav  have 
worshipped  their  divinities,  fondly  believing  them  to 
be  good.  But  the  Christian  Scriptures  declare  that  all 
theeods  of  the  Gentiles  are  demons. 

T^is  declaration,  it  may  be  added,  was  not  the  ut- 
terance of  a  rival  race  but  the  teaching  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture. For  as  the  Fathers  and  theologians  explain  the 
matter,  the  fallen  angels  besides  tempting  and  asssdl- 
ing  men  in  other  way^,  have,  by  working  on  their  fears 
or  exciting  their  cupidity,  brought  them  to  give  wor- 
ship to  themselves  under  the  guise  of  idols.  If  not  in 
all  cases,  it  would  seem  that  much  of  the  heathen 
idolatrous  worship,  especially  in  its  worst  and  most 
degraded  forms,  was  offered  to  the  devils.  This  may 
explain  some  of  the  manifestations  in  the  old  pagan 
oracles.  And  something  of  the  same  kind  occurs  in 
the  demonic  manifestations  among  the  modem  demon- 
olaters  in  India  (cf .  Alexander,  Demonic  Possession  in 
the  New  Testament,  p.  237).  Nor  has  this  becai  con- 
fined to  heathen  nations,  for  in  connexion  with  mam- 
cal  practices  and  occultism  some  forms  of  deim- 
worsnip  appear  in  the  heresy  histoiy  of  medieval 
Europe.  Gdrres,  in  his  ^reat  work  on  Christian 
Mysticism,  gives  some  cunous  and  repulsive  details 
of  their  obscene  ceremonial.  Of  late  yeals  ihere 
seems  to  have  been  a  recrudescence  of  this  evil  super- 
stition in  certain  countries  of  Europe.  While  there  is 
some  authentic  evidence  as  to  the  existence  of  these 
evil  practices,  the  truth  is  overlaid  with  a  mass  of  1^- 
end,  many  cnarees  of  this  kind  are  false  or  grossly 
exaggerated,  and  a  number  of  innocent  persons  have 
been  cruelly  put  to  death  on  charges  of  witchcraft 
or  devil- worsnip.  It  is  well  also  to  remember  St.  Au- 
gustine's words:  '^Non  uno  modo  sacrificatur  tradi- 
toribus  angelis";  and  possibly  calumny  and  cruelty 
may  be  more  dangerous  forms  of  devil-worship  than 
all  the  dark  rites  of  African  Medicine  men  or  medieval 
magicians. 

G6iuiE8»  ChrisU,  MysHk.  French  Tr.:  Alexandeb.  Demo- 
nie  Possession  in  the  New  Testament  (EdinbuiKh,  1902). 

wTH.  Kent. 

Devolution  (Lat.  devolutw  from  devolvere\  the 
right  of  an  ecclesiastical  superior  to  provide  for  a  oene- 
fice,  when  the  ordinary  patron  or  collator  has  failed  to 
do  so,  either  through  negligence  or  by  the  nomination 
of  an  improper  candidate.  There  is  no  permanent 
loss  of  right  m  such  a  case,  but  only  for  the  time  being 
and  for  tnat  particular  instance.  The  right  of  devo- 
lution passes  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  when  the 
chapter  or  private  individuals  who  have  the  right  of 

gatronage  do  not  present  a  new  and  acceptable  oene- 
ciary  within  six  months  of  the  vacancy.  When  the 
bishop  himself  is  negligent,  the  right  devolves  upon 
the  metropolitan.  Where,  however,  the  right  of  ap- 
pointing belongs  to  both  tne  bishop  and  the  chapter, 
if  only  one  of  the  parties  has  been  found  wanting  in  the 
exercise  of  the  rignt,  the  law  declares  that  the  power  of 
nomination  remains  to  the  other.  When  there  is  a 
vacancy  in  an  episcopal  see,  the  metropolitan  appoints 
a  vicar  capitular  to  rule  the  vacant  diocese,  if  the 
cathedral  chapter  has  failed  to  elect  such  an  official 
within  eight  days.  In  case  of  negligence  on  the  part 
of  metropolitans  or  exempt  bishops,  the  right  devolves 
upon  the  pope  of  providing  for  tne  benefices  not  con- 
ferred witnin  the  legal  time  or  when  the  election  was 
uncanonical.  Chapters  having  power  to  elect  an 
archbishop,  bishop,  or  abbot  must  do  so  within  three 
months,  or  the  appointment  devolves  upon  the  Roman 
pontiff.  The  same  holds  for  the  case  wnere  an  election 
was  not  celebrated  according  to  canonical  prescrip- 
tions. Custom,  however,  allows  a  second  election  by 
the  chapter  when  the  first  has  been  declared  void.  In 
rcuntries  where  a  concordat  exists  between  the  Holy 
Hee  and  the  civil  government,  the  right  of  devolution 


is  often  either  to  be  held  in  abenanoe  or  oertain  reBtric- 
tions  are  plaoed  upon  it.  In  France  no  ri^t  of  devo- 
lution was  recogmzed  by  the  State.  In  some  ecclesi- 
astical provinces  of  Germany  and  of  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium, it  is  expressly  stipulated  that  in  the  event  of  an 
uncanonical  election  of  an  archbishop  or  bishop,  the 
chapters  are  to  be  allowed  to  proceed  to  another  elec- 
tion. In  case  the  right  of  presentation  to  archiepis- 
copal  and  episcopal  sees  has  been  conceded  to  the 
civil  government,  the  latter  does  not  lose  the  rig^t  by 
the  nomination  of  an  unacceptable  candidate,  nor 
does  the  election  devolve  upon  the  pope  when  a  bish- 
opric has  not  been  filled  within  the  canonical  term  of 
three  months,  unless  such  has  been  expressly  stipu- 
lated in  the  concordat.  When  the  pope,  himself,  does 
not  exercise  the  right  ot  devolution  within  the  canoni- 
cal term  of  months,  the  power  of  conferring  tiie  bene- 
fice returns  to  the  ordinary  patron.  Canonists  deduce 
this  conclusion  not  from  any  explicit  law,  but  from 
the  common  regulations  governing  the  provisions  for 
filling  benefices  and  dignities.  In  practice  this  cus- 
tom IS  observed  by  the  Holy  See.  Historically,  the 
law  of  devolution  does  not  seem  to  be  more  ancient 
than  the  Third  Council  of  the  Lateran  (1179)  for  bene- 
fices, and  the  Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran  (1215)  for 
elective  prelacies.  The  object  of  the  law  is  both  to 
provide  through  higher  authority  a  remedy  for  the 
correction  of  abuses  or  negligences  on  the  part  of  in- 
feriors and  also  to  punish  tnem  for  the  improper  use  of 
their  powers. 

Kbembki,  De  Jure  Devolutionis  (Berlin,  1853);  LAUBENTraa, 
InsHhUiones  Jur.  Bed,  {Fnibjirg,  1903);  Wbxns,  Jua  Been- 
talium  (Rome.  1890).  II. 

William  H.  W.  Fanninq. 

Devoti»  Giovanni,  canonist,  b.  at  Rome,  11  July, 
1744;  d.  there  18  Sept^  1820.  At  the  Bse  of  twentjr 
he  occupied  a  chair  of  canon  law  at  the  Roman  Uni- 
versity (Sa])ienza).  After  twentv-five  years  service 
in  this  position  Pius  VI  appointed  him  Bishop  of  An- 
agni,  wnich  see  he  resigned  in  1804.  to  become  titular 
Archbishop  of  Carthage.  As  such  ne.fiUed  several  im- 
portant positions  at  Home.  He  also  aooompanied  Pius 
Vll  during  his  exile  in  France.  His  works  arei  "  De 
notissimis  in  jure  legibus  lU>ri  duo''  (Rome,  1766); 
''Juris  canonici  universi  publici  et  privati  libri  quin- 
que",  an  unfinished  work  of  which  only  three  volumes 
appeared  (Rome,  1803-1815;  new  edition,  Rome,  1827), 
containing  an  introduction  to  canon  law  and  a  oom- 
mentary  on  the  first  and  seoond  book  of  the  Decretals ; 
'' Institutionum  canonicarum  libri  quatuor"  (Rome, 
1785;  fourth  ed.,  Rome,  1814).  Tliia  last  work  is 
distinguished  by  its  clearness  and  conciseness,  and  by 
its  numerous  historical  notes,  attributed,  but  without 
any  reason,  to  Cardinal  Castiglione,  afterwards  Pius 
Vni.  In  1817,  the  King  of  Spain  made  obligatory  the 
study  of  the  "Institutiones"  of  Devoti  at  tiie  Univer- 
sity of  AlcaU;  in  1836,  the  University  of  Louvain  ac- 
cepted it  as  a  classical  manual  of  canon  law.  The 
work  is  now  more  useful  for  the  histoiy  than  for  the 
practice  of  canon  law. 

ScHULTB,  GescKicfUe  der  Qttellen  und  LUlenUur  dee  canon- 
ischen  Rechts  (Stuttgart.  1880).  III.  1,  628;  Hubtbb,  Nomen- 
dolor  Liierairitta  (1895),  III,  677;  Webmx,  Jus  Deentaliutn 
(Rome,  1898).  1, 401. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Devotion,  Feast  of.    See  Feajst. 

Dewi,  Bishop  of  Menbvia.    See  David,  Saint. 

Deymann,  Clementini:.  b.  at  Klein-Stavem,  Olden- 
burg, Germany,  24  June,  1844;  d.  at  Phoenix,  Arisona, 
U.  S.  A.,  4  December,  1896.  He  came  to  America 
with  his  parents  in  1853,  studied  at  Teutopolis,  Illi- 
nois, received  the  habit  of  St.  Francis  and  the  name 
Clementine  at  the  same  place,  8  December,  18d7,  fin- 
ished his  theological  studies,  and  was  ordained  priest 
at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  19  May,  1872.  FatJier  Clemen- 
tine was  stationed  as  professor  at  the  college  of  Teu- 


DHUODA 


769 


DXAXOVJb 


%or>olis  until  July,  1879,  when  he  was  transferred  to 
Joiiet,  to  act  as  chaplain  of  the  State  prison.  At  Jol- 
ictt  be  was  also  spintual  director  of  me  School  Sisters 
of  St.  Francis.  In  August,  1880,  he  was  appointed 
superior  and  pastor  of  the  German  parish  of,  Johet,  and 
in  July,  1882,  he  received  a  like  position  at  Qiilli- 
csothe,  Biissouri.  In  1885  and  in  1891  Father  Clemen- 
tine  was  elected  definitor  of  the  Franciscan  province 
of  the  Sacred  Heart;  in  1886  he  was  made  superior  of 
the  bosrs'  orphanage  at  Watsonville,  California.  He 
^WBs  appointed  22  July,  1896,  the  first  commissary  for 
tlie  newly  erected  Franciscan  commissariat  of  the 
Pacific  Cfoast,  but  died  shortly  after  receivii^  t<his 
office  and  was  buried  at  Santa  Barbara.  Father 
Clementine  was  a  very  industrious  man,  who  in  his 
spare  time  translated  a  number  of  useful  works,  some 
Of  which  have  been  published.  Among  these  are: 
•'The  Seraphic  Octave^'  or  "Retreat"  (1883);  "Life 
of  St.  Francisco  Solano";  "Life  of  Blessed  Crescentia 
Hoess";  "Mav  Devotions"  (1884).  His  original 
'writings  are:  "Manual  for  the  Sisters  of  the  Inird 
Order^(1884);  "St.  Francis  Manual"  (1884).  He 
also  wrote  for  several  periodicals,  and  left  in  manu- 
script translations  from  the  Spanish  of  the  lives  of 
Father  Junipero  Serra  and  Father  Antonio  Margil. 

£nolxhardt,  The  Franciscana  in  California  (1897);    ilr- 
cfcioes  of  the  Prmnnce  and  Commiaaariai  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Zephtrin  Enolehardt. 

DhaodAi  wife  of  Bernard,  Duke  of  Septimania. 
TUe  only  source  of  information  on  her  life  is  her 
**  Liiber  Manualis"  which  was  written  for  the  education 
of  her  son  William.    The  name  Dhuoda  which  is  in- 
di/^ted  in  the  "  Manual "  is  latinized  by  her  as  Dodana, 
Duodana,  and  Dhuodana.    Dhuoda  was  a  member 
of  a  noble  family,  and  married,  24  June,  824,  Bernard, 
Bon  of  St.  William  of  Gellone,  godson  and  favourite  of 
IQng  Louis  the  Pious,  Duke  of  Septimania,  and  also, 
either  at  that  time  or  a  little  later,  Count  of  Barce- 
lona.   Her  first  son,  William,  was  bom  29  November, 
826,  and  the  second,  Bernard,  22  March,  841.    The 
"Manual"  was  begun  30  November,  841,  at  Uzds 
(now  Department  of  Gard),  and  completed  2  Febru- 
ary, 843.    She  was  then  separated  from  both  her  hus- 
buid  and  her  two  sons.  William  being  at  the  Court  of 
Charles  the  Bald,  and  Bernard  having  been  taken 
away  before  baptism  to  his  father  in  Aquitaine. 
Probablv  Dhuoda  did  not  live  long  after  completing 
her  work,  as  she  speaks  of  herself  as  weak  and  near 
death,  eiq^resses  her  sorrow  at  the  thought  that  she 
will  not  see  William  in  his  manhood,  and  writes  herself 
the  epitaph  which  she  desires  him  to  engrave  on  her 
tomb.    Thus  she  may  have  been  spared  the  sorrow  of 
Imowing  her  husband's  condemnation  for  rebellion 
(844),  and  the  death  of  her  two  sons  who  were  also 
killed,  William  in  850,  and  Bernard  in  872,  after 
wilfully  disregarding  their  mother's   good   lessons. 
The  "Manual",  consisting  of  seventy-three  chapters 
,   (not   including   the    introduction,   mvocation,  pro- 
logue, ete.),  is  an  important  document  for  general  nis- 
tory  and  especially  for  the  history  of  education.    It 
was  published  by  Bondurand  in  1887  from  a  manu- 
script of  the  seventeenth  century  in  the  Biblioth^ue 
Nationale,  Paris,  and  from  fragments  of  a  manuscript  of 
the  Carlovingian  epoch,  found  in  the  librarv  of  Ntmes. 
Before  that  date,  only  a  few  passages  had  been  pub- 
lished bv  Mabillon  and  reprcxiuced  in  Migne's  "Pa- 
trology".    It  is  a  treatise  on  Christian  virtues,  re- 
vealing the  author's  remarkable  qualities  of  heart  and 
mind,  her  intense  affection  for  her  sons  and  her  hus- 
band, notwithstanding  the  latter's  intrigues  at  the 
C!ourt  (see Martin,  Histoirede France,  II,  386sqq.).  We 
find  numerous  quotations  from  Holy  Scripture,  allu- 
sions to  Scriptural  facts,  and  some  references  to  pro- 
fane writers.    The  expression  is  in  some  instances 
obscure  and  even  incorrect  from  the  point  of  view  of 
classical  latinity,  but  the  many  images,  comparisons, 
and  allegories,  the  use  in  some  chaptera  of  verse  and 
IV— 49 


acrostics,  the  beauty  and  nobleness  of  the  thou^^ti^ 
the  earnestness  and  love  of  the  writer  which  are  maiii« 
fest  throughout  the  whole  work,  always  keep  the 
reader's  interest  alive.  It  was  really  a  "honeyed 
beverage"  which  Dhuoda  had  prepared  for  her  son: — 
Istum  pibellum]  tibi  et  fratri,  ut  prosit,  quod  ooll^ 

festinans, 
Velut  mellifluum  potum,  favisque  pennixtum, 
In  cibum  oris,  ut  degustes  semper  adhortor. 

BoNDUKAND,  Lc  Moniid  de  Dhtuxui  (Paris,  1887);  Compter 
renduB  de  VAoadimie  dee  InecripHone  (Paris,  1885),  223,  230: 
KuNS,  Bihliothek  der  katholiechen  Plldagogik  (Freiburs,  1890), 
III,  52  (German  translation  of  the  Manual  with  a  short  intro- 
duction); M^BiUiON,  Acta  eanetorum  ord.  S.  Bened,  (Venice, 
1735),  seec.  IV,  pan  I,  704;  Mione.  P.  L.,  CVI.  100;  Hieioire 
litUraire  de  la  France  (Ptoris.  1733—),  V.  17. 

C.  A.  DUBRAT. 

Diaconiciun  (Gr.  iiOKOPucSp),  in  the  Greek  Church 
the  liturgical  book  specifying  the  functions  of  the  dea- 
con ;  it  is  also  the  name  given  to  the  Orationea  pro  pace 
(duLKOPucd)  to  be  said  by  him  before  the  people. 
Primarily,  however,  the  word  denoted  an  annex  to  the 
Christian  basilica,  where  necessary  supplies  for  the 
service  of  the  altar  were  kept  and  preparations  were 
made  for  the  Holy  Sacrifice.  The  diacamcum  is  dis- 
tinct from  the  protkesis,  a  small  room  where  the  offei^ 
ings  of  the  people  were  received.  In  large  churches 
the  diacanicum  majus  comprise  several  rooms:  the 
9ahUatoriumf  for  reception  and  audiences  of  the 
bishop;  the  ihesawrarium,  where  sacred  vessels  uid 
books  were  kept ;  and  the  diaconicum  properiy  so  called. 
Possibly  the  Greek  TaffTo^>6pi4>w,  where  the  Holy 
Euchanst  was  reserved,  was  simply  the  diaconicum. 
ProlhesU  and  diaconicum  are  ordinarily  on  either  side 
of  the  a{)se.  In  Syrian  churches,  where  they  are  regu- 
larly found,  they  are  built  on  a  rectangular  plan  and 
have  two  stones.  They  also  exist  in  Byzantine 
churches,  in  the  basilicas  of  Africa  and  frequently 
even  in  the  churches  of  other  reeions. 

Kraus,  Geschichte  der  chrietlichen  JCunet  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  • 
1896),  1, 300;  Idem,  Real-Eneyckl.  d.  ehrieU.  AlterthUmer  (Frei- 
burg. 1882).  I,  358. 

R.  Maxbs. 
Diadochtis.    See  Marcus  Diadochttb. 

Diakovar  (Croatian,  Djakoyo),  see  of  the  Bishop  of 
the  united  Dioceses  of  Bosnia  or  Diakov^r  and  Sir- 
mium  (Szer6m)  (Bosniensis  seu  Diacovensis  et  Sirmi- 
ensis),  a  municipality  of  Slavonia  (Austria-Hungary), 
in  the  county  of  Virovititz  (Hungarian  Verdcze).  Dia- 
kovir  is  also  the  seat  of  a  district  court  j  in  1900  it 
contained  6824  inhabitants,  mostly  Catholics,  of  whom 
65  per  cent  were  Serbs  and  28  per  cent  Germans.  The 
fine  cathedral,  completed  in  1883  by  Friedrich  Schmidt 
from  the  plans  of  Karl  Rdsner,  is  a  Roman^ue- 
Gothic  edince,  256  feet  long  and  197  feet  wide;  it  nas 
two  towers,  each  about  276  feet  hi^h,  and,  in  addition, 
a  cupola  about  203  feet  high.  The  iiiterior  is  decor- 
ated with  frescoes  by  Seitz,  father  and  son,  and  the 
or^n  has  3000  pipes.  Among  the  other  important 
buildings  are  the  episcopal  seminary  founded  by 
Bishop  Mandi6  in  1807  and  altered  in  1858  by  Bishop 
Strossmayer,  the  provincial  house  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  the  Holy  Cross,  and  the  episcopal  palace. 
Diakov^r  is  of  Roman  origin.  On  the  imperial  road 
from  Sissek  to  Sirmium  there  was  a  laree  station 
named  Certissa,  which  disappeared  during  the  migra- 
tions of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  The  site  is  not 
again  mentioned  before  the  thirteenth  centurv,  when 
Coloman,  brother  of  King  B41a  IV,  gave  the  "Posses- 
sio  Diaco''  to  the  Bishop  of  Bosnia.  ^  After  the  le- 
establishment  of  the  Diocese  of  Sirmium  (q.  v.)  by 
Gregoiy  IX,  20  January,  1229,  the  bishop  lived  at 
Bosna  Seraj  in  Bosnia,  but  in  1246  he  transferred  his 
see  to  DiakovAr  after  Gregory  IX,  on  account  of  the 
troubles  with  the  Bogomili,  withdrew  the  Diocese  of 
Bosnia  from  its  subjection  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Ra- 
eusa  and  made  it  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Kaloosa. 


1>IALE0TIG 


770 


DIALEOnO 


In  1736  the  territory  of  the  Diocese  of  Bosnia  be- 
dune  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Bosnia  and  Hense- 
govina  (q.  v.),  while  by  a  Bull  of  Clement  XIV  of  9 
July,  1773,  the  See  of  Sirmium  was  united  in  perpetu- 
ity with  Diakovir.  Since  this  date  the  Bishops  of 
Diakov^  have  borne  the  title  "  of  Bosnia,  or  DiakovAr 
and  Sirmium".  Since  1852  the  diocese  has  been  a 
suffragan  of  Agram  {Z&ffr&h),  which  was  foimded  in 
that  year. 

Among  the  most  important  medieval  bishops  of 
Diakov^  were  Blessed  Johannes  Teutonicus  (1233- 
41)  who  died  in  1253  as  fourth  Master  General  of  the 
Dominican  Order,  and  the  Franciscan  Blessed  Pere- 
grinus  (1349-56).  In  the  nineteenth  century  Bishop 
Joseph  Qeorg  Strossmayer  (q.  v.)  exceeded  all  his 
predecessors,  not  only  in  the  length  of  his  episcopate 
(1849-1905).  but  also  in  the  fruitful  results  of  his 
labours  for  nis  diocese,  especially  as  a  patron  of  art 
and  learning.  After  his  death  the  see  was  administered 
by  tiie  vicar  capitular,  Dr.  En^lbert  VorSak.  The 
cathedral  chapter,  established  m  1239,  disappeared 
after  the  invasion  of  the  Turks  in  1453.  It  was  re- 
stored in  1773  by  Maria  Teresa  and  it  consists  of  8 
regular  and  6  honorary  canons.  Since  1881  the  dio- 
cese is  limited  to  the  Croatian -Slavonian  counties  of 
Verovititz  (Ver5cze),  Szer6m,  and  Pozhega,  and  in- 
cludes, according  to  the  statistics  for  1908:  4  arch- 
deaconries; 11  vice-archdeaconries;  90  parishes  with 
376  dependent  chapels  and  stations,  and  4  exposi- 
tures;  174  secular  and  regular  priests;  294,674  Catho- 
lics and  6205  Uniat  Greeks  in  a  total  population  of 
615,897.  The  male  religious  orders  in  the  diocese  are: 
Franciscans,  6  monasteries;  Capuchins,  1  monastery 
in  Esseg  (E^z^k  or  Osjek)  with  6  religious.  The  fe- 
male communities  include  37  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  and  39  Sisters  of  CJharity  of  the  Holy 
Ooss.  Besides  the  seminary  for  priests  at  Diakovdr, 
mentioned  above,  there  is  a  seminary  for  boys  at  Es- 
seg established  by  Bishop  Strossmayer  in  1899.  The 
most  celebrated  place  of  pilgrimage  in  the  Diocese 
of  Diakov^  is  Mariaschnee  near  Peterwardein.  The 
patron  saint  for  Diakovdr  is  St.  Elias,  for  Szer^m,  St. 
Demetrius. 

Monumenta  apeetanHa  huiofiafn  Statforum  meridionalium,  ed. 
SouTH-Si^Tic  AcADRMT  (Agram,  1892).  XXIII;  Theinkr, 
VeUra  Monumenta  Slavorum  meridionalium  hi»toriam  illus- 
trantia  OU  Rome,  1863;  II,  Agram,  1875);  Farlati,  lUyricum 
Mcrum  (Venice,  1760),  IV,  37-90;  Phat,  Specimen  hierarehia 
Hungarioa  (Prcflsburg-Kaschau,  1778),  II,  396-43&  Hodinka, 
Sttidim  zuT  Oetchichie  des  Boaniaeh-Diakovdrer  Bistuma  (in 
Hungarian,  Budapest,  1898);  Schematiamua  cleri  diacesium 
Boanvanaia  aeu  Diaeovenaia  at  airmienaia  pro  anno  1908  (Diako- 
vir.  1908):  Qamb,  Seriea  epiacoporum  (Ratisbon,  1873).  368-69; 
EuBKL,  Hierardiia  Catfujliea  medii  mn  (Mttnster,  1898),  I, 
146-47:  (Manster.  1901),  II,  122;  Die  kaiholiache  Kirche  unaerer 
Zeit  (Munich,  1900),  II,  645-48;  La  CatJUdrale  de  Djakovo,  ed. 
BocTH-SuLTic  AcADBmr  (a  splendid  art-publication,  in  Ooatian 
and  French,  Prague,  1900). 

Greoor  Reinhold. 

Dlalectie  [Or.  5*aXeimjc4  (rtx*^  or  /U0o9os)f  the 
dialectic  art  or  method,  from  SidkiyofULi,  I  converse, 
discuss,  dispute;  as  noun  also  dialectics;  as  adjective, 
dialectical]. — (1)  In  Greek  philosophy  the  word  orig- 
inally signified  "investigation  by  dialogue",  instruc- 
tion by  question  and  answer,  as  in  the  heuristic 
method  of  Socrates  and  the  dialogues  of  Plato.  The 
word  dialectics  still  retains  this  meaning  in  the  theory 
of  education.  (2)  But  as  the  process  of  reasoning  is 
more  fimdamental  than  its  oral  expression,  the  term 
dic^ecOc  came  to  denote  primarily  tne  art  of  inference 
or  alignment.  In  this  sense  it  is  synonymous  with 
logic.  It  has  always,  moreover,  connoted  special 
aptitude  or  acuteness  in  reasoning,  "dialectical  sKill"; 
and  it  was  because  of  this  characteristic  of  Zeno's 
polemic  against  the  reality  of  motion  or  change  that 
this  philosopher  is  said  to  have  been  styled  by  Aris- 
totle the  master  or  founder  of  dialectic.  (3)  Further, 
the  aim  of  all  an^umentation  being  presumably  the 
acquisition  of  truth  or  knowledge  about  reality,  and 
tht  process  of  cognition  being  inseparably  bound  up 


with  its  content  or  object,  i.  e.  with  reality,  it  was 
natural  that  the  term  dialectic  should  be  again  ex- 
tended from  function  to  object,  from  thought  to 
thin^;  and  so,  even  as  early  as  Plato,  it  had  come  to 
signify  the  whole  science  of  reality,  both  as  to  method 
and  as  to  content,  thus  nearly  approaching  what  has 
been  from  a  somewhat  later  perioa  universally  known 
as  metaphysics.  It  is,  however,  not  quite  synony- 
mous with  the  latter  in  the  objective  sense  of  the 
science  of  real  beine,  abstracting  from  the  thought 
processes  by  which  this  real  being  is  known,  but  rather 
in  the  more  subjective  sense  in  which  it  denotes  the 
study  of  being  in  connexion  with  the  mind,  the  science 
of  knowledge  in  relation  to  its  object,  the  critical  in- 
vestigation of  the  origin  and  valicuty  of  knowledge  as 
pursued  in  psjrchology  and  epistemolc^y.  Thus 
Kant  describes  as  "transcendental  dialectic''  hia 
criticism  of  the  (to  him  futile)  attempts  of  speculative 
human  reason  to  attain  to  a  knowledge  of  such 
ultimate  realities  as  the  soul,  the  universe,  and  the 
Deity;  while  the  monistic  system,  in  which  Hegel 
identified  thought  with  being  and  logic  with  meta- 
physics, IB  commonly  known  as  the  "Hegelian 
didectic". 

A.  The  Dialectic  Method  in  Theoixkjt.    [For 
dialectic  as  equivalent  to  logic,  see  art.  Logic,  and 
cf.  (2)  above.     It  is  in  this  sense  we  here  speak  of 
dialectic  in  theology  .y— The  traditional  logic,  or  dia- 
lectic, of  Aristotle's  "Organon" — ^the  science  and  art 
of  (mainly  deductive)  reasoning — ^foimd  its  proper 
application  in  exploring  the  domain  of  purely  natural 
truth,  but  in  the  early  Middle  Ages  it  began  to  be  ap- 
plied by  some  Catholic  theologians  to  the  elucidation 
of  the  supernatural  truths  of  the  Christian  Revelation. 
The  perennial  problem  of  the  relation  of  reason  to 
faith,  already  ably  discussed  by  St.  Augistme  in  the 
fifth  century,  was  thus  raised  again  bv  St,  Ansekn  in 
the  eleventh.    During  the  intervening  and  earlier 
centuries,  although  the  writers  and  Fathers  of  the 
Oiurch  had  always  reco^issed  the  right  and  duty  of 
natural  reason  to  establish  those  truths  preparatory 
to  faith,  the  existence  of  God  and  the  fact  of  revela- 
tion, those  prceambula  fidei  which  form  the  motives  of 
credibility  of  the  Christian  reli^on  and  so  make  the 
profession  of  the  Christian  Faith  a  ratUmabik  obse- 
quiumy  a  "reasonable  service",  still  their  attitude  in- 
clined more  to  the  Crede  ut  inteUigas  (Believe  that  you 
may  understand)  than  to  the  IrUeUtge  vt  credos  (under- 
stand that  you  may  believe);  and  their  theology  was 
a  positive  exegesis  of  the  contents  of  Scripture  and 
tradition.     In  the  eleventh  and  twelfUi  coitunes, 
however,  rational  speculation  was  appUea  w  ilicology 
not  merely  for  the  purpose  of  proving  the  pitwmottw 
fideif  but  also  for  the  puipose  of  analysing,  iflustrating,    , 
and  showing  forth  tne  beauty  and  the  suitability  of 
the  mysteries  of  the  Christian  Faith.    This  method  of  \ 
applyme  to  the  contents  of  Revelation  the  logical  I 
forms  of  rational  discussion  was  called  "the  dialectic  I 
method  of  theology".    Its  introduction  was  oPP^i 
more  or  less  vigorously  by  such  ascetic  and  nj3^^' 
writers  as  St.  Peter  Damian,  St.  Bernard,  and  Walter 
of  St.  Victor;  chiefly,  indeed,  because  of  the  excew  to 
which  it  was  carried  by  those  rationalist  and  tneo- 
sophist  writers  who,  like  Peter  Abelard  and  R*y^^ 
LuUy,  would  fain  demonstrate  the  Christian  mjnste- 
ries,  subordinating  faith  to  private  judg'"®''*/^.  ?* 
method  was  saved  from  neglect  and  excess  alike  vJ 
the  great  Scholastics  of  the  thirteenth  century,  ^ 
was  used  to  advantage  in  their  theology.    After  five 
or  six  centuries  of  fruitful  development,  under  wW 
influence,  mainly,  of  this  deductive  dialectic,  tn«- 
logy  has  again  been  drawing,  for  a  centuiy  lp«i 
abimdant  and  powerful  aid  from  a  renewed  ^^.,^ 
creased  attention  to  the  historical  and  exeptiw 
studies  that  characterized  the  earlier  oemtunes  oi 
Christianity. 

B.  Dialectic  as  FuNDAMEirrAL  TvnAieoTttr  of 


&XAXJB0TIO 


771 


DXALSOTia 


Human  Knowlbdok  [cf.  (3),  above]. — (a)  The  Plor 
tame  DidUdic, — ^From  the  be^nningB  of  Greek  i>hilo»- 
ophy  reflection  has  revealed  a  twofold  element  in  the 
^nntents  of  the  knowing  human  mind:  an  abstract, 
permanent,  immutable  element,  usually  referred  to 
the  intellect  or  reason;  and  a  concrete,  changeable, 
ever«hiftine  clement,  usually  referred  to  the  imagina- 
tion and  the  external  senses.  Now,  can  the  real 
world  possess  such  opposite  characteristics?  Or,  if 
not,  whic^  set  really  represents  it?  For  Heraclitus 
and  the  earlier  lonians,  stability  is  a  delusion;  all 
reality  is  change-7-irAi^tt  ^i.  For  Pannenides  and  the 
Eleatics,  change  is  delusion;  reality  is  one,  fixed,  and 
stable.  But  then,  whence  the  delusion,  if  siich  there 
be,  in  either  alternative?  Why  does  our  knowledge 
speak  with  such  uncertain  voice,  or  which  alternative 
are  we  to  believe?  Both,  answers  Plato,  but  intellect 
more  than  sense.  What  realities,  the  latter  asks,  are 
revealed  hj  tJhose  abstract,  universal  notions  we  pos- 
sess— of  being,  number,  cause,  goodness,  etc.,  by  the 
necessaiy,  immutable  truths  we  apprehend  and  the 
comparison  of  those  notions?  The  dialectic  of  the 
Platonic  '*  Ideas"  is  a  noble,  if  unsuccessful,  attempt  to 
answer  this  question.  These  notions  and  truths,  savs 
Plato,  have  for  objects  ideas  which  constitute  tne 
real  world,  the  mundus  inteUigihiliaf  of  which  we  have 
thus  a  direct  and  immediate  intellectual  intuition. 
'Iliese  beingB,  which  are  objects  of  our  intellectual 
knowledge,  these  ideas,  really  exist  in  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  represented  bv.  the  intellect,  i.  e.  as 
necessary,  imiveraal,  immutable,  eternal,  etc.  But 
where  is  tnis  mundua  tnteUigibilisf  It  is  a  world  apart 
(xwp^O)  separate  from  the  world  of  fleeting  phenom- 
ena revee&d  to  the  senses.  And  is  this  latter  world, 
then,  real  or  imreal?  It  is,  says  Plato,  but  a  shadowy 
reflex  of  reality,  a  dissolving; view  of  the  ideas,  about 
which  our  conscious  sense-impressions  can  give  us 
mere  opinion  (d^a),  but  not  that  reliable,  proper 
knowledge  (ItriffriifiTi)  which  we  have  of  the  ideas. 
This  is  unsatisfactory.  It  is  an  attempt  to  explain  an 
admitted  connexion  between  the  noumenal  and  the 
phenomenal  elements  in  knowledge  by  suppressing 
the  reality  of  the  latter  altogether.  Nor  is  Plato  any 
more  successful  in  his  endeavour  to  show  how  the  idea, 
whidi  for  him  is  a  really  existing  being,  can  be  at  the 
same  time  one  and  manifold,  or,  in  other  words,  how 
it  can  be  universal,  like  the  mental  notion  that  re- 
presents it. 

(b)  AristoteUan  and  Scholastic  Dialectic, — Aristotle 
taujght,  in  opposition  to  his  master  Plato,  that  these 
''ideas"  or  objects  of  our  intellectual  notions  do  not 
exist  apart  from,  but  are  embodied  in,  the  concrete, 
individual  data  of  sense.  It  is  one  and  the  same 
reality  that  reveals  itself  under  an  abstract,  universal, 
static  aspect  to  the  intellect,  and  under  a  concrete, 
manifold;  dynamic  tjspect  to  the  senses.  The  Chris- 
tian philosophers  of  the  Middle  Ages  took  up  and  de- 
veloped this  Aristotelean  conception,  making  it  one  of 
the  caidinal  doctrines  of  Scholastic  philosophy,  the 
doctrine  of  modem  Realism.  The  object  of  the  ab- 
stract, universal  notion,  they  taught,  is  real  being;  it 
constitutes  and  is  identical  with  the  individual  data 
of  sense-knowledge;  it  is  numerically  multiplied  and 
indivkiualized  in  them,  while  it  is  unified  as  a  class- 
concept  or  imiversal  notion  {unum  commune  pluribua) 
by  the  abstractive  power  of  the  intellect  which  appre- 
hends the  element  common  to  the  individuals  of  a 
class  without  their  differentiating  characteristics. 
The  universal  notion  thus  exists  as  universal  only  in 
the  intellect,  but  it  has  a  foundation  in  the  individual 
dsAA  of  sense,  inasmuch  as  the  content  of  the  notion 
.  really  exists  in  these  sense-data,  though  the  mode  of 
its  existence  there  is  other,  than  the  mode  in  which 
the  notion  exists  in  the  intellect:  universale  est  fpr- 
maliter  in  menie^  fundamentaliter  in  re.  Nor  does  the 
intellect,  in  thus  representing  individual  phenomena 
by  universal  notions,  falsify  its  object  or  render  intel- 


lectual knowledge  imreliable;  it  represents  the  Real 
inadequately,  no  doubt,  not  exhaustively  or  compre- 
hensively, yet  faithfully  so  far  as  it  goes;  it  does  not 
misrepresent  reality,  for  it  merely  asserts  of  the  latter 
the  content  of  its  universal  notion,  not  the  mode  (or 
universality)  of  the  latter,  as  Plato  did. 

But  if  we  get  all  our  universal  notions,  necessary 
judgments,  and  intuitions  of  inunutable  truth  through 
the  ever-changing,  individual  data  of  sense,  how  are 
we  to  account  for  the  timeless,  spaceless,  chan^less, 
necessary  character  of  the  relations  we  establish  be- 
tween these  objects  of  abstract,  intellectual  thought: 
relations  such  as  "Two  and  two  are  four",  "Whatever 
happens  has  a  cause",  "Vice  is  blameworthy"?  Not 
because  our  own  or  our  ancestors'  perceptive  faculties 
have  been  so  accustomed  to  associate  certain  elements 
of  consciousness  that  we  are  unable  to  dissociate  them 
(as  materialist  and  evolutionist  philosophers  would 
say);  nor  yet,  on  the  otiier  hand,  because  in  appre- 
hendinp  these  necessary  relations  we  have  a  direct  and 
immediate  intuition  of  the  necessary,  self-existent, 
Divine  Being  (as  the  Ontologists  have  said,  and  as 
some  interpret  Plato  to  have  meant);  but  simply  be- 
cause we  are  endowed  with  an  intellectual  faculty 
which  can  apprehend  the  data  of  sense  in  a  static  con- 
dition and  establish  relations  between  them  abstract- 
ing from  all  change. 

By  means  of  such  necessary,  self-evident  truths, 
applied  to  the  data  of  sense-knowledge,  we  can  infer 
that  our  own  minds  are  beings  of  a  higher  (spiritual) 
order  than  material  things  and  that  the  beings  of  the 
whole  visible  universe — ourselves  included — are  con- 
tingent, i.  e.  essentially  and  entirely  dependent  on  a 
necessary,  all-perfect  Being,  who  created  and  con- 
serves them  in  existence.  In  opposition  to  this  crea- 
tionist philosophy  of  Theism,  which  arrives  at  an  ulti- 
mate plurality  of  being,  may  be  set  down  all  forms  of 
Monism  or  Pantheism,  the  philosophy  which  termin- 
ates in  the  denial  of  any  real  distinction  between  mind 
and  matter,  tliought  and  thing,  subject  and  object  of 
knowledge,  and  the  assertion  of  the  ultimate  unity  ol 
being. 

(c;  The  Kantian  Dialectic. — ^While  Scholastic  philos' 
ophers  understand  by  reality  that  which  is  the  object 
directly  revealed  to,  and  apprehended  by,  the  knowing 
mind  through  certain  modifications  wroueht  by  the 
reality  in  the  sensory  and  intellectual  faculties,  ideal- 
ist or  phenomenalist  philosophers  assume  that  the 
direct  object  of  our  knowledge  is  the  mental  state  or 
modification  itself,  the  mental  appearance,  or  phenonv- 
enon,  as  they  call  it;  and  because  we  cannot  deariy 
understand  how  the  knowing  mind  can  transcend  its 
own  revealed,  or  phenomenal,  self  or  states  in  the  act 
of  cognition,  so  as  to  apprehend  something  other  than 
the  immediatCj  empirical,  subjective  content  of  tha/ 
act,  these  philosophers  are  inclined  to  doubt  the  val 
idity  of  the  "inferential  leap"  to  reality,  and  conse 
quently  to  maintain  that  the  speculative  reason  it 
unable  to  reach  beyond  subjective,  mental  appear 
ances  to  a  knowledge  of  things-in-themselves.  Thus, 
according  to  Kant,  our  necessary  and  universal  judg- 
ments about  sense-data  derive  their  necessity  and 
universality  from  certain  innate,  subjective  equip- 
ments of  the  mind  called  categories,  or  forms  of 
thought,  and  are  therefore  validly  applicable  only  to 
tiie  phenomena  or  states  of  sense-consciousness.  We 
are,  no  doubt,  compelled  to  think  of  an  unperceived 
real  world,  underlying  the  phenomena  of  external 
sensation,  of  an  unperceived  real  ego,  or  mind,  or  soul, 
underlying  the  conscious  flow  of  phenomena  which 
constitute  the  empirical  or  phenomenal  ego,  and  of  an 
absolute  and  ultimate  underlying,  imconditioned 
Cause  of  the  ego  and  the  world  alike;  but  these  three 
ideas  of  the  reason — ^the  soul,  the  world,  and  God — 
are  mere  natural,  necessary  products  ot  the  mental 
process  of  thinking,  mere  r^;ulative  principles  of 
bought,  devoid  of  all  real  content,  and  therefore  is- 


DIAMANTIKA 


772 


filAMAHTttA 


capable  of  revealing  reality  to  the  s{)eculative  re^on 
of  man.  Kant,  nevertheleea,  believed  in  these  reali- 
ties, deriving  a  subjective  certitude  about  them  from 
the  exigencies  of  the  practical  reason,  where  he  con- 
sidered the  speculative  reason  to  have  failed. 

(d)  The  Hegelian  Dialectic, — Post-Kantian  philoso- 
phers disagreed  in  interpreting  Kant.  Fichte,  Schd- 
ling,  and  Hegel  developed  some  phases  of  his  teaching 
in  a  purely  monistic  sense.  If  what  Kant  called  the 
formal  element  in  knowledge — i.  e.  the  necessary,  uni- 
versal, immutable  element — comes  exclusively  from 
within  the  mind,  and  if,  moreover,  mind  can  know 
only  itself,  what  right  have  we  to  assume  that  there  is 
a  material  element  independent  of,  and  distinct  from, 
mind?  Is  not  the  content  of  knowledge,  or  in  other 
words  the  whole  sphere  of  the  knowable,  a  product  of 
the  mind  or  ego  itself?  Or  are  not  individual  human 
minds  mere  self-conscious  phases  in  the  evolution  of 
the  one  ultimate,  absolute  Being?  Here  we  have  the 
idealistic  monism  or  pantheism  of  Fichte  and  Schel- 
ling.  Hegel's  dialectic  is  characterized  especially  by 
its  thoroughgoing  identification  of  the  speculative 
thought  process  with  the  process  of  Being.  His  logic 
is  what  is  usually  known  as  metaphysics :  a  philosophy 
of  Being  as  revealed  through  abstract  thought.  His 
starting-point  is  the  concept  of  pure,  absolute,  inde- 
terminate being;  this  he  conceives  as  a  process,  as 
dynamic.  His  method  is  to  trace  the  evolution  of 
this  dynamic  prindple  through  three  stages:  (1)  the 
stage  m  which  it  affirms,  or  pjosits,  itself  as  thesis ;  (2) 
the  stage  of  negation,  limitation,  antithesis,  which  is  a 
necessary  corollary  of  the  previous  stage;  (3)  the 
sta^  of  synthesis,  return  to  itself,  union  of  opposites, 
which  follows  necessarily  on  (1)  and  (2).  Absolute 
being  in  the  first  stage  is  the  idea  simply  (the  subject- 
matter  of  logic) ;  in  the  second  stage  (of  otherness)  it 
becomes  nature  (philosophy  of  nature) ;  in  the  third 
stage  (of  return  or  synthesis)  it  is  spirit  (philosophy  of 
8pirit---ethics,  politics,  art,  religion,  etc.). 

Applied  to  the  initial  idea  of  absolute  Being,  the 
process  works  out  somewhat  like  this:  All  conception 
involves  limitation,  and  limitation  is  n^ation;.  posit- 
ing or  affirming  the  notion  of  Being  involves  its  aiffer- 
entiation  from  non-being  and  thus  implies  the  n^^ 
tion  of  being.  This  negation,  however,  does  not  ter- 
minate in  mere  nothingness;  it  implies  a  relation  of 
affinnation  which  leads  by  synthesis  to  a  richer  posi- 
tive concept  than  the  original  one.  Thus:  absolutely 
indeterminate  being  is  no  less  opposed  to,  than  it  is 
identical  with,  absolutely  indeterminate  nothing:  or 
Beinq-Nothino;  but  in  the  oscillation  from  the  one 
notion  to  the  other  both  are  merged  in  the  richer 
synthetic  notion,  of  Becoming. 

This  is  merely  an  illustration  of  the  a  priori  dialectic 
process  by  which  Hegel  seeks  to  show  how  all  the  cate- 
gories of  thought  and  reality  (which  he  identifies)  are 
evolved  from  pure,  indeterminate,  absolute,  ab- 
stractly-conceived Being.  It  is  not  an  attempt  at 
making  his  system  intelligible.  To  do  so  in  a  few 
sentences  would  be  impossible,  if  only  for  the  reason, 
that  Hegel  has  read  into  ordinary  philosophical  terms 
meanings  that  are  quite  new  and  often  sufficiently 
remote  from  the  currently  accepted  ones.  To  this 
fact  especially  is  due  the  difficulty  experienced  by 
Catholics  in  deciding  with  any  decree  of  certitude 
whether,  or  how  far,  the  Hegelian  Dialectic — and  the 
same  in  its  measure  is  true  of  Kant's  critical  philoso- 
phy also— may  be  compatible  with  the  profession  of 
the  Catholic  Faith.  That  these  philosophies  have 
proved  dangerous,  and  have  troubled  the  minds  of 
many,  was  only  to  be  expected  from  the  novelty  of 
their  view-points  and  the  strangeness  of  their  methods 
of  exposition.  Whether,  in  the  minds  of  their  leading 
exponents,  they  contained  much,  or  little,  or  anything 
incompatible  with  Theism  and  Christianity,  it  would 
be  as  difficult  as  it  would  be  perhaps  idle  to  attempt 
to  decide.    Be  that  as  it  may,  the  attitude  of  toe 


Catholic  Church  towards  philosophies  that  are  new 
and  strange  in  their  methods  and  terminology  must 
needs  be  an  attitude  of  alertness  and  vigilance.  Con- 
scious of  the  meaning  traditionally  attached  by  her 
children  to  the  terms  in  which  she  has  always  ex- 
pounded those  ultimate  philosophioo-religious  truths 
that  lie  partly  along  and  partly  beyond  the  confines  of 
natural  numan  knowledge,  and  realizing  the  danger  of 
their  bein^  led  astray  by  novel  systems  of  thought 
expressed  m  ambiguous  language,  she  has  ever  wisely 
warned  them  to  **  beware  lest  any  man  cheat  [tJiem]  by 
philosophy,  and  vain  deceit"  TColoss.,  ii,  8). 

For  the  use  of  dialectic  in  the  eariy  Chrislaan  and 
medieval  schools,  see  Arts,  The  Seven  Liberai*. 

A.  SrdCKU  tr.  Finult,  Hiatory  of  PhOoBophy  (Dublin, 
1907);  TuRNBB,  History  of  PhOotopkv  (Boston,  1908);  Dk 
WuLF,  tr.  GoFFBT.  SdioUutieism  Old  and  New  (Dublin,  London. 
and  New  York,  1907);  Id.,  Hittoire  de  ia  pfuiotophie  mSdHvaU 
(Louvain.  1907). 

B.  ScHWBOLBR,  tr.  Stbrung,  Hiatory  of  PhiUmop^  (Bdin- 
1871};    &rKBLiXQ,TheSeent_afHeod(^^ 


1871);    MAc/fAOOABT,  StudieiHfi  the  Heodian 
bridjse,  1896);  Walx«ack,  The  Loffie  of  Head  auu  ue 
qphy  of  Mind  (Oxford.  1894);    Gaibd,  Critieal  PI 
Kant  (London,  1899):  Max  MOUiSB's  and  Hahaw 
tions  o£  Kant's  works  (London,  1881,  1889). 

P.  COITBT. 

Diamantina,  Diocese  of  (Adamantina).  in  the 
north  of  the  State  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil,  South 
America,  created  under  the  Brazilian  Empire,  10 
Aug.,  1853,  and  confirmed  by  the  Holy  See,  6  June, 
1854.  This  territory  was  part  of  the  ancient  Diocese 
of  Marianna  (now  the  Arcndiocese  of  Minas  Geraes), 
which  had  four  sutiragans:  Marianna,  Diamantina, 
Pouso  Alegre  and  Uberaba,  in  the  centre,  nortii^  south 
and  far  west  of  the  State  of  Minas  Geraes.  The  present 
territoi]y  comprises  twenty  municipalities  or  town- 
ships divided  in  106  parishes  and  173  districts  (an  area 
of  33,708  square  miles  or  half  the  territory  of  the  State 
of  Minas).  According  to  the  last  official  census  (31 
Dec,  1900)  the  population  of  the  Diocese  of  Diaman- 
tina was  ^29,018.  There  are  about  200  churches  in 
as  many  villages  and  towns*  and  100  priests,  belong- 
ing to  tne  regular  and  parochial  clergy  of  the  diocese. 
A  seminary  and  diocesan  college  (recognized  by  a  de- 
cree of  the  Federal  (xovemment,  and  modeled  on  the 
National  Gymnasium  of  Rio  de  Janeiro)  are  directed 
by  the  Lazarists,  and  a  colle^  for  girls,  also  in  Dia- 
mantina, and  directed  by  rehmotks,  are  the  principal 
educational  institutions  of  Vie  diocese.  Premon- 
stratensian  missionaries  in  Montes  Glares,  and  Fran- 
ciscans in  Theophilo  Ottoni  and  Itambacuzy,  are  en- 
gaged in  Christianizing  the  Indian  tribes  of  Botocudos. 
About  7,000  have  been  converted  along  the  Mucury 
River,  and  in  the  mountains  of  Aimor6s  and  forests  of 
Itambacurjr.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  Dutch 
Redemptorists  in  Gurvello  and  a  few  (Spanish  and 
Italian)  priests. 

diari^  hospitals  (Diamantina,  2,  Curvelho,  1, 
Montes  Claros,  1,  Serro,  1,  Concei^ao,  1)  are  attended 
by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  of  Our  Lady 
of  Providence.  Catholic  leases,  charitable  societies 
and  confraternities  are  organized  in  the  parishes;  and 
there  is  an  institution  at  Serro  for  invalid  or  poor  prksts. 
There  were  formeriy  two  missions,  in  Poaya  (forests  of 
XJrupdca  River  and  Suassuhv-Grande)  and  in  Figudira 
(Dom  Manoel  Harbour),  and  Indian  aldeamenion  which 
prospered  under  the  apostolical  zeal  of  Italian  Fran- 
ciscan missionaries. 

Since  its  erection  the  Diocese  of  Diamantina  has  had 
three  bishops.  The  fimt  was  the  Ri^t  Rev.  Marcos 
Cardoso  de  Paiva  (a  native  of  Rio  de  Janeiro).  •  £& 
successor  was  the  Right  Rev.  JoAo  Antonio  dos  Santos 
who  died  in  Diamantina,  17  May,  1905,  after  an  epis- 
copacy of  forty-one  years.  Bom  in  the  village  of  Rio 
Preto,  1819,  ne  served  as  professor  of  pmlosophy 
in  the  seminary  of  Marianna  before  his  appointment 
as  Bishop  of  Diamantina,  2  May,  1864.  During  the 
last  years  of  his  episcopacy,  tne  Holy  See  named 


DIAMPBR 


773 


DIABIO 


M  his  coadjutor  the  Ridit  Rev.  J.  Silverio  de 
Sousa  who  succeeded  him,  having  been  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Bagis,  2  Feb.,  19(3.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  ^Sitios  e  Personagens",  '^0  Lar  Catholioo^', 
"Novenas  do  Natal  e  da  Immaculada  ConoeigSo", 
"Fioezas  de  Mfte  e  Pastoraes".  all  well  known  works 
published  in  Brazil.  The  Catnolic  press  in  the  dio- 
cese is  represented  by  two  periodicals  '^Estrella 
Polar''  (official)  of  Diamantina,  and  ''A  Verdade",  of 
Montes-Claros.  The  latter  is  in  charge  of  the  Premon- 
fltratensian  priests. 

Da  Sbnna,  Annuario  BtHaJtutieo  e  ttluatrado  de  Minaa  Oeraea 
•(BeUo  Horiionte,  1906  and  1907).  I.  31.  36  and  460. 11.  77  and 
81;  iDUf.  NotM  e  Chroniau  (Sfi>  Ftolo.  1907),  94.  88;  Sunajmea 
do9  BacgnaeomenlM  da  RepuUiea  do  BnuU  (Rio  de  Jan«iro. 
1808  and  1905).  1. 47.  71,  II.  43-18:  EatrtOa  PoUxr  (Diaman- 
tina.  1906)^__Da_Vbioa.  BpKemeridea  Mineiraa  (Ouro  Prato, 


1897).  n,  335.  UI.  223. 


Nbuson  ds  Senna. 


Diamper,  Synod  of.  See  Thomas,  Saint,  Ghbib- 
TiANB  of;  Sybo-Malabar  Church. 

Diana,  Antonino,  moral  theologian,  b.  of  a  noble 
family  at  Palermo,  Sicily,  in  1586;  d.  at  Rome,  20 
July,  1663.  He  took  his  vows  as  a  regular  tlerk  of  the 
Theatine  Order  in  1630.  He  became  celebrated  as  a 
casuist  while  he  was  yet  a  young  man,  and  cases  of  con- 
science were  sent  to  him  for  solution  from  all  parts. 
His^'^Resolutiones  Morales''  met  with  universal  es- 
teem and  approbation.  The  brothers  Prost,  who 
brought  out  the  eighth  edition  of  the  first  three  parts 
of  this  work  at  Lyons,  in  1635,  sent  it  forth,  with  a 
play  on  the  author's  name,  as  the  Diana  of  him  who 
mi^t  be  himting  for  truth  in  the  woods  of  moral 
theology,  and  as  the  Diana  of  the  cross-ways  who 
would  snow  the  riRht  path  to  anyone  in  doubt  or  per- 
plexity. Popes  urban  VIII,  Iimocent  X,  and  Alex- 
ander Vn,  esteemed  him  for  his  learning,  and  he  was 
made  a  consultor  of  the  Holv  Office  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Sicily  and  an  examiner  of  bishops.  Diana  mmself 
daimed  that  as  a  rule  his  solutions  followed  the  milder 
opinion.  0^  the  frontispiece  of  the  volume  just  men- 
tioned round  a  iSgure  of  the  Cross  runs  the  l^nd  Nan 
ferro  sed  ligno.  According  to  St.  Alphonsus  and  the 
common  opinion  of  modem  theologians,  Diana  not 
infrequently  went  too  far  in  the  diiection  of  laxityr. 
However,  his  works  may  still  be  consulted  with  profit. 
JBesides  several  editions  of  the  unabridged  works,  epi- 
tomes and  compendiums  of  them  b^an  to  appear  even 
in  the  author's  lifetime,  in  spite  of  his  vigorous  pro- 
tests that  his  real  meaning  was  being  distorted  by  his 
too  ardent  admirers. 

HuBTKR,  Nomendaior  lit.  (Innabruck,  1802);  Jaknbr  in 
KireheHUx.,B,y,;  NauvdU  Biog.  GhUraU  iVmns,  IB5S). 

T.  Slater. 

DiaaOi  Diocese  of  (Dianensis),  a  small  city  in  the 
province  of  Sidemo,  Ital^r*  the  ancient  Teaanum  and 
seat  of  the  Tegyani,  a  tribe  of  Lucania.  Pius  IX  es- 
tablished thw  see  20  Sept.,  1850.  at  the  instance  of 
Kji^  Ferdinand  II  of  Naples,  and  ordered  the  Bishop 
of  Capaccio  to  fix  his  residence  in  the  town  of  Diano : 
thenceforUi  the  see  was  to  be  known  as  Capaodo  ana 
Diano.  But  under  the  second  bishop  Domenico  Fan- 
eUo  (1858-83),  Capaccio  was  again  separated  from 
Diano  and  united  with  the  Diocese  of  Yallo,  in  which 
town  the  bishop  now  resides.  In  1882  Diano  received 
the  name  of  Teggiano.  Hie  see  is  a  suffragan  of 
Salerno,  has  44  parishes,  about  250  secular  priests,  3 
religious  houses  of  men  and  one  of  women;  the 
pcwulation  is  about  100,000. 

Annuario  Bed,  (Rome,  1908). 

U.  Beniqni. 

Diarbakir.    See  Amida. 

Diaiio  Romano  (It.  for  "Roman  Daybook"),  a 
booklet  published  annually  at  Rome,  with  papal  au- 
thorisation, fldving  the  routine  of  feasts  and  fasts  to  be 
observed  in  Home  and  the  ecclesiastical  functions  to 
be  performed  in  the  city. 

The  Diano  for  1908  gives  the  days  on  which  the 


Roman  Gongregations— Index,  Rites,  Propaganda, 
etc. — ^hold  their  sessions.  A  table  is  then  given  for  the 
ringinff  of  the  bell  for  evening  Angelus,  which  varies 
with  the  time  of  sunset,  and  ranges  from  5.15  p.  m.  to 
8.15  p.  m.  In  quoting  the  time  of  day  at  which  an 
exercise  is  to  take  place,  the  Diario  uses  the  r^ular 
style  for  the  morning  hours,  but  says,  **  before"  or 
"after  the  Angelus",  for  the  afternoon.  The  Dia- 
rio notes  the  biases  of  the  moon,  the  eclipses,  the 
movable  feasts,  the  ember  days,  the  ecclesiastical 
cycles,  the  time  for  the  solemnisation  of  marriage,  a 
list  of  days  on  which  certain  specially  honoured  images 
of  the  Blessed  Vii|;in  are  exposed  for  veneration,  and  a 
list  of  saints  and  blessed  honoured  on  each  da^r  of  the 
vear  and  of  the  churches  at  which  the  feast  is  cele- 
brated. In  the  body  of  the  work  the  statement  is 
freauently  made  that  images  and  relics  of  Christ 
and  of  the  saints,  ordinarily  veiled,  are  imcovered  and 
put  in  a  prominent  place.  Such  relics  are:  the  table 
on  which  Christ  instituted  the  Holy  Eucharist;  tiie 
manger  or  crib  in  which  Christ  is  said  to  have  been 

flac«l  after  his  birth;  the  heads  of  Sts.  Peter  and 
•aul;  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter  {Cathedra  Petri).    Next 
are  given  the  various  fimctions  as  follows: — 

(1)  Ordinary — (a)  Daily. — ^In  all  churches  where 
canons  or  religious  communities  reside  the  canonical 
Hours  of  the  Breviai^y  are  recited  and  conventual 
Mass  is  simg.  Mass  is  said  in  all  the  churches,  tiie 
earliest  at  5  o'clock,  and  the  latest  at  12,  the  latter  at 
S.  Maria  della  Pace  and  always  a  votive  Mass  in 
honour  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  thanksgiving  for  the 
favours  conferred  by  the  Blessed  Virgin.  At  S.  Giu- 
seppe alia  Limgara  dei  Pii  Operai  a  daily  foundation 
Mass  with  sermon  and  "  Libera ' '  is  offered:  for  the  souls 
in  puigatory.  The  Exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment takes  place  daily  at.S.  Gioacchino  ai  Monti,  at 
S.  Qaudio  dei  Borgognoni,  at  S.  Croce  of  the  convent 
of  S.  Maria  Riparatrice,  at  S.  Brigida,  at  the  church  of 
Corpus  Domini,  in  the  chapel  of  the  Daughters  of  the 
Sacred  Heart.  In  these  churches  and  chapels  special 
devotions  are  held  during  the  day  and  are  always  well 
attended.  The  recitation  of  the  Rosary  is  a  favourite 
practice  of  the  Romans;  it  takes  place  at  Mass  in 
twenty-one  churches  in  which  Benediction  is  tiien 
^ven  with  the  pyx;  in  the  afternoon  the  Rosary,  or, 
m  some  instances,  the  beads  of  the  Seven  Dolours  or 
of  the  Precious  Blood,  is  said  daily  in  thirty-seven 
churches  and  chapels,  in  some  of  which  a  ser- 
mon is  added.  On  feast  days  Exposition  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  held  in  the  morning  in  six  churches. 
Rosary  and  Benediction  in  the  afternoon  in  eight;  in 
five  also  a  sermon  is  preached,  and  in  five  others  the 
chaplet  of  the  Sacred  Heart  is  added. — (b)  Weekly. — 
In  uie  parish  churches  high  Mass  and  sermon  are  held 
at  eight  or  nine  o'clock  on  Sundays,  and  in  the  after- 
noon Christian  doctrine  is  taught.  At  St.  John  Lat- 
eran  there  is  a  procession  before  Mass:  at  S.  Gioac- 
chino the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  exposea  at  Mass  and 
prayers  of  reparation  are  said,  in  the  afternoon  Bene- 
diction is  given  after  the  Rosary  has  been  recited  before 
the  Blessea  Sacrament.  In  nine  other  churches  there  is 
Exposition  in  the  morning,  to  which,  at  S.  Prassede, 
prayers  for  a  good  death  are  added.  Benediction  is 
given  in  many  churches  at  various  times  of  the  day, 
together  with  an  explanation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
an  instruction,  a  sermon.  Rosary,  etc.  The  Way  of 
the  Cross  is  made  in  four  churches.  The  Diario  notes 
the  following  devotions  to  be  held  for  Monday:  Ex- 
position dunng  Mass  at  Santi  XII  Apostoli  and  Ara 
CgbU,  in  the  eveningat  four  churches,  with  special 
prayers  to  St.  JudeThaddeus  at  S.  Eusebio.  Tues- 
day: Exposition  in  the  morning  for  four  churches  and 
for  the  same  number  in  the  evening,  a  devotion  to 
St.  Anne,  and  a  meditation.  Wednesday:  for  five 
churches  Exposition  in  the  forenoon;  for  tour  in  the 
afternoon.  Rosary,  chaplet  of  the  Immaculate,  chaplet 
of  Sorrows  and  Joys  of  St.  Joseph,  prayers  to  the 


DIABIO 


774 


DIAVO 


Mother  of  Sorrows.  Thursday:  Exposition  during 
the  whole  day  at  S.  Gioacchino  in  Prati  with  Rosary 
and  Benediction  in  the  evening,  Exposition  in  five 
other  churches,  to  which  a  dbcourse  is  added  at  N.  S. 
di  S.  Cuore;  in  S.  Andrea  at  the  Quirinal  catechetical 
instruction  for  boys.  Friday:  Exposition,  chaplet  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  Holy  Hour  for  the  dying,  prayers  in 
honour  of  the  Passion.  Way  of  the  Cross,  Way  of  the 
Mater  Dolorosa,  chaplet  of  the  Seven  Dolours.  Sat- 
urday: Exposition,  devotion  to  the  Mother  of  Mercy 
against  lightning,  in  honour  of  the  Queen  of  the  Holy 
Rosary,  special  prayers  for  the  conversion  of  England, 
chaplet  of  the  Immaculate,  of  the  Seven  Dolours, 
sermon,  singing  of  the  litany,  and  Benediction. — 
(c)  Monthly. — For  the  first  Sunday  is  ordered,  in  one 
church  or  another:  Exposition  in  the  form  of  the 
Forty  Hours,  procession,  prayers  for  a  good  death, 
Way  of  the  Cross,  Corona  dei  Morti,  Communion  of  the 
Pages  of  Honour  of  St.  Aloysius.  For  the  second 
Sunday:  Exposition  in  the  morning  and  in  the  even- 
ing, procession  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  at  S.  Maria 
sopra  Minerva  procession  with  the  Bambino  and  prayers 
for  blasphemers.  For  the  third  Sunday :  Exposition  in 
the  morning  or  in  the  evening,  and  procession.  For 
the  fourth  Sunday  the  same  is  prescribed  for  several 
churches,  also  the  Way  of  the  Cross.  For  the  last 
Sunday:  Exposition  and  procession  for  two  churches 
in  the  morning,  for  others  in  the  evening;  Way  of  the 
Cross  at  the  Campo  Santo.  Similarly,  the  Diario 
makes  announcements  for  the  first  Tuesday,  the  first 
Wednesday,  etc.  Among  the  devotions  noted  for 
these  days  special  mention  may  be  made  of  prayers 
for  obstinate  sinners  said  on  the  first  Wednesday  at 
S.  Giacomo  in  Augusta,  Mass  of  reparation  for  the 
insults  offered  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  Mass  in  the 
morning  and  Benediction  in  the  evening  with  prayers 
for  the  conversion  of  Endand,  supplications  for  the 
reunion  of  Christendom,  English  sermon  on  the  first 
Friday  at  S.  Giorgio  e  santi  Inglesi. 

(2)  Extraordinary  devotions, — Sermon  two  hours 
before  the  Angelus  on  ail  feasts  of  Christ  and  of 
Our  Lady  at  S.  Alfonso  on  the  Esquiline;  at  S.  An- 
drea deUe  Fratte  Way  of  the  Cross  on  all  Sundays  of 
February,  March,  November,  and  December,  and  on 
the  eight  days  of  Carnival;  at  S.  Agnese  Outside  the 
Walls  Exposition  on  all  Simdays  and  Holy  Days  at 
two  hours  before  the  Angelus,  with  chaplet  of  the  Five 
Wounds  during  Lent;  at  S.  Andrea  at  the  Ponte  Mil- 
vio  a  Mass  is  said  on  all  Sundays  and  Holy  Days  for 
the  deceased  members,  two  hours  before  the  Angelus; 
Ofiice  of  the  Dead,  absolution  given  in  the  adjoining 
cemetery,  then  Benediction  in  cnurch  after  the  recita- 
tion of  a  Htany.  On  Septuagesima  Sunday  at  8. 
Filippo  on  the  Via  Giulia  Exposition  all  day,  closing 
witn  litany  and  Benediction.  On  the  Saturday  be- 
fore Sexagesima  some  churches  perform  apious  exer- 
cise caMea  Camivale  sanlificato.  On  the  Friday  after 
Sexagesima  and  on  the  Fridays  of  Lent,  in  nearly  aU 
churdies,  the  Way  of  the  Cross  is  made  or  the  Via 
Dolorosa.  Lenten  sermons  are  preached  on  Wednes- 
days and  Fridays.  The  Lenten  preachers  are  received 
in  audience  by  the  pope.  For  *tne  Apostolic  Palace  a 
"specialpreacher  is  appointed.  On  Laetare  Sunday  the 
Holy  Father  blesses  the  Golden  Rose,  which  he  then 
sends  to  persons  of  rank,  to  cities,  or  corporations  as  a 
token  of  gratitude;  on  this  Sunday  also  begin  the 
catechetical  instructions  prescribed  by  Benedict  XIV 
as  a  preparation  for  Easter.  The  Holy  Week  exer- 
cises aro  performed  in  all  the  parish  churches,  and  ad- 
ditional devotions  are  held  in  many,  as  the  washing  of 
the  papal  altar  at  St.  Peter's  on  Maundy  Thursday, 
sermons  on  the  Passion.  Way  of  the  Cross  or  of  the 
Desolata,  or  honouring  tne  Hours  of  the  Agony.  The 
Ruthenian  Rite  is  used  for  the  fimctions  of  lloly  Week 
at  SS.  Sergio  e  Bacco,  the  Armenian  Rite  at  S.  Nicola 
da  Tolentino  on  1  January.  At  S.  Andrea  della 
Valle  tlie  Veni  Creator  is  sung  after  Mass  and  the 


baptismal  vows  are  renewed:  at  S.  Maria  in  Campi* 
telli  the  faithful  consecrate  tnemselves  to  the  patron 
chosen  for  the  year*  at  S.  Cario  a  Catinari  the  spiri- 
tual testament  of  St.  Charies  Borromeo  is  read  on  5 
Januaiy.    At  S.  Atanasio  water  is  blessed  in  the 
Greek  Kite  and  at  S.  Andrea  della  Valle  and  at  other 
churches  in  the  Latin  Rite.    This  water  the  pious 
faithful  take  home  to  sprinkle  the  sick,  their  housesy 
fields,  vineyards,  and  themselves.    The  6th  of  Janu- 
ary is  the  titular  feast  of  the  Propaganda;  Mass  is  cele- 
brated in  the  Oriental  Rites,  and  sermons  are  preached 
in  the  different  languages.        On  3  February  takes 
place  the  blessing  of  throats  with  a  relio  of  St.  Blaise, 
and  in  the  churdies  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  the  pious 
custom  obtains,  throu^out  the  year,  of  anointing  the 
throats  with  blessed  oil.    On  31  December,  in  nearlv 
all  the  churches  and  oratories,  the  year  is  closed  with 
Exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  Te  Deum. 
Formerly  greater  solemnity  was  imparted  tosome  feasts 
by  the  presence  of  the  Holy  Father,  who  would  celebrate 
the  Mass  or  Vespers,  or  would  assist  at  them  pontifi- 
cally  in  one  of  the  greater  basilicas  and  impart  the 
Apostolic  blessing  to  the  world  from  the  outer  loggja. 
The  Diario  mentions  some  twenty  days  on  which  such 
a  cappeUa  papale,  as  it  was  called,  used  to  take  place 
before  1870.    For  the  year  19C8  only  two  are  noted: 
for  20  July,  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of  Leo  XIII, 
and  for  9  August,  the  anniversary  of  the  coronation 
of  the  reigning  pontiff,  Pius  X. 

The  special  feasts  of  the  churches  are  ushered  in  by 
preparatory  triduums,  novenas,  or  devotions  of  seven 
or  of  eight  days,  on  which  pious  exercises  are  per- 
formed m  common  and  Benediction  is  given;  entire 
months  are  dedicated  to  saints  or  mysteries — ^as  the 
month  of  St.  Joseph,  the  month  of  Mary,  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus,  of  the  Precious  Blood,  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Mary,  of  the  Seven  Dolours,  of  the  Rosary, 
and  of  the  Dead.  Holy  Communion  for  a  series  of 
fixed  days  of  the  week,  together  with  specialprayers,  is 
much  in  use.  We  read  in  the  Diario  of  six  Sunoays  of 
St.  Aloysius,  seven  of  St.  Camillus,  nine  of  St.  Cajetan, 
ten  of  St.  Ignatius,  fifteen  of  the  Rosary-  nine  Mon- 
da3rs  of  the  Archangel  St.  Gabriel;  nine  Tuesdays  of 
St.  Anne,  and  thirteen  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua; 
seven  Wednesdays  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel; 
seven  Fridays  of  the  Seven  Dolours:  seven  of  St.  Ju- 
liana Falconieri,  nine  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  ten 
of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  thirteen  of  St.  Francis  of  Paul, 
thirteen  of  St.  Onuphrius;  five  Saturdays  of  the  Name 
of  Mary,  twelve  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  fifteen 
of  the  Holy  Rosary. 

To  encourage  the  faithful  in  the  freouent  reception 
of  the  sacraments,  in  visitinjg  the  diurcnes,  venerating 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  or  the  relics  of  the  saint^  and 
in  performing  other  acts  of  devotion,  the  Churcn  haa 
opened  wide  ner  treasure  and  eranted  almost  innum- 
erable Indulgences.  Of  special  note  is  the  toUes  qu^- 
ties  Indulgence.  The  Vatican  Basilica  has  this  In- 
dulgence for  every  day  of  the  year;  the  drarch  of  S. 
Andrea  delle  Fratte  on  the  feast  of  St.  Fhmcis  of  Paul 
(3  May);  the  churches  of  the  Trinitarians  on  Trinity 
Sunday;  SS.  Cuore  at  the  Castro  Piretorio  on  the  feast 
of  the  Sacred  Heart;  the  churches  of  the  Carmelites 
on  16  July;  in  several  dxurches  the  Indulgence  of 
Portiuncula  on  2  August;  the  churches  of  tae  Serv- 
ites  on  the  feast  of  the  Seven  Dolours  in  September; 
where  the  Confraternity  of  the  Rosary  is  eanonically 
established,  on  Rosary  Sunday;  in  several  churches 
on  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Redeemer;  in  the  Benedictine 
churches  on  2  November.  Only  lately  (20  February, 
1908)  the  Holy  Father  has  granted  a  toties  quoltes  In- 
dulgence to  tne  mous  practice  of  the  S(»la  Santa 
(Acta  S.  Sedis,  XLI,  294).  Spiritual  retreats  are  given 
for  men  twice  a  year  at  the  Caravita,  and  once  for 
women;  for  both  sexes  at  the  Crociferi,  and  a  speciai 
one  preparatory  to  Easter,  for  both  sexes,  at  SS.  Via- 
cenzo  e  Anaataslo. 


DTARM4TI) 


775 


DIiL8P0R4 


JHofio  Romano  for  1908;  Chajcdlbbt.  Pilmim  Walk*  m 
Home  (St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  London,  1905);  Beuuishexm  in 
XircherUex.,  a.  v.;  Salyatorianbb,  Die  ewige  Stadt  (Home, 
1904);  Gbeu/^Fells,  Rom  und  die  Campaqna  (1887);  db 
fiLESER,  Rome  et  eee  monumente  (Louvoin,  1800). 

Francis  Mbbshman. 

Diannaid,  Saint,  b.  in  Ireland,  date  unknown;  d. 
in  851  or  852.  He  was  made  Archbishop  of  Armagh 
in  834,  but  was  driven  from  his  see  by  the  usurper  For- 
aunan  in  835.  However,  he  claimed  his  rigntp  and 
collected  his  cess  in  Connacht,  in  836,  as  primate.  He 
lived  in  a  stormy  age,  as  the  Scandinavian  rovers 
imder  Turgesius  seized  Armagh,  in  841,  and  levelled 
the  churches.  The  "Annals  of  Ulster"  (ed.  B.  Mc- 
Carthy, Dublin,  1887,  I,  361)  describe  him  as  "the 
wisest  of  the  doctors  of  Europe".  His  feast  is  cele* 
brated  24  April. 

Saint  Diarmaid,  sumamed  the  Just,  a  famous 
Irish  confessor  of  the  mid-sixth  century;  d.  542.  His 
name  is  associated  with  the  great  monastery  of  Inis- 
dothran  (Iniscleraim)  on  Lough  Rec,  in  the  Diocese 
of  Ardagh,  which  he  founded  about  the  year  530.  He 
vras  of  princely  origin  and  a  native  of  Connacht.  Wish- 
ing to  found  an  oratory  far  from  the  haunts  of  men,  he 
selected  the  beautiful  but  lonely  island  associated  with 
the  memory  of  Queen  Meave,  now  known  as  Quaker 
Island.  Here  his  fame  soon  attracted  disciples,  and 
among  them  St.  d^aran  of  Cloiunacnoise.  He  was  not 
only  a  good  teacher,  but  also  a  distinguished  writer 
ana  poet.  On  the  island  seven  churcnes  are  tradi- 
tionally said  to  have  been  erected,  and  the  traces  of 
six  are  still  in  evidence,  including  Teampul  Diarmada, 
or  the  church  of  St.  Diarmaid,  the  saint's  own  church 
— ^an  oratory  eight  feet  by  seven.  His  feast  is  cele- 
brated 10  January.  After  his  death  the  monastic 
school  kept  up  its  reputation  for  fully  six  centuries, 
and  the  island  itself  was  famous  for  pilgrimages  in 
pre-Reformati«n  days. 

MartyroLogy  of  Donegal  (Dublin,  1864);  O'Hanlon,  Livee  of 
ihe  hiak  Savnte  (Dublin.  1875).  IV.  476;  I.  152;  Stuaat,  Hie- 
Uny  of  An.iagk,  ed.  CoLEyAN  (Dublin,  1900);  Acta  SS^  April, 
III;  CoLGAN,  Acta  SS.  Hibemia  (I>ouvain.  1645):  Biggcb, 
Inia  dolhrann.  Ha  Hiatorp  ond  AniiquHiea  (Dublin,  1900); 
&TOKwm  AND  BrsAcaAN,  Theaaurue  PaUBohibemieua  (Gambridce, 
1908). 

W.  H,  Grattan-Flood, 

Dias,  Bartglomeu,  a  famous  Portuguese  naviga- 
tor of  the  fifteenth  century,  discoverer  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope;  d,  at  sea,  29  May,  1500.  Several  Portu- 
guese historians  state  that  he  was  a  relative  or  descend- 
ant of  JoSlo  Dias  who  sailed  around  Cape  Bojador  in 
1434,  and  of  Diniz  Dias  who  is  said  to  have  discovered 
the  (Jape  Verde  Islands.  As  early  as  1481  Bartolo- 
meu  Dias  had  accompanied  Diogo  d'Azambuja  on  an 
expedition  to  the  Gold  Coast.  Dias  was  a  cavalier  of 
the  royal  court,  superintendent  of  the  royal  ware- 
houses and  sailing-master  of  the  man-of-war  "San 
ChristovSo",  when  King  John  (JoSo)  II  appointed 
him  on  10  Oct.,  1486,  as  the  head  of  an  expedition  which 
was  to  endeavour  to  sail  around  the  southern  end  of 
Africa.  Its  chief  purpose  was  to  find  the  country  of 
the  Christian  African  king  known  as  Prester  John, 
concerning  whom  recent  reports  had  arrived  (I486) 
through  "Kmo  Alfonso  d'Aveiro,  and  with  whom  the 
Portuguese  wished  to  enter  into  friendly  relations. 

After  ten  months  of  preparation  Dias  left  Lisbon 
the  latter  part  of  July  or  the  beginning  of  August, 
1487,  with  two  armed  caravels  of  fifty  tons  each  and 
one  supply-ship.  Among  his  companions  were  Pero 
d'Alemquer,  who  wrote  a  description  of  Vasco  da 
Gama's  first  voyage,  LeitSLo,  Jo&o  Infante,  Alvaro 
Martins,  and  Jo!U>  Urego.  The  supply-sliip  was  com- 
manded by  Bartolomeu's  brother,  Pero  Dias.  There 
were  also  two  negroes  and  four  negresseb  on  board  who 
were  to  be  set  ashore  at  suitable  spots  to  explain  to  the 
natives  the  purpose  of  the  expedition.  Dias  sailed 
first  towards  the  mouth  of  the  Congo,  discovered  the 
yeaj:  befoxe  by  C&o  and  Behaim,  tnen  following  the 


African  coast,  he  entered  Walfiach  Bay,  and  probably 
erected  the  first  of  his  stone  oolumna  near  the  present 
Angra  Pequefia.  From  29®  south  latitude  (Port  Nol- 
loth)  he  lost  sight  of  the  coast  and  was  driven  by  a 
violent  storm,  which  lasted  thirteen  days,  far  beyond 
the  cape  to  the  south.  When  calm  weather  returned 
he  sailed  again  in  an  easterly  direction  and,  when  no 
land  appeared,  turned  northward,  landing  in  the 
Bahia  dos  Vaqueiros  (Mossel  Bay).  Following  the 
coast  he  reachea  Algoa  Bar,  and  then  the  limit  of  his 
exploration,  the  Great  Fisn  River,  which  he  named 
after  the  commander  of  the  accompanying  vessel,  Rio 
Infante.  It  was  only  on  his  return  voyage  that  he 
discovered  the  Cape,  to  which,  according  to  Barroe,  he 
gave  the  name  of  Cabo  Tormentoso.  ICinp  John,  in 
view  of  the  success  of  the  expedition,  is  said  to  have 
proposed  the  name  it  has  since  borne.  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  In  December,  1488,  Dias  retumea  to  Lisbon 
after  an  absence  of  sixteen  months  and  seventeen 
days.  He  had  shown  the  way  to  Vasco  da  Gama 
whom  in  1497  he  accompanied,  but  in  a  subordinate 
position,  as  far  as  the  Cape  Verde  Islands. 

In  1500  Dias  commanded  a  ship  in  the  expedition  of 
Cabral  (q.  v.);  his  vessel,  however,  was  one  of  those 
wrecked  not  far  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  he 
had  discovered  thirteen  years  before.  An  official 
report  of  the  expedition  to  the  cape  has  not  yet  been 
found.  Besides  the  account  by  Barros  there  is  a  note 
written  on  the  margin  of  page  13  of  a  manuscript  cop^ 
of  Cardinal  Pierre  d'Ailly's  "  Imago  Mundi",  whidi  is 
of  importance,  as  this  copy  was  once  the  property  of 
Christopher  Columbus.  Ravenstein  has  attempted, 
and  not  unsuccessfully,  by  the  .aid  of  contemporary 
charte  to  reconstruct  the  entire  voyage  with  tne  dif- 
ferent stopping-points  of  the  route. 

Barbcmi,  Dteadaa  da  Aaia,  Dee.  I,  bk.  Ill,  iv:  RAVKNarsiN, 


The  Voyages  of  Dioqp  CHo  and  Bariholometo  Dtaa  in  Tfie  Geo^ 
qraphieal  Journal  (London.  1900).  XVI.  625-'665:  Bbhrens. 
Die  ante  Umaeoelung  dea  Kapa  der  OtUen  Hoffnuna*  dutch  Bar» 
tholomeu  DiaamIHa  Notrw  (Halle.  1901). L.  7-0, 1&-19. 

Otto  Hartiq. 


Diaspora  (or  Dibpbrsion)  was  the  name  given  to 
the  countries  (outoide  of  Palestine)  throudi  wnioh  the 
Jews  were  disfwrsed,  and  secondarilv  to  the  Jews  liv- 
ing in  those  countries.  The  Greek  term,  StaffTopd, 
corresponds  to  the  Hebrew  nw»  "exile"  (cf.  Jer., 
xxiv,  5).  It  occurs  in  the  Greek  version  of  the  Old 
Testament,  e.  g.  Deut.,  xxviii,  25;  xxx,  4,  where  the 
dispersion  of  the  Jews  among  the  nations  is  foretold  as 
the  punishment  of  their  apostagy.  In  Jc^n,  vii,  35, 
the  word  is  used  implying  disdain:  ''The  Jews  there- 
fore said  among  themselves:  Whither  will  he  go,  that 
we  shall  not  find  him?  WiU  he  go  unto  the  disi)erBed 
among  the  Gentiles?"  Two  of  the  Catholic  Epistles, 
viz.  that  of  James  and  I  Peter,  are  addressed  to  the 
neophvtes  of  the  Diaspora.  In  Acts,  ii,  are  enumer- 
ated tne  principal  countries  from  which  the  Jews  came 
who  heard  the  Apostles  Pleach  at  Pentecost,  everyone 
"in  his  own  tongue".  The  Diaspora  was  the  result 
of  the  various  deportetions  of  Jews  which  invariably 
followed  the  invasion  or  conquest  of  Palestine.  The 
first  deportation  took  place  after  the  capture  of 
Samaria  by  Shalmaneser  (Salmanasar)  and  Sargon, 
when  a  portion  of  the  Ten  Tribes  were  carried  into  the 
regions  of  the  Euphrates  and  into  Media,  721  b.  c. 
(IV  Kings,  xvii).  In  587  B,  c.  the  Kingdom  of  Juda 
was  transported  into  Mesopotamia.  When,  about 
fifty  years  later,  Cvrus  allowed  the  Jews  to  return  to 
their  country,  only  the  poorer  and  more  fervent 
availed  themselves  of  the  permission.  The  richer 
families  remained  in  Babylonia  forming  the  bgpnning 
of  a  numerous  and  influential  commimity.  Tne  con- 
quests of  Alexander  the  Great  caused  the  spreading  of 
of  Jews  throughout  Asia  and  Syria.  Seleucus  Nicator 
made  the  Jews  citizens  in  the  cities  he  built  in  his 
dominions,  and  gave  them  equal  rights  with  the 
Greeks  and  Macedr^nians.    (Josephus,  Antiquitiea, 


DIATXS8AR0N 


776 


DlAZ 


XII,  ill,  1.)  Snortiy  after  the  transportation  of  Juda 
into  Babylonia  a  number  of  Jews  who  had  been  left  in 
Palestine  voluntarily  emigrated  into  Egypt.  (Jer., 
dii-xliv.)  They  formed  tne  nucleus  of  the  famous 
Mexandrine  colony.  But  the  great  transportation 
into  Egypt  was  effected  by  Ptolemy  Soter.  "And 
Ptolemy  took  many  captives  both  from  the  moun- 
tainous parts  of  Judea  and  from  the  places  about  Jer- 
usalem and  Samaria  and  led  them  into  E^pt  and 
settled  them  there  "  (Antiquities,  XII,  i,  1).  In  Rome 
there  was  already  a  community  of  Jews  at  the  time  of 
Ca»ar.  It  is  mentioned  in  a  decree  of  CsBsar  cited  by 
Josephus  (Ant.,  XLV,  x,  8).  After  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus  thousands  of  Jewish  slaves  were 
placed  upon  the  market.  They  formed  the  nucleus  of 
settlements  in  Africa,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Gaul.  At  the 
time  of  the  Apostles  the  numoer  of  Jews  in  the  Dias- 
pora was  exceedingly  great.  The  Jewish  author  of 
the  Sibylline  Oracles  (2nd  century  b.  c.)  could  already 
say  of  his  countrymen:  "  Every  land  and  every  sea  is 
full  of  them"  (Or.  Sib.,  Ill,  271).  Josephus  mention- 
ing the  riches  of  the  temple  says:  **  Let  no  one  wonder 
that  there  was  so  much  wealtn  in  our  temple  since  all 
the  Jews  throughout  the  habitable  earth  sent  their 
contributions"  (Ant.,  XIV,  vii,  2).  The  Jews  of  the 
Diaspora  paid  a  temple  tax,  a  kind  of  Peter's-pence; 
a  didrachma  being  required  from  every  male  adult. 
The  sums  transmitted  to  Jerusalem  were  at  times  so 
\ax^  as  to  cause  an  inconvenient  drainage  of  gold, 
which  more  than  once  induced  the  Roman  govern- 
ment either  to  stop  the  transmittanoe  or  even  to  con- 
fiscate it. 

Though  the  Diaspora  Jews  were,  on  the  whole, 
faithful  to  their  religion,  there  was  a  noticeable 
difference  of  theological  opinion  between  the  Babv- 
Ionian  and  Alexandrine  Jew.  In  Mesopotamia  tne 
Jews  read  and  studied  the  Bible  in  Heorew.  This 
was  comparatively  easy  to  them  since  Chaldee,  their 
vernacular,  was  kindred  to  the  Hebrew.  The  Jews  in 
Egypt  and  throughout  Europe,  commonly  called 
Hellenistic  Jews,  soon  forgot  Hebrew.  A  Greek  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  the  Septuagint,  was  made  for  them. 
The  consequence  was  that  they  were  less  ardent  in  the 
punctilious  observance  of  their  Law.  Like  the  Samari- 
tans they  showed  a  schismatic  tendency  by  erecting  a 
rival  temple  to  that  in  Jerusalem.  It  was  built  by  the 
son  of  Onias  the  high-priest  in  Leontopolis  in  Lower 
Egypt  during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philometor,  160 
B.  c,  and  was  destroyed  70  b.  c.  (Ant.,  XIII,  iii,  §§  2, 
3).  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  whereas  Hellenistic  Juda- 
ism became  the  soil  in  which  Christianity  took  root 
and  waxed  strong,  the  colony  in  Babylonia  remained  a 
stron^old  of  orthodox  Judaism  and  produced  its 
famous  Talmud.  The  deeply-rooted  antagonism 
between  the  Jews  and  Greeks  made  the  amalgamation 
of  the  two  races  impossible.  Though  some  of  the 
Seleucids  and  Ptolemies,  such  as  Seleucus  Nicator  and 
Antiochus  the  Great,  were  favourable  towards  the 
Jews,  there  was  constant  friction  between  the  two  ele- 
ments in  Syria  and  E^ypt.  Occasional  pillage  and 
massacre  were  the  inevitaole  result.  Thus  on  one  oc- 
casion the  Greeks  in  Seleucia  and  Syria  massacred 
some  50,000  Jews  (Ant.,  XVIII,  ix,  9).  On  another 
occasion  the  Jews,  setting  the  upper  hand  in  Cyprus, 
killed  the  Greek  inhabitants  of  Salamis  and  were  in 
consequence  banished  from  the  island  (Dio  Cassius, 
LXVIiI,  23).  In  Alexandria  it  was  found  necessaryto 
confine  the  Jews  to  a  separate  quarter,  or  ghetto.  The 
Roman  Empire  was  on  the  whole  well-disposed 
towards  the  Jews  of  the  Diaspora.  They  had  every- 
where the  right  of  residence  and  could  not  be  expelled. 
The  two  exceptions  were  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews 
from  Rome  under  Tiberius  (Ant.,  XVIII,  iii,  5)  and 
under  Claudius  (Acts,  xviii,  2).  But  both  these  in- 
stances were  of  short  duration.  Their  cult  was  de- 
clared a  rdigio  licita.  All  communities  had  their 
eynagogiifrf,   rpwrevxal   or  <roj8/3cr«Ja,   which  served 


also  as  libraries  and  places  of  assembly.    TTie 
famous  was  that  in  Antioch  (De  bell.  Jud.,  VII,  iii,  3>. 
They  had  their  cemeteries :  in  Rome,  like  the  Cfairis- 
tians^  they  buried  their  aead  in  catacombs.    Th^ 
were  allowed  freely  to  observe  their  sabbaths,  festi- 
vals, and  dietary  laws.    They  were  exempt  from  the 
emperor-worship  and  from  military  service.     Many 
Jews  enjoyed  Roman  citizenship,  e.  g.  St.  Paul  (Acts, 
xvi,  37-^).    In  many  places  tne  Jewish  community 
formed  a  recognized  organization  with  administratlT-e, 
judicial,  and  fiinancial  powers.    It  was  ruled  by   a 
council  called  yepowria,  composed  of  elders,  rpeffp&rtpot, 
at  the  head  of  which  was  the  archon.    Another  token 
of  the  freedom  which  the  Jews  enjoyed  through- 
out  the  empire  was  their  active  propagandism  (cf. 
Matt.,  xxiii,  15).    The  neophytes  were  called  ^o^So^ 
pxpoi  or  <r€j86/*eiw.,  i^.  Gkxi-fearing  (Acts,  xiii,  16,  26, 
43;  Antiquities,  XTV,  vii,  2).      Their  number  ap- 
pears to  have  been  very  great.    St.  Paul  met  them  in 
almost  all  the  cities  he  visited.    Josephus,  praising  the 
excellence  of  the  Law,  says:  "the  multitude  of  man- 
kind itself  has  had  a  great  inclination  to  follow  our  re- 
ligious observances.    There  is  not  a  city  of  the  Gre- 
cians or  Sabarians7  where  our  customs  and  the  pro- 
hibition as  to  our  food  are  not  observed"  etc.  (Contra 
Apion.,  II,  xl).    Many  of  the  converts  were  distin- 
guished persons,  e.  g.  Aguila,  the  chamberlain  of  the 
Queen  ot  Candace  (Acts,  viii,  26  aci,) ;  Azizus,  King  of 
Emesa,  and  Polemo,  King  of  Cilicia  (Ant.,  xx,  vii) ;  the 
patrician  lady  Fulvia  (Ant.,  XVIII,  iii,  6). 

Jewish  Encyc.  8.  v.  Dispersion;  SchCrbs,  OeaekiAte  de»  jodi- 
sehen  VoUcea  (Leiprig.  1890);  Qbatk,  OeschiehifS  der  Jtukn: 
Ren  AN,  Lea  Apdtres;  Mommsbn,  The  Frovineea  rf  the  Rcm-^in 
Empire  (tr.  LondoD,  188G).  A  list  of  the  countries  of  the  Dia- 
spora is  given  by  Philo,  Leg.  ad  Caium,  36. 

C.  Van  den  Biesbn. 
Diatessaron.    See  Tatian. 
Dial,  Blessed  Francisco,  O.  P.    See  China. 

Diaii  Pedro,  missionary,  b.  at  Lupia,  Diocese  of 
Toledo,  Spain,  in  1546;  d.  in  Mexico,  12  Jan.,  1618. 
Though  but  twenty  years  of  age  when  he  joined  the 
Society  of  Jesus  he  had  already  oeen  a  teacher  of  phil- 
osophy for  two  years.  In  1572  he  was  sent  by  St. 
Francis  Borgia  to  Mexico  with  the  first  band  of  Jesuits 
assigned  to  that  mission,  and  was  the  first  master 
of  novices  of  the  Province  of  Mexico.  His  distin* 
guished  merits  as  a  preacher  and  a  superior  were  en- 
hanced by  a  great  reputation  for  holiness.  As  rector 
of  the  colleges  of  Guadalajara  and  Mexico,  superior  of 
the  profes^sd  house,  provincial,  and  founder  of  the 
colleges  of  Oaxaca  ana  Guadalajara  in  Mexico,  and  of 
Merida  in  Yucatan,  and  twice  procurator  to  R(«ne,  he 
occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the  earhr  history  of  the 
Jesuits  in  Mexico.  He  was  also  the  first  to  start  the 
mission  work  of  his  brethren  among  the  Indians  of 
New  Spain.  The  only  contribution  we  have  from  his 
pen  is  *'  Letteras  de  Missionibus  per  Indiam  Oociden- 
talem  a  Nostris  de  Societate  Institutis  per  annos  1590 
et  1591."  Several  biofp-aphical  encyclopedias  con- 
found him  with  Pedro  Dias,  a  Portuguese  Jesuit  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

Aleore,  Histmia  de  la  e,  de  J.  en  Nueva  Bapqfla  (Mezioo, 
1843).  11,  112;  BANCstOPT,  History  of  Mexico  (Stin  Fzsncisoo. 
1883),  II,  xxxii:  Albgamba,  Bibl.  Scriptarvm  S.  J.  (Ant^raip, 
1643),  380;  SoMif  ervooei.,  BiU.  delae.de  J.,  Ill,  46;  Alca- 
zar, Chron.  hist,  de  la  prov.  de  Tolfde,  11,  401;  Bobro,  Meno- 
logic,  I,  244-6;   De  Backer,  1,  1588. 

Edward  P.  Spillane. 

Dial  del  Oastillo,  Bernal  (corruption  of  Bernar- 
do), Spanish  historian,  one  ot  the  chief  chroniclers 
of  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by  the  Spaniards,  b.  at  Me- 
dina del  Campo,  Spain,  c.  1498;  d.  after  1568.  Bom 
of  poor  parents,  he  began  his  military  career  as  a  com- 
mon soldier.  In  1514.  he  went  to  America  with  Pe- 
drarias  D^vila  who  had  shortly  before  been  appointed 
governor  of  Darien.  Thence  he  betook  himself  to 
Cuba  and  enlisted  in  the  expedition  to  Yucatan  under 


DIAZ 


777 


DIOOOVSOH 


Ftoncisco  de  G6rdoba  in  1517.  He  proceeded  to  Mex- 
ico with  Grijalva  in  1518  and  letundng  to  Cuba,  set 
sut  a  third  time  for  Mexico  under  the  Banner  of  Her- 
nando Cortes.  He  took  part,  he  tells  us,  in  1 19  battles, 
and  was  present  at  the  surrender  of  the  city  of  Mexico 
In  1521.  As  a  reward  for  distinguished  services  he 
received  a  commission  as  reffidor  or  governor  of  Santi- 
ago de  los  Cabaileros  in  Guatemala,  where  he  made  his 
borne.  In,  1552,  G6mara,  secretaiy  and  chaplain  to 
Cort^,  published  at  Saragossa  his  ''Cr6nica  de  la  Con- 
quista  de  Nueva  Espafia^'  in  which  Dfas  thought  he 
gave  imdue  credit  to  Cortds.  Diaz,  therefore,  in  1568, 
undertook  to  write  his ''  Verdadera  Historia  de  la  Con- 
quista  de  Nueva  EspafSa",  and  though  despairing  of 
wa  ability  to  equal  U^nara's  literary  polish,  he  deter- 
noined  to  write  a  faithful  narrative  of  the  stirring 
events  in  which  he  had  taken  part,  in  order  to  correct 
the  gross  inaccuracies  of  G6mara,  who  had  never  even 
been  in  America,  and  to  vindicate  the  valour  of  him- 
self and  others  who  had  been  completely  overshad- 
owed by  the  exaggerated  reputation  of  Cort^.  The 
work  lay  neglected  and  unpublished  imtil,  in  1032. 
Father  Alonso  Rem6n  of  the  Order  of  Our  Lady  of 
Mercy,  found  it  in  aprivate  library  and  had  it  pub- 
lished at  Madrid.  The  work  is  crude  and  devoid  of 
style,  and  shows  the  ignorance  and  vanity  of  the  au- 
thor, but  it  will  always  be  read  with  interest  as  being 
the  work  of  an  eyewitness  and  participant  in  the 
events  described. 

In  1689,  Francisco  de  Fuentes.  in  his  history  of 
Guatemala,  set  forth  his  claim  to  be  a  descendant  of 
Diaz,  and  gave  certain  facts  concerning  hun  and  his 
work  that  nad  been  until  then  unknown.  It  would 
seem  that,  although  poor,  the  family  of  Dfas  was  noble 
and  distinguisheoL  for  his  father  was  regidor  of  the 
important  town  of  Medina  del  Campo.  Fuentes  also 
declared  that  the  work  was  not  published  as  written  by 
IKaz,  as  it  was  not  printed  from  the  original  manu- 
script but  from  an  unauthorized  copy  in  the  library  of 
one  Ramirez  del  Prado  which  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Father  Rem6n.  The  original  manuscript,  he  claims, 
was  in  his  own  possession.  "La  Biblioteca  de  Au- 
tores  Espafioles'^  ri848-86)  of  Rivadeneira  contains 
the  entire  works  ot  Diaz.  A  German  translation  by 
P.  J.  de  Rehfues-Bonn-Marcas  was  published  in  1838. 

KEAnNOB,  Verdadera  Historia  de  la  Conquista  de  Nueva 
Eepaila  (tr.  London,  1800);  DIaz  del  Castillo.  Verdadera 
Hteloria  de  ia  Cenquieta  de  Nueva  EavaAa  (Madrid,  1796); 
LocKHABT,  Mentoire  cf  Bemal  Diat  del  CaetHlOt  tnitien  by  him- 
eOf  (London,  1844). 

Ventttra  Fubntbs. 

Dial  de  Solis,  Juan,  Spanish  navigator  and  ex- 
plorer, b.  about  1470  at  Lebrija  (Seville),  or,  according 
to  some  accounts,  in  Asturias;  d.  in  South  America  in 
1516.  After  some  explorations  in  Central  America  in 
1506  and  in  Brazil  in  1508,  he  succeeded  Ameri^ 
Vespucci  as  pilot-major,  upon  the  latter 's  death  m 
1512.  This  title  had  been  conferred  upon  Vespucci 
by  Ferdinand  of  Spain  22  March,  1509,  and  carried 
with  it  a  high  salary.  Two  years  after  apj^ointment 
to  this  office,  de  Solis  prepared  an  expedition  to  ex- 
plore the  southern  pait  of  the  new  continent.  His 
ships  sailed  from  Lepe  on  8  Oct.,  1515,  following  the 
eastern  coast  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata.  He  went  up  that  river  for  some  distance,  and, 
wishing  to  take  possession  of  the  countrv  in  the  name 
of  the  Crown,  landed  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river, 
somewhere  near  the  jimction  of  the  Uruguay  and 
Parani  Rivers,  with  two  officers  and  seven  men.  This 
ngion  was  innabited  by  wild  tribes,  and  the  little 
pirty  had  not  proceeded  far  when  they  were  attacked 
from  ambush,  and  Diaz  de  Soils  and  most  of  his  fol- 
io lifers  were  killed.  When  he  did  not  come  back,  those 
who  had  remained  behind  on  the  ships  determined  to 
return  to  Spain.  Francisco  de  Torres,  the  brother-in- 
law  of  Diaz  de  Soils,  then  took  charge,  and  after  nam- 
ing the  river  Rfo  de  Soils,  they  set  sail,  arriving  in 


Spain,  4  Sept.,  1516.  The  news  of  the  disastrous  end- 
ing of  the  expedition  was  communicated  to  Cardinal 
Ximenes  de  Cisneros  who  was  then  regent  of  Spain. 
Vamhagen,  in  his  "Histonr  of  Brazil  ,  published  in 
Portuguese  (Rio  de  Janeiro,  1854-^58),  states  that 
Nufio  Manuel  visited  the  La  Plata  before  Diaz  de 
Soils.  Manuel  Trelles  gives  the  same  honor  to  Die^o 
Garcia  in  a  pamphlet  published  in  Buenos  Aires  m 
1879. 

Frejkiiio,  Juan  Diaz  de  Soli*  y  d  Deecubrimiento  dd  Rio  de  la 
Plata  (1879-80);  Trelles,  Diego  Garcia.  Primer  Deeeubridof 
ddRiodela  Plata  (Buenos  Aires,  1879);  Buuu.  Boequejo  Hie- 
torieo  de  la  Repvbliea  Oriental  del  Uruquay  (Montevideo,  1881). 

VENTURA  Fuentes. 

Dibon,  a  titular  see  in  Palsestina  Tertia.  DIb6n 
(Sept.,  DaHbOn,  Dublin,  or  DetOn)  Is  mentioned  in 
Num.,  xxxiii,  45,  as  a  station  of  the  Hebrews  on  their 
way  to  the  Promised  Land.  It  was  soon  after  occu- 
pied and  rebuilt  by  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Num.,  xxdi,  34). 
It  belonged  later  to  the  Rubenites  (Jos.,  xiii,  17).  At 
the  time  of  the  Prophets  it  was  in  the  power  of  the 
Moabites.  The  ruins  of  the  town  stand  at  DtbAn,  one 
and  a  half  miles  west  of  'Ard'ir  (Aroer),  ten  miles 
south-east  of  Mlcadur  (Machoerous),  in  the  vilayet  of 
Damascus.  The  masses  of  black  basalt  present  -a 
mournful  aspect,  strangely  contrasting  with  that  of 
the  fertile  tfiu>Ie-land  of  Moab  and  the  vicinity  of  the 
Arnon  (Wadi  Modjib).  There  are  an  acropolis,  cis- 
terns, sepulchral  grottoes,  and  a  few  Roman  and 
Christian  fragments.  It  was  here  also  that  Clermont 
Ganneau  found  the  famous  stele  of  Mesa,  Kin£  of 
Moab,  now  at  the  Louvre.  Mesa  calls  himself  ^the 
Dibonite".  Dibon.  as  far  as  is  known,  never  was  a 
Greek  see,  but  in  the  course  of  time  became  a  Latin 
titular  see. 

Satce,  Fresh  lAght  from  the  Ancient  MonutnerUa^l;  Tmar- 
SAM,  The  Land  of  Moab;  Buss  in  Paleetine  Explor.  Pund,  Quart 
Statement  (1805),  227;  Scbick,  a  plan  of  the  niiiu.  in  Zettsehr. 


d.  DeiUachen  Paldetina-Vereine,  It 


S.   P6TRIDE8. 


DieaatiUo,  Juan  de,  theologian,  b.  of  Spanish  par- 
ents at  Naples,  28  December,  1584;  d.  at  Ineolstadt 
6  March,  1653.  He  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus  in  1600,  and  was  professor  of  theology  for 
twenty-five  years  at  Toledo,  Murcia.  and  Vienna.  In 
moral  Questions,  Dicastillo  followea  the  principles  of 
the  prooabilists.  His  principal  works  are:  ''Dejus- 
titii  et  jure  ceteriBque  virtutibus  cardinalibus  ubri 
duo''  (^twerp,  1641)^  ''De  Sacramentis  in  genere 
disputationes  scholastics  et  morales"  (Antwerp, 
1646-52);  ''Tractatus  duo  de  juramento,  peijurio.  et 
adiuratione,  necnon  de  censuris  et  pcenis  ecclesias- 
ticis"  (Antwerp,  1662);  "Tractatus  de  incamatione" 
(Antwerp,  1642). 

HuBTBR,  Nomendator;  Sommervooel,  Bibliothique  de  la  e. 
de  J.t  in,  col.  49;  Langhorst  in  Kirchenlex.,  a.  v. 

Diccenson,  Edward,  titular  Bishop  of  Malla,  or 
Mallus,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  English  Northern  Dis- 
trict; b.  30  Nov.,  1670;  d.  6  May,  1752.  He  was  the 
son  of  Hugh  Dicoonson  of  Wri^tington  Hall,  Lan- 
cashire. At  the  age  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  he  was 
sent  to  the  En^ish  Ck>llege  at  Douai,  where  he  com- 
pleted his  course  of  philosophy  in  1691.  He  returned 
to  Douai  about  1698,  having  resolved  to  become  a 
priest,  and  on  being  ordained  in  June,  1701,  remained 
at  the  college  many  yeans  as  procurator  and  professor, 
and  became  vice-president  in  1713,  while  still  oontinu- 
ing  to  teach  theology.  At  Ushaw  there  is  preserved  a 
portion  of  a  dkiiy  kept  by  him  at  this  period,  which 
gives  &  glimpse  of  the  life  he  then  led  at  Douai,  besides 
mentioning  some  other  events  of  interest.  In  it  he 
has  recorded  a  visit  paid  by  him  to  Paris  in  June, 
1704,  when  he  and  his  brother  "at  St.  Germain  made 
the  compliments  of  the  College  to  King  and  Queen  on 
the  King's  birthday."  The  king  here  referred  to  was 
James  II's  youthful  son«  who  was  recognised  as  king, 


DICETO 


778 


ototnL 


both  by  the  exiled  English  Catholics  and  by  Louis 
XrV  of  France,  and  to  whom  Dicconson's  oldest 
brother  William  was  tutor.  The  queen  was  of  course 
his  mother,  the  widowed  Maiy  of  Modena,  whose 
kindly  interest  in  Douai  Ck)llege  is  shown  by  more  than 
one  entry  in  the  diary.  He  mentions  also  a  week 
spent  by  him  in  May,  1705,  at  Cambrai,  whither  him- 
self and  the  President  of  Douai  conducted  three  of  the 
young  Howards,  then  students  at  the  college,  to  meet 
their  brother  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  The  illustrious 
F^nelon  was  then  Archbishop  of  Cambrai,  of  whose 
"extremely  obliging  and  respectful"  reception  of  the 
duke  the  aiary  makes  particular  mention. 

After  being  employed  for  some  time  at  Paris  in  con- 
nexion with  the  college  funds,  Dicconson  left  Douai  to 
work  upon  the  English  mission  in  1720,  and  for  some 
years  was  chaplain  to  Mr.  Giffard  of  Chillington  in 
Staffordshire,  acting  at  the  same  time  as  vicar-general 
to  Bishop  Stonor,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Midland  Dis- 
trict. At  the  time  of  his  own  nomination  to  the 
Northern  Vicariate  Dicconson  had  gone  to  Rome  as 
envoy-extraordinaiy  of  the  secular  clergy.  He  was 
consecrated  on  19  Alarch,  1741,  at  Ghent;  passing  from 
there  to  Douai,  he  confirmed  some  of  tne  students, 
besides  ordaining  others.  On  reaching  his  vicariate 
he  fixed  his  residence  at  Finch  Mill  in  Lancashire,  a 
place  belonging  to  his  family.  He  had  then  reached 
the  age  of  seventy,  and  in  1750  he  had  to  petition  for  a 
coadjutor  in  the  person  of  Dr.  Francis  Pet  re.  After 
an  episcopate  not  marked  by  any  great  events  he  died 
at  Finch  Mill  and  was  buried  in  the  family  vault  be- 
neath the  parish  church  of  Standish.  In  the  reports 
supplied  to  the  Holy  See  on  the  several  occasions 
when  his  name  was  brought  forward  for  a  bishopric,  he 
is  described  as  "a  wise  man  of  singular  merit,  of  learn- 
ing, application  to  business,  and  dexterity  in  manag- 
ing affairs — ^though  not  very  successful  in  the  econ- 
omy of  Douai,  and  with  an  impediment  of  tongue, 
which  made  preaching  difficult."  The  fact  is  also 
noted  that  in  1714  "he  had  accepted  the  Constitution 
Unigenitus  Fagainst  Jansenism],  and  insisted  on  its 
acceptance  by  the  students."  He  collected  a  large 
number  of  controversial  works  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  (now  in  the  Library  of  Ushaw 
College),  on  the  fly-leaves  of  which  he  wrote  valuable 
biographical  and  bibliographical  comments. 

Bradt,  Epiicopal  SucecMton  (Rome,  1877),  III;  Douai 
Papera  in  IJahaw  Maifazine  (December,  1903);  Gillow,  Bibl. 
Did,  Eng.  Cath.  (London,  1885).  s.  v. 

G.  E.  Phillips. 

Diceto,  Ralph  de,  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  and 
chronicler.  The  name  "Dicetum"  cannot  be  cor- 
rectly connected  with  any  place  in  England;  it  is  pos- 
sible therefore  that  Ralph  was  bom  in  France.  The 
date  of  his  birth  must  be  placed  between  1120  and 
1130;  he  died  22  Nov.,  1202.  He  was  twice  a  student 
at  Paris.  His  first  preferment  was  the  archdeaconry 
of  Middlesex  to  whicn  he  was  nominated  in  1152.  In 
1180  he  became  dean  of  St.  Paul's.  He  was  the 
friend,  during  fifty  years,  of  the  successive  bishops  of 
XiOndon,  including  Gilbert  Foliot,  the  leader  of  the 
royalist  party  among  the  bishops  and  the  adversary  of 
the  Arohbishop,  St.  Thomas.  This  friendship  and  his 
admiration  for  Henry  U  drew  him  towards  tne  roval- 
ist  side  in  the  Becket  controversy,  but. not  altogether; 
he  had  something  of  the  wide,  cosmopolitan,  twelfth- 
century  outlook,  and  he  showed  his  sympathy  with  his 
archbishop  at  the  Council  of  Northampton  in  1164. 
He  was  an  active  dean  and  took  part  in  the  survey  of 
the  lands  belonging  to  the  chapter  which  is  known  as 
the  Domesday  of  St.  Paul's.  His  writings  include  two 
subfltantisd  historical  works; '' Abbreviationes  Chronir 
oorum",  a  compilation  from  many  sources  going  back 
to  1147,  and  "  Ymagines  Historiarum",  a  much  more 
important  work.  It  covers  the  years  1 149  to  1202«  and 
in  its  eariier  portion  is  based  on  the  historical  writings 
of  Robert  de  Monte  (or  "  de  Torigny  ") .    It  was  begim 


probably  in  the  closing  years  of  Henry  II 's  reicn. 
Ralph's  important  position  in  ecclesiastical  circles,  his 
friendship  with  many  prominent  men,  such  as  William 
Longchamp  and  Walter  of  Coutances,  the  help  he  re- 
ceived from  them,  the  documents  he  incorporates,  and 
his  own  moderate  temper  render  his  wonc  of  capital 
imp>ortance  in  spite  of  some  chronological  vagueness. 
The  best  edition  of  Ralph's  historicS  works  is  that 
edited  for  the  "Rolls  Series"  by  Bishop  Stubbe  in 
1876,  The  prefaces  to  the  two  volumes  contain  an 
admirable  account  of  the  historian,  of  the  society  in 
which  he  moved,  and  of  the  writings  themselves. 

F.  F.  Urquhart. 

Dichu,  Saint,  the  son  of  an  Ulster  chieftain,  was  the 
first  convert  of  St.  Patrick  in  Ireland.    Bom  in  the 
last  decade  of  the  fourth  century,  he  succeeded  to  the 
petty  kingdom  of  Lecale,  which  included  Saul,  in  the 
present  (Sunty  Down.    On  St.  Patrick's  arrival  at 
Tubber  Slain  (the  estuary  of  the  Slaney  near  Loch 
Cuan  or  Strangford  Lough),  in  432,  Dichu,  then  a 
pagan,  strongly  opposed  his  landing,  and  even  at- 
tacked the  saint,  but  was  miraculously  touched  with 
Divine  grace    and   embraced   the  Paith  of  Christ. 
Thereupon    Dichu,    after    baptism,    presented    St. 
Patrick  with  the  Sabhall  (Saul),  for  a  church,  and  thus 
Saul  became  the  first  Irish  foundation  of  the  natioEial 
apostle,  being  afterwards  known  as  Sabhall-Padhraic. 
Saul  was  a  particular  favourite  with  St.  Patrick,  and 
he  frequently  sought  a  resting-place  there  during  his 
arduous  missionary  labours.    St.  Dichu,  from  the  day 
of  his  conversion,  was  a  model  of  sanctity  and,  from  a 
man  of  warlike  proclivities,  became  a  man  of  peace. 
The  details  of  his  later  career  are  obscure,  but  we 
know  that  two  of  his  sons,  who  had  been  detained  as 
hostages  by  Laoghaire,  King  of  Ireland,  were  released 
at  the  prayer  of  St,  Patrick.    His  feast  is  noted  in  the 
"Martyrology  of  Donegal"  as  "Diochu  of  SabhaJr', 
under  date  of  29  April.     As  is  well  known,  it  was  at 
Saul  that  St.  Patrick  died,  and  this  monastery  became 
in  afterdays  a  famous  abbey,  under  the  rule  of  the 
Regular  Canons  of  St.  Augustine. 

Co  La  AN,  Triwi  ThaumcUurffa;  Acta  Sandorum.  Ill;  Todd 
AND  Reevks,  Martyrologuof  Donegal  (Dublin.  18i64);  O'L^v- 
ERTY,  Down  and  Connor  (Dublin,  1878),  I:  O'Hanlon,  Livca  of 
the  Irish  Saints,  IV;  Hkai.y,  Life  and  Writin^fn  of  SL  Palhck 
(Dublin,  1905). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Dicuil,  Irish  monk  and  geographer,  b.  in  the  second 
half  of  the  eighth  century;  date  of  death  unknown. 
Of  his  life  nothing  is  known  except  that  he  belonged 
probably  to  one  of  the  numerous  Irish  monasteries  of 
the  Prankish  Kingdom,  became  acquainted,  by  per- 
sonal observation,  with  the  islands  near  England  and 
Scotland,  and  wrote  between  814  and  816  an  astronom- 
ical, and  in  825  a  geographical,  work.  The  astronom- 
ical work  is  a  sort  of  computus  in  four  books,  in 
prose  and  verse,  presented  only  in  a  manuscript  which 
formerly  belonged  to  the  monastery  of  Saint- Amand, 
and  is  now  at  Valenciennes.  More  famous  is  the  "De 
mensura  Orbis  terrffi",  a  summary  of  gpograr^y,  dv- 
ing  concise  information  about  various  lanos.  Ttus 
woi^c  was  based  upon  a  "Mensuratao  orbis"  prepared 
by  order  of  Thcodosius  II  (435),  a  manuscript  copy  of 
wnich  had  found  its  way  to  the  Carlovin^an  court. 
Godescalc  had  already  ma^ie  use  of  this  copy  (781-83) 
in  the  composition  of  his  celebrated  'Evangelis- 
tarium".  Dicuil  draws  also  upon  Pliny,  Solinus, 
Orosius,  Isidore  of  Seville,  and  other  authors,  and  adds 
the  results  of  his  own  investigations.  In  the  nine  sec- 
tions he  treats  in  tuni  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Egypt, 
and  Ethiopia,  the  area  of  the  earth's  surface,  the  five 
great  rivers,  certain  islands,  the  Icn^h  and  breadth  of 
tne  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  and  the  six  (highest)  mountains. 
Although  mainly  a  compilation,  this  work  is  not  with- 
out value.  Dicuil  is  our  only  source  for  detailed  in- 
formation of  the  surveys  carried  out  under  Tbeodoaius 


DIOAOHX 


779 


DIDAOHE 


11;  his  quotations,  generally  exact,  aiv  of  service  for 
"the  textual  criticism  of  the  authors  mentioned;  of 
Kl«at  interest,  too,  are  the  few  reports  whidi  he  got 
Hom  the  travellers  of  his  time;  as,  for  instance,  from 
tlie  monk  Fidelis  who  (762?)  journeyed  along  the  canal 
tlien  still  existing,  between  the  Nile  ana  the  Red 
Sea;  and  from  clerics  who  had  lived  in  Iceland  six 
months.  The  manuscript  was  known  to  Welser, 
Xisaac  VoBsius,  Salmasius,  Hardouin,  and  Schopflin;  it 
first  appeared  in  print  under  the  title:  " Dicuili  Liber 
de  mensurd  orbis  terre  ex  duobus  codd.  mss.  biblio- 
thecse  imperialis  nunc  primum  in  lucem  editus  a  Car. 
Athan.  Walckenaer''  (Paris,  1807).  The  latest  and 
best  edition  is  that  of  G.  Parthey  (Berlin,  1870). 

An  ezceUent  oommentary  is  that  by  LimiONNE  in  hU  Re- 
<^ierche9  ffiographiquea  et  crttiques  sur  U  livre  De  menaura  orlns 
terra  compoaS  .  .  .  par  DicuQ  (Paris,  1814).  Bchwedicr, 
BeiirAgt  vm  KriUk  dtr  Chorogranhie  dm  Aumutut  (Kiel,  1876), 
I;  DOkmubb,  Die  fuindachrifuidie  Ueberliefeptnq  der  latei' 
nieehefi  DuhiunoeM  aue  der  Zeti  der  Karottnoer  in  Seues  Archiv 
f&r  dliere  dettUdie  GeachuJUskunde  (Hanover,  1807).  IV.  256> 
258;  Abcber  in  Diet.  NaL  Biog.;  Tbaubb,  Zwr  Chorografthie 
dm  AuguetuB  in  SiUungaberichie  der  phUoacphiech-hielorisehen 
Claeee  der  K.  B.  Akademie  der  Wisaenst^uiften^  1891  (Munich, 
1892).  40e-409. 

Otto  Hartig. 

Didache  (Doctrins  of  the  Twelvb  Apostles), 
a  short  treatise  which  was  accounted  by  some  of  the 
Fathers  as  next  to  Holy  Scripture.  It  was  rediscov- 
ered in  1883  by  Biyenmos,  Greek  Orthodox  metropoli- 
tan of  Nicomedia,  m  the  codex  from  which,  in  1875,  he 
had  published  the  full  text  of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Cle- 
ment. The  title  in  the  MS.  is  i^t^xh  Kvpfov  did  tQp 
BtAi€Ka  iarocrikuw  i^vwiw^  but  before  this  it  gives  the 
heading  Aidax^  "^^^  fici^dfica  iaroarliKbap,  The  old  Latin 
translation  of  cc.  i-v,  found  by  Dr.  J.  Schlecht  in  1900, 
has  the  longer  title,  omitting  ''twelve'',  and  has  a 
rubric  De  d«Ktrind  Ajjostolontm.  For  convenience  the 
contents  may  be  divided  into  three  parte:  the  first  is 
the  "Two  Ways",  the  Way  of  Life  and  the  Way  of 
Death;  iiie  second  part  is  a  rituale  dealing  with  bap- 
tisra,  fasting,  and  Holy  Communion;  the  third  speaks 
of  the  ministry.  Doctrinal  teaching  is  presupposed, 
and  none  is  imparted. 

The  Didache  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  after  the 
books  of  Scripture  (H.  E.,  Ill,  xxv,  4):  ''Let  there  be 
plaoed  among  the  c^uria  the  wriUng  of  the  Acts  of 
Paul,  the  so-called  Shepherd  and  t&  Apocalypse  of 
Peter,  and  besides  these  ihe  Epistle  known  as  that  of 
Barnabas,  and  what  are  called  the  Teachings  of  the 
Apostles,  and  also  .  .  .  the  Apocalypse  of  John,  if 
this  be  thou^t  fit  ...  '^  St.  Athanasius  and  Rufi- 
nus  add  the  ''Teaching''  to  the  sapiential  and  other 
deutero-canonical  boo&.  (Rufinus  gives  the  curious 
alternative  title  ''Judicium  Petri".)  It  has  a  similar 
place  in  Uie  lists  of  Nicephorus,  Pseudo-Anastasius, 
and  Pseudo-Athanasius  (Synopsis).  The  Pseudo- 
Qrprianic  "Adversus  Aleatores"  quotes  it  by  name. 
Unacknowledged  citations  are  veiy  common,  if  less 
certain.  The  "Two  Ways''  appears  in  Barnabas,  cc. 
xviii-xx,  sometimes  word  for  word,  sometimes  added 
to,  dislocated,  or  abridged,  and  Bam.,  iv,  9  is  from 
Didache,  xvi,  2-3,  or  vice  versa.  Hennas,  Ireneeus, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Origen  seem  to  use  the  work, 
and  so  in  the  West  do  Optatus  and  the  "Gesta  apud 
Zenophilum  * '.  The  Didascalia  Apostolorum  (q.  v.)  are 
foimaed  upon  the  Didache.  Ine  Apostolic  chuit^ 
ordinance  nas  used  a  part,  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions have  embodied  the  Didascalia.  There  are 
echoes  in  Justin,  Tatian,  Theophilus,  Cyprian,  and 
Lactantius. 

CoNTBNTB.— Firrt  Part.— The  Way  of  Life  is  the 
love  of  God  and  of  our  neighbour.  The  latter  only  is 
spoken  of  at  length.  We  first  find  the  Golden  Rule  in 
tne  negative  form  (cf.  the  "Western"  text  of  Acts, 
XV,  19  and  29) .  Then  short  extracts  from  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount,  together  with  a  curious  passage  on  giv- 
ing and  receiving,  which  is  cited  with  variations  by 
Hennas  (Mand.,  ii,  4-6).    The  Latin  omits  ch.  i,  3-6 


and  ch.  ii,  1,  and  these  sections  have  no  parallel  in 
Barnabas ;  they  may  therefore  be  a  later  addition,  and 
Hennas  and  the  present  text  of  the  Didache  may  have 
used  a  common  source,  or  Hennas  may  be  the  original. 
The  second  chapter  contains  the  Commandments 
a^inst  murder,  adultery,  theft,  coveting,  and  false 
witness — ^in  this  order — and  additional  reconunenda- 
tions  depending  on  these.  In  oh.  iii  we  are  told  how 
one  vice  leads  to  another:  anger  to  murder,  concupi- 
scence to  adultery,  and  so  fonkx.  This  section  shows 
some  dose  likenesses  to  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  The 
whole  chapter  is  passed  over  in  Barnabas.  A  number 
of  precepts  ane  added  in  ch.  iv,  which  ends:  "This  is 
the  Way  of  Life."  The  Way  of  Death  is  a  mere  list  of 
vices  to  be  avoided  (y).  Ch.  vi  exhorts  to  the  keeping 
in  the  Way  of  this  Teaching:  "If  thou  canst  bear  the 
whole  yoke  of  the  Lord,  thou  wilt  be  perfect;  but  if 
thou  canst  not,  do  what  thou  canst.  But  as  for  food, 
bear  what  thou  canst ;  but  straitly  avoid  things  offered 
to  idols;  for  it  is  a  service  of  dead  gods."  Many  take 
this  to  be  a  reconamendation  to  abstain  from  flesh,  as 
some  explain  Rom.,  xiv,  2.  But  the  "let  him  eat 
herbs"  of  St.  Paul  is  a  hyperbolical  expression  like 
I  Cor.,  viii,  13:  "I  will  never  eat  flesh,  lest  I  should 
scandaUze  my  brother",  and  gives  no  support  to  tibe 
notion  of  vegetarianism  in  the  Early  Cnurch.  The 
Didache  is  re^rring  to  Jewish  meats.  The  Latin  ver- 
sion substitutes  for  ch.  vi  a  similar  close,  omitting  all 
reference  to  meats  and  to  idolothytaj  and  concluding 
with  per  d,  n.  J,  C.  ,  ,  .  in  scBcula  aaculoruin,  amen. 
This  IS  the  end  of  the  translation.  We  see  that  the 
translator  lived  at  a  day  when  idolatry  had  disap- 
peared, and  when  the  remainder  of  the  Didache  was 
out  of  date.  He  had  no  such  reason  for  omitting  ch.  i, 
3-6,  so  that  this  was  presumably  not  in  his  copy. 

Second  Part. — This  (vii-x)  begins  with  an  instruc- 
tion on  baptism,  which  is  to  bN^  conferred  "in  the 
Name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost"  in  living  water,  if  it  can  be  had — if  not,  in  cold 
or  even  hot  water.  The  baptized  and,  if  possible,  the 
baptizer,  and  other  persons  must  fast  for  one  or  two 
days  previously.  If  the  water  is  insufficient  for  im- 
mersion, it  may  be  poured  thrice  on  the  head.  This  is 
said  by  Bigg  to  show  a  late  date;  but  it  seems  a  nat- 
ural concession  for  hot  and  drv  countries,  when  bap- 
tism was  not  as  yet  celebrated  exclusively  at  Easter 
and  Pentecost  and  in  churches,  where  a  columbethra 
and  a  supply  of  water  would  not  be  wantine.  Fasts 
are  not  to  be  on  Monday  and  Thursday  "with  the 
hypocrites"  (i.  e.  the  Jews),  but  on  Wednesdav  and 
Iriday  (viii).  Nor  must  Christians  pray  with  the 
hypocrites,  but  they  shall  say  the  Our  Fatner  thrice  a 
day.  The  text  of  the  prayer  is  not  quite  that  of  St. 
Matthew,  and  it  is  given  with  the  doxology  "for  Hiine 
is  the  power  and  the  glory  for  ever",  whereas  all  but  a 
few  M»S.  of  St.  Matthew  have  this  interpolation  with 
"the  kingdom  and  the  power"  etc. 

Ch.  ix  runs  thus:  "Concerning  the  Eucharist,  thus 
shall  you  give  thanks:  'We  give  Thee  thanks,  our 
Father,  for  the  holy  Vine  of  David  Thy  Child,  which 
Thou  hast  made  known  to  us  through  Jesus  Thy 
Child;  to  Thee  be  the  glory  for  ever*.  And  of  the 
broken  Bread:  'We  give  Thee  thanks,  our  Father,  for 
the  Life  and  knowledge  which  Thou  hast  made  known 
to  us  through  Jesus  Thy  Child ;  to  Thee  be  gloiy  for 
ever.  For  as  this  broken  Bread  was  dispersed  over 
the  mountains,  and  being  collected  became  one,  so  may 
Thy  Church  be  gathered  together  from  the  ends  of  the 
earth  into  Thy  Mngdom,  for  Thine  is  the  glory  and  the 
power  through  Jesus  Christ  forever.'  And  let  none 
eat  or  drink  of  your  Eucharist  but  those  who  have  been 
baptized  in  the  Name  of  Christ;  for  of  this  the  Lord 
said:  'Give  not  the  holy  Thing  to  the  dogs'."  These 
are  clearly  prayers  after  the  Consecration  and  before 
Communion.  Ch.  x  gives  a  thanksgiving  after  Com- 
munion, slightly  longer,  in  which  mention  is  made  of 
the  "spiritual  food  and  drink  and  eternal  Life  through 


DIDAOHS 


780 


DIDAOHS 


Thy  Child".  After  a  doxology,  as  before,  come  the 
remarkable  exclamations:  "  Let  grace  come,  and  this 
worid  pass  away !  Hosanna  to  the  Son  of  David !  If 
any  is  noly,  let  him  come.  K  anjr  be  not,  let  him  re- 
pent. Maranatha.  Amen".  We  are  not  only  re- 
minded of  the  Hosanna  and  Sancta  Sanctis  of  the  litur- 
eies.  but  also  of  Apoc.,  xxii,  17, 20,  and  I  Cor.,  xvi,  22. 
In  these  prayers  we  find  deep  reverence,  and  the  effect 
of  the  Eucharist  for  eternal  life,  though  there  is  no 
distinct  mention  of  the  Real  Presence.  The  words  in 
thanksgiving  for  the  chalice  are  echoed  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  "Quis  div.",  29:  "It  is  He  [Christl  Who 
has  poured  out  the  Wine,  the  Blood  of  the  Vine  of 
Davui,  upon  our  wounded  souls";  and  by  Origen,  "In 
i  Judic",  Hom.  vi:  "Before  we  are  inebriated  with 
the  Blood  of  the  True  Vine  VWch  ascends  from  the 
root  of  David."  The  mention  of  the  chalice  before 
the  bread  is  in  accordance  with  St.  Luke,  xxii,  17-19, 
in  the  "Western"  text  (which  omits  verse  20),  and  is 
apparently  from  a  Jewish  blessing  of  wine  and  bread, 
with  which  rite  the  prayers  in  ch.  ix  have  a  close 
affinity. 

The  Third  Part  speaks  first  of  teachers  or  doctors 
{MdffKa\oi)  in  general.  These  are  to  be  received  if 
they  teach  the  above  doctrine;  and  if  they  add  the 
justice  and  knowl«iRe  of  the  Lord  they  are  to  be  re- 
ceived as  the  Lord.  Every  Apostle  is  to  be  received  as 
the  Lord,  and  he  may  stay  one  day  or  two,  but  if  he 
stay  thr«e,  he  is  a  false  prophet.  On  leaving  he  shall 
take  nothing  with  him  but  bread.  If  he  ask  for 
money,  he  is  a  false  prophet.  Similarly  with  the  order 
of  prophets:  to  judge  them  when  they  speak  in  the 
spirit  is  the  unpardonable  sin;  but  they  must  be 
known  by  their  morals.  If  they  seek  gain ,  they  are  to 
be  rejected.  All  travellers  who  come  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord  are  to  be  received,  but  only  for  two  or  three 
days;  and  they  must  exercise  their  trade,  if  they  have 
one,  or  at  least  must  not  be  idle.  Anyone  who  will 
not  work  is  a  Xpiffr4furopot — one  who  makes  a  gain  out 
of  the  name  of  Christ.  Teachers  and  prophets  are 
worthy  of  their  food.  Firstfruits  are  to  be  given  to 
the  prophets,  "for  they  are  your  High  Priests;  but  if 
you  have  not  a  prophet,  give  the  firstfruits  to  the 
poor".  The  breaking  of  bread  and  Thanksgiving 
[Eucharist]  is  on  Sunday,  "after  you  have  confessed 
your  transgressions,  that  your  Sacrifice  may  be  pure  ", 
and  those  who  are  at  discord  must  agree,  for  this  is  the 
clean  oblation  prophesied  by  Malachias,  i,  11,  14. 
"Ordain  therefore  for  yourselves  bishops  and  deacons, 
worthy  of  the  Lord  ...  for  they  also  minister  to  you 
the  ministry  of  the  prophets  and  teachers".  Notice 
that  it  is  for  the  sacr^ce  that  bishops  and  deacons  are 
to  be  ordained.  The  last  chapter  (xvi)  exhorts  to 
watching  and  tells  the  signs  of  tne  end  of  the  worid. 

Sources. — It  is  held  by  very  many  critics  that  the 
*'  Two  Ways  "  is  older  than  the  rest  of  the  Didache,  and 
is  in  origin  a  Jewish  work,  intended  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  proselytes.  The  use  of  the  Sibylline  Oracles 
and  other  Jewish  sources  may  be  probable,  and  the 
agreement  of  ch.  ii  with  the  Talmud  may  be  certain; 
but  on  the  other  hand  Funk  has  shown  that  (apart 
from  the  admittedly  Christian  ch.  i,  3-6,  and  the  occsr 
sional  citations  of  the  N.  T.)  the  O.  T.  is  often  not 
quoted  directly,  but  from  the  Gospels.  Bartlet  sug- 
gests an  oral  Jewish  catechesis  as  the  source.  But  the 
use  of  such  material  would  surprise  us  in  one  whose 
name  for  the  Jews  is  "the  hypocrites",  and  in  the 
vehemently  anti-Jewish  Barnabas  still  more.  The 
whole  base  of  this  theory  is  destroyed  by  the  fact  that 
the  rest  of  the  work,  vii-xvi,  though  wholly  Christian 
in  its  subject-matter,  has  an  equally  remarkable 
agreement  with  the  Talmud  in  cc.  ix  and  x.  Beyond 
doubt  we  must  look  upon  the  writer  as  living  at  a 
very  early  period,  when  Jewish  influence  was  still  im- 
portant in  the  Chimch.  He  warns  Christians  not  to 
fast  with  the  Jews  or  pray  with  them;  yet  the  two 
fasts  and  the  three  times  of  prayer  are  modelled  on 


Jewish  custom.  Similariy  the  prophets  staod  in  tli* 
place  of  the  High  Priest. 

Date. — ^There  are  other  signs  of  eariy  date:  Uie 
simplicity  of  the  baptismal  rite,  which  is  apparently 
neitner  preceded  by  exorcisms  nor  by  formal  admis- 
sion to  the  catechumenate;  the  simplicity  of  the  £u- 
diarist,  in  comparison  with  the  elaborate  quasi- 
Eucharistic  prayer  in  Clem.,  I  Cor.,  lix-fcd:  the  p&r- 
mission  to  prophets  to  extemporise  their  Euchanstic 
thanksgiving;  the  inmiediate  expectation  of  the  sec- 
ond advent.  As  we  find  the  Christian  Sundav  already 
substituted  for  the  Jewish  Sabbath  as  the  <lay  of  as- 
sembly in  Acts,  XX,  7  and  I  Cor.,  xvi,  2,  and  caUed  the 
Lord's  day  (Apoc.,  i,  10),  there  is  no  difficulty  in  sup- 
posing that  the  paraUel  and  consequent  shifting  of  the 
fasts  to  Wednesday  and  Friday  may  have  taken  i^aoe 
at  an  ec|ually  early  date,  at  least  in  some  places.  But 
the  chief  point  is  the  ministrv.  It  is  twofold:  (1) 
local  and  (2)  itinerant. — (1)  The  local  ministers  are 
bishops  and  deacons,  as  in  St.  Paul  (Phil.,  i,  1)  and  St. 
Clement.  Presbyters  are  not  mentioned,  and  the 
bishops  are  clearly  presbyter-bishops,  as  in  Acts,  xx, 
and  in  the  Pastoral  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  But  when 
St.  Ignatius  wrote  in  107,  or  at  the  latest  117,  the  three 
orders  of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  were  already 
considered  necessary  to  the  very  name  of  a  Qiundi,  in 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Rome.  If  it  is  probable  that  in 
St.  Clement's  time  there  wfts  as  yet  no  ''monardii- 
cal ' '  bishop  at  Corinth,  yet  such  a  state  of  things  cannot 
have  lasted  long  in  any  important  Churoh.  On  this 
ground  therefore  the  Didache  must  be  set  either  in  the 
first  century  or  else  in  some  backwater  of  churdi  life. 
The  itinerant  ministry  is  obviously  yet  more  ardiaie. 
In  the  second  century  prophecy  was  a  charisma  only 
and  not  a  ministry,  except  among  the  Montanists. — 
(2)  The  itinerant  ministers  are  not  menticMied  by  Cle- 
ment or  Ignatius.  The  three  orders  are  i^wstles, 
ahets,  and  teachers,  as  in  I  Cor.,  xii,  28  sq. :  ''  Qod 
set  some  in  the  Church;  first  apostles,  secondly 
prophets,  thirdly  doctors  [teachers];  after  that  mir- 
acles, then  the  graces  of  healings,  helps,  govern- 
ments, kinds  of  tongues,  interpretations  of  sj^eches. 
Are  all  apostles?  Are  all  prophets?  Are  all  doc- 
tors?" The  Didache  places  teachers  below  apos- 
tles and  prophets,  the  two  orders  which  St.  Paul 
makes  the  foundation  of  the  Church  (£^h.,  ii,  20). 
The  term  apostle  is  applied  by  St.  Paul  not  only  to  the 
Twelve,  but  also  to  himself,  to  Barnabas,  to  his  kins- 
men, Andronicus  and  Junias,  who  had  been  converted 
before  him,  and  to  a  class  of  preachers  of  the  first  rank. 
But  apostles  must  have  ''seen  the  Lord"  and  have 
received  a  special  call.  There  is  no  instance  in  Holy 
Scripture  or  in  early  literature  of  the  existence  of  an 
order  called  apostles  later  than  the  Apostolic  a^.  We 
have  no  right  to  assume  a  second-century  order  of 
apostles,  who  had  not  seen  Christ  in  the  flesh,  for  the 
sake  of  bolstering  up  a  preconceived  notion  of  the  date 
of  the  Didache.  Since  in  that  woric  the  visit  of  an 
apostle  or  of  a  pretended  apostle  is  contemplated  as  a 
not  improbable  event,  we  cannot  place  the  oook  later 
than  about  80.  The  limits  would  seem  to  be  from  65  to 
80.  Harnack  gives  131-160,  holding  that  Barnabas 
and  the  Di  Jache  independently  employ  a  Christianised 
form  of  the  Jewish  **Two  Ways**,  while  Did.,  xvi,  is 
citing  Barnabas — a  somewhat  roundabout  hypothesis. 
He  places  Barnabas  in  131,  and  the  Didache  later  than 
this.  Those  who  date  Barnabas  under  Vespasian 
mostly  make  the  Didache  the  borrower  in  oe«  i-v  and 
xvi.  Many,  with  Funk,  place  Barnabas  under  Nerva. 
The  commoner  view  is  that  which  puts  the  Didache 
before  100.  Bartlet  agrees  with  Ehrhard  that  80-90 
is  the  most  probable  decade.  Sabfftier,  Minasi,  Jac- 
quier,  and  others  have  preferred  a  date  even  before  70. 

As  to  the  place  of  composition,  many  suggest  ESgsrpt 
because  they  think  the  "Epistle  of  Barnabas''  was 
written  there.  The  com  upon  the  mountains  does  not 
suit  Egypt,  though  it  might  be  a  prayer  borrowed 


DIDAOUS 


781 


DIDA80ALIA 


horn  Palettiiie.    There  are  really  no  materialB  even 
for  a  conjecture  on  the  subject. 

A  Latin  frasmeot  of  the  Tuw  Waya  was  puUiahed  in  1723  by 
Pee  in  Tkeaaurua  Aneedotorum,  IV.  The  Bret  Greek  edition  u 
At&txi|  rwy  SMtita  avotf t^Amk  cjc  tov  'IcpovoAvftirueoG  Xcipoypo^v 
pv¥  VAMTOV  iicStloii^inq  iLtri.  vftoXtyoiUimv  mu  <n|iAct«Mr<wi/ .  .  .  *Yw^ 
^tkoeiov  Bpvnnnou^  fi«rpoiroA«rov  Nt«Ofki|6«Mi«.  Ei*  KMWTaaTtvov- 
«^«t  (1883).  The  MS.  was  reproduced  in  phototype  in  the  fine 
edition  by  Hasrxb,  The  Teaching  ofthe  ApoaOea,  ruwly  edited,  with 
faeaimile  text  and  a  commentary  (Baltimore  and  London,  1887). 
The  Latin  vereion  was  published  by  Sghlbcht,  fint  in  a  shiUing 
brochure,  then  in  a  larger  edition  with  the  Greek  and  notes 
(Freiburg  im  Br.,  19(X)-1901).  Of  the  Greek  a  very  large  num- 
ber ci  editions  have  appeared,  mostly  with  translations:  db 
RoMBSTiN  (Oxford,  1884):  Sebncb  (London.  1885);  Hitch- 
cock AND  Brown  (New  York,  1884-6);  Fitzgerald  (New 
York,  1884};  Orbis  (New  Yoxic,  1884);  Schaft  (New  York, 
1884-0):  also  by  Sabatibb  (Paris,  1885);  Jacquieb  (Lyons, 
1681):  MiNABi  (Rome,  1891 ).  It  was  included  in  Hiloenfbld, 
Nov.  Teat,  extra  oanonem  receptum  (1884),  fasc.  iv,  and  in  the 
editions  of  the  Apoatolic  Fathera  by  Lightpoot-Habiibb  (with 
Eng.  tr.,  1891-3-^),  Gebhardt.  Habnack  and  Zahn  (Leipsig, 
1900),  Funk  (Tabingen,  1901),  and  Vuzini  (Rome,  1002). 
Special  notice  is  called  for  by  the  following:  Tayu>b,  Th« 
Teaehing  of  the  TSjDehe  Apoatlea,  wUh  lUtiatratwnaJrom  the  Tal- 
mud (Cambridge,  1908);  Idem,  An  Eaaay  on  the  Theology  of  the 
Didathe  (Ounbridge.  1889);  Idem  in  Journal  of  Phitol.,  XVIII. 
XIX,  XXI.  and  in  Journal  trf  Theol,  Studiea  (Oct.,  1906);  Ba^t- 
LET  in  HABTiNoa,  DieL  of  Bib.  (extra  vol.,  1904);  Habnack,  Die 
Lehrt  der  awdlf  Apoatd  (larger  ed.,  Leipzig,  1884)  and  Die 
ApoeteUehre  una  die  judiaehen  zwei  Wege  (smaller  eo..  Leipsift 
1886  and  1896);  Idem.  Geach.  der  altchr.  LiU.,  I.  86  and  II 
(ChronoL,  I).  428;  Funk.  Doctrina  Xll  AooatoLorum  (TObingen, 
1887);  and  uie  introduction  to  his  ed.  of  the  Ap.  Fathera,  supra; 
Idem,  in  TOb.  Theol.  Quartalaehr.,  LXVI.  LXVIII.  UOX. 
LXXVl,  LXXIX  (1884-86-87-94-97);  much  of  the  matter  of 
these  articles  is  republished  by  Funk  in  his  Kirehenoeachieht- 
licAs  Abhandlunpen  (Paderbom,  1899).  II.  Among  other  mat- 
ter also  8 A VI.  La  Dotirina  dei  Xil  Ap.,  rieerehe  critiche  auW 
origine  del  teato  (Rome,  1893);  and  in  Studi  e  doeum.  diHoria  e 
diritto  (1892).  XIII;  Hennecke.  Die  Grundachr^  der  Didaehe 
und  ihre  Reeenaionen  in  ZeUachr.  fUr  N.-T.  Wiaa.  (1901),  II; 
Koch.  Die  Did.  bei  Cyprian,  ibid.  (1907),  VIII;  Chiappklu. 
Studi  di  antiea  iMenUura  eriatiana  rTurin.  1887);    Ladbuzb  in 

II.     On 


Rev.  fThiat.  eed.  (Lou vain,  1901),  II. 


<  the  ministry  in  the 


IHdache,  see  R£vil.le  (Prot.),  uriginea  do  VEpiacopat  (Paris, 
1804);  MicHiELB  (Gath.).  Orxgine  de  VEpiac.  (Louvain,  19(X)). 
On  baptism.  Bigg  in  Jour,  of  Theol.  Studiea  (July,  1904),  v. 
Dr.  Bigg  iibid.,  VI,  April,  1905)  places  the  Didache  m  the  fourth 
century.  On  the  saying  (Did.,  i,  6),  *  *  Let  thyalms  sweat  in  thy 
hands,  till  thou  know  to  whom  to  give",  seeTAYLOB  in  Jour,  of 
PhUol.,  XIX  (as  above);  Turner  in  Jour,  of  Theol.  Studiea 
(July.  1906).  VII.  On  the  relation  of  the  Didaehe  to  the  Didaa- 
calia  Apoatdorum  and  to  the  Ap.  Conatitutiona,  see  also  Funk, 
Die  Ap.  Conat.  (Rottenburg,  1891)  and  his  Didaac.  et  Conat. 
iiposl.  (Paderbom,  1906).  Hoixhkt,  Die  AbhAngigkeit  der  Syr. 
Didaak.  von  der  Didaehe  (Munich,  1898).  This  list  is  but  an 
excerpt  from  the  enormous  literature  since  1884.  BibKo- 
sraphy  to  1896  in  Chevaueb,  Topo-biUiographie;  summaries  in 
ScHUscHT,  loc.  cit..  to  1900;  in  Ehrhard.  Altchr.  Lilt.,  to  1900; 
in  Babdenhbwer,  Geach.  der  altchr.  Litt.,  to  1902. 

John  Chapuan. 

DidfteoB,  Saint,  lay  brother  of  the  Order  of  Friars 
Minor,  date  of  b.  uncertain:  d.  at  AlcaU,  Spain,  12 
Nov.,  1463.  He  was  bom  ot  poor  parents  who  placed 
him  under  the  direction  of  a  hermit  Uvin^  m  the 
neighbourhood  of  San  NicoUis  del  Puerto,  his  native 
town.  Feeling  himself  called  to  the  reli^ous  life,  he 
applied  for  admission  to  the  Franciscan  Order  at  the 
convent  of  Arizafa  and  was  received  as  a  lay  brother. 
In  1445  he  was  chosen  guardian  of  the  Franciscan 
community  on  the  Canary  Island  of  Fortaventura; 
and  thouen  it  was  an  exception  to  the  ordinary  rules 
for  a  lay  brother  to  be  made  superior,  his  great  seal, 
prudence,  and  sanctity  fully  justified  his  choice  by  the 
religious  of  Castile.  He  remained  superior  at  Forta- 
ventura until  1449  when  he  was  recalled  to  Spain, 
whence  he  went  to  Rome  to  be  present  at  the  canoni- 
sation of  St.  Bernardino  of  Siena  in  1450.  At  Rome  he 
fulfilled  the  humble  office  of  infirmarian  in  the  convent 
of  Ara  Coeli :  and  his  biographers  record  the  miracu- 
lous cure  ot  many  whom  he  attended,  through  his 
pious  intercession.  He  was  finally  recalled  to  Spain 
and  was  sent  by  his  superiors  to  AlcaU  where  he  spent 
the  remaining  vears  of  nis  life  in  penance,  solitude,  and 
the  delights  of  contemplation.  St.  Didacus  was  can- 
onized by  Sixtus  V  in  1588.  His  feast  is  kept  in  the 
order  on  the  twelfth  of  November. 

Wadding.  Annalea  Minorum  (Rome.  1732).  XIII.  281-^21; 
Leo,  Livea  of  the  Sainta  and  Bleaaed  of  the  Three  Ordera  of  St. 
Francia  (Taunton,  1887),  IV.  63-60. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 


DidascaUa  Apoatolorom,  a  treatise  which  pie- 
tends  to  have  been  written  by  the  Apostles  at  the 
time  of  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  (Acts,  xv),  but  is 
really  a  composition  of  the  third  century.  It  was 
first  published  in  1854.  in  Syriac.  In  19(X)  a  Latin 
translation,  perhaps  ot  the  fourth  century,  was  dis- 
covered, more  than  half  of  which  has  perished.  The 
original  was  in  Greek,  and  this  can  be  to  some  extent 
restored  by  a  comparison  with  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
tutions, the  first  eight  books  of  whicn  are  simply  a 
revised  and  enlarged  edition  of  the  Didascolia. 
The  attempt  at  restoration  made  by  Lagarde  was  a 
failure,  but  an  excellent  guide  is  now  at  hand  in  the 
new  edition  (1906)  by  Funk,  in  which  the  Greek  of  the 
Apostolic  institutions  is  printed  side  by  side  with 
the  Latin  of  the  Didascalia,  a  translation  from  tibe 
Syriac  supplying  the  lacume  of  the  old  Latin  version. 
Everything  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  which 
is  not  foimd  in  the  Didascalia  is  underlined,  so  that 
the  relations  of  the  two  documents,  and  to  a  great  ex- 
tent the  original  Greek  of  the  Didascalia,  can  be 
seen  at  a  glance. 

The  f  ulTtitle  given  in  the  Syriac  b  "  Didascalia,  that 
is,  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  twelve  Apostles  and  the 
holy  disciples  of  our  Lord".  The  contents  are 'the 
same  as  those  of  the  corresponding  books  of  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions.  Especially  noticeable  is 
the  treatment  which  bishops  are  ordered  to  give  to 
penitents.  Even  ace&t  sinners,  on  repentance,  are  to 
be  received  with  kindness.  No  sins  are  excepted. 
The  canonical  penance  is  to  be  of  two  to  seven  weeks. 
This  legislation  is  obviously  subsequent  to  Novatian- 
ism ;  it  is  not  so  certainly  aimed  a^inst  Novatianism. 
The  church  officials  are  bishops,  deacons,  priests, 
widows  (and  orphans) ;  deaconesses  are  also  aoded,  in 
one  place  lectors,  and  once  subdeacons.  These  last 
may  nave  been  interpolated.  This  organization  is  be- 
hind that  of  Rome  under  Pope  Cornelius  in  251; 
hence  Funk  in  1891  placed  the  date  of  the  work  in 
the  first  half  of  the  third  century.  But  ibe  whole 
Western  system  never  spread  to  the  East,  and  the  de- 
velopment was  imeven.  Funk  therefore  withdrew 
this  opinion  in  1901,  giviiig  the  second  half  of  the  cen- 
tury as  the  true  date.  Tne  heresies  mentioned  are 
tho6e  of  Simon  Magus  and  Cleobius  (this  name  is  given 
also  by  Hegesippus),  with  Gnostics  and  Ebionites. 
Against  these.  Christians  must  believe  in  the  Trinity, 
the  Scriptures,  and  the  Resurrection.  Tlie  original 
Law  of  Moses  is  to  be  observed,  but  not  the  Second 
Law,  or  DetiterosiSf  which  was  given  to  the  Jews  on  ac- 
count of  the  hardness  of  their  hearts.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment is  frequently  quoted,  and  often  at  great  length. 
The  Gospel  is  cited  by  name,  usually  that  of  St.  Mat- 
thew, the  others  less  often,  and  that  of  St.  John  least 
of  all,  as  it  was  traditionally  held  to  have  been  written 
at  a  much  later  date  than  that  which  the  Didascalia 
claims  for  itself.  Acts  and  nearly  all  the  Epistles  are 
freely  employed,  including  Hebrews,  but  the  Apoca- 
lypse is  not  cited.  None  of  these  could  be  named. 
Hamack  has  gone  quite  wrong  in  areuing  that  ^e 
only  place  in  which  the  Fourth  Gospel  is  (Quoted  for- 
mally as  the  Gospel  is  an  interpolation,  with  ^e  in- 
ference (at  which  he  naturally  expresses  his  surprise) 
that  the  author  did  not  know  or  did  not  esteem  tiiat 
Gospel.  (A  quotation  of  the  pericope  de  adidterA, 
John,  viil,  is  important.)  Hamack  further  holdb 
that  the  gentle  treatment  of  sinners  is  an  interpolation 
intended  against  Novatianism,  and  that  the  deacon- 
esses as  well  as  the  subdeacon  are  a  later  addition. 
He  dates  the  original  form  in  the  first  half  of  the  third 
century,  and  the  additions  in  the  last  quarter  of  it; 
but  the  reasons  given  are  very  weak.  Achelis  leaves 
the  whole  of  the  century  open,  but  says  that  the  later 
the  work  is  placed  in  it,  the  better  he  feels  he  under- 
stands it. 

The  earliest  mention  of  the  work  is  by  St.  Epiphar- 
nius,  who  believed  it  to  be  Apostolic.    He  found  it  in 


DIDEBOT 


782 


DXDOT 


use  among  the  Audiani,  Syrian  heretics*  The  few  ex- 
tracts he  gives  do  not  quite  tally  with  our  present 
text;  but  then  he  is  notoriously  inexact  in  his  quota- 
tions. Next  we  find  the  whole  work  incorporated 
into  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  at  the  ena  of  the' 
fourth  century,  and  soon  afterwards  it  is  quoted  in  the 
Pseudo-Chrysoatom's  "Opus  Imperfectum  in  Matt. " 
But  the  work  never  had  a  great  vogue,  and  it  was 
superseded  by  the  Apostolic  Constitutions.  The 
place  of  composition  was  Syria,  though  what  part  can- 
not be  determined.  The  author  was  apparently  a 
bii^op,  and  presumably  a  Catholic.  His  book  is 
badly  put  together,  without  logic,  but  not  without 
some  good  sense.  It  never  touches  upon  dogma  but 
concerns  itself  entirely  with  practice.  It  has  been 
called  the  earliest  attempt  to  compile  a  Corpus  juris 
canontci. 

A  fow  specimens  of  the  text  in  Gennan  were  published  in 
1843  by  BiCKELL  in  his  Ge«ch.  dea  Kirchenrechts:  the  whole  in 
Syriao  by  Laoarde  (under  his  earlier  name  of  B6mcHKR), 
Dtdtuoalia  Apostolorum  Syriace  (Leipzig,  1854).  His  at- 
tempted restoration  of  the  Greek  text  was  published  in  Bun- 
BEN.  AnaUcta  Anteniccena  (London,  1854),  with  the  title  Did- 
asoalia  purior,  for  he  gratuitously  omitted  a  good  deal  as  inter- 
polated. Another  Syriae  ed.  from  other  MSS.  by  Gisson,  The 
iHdtucalia  Ap.  in  Syriae,  tr.  Eadem,  The  Didaac.  Ap.  in  Englieh 

Sotb  at  Cambridge  Univ.  Press,  1903,  as  Horce  Semiticm,  I  and 
);    French  tr.  by  Nau,  Ancienne  littSrature  syriamie  {extrait 
du  Canoniate  Ccniemporain,   Feb.,    1901. -  May.    1902).     The 
Latin  vexwon,  from  a  palimpsest  at  Verona,  was  published  by 
DidaactUioe  Apoatolorum  jragmenta  Veronensia  latina 


Hauler. . .     ., 

(Leipzig.  1900).  Funk's  writinss  on  the  subject  include  the 
monograph  Die  apoalolia^ien  Konalitutionen  (Rottenburv. 
1891).  La  date  de  la  Didaecalie  dea  Apdtrea  (Rev.  d'hiat.  eccL, 
1891.  Oct.).  reprinted  in  Gennan  in  his  Kirchenqeach.  Abhand- 
lungen  (Paderbom,  1907),  III,  13.  articles  in  the  Theol,  Quarttd- 
eArift  (1893.  and  1903-4).  and  the  great  edition  already  men- 
tioned, Didaacalia  et  ConalittUianea  A  poatolorum  edidit  F.X.  Funk 
(2  vols.,  Paderbom,  1906).  Harn ack'b  views  arc  found  in  Tezle 
und  Unlerauchungen,  II,  i,  2  (1884)  and  v  (1886).  IX,  li,  2  (1893). 
and  in  Oeach.  der  altchr.  Lit.,  I.  515.  and  II.  2  (i.  e.  Chronol.,  II), 
488,  where  a  good  bibliography  will  be  found;  Holzhby.  Die 
Ahn&nffiokeit  der  Sy.:  Didaac.  v.  d.  Didache  (Compterendu  du 
Ume  Congrta  ac.  internal,  dea  Calh.,  1898,  I),  Die  beiden  Rezen- 
aionen  der  Ion.  Brief e  u.  die  ap.  Didaac.  {Theol.  Quartalaehr..  1898, 
380),  and  Dionya  v.  Alex,  und  die  Didaac.  (Theol. -pract.  Monat- 
achr..  1901,  515-— he  attempts  to  distinguish  three  recensions, 
the  first  being  known  to  Dionysius,  but  he  has  not  convinced 
Funk  or  Hamack).  Achblis  and  Flbmmino.  Die  ayriache  Did- 
aacalia iiberaetzt  und  trkl&H  CTexte  und  Vntera.,  XXV,  ii,  1904,  an 
important  contribution).  See  also  Barosnhewer,  Oeach.  der 
aWcir<M.  Lit.,  II,  and  Ehrhard,  Altchr.  Lit.  bia  1900,  for  further 
bibliography.  The  so-called  Arabic  Didaacalia  is  merely  a  ver- 
sion (»  the  Apostolic  Conatitutiona.  Only  fragments  of  it  have 
been  published;  they  will  be  found  in  Funk's  ed.  of  the  Apoa- 
toZio  Conatitutiona,  II  (1906),  120,  see  also  p.  xxviii,  and  his 
earlier  monograph  (1901).  207;  RxEDCii,  Die  Kirchenreehta 
Quellen  dea  Patriarehata  Alex.  (1900).  A  variety  of  tliis  version 
was  found  lately  in  the  Propaganda  library,  by  Bauiistark. 
He  describes  it  in  Orievia  Chriatianua,  III.  201  (1903).  On  this 
discovery  see  Funk  in  Th.  Quartalaehr.  (1904),  233,  reprinted  in 
his  KirJtengeach.  Abh.  (1907),  III,  xviii. 

John  Chapman. 

Dideroti  Denis.    See  Enctclopedistb. 

Didon,  Henri,  preacher,  writer,  and  educator, 
b.  17  March,  1840,  at  louvet  (ledre),  France;  d.  13 
March,  1900,  at  Toulouse.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
left  the  seminary  of  Grenoble  to  enter  the  Dominican 
Order  at  Flavigny.  Four  years  later  he  went  to 
Rome  to  complete  his  studies  at  the  Minerva.  Re- 
turning  to  France  a  lector  of  sacred  theology  he  taught 
Scripture  for  a  brief  time,  and  began  at  Paris  in  1868 
a  brilliant  career  as  a  preacher.  A  sincere  desire 
to  communicate  his  faith  to  others,  coupled  with  ac- 
complished art,  enabled  him  to  make  the  most  of  the 
qualities  of  an  orator  with  which  nature  had  endowed 
him.  He  had  a  majestic  carriage,  strong  features,  a 
massive  forehead,  black  eyes,  a  vibrating  voice  which 
he  perfectly  controlled,  and  an  ease  in  emphasizing 
his  words  by  superb  gestures.  Frank,  straightfor- 
ward,  and  sympathetic,  he  readily  won  the  hearts  of 
his  hearers,  whom  he  dominated  by  his  presence  and 
startled  by  his  boldness.  He  was  essentially  a  man  of 
his  time,  an  advocate  of  progress ;  but  withal  loyal  to 
the  Church  whose  place  in  modem  civilization  he 
strenuously  endeavoured  to  strengthen.  He  was  at 
his  best  when  preaching  on  social  subjects.    He  deliv- 


ered the  funeral  oration  of  Archbishop  Darboy^  of 
Paris,  who  had  been  shot  by  the  Communists  24  May, 
1871.  In  the  following  year  he  preached  Lenten  and 
Advent  conferences  in  the  principal  churches  of  Paris, 
many  of  which  he  published.  In  1879  he  was  bitteriy 
assailed  by  the  secular  press  of  Paris  for  the  attitwie 
he  took  in  a  series  of  conferences  on  the  burning  ques- 
tion of  the  indissolubility  of  marriage,  which  he  dis- 
continued at  the  reouest  of  the  Archbishop  of  Pans, 
but  published  in  book  form.  A  jrear  later  he  was  bit- 
terly attacked  by  other  critics  while  delivering  Lentc-n 
conferences  on  the  Church  -and  modem  society,  and 
the  accusation  was  made  that  he  was  in  contradiction 
with  the  Syllabus.  Although  his  preaching  was  oi - 
thodox,  he  was  sent  by  the  master  general  of  hn  onk  r 
to  Corbara  in  Corsica.  There  for  seven  years  he  Is^ 
boured  at  a  *'  Life  of  Christ'',  leaving  his  retreat  for  aa 
extended  visit  in  Palestine  and  again  for  a  sojourn  at 
the  Universities  of  I/eipsig,  Gottingen,  and  Benin.  I  n 
1887  he  returned  to  France,  where,  in  1890,  he  cott- 
pletedhis"Lifeof 
Christ".  It  met 
with  a  remarkable 
sale  and  was  soon 
translated  into 
several  languages: 
two  English  trans- 
lations were  made 
in  1891-2. 

In  January, 
1892,Father  Didon 
reappeared  in  the 
French  pulpit, 
when  he  preached 
at  Bordeaux  a  reli- 
gious-political ser- 
mon m  favour  of 
the  Republic.  He 
then  delivered  at 
the   Madeleine  in  Hknri  Didon 

Paris  a  series   of 

Lenten  conferences  on  Jesus  Christ  (tr.  Belief  in  th^ 
Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  1894).  Thereafter  he  gav5 
only  occasional  sermons  and  lectures,  his  time  and 
enei^es  being  devoted  to  the  education  of  youth.  A  t 
the  Dominican  colleges  in  and  near  Paris,  cultivatinj; 
educational  theories  but  little  developed  elsewhere  iji 
France,  he  did  away  with  compulsion  as  much  as  po6- 
sible,  tau^t  the  students  that  discipline  is  the  way  t> 
liberty,  fostered  in  them  a  spirit  of  self-reliance  to- 
gether with  a  loving  reverence  for  authori^,  and 
checked  the  development  of  a  critical  spirit.  »nne  of 
his  educational  theories  may  be  seen  in  his  work  ''lies 
AUemands"  (tr.  The  Germans,  1884),  whidi  is  a  study 
of  the  German  universities  with  application  to  France ; 
others  may  be  found  developed  at  length  in  his  ooUege 
addresses  published  in  pamphlet  form.  The  deepr^ 
religious  character  of  Father  Didon  is  especially  mani- 
fest in  his  "  Lettres  &  Mile  Th.  V. "  (Paris,  1900),  which 
quickly  went  through  thirty  editions  and  appeared  in 
English;  in  his  ''Lettres  k  un  ami"  (Paris,  1902); 
and  ''Lettres  a  M^re  Samuer'  (Ann^  Dominicaine, 
1907-8).  Besides  the  works  mentioned  above  many 
of  his  sermons  and  addressee  have  been  published  in 
French  and  some  have  been  done  into  English. 

Db  Coulanoes.  Le  Pkre  Didon,  3d  ed.  (Paris,  1001);  Rrr- 
NAUD.  Le  PHe  Didon:  SaVieet  aon(Eu»re  (Paris,  lOOi);  Bm»- 
80N.  UEnvera  de  la  gloire;  EnquHa  de  doc.  inid.  aw  Didon 
(Paris.  1905);  Chapotxs,  Le  Ph-e  Didon;  RoBtfeKE.  Un  Atoinf 
Modeme  (Paris.  1904) ;  Hkinrich.  Jje  Phre  Didon  et  rAUeaiaane 
in  Le  Correapondant.  Of.  Thumb,  Guide  BibliographiQue  de  la 
LiUhature  Francaiae  da  1800-1906  (Paris,  1907)  for  complete 
list  of  books,  brochures,  and  ma^daiine  articles  on  Didon,  as 
well  as  for  an  incomplete  list  of  his  works. 

Arthitr  L.  McMahon. 

Didot,  name  of  a  family  of  French  printers  and 
publishers. 

Francois  Didot,  son  of  Denis  Didot,  a  merchant, 


DXDBOH 


783 


DIDYMUS 


b.  in  PariB,  1689,  and  d.  1757.  In  1713  he 
opened  a  bookstore  on  the  Quai  des  Grands- Ausms- 
tins,  the  sign  of  which  was  "A  la  Bible  d'or".  The 
celebrated  Abb4  de  Bemis  served  for  a  time  there 
as  a  clerk,  after  leaving  the  seminary.  FranQois 
I>idot  was  a  learned  man,  and  held  by  his  colleagues  in 
so  great  esteem  that  he  was  elected  to  the  dignity  of 
eyndip  of  the  Booksellers'  Corporation  in  1735.  He 
received  his  printer's  charter  from  the  king  in  1754. 
Among  the  books  he  published  should  be  mentioned 
the  ''tiistoiredes  voyages"  (20  vols.,  quarto),  the  first 
seventeen  volumes  of  whidi  are  attributed  to  the 
Abb^  Provost. 

Francois- Ambroise  Didot,  b.  1730;  d.  1804,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Frangois,  ana  was  appointed  printer 
to  the  clergy  in  1788.  All  the  lovers  of  fine  books 
highly  appreciate  the  editions  known  as  ''D'Artois" 
(Recueil  de  romans  frangais,  64  vols.)  and  ^'du  Dau- 
phin", a  collection  of  French  classics  in  32  vols.,  ed- 
ited by  order  of  Louis  XVI.  He  also  published  a 
Bible.  He  invented  a  new  printing-press,  improved 
type-founding,  and  was  the  first  to  print  on  vellum 
paper. 

Pierbjs-Fran(:ois  Didot,  b.  1732 ;  d.  1795,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  founded  the  paper  factory  of  Essonne 
and  made  improvements  m  type-founding.  The 
most  important  of  his  publications  are :  "  L'Imitation 
de  J<?sus-Chri8t"  (folio),  "T6i6maque"  (quarto), 
"Tableau  de  L'Empire  Ottoman"  (folio).  One  of  his 
daui^ters  married  Bemardin  dc  Saint-Pierre. 

Hbnri  Didot,  b.  1765,  d.  1852,  son  of  Pierre-Francois, 
made  a  name  as  engraver,  founder,  and  engine-maker. 
When  sixty-six  years  old,  he  engraved  the  micro- 
scopic type  which  was  used  for  tne  editions  of  the 
"Maximes"  of  La  Rochefoucauld  and  Horace's 
works.  This  type  was  so  small  that,  to  cast  it,  he  had 
to  invent  a  new  mould  which  he  called  polyamatype 
(1819),  because  it  founded  one  hundred  letters  at  a 
time,  lie  engraved  the  assignata,  the  paper  money 
used  during  the  French  Revolution. 

Saint-LIger  Didot,  b.  1767;  d.  1829,  second  son 
of  Pierre-FranQois.  devoted  his  attention  to  paper- 
making  in  the  famous  factory  of  Essonne,  and,  after 
ten  years  of  patient  experiment,  invented  a  machine 
to  inake  "endless"  paper. 

Edouard  DmoT,  b.  1797;  d.  1825,  son  of  Saint- 
L^ger,  made  a  good  translation  of  Johnson's  "  Lives  of 
the  Poets",  which  was  printed  by  Jules  Didot. 

Pierre  Didot,  b.  1760;  d.  1853,  eldest  son  of  Fran- 
/Y)i6-Ambroise,  obtained  a  gold  medal  at  the  exhibi- 
Uop  of  1798,  for  his  edition  of  Virgil.  B^  order  of  the 
Government,  his  presses  were  established  in  the 
Louvre,  where  they  remained  during  the  Consulate. 
Tlie  celebrated  Louvre  editions  are  Virgil,  Racine, 
Horace,  and  La  Fontaine.  The  board  of  examiners  of 
the  1806  exliibition  pronounced  the  Racine  edition 
"the  most  perfect  typographical  production  of  all 
ages".  Pierre  Didot  was  also  a  poet  and  translated 
in  verse  the  fourth  book  of  Oeorgics,  the  first  books  of 
Horace's  Odes,  and  also  wrote  a  number  of  original 
poems. 

Jules  Didot,  b.  1794;  d.  1871,  son  of  Pierre,  is 
famous  for  his  invention  of  round-edged  initials,  to 
take  the  place  of  the  sharp-edged  ones.  In  1825  he 
took  his  printing  plant  to  Brussels  and  founded  the 
Royal  Pnnting  House. 

Firmin  Didot,  b.  1764;  d.  1836,  second  son  of 
Francois- Ambroise  was  the  inventor  of  stereotypog- 
raphy,  which  entirely  changed  the  book  trade,  and 
was  the  first  to  engrave  slips  of  so-called  "English" 
and  round  hand-writing.  Among  the  works  which 
issued  from  his  press  were  "Les  mines  de  Pomp^i", 
'^Le  panth^n  ^gyptien"  of  Champollion-Figeac,  and 
"Historial  du  jongleur",  printed  in  Gothic  type,  with 
tail-pieces  and  vienettes,  like  the  editions  of  the  fif- 
teenth century .  In  1827,  Firmin  Didot  gave  up  busi- 
ness to  devote  himself  to  politics  and  literature.    He 


was  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  wrote 
tragedies  C' La  Reinede  Portugal'',  " La  Mort d'Anni- 
bal  )  and  essays  on  literaiy  topics. 

Ambroise-Firmin  Didot,  eldest  son  of  Firmin,  b. 
1790;  d.  1876,  followed  first  a  diplomatic  career  and 
was  for  a  time  attache  of  the  French  Embassy  at 
Constantinople.  He  took  advantage  of  his  position  to 
visit  the  East  and  Greece,  being  the  first  to  discover 
the  location  of  Pergamacum.  When  his  father  re- 
tired in  1827,  he,  together  with  his  brother  Hyacinthe, 
took  the  management  of  the  publishing  business. 
They  published  "Biblioth^ue  des  auteurs  Grecs", 
''Biblioth^ue  des  autours  Latins",  and  "Biblio- 
th6que  des  autours  fran^ais",  an  immense  collection 
of  two  hundred  and  fifty  volumes.  Their  greatest 
work  was  a  new  edition  of  the  "Thesaurus  Gnecss 
Linguae",  of  Henry  Stephens,  edited  by  Boissonade, 
Dindorf,  and  Hase  (9  vols.,  1855--59). 

PiTON.  FamilU  Firmin-Didot  (Paris,  1856);  Werdet.  Etude 
hiographuftte  sur  la  famUle  det  Didot  (Paris,  1864);  Brdnvt, 
Firmin.  Didot  ei  «a  tamOU  (Paris.  1870). 

JLouis  N.  Delamarre. 

Didron,  Ai>oij»HE-NAPOLi:oN,  also  called  Didron 
airUf  archeeologist,  together  with  Viollet-le-Duo  and 
Caumont,  one  of  the  principal  revivers  of  Christian 
art  in  France;  b.  13  March,  1806,  at  Hautvillers,  near 
Helms,  where  his  father  was  a  collector  of  taxes;  d.  at 
Paris,  13  November,  1^67.  After  completii^  his 
early  studies  at  the  preparatory  seminaries  of  Meaux 
and  Reims,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1826,  became  there  a 
professor  of  history,  and  devoted  his  leisure  hours  to 
following  courses  of  law,  medicine,  eto.  The  reading 
of  Victor  Hugo's  **  Notre  Dame  de  Paris"  gave  him  a 
tasto  for  the  study  of  the  antiquities  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Having  been  admitted  to  the  circle  of  the  poet 
in  1829,  he  there  formed  the  plan  of  a  tour  in  Nor- 
mandy, a  province  noted  above  all  others  for  ite  his- 
torical buildings.  His  reading  of  the  legends  of  the 
saints,  his  knowledge  of  Scripture,  and  certain  ab- 
stract notions  of  theology  directed  the  young  amateur 
to  the  study  of  iconography.  In  1835  Guicot  named 
him  secretary  to  the  committee  entrusted  with  the 
publication  of  the  imedited  documents  concerning  the 
history  of  Franee.  Didron  published,  entirely  un- 
aided, the  first  four  volumes  of  the  reports  of  the 
committee.  In  1839  the  portion  concerning  the  icon- 
ography of  the  monumental  mono^phs  of  the  cathe- 
dnil  of  Chartres  was  reserved  for  him.  This  work  did 
not  appear  in  complete  iatm.  In  1838  he  opened  a 
course  of  iconography  at  the  Royal  Library.  He  pub- 
lished (under  the  title  of  ''Manuel  d'Iconographie") 
a  French  version  of  the  famous  ''Painters^ Book  of 
Mount  Athos  '\  discovered  there  by  him,  and  wrote  the 
'^Histoire  de  Dieu",  the  first  part  of  a  more  general 
work.  His  greatest  work  is  the  review  known  as 
'' Annales  arcn4ologiqueB'^  in  which  are  to  be  found 
accounts  of  his  travels  and  numerous  studies  in 
iconography.  For  many  years  Didron  published  in 
tiie  "  U nivers ' '  letters  on  archaeology.  He  also  founded 
a  library  of  archaeological  literature,  and  finally,  in 
1849,  constructed  a  ^ass-manufactoiy,  which  pro- 
duced some  remarkable  pieces  of  work  and  continued 
to  exist  after  his  death.  He  also  produced  some  good 
examples  of  work  from  the  goldsmiths'  workSiop 
which  he  had  established  in  1858,  but  which  was 
short-lived. 

His  principal  works  are:  ''Bulletin  aroh^ologique 
du  comity  des  arte  et  monumente"  (4  vols.,  Paris, 
1840-1847);  "Histoire  de  Dieu,  iconographie  des 
personnes  divines"  (Paris,  1843);  "Manuel  d'icono- 
graphie  chr6tienne,  grecque  et  latine"  (Paris,  1845); 
^Annalcs  archA)logique8"  (Paris,  1844-81).  See 
also  "Ann.  arch."  (1881),  XXVIII,  184. 

GuiLHUiMT,  Didron  in  Ann.  arch.  (1868).  XXV,  377-305. 

K.  Maebe.  . 
Didymas.    See  Thomas,  Saint,  Apostle. 


DIDTMUS 


784 


DIDYMUa 


Didymaa  the  Blind,  of  Alexandria,  b.  about  310 
or  313;  d.  about  395  or  398,  at  the  age  of  eighty-five. 
Didymus  lost  the  use  of  his  eyes  when  four  years  old, 
yet  he  became  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
period.  He  prayed  earnestly  in  his  youth,  we  are 
told  by  Rufinus,  not  for  the  sight  of  ms  booily  eyes, 
but  for  illumination  of  the  heart.  He  admitted  to  St. 
Anthony  that  the  loss  of  his  sidit  was  a  grief  to  him; 
the  saint  replied  that  he  wondered  how  a  wise  man 
could  regret  the  loss  of  that  which  he  had  in  common 
with  ants  and  flies  and  ^lats,  and  not  rather  rejoice 
that  he  possessed  a  spiritual  sight  like  that  of  the 
saints  and  Apostles.  St.  Jerome  indeed  habitually 
spoke  of  him  not  as  "the  blind"  but  as  "the  Seer'* 
Cidymus  studied  with  ardour,  and  his  vi^Hsyrere  long 
and  frequent,  not  for  reading  out  for  liBtening,  that  he 
might  ^in  by  hearing  what  others  obtain  by  seeing. 
Wnen  the  reader  fell  asleep  from  weariness,  Didymus 
did  not  repose,  but  as  it  were  chewed  the  cud  (says 
Rufinus)  of  what  he  had  heard,  imtii  he  seemed  to 
have  inscribed  it  on  the  pages  of  his  mind.  Thus  in  a 
short  time  he  amassed  vast  knowledge  of  grammar, 
ihetoric,  logic,  music,  arithmetic,  and  geometiy,  and  a 
perfect  familiarity  with  Holy  Scripture.  He  was 
early  placed  at  the  head  of  tne  famous  catechetical 
school  of  Alexandria,  over  which  he  presided  for  about 
half  a  oentunr.  St.  Athanajsius  highly  esteemed  him. 
The  orator  Libanius  wrote  to  an  official  in  Egypt: 
"You  cannot  surely  be  ignorant  of  Didymus,  imless 
3rou  are  ignorant  of  the  great  city  wherein  he  has  ni^t 
and  day  been  pouring  out  his  learning  for  the  goodof 
others.''  He  is  similarly  extolled  by  his  contempora- 
ries and  by  the  historians  of  the  following  oentuiy. 
Rufinus  was  six  years  his  pupil.  Palladius  visited 
him  four  times  m  ten  years  (probably  388-398). 
Jerome  came  to  him  for  a  month,  in  order  to  have  his 
doubts  resolved  with  regard  to  difficult  passages  of 
Scripture.  Later  ages  have  n^lected  this  remarka- 
ble man.  He  was  a  follower  of  Origen,  and  adopted 
many  of  his  errors.  Consequently,  when  St.  Jerome 
quarreUed  with  Rufinus  and  made  war  on  Origenism, 
he  ceased  to  boaat  of  being  a  disciple  of  Didymus  and 
was  ashamed -of  the  praise  he  had  formerly  given  to 
the  "Seer".  When  Origen  was  condemned  by  Jus- 
tixiian  and  then  by  the  Fifth  General  Council,  Didy- 
mus was  not  mentioned.  But  he  was  anathematized 
together  with  Evagrius  Ponticus  in  the  edict  by  which 
the  Patriarch  Eutychius  of  Constantinople  gave  effect 
to  the  decree  of  the  council;  and  he  was  (perhaps  in 
consequenee  of  this)  included  in  the  condemnation  of 
Origenists  by  the  sixth  and  seventh  councils.  But 
this  censure  is  to  be  taken  as  applying  to  his  doctrine 
and  not  to  his  person.  It  has  nad  the  unfortimate 
effect  of  causing  the  loss  to  us  of  most  of  his  very 
numerous  writings,  which,  as  the  works  of  a  supposed 
heretic,  were  not  copied  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Didymus  always  remained  a  layman.  The  idea 
that  he  was  married  rests  on  a  mistaken  identification 
of  him  with  a  Didymus  to  whom  one  of  the  letters  of 
St.  Isidore  of  Pelusium  m  addressed.  He  seems  on  the 
contrary  to  have  lived  the  life  of  an  ascetic,  althou^ 
in  the  city  and  not  in  the  desert.  A  curious  story 
was  told  by  him  to  Palladius.  One  day,  when  dwell- 
ing on  the  thought  of  Julian  as  a  persecutor,  and  on 
this  account  having  taken  no  food,  ne  fell  asleep  in  his 
chair  and  saw  white  horses  running  in  different  direc- 
tions, while  their  riders  cried  out:  "Tell  Didymus, 
to-day  at  the  seventh  hour  Julian  died ;  arise  and  eat, 
and  inform  Athanasius,  the  bishop,  that  he  also  may 
know  it."  Didymus  noted  the  hour  and  the  month 
and  the  week,  and  it  was  even  so. 

Doctrine. — Didymus  was  one  of  the  principal  oppo- 
nents of  Arianism.  His  Trinitarian  and  Cnristolog- 
ical  doctrine  is  perfectly  orthodox;  one  may  even  say 
that  he  is  more  explicit  than  St.  Athanasius  as  to  the 
Unity  in  Trinity  and  the  Divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
He  has  combined  the  theological  vocabulary  of  St. 


Athanasius  with  that  of  the  younger  generation,  Basil 
and  Gregory  Nsisianzen.  He  continually  uses  the 
formula  rpc<t  {nro^rdffHSf  fiJa  oAtf'ia,  whidi  St.  Atha- 
nasius admitted  in  his  later  years,  and  which  has 
become  the  Catholic  wat<:hwora.  Didymus  has  been 
credited  with  the  invention  of  this  formula,  and  ha- 
poldt  is  in  favour  of  the  attribution,  whereas  K.  HoU 
rejects  it.  Until  the  fourth  century  the  Greek-speak- 
ing Church  had  no  means  of  expressing  the  doctrine  fA 
of  the  Trinity.  The  use  of  w6ffraffit  to  express  the 
Latin  persona  was  in  itself  a  clumsy  device,  for  Didy- 
mus agrees  with  St.  Jerome  (who  reiected  the  ex- 
pression) that  philosophically  odala  ana  (nr6ffraaa  are 
synonyms.  Didymus,  however,  carefully  safeguarded 
ms  doctrine  from  any  wrong  interpretation.  His 
work  on  the  Holy  Spirit  is  preserved  only  in  the  L&t^ji 
translation  made  by  St.  Jerome.  It  is  free  from  tJie 
reproach  of  "economy"  which  attadies  to  the  nioi« 
famous  work  of  St.  Basil,  who  avoided  (as  he  hiniBrif 
admits)  calling  the  Holy  Ghost  "God".  A  yet  moTe 
important  worn  is  the  "De  Trinitate",  the  three  books 
of  which  are  preserved  almost  entire ;  it  was  composed 
after  379.  A  treatise  against  the  Manichseana  is  also 
nearly  complete.  Of  the  exegetical  fragments,  those 
on  the  Psalms  are  the  most  important.  A  commen- 
tary on  the  Catholic  Epistles  is  known  to  us  throuj^ 
the  Latin  translation  made  by  a  certain  Epiphanius 
for  Cassiodorus.  Didymus  comments  on  11  Peter, 
and  elsewhere  frequently  quotes  that  Epistle,  ahliough 
in  one  place  he  declares  it  to  be  spurious  (JaUaia — ^tlie 
Greek  is  lost).  In  his  commentaries  Didymus  shows 
himself  to  be  much  influenced  by  Origen.  both  in  h^s 
care  for  the  text  and  the  grammar,  ana  in  his  wide 
allegorizing,  but  of  Origenistic  heresies  the  traces  in 
extant  woncs  are  slight.  He  seems  to  have  held  the 
pre-existenoe  of  the  soul.  The  doctrine  of  the  "re^ 
stitution  of  all  things"  is  attributed  to  him  by  St. 
Jerome:  but  he  speaks  very  often  of  eternal  punish- 
ment, though  he  seems  to  teach  that  the  fallen  angels 
and  even  ^tan  himself  are  saved  by  Christ.  He  is 
fond  of  explaining  that  God's  punishments  are  reme- 
dial. He  deliberately  rejects  some  of  Origen's  views, 
and  in  his  Trinitarian  and  Christological  ' 
wholly  uninfluenced  by  his  great  predeoessor. 
style  of  Didymus  is  poor  and  careless.  He  is  gentle  in 
controversy.  His  earnestness  and  piety  sometimes 
supply  the  place  of  the  eloquence  and  energy  which  he 
lacks. 

Didymi  in  omnes  BpiatoUu  eanonxeaa  myanaHo  (OokKne, 
1531);  MiNQAiuBLLxus,  Veterum  testimonia  df  Dvhfmo  Atex, 
Coco  (Rome,  1764).  reprinted  in  Didymi  Alex.  Iwri  tns  dt 
TrinUaU.^nt  edited  by  J.  A.  Misqasbua,  brother  of  the  pm- 
ceding  (Bologna,  1709);  Luckb,  Qiumtionea  et  vindiam  iJtdif 
miana,  giving  Greek  fragmente  of  the  Comm,  on  Cath.  Epp.  by 
the  side  of  the  Latin  ((j^ttingen,  1829-32):  the  exegetical  fnic- 
menta  are  found  in  Max,  Nova  Poirutn  Biii.,  IV;  in  the  Catena 
of  CoROERins  and  Cbaicbr:  in  Wour's  Anecdota  Qraoa,  IV;  in 
J.  A.  MtNOARELLi's  od.  oT  De  Trinilate  (above);  in  Junxxb 
(Patrick  Youno),  Catena  Or.  in  Job  (London,  1637);  and  in 
the  Catena  of  Nicephobub.  The  only  oomplete  oc^ection  of 
Didymus's  works  is  that  of  ^ZONS,  P.  O.,  XXXIX,  1883,  in 
which  the  prefatory  matter  of  the  two  BCiNOABKXxn  is  reprinted. 
There  is  a  good  life  in  Tillemont,  X.  The  best  account,  with 
full  catalogue  of  writings,  extant  and  lost,  is  by  Lkipoldt, 
Didumua  der  Blinde  in  TexU  und  Unten.,  N.  F.^IV.  3.  vol. 
XXVIII.  3.  of  the  whole  series  (Leipsig.  1906).  The  materials 
for  a  Judgment  on  the  theology  of  Didymus  nave  been  indus- 
triously collected  in  this  study  (more  completely  than  by  Mxk> 
GARBLu),  but  the  decision  of  the  writer  is  not  always  quite  to  be 
trusted.  Holi<  in  ZcUechr.  fUr  KirchgeediidUe,  XXV,  3  (1904), 
has  shown  that  the  work  Contra  Arium  el  Sabellium.  which  ^oes 
under  the  name  of  Gregory  of  Ntssa,  is  probably  by  Didy- 
mus. FuKK  in  KirchenMseh.  Abhandlungen,  11,  xv,  p.  291 
(Pkulerbom,  1809),  ascribes  to  Didymus  the  fourth  and  fifth 
books  of  Basil,  Adv.  Eunomium  (which  are  certanily  not  by 
Basil),  and  has  been  followed  by  KrOobr,  JOuchrb,  and 
VoN  ScHUBBBT,  but  HoLL  and  Lbipoli>t  are  not  ooovincad. 
DrXbekb,  Athanaeiana  in  his  Oeeammdte  Patrist.  Vntereuekun- 
aen  (Altoona  and  I^eipsig.  1889).  reprinted  from  Studien  und 
Kritiken,  LXII  (1889).  attributes  to  Didymus  the  former  of  the 
two  books  De  incamaiione  d.  n.  J.  C,  contra  ApoUinarium,  the 
latter  being  possibly  by  his  scholar  Ambrostob;  acainst  this 
view  StCcklen,  Athanaaiana  in  Texte  itnd  Vntera.,  N.  F..  IV.  4 
1899),  and  Lezpoldt,  loo.  cit.  On  the  authentiottyof  the  Com- 
mentary on  the  Cath.  Epp.  see  Klobtrbmann .  Ueber  dee  i>*4y- 
mue  von  Alex,  in  Epp.  Canon,  enamiio  in  Texte  und  Vntere.t  N. 

F..  XIII.  2  (1915).  ,        John  Chapman, 


BXBOO 


785 


DZXHOTB 


BieffO  y  Moreno,  Fhancisco  Gabcu,  fint  bishop 
^f  Callfomia,  b.  17  Sept.,  1785,  at  Lagos  in  the  state  of 
/alisco,  Mexico;  d.  aO  April,  1846,  at  Santa  Barbara. 
Xn  1801  he  received  the  habit  of  St.  Francis  at  the  mis- 
rionaiy  college  of  Guadalupe,  Zacatecas,  made  his 
vows  the  following  year  and  was  ordained  priest  at 
Monterey,  Nuevo  Leon,  13  Nov.,  1808.  For  the  next 
twenty  years  Father  Diego  was  mainly  occupied  in 
preaching  missions,  and  during  this  period  compiled  a 
small  work,  "Metodo  de  Misionar*%  or  "Method  for 
Giving  Missions".  From  1816  to  1819  he  was  master 
of  novices,  in  1822  he  was  made  dtBcretos,  and  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1832,  guardian  or  superior  of  the  missionary 
colle^  of  Guadalupe.  At  the  request  of  the  Mexican 
Govermnent,  which  had  resolved  to  expel  all  Spanish 
friars  from  Califomia,  the  college,  wnose  members 
were  natives,  in  April,  1832,  sent  eleven  Mexican 
Franciscans  to  Califomia,  Father  Diego  going  as  com- 
missary.  They  reached  Cape  San  Lucas  in  September, 

1832,  and  Monterey,  the  head-quarters,  in  February, 

1833.  The  Guadalupan  friars  took  charge  of  the 
missions  from  San  Antonio  to  Sonoma,  and  on  6 
March,  Father  Die^  chose  Santa  Clara  for  his  field  of 
labour.  He  remamed  here  until  the  end  of  1835, 
when  he  visited  Mexico  to  induce  the  Government  to 
have  a  bishop  appointed,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
Church  in  Califomia.  On  19  Sept.,  1836,  the  Mexican 
Government  decided  to  petition  the  pope  to  create 
Califomia  a  diocese  and  congress  at  the  same  time  de- 
creed to  pay  the  new  bishop  an  annual  salary  of  $6,000 
until  the  diocese  should  have  a  sufficient  income.  Of 
the  three  candidates  proposed  by  the  metropolitan 
chapter  on  22  June,  1839,  the  Mexican  Government, 
6  April,  1840,  recommended  Father  Francisco  Garcia 
Diego. 

On  27  April  Pojje  Gr^ory  XVI  withdrew  Califomia 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Sonora,  and  at 
the  same  time  appointed  Father  Dii^o  first  Bishop  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Califomia  with  the  see  at  San 
Diego.  He  was  consecrated  at  the  Franciscan 
church  of  Guadalupe,  Zacatecas.  on  4  October,  1840, 
and  on  11  Dec.,  1841,  landed  at  San  Diego.  Owing  to 
the  poverty  and  insignificance  of  the  place,  he  removed 
his  residence  to  Santa  Barbara  on  11  Jan.,  18^. 
When  he  arrived,  there  were  onhr  seventeen  Franciscan 
Fathers,  mostly  af^ed  and  infirm,  in  charge  of  the 
twenty-one  secularised  Indian  nussions  and  six  Span- 
ish towns.  The  bishop  began  with  great  plans  and  a 
sincere  desire  topromote  the  welfare  of  Hie  Church  hi 
his  territory.  The  Mexican  Government  had  encour- 
aged him  by  giving  him  a  fixed  salary,  and  entrusting 
to  him  the  management  of  the  famous  "Pious  Fimd  , 
but  in  Febmanr,  1842,  President  Ssmta  Anna  confis- 
cated the  Fund.  The  bishop  received  no  aid  what- 
ever, so  that  he  was  obliged  to  depend  upon  the  con- 
tributions from  the  few  white  settlers  in  the  territory, 
many  of  whom  refused  to  pay  the  tithes  which  he  had 
found  it  necessary  to  impose.  Nevertheless  he  opened 
the  first  seminary  on  the  Pacific  coast  at  the  former 
mission  of  Santa  Inez,  about  fifteen  miles  from  the 
ocean  and  forty-five  miles  from  Santa  Barbara,  made 
one  visitation  of  all  the  churches  in  the  diocese,  and  to 
some  places  even  went  a  second  time.  Wom  out  bjr 
hardships  and  disheartened  at  the  deplorable  condi- 
tions which  he  could  not  remedy,  Bishop  Diego  died, 
and  was  buried  in  the  old  Mission  Santa  Barbara. 

Archives  of  the  Archbishop  (San  Francisco);  Archives  cf  the 
Atianon  of  Santa  Barbara:  Sotom ayor,  HisUnia  del  Cotegto  de 
OuBuiaiupe  (Zacatecas.  1874);  Rbobs,  Bioffraphioal  CydUypadia 
Ufilwaukee.  1898):  Bancboft,  HiaUny  of  Califomia  (San 
FianciBco,  1886).  V;  Enoklhardt.  The  Francitcana  in  Cali- 
fornia (1897). 

Zephtrin  Enoelhardt. 

DiekampyWiLHELM,  historian,  b,  at  Geldem,  13 

May,  1854;  d.  at  Rome,  26  Dec,  IggS.     Soon  after 

his  birth  the  parents  of  Diekamp  r^fnoved  to  MOnster 

fn  Westphalia,  where  he  made  hia  poU^^K^^^  studies 

TV.— 50  ^ 


(1867-72).  From  1872  to  1875  he  studied  theolosy  at 
WOnsbuzg  and  at  MOnster.  Fedinc  uncertain,  how- 
ever, as  to  his  ecclesiastical  calling,  ne  abandozied  his 
desire  of  entering  the  priesthood,  and  took  up  the 
study  of  philolo^.  In  1877  he  graduated  as  doctor 
of  philosophy  with  the  dissertation:  "  Widukind,  der 
Sachsenfimrer  nach  Geschichte  und  Sage"  (Mttnster, 
1877).  Excessive  study  led  to  grave  pulmonary  dis- 
ease, in  spite  of  which  he  did  not  spare  himself.  For 
some  time  he  taught  in  the  public  schools  of  Mttnster, 
Amsberg,  and  Aachen,  developing  in  the  meantime 
his  scientific  historical  training.  An  excellent  evi- 
dence of  this  was  his  "  Vitse  S.  Ludgeri''  (Geschichts- 
?uellen  des  Bistums  Mttnster,  IV,  Mttnster,  1881) .  In 
i881  the  Westfalischer  Verein  fttr  Geschichte  imd  Al- 
tertumskunde  confided  to  him  the  continuation  of  the 
"  IfVestfalisches  Urkundenbuch ".  Thereupon  he  re- 
turned to  Mttnster  and  in  1882  he  became  Privatdo- 
zerU  for  history  at  that  academy.  Previously,  how- 
ever, he  spent  a  year  at  Vienna  for  improvement  in 
diplomatics  &^  the  "Institut  fttr  oesterreichische 
GeschichtsfoEschung"  imder  the  direction  of  Professor 
Sickel.  At  Easter,  1883,  he  be^an  his  teaching  at 
Mttnster,  continuing  at  the  same  tune  his  historical  in- 
vestigations, specially  on  Westphalian  documents,  the 
history  of  the  papal  chancery,  and  papal  diplomatics. 
In  1885  he  published  at  Mttnster  the  first  part  of  the 
supplement  of  the  "  Westfalisches  Urkimdenbuch". 
In  tne  autumn  of  this  year  he  went  to  Rome,  chiefly  to 
collect  in  the  Vatican  archives  the  material  for  the 
large  works  he  had  in  mind.  But  t^hoid  fever  car- 
ried him  o£f  in  the  midst  of  his  labours.  He  was 
buried  in  the  German  Campo  Santo  near  St.  Peter's. 
Diekamp  also  published  between  1878  and  1885  sev- 
eral important  studies  in  different  reviews  concerning 
the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  diplomatics  or  offi- 
cial style  of  the  medieval  papal  documents. 

HOlakamp  in  LUerariecher  Handweieer  (1886),  1-10;  ScBXJi/nt 
in  Hietoriechee  JahHntch  (1886),  266-277;  Dahlmann  in  Alkn- 
meine  deuleche  Biographie,  Nachtrdge  bis  1899  (Leipng,  19CQ), 
XLVII.679Bq. 

J.  P.  KmSCH. 

Diemoth,  an  old  German  word  for  the  present 
"Demuth",  the  English  "humility",  was  the  name  of 
a  pious  recluse  at  the  monastery  of  Wessobmnn  in 
Upper  Bavaria,  b.  about  1060  of  a  noble  Bavarian  or 
Swabian  family;  d.  30  March,  probably  in  1130.  At 
an  early  age  she  entered  the  Benedictine  nimnery 
which  was  connected' with  the  Benedictine  monastery 
of  Wessobrunn.  After  a  long  period  of  severe  proba- 
tion in  the  nunnery  she  obtained  permission  to  live  the 
life  of  a  recluse  and,  following  the  custom  of  many 
recluses  of  those  times,  had  herself  enclosed  in  a  cell 
adjoining  the  church,  where  she  spent  the  remainder 
of  her  me  in  prayer  and  in  transcribing  valuable 
books.  On  account  of  her  exceptionally  beautiful 
handwriting  she  was  styled  the  beautiful  scribe.  She 
copied  about  45  volumes  the  titles  of  which  are  given 
by  Becker  in  his  Cataloffi  biblwthecarum  aniiqui  (Bonn, 
1885),  155-136.  The  most  important  are:  the  Bible, 
the  Moralia  and  other  works  of  St.  Gregoiy  the  Great, 
7  works  of  St.  Augustine,  4  of  St.  Jerome,  2  of  Origen, 
and  about  15  liturgical  works.  Diemoth  was  a  great 
friend  of  the  Blemed  Heriuka  with  whom  ^e  ex- 
changed numerous  letters  while  the  latter  was  a  re- 
cluse at  the  neighbouring  monastery  of  Epfach.  The 
tetters  were  long  preserved  at  the  monastery  of  Bern- 
ried  where  Heriuka  spent  the  last  years  of  her  life,  but 
they  unhappily  fell  a  prey  to  the  ravages  of  the  Swedes 
durmg  the  Thirty  Years  War.  A  few  of  Diemoth's 
manuscripts  are  still  preserved  at  the  Staatsbibhothek 
in  Munich,  whither  they  were  transferred  after  the 
secularisation  of  Wessobrunn  in  1803.  Diemoth  was 
buried  in  the  basilica  of  Our  Lady  at  Wessobrunn, 
aside  of  the  bodies  of  Abbot  Hiiento  and  his  six  com- 
panions, who  suffered  martyrdom  at  the  hands  of  the 
Hungarians  in  955.    In  1709  her  remains  were  trana- 


DISPXHBiaOK 


786 


DIXBnOBB 


ferred  to  the  Abbev  Church  of  St.  Peter.  Some  hagi- 
ok)g^ts  style  her  ''^Ble^aed/'  though  she  has  never  re- 
ceived public  veneration  and  was  never  formally  beat- 
ified. 

Hbfner,  Vther  die  Nonne  Diemud  von  WtMchrunn  und  ikr 
Ittemriachee  Wirken,  with  a  facsimile  of  her  handwriting,  in 
OberhauerueheB  Archiv  (Munich,  1839),  I.  356-373;  Lkutnbb, 
Hutana  Moncuierii  WtMofontani  (Augsbunc  and  Fretburg, 
1763),  106-176;  Steele,  Anchonasea  of  the  West  (London  and 
St.  I^ttia,  1903),  165  sq.;  Braonmubller  in  KirchenUx. 

Michael  Ott. 

Diepenbeeck,  Abraham  van,  an  erudite  and  ac- 
complished painter  of  the  Flemish  School,  b.  at  Bois- 
le-Duc  in  the  Netherlands,  1599 ;  d.  at  Antwerp,  1675. 
After  having  received  a  classical  education  he  oecame 
one  of  Ruoen's  best  pupils  and  assistants.  He 
handled  mythological  and  historical  subjects,  as  well 
as  portraits,  with  ^at  skill  and  vigour  and  was  a 
good,  sound  colounst.  He  went  to  Antwerp  about 
1629  and  made  his  first  successes  in  painting  on  glass, 
among  his  productions  being  windows  in  the  cathe- 
dral there  representing  the  *'Acts  of  Mercy".  Simi- 
lar work  at  the  church  of  the  Dominicans  shows  scenes 
from  the  "Life  of  Saint  Paul".  Van  Diepenbeeck 
was  admiti«d  to  the  guild  of  painters  in  1638,  and  be- 
came director  of  the  academy  in  1641.  It  was  after  a 
visit  to  Italy  that  the  artist  b^an  to  paint  chiefly  in 
oil  and  to  illustrate.  Among  his  illustrations  are 
fifty-eight  designs  engraved  by  Comelis  Bloemaert 
for  the  Abl>6  de  Maroues'  "Tableaux  du  Tenaple  des 
Muses".  During  the  i^ign  of  Charles  I,  van  Diepen- 
beeck was  in  England  where,  besides  painting  por- 
traits of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  and  his  family,  the 
artist  iUiistrated  that  nobleman's  book  on  "Horse- 
manship". 

At  the  church  of  the  Carmelites  in  Antwerp  is  one 
of  the  painter's  masterworks,  "The  Virgin  in  the  Clouds 
with  Saint  Ely",  In  the  cathedral  is  his  "St.  Nor- 
bert",  while  the  saint  appears  with  the  first  Abbot  of 
St.  Mi(diei  in  a  church  at  Deume.  In  the  galleries 
are:  Louvre,  "The  Flight  of  Cloelia"  and  "Portraits 
of  a  Man  and  a  Woman";  Vienna,  a  "Descent  from 
the  Cross"  and  "Allegory  of  Mortality"-  Munich, 
"  Abraham  and  the  Angels  '^  and  "  Feeding  the  Poor  " ; 
Dresden,  "Neptune  and  Amphitrite"-  Berlin,  "The 
Marriage  of  St.  Catherine"  and  the  "Flight  of  Clce- 
lia";  Brussels,  "St.  Francis  Adoring  the  Holy  Sacrar 
ment";  .\ntwerp,  "The  Ecstasy  of  St.  Bonaventure"; 
Brunswick,  "The  Entombment"  and  "Children's 
Bacchanal";  Frankfort,  "Portraits  of  a  Young  Man 
and  a  Young  Woman";  Bordeaux,  "The  Rape  of 
Ganymede". 

Bryan,  Dtctionary  of  Paintera  and  Enffravera  (London  and 
New  York,  1903-05);  Champun  akd  Pbrkinb,  Cpelopedia  of 
Paintera  and  Painlinga  (New  York,  1886). 

Augustus  van  Clsef. 

Diepenbrock,  MEiiCuioR,  Baron  (Freihjcrr)  von, 
Cardiiuil  and  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau,  b.  6  January, 
1798,  at  Bocholt  in  Westphalia;  d.  at  the  castle  of 
Johuinisberg  in  Upper  Silesia,  20  January,  1853.  He 
attended  the  military  academy  at  Bonn  and  took  part 
in  the  campaign  against  France  in  1815  as  an  officer 
of  ike  militia.  Upon  his  return  he  was  much  at- 
tracted by  the  personality  of  Johann  Michael  Sailer, 
a  friend  of  the  family,  at  that  time  professor  at  the 
University  of  landshut  in  Bavaria,  and  studied  public 
finance  at  that  institution.  When  Sailer  was  made 
Bishop  of  Ratisbon,  Diepenbrock  followed  him 
thither,  took  up  the  study  of  theology,  and  was 
ordained  priest  27  December,  1823.  In  1835  he  was 
made  dean  of  the  cathedral  and  vicai^general  by  the 
successor  of  Bishop  Sailer.  His  knowledge  of  modern 
langua^  and  his  administrative  ability,  together 
with  his  profound  understanding  of  the  interior  life 
and  his  aseetical  character,  paved  the  way  for  his 
elevation  to  the  episcopal  See  of  Breslau,  to  which 
he  was  elected  15  January,  1845.    He  at  first  declined 


the  honour,  but  finally  accepted  out  of  filial  obedienM 
to  the  mandate  of  Pope  Gregory  XVI. 

From  the  beginning  of  his  reign  he  was  called  to 
face  difficult  problems  and  momentous  political 
events.  Sectarian  propagandism  was  especially  ag- 
gressive in  his  diocese  and  was  furthered  by  state 
officials  as  well  as  by  the  traditional  enemies  of  the 
Church.  The  famine  in  Upper  Silesia  appealed  to  his 
sympathetic  and  generous  nature.  The  Ke  volution  of 
1848  showed  him  one  of  the  firmest  and  most  loyal 
supporters  of  government,  law,  and  order.  The  pas- 
toral letter  which  he  issued  on  this  occasion  was,  by 
order  of  the  king,  read  in  all  the  Protestant  churches 
of  tlie  lealm.  He  devoted  his  best  energies  to  the 
training  of  the  clergy,  opened  a  preparatory  seminary, 
and  improved  the  conditions  of  the  higher  seminary. 
He  was  a  watchful  guardian  of  ecclesiastical  discipline 
and,  when  necessary,  emploved  severe  measures  to 
enforce  it.  He  reintroduced,  with  great  success,  re- 
treats for  the  priests  and  missions  for  the  people. 

In  1849  he  was  appointed  Apostolic  ddegate  for 
the  Prussian  army  and  relieved,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
sore  needs  of  the  CathoKc  solmers.  He  was  created 
cardinal  in  the  consistory  of  20  September,  1850,  and 
received  the  purple  4  November.  This  event  gave 
occasion  to  one  of  the  most  magmfioent  public 
demonstrations  ever  witnessed  in  Germany.  It  was 
soon  followed  by  another  demonstration,  equally 
striking,  but  sorrowful  in  character,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  cardinal's  death  from  a  disease  which  had  lonjg 
afflicted  him.  His  will  beoueathed  his  estate  to  his 
diocese.  Cardinal  Diepenorock's  episcopate  was 
fruitful  in  blessings  for  Upper  Silesia,  he  was  a  cham- 
pion of  Catholicity  for  the  whole  of  Germany  and  an 
ornament  to  the  entire  Church.  In  personal  appear- 
ance he  was  of  dignified  presence,  but  {feasant  and 
affable  to  all.  The  cardinal  was  a  noted  preacher 
and  poet,  and  his  writings  bear  evidence  to  his  talents. 
His  principal  publications  are:  "Spiritual  Bouquet, 
Gathered  m  Spanish  and  German  Gardens  of  Poesy" 
(Sulabach,  1826);  "Life  and  Writings  of  Heinrich 
Suso"  (Ratisbon,  1829):  "Sermons"  (Ratisbon, 
1841)-  "Pastoral  Letters^'  (Munster,  1853);  "Per- 
sonal Letters"  (Frankfort,  1860). 

Chowan  ETZ,  Life  of  Cardinal  von  Diejfenbroek  (OsnAbruck. 
1853);  FdRSTER.  Life  of  Cardinal  von  Diepenbrock  (Ratisbon. 
1860);  Cardinal  von  DiepefUnoek  (Bonn,  1878);  Kaskkk  in 
KirekmUex., «.  v. 

B.   LUBBBERMANN. 


Diaringer,  Franz  Xaver,  Catholic  theologian,  b. 
22  August,  1811,  at  Rangeningeh  (HohenzoUem- 
Hechingen);  d.  8  September,  1876,  at  Veringendorf. 
He  studied  theolo^  at  Tubingen,  was  ordained  at  Frei- 
burg, 19  Sept.,  1835,  and  appointed  instructor  at  the 
archiepiscopal  seminary  there.  Li  the  autunm  of  1 840 
he  became  professor  of  d(^ma  at  the  ecclesiastical  sem- 
inary of  Spcier,  and  at  Caster,  1841,  was  also  made 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  lyceum  of  the  same  cit^% 
In  the  spring  of  1843  he  was  appointed  professor  m 
ordinary  of  dogma  and  homiletics  at  the  University  of 
Bonn,  and  provisional  inspector  of  the  preparatory 
seminary.  When  at  his  instance  a  homiletic-catechet- 
ical  seminary  was  established  in  1844,  he  took  chai^ge 
of  the  homiletic  section.  The  prestige  of  the  faculty 
of  Bonn  had  suffered  sadly  because  of  the  inroads  of 
Hermesianism,  and  this  learned  thec^ogian,  who  was 
eminently  qualified  for  the  work  of  academic  teachuig, 
set  about  to  restore  its  fallen  gloiy.  His  brilliant  and 
zealous  activil^,  especially  aurins  the  first  two  de- 
cades of  his  office,  plaoed  him  in  the  first  rank  among 
the  shinine  lights  of  the  university.  Besides  perform- 
ing the  duties  of  his  professorship,  he  published 
the  "KatholiBche  Zeitscnrift  fUr  Wissensdiaft  und 
Kunst,"  a  periodical  devoted  to  science  and  church 
interests,  which  he  had  founded  in  1844  in  opposition 
to  the  periodical  of  the  Hermesians,  and  conducted  in 
a  truly  Catholic  spirit.    From  1847  to  1849  it  appeared 


BOBS 


787 


DISS 


as  the  *'  Katholische  VierteljahreBschnft ' '.  Dieringer 
took  a  promineDt  part  in  the  founding  of  the  Society 
of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  in  1845,  of  which  he  was  at 
first  secretary  and  then  president  from  1846-187 1 .  In 
1853,  thou^  retaining  his  prbfessor^p  and  residing 
at  Bonn,  he  was  made  canon  of  Cologne  and  ecclesias- 
tical councillor.  In  1848  he  represented  the  district  of 
Neuss  in  the  parliament  at  Frankfort. 

His  name  was  among  those  proposed  in  1856  for  the 
vacant  See  of  Paderbom  and  in  1864  for  that  of  Trier, 
but  it  was  removed  by  the  Prussian  Government. 
Though  his  earlier  teaching,  especially  in  his  **  Laien- 
katiecnismuB",  had  been  in  accordance  with  the  doc- 
trine of  papal  infaliibihty,  he  yielded,  at  the  time  of 
the  Vatican  Council,  to  pensonal  motives  and  to  the  in- 
fluence of  his  colleagues  at  Bonn  and  joined  the  (^posi- 
tion. He  had  no  thought,  however,  of  leavins  the 
Church,  and,  after  negotiations  of  some  length,  he 
yielded  to  the  demand  of  Archbishop  Melchere  and 
made  his  submission.  In  order  to  escape  from  the 
strained  relations  which  existed  among  the  divided 
faculty,  Dieringer  resigned  his  offices  and  dignities 
during  the  spring  of  1871  and  took  charge  of  the  par- 
ish of  Veringendorf  in  HohenzoUem.  In  1874  he  was 
among  those  recommended  fbr  the  archiepiscopal  See 
of  Freibure,  but  he  could  not  accede  to  tne  demands 
of  the  Baden  Government.  After  1874  he  was  con- 
stantly in  failm^  health. 

Dieringer's principal  pul^cations  are:  ''System  der 
gOttliohen  Thaten  des  Christenthums,  oder,  Selbst^ 
begrttndung  des  Christenthums,  volhogen  durch 
seine  g5ttlichen  Thaten"  (Maine,  1841;  2nd  ed., 
1857),  a  work  which  clearly  shows  the  influence  of 
Staudenmaier,  especially  in  its  first  edition*  and  the 
"Lehrbuch  der  katholischen  Dogmatik''  (Mainz, 
1847;  5th  ed.,  1865),  a  book  of  great  merit  and  for- 
meriy  much  used.  An  excellent  work  on  theolo^  in 
popular  form  is  his  ''  Laienkatechismus  liber  Religion, 
Ofienbarung  and  Kirche''  (Mainz,  1865;  2nd  ed., 
1868).  Another  book  also  in  popular  style,  "Der 
heil.  Karl  Borrom&us  und  die  Kirchenverbesserung 
seiner  Zeif  (Cologne,  1846),  appeared  as  the  first  pub- 
lication of  the  Society  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  and 
had  a  wide  circulation.  Besides  these  publications 
there  remain  to  be  mentioned  the  two  homiletic 
works:  '' Kanzelvortrage  an  eebildete  Katholiken  auf 
alle  Sonn- und  Festtagedes  Kirchenjabres''  (Maims, 
1844)  and  "  Das  Epistelbuch  der  katholischen  Kirche, 
theologisch  erkliirt"  (Mainz,  1863);  the  polemical 
writings:  "Offenes  Sendschreiben  Ober  cue  kirch- 
lichen  ZustHnde  der  Gegenwart  an  Dr.  J.  B.  von 
Hiracher"  (Maims,  1849;  against  Hiracher's  publica- 
tion imder  the  same  title);  "Dosmatische  ErSrte- 
rungen  mit  einem  GUntherianer''  (Mainz,  1852);  ''Die 
Theologie  der  Vor-  und  Jetztzeit,  ein  Beitrag  zur 
Verstandigung"  (Bonn,  1868;  2nd  ed.,  1869;  against 
Kleutgen's  "Theologie  der  Vorzeit'Or  which  appeared 
first  in  the  "Theologisches  Literaturblatt"  of  Bonn 
(1868);  and:  "Expositio  doctrinse  TertuUiani  de  re- 
publtcA  et  de  oSiciis  ac  iuribus  civium.christianorum'' 
(University  Program;  Bono,  1850). 

Ka-ulcn  in  KireherUex.t  b,v.;  Rbdsch  in  Alh/emeine  deuUche 
Biographie,  a.  v.;  Scuill  in  FreAiirger  Kathols  KircKentiUUt 
(ISW).  Nr.  23.  p.  177  sqq.;  Frans  KaiTfmanw,  Letrpold  Kauf- 
maun  (Coloene,  1903),  154  «qq.,  158-61,  170-77;  DuGrHnduno 
und  TMtioieit  des  Vereiru  vom  heil.  Kari  BorromAu$,  Jubilee 
number  (Cologne.  1895),  53-56,  with  portrait. 

Fri£drich  Lauchert. 

Dies  Ira,  the  name  by  which  the  s^uence  in  re- 
quiem Masses  is  commonly  known.  Iney  are  ^e 
opening  words  of  the  first  verse:  Die9  tree,  dies  xUa. 
The  rubrics  of  the  Roman  Missal  prescribe  the  recita- 
tion of  the  seauence  by  the  celebrant  on  the  following 
occasions:  (1)  in  the  Mass  of  All  Souls'  Day  (/n  com- 
memoraUone  Omnium  Fidelium  Defunctorum) ;  (2)  in 
funeral  Masses  (In  die  obitua  seu  depogUionis  defuncti) ; 
and  (3)  whensoever  in  requiem  MaQge^  only  one  oror 


Ua,  or  collect,  is  to  be  said,  namely  in  the  anniversary 
Mass,  and  when  Mass  is  solemnly  celebrated  on  the 
third,  the  seventh,  or  the  thirtieth  (month's  mind)  day 
after  death  or  burial.  Its  recitation  in  other  requiem 
Masses  (In  Missis  quotidianis  defunctorum)  is  optional 
with  the  celebrant.  It  should  be  noted  here  that  the 
decree  of  the  Congregation  of  Sacred  Bites  (12  August, 
1854)  permitting  the  choir  to  omit  such  stanzas  as  do 
not  contain  a  prayer  is  not  included  in  the  new  edition 
of  the  "Decreta  Authentica  S.  R.  C."  (Rome,  1898- 
1900).  From  this  fact  may  be  inferred  that  the  more 
ancient  rule  is  now  in  force  and  that  the  whole  se- 
quence must  either  be  sun^  by  the  choir  or  be  ''re- 
cited" in  a  hi^  and  clear  voice  with  organ  accompani- 
ment (cf.  American  Ecclesiastical  Review,  August, 
1907,  p.  201). 

As  found  in  the  Roman  Missal,  the  Dies  Irae  is  a 
Latin  poem  of  fifty-seven  lines  in  accentual  (non- 
quantitative),  rhymed,  trochaic  metre.  It  comprises 
nineteen  stanzas,  of  which  the  first  seventeen  tollow 
the  type  of  the  first  stanza: — 

1.   Dies  ir»,  dies  ilia, 

Solvet  ssedum  in  favill^: 
Teste  David  cum  Sibylla. 

The  remaining  stanzas  discard  the  scheme  of  triple 
rhymes  in  favour  of  rhymed  couplets,  while  the  last 
two  lines  use  assonance  instead  of  rhyme  and  are, 
moreover,  catalectic: — 

18.    Lacrimosa  dies  ilia, 
QuA  resurget  ex  favilldr, 
Judicandus  homo  reus. 

-   19.   Huic  ergo  parce  Deus: 
Fie  Jesu  I>>mine, 
Dona  eis  requiem.    Amen. . 

Thus  the  last  two  stanzas  are  printed  in  the  typical 
(1900)  edition  of  the  Missal,  and  in  the  Ratisbon  edi- 
tion of  the  plain-chant  setting.  The  Vatican  edition 
(1907)  of  the  plain-chant  melody,  however,  apparently 
takes  account  of  the  fact  that  the  last  six  lines  did  not, 
in  all  probability,  originally  belong  to  the  sequence, 
and  divides  them  into  three  couplets. 

This  Missal  text  of  the  sequence  is  found,  with 
sli^t  verbal  variations,  in  a  thirteenth-century  manu- 
scnpt  in  the  Biblioteca  Nazionale  at  Naples  (cf.  Ha- 
ber^  Magister  Choralis,  Ratisbon,  1900,  yp.  237-238). 
Father  Eusebius  Qop,  O.F.M.,  in  the  "Revue  du 
Chant  Gr6gorien'*  (November-December,  1907,  p.  49) 
argues  a  date  between  1263-1255  for  the  MS. — a 
Franciscan  Missal  whose  calendar  does  not  contain 
the  name  of  St.  Clare,  who  was  canonized  in  1255,  and 
whose  name  would  have  been  inserted  if  the  MS.  were 
of  later  date.  The  same  writer  would  assign  (pp.  48, 
49)  a  still  earlier  date  (1250)  to  a  copy  of  the  Die6  Irs 
inserted  at  the  end  of  a  so-called  ^Breviary  of  St. 
(}lare"  dating  about  1228.  Into  his  ai^uments  it  is 
not  necessarv  to  enter  here;  but  it  is  miportant  to 
notice  that  tnese  dates  are  much  anterior  to  the  dates 
of  the  MSS.  which,  until  recently,  hymnologists  had 
cc^izance  of  when  they  attempted  to  fix  the  probable 
authorship  of  the  sequence.  Thus  Mone  found  none 
anterior  to  the  fifteenth  centuiy;  ChevaUer  mentions 
only  a  Magdebuis  Mis^  of  1480  and  a  MS.  Franciscan 
Missal  of  1477;  the  first  edition  of  Julian's  ''Diction- 
ary of  Hymnology"  (1892)  declared  the  "oldest  form 
Imown  to  the  present  time"  to  be  found  in  a  Domini- 
can Missal  ''written  at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury and  apparently  for  use  at  Pisa";  Warren,  in  his 
*'  Dies  Ir»'*  (London,  1902,  p.  5),  knows  no  earlier  M& 
The  second  edition  of  Julian  (1907)  mentions  the 
Naples  MS.  in  its  supplement  (p.  1629),  but  not  the 
"  Breviary  of  St.  Clare''.  Father  Clop  describes  also  a 
third  contemporary  MS.  (p.  49),  Italian,  like  the 
others:  "Toutes  trois  enfin  appartenant  ^^ement  k 
la  litur^e  des  Fr^res  Mineurs  ".    All  this  renders  veiy 


^ 


DXBTEMBSROER 


788 


DBTEIIBKBOBB 


probable  the  conjecture  generally  entertained  by  hym- 
nologistSy  that  Ihe  Dies  Ir»  was  composed  by  a  Fran* 
dscan  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Its  authorship  has  been  most  generally  ascribed  to 
Thomas  of  Celano,  the  friend,  feuow-friar,  and  biog* 
rapher  of  St.  Francis.  Reasons  for  this  particularity 
of  ascription  are  mven  by  Keyser  (Beitrftge  «ur  Ge- 
schichte  und  Eru&rung  der  alten  Kirch^ihymnen, 
Paderbom  und  Manster,  1886,  II  194-196  and  230- 
235) ;  also  by  Duffield  (Latin  Hymn  Writers  and  Their 
Hjrmns,  New  York,  1889,  245-247),  an  ardent  cham- 
pion of  the  ascription  to  Thomas;  also  in  "The  Dol- 
phin" (Nov.,  1904,  514r-516),  which  corrects  a  funda- 
mental error  in  one  of  Duffield's  main  arguments. 
Ten  other  names  have  been  suggested  by  various 
writers  as  the  probable  author  of  the  Dies  Irse:  (1)  St. 
Gregory  the  (ireat  (d.  604);  (2)  St.  Bernard  of  Qair- 
vaux  (d.  1153);  (3)  St.  Bonaventtu«  (d.  1274);  (4) 
Cardinal  Matthew  d'Acquasparta  (d.  1302);  (5)  Inno- 
cent III  (d.  1216) ;  (6)  Thurstan.  Archbishop  of  York 
(d.  1140);  (7)  Cardinal  Latino  Orsini,  or  Frangipani, 


a  Dominican  (d.  1296) ;  (8)  Humbert,  a  ecQeral  of  the 
Dominicans  (d.  1277) ;  (9)  Agostino  Biella,  an  Augus- 
tinian  (d.  1491);  (10)  Felix  Baemmerlein,  a  priest  of 


Zurich  (d.  1457).  The  ascription  to  Haemmerlein 
was  due  to  the  discovery,  after  his  death,  of  a  variant 
text  of  the  sequence  among  his  papera.  Its  eight- 
eenth and  nineteenth  stanzas  are; — 

18.  Lacrimosa  dies  ilia. 
Cum  resurget  ex  f  avill& 
Tanquam  ignis  ex  scintillAy 

19.  Judicandus  homo  reus: 
Huic  ergo  parce,  Deus; 
E^to  semper  adjutor  mens. 

To  these  are  added  five  stanzas  of  the  same  form. 
This  Haemmerlein  text  is  given  by  Keyser  (op.  cit., 
211),  Warren  (op.  cit.,  11),  and  by  others.  Still  jan- 
other  text,  known  as  the  "Mantuan  Marble"  text 
(first  printed  in  1594),  prefaces  the  Dies  Ir»with  four 
similar  stanzas,  and  replaces  stanzas  17-19  with  the 
sin^e  stanza: — 

XJt  consors  beatitatis 

Vivam  cmn  justificatis 

In  ffivum  SBtemitatis. 

Daniel  gives  both  texts  in  his  "  Thesaurus  H3minologi- 
cus"  (II,  103-105),  except  the  two  condudinestanzas 
of  the  Haemmerlein  text.  Coles  (Dies  Ire  in  Thirteen 
Orie^lal  Versions,  New  York,  1868)  gives  (xv-xxi) 
botS  texts  together  with  versified  Eneliah  translation. 
All  of  these  additional  stanzas  rather  detract  from 
the  vigorous  beauty  of  the  original  hymn,  whose  old- 
est known  form  is,  with  slight  verbal  changes,  that 
which  is  foimd  in  the  Roman  Missal.  It  appears 
most  likely  that  this  text  originally  ended  with  the 
seventeentti  stanza,  the  first  four  of  the  concluding 
six  Unes  having  been  found  among  a  series  of  verses  on 
the  responsory  **  Libera  me,  Domine"  in  a  MS.  of  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  or  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century  (of.  Mone,  Lateinische  Hymnen  des  Mittelalt- 
ers,  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1863, 1,  406).  It  is  quite  prob- 
able that  the  sequence  was  first  intended  tor  private 
devotion  and  that  subsequently  the  six  Unes  were 
added  to  it  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  liturgical  use.  The 
composer  found  his  Biblical  text  in  Soph.  (L  15,  16): 
"  Dies  irse  dies  ilia  .  .  .  dies  tubs  et  clangoris'';  and 
it  may  be  that  he  obtained  a  suggestion  for  his  wonder- 
ful ihythm  (cf.  Trench,  SacredLatin  Poetry,  3rd  ed., 
London,  1874,  p.  302,  foot-note)  from  a  tenth-century 
judgment  hymn  (given  in  two  forms  by  Dreves,  An- 
alecta  Hymnica,  Leipzig,  1896,  XXIII,  pp.  53,  54) 
oontaining  this  rhythmized  text  of  Soj^onias: — 

Dies  ine,  dies  ilia, 
Dies  nebulse  et  turbinis. 
Dies  tubae  et  clangoris. 


Dies  nebulosa  valde, 
Quando  tenebrarum  pondus 
Cadet  super  peccatores. 

Hie  sequence  has  been  translated  many  ttmes  into 
various  tonsues,  the  largest  recorded  number  (234) 
being  Finglish  r^iderings.  Among  the  names  of  those 
whonave  given  complete  or  fragmentary  translations 
are  those  of  Cnushaw  (1646)*  Diyden  (1696);  SooU 
ri805);  Macaulay  (1819);  Father  CaswaU  (1S49). 
Amongst  American  translators  we  find  Dr.  Abraham 
Coles,  a  pk^sician  of  Newark,  credited  with  ei|^teeii 
vennons;  W.  W.  Nevin,  with  nine;  and  Rev.  Dr. 
Samuel  W.  Duffield,  with  six.  Space  will  not  permit 
here  an  analysis  of  the  Dies  Irae  or  any  quotation  of  the 
wealth  of  eulo«y  passed  upon  it  by  hymnologists  of 
every  shade  m  rdi^ous  conviction,  save  fragments 
from  the  appreciations  of  Daniel:  '^Sacne  poeseos 
summum  decus  et  Ecclesis  Latins  keimehon  est 
pretiosissimum"  (It  is  the  diief  glozv  of  sacred  poetry 
and  the  most  precious  treasure  of  theXatin  Ctiiirdi) ;  m 
Orby  Shipley,  in  the  ''Dublin  Review"  of  Jan.,  18S3, 
who,  after  enumerating  some  hymns  "which  are  only 
not  inspired,  or  which,  more  truly,  are  in  their  degree 
inspired",  says:  ''But  beyond  them  all,  and  bdfore 
thc»n  all,  and  above  them  all  may,  periiaps,  be  i ' 
Dies  iro,  by  Thomas  of  Celano  ;  of  Coles:  **A 
gems  it  is  the  diamond.  It  is  solitary  in  its  < 
lenoe";  ofDr.  Schafif:  "This  marvellous  hymn  is  the 
acknowledged  masterpiece  of  Latin  poetry,  and  the 
most  sublime  of  all  unmspired  hymns  " ;  of  Dr.  Neale : 
"•  •  •  theDiesinBinitBunapproachedgJoiy". 

JuuAN,  Dietumafy  ef  Utfmnolooy  (Revised  ed.,  Loodoo^ 
1907),  295-301,  1551.  1629,  gives  very  servioeeble  rafefenoea, 
but  strangely  omits  Wabren,  Dies  Ine  (London,  1902),  who  de- 
votes 170  pages  to  his  theme,  prefacing  it  with  references  under 
the  heading  of  Literature  ef  the  Diet  /res.  To  their  fiats  afaould 
be  added:  Sbiflbt,  Annua  Sanctus  (London,  1884);  Amom^ 
The  Seven  Great  Hymns  of  the  Medueval  Church  (New  YoHc. 
1868);  Hbnst  in  The  Amer,  BedeeiaaHeal  Review  (April, 
1890),  247-261;  Idem  in  The  Dolphin  (November,  1904«  to  llay. 
1905),  an  extensive  series  of  articles  (144  pages)  on  the  hjetocy. 
literary  uses,  and  translations  of  the  Dies  ire;  Clop  in  Rewum 
du  Chant  OrSoorien  (Nov.-Dec.,  1907),  46-^,  who  diseosses  th«t 
authorship  and  the  pkun-eong  melody  of  the  sequence;  JoHvm, 
A  New  School  of  Gregorian  Chant  (New  York,  1906)^116. 

H.  T.  Hknby. 

Dietenberger,  Johann,  theologian,  b.  about  1475 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main;  d.  4  Sept.,  1537.  at  Maina. 
He  was  educated  in  his  native  city,  joined  the  Domini  • 
can  Order,  and  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  at- 
tainments, both  religious  and  intellectual.  On  3  June, 
151 1 ,  he  registered  at  Oologne  as  a  theological  student ; 
three  years  later,  23  September,  1514,  he  was  admitted 
to  the  licentiate,  and  the  next  year,  after  some  tinio 
spent  at  Heidelberg  and  Mainz,  received  the  doctor 's 
degree.  Towards  the  end  of  1517  Dietenbeiger  was 
appointed  Regena  ttudiorurn  and  interpreter  of  St. 
Tnomas  at  Trier,  where  he  opened  his  lectures  27  Jsn- 
uary,  1518.  In  the  meantime  he  had  been  elected 
(1516)  prior  of  his  convent  at  Frankfort,  and  he  re- 
tained tills  office  until  1526,  when  he  became  prior  at 
Coblenz.  In  1530  Dietenbeiger  attended  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg  and  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  committee 
of  twenty  Caliiolic  theologians  selected  at  the  meeting 
of  27  June  and  presided  over  by  £ck,  to  draw  up  a  ref- 
utation of  the  Protestant  Confession.  About  the 
same  time  he  received  the  anpointment  of  general  in- 
quisitor for  the  Dioceses  of  Mains  and  Cologne.  His 
last  years,  from  1532,  were  devoted  to  teaching  theo- 
logy and  exegesis  in  the  Academy  of  Mainz. 

Foremost  among  Dietenberger's  works  stands  his 
catechism:  " Evanselischer  Bericht  und  Christliche 
Unterweisung  der  ftimehmlichsten  Stack  des  waren 
heyligen  Christlichen  Glaubens",  published  first  at 
Mainz  in  1537  and  often  re-edited,  Lastly  by  Moufang 
(Die  Mainzer  Katechismen).  Next  should  be  men- 
tioned Dietenberger's  German  Bible:  "Biblia  beider 
Allt  und  Newen  Testamenten,  new  verdcutscht**. 


789 


DiiTBnm 


published  at  Mainz  in  1534.  This  work,  repeatedly 
corrected,  especially  by  Caspar  Ule&berg  (Cologne, 
1630)  and  the  Jesuit  theolcMEians  of  Mains  (1661),  was 
destined  to  become  for  the  German  people  "  Die  Kath- 
olische  Bibel",  a  title  bespeaking  its  excellence.  Die- 
tenberger  has  been  freciuently  chaiged  with  having 
purioined  Iiuther's  versidn.  True,  he  used  freely  the 
New  Testament  of  Emser  (1527),  of  whom  Luther  was 
wont  to  say  that  "he  had  plou^ed  with  his  heifers"; 
he  used  likewise  other  translatk>ns  compiled  in  pre- 
Befonnation  times,  and  so  did  Luther.  These  facts 
may  account  for  many  similarities;  moreover,  he  was 
wefi  acquainted  with  the  versions  of  Luther  and  of 
Leo  of  Juda,  and  confessedly  profited  by  them  to  im* 
prove  his  own.  Besides  these  two  important  works, 
Dietenberger  composed  fifteen  polemical  tracts,  treat- 
ing various  subjects  then  much  mooted:  Mass,  con* 
fes^ion,  vows,  faith,  etc. 

.Wkdbweb,  Ji^umaea  tHeUnhergtr,  aein  Leben  tind_Wirken 


{Freiburg im  Br.,  1888):  WEDBWERiiiirtreAenlex.,B.v.:  Pansbr, 
KCTitiM  einer  kurten  Ueaeh.  der  rirmuehkaihci.  deutecnen  BiM' 
Itbenetzung  (Nuremberx.  1781);  Fmmcam,  DeuUdie  Bibelllber' 
teUuMQen  in  Hbbzoo'b  Real-Eneye.  (2d  ed.).  III.  543. 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

Diether  of  laenburg,  Archbishop  and  Elector  of 
Mainz,  b.  about  1412;  d.  7  May,  1482,  at  Aschaffen- 
burg.  He  studied  at  the  Umversity  of  Erfurt,  of 
which  he  became  Rector  in  1434.  At  the  age  of  six- 
teen he  was  already  canon  at  the  cathedral  of  Mainz 
and,  somewhat  later,  held  prebends  in  the  cathedrals 
of  Cologne  and  Trier.  In  1442  he  became  provost  in 
the  colfegiate  churches  of  St.  Victor  and  St.  John  in 
Mainz,  and  in  1453  custos  of  the  cathedral  chapter  in 
the  same  city.  In  1456,  Diether  aspired  to  the  vacant 
See  of  Trier,  probablv  attempting  to  gain  votes 
tibrou^  simony;  but  the  majority  of  ihe  voters  de- 
cided m  favour  of  John  of  Baden.  But  after  the  death 
of  Dietridi  of  E^bach,  the  Archbishop  and  Elector  of 
Mflinz  (d.  6  May,  1459),  Diether's  ambitious  aspira- 
tions were  realized.  Probably  through  simony  he 
vaa  elected  to  this  see  on  18  June,  1450,  and  entered 
upon  his  ofiice  without  awaiting  the  approval  either  of 
pope  or  emperor.  Pope  Pius  II  was  then  holding  a 
congress  at  Mantua  with  the  object  of  influencing  the 
princes  of  Europe  to  undertake  a  crusade  against  the 
THirks,  and  was  sreatly  disappointed  at  the  small  num- 
ber of  princes  that  appeared  at  the  congress.  Upon 
hearing  that  Diether  did  not  intend  to  come  to  Man- 
tua, but  had  sent  envo^  to  obtain  t^e  papal  confirma- 
tion, he  sent  word  to  hun  that,  if  he  desired  the  Bull  of 
connrmation  and  the  pallium,  he  would  have  to  come 
to  Mantua  in  person.  By  pleading  sickness  and  lack 
of  funds,  Diether  finally  prevailed  upon  Pius  II  to  send 
the  Bull  of  confiimation  md  the  pallium,  but  only 
after  promising  under  oath  to  appear  personally  before 
the  papal  court  within  a  year  and  to  pav  the  annates, 
which  amoimted  to  20,550  Rhenish  florins.  When 
Diether  kept  neither  of  these  promises,  the  Curia  pun- 
ished him  with  minor  excommunication.  Angered 
at  this  act,  he  convened  r  diet  at  Nuremberg  in  Febru- 
ary, 1461,  at  which  he  made  a  formal  app^  to  a  fu- 
ture general  council,  despite  the  fact  that  Pius  II  in 
his  Bull "  Exsecrabilis"  a8  Jan.,  1460)  had  condemned 
such  appeals  as  heretical.  When  all  the  efforts  of  the 
pope  to  bring  about  an  amicable  settlement  were 
frustrated  by  the  rebellious  archbishcn),  the  pope  ex- 
communicated and  deposed  Diether  m  a  Bull  dated 
21  August,  1461,  and  appointed  Adolf  of  Nassau  in  his 
place.  Diether  tried  to  retain  his  see  by  arms,  but 
was  compelled  to  yield  to  the  superior  forces  of  Adolph 
of  Nassau  in  October,  1463.  After  submittine  to  the 
new  archbishop  and  apologizing  to  the  papal  pleni- 
potentiary, Pietro  Ferrici,  be  was  absolved  from  the 
sentence  of  excommunication.  Upon  the  death  of 
Adolf  of  Nassau,  on  6  Sept.,  1475,  Dietl^^  ^^  ti&m. 
elected  archbishop  of  Mamz  and  r^oiktved  both  papal 
and  imperial  approbation.    His  pi^^  -^lisfortune  had 


made  him  a  better  man.  He  enforced  strict  ecolesiaa* 
tioal  discipline  among  the  clergy,  watched  caj«fully 
over  the  mtegrity  of  faith,  and  worked  strenuously 
for  the  advancement  of  commerce  and  education.  At 
the  northern  end  of  Mainz  he  erected  the  Martinsburs 
as  an  archiepiscopal  residence,  and  in  1477  founded 
,  the  Univeisity  of  Mainz,  which  continued  to  exist  until 
1798. 

Mbmsiil,  DteAgr  v&n  iaehburg  (Ertangen,  1867):  Annalm 
dea  FemrM  fOr  noMauiaehe  AUerthtmukunde  (WiesDaden).  X 
and  XII;  Pastob,  OeschiehU  der  P&pate  (2  ed.,  Freiburg.  IdM), 
II,  122  sqq..  tr.  Antbobub  (London,  1894).  III.  164  sag.; 
GuNDLACR,  N§uen  und  die  Maituer  StifUf^hde,  1461-63  (Mar- 
bufger  Diasertation,  1898). 

Michael  Ott. 

Dietrich  ▼on  Hieheiin  (Nibm),  b.  in  the  Diocese  of 
Paderbom,  between  1338  and  1340;  d.  at  Maas- 
tricht, 22  March,  1418,  a  medieval  German  historian, 
best  known  for  his  contributions  to  the  history  of  the 
Western  Schism.  He  took  his  surname  from  the 
little  town  of  Nieheim  (in  the  Prussian  district  of 
Minden).  Nothizig  is  known  about  his  family,  and 
but  little  about  his  life  previous  to  his  entry  into  the 
service  of  the  papal  Curia.  He  spent  some  time  in 
Italy  in  the  study  of  law.  but  never  obtained  the  de- 
cree of  Doctor.  Under  Urban  V  (1362-70)  he  came  to 
Avignon,  and  obtained  in  the  papal  chancery  the 
office  of  notary  (notartus  s.  valaHt),  to  keep  which  he 
had  to  take  oraers,  if  he  had  not  already  taken  them. 
When  Gr^ry  XI  returned  to  Rome  (1377)  Dietrich 
accompanied  nim.  Urban  VI  conferred  on  him  the 
lucrative  and  important  office  of  abbreviator  ei  KfipUr 
in  the  papal  chancery  (see  Abbreviators)  ;  this  post 
he  retained  under  succeediog  popes.  Boniface  IX 
made  him  Bidboi)  of  Verden  (July,  1305),  but  he  never 
obtained  possession  of  this  Gennan  bishopric;  prob- 
ablv, as  £ubel  suggests  (Hierarchia  catholica  medii 
levi,  I,  553),  because  Dietrich  did  not  expedite  with 
due  promptness  the  documents  of  his  nommation.  In 
August,  1399.  another  Bishop  of  Verden  was  nomin- 
ated, Konrad  von  Soltau;  Dietrich  remained  as  be- 
fore a  papal  abbreviator.  In  his  writings  Dietrich  is 
silent  about  this  Verden  incident;  in  a  manuscript  of 
the  arc^ves  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome  Dr.  G5ller  has  dis- 
covered twenty-six  letters  of  the  years  1398-99  which 
CBfer  to  Dietrich;  when  published  they  will  probably 
cast  more  li^t  on  this  period  of  his  life  (cf .  Kdmische 
Quartalschi^,  1905,  82<^).  About  Easter,  1401, 
Dietrich  was  at  £kf  urt  in  Germany,  where  he  matricu- 
lated at  the  university;  in  1403  we  find  him  again 
active  at  Rome  as  abbreviator.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  centuiy  Johann  Petere  of  Dordrecht 
had  founded  at  Rome  a  hospital  for  German  pilgrims, 
known  as  Santa  Maria  delr  Anima,  still  in  existence 
and  united  with  the  Gennan  national  church  at  Rome 
(see  Anima,  Santa  Maria  dell')-  Dietrich  was  an 
eneigetic  promoter  of  the  new  foundation,  to  such  an 
extent  that  after  Peters  he  deserves  to  be  considered 
its  chief  founder. 

Meanwhile  the  Western  Schism  (a,  v.),  begun  in 
1378,  was  still  dividing  the  Catholic  world.  As  a 
member  of  the  papal  Curia,  Dietrich  was  thoroughly 
informed  concerning  the  origin  and  development  of 
tiiis  unhappy  division,  and  was  veiy  active  in  an 
effort  to  close  the  schism.  Dissatisfied  with  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  two  popes,  Gregory  XII  (1406-15)  at 
Rome,  and  Benedict  aIII  (1394-1417)  at  Avignon, 
he  adhered  to  the  Council  of  Pisa  convoked  (1409)  by 
the  cardinals.  He  took  no  part  in  the  council  itself, 
being  then  in  Grermany,  but  he  worked  for  the  party 
of  the  council,  reoogiized  as  legitimate  the  Pisan  pope, 
Alexander  V  (1409-10),  also  his  successor,  Joxm 
XXIII  (1410-15),  and  entered  their  service.  During 
these  jears  his  pen  was  ever  active  in  the  interest  ca 
ecdesiastical  umty.  He  is  certainly  the  author  of  the 
work  known  as  '^Nemua  Unionis'',  in  which  he  de- 
scribes the  various  ways  f vue)  for  putting  an  end  to  the 


DinRKni 


790 


OXSTBIOR 


sdiism,  and  gives  important  lettera  and  acts  (the  work 
was  finished  25  July,  1408;  ed.  Schard,  Basle,  1566). 
He  also  wrote  *'De  scismate  iibri  tres",  his  most  im- 
portant work,  finished  in  May,  1410  (ed.  Brier,  Leip- 
zig, 1890),  in  which  he  delineates  the  ori^  and  the 
history  of  the  schism  up  to  the  coronation  of  John 
XXIII;  the  abundance  of  its  materials  makes  this 
work  one  of  the  most  important  authorities  for  the 
last  stages  of  the  sdiism.  His  judgments,  however, 
concerning  persons  and  facts  must  be  taken  witn 
caution,  Dietrich  being  strongly  partisan.  To  John 
XXIII  himself  he  addressed  (perhaps  in  1410)  fi  letter 
about  the  proper  administration  of  his  office  ("  Epis- 
tola  ad  dominum  Johannem  XXIII  transmissa  de 
bono  Romani  pontificis  regimine",  ed.  Rattinger,  in 
"Historisches  Jahrbuch'',  1884,  163-78).  This  was 
preceded  by  a  letter  of  admonition  to  the  cardinals 
who  were  to  elect  John  XXIII  ("Informacio  facta 
cardinalibus  in  conclavi  ante  electionem  Papfle  Jo- 
hannis  XXIII  modemi",  written  in  1410*  ed.  Erler, 
"Dietrich  von  Nieheim'*,  Documents,  XXX-XLI). 
Of  other  works  ascribed  to  him  mention  shall  be  made 
later. 

Towards  the  end  of  1414  was  opened  the  Council  of 
-Constance,  destined,  if  not  to  remedy  all  the  evils  of 
the  time,  at  least  to  put  an  end  to  the  schism.  From 
Mard),  1415,  Dietrlcn  was  present  at  Constance  and 
exerted  his  best  efforts  for  the  restoration  of  eeclesias* 
tical  unity.  He  was  dissatisfied  with  the  attitude  of 
John  XXlII,  and  when  the  latter  fled  from  Constance 
(20  Msu-ch,  1415)  Dietrich  renounced  him.  Later,  in 
continuation  of  his  aforesaid  work  on  the  schism,  Diet- 
rich wrote  a  history  of  John  XXIII  to  June,  1416 
("Historia  de  VitA  Johannis  XXIII",  first  printed  at 
Frankfort,  1620).  This  work  is  at  the  same  time  a 
history  of  the  Council  of  Constance  to  the  middle  of 
1416;  it  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  author's 
judgment  is  seriously  affected  bv  his  passionate  oppo- 
sition to  John  XXIII.  Another  violent  lampoon 
against  this  pope,  the  "Invectiva  in  diffugientem  e 
Cbnstahtiensi  concilio  Johannem  XXIII"  (ed.  von 
der  Hardt,  "Const.  Cone",  III,  XIV,  296-330)  is  at- 
tributed to  Dietrich;  it  is  not  certain,  however,  that 
he  is  the  author  of  this  fierce  pamphlet;  Finke  rejects 
quite  positively  the  authorship  of  Dietridi  (RAmische 
Quari^Ischrift  ffkr  christl.  Altertumskunde  imd  far 
Kirchengesch.,  1887,  48  sqq.).  During  the  council 
Dietrich  kept  a  diary,  as  he  himself  mentions  in  his 
"Vita  Johannis  XXtll";  some  fragments  of  it,  ac- 
cording to  Finke,  are  still  recognizable  (op.  cit.,  1887, 
46-68). 

Any  final  judgment  on  the  attitude  and  influence  of 
Dietrich  at  Constance  must  depend  on  the  authorship 
of  three  publications  often  attributed  to  him,  and 
dealing  particularly  with  the  schism  and  the  efforts  at 
reunion.  'Hiese  are:  (1)  "De  necessitate  reforma- 
tionis  Ecclesise  in  capite  et  in  m-^mbris";  also  entitled 
"Avisamenta  pulcherrima  de  unione  et  reformatione 
membrorum  et  capitis  fienda"  (written  1414;  ed.  von 
der  Hardt,  in  "Constant.  Concil.",  I,  VII,  277-309; 
the  latter  part  of  it  ed.  by  Finke  in  "  Forschungen  zur 
Geschichte  der  Konstanzer  Konzils",  Paderbom^ 
1890, 267-268) ;  (2)  "  De  modis  uniendi  ac  reformandi 
eeclesiam  in  concilio  universali"  (written  1410,  ed.  von 
der  Hardt,  op.  cit.,  I,  V,  68-142);  (3)  "De  difficultate 
reformationis  Ecclesiae  in  concilio  universali "  (written 
August,  1410;  ed.  von  der  Hardt,  op.  cit.,  I,  VI,  255- 
69).  Von  der  Hardt  attributed  the  treatise  "De 
modis  uniendi"  to  Johannes  Gerson,  the  two  others  to 
Pierre  d'Ailly,  but  was  of  the  opinion  that  periiaps 
Dietrich  von  Nieheim  might  be  the  author  of  tne  "De 
necessitate  reformationis''.  Schwab  has  shown  (Jo- 
hannes Gerson,  Wtirzburg.  1858)  that  neither  Gengon 
nor  d'Ailly  can  be  regarded  as  the  author  of  these 
works;  he  ascribed  "De  modis  uniendi"  to  the  Span- 
ish Benedictine  abbot  and  professor  at  Bologna, 
Andreas  of  Randuf.    The  other  two  treatises,  he 


believed,  were  composed  by  Dietrich  von  Niehetm. 
StanOUer  also  saw  in  the  aforesaid  Abbot  Andreas  the 
author  of  "  De  modis  uniendi "  (HistoriBches  Jahibuch, 
1893,  562-82).  Lens,  however,  attributes  to  I>ie- 
trich  all  three  works  (see  below),  and  his  opinion  has 
been  accepted  by  most  later  faistortans;  Fmke,  ^spe- 
eiallv,  has  confirmed  it  by  numerous  arguments.  Er- 
ler, however,  to  whom  we  owe  a  detailed  life  of  IHe- 
tridi  (see  below),  does  not  admit  his  authorship  of  iJbe 
works  in  question,  while  Haller  ^reeS  with  him  in  re> 
spect  to  we  treatise  "De  modk  uniendi".  Mulder 
has  examined  (1907)  fully  (see  below)  the  attitude  of 
Dietrich  towards  the  theological  theories  prevalent  at 
the  eouncil  and  the  contemporary  plans  for  extinctio>n 
of  the  schism.  He  concluaes  that  Dietrich  certainly 
wrote  the  "De  necessitate  reformationis"  but  not  the 
other  two  treatises.  In  these  three  works  there  is 
developed  a  detailed  programme  of  eccleaiasticsJ.  re> 
form:  all  three  popes  are  to  be  removed  and  the  elec- 
tion of  the  new  pope  is  to  be  committed  to  a  special 
electoral  assembly.  The  new  pope  must  execute, 
during  the  council,  the  desired  reforms  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Roman  Curia,  and  the  particular  practi- 
cal measures  are  specified.  Erler.  as  has  been  seen, 
denies  Dietrich's  authorship  of  tneee  treatises,  and 
therefore  sees  in  him  only  a  very  clever  papal  func- 
tionary, who  had  no  higher  aims  than  the  extmction  of 
the  schism  and  a  reform  of  the  papal  chancery. 
Finke  on  the  contrary,  accepting  the  authondiip  of 
Dietrich,  thinks  that  with  time  his  views  grew 
broader,  and  that,  in  spite  of  his  weakness  as  an  his- 
torian, nis  bold  and  influential  ideas  on  ecclesiaBlical 
reforms  made  him  eventually  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant figures  of  the  eari^  fifteenth  century.  He  calls 
him  the  greatest  publicist  of  the  later  Middle  Ages. 

After  the  council  we  find  Dietrich  at  Maastricht, 
where  he  possessed  a  canonicate;  there  he  fell  lU,  and 
on  15  March.  1418,  made  his  testament,  by  which  he 
bequeathed  his  property  on  the  German  side  ol  the 
Alps  to  the  hospital  newly  built  by  him  at  Hameln, 
and  his  Italian  possessions  to  the  CSerman  hospital  of 
Santa  Maria  dell'  Anima  at  Rome.  He  died  in  the 
same  month,  probably,  as  stated  above,  22  March. 
Besides  the  works  already  mentioned  Dietridi  com- 
posed several  others,  among  them  an  historical  work 
entitled  **  PrivUegia  aut  jura  imperii  circa  investituras 
episcopatuum  et  abbatiarum,"  etc.  (ed.  Schard,  Syl- 
loge  de  jurisdictione  imp,  Basle,  1566,  785-859), 
chiefly  an  account  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire:  Of 
the  ''Chronioon"  composed  by  him  only  fragments 
are  extant,  discovered  and  published  b^  Saueiland 
(Mitteilungen  dee  Instituts  filr  cestcoT.  Gesch.,  1885, 
589-614;  also  separately  at  Frankfort,  1885)  and  by 
Mulder  (see  below).  A  chronicle  of  the  popes,  part  oi 
the  Liber  Pontificalis  (Vitfis  pontificum  Romanorum  a 
Nicolao  IV  usque  ad  Urbanum  V)  formeriy  aseribed  to 
Dietrich,  it  is  now  known,  was  not  written  by  him. 
Probably,  also,  he  is  not  the  author  of  a  pamphlet 
against  Cardinal  Johannes  Dominici  ("£«pistola  Luci- 
feri  seu  Satanie  ad  Johannem  Domkiici,  ord.  Praed. 
presb.  card.  S.  Sixti",  ed.  in  ''Nemus  unionis")-  A 
geomiphical  work  entitled  ^De  reeionibuB  orbis  et 
quskutatibus  habitantium  in  eisdem'' written  in  1407- 
l40Sy  \b  lost.  In  1411  he  composed  a  treatise  against 
the  heresies  of  Wyclif :  ^Tractatus  contra  dampnatoe 
Wiclivitas  Pragae"  (ed.  Erler  in  ""Zeitschrift  fOr 
vateri&ndische  Gesch*  und  Altertumskunde",  Mtln- 
ster,  1885,  I,  178-^8).  For  the  functionaries  of  the 
papal  chancery  he  compiled  the  guide  knovm  as 
^*  Liber  cancellarisB  apostolic»".  He  also  compiled  a 
short  guide  to  the  re^lar  praxis  of  corial  administra- 
tion, "'Stilus  palatii  abbreviatus"  (both  edited  by 
Erler,  "Der  Liber  canoellariie  apostolicse  vom  Jahre 
1380  und  der  Stilus  palalii  abbreviatus  vom  Dietrich 
von  Nieheim",  Leipzig,  1888). 

Von  DBS  Hardt,  Moffnum  et  tecumeniewn  Conatanliense  Cmnr 
eUxum  (6  vols.,  Hdmfltadt,  1700);   Schwab   Johannn  (knar 


DiaBY 


701 


matt 


1858);  SxuBiUiAND,  Das  Ld>en  de»  IXetrieh'  von 
6ttingen,  1875);  Idem,  Anmerhungen  9u  Dietrieh  • 
wm  Ni€h«tm§  Werke  de  tdamaU  in  HtUanachm  Jakrbuch  (1886). 
59^-66;  Idsm,  Der  Bogen,  Briefwechtel  dea  Trierer  Brzlnadtoft . 
Hdlin  und  Dietrich  wn  Nieheima  Chronik  in  Neuea  Ardiiv 
(1887).  50<H)01;  Lbnk.  Drei  TrakiaU  aua  dem  Sehrifteneydua 
ae»  Conalanxer  ConciU  (Marburs,  1876):  Kbausb,  Dvotneh  wm 
Niem,  Konrad  van  Vechiot  Konrad  van  SaUau,  Biadhttfe  van  V«r- 
den  io  Fonchunoen  zur  deutachen  Gesch.,  XIX  (1879),  592' 
aqq..  XXII  (1882).  248  sqa.;  HotTBBN.  Bine  Studie  Hbtr  Thw 
dorich  von  Nieheim  in  Der  Katholik  (1880).  I,  62  sqq.;  Lxndnbh, 
BeitrOga  tu  dem  Leben  und  den  Sekrffien  Dtetriche  von  Niem  in 
Forschunoen  zur  deutachen  Geach.,  XXI  (1881),  67  aqq.;  Idem. 
Dietrich  von  Niem  in  Zeitachrift  fOr  aUgemeine  Geach.  (1885).  401 
sqq.,  516  sqq.;  Fmrt,  Zur  Quellenentik  der  Sckriften  Dietrieks 
von  Niem  (FiMlerbom,  1886);  Idem,  lat  Dietrich  v.  A',  det  Ver- 
foaaer  der  drei  Conatanzer  Tractate  in  Zeitaohr,  filr  vatert.  Geach,. 
ALVI.  157  sqq.;  Erleb,  Dietrich  von  Nieheim,  aein  Leben  vtna 
seine  Schriften  (Lttpag,  1887);  Finke,  ZwH  TaoAiieher  Uiher 
daa  Konatanser  KonsU  in  R6miaehe  Quartaiadurift  fOr  chriatL 
AUertumskunde  und  fur  Kirchengeach.  (1887),  46  aqq.^  Idem,  Zu 
Dietrich  von  Niem  und  Marailiua  von  Padua,  ibid.  (1893), 
244  sqq^  Idem,  Forschungen  und  QueOen  zur  Geach.  dea  Kan' 
stanzer  Komila  (Paderbon,  1889),  132  sqq.;  SAomOixbk,  £>er 
Verfaaaer  dea  Traktates  de  modia  uniendi  vom  Jahre  lUlO  in  A  is- 
Uynachea  Jahrbuch  (1893)  562  sqa.:  Idem,  Dietrich  von  Niem 
und  der  Liber  ponttfiealia,  ibid.  (1894),  802  sqq.:  Idem,  Uber 
den  5,  Traktat  dea  Nemua  unionia,  ibid.  (1904).  531  sqq.; 
HAiiLEB,  Papetium  und  Kirehenreform:  vier  Kajritel  tur  Geach. 
dea  auagehenden  M.  A.  (Berlin,  1903).  I,  186  aqq.,  483  sqq.; 
SciiMXDiJN,  Geach.  der  deutadhen  NaJtionaJkirche  in  Kom  S,  Maria 
deW  Anima  (FreiburK,  1906);  Mvu>KH,Dielridt  von  Nieheim  sijn 
oppvating  van  het  ConeUie  en  ti^n  Kronik  (Amsterdam,  1907); 
PoTTHAST,  Bibliotheca  hiatorioa  medii  cevi  (Berlin,  1906),  11, 
1051  sqq. 

J.  P.  KntscH. 

Diffby,  George,  seooad  Earl  of  Bristol,  b.  at  Mad- 
rid. $am,  where  ms  father,  the  first  earl,  was  ambaa- 
sador;  1612;  d.  at  Chelsea,  England,  1677.  As  a  boy 
of  twelve  he  presented  a  petition  at  the  bar  of  the 
House  of  Commons' on  behalf  of  his  father  who  had 
been  committed  to  the  Tower  by  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham. He  was  educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  became  M.  A.,  31  Aug.,  1636.  Shortly 
irfterwards  he  entered  into  a  correspondence  with  his 
kinsman.  Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  in  which  he  attacked  the 
Catholic  Church  In  the  stnigcle  between  king  and 
Parliament  he  was  at  first  on  the  side  of  the  Parlia- 
ment. He  was  elected  member  for  Dorset  in  1 640  and 
was  shortly  afterwards  made  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee which  undertook  to  impeach  Strafford.  When 
the  impeadmient  was  abandoned  for  process  of  at- 
tainder, however,  he  vigorously  opposed  it  and  thus 
incurred  unpopularity  with  his  own  party.  In  1641 
he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  as  Baron  Di^y 
and  joined  the  king's  party.  His  advice  to  the  king 
upon  the  retreat  of  the  five  members  to  the  city,  that 
they  should  be  seized  by  force,  was  rejected  by 
(Carles,  but,  becoming  known,  added  greatly  to  his 
.  unpopurarity.  Shortly  afterwards,  being  summoned 
before  the  House  of  Lords  to  answer  for  nis  conduct, 
he  fled  to  Holland  Returning  during  the  Civil  War, 
he  fought  at  Edgehill  and  Lichfield,  but  resigned  his 
command  by  reason  of  a  quarrel  with  Prince  Rupert. 
In  Sept.,  1643,  he  was  made  secretary  of  state  and 
privy  councillor,  in  which  offices  he  was  not  suc- 
cessful. 

In  1645  Digby  replaced  Rupert  as  lieutenant-general 
of  the  king's  forces  north  of  the  Trent,  but  was  de- 
feat^ at  Carlisle  Sands  and  fled  to  the  Isle  of  Man. 
He  next  took  service  under  the  King  of  Prance,  and  he 
became  a  lieutenant-general  in  the  French  army  in 
1651.  On  6  Jan.,  1653,  he  succeeded  his  father  as 
Earl  of  Bristol  and  was  made  Knight  of  the  Garter. 
Owing  to  an  unsuccessful  intrigue  against  Mazarin  he 
was  ordered  to  leave  France,  and  he  proceeded  to  the 
Netherlands,  where  he  visited  Charles  II  then  in  exile. 
Ir  1657  he  was  reappointed  secretary  of  state  but 
again  lost  office  on  his  conversion  to  the  Catholic 
Faith.  On  the  Restoration  he  returned  to  Endand, 
becoming  a  political  opponent  of  Clarendon.  This  dis- 
pleased Uie  king,  and  IMgby  spent  two  years  in  con- 
cealment, till  Clarendon's  fall.  Though  a  Catholic  he 
spoke  in  favour  of  the  Test  Act,  drawing  a  distinction 


between  a  "Catholic  of  the  Church  of  Rome"  and  a 
'* Catholic  of  the  Court  of  Rome".  He  was  Hi^ 
Steward  of  Oxford  University  1643-46  and  again 
1660-1663.  He  published  '"ftie  Lord  George  Dig- 
bSe's  Apology  for  Himself"  (1642)  and  "Elvira,  a 
Comedy"  (1667).  Many  of  his  speeches  and  letters 
were  also  published. 

WoDD,  Athena  Oxon.,  Buss  ed.  (London.  1817),  III.  1100 
aqq.;  Clarendon,  Hiatary  of  the  Rebellion,  ed.  Macbat  JOx- 
foid,  1888):  Dodd.  Church  Hiatory  (Btuaaels,  1730).  Ill;  Wax^ 
POLE,  Catalogue  of  Roual  and  Noble  Authora  (London,  1806); 
GiLLOw.  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  b.  v.;  Rubbell  Barker  in 
Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  8,  v. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Digby,  Kenelm  Henrt,  miscellaneous  writer,  b.  in 
Ireland,  1800;  d.  at  Kensington,  Middlesex,  Engird, 
22  March,  1880.  He  came  of  an  ancient  English  stock 
branching,  in  Elizabeth's  reign,  into  Ireland,  by  the 
marriage  of  Sir  Robert  Digby,  of  Coleshill,  Co.  War- 
wick, with  Lettice  FitzGerald,  only  dau^ter  and  heir 
of  Gerald,  Lord  Oflfaly,  eldest  son  of  the  eleventh  Earl 
of  Kildare.  The  eldest  son  of  this  Robert  and  Lettice 
became  the  first  Lord  Digby.  Their  second  son^  £^ 
sex  Digby,  Bishop  of  Dromore,  was  father  of  Smion 
Digby,  Bishop  successively  of  Limerick  and  Elphin, 
whose  son  John  Digby,  of  Landenstown,  Co.  Kildare, 
was  father  of  William  Digby,  Dean  of  Clonfert.  Ke- 
nelm Henry  Digby  was  this  latter's  jroungest  son. 
Thus  his  early  surroundings  and  associations  were 
strongly  Protestant.  His  father  died  in  1812,  when 
his  eldest  brother,  William,  was  already  Archdeacon 
of  Elphin.  Unlike  these,  who  had  grsuluated  in  Dub- 
lin University,  Kenelm  Henry  matriculated  at  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  entering  at  Trinity  College 
there.  His  B.  A.  degree  he  took  in  1819,  but  he  never 
proceeded  M.  A.  Amid  the  many  venerable  and  sug- 
gestive monuments  of  Catholic  antiquity  which  Cam- 
bridge shows,  he  gradually  ^ave  his  mmd  more  and 
more  to  those  "Ages  of  Faith"  which  he  had  been 
taught  to  despise  and  afterwards  to  the  scholastic 
system  of  theology.  The  result  of  his  deep  study  of' 
these  lofty  subjects  was  his  conversion,  in  youth,  to 
the  Catholic  Faith.  His  first  book,  "  The  Btx>ad8tone 
of  Honour",  he  published  anonymously  in  1822,  while 
still  nominally  a  Protestant,  and  an  enlarged  edition, 
again  anonymously,  the  year  following.  After  his 
conversion  ne  rewrote  the  work,  dividing  it  into  four 
volumes,  which  appeared,  each  with  a  separate  sub- 
title, in  1826-7.  Two  other  editions  followed,  and 
lastly  an  ^ition  de  luxe,  in  five  volumes,  published  by 
Quaritch,  in  1 876-7.  According  to  its  various  second- 
ary titles,  this  masterpiece  treats  of  "the  Origin, 
Spirit,  and  Institutions  of  Christian  Chivalry",  or 
"the  True  Sense  and  Practice  of  Chivalry".  Arch- 
deacon Hare,  in  his  "Guesses  at  Truth",  says  that  in 
this  work  the  author  "  identifies  himself  as  few  have 
ever  done  with  the  good  and  great  and  heroic  and  holy 
in  former  times,  and  ever  rejoices  in  passing  out  of 
himself  into  them". 

Digby's  second  literary  performance,  entitled 
"Mores  Catholici,  or  Ages  of  Faith",  came  out  in 
1831-40  in  eleven  volumes,  in  a  later  edition  reduced 
to  three.  In  this  work  he  collected,  mostly  from  the 
original  sources,  a  vast  mass  of  information  concern- 
ing the  religious,  social,  and  artistic  life  of  the  medi- 
eval peoples  of  Europe.  It  is,  indeed,  a  kind  of  ency- 
clopedia of  the  medieval  life,  from  the  viewpoint  of  an 
ardently  Catholic  soul.  It  has  been  well  said  that  in 
it  he  collected  like  a  truly  pious  pilgrim  the  fragrance 
of  ancient  times.  Various  other  publications,  some 
in  prose,  some  in  verse,  dropped  from  his  prolific  pen 
from  time  to  time  down  to  1876;  but  these,  in  compar- 
ison with  his  "Broadstone  of  Honour"  and  "Mores 
Catholici",  are  but  minor  performances.  The  most 
important  of  them  is  a  work  entitled  "Corapitum,  or 
the  Meeting  of  Ways  at  the  Catholic  Church  ".  The 
complete  list  of  his  published  works  may  be  seen  in 


DIOBT 


792 


DIOBT 


GUlow'a  ''Dictionaiv".  His  long,  studioiM,  and  re- 
hired life  closed  at  Shaftesbury  House,  Kensington,  in 
'  his  eighty-first  year,  after  a  very  short  illness.  His 
wife  was  Jane  Ma^,  daughter  of  Thomas  Dillon,  of 
Mount  Dillon,  Co.  Dublin,  who  bore  him  a  son  and 
four  daugjiters. 

Cooper  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  a.  v.;  GiLXiOW,  BtU.  Did,  Bng, 
Cath.,  B.  v.;  Tablet  (London.  27  March,  1880);  Weekly  Regis- 
ter (London.  27  March,  1880):  Timet,  (London,  24  March.  1880); 
IhMin  Review  (London).  XXV,  463,  XLVIII,  626;  AtheruBum 
(London.  1880),  I,  411,  440. 

C.  T.  BOOTHMAN. 

Digby,  Sib  Evbrard,  b.  16  May,  1578;  d.  30  Jan., 
1606.  feverard  Digby,  whose  father  bore  the  same 
Christian  name,  succeeded  in  his  fourteenth  ^ear  to 
larse  properties  in  the  Counties  of  Lincoln,  Leicester, 
and  Rutland.  Arrived  at  man's  estate,  he  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  great  stature  and  bodily  strength,  aa 
weU  as  for  his  accomplished  horsemanship  and  skill  in 
field  sports  generally,  to  which  he  was  much  devoted. 
For  some  time  he  frequented  the  court  of  Queen  Eliz- 
abeth. In  1596  he  married  Mary,  only  daughter  and 
heiress  of  William  Mulsho  of  Goathurst,  Buckingham- 
shire, with  whom  he  obtained  a  laige  accession  of  for- 
tune, and  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Kenelm,  bom  in 
1603,  and  John,  in  1605.  About  1509  Digby,  who. 
although  his  parents  seem  to  have  been  Cathohcs,  had 
been  brought  up  a  Protestant,  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  Jesuit  Father,  John  Gerard,  with  the  result  that 
both  he  and  his  wife  were  converted  to  the  Catholic 
Faith,  and  he  formed  with  Gerard  so  dose  a  friendship 
that  they  were  accustomed  to  speak  of  each  other  as^ 
"  brothers'*.  In  1603  he  was  one  of  those  who  assem- 
bled at  Belvoir  Castle  to  welcome  James  I  on  his  prog- 
ress towaids  London,  and  he  was  knighted  by  the 
new  kki^  on  the  23rd  of  April  in  that  year. 

In  spite  of  what  might  have  appeared  so  auspidoua 
a  commencement,  there  soon  fofiowed  the  fatal  Pow- 
der Plot,  which  brought  Sir  Everard's  career  to  an 
ignominious  close  by  a  traitor's  death^  while  yet  only 
in  his  twenty-eighth  vear.  It  is  for  his  share  in  this, 
almost  exclusively,  that  he  is  now  remembered.  In 
the  ^Dictionary  of  National  Biography''  he  is  com- 
pendiously described  as  ''Conspirator",  and  one  of  his 
descendants  has  recently  published  his  biography  un- 
der the  title  "Life  of  a  Conspirator''.  In  truth,  how- 
ever, of  all  who  had  a  share  in  the  criminal  folly  of  that 
deplorable  enterprise,  there  is  none  to  whom  the  title 
can  less  properly  be  applied,  for  he  had  no  part  either  in 
the  conception  of  the  plot,  or  in  the  preparation  for  its 
accomplisnment,  and  was  not  even  aware  of  its  exist- 
ence till  the  eleventh  hour.  His  initiation  in  the 
secret  was  due  to  the  lack  of  funds.  Owing  to  the 
delay  occasioned  by  an  unexpected  prorogation  of 
Parliament,  Catesby,  the  ringleader  of  the  whole  de- 
sign, finding  his  own  treasury  exhausted,  sou^t  to 
emist  as  associates  some  men  of  substance.  One  of 
these  was  Digby,  who  was  inducted  and  sworn  in 
''about  a  week  after  Michaelmafl",  1605,  or  just  a 
month  before  the  fatal  5th  of  November. 

When  the  time  of  action  approached,  Dieby  was  a»- 
signed  the  part  of  preparing  for  the  rising  which  was  to 
follow  the  explosion  m  London,  and  to  put  the  con- 
duct of  affairs  into  the  hands  of  the  conspirators  once 
the  blow  was  struck.  For  this  purpose  he  rented 
Coughton  Hall,  the  seat  of  the  Throckmortons,  near 
Alcester,  and  arranged  for  a  ^cat  "hunting  match" 
upon  Dunsmoor  Heath,  near  Rugby,  to  which  many 
Catholic  gentlemen  were  to  be  gathered,  and  which 
was  fixed  for  the  5th  of  November  itself.  When  the 
news  of  the  catastrophe  at  Westminster  should  arrive, 
it  was  hoped  that  the  party  so  assembled,  when  they 
beard  what  had  happened,  would  form  the  nucleus  of 
a  force  by  means  oi  which  the  further  designs  of  the 
oonspiratoFB  might  be  carried  out. 

Wnen,  on  the  evening  of  the  5th,  Catesby  and  others 
Mrived  with  tidings  of  the  discovery  of  their  design 


and  the  arrest  of  Faukes,  Disby  joined  them  in  ihdx 
desperate  attempt  to  raise  a  rebdiion,  and  was  captured 
with  the  Burvivora  of  the  party  at  Holbecbe  on  the 
Sth.  At  their  trial  on  the  27th  of  Januaiy,  Digby, 
who  alone  pleaded  guilty,  was  arraigned  s^iarateiy 
from  the  rest,  but  received  the  same  sentence  of  death, 
with  all  the  ghastly  barbarities  usual  in  cases  of  trea^ 
son.  Three  dajrs  mter,  30  January,  with  three  dl  his 
accomplices,  Ilobert  Winter,  Grant,  and  Bates,  he 
suffered  in  St.  Paul's  churchyard,  being  the  £mt  to 
mount  the  scaffold,  where  he  confessed  nis  guilt,  ex- 
pressed shame  for  his  infatuation,  and  solemnly  pro- 
tested that  his  friend.  Father  Gerard,  had  no  knowl- 
edge of  the  plot,  in  or  out  of  confession,  adding,  **  I 
never  durst  tell  him  of  it,  for  fear  he  would  have 
drawn  me  out  of  it".  It  is  a  remarkable  circum- 
stance, lending  some  colour  to  the  belief  that  in  later 
days  the  king  did  not  believe  ui  the  genuine  character 
of  the  danger  he  was  said  to  have  escaped,  that  Sir 
Everard's  son,  Kenelm,  was  knighted  by  James  in 
October,  1623,  when  he  had  not  completed  his  twenty- 
first  year.  His  description  of  the  behaviour  of  James 
on  that  occasion  has  been  borrowed  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  in  the  "Fortunes  of  Nigel",  for  the  VmVhtiTig  (^ 
Richard  MonipUes.  The  younger  son.  John,  was 
knighted  by  Chailes  I,  in  1635,  and  fell  in  the  Civil 
War  as  a  major^neral  in  the  royal  army. 


Gaxdinxil  ffu(.  €f  BnoUmd  (1883-^).  I;  Id..  What  the  Gim- 
^owderPlot  Waa;  ZkX>isjLCriminal  TViob,  II;  John  Okbakd 
(the  elder),  ed.  Morbib.  Condition  of  Caiholiee;  Tke  Life  cf  o 


Conepirator,  bu  one  of  hie  Deeeendante;  John  Qkrabd  (ths 
tounobb).  What  WM  the  Ounpowder  Plot;  Foubt,  Reearde  ai 
the  Bngliah  Province,  S,  /.,  II;   Calendar  of  State  Paper*. 

John  Gbbard. 

Diffby,  Sib  Kenelm,  physicist,  naval  commander, 
and  diplomatist,  b.  at  Gayhurst  (Goathurst),  Bucking- 
hamshue,  Enghmd,  1 1  July,  1603 ;  d.  in  Covent  Garden, 
Westminster,  11  June,  1665.  He  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Sir  Everaixl  Disby.  Kt.,  of  Drystoke,  Rutland,  by 
Mfuv,  daughter  ana  coneir  of  William  Mulshaw(MuIsho) 
of  Gayhurst.  His  father  was  drawn  into  the  Gun- 
powder Plot  and  was  executed;  nevertheless,  after  liti- 
gation, young  Kenelm  inherited  unconfiscated  lands 
worth  $15,000  a  year.  In  1618  he  entered  Gloucester 
Hall,  now  Worcester  College,  Oxford.  Here  he  waa 
under  the  care  of  Thomas  Allen,  the  mathematician 
and  occultist,  under  whose  congenial  teaching  he  made 
wonderful  progress  in  physicalscience.  Al^n  event- 
ually bequeathed  to  his  brilliant  pupil  his  books  and 
MSo.,  wmch  Sir  Kenelm  gave  to  the  Bodleian  Idbrary. 
In  1620,  Digby  left  Oxford  without  a  degree.  By  thia 
time  he  was  deeply  in  love  with  Venitia,  the  beautiful 
daughter  of  Sir  Edward  Stanley,  Kt.^  of  Tonge  Ca»- 
tle,  Shropshire.  His  mother  opposing  the  match, 
he  withdrew  to  the  Continent,  visiting  France  and 
Italy  and  finally  Spain.  In  March.  1623,  shortly  after 
his  arrival  at  Madrid,  the  Prince  ot  Wales  (afterwards 
King  Charies  I)  reached  that  city  upon  his  well-known 
matrimonial  project,  and  Digby  became  one  of  his 
household,  accompanying  the  prince  back  to  En^dand 
upon  that  project's  failure.  I)ig}>y  was  now  dubbed 
a  knight  by  Jling  James  I.  Tne  next  momentous 
event  in  his  career  was  his  marriage  with  Voiitia, 
which  took  place  privily  in  1625.  Tnough  the  lady's 
ante-nuptial  reputation  was  not  spotless,  yet  tfabeir 
conjugal  life  was  happy,  and  she  bore  him  four  sons 
and  a  daughter.  In  1627  Digby  undertook  a  priva- 
teering  expedition  against  the  French  ships  an<mored 
in  the  Venetian  haven  of  Iskanderun  or  Alexandretta. 
Having  got  King  Charles's  leave  and  taken  out  letten 
of  maroue,  he  sauued  from  Deal  with  two  well-equipped 
ships  about  Christmas,  and  after  various  adventures 
on  the  voyage,  he  reached  Iskanderun  10  June, 
1628.  On  the  morrow  he  gave  battle  to  the  Frendi 
and  Venetian  galleys  there  found  in  i^e  bay,  comii^ 
off  victorious  and  returning  leisurely  to  Ign^^m^ 
where  he  landed  in  the  following  Februaiy. 


DXOSST 


793 


DIOVS 


8iE  KsNBLii  DxoBT— Van  Dtgk 
(¥^d8or  Outle) 


Digby's  fame  was  now  great,  and  in  1632  tBere  waa 
9ven  talk  of  his  becoming  a  secretary  of  state,  but 
misfortune  was  m^.  On  May  Day,  1033,  his  beloved 
wife,  whose  mama|i^  with  hmi  had  for  some  years 
been  made  public,  died  suddenly.  Various  poets,  Ben 
Jonaon  and  William  Habington  among  them,  put 
forth  rapturous  poems  in  her  praise.  Digoy  withdrew 
into  Gresham  College,  where  he  spent  two  years,  lead- 
ing in  strange  mourning  garb  a  life  of  studv  and  seclu- 
sion. By  tnis  time  he  had  forsaken  the  Catholic 
Church,  to  which,  however,  he  was  reconciled  in  1636, 
apparently  in  France.  In  1639  he  was  back  in  Eng- 
land, where  the  times  were  daily  growing  worse  and 
worse.  His  intimacy  as  a  Catholic  with  the  king  and 
queen  roused  the  ire  of  the  Long  Parliament,  who 

summoned  him  to 
their  Bar  in  1641, 
and  next  3rear  im- 
prisoned him.  He 
was  discharged, 
however,  after  a 
while,  on  condition 
of  his  immediate 
departure  for 
France.  Hisprop^ 
erty  they  after- 
wuds  proceeded 
to  confiscate.  Dig- 
by  accordingly 
transferred  his 
abode  to  Paris, 
where  in  1644  he 
brought  out  his 
two  great  philo- 
sophical treatises 
of  the  "Nature  <rf 
Bodies"  and  the 
^Immortality  of  Reasonable  Souls".  In  1645  he 
was  sent  bv  the  English  Catholic  Committee' at  Paris 
upon  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Rome,  whither  he  went 
again  in  1647,  but  failed  to  accomplish  anvthin^  to  the 
purpose.  After  another  journey  to  England  m  1649 
ana  another  banishment,  he  got  leave  to  return  and 
came  back  in  1654.  He  now  became  intimate  with 
Cromwell,  who  employed  him  abroad  upon  various 
diplomatic  affairs.  He  returned  to  England  for  good 
at  the  Restoration  Upon  the  incorporation  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1663,  Sir  Kenelm  was  appointed  one 
of  the  council.  He  died  of  stone  on  the  anniversanr 
of  his  sea-fight  off  Iskanderun,  and  was  buried  beside 
his  wife  in  Christ  Church,  Newgate  Van  Dyck  painted 
several  (extant)  portraits  of  Sir  Kenelm  ana  Lady 
Djgby,  and  Cornelius  Janssen  one  of  the  latter. 

Lkb  in  Diet.  Nai.  Biog.,  XV,  60  aqg.;  Gillow,  Bibl,  DiO. 
Sno.Cath.,  11, 70  aqQ.;  Wood.  AtAana  Oron..  Ill,  688;  Journey 
cf  Seanderoon  Voyage,  ed.  Caicdkn  Soc.  (Wwtminater,  1868); 
Bvdyn*9  Diary,  p«aBim. 

C.  T.  BOOTHICAN. 

BigMt  of  Juatiiiian.    See  Law. 

Digno  (Dinia),  Diocese  of  (Dinisnbis},  com- 
prises the  entire  department  of  the  Basses- Alpes  and 
IS  suffragan  of  the  Archbishopric  of  Aix.  By  the 
Concordat  of  1801,  this  diocese  was  made  to  include 
the  two  departments  of  the  Hautes-and  Basses- Alpes, 
L  e.  in  addition  to  the  former  Diocese  of  D^e,  the 
Archdiocese  of  Embrun,  the  Dioceses  of  Gap,  sisteron, 
and  Senez,  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  Dioceses  of 
Glanddves  and  Riez,  and  fourteen  parishes  in  the 
Archdiocese  of  Aix  and  the  Diocese  ofAp^*  ^^  ^^^ 
Gap  was  made  an  episcopal  see  and  thus  divested  of 
the  department  of  tne  Hautes-AIpQ^'  ^  ^  pi^sent  Dio- 
cese of  Digne  covers  the  territor^i  ^^  **-  J--'"-*-^ 
in  the  Dioceses  of  Digne,  Senes, 
Sisteron.  ^  ^ 

Former  Diocem  of  Di^ne, — ^T||j       ^*^  ^  evange- 

lized by  Sts.  Domniniifl  and  {Jrli  ^^'J^ho  came 
from  Africa  in  the  second  hajf  ^wk(r0^^t\^  ccsntury 


^S^i  t^f  JlTbcluded 


with  St.  liarodlinus,  the  Apostle  of  Embnm.  It  k 
not  certain  that  they  were  bishops.  The  first  his- 
torically known  bishop  was  Pentadius  who  attended 
the  Council  of  Agde  in  506.  Among  the  incumbents 
of  the  See  of  Digne  may  be  mention^:  Elzdar  de  Vil- 
leneuve  (1834-41),  author  of  a  celebrated  form  of 
oath  to  be  taken  by  Jews;  Pierre  III  de  Verceil  (1432- 
'39),  who  represented  the  dei^gy  and  the  Count  of  Pro- 
vence at  the  Council  of  Basle;  Guillaume  V  d'Estoute- 
ville  (1439-65),  closely  connected  with  the  history  of 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  (q.  v.)  and  later  Archbisnop 
of  Rouen;  Antoine  III  Hdrouet  (1552-68),  poet  and 
translator  of  Hato;  Forbin-Janson  (1664-68),  after- 
wards a  cardinal  and  ambassador  to  Poland;  MioUis 
(1805-38),  whose  kindness  was  proverbial,  and  who 
was  the  original  of  ''Mgr.  Myriel"  in  Victor  Hugo's 
"Les  Mis^rables",  and  Sibour  (1839-48),  who  died 
Archbishop  of  Paris. 

Diocem  of  Senez, — ^Marcellus  I,  the  first  known 
Bishop  of  the  Diocese  of  Senez.  attended  the  Council 
of  Agpe  in  506;  nevertheless,  Senez  must  have  been 
an  episcopal  city  as  early  as  439.  Jean  IV  Soanen,  the 
Oratorian,  noted  for  his  opposition  to  the  Bull  "Uni- 
gjenitus",  was  Bishop  of  Senez  from  1696  until  the 
time  of  his  deposition  in  1727. 

Diocese  of  Glandkvee. — Claudius,  the  first  known 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  ascended  the  episcopal  throne 
in  541,  but  Glanddveswas  probably  a  see  as  early  as 
439.  Among  its  bishops  were  Symphorien  Bullioud 
(1508-20),  auo  ambassador  from  Francis  I  to  Julius 
II  and  chaplain  to  Francis  I;  FranQois  I  Faure 
(1651-53),  the  pulpit  orator,  later  Bishop  of  Amiens, 
and  de  Belloy  (1752-^55),  wno  died  a  centenarian  in 
1808,  as  Archbishop  of  Paris. 

Diocese  of  Sieteron, — Johannes,  the  first  known 
Bishop  c^  Sisteron,  appears  early  in  the  sixth  centiuy. 
Owing  to  the  imgracious  reception  accorded  Bishop 
Gerard  by  the  Chapter  of  Sisteron,  the  bishops  of  that 
see  remamed  at  Forcalquier  from  1061  to  1169  and, 
until  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  the  church  at  Forcal- 
quier  bore  the  title  of  cathedral.  Laffittau,  the  Jesuit, 
who  was  agent  of  Cardinal  Dubois,  and  also  an  his- 
torian, occupied  the  See  of  Sisteron  from  1719  to  1764. 

Diocese  of  Riez, — According  to  an  unsup^rted 
tradition,  the  establishment  of  the  Church  in  tnis  dio- 
cese is  attributed  to  the  first  century  and  to  Eusebius 
or  Eudochius,  companion  of  St.  Lazarus.  A  certain 
St.  Prosper  of  RegKio  in  Emilia  (at  the  beginning  of 
the  fifth  century)  ngures  in  the  history  of  Riez  and 
was  perhaps  its  bishop;  however,  the  first  certainly 
known  bishop  is  St.  Maximus  (433-60),  who  succeeded 
St.  Honoratus  as  Abbot  of  Ldrins  and  who,  in  439, 
held  a  council  at  Riez  with  a  view  to  improving  the 
deplorable  condition  of  the  churches  of  Southern  Gaul. 
His  successor,  St.  Faustus  (461-93),  also  Abbot  of 
L^rins,  was  noted  for  his  writings  a^iinst  Predestina- 
tionists;  it  was  to  him  that  Sidonius  Apollinaris  dedi- 
cated his  "Cabmen  Eucharistictmi''  in  gratitude  for 
hospitality  received  at  Riez.  Robert  Ceneau,  the 
pulpit  orator  (1530-^2),  afterwards  Bishop  of  Avran- 
ches  and  Gui  Bentivo^io  (1622-25),  who  was  nuncio 
in  France  and  defender  of  French  interests  at  Rome 
and  who  played  an  important  r61e  under  Louis  XIII, 
are  also  mentioned  among  the  bishops  of  Riez. 

The  Diocese  of  Digne  numbers  the  following  saints: 
St.  Thyrsus  of  Sisteron  and  St.  Promatius  of  Forcal- 

§uier,  both  perhaps  of  the  third  century;  the  abbots 
t.  Marius  and  St.  Donatus  Tfifth,  sixth  centuries),  na- 
tives of  Origans  and  founders  of  monasteries  near 
Forcalquier  and  Siftteron;  St.  Mayeul  (or  Maiolus) 
(910-^4),  bom  at  Valensole  and  noted  as  Abbot  of 
Ciuny  and  a  friend  of  Emperor  Otto  II ;  St.  Bevon  (tenth 
century),  bom  at  Noyers,  helped  to  deliver  Provence 
from  the  Saracens;  Blessed  Gerard,  founder  of  the 
Hospitallers  of  Jeruisalem,  who  died  in  1120,  his  relics 
being  preserved  at  Manoaque;  St.  John  of  Matha 
(U60-1213),  bom  at  Faucon  and  founder  of  the 


W 


DIOVITABT 


794 


DUON 


Trtnitariaiis;  Blessed  Hugh,  a  great  Franciscan 
preacher  who  was  attached  to  the  doctrines  of  Joa- 
chim of  Floris  and  died  in  1255;  his  sister  St.  Douce- 
line,  who  was  bom  at  Digne,  founded  the  B^uines  of 
Hy^res  and  died  in  1274;  St.  Elsear  of  Sabran  who 
died  in  1332,  and  hb  wife  St.  Delphina  of  Sabran 
(1284-1360);  and  the  Venerable  Jacques  Chastan 
(1803-38),  bom  at  Marooux  and  martyred  in  Korea. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Franciscan  convent  in 
Digne  produced  Francois  de  Mevronnes^  conspicuous 
at  the  Sorbonne  and  known  as  the  "enlu^tened  doc- 
tor", andGassendi,  the  philosopher  who,  from  1634  to 
1655,  was  provost  of  the  Church  of  Di^e,  on  which 
he  wrote  a  learned  work.    The  principal  places  (d 

Silgrimage  are: 
fotre-Dame  des 
Anges  at  Lure, 
frequented  annu- 
ally by  over  10.000 
of  the  faithful, 
a  shrine  founded 
in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury by  a  recluse 
from  Orleans ;  No- 
tre-Dame  de  Ro- 
migier  at  Manos- 
que,  datins  back 
to  the  fifw  cen- 
tury; Notre-Dame 
du  Hoc  at  Castel- 
lane,  established 
in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury; and  Notre- 
Dame  de  Beau- 
voir  at  Moustiers 
Ste-Marie.  This 
last-named  shrine 
was  visited  in  the 
time  of  Sidonius 
Apollinaris.  Two 
rocks  overhang 
the  chapel  of  Our 
Lady  and  are  held 
together  by  an 
iron  chain,  from 
which  is  sus- 
pended a  golden 
star  presented  by  a  Knight  of  Rhtiaes  who,  Saving 
been  taken  prisoner,  invoked  Our  Lady  of  Moustiers 
and  was  delivered. 

Prior  to  the  enforcement  of  the  law  of  1905  there 
were  in  the  diocese,  Benedictines,  the  Missionaries  of 
Ste-Garde,  the  Brothers  of  Christian  Schools  and 
Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction  of  St.  Gabriel. 
Local  orders  of  women  especially  worthy  of  mention 
are:  the  Congregation  of  Our  liidy  of  the  Firesenta- 
tion,  a  teachmg  order  at  Manosque,  and  that  of  the 
Sisters  of  Christian  Doctrine  of  the  Holy  Childhood, 
whose  mother-house  is  at  Digne,  and  who  devote 
themselves  alike  to  teaching  and  hospital  work.  In 
1890  the  following  mstitutions  in  the  diocese  were 
under  the  care  of  relimous:  12  infant  schools,  2 
orphanaees  for  boys  and  girls,  13  hospitals  and  hos- 
pices, 1  nouse  of  retreat  and  4  houses  for  religious 
nurses.  In  1905  (the  last  year  of  the  Ck>ncordatory 
period)  the  Dk>cese  of  Digne  had  a  population  of 
115,021,  35  pastorates,  314  succursal  parishes  (mis- 
sion churches),  and  13  curacies  subventioned  by  the 
SUte. 

OaUia  Chrittittna  {Nova)  (1715).  T,  888-417,  474HM)7,  SIS- 
SIS.  IrutrumeiUa,  81-82,  80-02;  Nova  (1725),  III,  llp8<44, 
1286-49.  1250-66,  Jnttrumenta,  187-90,  195-96,  209-10/ and 
233-38;  Ax.BANRB.Gal/ia  Chriatiana  (Novusima),  I,  556,  791 
(MontMKard,  1899);  Gashendi,  NatiHa  Bedmia  Dinien»%9 
(Paris.  1664),  Fr.  tr.  Guichabo  (Digne.  1845):  Fisquet. 
France  pontificaU,  Digne  ei  Riet  (Paris,  1869);  (Jrdvelxiek 
AND  ANPRlctJ,  Hxstoirt  reliffieuae  et  haoiologiqtir  du  Dioc^ae  de 
Digne  (Aix,  1803);  C^kvaubr,  lUp.  hiH.:  Topo-Md.,  891, 
1^,  2554-66.  2969.  GeORGES  GoTAU. 


Doorway  or  Notre-Dame.  Former 
Cathedral  op  Dion* 


Dignitary,  Eoclbsiastical,  a  member  of  a  tibtLp- 
ter,  cathedral  or  collesiate,  possessed  not  only  of  a 
foremost  place,  but  also  of  a  certain  jurisdiction. 
These  dignilateSf  as  they  are  called,  are  usually  the 
provost  and  the  dean  (see  those  articles),  sometimes 
also  the  cualoa  and  the  iJiolasUcua.  Their  nomination 
and  canonical  institution,  to  a  great  extent  reserved  to 
'  the  pope,  are  governed  partly  by  common  ecclesiasti- 
cal law,  partly  bv  special  legislation  (e.  g.  concordats) 
and  custom.  The  dignUaUs  of  a  chapter  differ  from 
the  peraancUua,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  officers  have 
merely  a  fixed  right  of  precedence,  and  again  from  the 
officia  (e.  g.  canon  theologian,  canon  penitentiary), 
inasmuch  as  these  places  imply  only  an  sJaministrative 
chaige  or  duty  (see  Pebson,  Ecclbsiastigal;  Camon  ; 
Chapter)* 

Wbrns.  Jua  Decrekdium.  11,  n.  780  sqq. ;  LAURBirrnm,  hut. 
Jurit  Bed.  (Freiburg.  1908).  n.  266;  SAomOller.  Kirchenrtcht 
(Freiburg,  1902),  e.  v.  Dignilaa;  Hiloenreiner,  in  Bucn- 
bbroeb,  iLvncM.  Handlexikon  (Munich,  1907).  n.  v.  Domkapiid. 

Thomas  J.  $hahan. 

Dijon,  Diocese  of.  comprises  the  entire  depart- 
ment of  C6te-d'0r  and  is  a  sufTra^n  of  Lyons.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Concordat  of  1801  it  also  included  the 
department  of  Haute-Mame,  which,  however,  it  was 
called  upon  to  relinquish  in  1821,  owing  to  the  re- 
establismnent  of  the  Diocese  of  Langres. 

Between  the  years  506  and  540  it  was  revealed  to 
St.  Gregory,  Bishop  of  Langres,  and  an  ancestor  of  St. 
Gregory  of  Tours,  that  a  tomb  which  the  piety  of  the 
peasants  led  them  to  visit  contained  the  remains  of 
ot.  Benignus.  He  had  a  large  basflica  erected  over 
it,  and  soon  travellers  from  Italy  brought  him  the 
acts  of  this  saint's  martyrdom.  These  acts  are  part 
of  a  collection  of  documents  according  to  which  Bur> 
gundy  was  evangelized  in  the  second  century  by  St 
Benignus,  an  Asiatic  priest  and  the  disciple  of  St. 
Polycarp,  assisted  bv  two  ecclesiastics,  Andochius  and 
Thyrsus.  The  good  work  is  said  to  have  prospered  at 
Autun,  where  it  received  valuable  support  from  the 
youthful  Symphorianus;  at  Saulieu  where  Andochius 
and  Thyrsus  had  established  themselves;  at  Langres 
where  tne  three  brothers,  Speusippus.  Eleusippus,  and 
Meleusippus,  were  baptized,  and  nnally  at  Dijon.  In 
the  meantime  the  persecution  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
broke  out,  and  St.  Benignus  and  his  commmions  were 
put  to  death.  The  doubts  first  raised  by  Boulliau  and 
Tillemont  in  the  seventeenth  century  concerning  the 
authenticity  of  these  acts  seem  justified  by  the  oon< 
elusions  of  P^re  Van  Hooff  and  Monseigneur  Du- 
chesne, according  to  which  the  Acts  of  St.  Benignus 
and  the  martyrdom  of  the  three  brothers  of  Langres, 
on  which  the  aforesaid  traditions  are  based,  are  &po^ 
ryphal  and  copied  from  Cappadocian  legends.  This 
controversy^  however,  does  not  alter  the  fact  that 
before  the  fifth  century  a  saint  named  Benignus  was 
venerated  by  the  C!liristians  of  Dijon ;  nor  does  it  dim 
the  splendour  of  the  saint's  miracles,  as  related  by 
Gregory  of  Tours  and  by  the  "Book  of  the  Miracles 
of  St.  Benignus".  During  the  last  generation  no 
question  has  given  rise  to  more  animated  polemics 
among  the  Catholic  scholars  of  France  than  the  apos- 
tolate  of  St.  Benignus. 

Under  the  Merovingians  and  Carolingians  most  of 
the  bishops  of  Langres  resided  at  Dijon,  e.  g.  St. 
Urbanus  (fifth  century),  St.  Gr^iy,  and  St.  Tetricua 
(sixth  century),  who  were  buned  there.  When,  in 
1016,  Lambert,  Bishop  of  Langres,  ceded  the  seignioiy 
and  county  qL  Dijon  to  King  Eobert,  the  Bishops  of 
hangtes  made  Langres  their  place  of  residence.  Li 
1731,  Clement  XII  made  Dijon  a  bishopric.  The 
Abbey  of  Saint-Etienne  of  Dijon  (fifth  centuiy)  long 
had  a  regular  chapter  that  observed  the  Rule  of  St. 
Augustine;  it  was  given  over  to  secular  canons  by 
Paul  V  in  1611,  and  Clement  XI  made  its  church  the 
cathedral  of  Dijon;  during  the  Revolution  it  was 
transformed  into  a  forage  storehouse.    The  abbatial 


CATHEDRAL  OF  SAINT-BENIGNE.  DIJON 


DILLXNOUr 


795 


DiLUHamr 


ehorch  of  Saint-B^nigne  became  the  cathedntl  of 
Dijon  early  in  tbe  nineteenth  century.  Gardinal 
Lecoty  later  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  wha  Bishop  of 
Dijon  from  1886  to  1890.  Pope  Pius  X's  reouest  in 
1904  for  the  resi^iation  of  Monseigneur  Le  Nordex, 
Biahop  of  Dijon  since  1899,  wa«  one  of  Uie  incidents 
which  led  to  the  rupture  of  relations  between  France 
and  the  Holy  See. 

Romanesque  architecture  was  veiy  popular  in  Bur- 
gundy; its  masteipiece  is  the  Cathedral  of  Saint- 
B^nigne  of  Diion,  consecrated  by  Paschal  II  in  1106 
and  completed  in  1288,  The  Gothic  style,  although 
less  used,  characterises  the  churches  of  Notre-Dame 
de  Dijon  (1252-1334),  Notre-Dame  de  Semur,  and 
I'Abbaye  Saint-Seine  |  it  was  ako  the  style  of  the 
Sainto43hapefle  of  Diion,  which  is  no  longer  in  exist- 
ence. Unaer  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  at  the  close  of 
the  fourteenth  and  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
Burgundian  art  flourished  in  a  surprising  degree, 
llie  Chartreuse  of  Champmol,  on  which  Fnilip  the 
Bold  had  Claus  Sluter,  the  sculptor,  at  work  from  1389 
to  1406,  and  which  was  the  acme  of  artistic  excellence, 
was  almost  totally  destroyed  during  the  Revolution; 
however,  two  superb  traces  of  it  may  still  be  sem, 
namely  the  PmU  des  propkHes  and  the  portal  of  the 
church.  The  Beaune  hospital  (1443)  is  a  fine  speci* 
men  of  the  Crothic  style,  and  the  church  of  Saint-liichel 
in  Dijon  (1497)  has  sixteenth-  and  seventeenth-century 
porches  covered  with  fantastic  bas-reliefs.  The  Ab- 
beys of  Ctteaux,  Fontenav,  and  Flavi^y  (where  in 
the  nineteentii  centuiy  Pdre  Lacordaire  instaUed  a 
Dominican  novitiate)  were  all  within  the  territory  of 
the  present  Diocese  of  Dijon.    (See  Cistsrcianb  and 

CtTEAUX.) 

The  following  saints  are  speciallv  honoured:  Saint 
Sequanus  (Seine),  b.  at  Magny.  d.  SM,  founder  of  the 
monastery  of  R6omais  around  which  sprang  up  the 
little  town  of  SaintrSeine;  St.  William  (961-1031),  a 
native  of  Novara,  Abbot  of  Saint-B^ni^  at  Dijon 
in  990,  and  reformer  of  the  Benedictine  Order  in  the 
eleventh  century;  St.  Robert  of  Molesme,  joint 
founder  with  Sts.  Alberic  and  Stephen  Harding  of  the 
monastenr  of  Ctteaux  in  1098;  St.  Stephen  Harding, 
who  died  in  1134.  third  Abbot  of  Ctteaux,  under 
whose  administration  the  monasteries  of  La  Fert^, 
Pontigny,  Clairvaux,  and  Morimond  were  established : 
St.  Bernard  (1090-1 153) ;  St.  Jane  Frances  de  Chantal 
(1572-1641),  b.  at  Dijon,  who,  bavins  heard  St. 
Francis  de  Sales'  Lenten  discourses  at  Dijon  in  1604, 
conceived  a  holy  friendship  for  him;  the  Venerable 
B^niene  Joly,  canon  of  Saint-Etienne  de  Diion  (seven- 
teentn  century) ;  and  the  Venerable  Sister  Maiguerite 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  (1619-48),  sumamed  the 
'^little  saint  of  Beaune",  noted  for  the  apparitions  of 
the  Infant  Jesus  with  which  she  was  lavoinred,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  pious  association  known  as 
the  Family  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus  was  oiganised  and 
later  raised  by  PiiLi  IX  to  the  d^ity  of  an  archcon- 
fratemity.  Amon^  the  famous  persons  of  the  diocese 
the  Seneschal  Philippe  Pot  (1428-94)  is  remembered 
for  his  exploits  a^inst  the  Turks  in  1452  and  his 
miraculous  deliverance  from  his  captors.  The  illus- 
trious BosBuet  was  a  native  of  Dijon.  Hubert  Lan-» 
guet,  the  Protestant  publicist  (1518<-81),  was  bom  at 
Vitteaux. 

The  chief  ^aces  of  pilgrimage  are:  Notre-Dame  de 
Beaune,  at  Beaune  (antedating  1120);  Notre-Dame 
du  Bon-E^poir  at  Dijon,  dedicated  in  1334;  Notro- 
Dame  du  Cnemin,  near  Serrijmy  (twelfth  or  thirteenUi 
century);  Notre-Dame  de  Cateaux  (end  of  the  elev- 
enth centuiy),  visited  by  many  famous  rulers  of 
Europe  and  the  E^t*  Notre-Dame  d'Etang  at 
Velars  (fifteenth  century),  visited  by  St.  Jane  Fruices 
de  Chantal,  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  Louis  XIV,  and 
Bossuet;  and  Notre-Dame  de  Ue  (tenth  or  eleventh 
century^  visited  by  St.  Benedict  Lekbre.  The  room 
in  which  St.  Bernard  was  horn  was  transformed  into 


a  chi4>el  at  Fontaine-les-Dijon  and  visited  by  Louis 
XIV,  Anne  of  Austria,  Condd,  St.  Jane  Frances  de 
Chantal,  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  and  M.  Olier.  St. 
Regina  (Reine),  who  was  martyred  at  Alise  in  the 
thira  century  and  whose  body  was  transported  to 
Flavigny  in  864,  is  honoured  by  pilgrims;  formerly 
it  was  customary  to  hold  a  theatrical  procession  in 
which  the  samt  and  her  persecutors  were  represented. 

In  1905^  priiOT  to  the  enforcement  of  the  law  against 
congregations,  Xhexe  were  in  the  diocese  Trappists, 
Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Sulpidans,  and  diocesan  mission- 
aries, also  the  following  local  congregations  of  women: 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Snepherd,  founded  at  Dijon  in 
the  seventeenth  century  by  Venerable  B^nigne  Joly : 
Sistere  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament;  Sisters  of  Providence,  whose  mother- 
house  is  at  Vitteaux,  and  who  conduct  a  great  many 
schools;  the  Ursulines,  with  mother-house  at  Dijon: 
the  SisteiB  of  St.  Martha,  devoted  alike  to  hospital 
work  and  teaching  (founded  in  1628)  at  Dijon.  In 
1899  the  following  institutions  were  conducted  by 
religious:  32  infant  schools;  3  orphansuses,  with  a^- 
cultural  training;  9  orphans^  for  girk,  5  industrial 
schools;  1  institution  for  pemtent  women;  l' servants' 
guild;  18  hospitals  or  hospices;  25  houses  for  nursing 
sisters;  3  houses  of  retreat;  and  1  insane  asylum. 
In  1905  (end  of  the  Concordatorv  period)  the  Diocese 
of  Diion  had  a  population  of  361,626;  38  parishes 
(cures),  447  succunal  parishes  (mission  churches), 
and  13  curacies  subventioned  by  the  State. 

BouLUAu,  Diatriba  de  Mtneto  Bentgno  (Paris,  1657);  Bou- 
GAUO,  Etude  historique  ei  critique  aur  la  mtmon,  lee  aetea  tt  U 
euUe  de  etdnt  Binigne  (Autnn.  1850);  Jjvayrn.Onginee  du 
dioekee  de  Lemoree  et  de  Dijon  (Dijon.  1888);  Van  Hoovr.  Intro- 
duction to  Acta  Bemmi  in  Ada  SS,  (Paris,  1887),  Nov.,  I, 
134-94;  Ddchksns,  I^iHee  ipiscopaux,  1,  48  aqq.;  BAXTTKREAtr, 
L'HfdU  de  Dijon  et  eee  Mmtee  (Dijon,  188^;  Dumat.  Lee 
Mquee  de  Dijon  (^on,  1880);  Chomton.  Hutoire  de  Vigjiiee 
Satni'Binione  de  Dijon  (Dijon.  1064);  Crevauer.  Le  vhUnMe 
GuiUaume,  abbi  de  Saint-Binigne  de  Dijon,  riformateur  de 
Fordre  hhUdidin  au  Xt*  eikde  (Dijon,  1875);  Corboun,  Mono* 
grapkie  de  Pobbaye  de  Fontenay  (Cltcnux,  1882);  Guonabd 
VAbbaye  de  Flavigny  en  Bourgpgne  (Autun,  1885):  Klexn- 
cxAUSB.  La  Bourgogne  (Paris,  1005);  Ideii,  Claue  Sluter  et  la 
sculpture  bourguignonne  au  IB*  eiide  (Paris,  1000);  Idem,  Dijon 
(Paris,  1007);  Gbwauxb,  Rdp.  kiei,:  Topo-bM,,  802  sqq. 

Georges  Gotau. 

IMUiiigon,  Universitt  of,  in  Swabia,  a  district  of 
Bavaria.  Its  founder  was  Cardinal  Otto  Truchsess 
von  Waldburg,  Prince-Bishop  of  Auesburg  (1543- 
1573).  He  first  established  it  under  the  title,  "Col- 
lege of  St.  Jerome",  and  endowed  it  with  the  revenues 
of  several  monasteries  which  had  been  suppressed  at 
the  Reformation.  His  aim  was  to  proviae  for  the 
education  of  the  clergy  and  the  pxx)tection  of  the 
Catholic  Faith  in  an  institution  which,  by  the  virtue 
and  diligence  of  its  students,  should  counterbalance 
the  laxi^  of  morals  and  insubordination  so  prevalent 
in  other  universities  of  Southern  Germany.  With 
this  end  in  view,  he  drew  up  special  rules  regarding  the 
practice  of  religion,  application  to  study,  and  conduct 
which  each  student  bound  himsdf  by  oath  to  observe. 
In  1551  Pope  Julius  III  raised  the  college  to  the  rank, 
of  a  university  and  conferred  on  it  the  privileges  en- 
joyed by  other  univereities.  Emperor  (]!naries  Y  rati- 
md  these  privileges,  and  the  formal  inauguration  took 
^aoe  21  Alay,  1554.  Some  of  the  professors,  a^  Peter 
Endavianus,  the  first  rector  of  Diilingen,  came  from 
Louvain;  others  from  Spain,  among  them  the  well- 
known  Peter  de  Soto,  O.  P.,  afterwards  professor  at 
Obdord.  In  order  to  secure  Uie  existence  of  this  insti- 
tution which  had  been  founded  with  great  effort  and 
sacrifice,  and  to  strengthen  its  intellectual  and  moral 
influence  over  the  clergy.  Bishop  Otto  in  1563  gave  the 
Jesuits,  whose  provincial  at  that  time  was  Peter  Canis- 
ius,  charge  of  the  instruction  in  the  universitv,  and 
authorised  them  to  follow  their  own  rules  in  all  that 
pertained  to  oi^ganiaation  and  administration.  As. 
nowever,  the  cathedral  chapter  of  Augsburs  would 
not  admit  the  legality  of  tlus  complete  transfer,  die* 


DiLLDiaiir 


796 


DILUNQSV 


puteB  often  arose  on  questions  of  rig^t.  especially  in 
regard  to  episcopal  visitation,  the  foundation  of 
chairs  of  civil  law,  and  the  appointment  of  professoxs. 
Nevertheless  the  chapter  paid  regularly  the  sums 
stipulated  in  the  origmal  document  of  transfer,  and 
finally  accepted  the  transfer  as  arranged  June  14, 
1606,  by  Bishop  Henry  von  Kndringen  (1598-1646), 
who  for  that  reason  is  called  the  second  founder  of  the 
univerrity.  From  this  date  the  chapter  guaranteed 
a  fixed  contribution  for  the  university  and  conmctus 
QiaH  for  clerical  and  some  lay  students).  In  1641 
Emperor  Ferdinand  III  ratified  the  new  charter  in  a 
special  document  which  recomized  the  ^reat  service 
rendered  by  the  scientific  wonc  of  the  university  and 
by  the  preparation  which  it  gave  young  men  for  their 
*  duties  toward  Church  and  State.  During  the  Swedish 
invasion  in  the  Thirty  Years  War  the  revenues  of  the 
university  became  less  regular,  some  of  its  professors 
were  imprisoned,  its  stuoents  scattered,  and  the  leo- 
tures  discontinued.  But  after  peace  had  been  con- 
cluded the  institution  gnuiually  recovered,  and  in  1668 
a  fine  building  for  university  lectures  was  erected 
under  Bishop  John  Christopher  von  Freybeig. 

The  university's  charter  guaranteed  to  ail  its  mem« 
bers  freedom  from  civil  ana  political  obligations,  sep- 
arate jurisdictions,  and  the  right  of  precedence  on  pub- 
lic occasions.  The  exemption  from  taxes  and  imposts 
was  frequently  disputed  by  the  city  council  and  other 
officials.  The  Jesuits,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of 
their  order,  renounced  jurisdiction  in  civil  and  penal 
matters.  This  was  exercised  by  the  gubemator,  one 
of  the  episcopal  covmseliors  well  versed  in  jurispru- 
dence, while  matters  relating  to  discipline  were  in  the 
hands  of  the  rector.  The  right  of  precedence  at  pro- 
cessions and  funerals  occasioned  several  bitter  feuds 
between  the  officials  of  the  episcopal  court  and  the 
faculty.  In  1610  Bishop  Henry  von  Kn6ringen 
granted  to  the  rector  and  the  professons  of  theology 
the  privilege  of  censorship;  in  1747  this  was  modified 
to  tne  effect  that  books  printed  in  Dillingen  needed 
also  the  approbation  of  tne  episcopal  censor  at  Augs- 
burg. The  courees  which,  from  tne  beginning,  were 
given  at  the  university  and  which  were  taken  over  by 
the  Jesuits  were  humanities,  philosophy,  and  theo- 
logy. The  humanities  were  taught  in  the  gymnasium, 
which  was  at  that  time  a  part  of  the  university,  and 
they  served  as  a  preparation  for  the  higher  studies. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  oentiiry  a  faculty 
of  jurisprudence  was  added  with  one  professor  of 
canon  and  one  of  civil  law.  In  1738  church  history 
was  included  in  the  curriculum  of  theology.  A  de- 
partment of  medicine  and  surgery,  rather  loosely 
connected  with  the  univenrity,  was  established  about 
the  same  time. 

The  statutes  concerning  dj^gteee  were  taken  from  the 
University  of  Ingolstadt.  The  baccalaureate  in  theol- 
ogy was  conferr<Mi  for  the  firet  time  in  1564.  Between 
this  date  and  1770  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts  was 
conferred  on  7704,  that  of  master  of  arts  on  5997, 
which  numbers  show  the  flourishing  condition  of  let^ 
ters  at  the  university.  Although  the  frequent  chang- 
ing of  professors  was  prejudicial  to  their  literary  ac- 
tivity, many  of  them  acquired  fame  in  the  fields  oi 
moral  theology,  canon  law,  philosophy,  mathematics, 
and  astronomy.  Thus  Jakob  lUsung.  Georg  Stengel, 
and  Joseph  Monschein  were  distinguiSied  theologians; 
CSiristopner  Scheiner,  professor  of  mathematics,  in- 
vented the  pantograph;  while  Paul  LxymBim^  F.  X. 
Schmabsgrueber,  and  Joseph  Biner  were  famous  jur- 
ists. In  order  to  foster  a  truly  religious  niirit  among 
the  students  and  to  secure  the  faithful  performance  ot 
their  duties,  a  large  and  a  small  sodality  were  oigan* 
ized  besides  one  for  the  religious.  It  was  at  Dillingen 
that  the  first  sodality  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  was  estab- 
lished in  Upper  Germany;  this  sodality  carried  on  an 
active  correspondence  with  the  origmal  aodality.  the 
B.  V.  Annuntiata)  in  Rome,  and  with  various  local 


ozganlsatioDS.  Other  associations  were  fomied  fbr 
special  purposes,  e.  g.  for  the  veneration  of  the  BlesBed 
Sacrament.  Some  of  these  sodalities  numbered  sev- 
eral hundred  resident  members.  In  the  summCT  ol 
1585  a  seminaiy  was  founded  bv  Pone  Gr^ry  Xlfj 
to  provide  for  the  religious  neeas  of  iJi^r  Germany. 
Its  students,  20-25  in  number,  were  young  men  of 
brilliant  parts,  who,  after  completing  the  course  of 
humanities  and  dialectics,  pledged  themselves  to  take 
their  degrees  at  the  university.  The  students  prom- 
ised un(ter  oath  to  enter  the  ecclesiastical  state  and  not 
to  join  any  religious  order  without  leave  from  the  pope. 
Their  expenses  were  defraved  by  the  Holy  See.  Tiiis 
seminaiy  existed  up  to  tne  year  1798  and  educated 
more  than  4,000  priests.  Through  the  efforts  of 
Bishop  Henry  von  &ndringai  and  several  memb«B  of 
the  secular  clergy,  a  diocesan  seminary  accommodat- 
ing twelve  8tu<£nts  was  founded  in  1610;  its  rules 
were  identical  with  those  of  the  papal  seminary.  A 
third  seminary  under  the  title  of  St.  Joseph  owed  its 
origin  to  the  contributions  of  Cardinal  Otto  and  otlier 
be^actors.  It  received  poor  students  who  could  no 
longer  be  accommodated  m  the  oonvictus  itself;  they 
lived  in  special  lodgings  and  were  hot  obliged  to  re- 
ceive Holy  orders,  finally,  another  seminary  for 
clerics  was  built  as  a  supplement  to  the  existing 
papal  «eminaiy;  but  in  t747  it  was  transferred  to 
Pfaffenhausen  under  Bishop  Joseph.  In  15S2  the  total 
number  of  students,  including  those  in  the  gymnasium, 
was  600;  in  1618  it  was  306.  and  in  the  year  of  the 
suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  only  210  attended, 
ctf  whom  116  were  studymg  theology,  25  jurii^rudenoe^ 
74  philosophy.  The  gymnasium  counted  125  stu* 
dents.  The  scholars  did  not  belong  exclusively  to  the 
Diocese  of  Aujp;9bui«;  they  came  from  all  parts  of 
Germany,  and  fiom  Polandi  Italy,  Franoe,  and  Switz- 
erland. 

.  In  1773  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  8uiH>ressed,  and 
oonsequently,  in  the  autumn  of  the  sameyear,  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  Jesuits  as  professors  at  the  University  of 
Dillingen  came  to  an  end.  Prince-Bishop  Clement 
Wenceslaus  ordered  that  henceforth  the  university  as 
well  as  the  convictus  should  be  directly  subject  to  the 
bishop.  For  the  new  scholastic  year  other  professors, 
some  of  whom  were  ex-Jesuits,  were  installed;  but 
theolo^  and  canon  law  were  taught  by  secular  priests 
exclusively.  The  former  Jesuit  college  took  the  name 
"  Academic  House ' '.  At  first  the  number  of  students 
was  neariy  the  same  as  formerly,  but  the  institution 
soon  began  to  labour  imder  severe  financial  difi&culties 
owing  to  the  confiscation  of  lands  and  revenues  which 
had  belonged  to  the  Jesuit  college.  In  1786  a  new 
charter  approved  by  the 'Holy  See  was  introduced  at 
the  university.  In  conformity  with  the  practice  in 
other  universities,  deans  with  a  yearly  tenure  cf  office 
were  placed  at  the  head  of  the  different  faculties.  The 
curriculum  and  the  methods  of  teaching  were  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  the  time;  in  theology  the  diff»enoe 
between  primary  branches  (scholastic  theology  and 
philosophy)  and  secondary  branches  (canon  and  civil 
taw  and  Biblical  exegesis)  was  done  away  with.  Hie 
lectures  in  the  three  faculties  were  given  partly  in 
Latin  as  before,  partly  in  German.  Biationalism  and 
liberalism  were  repeatedly  checked  by  episcopal  visita- 
tions and  enactments.  Among  the  oest  known  pro- 
fessors of  that  period  were  F.  M.  Sailer  in  mcnral  phil- 
osophy and  pastoral  theology,  Zimmer  in  dogmatic 
theology,  ana  Weber  in  philosof^y  and  mathematics. 
A  last  regulation  of  the  prince-bishop,  dated  1799, 
contained  rules  regarding  attendance  at  ehurdiy  dis- 
cipline, and  methods  of  teachii^  and  studying.  Hie 
endowments  of  several  institutions  and  ooiporattons 
were  transferred  in  1789  to  the  ''Academic  House"  in 
order  to  relieve  its  financial  difficulties,  and  its  admin- 
istration was  simplified  by  uniting  the  St.  Joseph's 
Seminary  and  the  convictus.  The  patronage  of  the 
city  pansh  of  Dillingen  was  ceded  to  the  biabop  in 


DILLON 


71>7 


BIHOLK7 


favour  of  the  university  with  which  it  was  incorpo- 
rated. Nevertheless  the  expenses  of  the^institutions  so 
far  exceeded  their  revenues  that  the  existence  of  the 
university  became  very  precarious.  Hence  it  was 
several  tunes  proposed  to  transfer  the  university  to  a 
religious  order,  e.  g.  the  Benedictines  or  the  newly 
organized  Societas  de  Fide  Jesu.  During  the  scholas- 
tic year  of  1798-1799,  the  niunber  of  students  had 
dwindled  to  109,  of  whom  51  were  theolo^;ians  distri- 
buted over  three  courses,  10  were  attendmg  the  lec- 
tures on  law  and  48  those  on  philosophy.  In  1802  the 
cathedral  chapter  of  Augsburg  and  the  university 
were  secularized  and  became  part  of  Bavaria,  whose 
elector,  by  rescript  of  3  Nov.,  1803,  abolished  the  Uni- 
versity of  DiUingen.  In  its  stead  a  dassical  gymna- 
sium and  a  lyoeum  for  philoBOi>hy  and  theology  were 
founded  for  the  Swabian  District,  and  these  institu- 
tions are  still  in  existence. 

SracRT.  Oem^u^e  dsr  AawAiQm  XhwMnWit  DtUtnoen  (Frei- 
burg. 1002):  BuuBNBDRO,  IH$  Fntvttu  der  dniUeken  Univeni- 
$Men  (Lnpa^  1904). 

Earl  Hoeber. 

Dillon,  Arthur-Kichard,  a  French  prelate,  b.  at 
St-Germain-en-Laye,  near  Paris,  1721 ;  a.  in  London, 
1806.  The  fifth  son  of  Arthur  Dfllon,  an  Irish  officer 
who.  outlawed  as  a  Jacobite,  had  passed  to  the  service 
of  France,  he  was  educated  for  the  Church,  became 
curi  of  Elan  near  Mdzi^res ;  Vicar-Qeneial  of  Pontoise, 
1747;  Bishop  of  Evreux,  1753:  Archbishop  of  Tou- 
louse, 1758;  Archbishop  of  Narbonne  and  Frimate  of 
France,  1763.  Dillon  was  a  man  of  broad  sympathies 
and  varied  accomplishments.  A  stanch  Catholic,  he, 
nevertheless,  publicly  applauded  the  recognition  of 
Protestant  marriages  in  the  Assembly  of  Uie  Clergy 
of  1788,  over  which  he  presided.  His  appointment 
to  the  primatial  See  of  Narbonne  made  him  practically 
Viceroy  of  Languedoc.  He  won  there  great  popu- 
larity not  only  as  bishop  but  also  as  promoter  ofgreat 
public  works,  such  as  roads,  brid^,  canals,  harbours, 
etc.  When  the  French  Revolution  broke  out,  Dillon, 
rather  than  take  the  constitutional  oath,  emigrated  to 
Coblenz  with  the  French  nobility,  and  from  Coblenz 
went  to  London,  where  he  was  at  the  time  the  Con- 
cordat was  signed.  Pope  Pius  VII  having  requested 
within  ten  davs  the  unconditional  resignation  of  all 
the  French  bishops,  Dillon  with  thirteen  other  prelates 
who,  like  himself,  had  sought  refuge  in  England,  sent 
but  a  wavering  and  dilatory  answer  and  even  mgned 
the  ''Reclamations  canoniques  et  tr^resnectueuses 
address^  &  Notre  tr^Saint  Pdre  le  Pape^  (London, 
1803).  Such  an  attitude  was  prompted  not  by  a  spirit 
of  schism,  but  by  an  excessive  attachment  to  the  old 
regime  and  the  mistaken  Gallican  idea  that  the  pope 
c«>uld  not  take  a  step  of  that  importance  without  the 
deliberation  and  consent  of  the  French  hierarchy. 
Aithou^  Dillon  consented  to  communicate  his  spir- 
itual jurisdiction  to  the  ConcordcUaire  bishop  whose 
territory  comprised  the  suppressed  primatial  See  of 
Narbonne,  nevertheless,  by  placing  himself  resolutely 
at  the  head  of  the  Anticonoordataires,  he  not  only 
failed  in  due  obedience  to  the  Holy  See  but  also  cave 
countenance  to  that  incongruous  movement  which 
resulted  in  the  "Petite-Edise". 

AuDiBEBT,  Le  dernier  prieident  dea  Hate  du  Languedoe  (P&ris, 
1868);  SiCARD,  Let  Hftqtiee  pendant  la  Mvolution  (Puia,  1903); 
If  ATHiEV.  Le  concordat  de  1801  (Paris,  1003);  Drochon,  La 
PetttO'Sgiiee  (Paria,  1004);  Manobnot,  Aniiconcordaiairee  in 
I>ieL  de  tMoL  eath.;  Auomr  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Bum.,  s.  v. 

J.  F.  SOLLIBR. 

DimiBSorial  Letters  (Lat.  liiUrtB  dimissariaUa, 
from  dimiUere),  letters  given  bvan  ecclesiastical  supe- 
rior to  his  subjects  to  nave  enect  in  territory  outside 
his  jurisdiction.  Tlie  term  is  sometimes  extended  so 
as  to  include  testimonial  letters,  which  certify  to  a 
priest's  freedom  from  canonical  impediments  or  to  the 
fact  that  a  candidate  for  a  religious  order  has  the 
requisite  qualities,  and  commendatory  letters,  which 


testify  that  a  travelling  ecclesiastic  is  unexceptionable 
as  to  morals  and  doctrine,  and  letters  of  excorpora- 
tion  (see  Exbat),  by  which  clerics  are  freed  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  one  diocesan  bishop  (see  Exoardina- 
tion)  that  they  may  be  aflWated  to  another  diocese 
Properiy  the  name ''  dimissorial  letters  "  refers  to  those 
given  by  a  bishop  or  regular  prelate  to  his  subjects  in 
order  that  they  may  be  ordamed  by  another  bishop. 
The  pope  alone  mav  concede  such  dimissorial  letters 
for  tne  whole  world,  but  any  bishop  can  give  them 
to  those  under  his  authority,  whether  they  be  so  by 
origin,  domicile,  or  benefice.  A  bishop,  as  well  as  car- 
dinikls,  can  likewise  grant  them  to  those  who  for  three 
vears  have  been  actually  or  equivalently  members  of  his 
household  (famUiares).  In  the  absence  of  the  bishop, 
his  vicar<general  is  empowered  to  grant  dimissorial 
letters,  but  not  while  the  bishop  is  at  home,  unless  he 
has  received  special  permission  to  do  so.  During  the 
vacancy  of  the  episcopal  see,  the  vicar  capitular  can- 
not give  these  letters,  unless  a  year  has  ebipsed  since 
the  diocese  became  vacant,  except  to  one  who  is 
obliged  to  receive  orders  owin^  to  his  having  acquired 
a  benefice.  After  the  lapse  of  a  year,  the  vicar  capit- 
ular, independent  of  the  chapter,  has  the  ri^^  to 
grant  dimissorial  letters  for  uie  reception  of  Hoty 
orders.  If  the  vicar  capitular  give  the  letters  illegiti- 
mately, the  person  ordained  is  not  entitled  to  clerical 
privileges,  if  he  be  in  minor  orders;  and  if  in  major 
orders,  he  is  suspended  from  the  exercise  of  them  until 
the  future  bishop  free  him  from  the  penalty.  Abbots, 
even  though  exempt,  cannot  grant  dimissorial  letters 
to  seculars  who  are  subject  to  them.  When  a  bishop 
grants  letters  directed  to  other  ordinaries,  this  {^irase 
does  not  include  exempt  abbots.  Regular  prelates 
can  give  letters  to  thoee  religious  who  live  under  their 
obedience,  but  such  letters  must  be  directed  to  the 
diocesan  bishop,  unless  there  be  a  special  privileoe. 
In  case  of  the  absence  of  the  ordinary  bishop,  or  if  ne 
does  not  desire  to  hold  ordinations,  reli^ous  superiors 
may  send  their  subjects  to  any  other  bishop.  When 
regulars  live  in  a  monastery  ntmius  diaceai9f  these  let- 
ters are  to  be  directed  to  the  neighbouring  bishop 
(yicinior).  Religious  orders,  which  have  received 
such  special  privilege  since  the  Council  of  Trent,  may 
send  their  subjects  for  ordination  to  any  CathoUc 
bishop  whatsoever.  As  r^rds  the  citv  of  Rome, 
those  who  dwell  in  the  city  for  four  months  cannot  be 
ordained  outside  the  city  in  virtue  of  dimissorial  let- 
ters from  their  ordinary  bishops,  but  they  must  pre- 
sent themselves  to  the  Csjtiinai  Vicar  of  Rome  for 
ordination.  The  Roman  pontiff  can  ordain  anyone 
without  letters  from  his  bishop,  and  the  person  so 
ordained  cannot  later  be  promoted  to  higher  orders 
without  papal  licence.  Althoudi  dimissorial  letters 
be  required  for  ordainins  the  subject  of  one  bishop  in 
another  diocese,  yet  it  does  seem  necessary  to  obtain 
them  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  a  benefice  in  the 
other  diocese,  though  it  is  considered  proper  and  ex- 
pedient. 

Fbrrarxs.  JBiU.  Canon,  (Rome.  1880).  s.  v.  ordo;  Smitb. 
Elements  of  Ecdeaiaatical  Law  (New  York,  1805);  Humphrey. 
Urbe  et  Orbia  (London,  1800). 

WiLUAM  H.  W.  Fannino 

Dingloy,  Sir  Thomas,  Venerable,  Martyr,  prior  of 
the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  found  guilty  of 
hi^  treason  28  A]ml,  1639,  and  beheaded  on  Tbwer 
Hul,  9  July,  together  with  the  Blessed  Sir  Adrian 
Fortescue.  He  was  accused,  together  with  Robert 
Granceter,  merchant,  of  ''going  to  several  foreign 
princes  and  persuading  them  to  make  war  with  the 
King".    He  nad  no  trial,  and  no  proof  of  treasonable 

Eractioes  was  ever  brought  aeunst  him.  In  the  same 
ill  of  attainder  were  induoed  nianv  other  innocent 
victims  of  Henry's  tyranny,  ineluding  Ihe  Bleswd 
Maigaret  Pole,  Countess  of  Salisbury.  There  ia  a  dia- 
crepanoy  among  the  ohroniclers  as  to  the  date  of  Iha 


DiirooTfi 


798 


DI00E8AK 


martyrdom.  Stow  gives  10  July,  the  Gray  Friars' 
''Chronicle"  and  Wnothesle:^,  9  Julv.  For  the  stoiy 
0f  the  suppression  of  the  Km^ts  of  St.  John  in  Eng- 
land, see  Stow,  ''Chronicle",  pp.  579, 580.  The  gate- 
way tower  and  the  crypt  of  the  church  of  their  great 
priory  at  Clerkenwell  are  still  standing. 

Bedb  Camm. 

Dtnoothy  Saint  (Dinothus,  Dunawd,  Dunod), 
founder  and  first  Abbot  of  Bangor  Isooed  (Flintshire) ; 
flourished  between  500  and  542.  He  was  orimnally  a 
North  British  chieftain  driven  bjr  reverses  of  fortune 
into  Wales.  In  conjunction  with  his  three  sons, 
Deiniol,  Cjmwyl,  and  Gwarthan,  and  under  the  pa- 
tronage of  CVngen,  Prince  of  Powys,  he  founded  the 
monastery  of  Bcuigor  on  the  Dee,  which  must  not  be 
confounded  with  Bangor  in  Carnarvonshire,  founded 
by  St.  Deiniol  in  514,  and  afterwards  a  cathedral  city. 
The  community  at  Bangor  was  very  numerous,  and  the 
laus  perennis  was  established  there.  The  Tnads  say 
there  were  2400  monks,  who  in  turn,  100  each  hour, 
sang  the  Divine  Service  day  and  ni^t.  More  is 
known  of  this  famous  monastery  than  of  its  founder. 
He  is  mentioned  by  Bede  (Hist.  EcoL,  ii.  2)  in  con- 
nexion with  the  second  conference  at  Augustine's  Oak, 
but  no  authority  is  given  for  the  statement,  and  there 
are  arguments  against  its  correctness.  The  Conference 
was  probably  held  in  602  or  603,  at  which  time  St. 
Dinooth  would  have  been  far  advanced  in  years,  and 
the  journey  from  North  Wales  to  the  Lower  Severn 
would  have  been  a  difficult  one  for  an  aged  man.  It  is 
true  that  delegates  from  Bangor  attended  the  confer- 
ence which  was  convened  by  St.  Augustine  to  raise 
the  moral  and  spiritual  oonchtion  of  the  British  derpy , 
to  wean  them  from  their  old  method  of  computmg 
Easter,  to  which  they  dung  with  great  tenacity,  and 
to  induce  them  to  co-operate  with  him  in  converting 
the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  document  purporting  to  be 
St.  Dinooth 's  ^Answer"  (printed  m  Haddan  and 
Stubbs,  Councils  of  Gt.  Britain  and  Ireland,  i,  122)  is 
the  sole  ground  for  connecting  his  name  with  this  con- 
ference; but  it  is  extremelv  doubtful  whether  the 
"  Answer"  has  anything  to  do  with  this  conference  at 
all.  St.  Augustine's  name  is  not  mentioned  in  it, 
neither  is  there  any  allusion  to  the  evangelization  of 
the  English.  It  contains  merely  a  firm  repudiation  of 
papal  authority  and  an  assertion  of  the  supremacy  of 
''the  Bishop  of  Caerieon  upon  Usk"  over  the  British 
Church.  Some  time  before  the  supposed  date  of  the 
document  St.  David  had  transferred  the  primatial  See 
of  Wales  to  Menevia.  What  is  more  authentic,  how- 
ever, is  the  fact  that  in  consequence  of  the  Britidi 
delegates'  refusal  to  asree  to  St.  Augustine's  proposals 
he  prophesied  their  oestruction  by  the  English.  In 
613,  when  the  monks  of  Bangor  were  praying  for  the 
success  of  their  countrymen  in  battle  against  Uie  army 
of  Ethelfrid  of  Northumbria,  twelve  hundr^  of  them 
were  slain,  being  mistaken  for  combatants.  The 
monastery  itself  was  probably  burnt  about  sixty  years 
later  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  i,  125),  and  extensive  ruins 
remained  for  several  centuries,  which  are  described  by 
William  of  Blalmesbury,  Camden,  and  Leland. 

RsBS,  Lives  of  Cambro-Britith  Saints  (Llandovery,  1863); 
Hole  in  Diet,  of  Christ,  Biog.,  s.  v. 

G.  Ctfbian  Alston. 


the  Romans.  He  destroyed  it  complete^,  and  sold 
the  inhabitants  as  slaves.  In  the  following  year 
Herod  Antipas,  Tetrarch  of  Galiiee,  rebuilt  the  town 
and  dedicated  it  to  Uxe  emperor  (Ant.  Jud.,  XVIII.  ii 
1),  at  which  time  it  must  have  been  called  Diocsesarea. 
When,  m  A.  D.  66,  the  great  Jewi^  revolt  broke  out, 
the  inhabitants  would  have  no  share  in  it,  s^it  away 
their  governor,  the  celebrated  historian  Flavius 
Josephus,  and  invited  Oestius  Gallus,  Prefect  of  Syria, 
to  occupy  their  town  with  his  troops.  About  180  the 
Great  Sanhedrin  left  the  neigfaoouriitf^  villa^ge  of 
Shefr  Amar  and  resided  at  S^phoris  tiu  it  was  re- 
moved to  Tiberias.  When  (>>unt  Joseph,  a  con- 
verted Jew,  built  a  church  at  Sepphoris  (323-37)  it 
was  not  yet  an  episcopal  see  (St.  Epiph.,  Adversua 
haeres.,  in  Migne,  P.  G.,  XLI,  409).  In  353  the  Jews 
rebelled  again,  and  the  town  was  destroyed  by  Em- 
peror Gallus  (Socrates,  Hist,  ecd.,  II,  xxxiii;  Sozotnen, 
Hist,  eccl.,  IV,  vii).  It  was  soon  rebuilt  (Theodoret, 
Hist,  eccl.,  IV,  xxii).  It  served  as  a  place  of  exile  for 
many  bishops  and  monks  during  the  persecution  of 
Valens.  When  Sepphoris  became  an  episcopal  see 
and  suffragan  of  Scythopolis,  is  unknown.  Onljr  two 
bishops  are  known.  Maroellinus  In  518  and  Cyriaeus 
in  536  (Lequien,  Or.  christ..  Ill,  713).  Durmg  the 
Crusades  Sepphoris  played  an  important  r61e,  though 
only  the  necropolis  was  occupied  by  a  Prankish  garri- 
son. The  spnngs,  at  half  an  hour's  distance  south- 
west of  the  town,  were  naturally  the  site  where  the 
Christian  armies  awaited  the  coming  of  the  Saracens 
from  beyond  the  Jordan;  thus  King  Gnv  of  Lusignan 
encamped  there  before  the  battle  of  Hattin,  iniich 
caused  the  loss  of  Palestine  (July,  1187).  There  also 
in  April,  1799,  Kl^ber  and  Junot  rested  their  troops 
before  the  battle  of  Mount  Tliabor.  To-day  Sefou- 
rieh,  as  it  is  now  called,  is  inhabited  by  3000  fanatic 
Mussulmans;   there  are  preserved  the  ruins  of  the 


IMoctturea  (1),  a  titular  see  in  Pakestina  Secunda. 
Diocflesarea  is  a  later  name  of  the  town  known  to  the 
RiJ^bis  as  Sipporij  ''the  bird",  also  called  Sepphoris 
(Gr.  Zhr^vpu).  Though  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
it  was  in  its  time  one  of  the  largest  towns  of  Galilee. 
Gabinius  established  there  (56  b.  c.)  one  of  the  Hve 

St>vincial  sanhedrins  (Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.,  XIV,  v,  4). 
erod  the  Great  easily  retook  it  from  Antigonus,  39 
B.  o.  (Ant.  Jud.,  XlV,  XV,  4).  In  ▲.  d.  3,  it  was 
captured  by  a  rebel,  Judas,  and  his  banditti,  but  was 
Mtaken  by  Aretas,  the  Aiab  King  of  Petra  and  ally  of 


•urporting  to  be  former  acropolis,  a  high  tower,  two  synagogues,  the 
n  Haddan  and  beautiful  church  of  Sts.  Joadiim  and  Anna,  who, 
accordingto  a  medieval  tradition,  were  bom  at  S^>- 
phoris.  This  church,  which  has  been  partly  demol- 
ished, has  three  naves  and  is  115  by  65  feet  in  dimen- 
sions. It  belongs  to  the  Franciscans,  who  say  Maas 
there  from  time  to  time.  (See  Gu^rin,  "Description 
de  la  Palestine:  Galilee",  Paris,  1880,  I,  309-79.) 

(2)  Another  Diocsesarea,  the  native  name  of  which 
was  Prakana,  site  unknown  (Ramsay,  Asia  Minor,  364 
and  454),  was  situated  in  (^da  and  a  suffragan  of 
Seleucia.  Five  Greek  bishops  are  known  from  381  to 
787  (Lequien,  II,  1019);  for  Succensus,  about  433,  see 
Vailh^.,  m  «  Echos  d'Onent "  aX,  221).  Three  Latin 
titular  bishops  are  known  in  the  fifteenth  century 
(Lequien,  III,  1239;  Eubel,  II,  160). 

(3;  Finally,  in  the  fourth  century,  Nasianxiis  was 
also  called  Dioceesarea  (Lequien,  I,  409). 

S.   VAILHt. 

Diocesan  Ohancery,  that  branch  of  administration 
which  handles  all  written  dociunents  used  in  the  offi- 
cial government  of  a  diocese.  It  is  in  the  diocesan 
chancery  that,  under  the  direction  of  the  bishop  or  his 
representative,  all  documents  which  concern  the  dio- 
cese are  drawn  up,  copied,  forwarded,  and  a  record 
kept  of  all  official  writings  expedited  or  received.  The 
official  charged  with  the  execution  of  these  duties  is 
known  as  the  diocesan  chancellor.  In  many  dioceses 
the  chancellor  exercises  some  of  the  faculties  which  in 
other  dioceses  are  exclusively  reserved  to  the  vicar- 
general.  This  happens  more  frequently  in  smaller 
dioceses,  administered  directly  by  the  bishop  himself, 
and  in  which  the  vicar-general  (often  not  resident  in 
the  episcopal  city)  is  called  on  only  when  tluB  bishop  is 
absent  or  nindered.  In  such  cases  the  chancellor  is 
also  the  confidential  secretary  of  the  bishop.  A  simi- 
lar ^Btem  obtains  even  in  many  extensive  dioceses 
which  are  administered  by  the  bishop  with  the  aid  of 
one  or  more  vicaro-general  and  the  diocesan  chanoeiy . 


DX00K8AN 


799 


DIOOESAtt 


There  are,  however,  some  large  dioceses  in  which  all 
matters  personally  reserved  to  the  bishop  are  exe- 
cuted by  nim  with  the  aid  of  a  secretary  or  chancellor, 
usually  a  priest,  while  the  greater  part  of  the  diocesan 
administration  is  handed  over  to  a  bod^  of  officials 
under  the  direction  of  the  bishop  or  his  vicar-general. 
For  the  correspondence,  registration,  and  care  of  the 
archives,  such  administrative*  bureaux  are  provided 
with  a  secretariat  or  chancery.  The  chancery  is  a 
necessaiy  element  of  administration  in  every  diocese. 
Some  provision  for  its  duties  must  be  made,  even  in 
missionary  dioceses,  in  ApostoUc  prefectures  and 
vicariates.  Unless  the  official  correspondence  were 
properly  cared  for,  there  would  be  no  tradition  in  dio- 
cesan management,  important  documents  would  be 
lost,  and  the  written  evidence  necessary  in  lawsuits 
and  trials  would  be  lacking.  The  famous  Apostolic 
Chancery  (CanceUaria  Apostolica)  developed  m  time 
from  the  chancery  of  the  primitive  Bishop  of  Rome. 
By  reason  of  the  latter's  primacy  in  the  Church,  his 
chancery  naturally  had  far  wider  relations  than  that 
of  an^  other  Christian  diocese. 

It  is  somewhat  strange,  given  the  necessity  and, 
generally  speaking,  the  universality  of  diocesan  chan- 
ceries, to  nnd  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  common 
ecclesiastical  law  concerning  their  creation  and  eqwi>- 
ment.  The  explanation  lies  in  the  very  nature  of  this 
law,  which  provides  only  for  what  is  general  and  com- 
mon, and  takes  no  account  of  local  means  of  adminis- 
tration which  it  abandons  to  the  proper  authority  in 
each  diocese,  the  concrete  circumstances  offering 
always  great  variety  and  calling  for  all  possible  free- 
dom of  action.  Nor  has  the  ApostoUc  See  ever  legis- 
lated concerning  diocesan  chanceries:  even  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  vicar-general  is  not  made  obligatory  by 
the  common  law.  Althoujgh,  as  above  described,  the 
methods  of  diocesan  administration  exhibit  no  little 
variety,  there  exists  on  the  other  hand  a  certain  uni- 
formity. Each  diocese,  after  all,  is  bound  to  observe 
the  common  law,  has  an  identical  range  of  freedom, 
and  identical  limits  to  its  authority.  Each  diocese, 
therefore,  ia  likely,  a  priori,  to  develop  its  administra- 
tion along  similar  Imes,  but  does  so  regularly  in 
harmony  with  others,  particularly  neighbouring  dio- 
ceses. In  this  way  the  dioceses  of  a  given  country 
come  to  have  similar  official  administration.  In  the 
course  of  the  last  century  the  diocesan  system  was 
generally  introduced  in  many  countries  whose  churches 
had  hitherto  been  under  a  more  or  less  provisional 
Rovemment  (e.  g.  United  States,  England,  Scotland, 
JLQdia).    NaturaSy,  the  bishops  of  these  new  dioceses 


sought  at  once  to  provide  for  an  orderly  administra- 
tion and  the  establishment  of  suitable  methods  for  the 
same.  Thus  we  see  that  the  more  recent  national  and 
provincial  synods  lay  much  stress  on  the  creation  of 
diocesan  chanceries.  The  First  Plenary  Council  of 
Baltimore  (1852)  expressed  the  wish  wat  in  eveiy 
diocese  there  should  be  a  chancery,  to  facilitate  eccle- 
siastical administration  and  establish  for  its  conduct  a 
more  or  less  identical  system.  The  National  Synod  of 
Thurles  in  Ireland  (1850)  made  provision  for  the  es- 
tablishment and  preservation  ot  diocesan  archives. 
Similarly  for  England  the  Provincial  Synod  of  West- 
minster (1852). 

In  keeping  with  these  recommendations  the  dio- 
cesan chancery  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  officials 
named  by  the  bishop.  In  the  United  States,  England, 
and  Australia  there  are  usually,  besides  the  vicar- 
general,  a  diocesan  chancellor  and  a  secretary.  In 
European  dioceses  the  chancery  is  organized  vanously, 
according  to  the  extent  of  the  diocese.  There  is  gen- 
erally in  each  diocese  a  chancellor  or  secretary  with 
the  necessary  personnel.  In  the  dioceses  of  Germany 
much  of  the  administration  is  carried  on  by  an  official 
bureau  (Offiziaiat)  as  described  above,  i.  e.  the  vicari- 
ate-general,  to  which  are  adjoined  a  secretariat,  a 
registry  office,  and  a  chancery.  In  the  Diocese  of 
Breslau  there  exists  an  institution  known  as  the 
"Secret  Chancery"  (Geheimkanzlei)  which  expedites 
only  matters  decided  by  the  prince-bishop  personally 
or  with  the  advice  of  this  body.  The  prince-bishop 
presides  over  its  sessions  with  the  help  of  the  vicar- 
general.  Its  members  are  three  priests  and  one  lay 
counsellor  to  whom  are  added  a  secretary,  a  chief  of 
the  chancery,  two  private  secretaries,  a  registrar,  etc. 
The  ordinary  diocesan  administration  is  carried  on  by 
two  other  bureaux,  the  vicariate-general  and  the  dio- 
cesan consistory,  mutually  independent,  but  both  act- 
ing in  the  name  of  the  prince-bishop.  For  the  office 
of  diocesan  chancellor  in  the  United  States,  see  "Acta 
et  Decreta"  of  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Balti- 
more, in  index,  p.  303,  and  of  the  Synod  of  Maynooth 
(1900),  s.  v.  "Archiva".  (See  also  Vicar-General; 
Archives,  EkicLESiASTiCAL.) 

LXmmer,  Inatituiiontn  dejt  kaihniucKcn  A'lWAmtecAW,  2d  *d* 
(Freibura:,  1892);  BAAirr,  Lfioal  Farmultyiy,^  ed.  (New  York* 
1899);  Meister,  Dna  BrumtmreeM  der  Ersiiiflieat  Frtiburo 
(Stuttgart,  1904);  M'  i.i.e:k,  Dif  hiAch^fii£h^  Di6ti!aa7sb<hdFdeTi, 
insbesondere  daa  hi^rhfj^Hcht^  Ordinariai  fStuttfsart,  1005); 
FouRNiER,  Lea  opirifiliHa  en*  moa^i-iiffr,  ^tti,  (P»Hh,  ISSO): 
Kreutzwald  in  Kirchmhz.,  H.  V.  Oiftciat/it,  IX  781-83;  Andha 
Wagner,  IHct.  de  droii  canon  tPnris,  1901),  3(J  ad.,  b.  v.  O^dal, 


Joseph  Laurentius. 


IX 


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